text
stringlengths 791
228k
| parts
listlengths 6
567
|
|---|---|
Biography
---------
Hülsmann received music lessons from the age of eleven, and like both of her parents, she plays the [piano](/wiki/Piano "Piano"). As a teenager, she heard a lot of [pop music](/wiki/Pop_music "Pop music"), with particular songwriters like [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 "Sting (musician)") or [Randy Newman](/wiki/Randy_Newman "Randy Newman") impressed her. Mediated by her piano teacher, she heard and played music by [Chick Corea](/wiki/Chick_Corea "Chick Corea"), [Bill Evans](/wiki/Bill_Evans "Bill Evans"), [Michael Brecker](/wiki/Michael_Brecker "Michael Brecker") and [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis").
During her schooldays, she played keyboards and piano in various ensemble instrumentations. After a short period in [Frankfurt am Main](/wiki/Frankfurt "Frankfurt") she moved to [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"). She was trained as a piano teacher and earned a degree in jazz piano at the [Berlin University of the Arts](/wiki/Berlin_University_of_the_Arts "Berlin University of the Arts") in 1991\. Her teachers include [Walter Norris](/wiki/Walter_Norris "Walter Norris"), [Aki Takase](/wiki/Aki_Takase "Aki Takase") and [David Friedman](/wiki/David_Friedman_%28percussionist%29 "David Friedman (percussionist)"). In particular, she was inspired and influenced by US pianist and composer [Don Grolnick](/wiki/Don_Grolnick "Don Grolnick"). In 1992, Hülsmann joined the Federal Youth Jazz Orchestra, then directed by [Peter Herbolzheimer](/wiki/Peter_Herbolzheimer "Peter Herbolzheimer"). After graduating in 1996, together with [bassist](/wiki/Bass_%28instrument%29 "Bass (instrument)") Marc Muellbauer and [drummer](/wiki/Drum_kit "Drum kit") Rainer Winch she founded the *Julia Hülsmann Trio*. The trio played music, initially borrowed mainly from the standard repertoire of jazz, at various festivals and smaller tours. In early 2000, Hülsmann took lessons while studying in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") with [Richie Beirach](/wiki/Richie_Beirach "Richie Beirach"), [Maria Schneider](/wiki/Maria_Schneider_%28musician%29 "Maria Schneider (musician)"), [Gil Goldstein](/wiki/Gil_Goldstein "Gil Goldstein") and [Jane Ira Bloom](/wiki/Jane_Ira_Bloom "Jane Ira Bloom").
At a concert by [Wolfgang Muthspiel](/wiki/Wolfgang_Muthspiel "Wolfgang Muthspiel") she got to know the Norwegian singer [Rebekka Bakken](/wiki/Rebekka_Bakken "Rebekka Bakken"). Hülsmann began writing or composing for Bakken and released her debut CD *Trio*.at the end of 2000 with her trio. After writing some compositions, the difficult path to finding suitable lyrics for the vocal project began. She eventually discovered the poet [E. E. Cummings](/wiki/E._E._Cummings "E. E. Cummings"). She won Bakken for her project, and in 2003 the album *Scattering Poems* appeared. It was several weeks in the German Top 10 jazz releases.
Hülsmanns 's next project was a [hommage](/wiki/Homage_%28arts%29 "Homage (arts)") to the American songwriter Randy Newman. She rearranged several of his songs. At the suggestion of bassist [Dieter Ilg](/wiki/Dieter_Ilg "Dieter Ilg"), Hülsmann invited the Italian singer Anna Lauvergnac, who also performed with the [Vienna Art Orchestra](/wiki/Vienna_Art_Orchestra "Vienna Art Orchestra"), among others. In 2004, the edited pieces were released on the [ACT](/wiki/ACT_Music "ACT Music") label on the album *Come Closer*.
In her subsequent project Hülsmann worked together with the singer [Roger Cicero](/wiki/Roger_Cicero "Roger Cicero"). Once again she was inspired by poems in her compositions; this time from the pen of the American poet [Emily Dickinson](/wiki/Emily_Dickinson "Emily Dickinson"), and the album *Good Morning Midnight* was released in 2006\.Der Musikkritiker Robert Fischer lobte, sie sei imstande, „mit wechselnden Sängerinnen und Sängern Gedichte von E. E. Cummings und Emily Dickinson … nicht bloß \[zu vertonen], sondern ihnen ein ganz neues musikalisches Leben einzuhauchen“. With her trio in the cast with bassist Marc Muellbauer and drummer Heinrich Köbberling, she recorded the album *The End of a Summer* exclusively with her own compositions (released in 2008 on the label [ECM](/wiki/ECM_Records "ECM Records")). In addition to her own trio Hülsmann also appeared as a pianist in the *United Women’s Orchestra*, as a guest musician with [Judy Niemack](/wiki/Judy_Niemack "Judy Niemack"), in the quintet of Meike Goosmann or as a duo with Angelika Niescier.
Since 2001 she also has a teaching assignment at the [Berlin University of the Arts](/wiki/Berlin_University_of_the_Arts "Berlin University of the Arts") and holds composition workshops at the [Hochschule für Musik und Theater](/wiki/Hochschule_f%C3%BCr_Musik%2C_Theater_und_Medien_Hannover "Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover") in [Hannover](/wiki/Hanover "Hanover"). From 2012 until the end of 2013 she was the chairman of the Union of German Jazz Musicians.[Gebhard Ullmann übernimmt Vorsitz der Union Deutscher Jazzmusiker](http://www.jazzzeitung.de/cms/2013/11/gebhard-ullmann-uebernimmt-vorsitz-der-union-deutscher-jazzmusiker/), Jazzzeitung vom 27\. As the successor to [Michael Schiefel](/wiki/Michael_Schiefel "Michael Schiefel"), she was able to give impulses to the music scene [Moers](/wiki/Moers "Moers") throughout the year 2014, as an "improviser in residence".[Moers: Julia Hülsmann ist die neue Stadtmusikerin](http://www.rp-online.de/nrw/staedte/moers/julia-huelsmann-ist-die-neue-stadtmusikerin-aid-1.3876198), [Rheinische Post](/wiki/Rheinische_Post "Rheinische Post") vom 10\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Hülsmann received music lessons from the age of eleven, and like both of her parents, she plays the [piano](/wiki/Piano \"Piano\"). As a teenager, she heard a lot of [pop music](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\"), with particular songwriters like [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 \"Sting (musician)\") or [Randy Newman](/wiki/Randy_Newman \"Randy Newman\") impressed her. Mediated by her piano teacher, she heard and played music by [Chick Corea](/wiki/Chick_Corea \"Chick Corea\"), [Bill Evans](/wiki/Bill_Evans \"Bill Evans\"), [Michael Brecker](/wiki/Michael_Brecker \"Michael Brecker\") and [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis \"Miles Davis\").",
"During her schooldays, she played keyboards and piano in various ensemble instrumentations. After a short period in [Frankfurt am Main](/wiki/Frankfurt \"Frankfurt\") she moved to [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"). She was trained as a piano teacher and earned a degree in jazz piano at the [Berlin University of the Arts](/wiki/Berlin_University_of_the_Arts \"Berlin University of the Arts\") in 1991\\. Her teachers include [Walter Norris](/wiki/Walter_Norris \"Walter Norris\"), [Aki Takase](/wiki/Aki_Takase \"Aki Takase\") and [David Friedman](/wiki/David_Friedman_%28percussionist%29 \"David Friedman (percussionist)\"). In particular, she was inspired and influenced by US pianist and composer [Don Grolnick](/wiki/Don_Grolnick \"Don Grolnick\"). In 1992, Hülsmann joined the Federal Youth Jazz Orchestra, then directed by [Peter Herbolzheimer](/wiki/Peter_Herbolzheimer \"Peter Herbolzheimer\"). After graduating in 1996, together with [bassist](/wiki/Bass_%28instrument%29 \"Bass (instrument)\") Marc Muellbauer and [drummer](/wiki/Drum_kit \"Drum kit\") Rainer Winch she founded the *Julia Hülsmann Trio*. The trio played music, initially borrowed mainly from the standard repertoire of jazz, at various festivals and smaller tours. In early 2000, Hülsmann took lessons while studying in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") with [Richie Beirach](/wiki/Richie_Beirach \"Richie Beirach\"), [Maria Schneider](/wiki/Maria_Schneider_%28musician%29 \"Maria Schneider (musician)\"), [Gil Goldstein](/wiki/Gil_Goldstein \"Gil Goldstein\") and [Jane Ira Bloom](/wiki/Jane_Ira_Bloom \"Jane Ira Bloom\").",
"At a concert by [Wolfgang Muthspiel](/wiki/Wolfgang_Muthspiel \"Wolfgang Muthspiel\") she got to know the Norwegian singer [Rebekka Bakken](/wiki/Rebekka_Bakken \"Rebekka Bakken\"). Hülsmann began writing or composing for Bakken and released her debut CD *Trio*.at the end of 2000 with her trio. After writing some compositions, the difficult path to finding suitable lyrics for the vocal project began. She eventually discovered the poet [E. E. Cummings](/wiki/E._E._Cummings \"E. E. Cummings\"). She won Bakken for her project, and in 2003 the album *Scattering Poems* appeared. It was several weeks in the German Top 10 jazz releases.",
"Hülsmanns 's next project was a [hommage](/wiki/Homage_%28arts%29 \"Homage (arts)\") to the American songwriter Randy Newman. She rearranged several of his songs. At the suggestion of bassist [Dieter Ilg](/wiki/Dieter_Ilg \"Dieter Ilg\"), Hülsmann invited the Italian singer Anna Lauvergnac, who also performed with the [Vienna Art Orchestra](/wiki/Vienna_Art_Orchestra \"Vienna Art Orchestra\"), among others. In 2004, the edited pieces were released on the [ACT](/wiki/ACT_Music \"ACT Music\") label on the album *Come Closer*.",
"In her subsequent project Hülsmann worked together with the singer [Roger Cicero](/wiki/Roger_Cicero \"Roger Cicero\"). Once again she was inspired by poems in her compositions; this time from the pen of the American poet [Emily Dickinson](/wiki/Emily_Dickinson \"Emily Dickinson\"), and the album *Good Morning Midnight* was released in 2006\\.Der Musikkritiker Robert Fischer lobte, sie sei imstande, „mit wechselnden Sängerinnen und Sängern Gedichte von E. E. Cummings und Emily Dickinson … nicht bloß \\[zu vertonen], sondern ihnen ein ganz neues musikalisches Leben einzuhauchen“. With her trio in the cast with bassist Marc Muellbauer and drummer Heinrich Köbberling, she recorded the album *The End of a Summer* exclusively with her own compositions (released in 2008 on the label [ECM](/wiki/ECM_Records \"ECM Records\")). In addition to her own trio Hülsmann also appeared as a pianist in the *United Women’s Orchestra*, as a guest musician with [Judy Niemack](/wiki/Judy_Niemack \"Judy Niemack\"), in the quintet of Meike Goosmann or as a duo with Angelika Niescier.",
"Since 2001 she also has a teaching assignment at the [Berlin University of the Arts](/wiki/Berlin_University_of_the_Arts \"Berlin University of the Arts\") and holds composition workshops at the [Hochschule für Musik und Theater](/wiki/Hochschule_f%C3%BCr_Musik%2C_Theater_und_Medien_Hannover \"Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover\") in [Hannover](/wiki/Hanover \"Hanover\"). From 2012 until the end of 2013 she was the chairman of the Union of German Jazz Musicians.[Gebhard Ullmann übernimmt Vorsitz der Union Deutscher Jazzmusiker](http://www.jazzzeitung.de/cms/2013/11/gebhard-ullmann-uebernimmt-vorsitz-der-union-deutscher-jazzmusiker/), Jazzzeitung vom 27\\. As the successor to [Michael Schiefel](/wiki/Michael_Schiefel \"Michael Schiefel\"), she was able to give impulses to the music scene [Moers](/wiki/Moers \"Moers\") throughout the year 2014, as an \"improviser in residence\".[Moers: Julia Hülsmann ist die neue Stadtmusikerin](http://www.rp-online.de/nrw/staedte/moers/julia-huelsmann-ist-die-neue-stadtmusikerin-aid-1.3876198), [Rheinische Post](/wiki/Rheinische_Post \"Rheinische Post\") vom 10\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early years
[thumb\|150px\|left\|Marshall Field's State Street store "great hall" interior around 1910](/wiki/File:Marshall_field_interior.jpg "Marshall field interior.jpg")
Marshall Field \& Company traces its antecedents to a [dry goods](/wiki/Dry_goods "Dry goods") store opened at 137 Lake Street[PDX History of Marshall Field's](http://www.pdxhistory.com/html/marshall_fields.html). Retrieved August 20, 2006\. in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois"), in 1852 by [Potter Palmer](/wiki/Potter_Palmer "Potter Palmer"), eponymously named **P. Palmer \& Company.** In 1856, 21\-year\-old [Marshall Field](/wiki/Marshall_Field "Marshall Field") moved to the booming midwestern city of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") on the southwest shores of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan") from [Pittsfield, Massachusetts](/wiki/Pittsfield%2C_Massachusetts "Pittsfield, Massachusetts") and found work at the city's then\-largest dry goods firm – [Cooley, Wadsworth \& Company](/wiki/Cooley%2C_Wadsworth_%26_Co. "Cooley, Wadsworth & Co."). Just prior to the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), in 1860, Field and bookkeeper [Levi Z. Leiter](/wiki/Levi_Leiter "Levi Leiter") became junior partners in the firm, then known as Cooley, Farwell \& Company. In 1864, the firm, then led by senior partner [John V. Farwell, Sr.](/wiki/John_V._Farwell "John V. Farwell"), was renamed Farwell, Field \& Company.[Encyclopedia of Chicago History – John V. Farwell \& Co.](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2660.html). Retrieved August 19, 2006\. only for Field and Leiter to soon withdraw from the partnership with Farwell when presented with the opportunity of a lifetime.[Encyclopedia of Chicago History – Marshall Field \& Co.](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2663.html). Retrieved August 20, 2006\.
[Potter Palmer](/wiki/Potter_Palmer "Potter Palmer"), plagued by ailing health, was looking to dispose of his thriving business, so on January 4, 1865, Field and Leiter entered into partnership with him and his brother Milton Palmer. So the firm of P. Palmer \& Company became **Field, Palmer, Leiter \& Company**, with Palmer financing much of their initial capital as well as his own contribution. After Field and Leiter's immediate success enabled them to pay him back, Palmer withdrew two years later from the partnership in 1867 to focus on his own growing real\-estate interests on one of the burgeoning city's important thoroughfares, [State Street](/wiki/State_Street_%28Chicago%29 "State Street (Chicago)").{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2663\.html\|publisher\=Chicago Historical Society\|year\=2005\|encyclopedia\=The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago\|access\-date\=2008\-03\-02\|title\=Field (Marshall) \& Co.}} His brother, Milton Palmer, left at this time as well. The store was renamed **Field, Leiter \& Company**, sometimes referred to as "Field \& Leiter".
The buyout, however, did not bring an end to Potter Palmer's association with the firm. In 1868, Palmer convinced Field and Leiter to lease a new, six\-story edifice[Jazz Age Chicago](http://chicago.urban-history.org/ven/dss/fields.shtml) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927065743/http://chicago.urban\-history.org/ven/dss/fields.shtml \|date\=2011\-09\-27 }}. Retrieved August 20, 2006\. he had just built at the northeast corner of State and Washington Streets. The store was soon referred to as the "Marble Palace" owing to its costly [marble](/wiki/Marble "Marble") stone face.
### The Great Chicago Fire
When the [Great Chicago Fire](/wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire "Great Chicago Fire") broke out on October 8, 1871, news of this, one of the worst conflagrations to ever strike an American city, reached company officials Henry Willing and Levi Leiter, who decided to load as much of their expensive merchandise as possible onto wagons and take it to Leiter's home, which was out of the path of the fire. The Company's drivers and teams were ordered out of the barns. Horace B. Parker, a young salesman, rushed to the store's basement, broke up boxes, and built a fire in the furnace boiler so that the steam\-powered elevators could be operated. These employees worked feverishly through the night to remove vital records and valuable goods to safety.
At one point, the gas tank exploded, which put out the store's gaslights. The men worked on by candlelight and the glow from the approaching flames. The employees got enough steam up to operate the store's powerful pumps in the basement, and volunteers went to the roof and used the store's fire hoses to wet down the roof and the wall on the side of the oncoming fire. Early in the following morning however, the city's waterworks burned, thus ending the water supply and making further efforts useless. The last employee had scarcely exited the building when it burst into flames, shooting fire from every window.Twyman, Robert W., *"History of Marshall Field \& Co. 1852–1906,"* pp. 38–42, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1954\.
The store burned to the ground. However, as a result of the employees' herculean efforts, so much merchandise was saved that the store was able to reopen in only a few weeks (the Wholesale Department on October 28, and the Retail Department on November 6\) in a temporary location (a horse\-streetcar barn of the [Chicago City Railway Co.](/wiki/Chicago_City_Railway_Co. "Chicago City Railway Co.") at State \& 20th Streets). Six months later, in April 1872, Field \& Leiter reopened in an unburned building at Madison and Market Streets (today's West Wacker Drive). Salesman Parker stayed on with the Company for 45 more years, rising to the level of General Sales Manager.Brewer, Wilmon, *"A Life of Maurice Parker,"* pp. 11–12, Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, New Hampshire, 1954\.
### After the Great Fire
Two years later, in October 1873, Field and Leiter returned to State Street at Washington, opening in a new five\-story store at their old location they now leased from the [Singer Sewing Machine Company](/wiki/Singer_Sewing_Machine_Company "Singer Sewing Machine Company"), Palmer having sold the land site to finance his own rebuilding activities. This store was expanded in 1876, only to be destroyed by fire again in November 1877\. Ever tenacious, Field and Leiter had a new temporary store opened by the end of the month at a lakefront exposition hall they leased temporarily from the city, located at what is now the site of the present [Art Institute of Chicago](/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago "Art Institute of Chicago"). Meanwhile, the Singer company had speculatively built a new, even larger, six\-story building on the ruins of their old 1873 store, which, after some contention, was personally bought by Field and Leiter. Field, Leiter \& Company now reclaimed their traditional location at the northeast corner of State and Washington for the last time in April 1879\.
[thumb\|150px\|right\|Marshall Field's Wholesale Store at Franklin Street, between Quincy and Adams Streets, designed by [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson "Henry Hobson Richardson"), built 1887, razed c. 1930, view taken around 1890](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field_Warehouse_Store.jpg "Marshall Field Warehouse Store.jpg")
In January 1881, Field, with the support of his junior partners, bought out [Levi Z. Leiter](/wiki/Levi_Leiter "Levi Leiter"), renaming the business **"Marshall Field \& Company"**. As Palmer had before, Leiter retired to tend his significant real estate investments, which included commissioning a [department store, Second Leiter Building](/wiki/Second_Leiter_Building "Second Leiter Building") in 1891 at State Street and Van Buren to house [Siegel, Cooper \& Company](/wiki/Siegel%2C_Cooper_%26_Co. "Siegel, Cooper & Co."). In 1932, this building (known as one of the earliest steel\-framed commercial buildings built and still standing in the U.S. along with the [Equitable Building](/wiki/Equitable_Building_%28Baltimore%29 "Equitable Building (Baltimore)") in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore")) was leased to the later famous nationwide mail\-order firm [Sears, Roebuck \& Company](/wiki/Sears%2C_Roebuck_%26_Company "Sears, Roebuck & Company").
In 1887, the landmark seven\-story [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson "Henry Hobson Richardson")\-designed, (1838–1886\), [Romanesque\-styled](/wiki/Romanesque_architecture "Romanesque architecture"), [Marshall Field's Wholesale Store](/wiki/Marshall_Field%27s_Wholesale_Store "Marshall Field's Wholesale Store") opened on Franklin Street between Quincy and Adams (razed c.1930\). Though little remembered today, the wholesale division sold merchandise in bulk to smaller merchants throughout the central and western [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") and at that time did six times the sales volume of the local retail store. Chicago's location at the nexus of the country's railroads and [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes "Great Lakes") shipping made it the center of the dry goods wholesaling business by the 1870s, with Field's former partner from before the war, [John V. Farwell, Sr.](/wiki/John_V._Farwell "John V. Farwell"), (1825–1908\), being his largest rival. It was the scale of the profits generated by the [John G. Shedd](/wiki/John_G._Shedd "John G. Shedd")\-led wholesale division during this time that made Marshall Field the richest man in Chicago and one of the richest in the country.
### State Street store
Following the departure of Leiter, the retail store grew in importance. Though it remained a fraction of the size of the wholesale division, its opulent building and luxurious merchandise differentiated Marshall Field from the other wholesale dry goods merchants in town. In 1887, [Harry Gordon Selfridge](/wiki/Harry_Gordon_Selfridge "Harry Gordon Selfridge") was appointed to lead the retail store and headed it as it evolved into a modern [department store](/wiki/Department_store "Department store"). That same year, Field personally obtained Leiter's remaining interest in the 1879 Singer building and in 1888 started buying the buildings adjoining his for additional floor space.
Marshall Field also had a child at this time.
[thumb\|left\|The iconic clock at Marshall Field's State Street and Washington Street store.](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field_Clock.jpg "Marshall Field Clock.jpg")
In 1892, the structures between the 1879 building on State Street and Wabash Avenue to the east were demolished and the famous influential architect [Daniel H. Burnham](/wiki/Daniel_H._Burnham "Daniel H. Burnham") and his firm [D.H. Burnham \& Company](/wiki/D.H._Burnham_%26_Company "D.H. Burnham & Company") was commissioned to erect a new building in anticipation of the influx of visitors from the [World's Columbian Exposition](/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition "World's Columbian Exposition") scheduled for 1893\. The nine\-story "Annex" at the northwest corner of Wabash and Washington Streets has opened under the direction of Burnham associate [Charles B. Atwood](/wiki/Charles_B._Atwood "Charles B. Atwood")[Chicago Architecture Info](http://www.chicagoarchitecture.info/Building/1005/Marshall_Field's.php). Retrieved August 20, 2006\. in August 1893, towards the end of the Exposition. In 1897, the old 1879 store was rebuilt and had two additional floors added, while the first of Marshall Field's iconic landmark Great Clocks was installed at the corner of State and Washington Streets on November 26\.[MeetinChicago.com](http://www.meetinchicago.com/meet_facts.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928120848/http://www.meetinchicago.com/meet\_facts.html \|date\=2007\-09\-28 }}. Retrieved August 20, 2006\.
In 1901, Marshall Field \& Company, previously a private partnership, was incorporated. Spurred on by Selfridge, Marshall Field razed the three buildings north of it, which had been occupied since 1888, as well as the [Dankmar Adler](/wiki/Dankmar_Adler "Dankmar Adler") and [Louis Sullivan](/wiki/Louis_Sullivan "Louis Sullivan")\-designed 1879 [Central Music Hall](/wiki/Central_Music_Hall_%28Chicago%29 "Central Music Hall (Chicago)") at the southeast corner of State and Randolph Streets in 1901\. In their place rose a massive, twelve\-story building fronting State Street in 1902, including a grand new entrance. In 1906, a third new building opened on Wabash Avenue north of the 1893 structure, which was then the oldest part of the store.
In the midst of the construction, Selfridge abruptly resigned from the company in 1904, buying a rival store [Schlesinger \& Mayer](/wiki/Schlesinger_%26_Mayer "Schlesinger & Mayer"), but sold it only three months later. Schlesinger \& Mayer in 1899 had commissioned the Louis Sullivan\-designed building now known as the [Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building](/wiki/Carson%2C_Pirie%2C_Scott_and_Company_Building "Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building"), which is the firm to which Selfridge sold the business. After trying retirement, he went on to establish [Selfridges](/wiki/Selfridges "Selfridges") in [London](/wiki/London%2C_England "London, England").
### Shedd era
Marshall Field died on January 16, 1906, in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). On the day of his funeral, all the stores along State Street, big and small, closed and the [Chicago Board of Trade](/wiki/Chicago_Board_of_Trade "Chicago Board of Trade") suspended afternoon trading in his honor. The board of Marshall Field and Company appointed [John G. Shedd](/wiki/John_G._Shedd "John G. Shedd"), (1850–1926\), whom Field had once called "the greatest merchant in the United States", to serve as the company's new president. Shedd became head of a company that employed 12,000 people in Chicago (two\-thirds of them in retail) and was doing about $25 million in yearly retail sales in addition to nearly $50 million in wholesale.
[thumb\|150px\|Tiffany Favrile glass ceiling, State Street (south building), 1907](/wiki/File:Field%27s_Tiffany_Ceiling.jpg "Field's Tiffany Ceiling.jpg")
Under Shedd's leadership for the next 16 years, Marshall Field \& Co. continued to rebuild its store, fulfilling plans approved by Field himself to pull down the 1879 structure later in 1906\. In its stead rose a new south State Street building with a continuation of the 1902 street façade. Opened in September 1907, it included a [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany "Louis Comfort Tiffany")\- decorated ceiling that is both the first and largest ceiling ever built in [favrile glass](/wiki/Favrile_glass "Favrile glass"), containing over 1\.6 million pieces. With completion of the 1907 building, Marshall Field's momentarily possessed the title of "world's largest department store" over [John Wanamaker \& Co.](/wiki/Wanamaker%27s "Wanamaker's") in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania") and [R.H. Macy \& Co.](/wiki/Macy%27s "Macy's") in [New York](/wiki/New_York%2C_New_York "New York, New York").
In 1912, the 16\-story [Trude Building](/wiki/Trude_Building "Trude Building") at the southwest corner of Wabash and Randolph was acquired and demolished, an act that was considered to be one of the first demolitions, if not the first, of a high\-rise skyscraper of those just recently being built.{{usurped\|1\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20041031105413/http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id\=102706 Emporis/Trude Building]}}. Retrieved August 20, 2006\. In its place rose the 1914 building designed by the [Graham, Burnham \& Company](/wiki/Graham%2C_Burnham_%26_Co. "Graham, Burnham & Co.") architectural firm, completing the present\-day store and now encompassing the entire square city block, bounded by Washington, State, Wabash, and Randolph Streets.
Also in 1914, the same Graham, Burnham \& Company supervised the opening of a new twenty\-story Marshall Field Annex across the street at 25 East Washington, which housed "Marshall Field's Store for Men" on its first six floors. These buildings recaptured its status as the world's largest department store, its many restaurants and separate men's and women's lounges becoming an important social destination for upscale Chicago.
Shedd continued to expand Field's wholesale business and grew its manufacturing business, buying textile mills in the South in 1911 (see [Cannon Mills Company](/wiki/Cannon_Mills_Company "Cannon Mills Company")) as well as overseeing the purchase of the Marshall Field Trust's interest in the business in 1917\. The Field Family eventually retained only a ten percent stake. Second company president, [John G. Shedd](/wiki/John_G._Shedd "John G. Shedd") retired in late 1922\.
### 1913 Illinois State Senate investigation
In 1913, representatives of Carson Pirie Scott and Marshall Field's were called to the [state capital](/wiki/State_capital "State capital") of [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") at [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Illinois "Springfield, Illinois") for the [Illinois State Senate's](/wiki/Illinois_Senate "Illinois Senate") investigation of the low wages of the female employees of the major department stores. At Marshall Field's, women were not only typists or other types of clerical workers, they also had a major role in the sales department. Women sales clerks were trained in etiquette and acquired a thorough understanding of the merchandise.Weiner, Lynn W., "Work Culture", Encyclopedia of Chicago, Chicago Historical Society, 2005, December 5, 2013 The presence of saleswomen was a crucial part of the success of Marshall Field's, as they made female customers more comfortable and therefore made shopping at Marshall Field's fun.
The opportunities available for women at Marshall Field's created a subculture of working women. During the early and middle decades of the 20th century, many women migrated into the labor force often becoming adrift in a new city with new opportunities. Many of these women lived apart from family and relatives, were young and single and came from varied backgrounds and ethnicities. This subculture of women was greatly affected by wages and opportunities offered through Marshall Field's.Meyerowitz, Joanne J. Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880–1930\. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1988\. Print.
However, the wages of the female employees were not representative of their role in the company and, therefore, became the subject of the 1913 [Illinois Senate](/wiki/Illinois_Senate "Illinois Senate") Investigation. Women were paid very low wages, the average being $5 to $8 per week. The "testimony at an Illinois Senate investigation in 1913 from spokesmen for the [Illinois Manufacturers' Association](/wiki/Illinois_Manufacturers%27_Association "Illinois Manufacturers' Association"); banks; [Sears, Roebuck](/wiki/Sears%2C_Roebuck_%26_Company "Sears, Roebuck & Company"); and Marshall Field's revealed that most major employers paid women workers as low as $2\.75 (\~${{Format price\|{{Inflation\|index\=US\|value\=2\.75\|start\_year\=1913}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|US}})."Cornelius, Janet, Martha LaFrenz Kay. Women of Conscience: Social Reform In Danville, Illinois 1890–1930\. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2008\. Print. Even in 1913, that was not a living wage. During the hearing, Marshall Field's revealed that it could double the women's salaries but refused to do so. Furthermore, women faced more mistreatment within the company such as sex segregation, which limited their mobility within the company.
### First branch stores and the Frango brand
[James Simpson](/wiki/James_Simpson_%28businessman%29 "James Simpson (businessman)") was appointed president following [Shedd's](/wiki/John_G._Shedd "John G. Shedd") retirement. Though considered to have favored the declining wholesale division, he did expand its retail operations, first buying [A. M. Rothschild \& Co.](/wiki/A._M._Rothschild_%26_Co. "A. M. Rothschild & Co.") at State Street and Jackson Boulevard in December 1923, which Field's operated as a discount store called "The Davis Store." In 1924, the 1893–1914 buildings that the store occupied were acquired from the Marshall Field Trust.
The first branch of Marshall Field's itself opened at [Market Square](/wiki/Market_Square_%28Lake_Forest%2C_Illinois%29 "Market Square (Lake Forest, Illinois)") in [Lake Forest, Illinois](/wiki/Lake_Forest%2C_Illinois "Lake Forest, Illinois") in May 1928\. In September 1928, its first branch in [Evanston, Illinois](/wiki/Evanston%2C_Illinois "Evanston, Illinois") followed, later relocating to a French Renaissance\-style building at Sherman Avenue and Church Street in November 1929\.[Evanston Galleria](http://www.winthropproperties.com/evanstongalleria/history.htm#). Retrieved August 20, 2006\. The [Oak Park, Illinois](/wiki/Oak_Park%2C_Illinois "Oak Park, Illinois") store opened in September 1929 in a building similar to the Evanston store.[Jazz Age Chicago – Field's Branches](http://chicago.urban-history.org/ven/dss/fields.shtml#branch) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927065743/http://chicago.urban\-history.org/ven/dss/fields.shtml \|date\=2011\-09\-27 }}. Retrieved August 20, 2006\.
[Frederick \& Nelson](/wiki/Frederick_%26_Nelson "Frederick & Nelson"), a [Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Seattle%2C_Washington "Seattle, Washington")\-based department store founded in 1890, was also acquired in 1929, with its own 1914 downtown Seattle building at Pine Street and Fifth Avenue. Frederick \& Nelson retained its name, though its logo was soon rewritten in Field's iconic script. Frederick \& Nelson created [Frango](/wiki/Frango "Frango") mints, a Seattle tradition then and now. The mints were later also produced in the candy kitchen in the State Street store and became popular in Chicago, too.
Marshall Field \& Company became a public company in 1930, early in the "[Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression")". The retailer needed capital due to the expense of opening the massive new [Merchandise Mart](/wiki/Merchandise_Mart "Merchandise Mart") to house its flagging wholesale division. Ground was broken in 1927 during the boom years of the "Roaring 20s"; when the Mart opened in 1930, it was the largest building in the world. The 1887 Wholesale Store designed by [Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson "Henry Hobson Richardson") at Franklin between Quincy and Adams Streets was closed and demolished at this time. But the new building, faced with a change in retail distribution and wholesale patterns in addition to the deepening "[Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression")", could not save Field's wholesale division. Simpson left the Company, and [James O. McKinsey](/wiki/James_O._McKinsey "James O. McKinsey"), a [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago "University of Chicago") professor and founder of the [McKinsey and Company](/wiki/McKinsey_and_Company "McKinsey and Company") consulting firm, was hired to reform the Company. The wholesale division, once the core of the Company, was liquidated by 1936\. The Davis Store was closed in 1936 as well, and its building was sold to [Goldblatts](/wiki/Goldblatts "Goldblatts"). In 1939, the land underlying the main State Street store was acquired from the Marshall Field Trust. Meanwhile, McKinsey also reorganized the Company's vertically integrated operations, notably by merging the Company's varied textile operations under the [Fieldcrest](/wiki/Cannon_Mills_Company "Cannon Mills Company") name.
### Suburban expansion
[right\|thumb\|200px\|Marshall Field \& Company logo used before the BATUS acquisition in 1982\. It would be shortened to "Marshall Field's".](/wiki/File:Mf%26co.PNG "Mf&co.PNG")
Following [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the [Merchandise Mart](/wiki/Merchandise_Mart "Merchandise Mart") building was sold in 1945 to [Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.](/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy "Joseph P. Kennedy"), (1888–1969\), significantly improving the Field Company's finances and enabling the store to cope with the post\-war suburban residential and commercial boom. Marshall Field's presciently followed its customers to their new homes outwards to the suburbs, including opening a store in 1950 in partnership with pioneering suburban developer [Philip M. Klutznick](/wiki/Philip_M._Klutznick "Philip M. Klutznick") (a famous Jewish leader and later [U.S. Secretary of Commerce](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce "United States Secretary of Commerce")) at his new [Park Forest Plaza](/wiki/Park_Forest_Plaza "Park Forest Plaza"), which utilized revolutionary new concepts in land use and architecture.
In 1956, Klutznick and Field's jointly opened [Old Orchard Shopping Center](/wiki/Old_Orchard_Shopping_Center "Old Orchard Shopping Center") in [Skokie, Illinois](/wiki/Skokie%2C_Illinois "Skokie, Illinois"), a center Klutznick developed on land that Field's already owned; the development included a new Field's store. This was followed by the 1959 opening of a Field's store in the [Mayfair Mall](/wiki/Mayfair_Mall "Mayfair Mall") in [Wauwatosa, Wisconsin](/wiki/Wauwatosa%2C_Wisconsin "Wauwatosa, Wisconsin"), to the northwest, and stores at later Klutznick\-led shopping centers opened at [Oakbrook Center](/wiki/Oakbrook_Center "Oakbrook Center") in [Oak Brook, Illinois](/wiki/Oak_Brook%2C_Illinois "Oak Brook, Illinois"), in 1962 and [River Oaks Center](/wiki/River_Oaks_Center "River Oaks Center") in [Calumet City, Illinois](/wiki/Calumet_City%2C_Illinois "Calumet City, Illinois"), in 1966\.
Marshall Field's even expanded further in the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest "Pacific Northwest"), acquiring [The Crescent](/wiki/The_Crescent_%28department_store%29 "The Crescent (department store)") department store in [Spokane, Washington](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Washington "Spokane, Washington"), in 1962 and in 1970, moved east with the purchase of [Halle Brothers Co.](/wiki/Halle_Brothers_Co. "Halle Brothers Co."), a leading department store in [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio"). Field's also continued to expand its hometown base in Illinois, opening a store at [Woodfield Mall](/wiki/Woodfield_Mall "Woodfield Mall") in [Schaumburg](/wiki/Schaumburg%2C_Illinois "Schaumburg, Illinois") in 1971\.
[CherryVale Mall](/wiki/CherryVale_Mall "CherryVale Mall") in [Rockford](/wiki/Rockford%2C_Illinois "Rockford, Illinois") and [Hawthorn Mall](/wiki/Hawthorn_Mall "Hawthorn Mall") in [Vernon Hills](/wiki/Vernon_Hills%2C_Illinois "Vernon Hills, Illinois") followed in 1973, and stores at [Water Tower Place](/wiki/Water_Tower_Place "Water Tower Place") in Chicago and [Fox Valley Mall](/wiki/Fox_Valley_Mall "Fox Valley Mall") in [Aurora](/wiki/Aurora%2C_Illinois "Aurora, Illinois") opened in 1975\. The suburban expansion continued in 1976 with a location at [Orland Square Mall](/wiki/Orland_Square_Mall "Orland Square Mall") in [Orland Park](/wiki/Orland_Park%2C_Illinois "Orland Park, Illinois"), followed by the [Louis Joliet Mall](/wiki/Louis_Joliet_Mall "Louis Joliet Mall") in [Joliet](/wiki/Joliet%2C_Illinois "Joliet, Illinois") in 1978\. In 1979, Marshall Field's expanded south into [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas") with a store at [The Galleria](/wiki/Houston_Galleria "Houston Galleria") in [Houston](/wiki/Houston%2C_Texas "Houston, Texas").
The year 1980 saw the rapid acquisition of [J.B. Ivey Co.](/wiki/Ivey%27s "Ivey's"), a department store chain with roots in [Charlotte, North Carolina](/wiki/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina "Charlotte, North Carolina"), and [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida "Jacksonville, Florida"); [The Union Co.](/wiki/The_Union_Co. "The Union Co.") in [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio "Columbus, Ohio"); the [Lipman's](/wiki/Lipman%27s "Lipman's") stores in [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon"); and several [Liberty House](/wiki/Liberty_House_%28US%29 "Liberty House (US)") stores in [Washington state](/wiki/Washington_state "Washington state"). Field's existing [Frederick \& Nelson](/wiki/Frederick_%26_Nelson "Frederick & Nelson") unit in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle") absorbed the Lipman's and Liberty House stores under its name, but after initially merging The Union of [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio "Columbus, Ohio") with its earlier [Halle's](/wiki/Halle_Brothers_Co. "Halle Brothers Co.") stores from [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), Field's decided to sell the combined chain in November 1981; the new owners quickly liquidated it.
The early 1980s saw slower expansion, with just two store locations in Illinois added, one in October 1980 at [Spring Hill Mall](/wiki/Spring_Hill_Mall "Spring Hill Mall") in [West Dundee](/wiki/West_Dundee%2C_Illinois "West Dundee, Illinois"), and one in 1981 at [Stratford Square Mall](/wiki/Stratford_Square_Mall "Stratford Square Mall") in [Bloomingdale](/wiki/Bloomingdale%2C_Illinois "Bloomingdale, Illinois"). Another Texas store opened at the [Dallas Galleria](/wiki/Dallas_Galleria "Dallas Galleria"), in [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas "Dallas"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"), in 1982\.
### BATUS
In 1982, Marshall Field \& Co. ceased to be a public company, being acquired by B.A.T. [British\-American Tobacco](/wiki/British-American_Tobacco "British-American Tobacco"). As part of [BATUS](/wiki/BATUS_Inc. "BATUS Inc.") Retail Group, the American retailing arm of B.A.T., Field's and its Frederick \& Nelson, Ivey's and [The Crescent](/wiki/The_Crescent_%28department_store%29 "The Crescent (department store)") department stores and the John Brueners home furnishings stores joined retailers [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels "Gimbels"), [Saks Fifth Avenue](/wiki/Saks_Fifth_Avenue "Saks Fifth Avenue") and [Kohl's](/wiki/Kohl%27s "Kohl's"). Field's continued to expand under BATUS, adding stores at Houston's [Town \& Country Mall](/wiki/CityCentre "CityCentre") in 1983 and at the [North Star Mall](/wiki/North_Star_Mall "North Star Mall") in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio "San Antonio") in 1986\.
Only four years after buying Marshall Field's, however, BATUS scaled back its retail operations in 1986, selling Field's former subsidiaries Frederick \& Nelson and The Crescent to a local investor group. Frederick \& Nelson quickly deteriorated and became defunct in 1992\. Its 1914 building, the one acquired by Field's in 1929, was eventually bought by [Nordstrom](/wiki/Nordstrom "Nordstrom"); the structure was renovated and reopened in 1998 as a replacement for Nordstrom's own Seattle parent store.
BATUS closed its [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels "Gimbels") division in 1986 and transferred five former Gimbels locations in Wisconsin to its Marshall Field's division: downtown Milwaukee, [Northridge Mall](/wiki/Northridge_Mall_%28Milwaukee%29 "Northridge Mall (Milwaukee)") and [Southridge Mall](/wiki/Southridge_Mall_%28Wisconsin%29 "Southridge Mall (Wisconsin)") in Milwaukee, [Hilldale Shopping Center](/wiki/Hilldale_Shopping_Center "Hilldale Shopping Center") in Madison and in downtown [Appleton](/wiki/Appleton%2C_Wisconsin "Appleton, Wisconsin"). The former Gimbels Northridge and Southridge locations were retained by Field's for only three years; due to poor performance, they were sold in 1989 to H.C. Prange Co. of Sheboygan.
The Evanston and Oak Park stores were closed in 1986, their 1929 buildings deemed out of date and too costly to operate. A major restoration and renovation of the State Street flagship store led by Director of Construction and Maintenance Bill Allen commenced in 1987\.
BATUS initially kept Saks Fifth Avenue, Marshall Field's, and Ivey's; however, it sold all its remaining U.S. retail assets in 1990, with Saks going to Bahrain\-based [Investcorp](/wiki/Investcorp "Investcorp"), Ivey's sold to [Dillard's](/wiki/Dillard%27s "Dillard's"), and Marshall Field's sold to then Dayton\-Hudson Corporation (now [Target Corporation](/wiki/Target_Corporation "Target Corporation")).
[250px\|left\|thumb\|The name plaque at the State Street store in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago")](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field_and_Company.jpg "Marshall Field and Company.jpg")
### Dayton\-Hudson, Target, and May
[Dayton\-Hudson Corporation](/wiki/Dayton-Hudson_Corporation "Dayton-Hudson Corporation") renamed itself [Target Corporation](/wiki/Target_Corporation "Target Corporation") in 2000 and renamed its [Dayton's](/wiki/Dayton%27s "Dayton's") and [Hudson's](/wiki/Hudson%27s "Hudson's") department stores Marshall Field's in 2001\. These stores were outside of Field's existing markets. Target Corporation introduced some of the brands carried there to the Marshall Field's stores, displacing some of Field's more expensive merchandise.
In 2004 Target Corporation sold the Marshall Field's chain to [May Co.](/wiki/The_May_Department_Stores_Company "The May Department Stores Company"), thereby exiting the department store business entirely. It was hoped that aligning with the May Company instead of the discounter Target would "let Field's be Field's" and allow it to recapture its former cachet and upper\-class customer base. However, [Federated Department Stores, Inc.](/wiki/Federated_Department_Stores "Federated Department Stores") acquired the May Company in 2005\.
[thumb\|Marshall Field's\-Macy's logo](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field%27s-Macy%27s_Transition_Logo.png "Marshall Field's-Macy's Transition Logo.png")
### Federated acquisition, renaming and protest
[right\|thumb\|250px\|Former Marshall Field's in [Lake Forest, IL](/wiki/Lake_Forest%2C_IL "Lake Forest, IL"), the last "old" suburban store until Macy's closed it in 2008\.](/wiki/File:Fieldlf.JPG "Fieldlf.JPG")
After the Federated purchase, Marshall Field's stores joined [L. S. Ayres](/wiki/L._S._Ayres "L. S. Ayres") and existing Macy's stores in the new [Macy's North](/wiki/Macy%27s_North "Macy's North") Division. During 2006, all Marshall Field's stores, most [Filene's](/wiki/Filene%27s "Filene's") and all the stores of nine other May\-owned chains were renamed [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s "Macy's"), the conversion officially occurred on September 9, 2006\.[Field's trades up stripes for Macy's stars](http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=local&id=4447069) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082240/http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section\=local\&id\=4447069 \|date\=2007\-03\-11 }}, abc7chicago.com, August 9, 2006 Many Chicagoans resented the [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") brand replacing their local brand.{{cite news\|last1\=Yerak\|first1\=Becky\|title\=Field's no more\|url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/chi\-0509210195sep21\-story.html\|access\-date\=15 March 2018\|work\=Chicago Tribune\|date\=21 September 2005}} Hundreds of protesters gathered under Marshall Field's famous clock that day,Chicago Tribune, Sept. 10, 2006 \& Chicago Sun\-Times, Sept. 10, 2006\. and returned on the one\-year anniversary, September 9, 2007\.Chicago Tribune, September 10, 2007; Chicago Red Eye, Sept. 10, 2007 Dozens attended "Field's Fans" rallies each anniversary from 2008 to 2012\.{{cite news\| url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1551309751\.html?FMT\=CITE\&FMTS\=CITE:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Sep\+10%2C\+2008\&author\=Anonymous\&pub\=Chicago\+Tribune\&edition\=\&startpage\=3\&desc\=Marshall\+Field%27s\+forever\+%5BCaption\+text\+only.%5D \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725044534/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1551309751\.html?FMT\=CITE\&FMTS\=CITE:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Sep\+10%2C\+2008\&author\=Anonymous\&pub\=Chicago\+Tribune\&edition\=\&startpage\=3\&desc\=Marshall\+Field%27s\+forever\+%5BCaption\+text\+only.%5D \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=July 25, 2012 \| work\=Chicago Tribune \| title\=Marshall Field's forever \[Caption text only.] \| date\=September 10, 2008}}{{cite news\| url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1858453471\.html?FMT\=CITE\&FMTS\=CITE:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Sep\+14%2C\+2009\&author\=Anonymous\&pub\=Chicago\+Tribune\&edition\=\&startpage\=8\&desc\=More\+grieving\+in\+store\+%5BCaption\+text\+only.%5D \| archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120715094459/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1858453471\.html?FMT\=CITE\&FMTS\=CITE:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Sep\+14,\+2009\&author\=Anonymous\&pub\=Chicago\+Tribune\&edition\=\&startpage\=8\&desc\=More\+grieving\+in\+store\+%5BCaption\+text\+only.%5D \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=July 15, 2012 \| work\=Chicago Tribune \| title\=More grieving in store \[Caption text only.] \| date\=September 14, 2009}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.fieldsfanschicago.org \|title\=Chicago Wants Marshall Field's! \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-30}}
Many Chicagoans felt betrayed by Macy's takeover of Marshall Field’s when the company began to change its aesthetics and customer service standards, and demoted many Chicago\-based brands. In December 2006, Macy's reported 30% slower sales in former Marshall Field's stores; the focus shifted to promoting the State Street location in 2007\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21693664 \|title\=Macy's turns up the charm to court Chicagoans \|publisher\=NBC News \|date\=2007\-11\-08 \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-30}}
### Renovations
The [Marshall Field and Company Building](/wiki/Marshall_Field_and_Company_Building "Marshall Field and Company Building") at State and Washington Streets in Chicago was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") in 1978 and is part of the Loop Retail National Historic District. The building was designated a [Chicago Landmark](/wiki/Chicago_Landmark "Chicago Landmark") on November 1, 2005\.{{Cite journal\|title\=CHICAGO LANDMARKS: Individual Landmarks and Landmark Districts designated as of January 1, 2008\|publisher\=Commission on Chicago Landmarks\|date\=2008\-01\-01\|url\=http://www.tonythetiger.frih.net/CCL\_Booklet\_1\-1\-08\.pdf\|access\-date\=February 17, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227233712/http://www.tonythetiger.frih.net/CCL\_Booklet\_1\-1\-08\.pdf\|archive\-date\=February 27, 2008\|url\-status\=dead}} With approximately two million square feet of available floor space, the building is the second\-largest department store in the United States.
In 1987, while under BATUS ownership, Field's State Street store underwent significant restoration. In 2004, while Field's was still owned by Dayton Hudson/Target, another extensive restoration of the landmark State Street store, costing $115 million (\~${{Format price\|{{Inflation\|index\=US\-GDP\|value\=115000000\|start\_year\=2004}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|US\-GDP}}), was begun; the last of the renovation was completed after the May acquisition. The 2004 renovations included the installation of new lower\-level shops, removal of steel grates from the upper portions of the store's historic light wells, and the addition of an eleven\-story atrium in what had been an alley and mid\-store light shaft.
In 2004, Field's also introduced significant upgrades to merchandise and the introduction of luxury vendor relationships, in which 10% of the floor space was leased to outside vendors in a manner similar to [Selfridge's](/wiki/Selfridge%27s "Selfridge's") in London (Selfridge's was founded by former Field's executive Harry Selfridge, who based his business model on Marshall Field's; likewise, the Selfridge's building in London was based on the architecture of the Marshall Field's store).
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early years",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|left\\|Marshall Field's State Street store \"great hall\" interior around 1910](/wiki/File:Marshall_field_interior.jpg \"Marshall field interior.jpg\")\nMarshall Field \\& Company traces its antecedents to a [dry goods](/wiki/Dry_goods \"Dry goods\") store opened at 137 Lake Street[PDX History of Marshall Field's](http://www.pdxhistory.com/html/marshall_fields.html). Retrieved August 20, 2006\\. in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\"), in 1852 by [Potter Palmer](/wiki/Potter_Palmer \"Potter Palmer\"), eponymously named **P. Palmer \\& Company.** In 1856, 21\\-year\\-old [Marshall Field](/wiki/Marshall_Field \"Marshall Field\") moved to the booming midwestern city of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") on the southwest shores of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\") from [Pittsfield, Massachusetts](/wiki/Pittsfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Pittsfield, Massachusetts\") and found work at the city's then\\-largest dry goods firm – [Cooley, Wadsworth \\& Company](/wiki/Cooley%2C_Wadsworth_%26_Co. \"Cooley, Wadsworth & Co.\"). Just prior to the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), in 1860, Field and bookkeeper [Levi Z. Leiter](/wiki/Levi_Leiter \"Levi Leiter\") became junior partners in the firm, then known as Cooley, Farwell \\& Company. In 1864, the firm, then led by senior partner [John V. Farwell, Sr.](/wiki/John_V._Farwell \"John V. Farwell\"), was renamed Farwell, Field \\& Company.[Encyclopedia of Chicago History – John V. Farwell \\& Co.](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2660.html). Retrieved August 19, 2006\\. only for Field and Leiter to soon withdraw from the partnership with Farwell when presented with the opportunity of a lifetime.[Encyclopedia of Chicago History – Marshall Field \\& Co.](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2663.html). Retrieved August 20, 2006\\.",
"[Potter Palmer](/wiki/Potter_Palmer \"Potter Palmer\"), plagued by ailing health, was looking to dispose of his thriving business, so on January 4, 1865, Field and Leiter entered into partnership with him and his brother Milton Palmer. So the firm of P. Palmer \\& Company became **Field, Palmer, Leiter \\& Company**, with Palmer financing much of their initial capital as well as his own contribution. After Field and Leiter's immediate success enabled them to pay him back, Palmer withdrew two years later from the partnership in 1867 to focus on his own growing real\\-estate interests on one of the burgeoning city's important thoroughfares, [State Street](/wiki/State_Street_%28Chicago%29 \"State Street (Chicago)\").{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2663\\.html\\|publisher\\=Chicago Historical Society\\|year\\=2005\\|encyclopedia\\=The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-02\\|title\\=Field (Marshall) \\& Co.}} His brother, Milton Palmer, left at this time as well. The store was renamed **Field, Leiter \\& Company**, sometimes referred to as \"Field \\& Leiter\".",
"The buyout, however, did not bring an end to Potter Palmer's association with the firm. In 1868, Palmer convinced Field and Leiter to lease a new, six\\-story edifice[Jazz Age Chicago](http://chicago.urban-history.org/ven/dss/fields.shtml) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927065743/http://chicago.urban\\-history.org/ven/dss/fields.shtml \\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-27 }}. Retrieved August 20, 2006\\. he had just built at the northeast corner of State and Washington Streets. The store was soon referred to as the \"Marble Palace\" owing to its costly [marble](/wiki/Marble \"Marble\") stone face.",
"### The Great Chicago Fire",
"When the [Great Chicago Fire](/wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire \"Great Chicago Fire\") broke out on October 8, 1871, news of this, one of the worst conflagrations to ever strike an American city, reached company officials Henry Willing and Levi Leiter, who decided to load as much of their expensive merchandise as possible onto wagons and take it to Leiter's home, which was out of the path of the fire. The Company's drivers and teams were ordered out of the barns. Horace B. Parker, a young salesman, rushed to the store's basement, broke up boxes, and built a fire in the furnace boiler so that the steam\\-powered elevators could be operated. These employees worked feverishly through the night to remove vital records and valuable goods to safety.",
"At one point, the gas tank exploded, which put out the store's gaslights. The men worked on by candlelight and the glow from the approaching flames. The employees got enough steam up to operate the store's powerful pumps in the basement, and volunteers went to the roof and used the store's fire hoses to wet down the roof and the wall on the side of the oncoming fire. Early in the following morning however, the city's waterworks burned, thus ending the water supply and making further efforts useless. The last employee had scarcely exited the building when it burst into flames, shooting fire from every window.Twyman, Robert W., *\"History of Marshall Field \\& Co. 1852–1906,\"* pp. 38–42, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1954\\.",
"The store burned to the ground. However, as a result of the employees' herculean efforts, so much merchandise was saved that the store was able to reopen in only a few weeks (the Wholesale Department on October 28, and the Retail Department on November 6\\) in a temporary location (a horse\\-streetcar barn of the [Chicago City Railway Co.](/wiki/Chicago_City_Railway_Co. \"Chicago City Railway Co.\") at State \\& 20th Streets). Six months later, in April 1872, Field \\& Leiter reopened in an unburned building at Madison and Market Streets (today's West Wacker Drive). Salesman Parker stayed on with the Company for 45 more years, rising to the level of General Sales Manager.Brewer, Wilmon, *\"A Life of Maurice Parker,\"* pp. 11–12, Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, New Hampshire, 1954\\.",
"### After the Great Fire",
"Two years later, in October 1873, Field and Leiter returned to State Street at Washington, opening in a new five\\-story store at their old location they now leased from the [Singer Sewing Machine Company](/wiki/Singer_Sewing_Machine_Company \"Singer Sewing Machine Company\"), Palmer having sold the land site to finance his own rebuilding activities. This store was expanded in 1876, only to be destroyed by fire again in November 1877\\. Ever tenacious, Field and Leiter had a new temporary store opened by the end of the month at a lakefront exposition hall they leased temporarily from the city, located at what is now the site of the present [Art Institute of Chicago](/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago \"Art Institute of Chicago\"). Meanwhile, the Singer company had speculatively built a new, even larger, six\\-story building on the ruins of their old 1873 store, which, after some contention, was personally bought by Field and Leiter. Field, Leiter \\& Company now reclaimed their traditional location at the northeast corner of State and Washington for the last time in April 1879\\.\n[thumb\\|150px\\|right\\|Marshall Field's Wholesale Store at Franklin Street, between Quincy and Adams Streets, designed by [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson \"Henry Hobson Richardson\"), built 1887, razed c. 1930, view taken around 1890](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field_Warehouse_Store.jpg \"Marshall Field Warehouse Store.jpg\")\nIn January 1881, Field, with the support of his junior partners, bought out [Levi Z. Leiter](/wiki/Levi_Leiter \"Levi Leiter\"), renaming the business **\"Marshall Field \\& Company\"**. As Palmer had before, Leiter retired to tend his significant real estate investments, which included commissioning a [department store, Second Leiter Building](/wiki/Second_Leiter_Building \"Second Leiter Building\") in 1891 at State Street and Van Buren to house [Siegel, Cooper \\& Company](/wiki/Siegel%2C_Cooper_%26_Co. \"Siegel, Cooper & Co.\"). In 1932, this building (known as one of the earliest steel\\-framed commercial buildings built and still standing in the U.S. along with the [Equitable Building](/wiki/Equitable_Building_%28Baltimore%29 \"Equitable Building (Baltimore)\") in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\")) was leased to the later famous nationwide mail\\-order firm [Sears, Roebuck \\& Company](/wiki/Sears%2C_Roebuck_%26_Company \"Sears, Roebuck & Company\").",
"In 1887, the landmark seven\\-story [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson \"Henry Hobson Richardson\")\\-designed, (1838–1886\\), [Romanesque\\-styled](/wiki/Romanesque_architecture \"Romanesque architecture\"), [Marshall Field's Wholesale Store](/wiki/Marshall_Field%27s_Wholesale_Store \"Marshall Field's Wholesale Store\") opened on Franklin Street between Quincy and Adams (razed c.1930\\). Though little remembered today, the wholesale division sold merchandise in bulk to smaller merchants throughout the central and western [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and at that time did six times the sales volume of the local retail store. Chicago's location at the nexus of the country's railroads and [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes \"Great Lakes\") shipping made it the center of the dry goods wholesaling business by the 1870s, with Field's former partner from before the war, [John V. Farwell, Sr.](/wiki/John_V._Farwell \"John V. Farwell\"), (1825–1908\\), being his largest rival. It was the scale of the profits generated by the [John G. Shedd](/wiki/John_G._Shedd \"John G. Shedd\")\\-led wholesale division during this time that made Marshall Field the richest man in Chicago and one of the richest in the country.",
"### State Street store",
"Following the departure of Leiter, the retail store grew in importance. Though it remained a fraction of the size of the wholesale division, its opulent building and luxurious merchandise differentiated Marshall Field from the other wholesale dry goods merchants in town. In 1887, [Harry Gordon Selfridge](/wiki/Harry_Gordon_Selfridge \"Harry Gordon Selfridge\") was appointed to lead the retail store and headed it as it evolved into a modern [department store](/wiki/Department_store \"Department store\"). That same year, Field personally obtained Leiter's remaining interest in the 1879 Singer building and in 1888 started buying the buildings adjoining his for additional floor space.\nMarshall Field also had a child at this time.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The iconic clock at Marshall Field's State Street and Washington Street store.](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field_Clock.jpg \"Marshall Field Clock.jpg\")\nIn 1892, the structures between the 1879 building on State Street and Wabash Avenue to the east were demolished and the famous influential architect [Daniel H. Burnham](/wiki/Daniel_H._Burnham \"Daniel H. Burnham\") and his firm [D.H. Burnham \\& Company](/wiki/D.H._Burnham_%26_Company \"D.H. Burnham & Company\") was commissioned to erect a new building in anticipation of the influx of visitors from the [World's Columbian Exposition](/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition \"World's Columbian Exposition\") scheduled for 1893\\. The nine\\-story \"Annex\" at the northwest corner of Wabash and Washington Streets has opened under the direction of Burnham associate [Charles B. Atwood](/wiki/Charles_B._Atwood \"Charles B. Atwood\")[Chicago Architecture Info](http://www.chicagoarchitecture.info/Building/1005/Marshall_Field's.php). Retrieved August 20, 2006\\. in August 1893, towards the end of the Exposition. In 1897, the old 1879 store was rebuilt and had two additional floors added, while the first of Marshall Field's iconic landmark Great Clocks was installed at the corner of State and Washington Streets on November 26\\.[MeetinChicago.com](http://www.meetinchicago.com/meet_facts.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928120848/http://www.meetinchicago.com/meet\\_facts.html \\|date\\=2007\\-09\\-28 }}. Retrieved August 20, 2006\\.",
"In 1901, Marshall Field \\& Company, previously a private partnership, was incorporated. Spurred on by Selfridge, Marshall Field razed the three buildings north of it, which had been occupied since 1888, as well as the [Dankmar Adler](/wiki/Dankmar_Adler \"Dankmar Adler\") and [Louis Sullivan](/wiki/Louis_Sullivan \"Louis Sullivan\")\\-designed 1879 [Central Music Hall](/wiki/Central_Music_Hall_%28Chicago%29 \"Central Music Hall (Chicago)\") at the southeast corner of State and Randolph Streets in 1901\\. In their place rose a massive, twelve\\-story building fronting State Street in 1902, including a grand new entrance. In 1906, a third new building opened on Wabash Avenue north of the 1893 structure, which was then the oldest part of the store.",
"In the midst of the construction, Selfridge abruptly resigned from the company in 1904, buying a rival store [Schlesinger \\& Mayer](/wiki/Schlesinger_%26_Mayer \"Schlesinger & Mayer\"), but sold it only three months later. Schlesinger \\& Mayer in 1899 had commissioned the Louis Sullivan\\-designed building now known as the [Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building](/wiki/Carson%2C_Pirie%2C_Scott_and_Company_Building \"Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building\"), which is the firm to which Selfridge sold the business. After trying retirement, he went on to establish [Selfridges](/wiki/Selfridges \"Selfridges\") in [London](/wiki/London%2C_England \"London, England\").",
"### Shedd era",
"Marshall Field died on January 16, 1906, in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). On the day of his funeral, all the stores along State Street, big and small, closed and the [Chicago Board of Trade](/wiki/Chicago_Board_of_Trade \"Chicago Board of Trade\") suspended afternoon trading in his honor. The board of Marshall Field and Company appointed [John G. Shedd](/wiki/John_G._Shedd \"John G. Shedd\"), (1850–1926\\), whom Field had once called \"the greatest merchant in the United States\", to serve as the company's new president. Shedd became head of a company that employed 12,000 people in Chicago (two\\-thirds of them in retail) and was doing about $25 million in yearly retail sales in addition to nearly $50 million in wholesale.\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Tiffany Favrile glass ceiling, State Street (south building), 1907](/wiki/File:Field%27s_Tiffany_Ceiling.jpg \"Field's Tiffany Ceiling.jpg\")\nUnder Shedd's leadership for the next 16 years, Marshall Field \\& Co. continued to rebuild its store, fulfilling plans approved by Field himself to pull down the 1879 structure later in 1906\\. In its stead rose a new south State Street building with a continuation of the 1902 street façade. Opened in September 1907, it included a [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany \"Louis Comfort Tiffany\")\\- decorated ceiling that is both the first and largest ceiling ever built in [favrile glass](/wiki/Favrile_glass \"Favrile glass\"), containing over 1\\.6 million pieces. With completion of the 1907 building, Marshall Field's momentarily possessed the title of \"world's largest department store\" over [John Wanamaker \\& Co.](/wiki/Wanamaker%27s \"Wanamaker's\") in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania \"Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\") and [R.H. Macy \\& Co.](/wiki/Macy%27s \"Macy's\") in [New York](/wiki/New_York%2C_New_York \"New York, New York\").",
"In 1912, the 16\\-story [Trude Building](/wiki/Trude_Building \"Trude Building\") at the southwest corner of Wabash and Randolph was acquired and demolished, an act that was considered to be one of the first demolitions, if not the first, of a high\\-rise skyscraper of those just recently being built.{{usurped\\|1\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20041031105413/http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id\\=102706 Emporis/Trude Building]}}. Retrieved August 20, 2006\\. In its place rose the 1914 building designed by the [Graham, Burnham \\& Company](/wiki/Graham%2C_Burnham_%26_Co. \"Graham, Burnham & Co.\") architectural firm, completing the present\\-day store and now encompassing the entire square city block, bounded by Washington, State, Wabash, and Randolph Streets.",
"Also in 1914, the same Graham, Burnham \\& Company supervised the opening of a new twenty\\-story Marshall Field Annex across the street at 25 East Washington, which housed \"Marshall Field's Store for Men\" on its first six floors. These buildings recaptured its status as the world's largest department store, its many restaurants and separate men's and women's lounges becoming an important social destination for upscale Chicago.",
"Shedd continued to expand Field's wholesale business and grew its manufacturing business, buying textile mills in the South in 1911 (see [Cannon Mills Company](/wiki/Cannon_Mills_Company \"Cannon Mills Company\")) as well as overseeing the purchase of the Marshall Field Trust's interest in the business in 1917\\. The Field Family eventually retained only a ten percent stake. Second company president, [John G. Shedd](/wiki/John_G._Shedd \"John G. Shedd\") retired in late 1922\\.",
"### 1913 Illinois State Senate investigation",
"In 1913, representatives of Carson Pirie Scott and Marshall Field's were called to the [state capital](/wiki/State_capital \"State capital\") of [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\") at [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Illinois \"Springfield, Illinois\") for the [Illinois State Senate's](/wiki/Illinois_Senate \"Illinois Senate\") investigation of the low wages of the female employees of the major department stores. At Marshall Field's, women were not only typists or other types of clerical workers, they also had a major role in the sales department. Women sales clerks were trained in etiquette and acquired a thorough understanding of the merchandise.Weiner, Lynn W., \"Work Culture\", Encyclopedia of Chicago, Chicago Historical Society, 2005, December 5, 2013 The presence of saleswomen was a crucial part of the success of Marshall Field's, as they made female customers more comfortable and therefore made shopping at Marshall Field's fun.",
"The opportunities available for women at Marshall Field's created a subculture of working women. During the early and middle decades of the 20th century, many women migrated into the labor force often becoming adrift in a new city with new opportunities. Many of these women lived apart from family and relatives, were young and single and came from varied backgrounds and ethnicities. This subculture of women was greatly affected by wages and opportunities offered through Marshall Field's.Meyerowitz, Joanne J. Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880–1930\\. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1988\\. Print.",
"However, the wages of the female employees were not representative of their role in the company and, therefore, became the subject of the 1913 [Illinois Senate](/wiki/Illinois_Senate \"Illinois Senate\") Investigation. Women were paid very low wages, the average being $5 to $8 per week. The \"testimony at an Illinois Senate investigation in 1913 from spokesmen for the [Illinois Manufacturers' Association](/wiki/Illinois_Manufacturers%27_Association \"Illinois Manufacturers' Association\"); banks; [Sears, Roebuck](/wiki/Sears%2C_Roebuck_%26_Company \"Sears, Roebuck & Company\"); and Marshall Field's revealed that most major employers paid women workers as low as $2\\.75 (\\~${{Format price\\|{{Inflation\\|index\\=US\\|value\\=2\\.75\\|start\\_year\\=1913}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US}}).\"Cornelius, Janet, Martha LaFrenz Kay. Women of Conscience: Social Reform In Danville, Illinois 1890–1930\\. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2008\\. Print. Even in 1913, that was not a living wage. During the hearing, Marshall Field's revealed that it could double the women's salaries but refused to do so. Furthermore, women faced more mistreatment within the company such as sex segregation, which limited their mobility within the company.",
"### First branch stores and the Frango brand",
"[James Simpson](/wiki/James_Simpson_%28businessman%29 \"James Simpson (businessman)\") was appointed president following [Shedd's](/wiki/John_G._Shedd \"John G. Shedd\") retirement. Though considered to have favored the declining wholesale division, he did expand its retail operations, first buying [A. M. Rothschild \\& Co.](/wiki/A._M._Rothschild_%26_Co. \"A. M. Rothschild & Co.\") at State Street and Jackson Boulevard in December 1923, which Field's operated as a discount store called \"The Davis Store.\" In 1924, the 1893–1914 buildings that the store occupied were acquired from the Marshall Field Trust.",
"The first branch of Marshall Field's itself opened at [Market Square](/wiki/Market_Square_%28Lake_Forest%2C_Illinois%29 \"Market Square (Lake Forest, Illinois)\") in [Lake Forest, Illinois](/wiki/Lake_Forest%2C_Illinois \"Lake Forest, Illinois\") in May 1928\\. In September 1928, its first branch in [Evanston, Illinois](/wiki/Evanston%2C_Illinois \"Evanston, Illinois\") followed, later relocating to a French Renaissance\\-style building at Sherman Avenue and Church Street in November 1929\\.[Evanston Galleria](http://www.winthropproperties.com/evanstongalleria/history.htm#). Retrieved August 20, 2006\\. The [Oak Park, Illinois](/wiki/Oak_Park%2C_Illinois \"Oak Park, Illinois\") store opened in September 1929 in a building similar to the Evanston store.[Jazz Age Chicago – Field's Branches](http://chicago.urban-history.org/ven/dss/fields.shtml#branch) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927065743/http://chicago.urban\\-history.org/ven/dss/fields.shtml \\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-27 }}. Retrieved August 20, 2006\\.\n[Frederick \\& Nelson](/wiki/Frederick_%26_Nelson \"Frederick & Nelson\"), a [Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Seattle%2C_Washington \"Seattle, Washington\")\\-based department store founded in 1890, was also acquired in 1929, with its own 1914 downtown Seattle building at Pine Street and Fifth Avenue. Frederick \\& Nelson retained its name, though its logo was soon rewritten in Field's iconic script. Frederick \\& Nelson created [Frango](/wiki/Frango \"Frango\") mints, a Seattle tradition then and now. The mints were later also produced in the candy kitchen in the State Street store and became popular in Chicago, too.",
"Marshall Field \\& Company became a public company in 1930, early in the \"[Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\")\". The retailer needed capital due to the expense of opening the massive new [Merchandise Mart](/wiki/Merchandise_Mart \"Merchandise Mart\") to house its flagging wholesale division. Ground was broken in 1927 during the boom years of the \"Roaring 20s\"; when the Mart opened in 1930, it was the largest building in the world. The 1887 Wholesale Store designed by [Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson \"Henry Hobson Richardson\") at Franklin between Quincy and Adams Streets was closed and demolished at this time. But the new building, faced with a change in retail distribution and wholesale patterns in addition to the deepening \"[Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\")\", could not save Field's wholesale division. Simpson left the Company, and [James O. McKinsey](/wiki/James_O._McKinsey \"James O. McKinsey\"), a [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago \"University of Chicago\") professor and founder of the [McKinsey and Company](/wiki/McKinsey_and_Company \"McKinsey and Company\") consulting firm, was hired to reform the Company. The wholesale division, once the core of the Company, was liquidated by 1936\\. The Davis Store was closed in 1936 as well, and its building was sold to [Goldblatts](/wiki/Goldblatts \"Goldblatts\"). In 1939, the land underlying the main State Street store was acquired from the Marshall Field Trust. Meanwhile, McKinsey also reorganized the Company's vertically integrated operations, notably by merging the Company's varied textile operations under the [Fieldcrest](/wiki/Cannon_Mills_Company \"Cannon Mills Company\") name.",
"### Suburban expansion",
"[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Marshall Field \\& Company logo used before the BATUS acquisition in 1982\\. It would be shortened to \"Marshall Field's\".](/wiki/File:Mf%26co.PNG \"Mf&co.PNG\")\nFollowing [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the [Merchandise Mart](/wiki/Merchandise_Mart \"Merchandise Mart\") building was sold in 1945 to [Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.](/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy \"Joseph P. Kennedy\"), (1888–1969\\), significantly improving the Field Company's finances and enabling the store to cope with the post\\-war suburban residential and commercial boom. Marshall Field's presciently followed its customers to their new homes outwards to the suburbs, including opening a store in 1950 in partnership with pioneering suburban developer [Philip M. Klutznick](/wiki/Philip_M._Klutznick \"Philip M. Klutznick\") (a famous Jewish leader and later [U.S. Secretary of Commerce](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce \"United States Secretary of Commerce\")) at his new [Park Forest Plaza](/wiki/Park_Forest_Plaza \"Park Forest Plaza\"), which utilized revolutionary new concepts in land use and architecture.",
"In 1956, Klutznick and Field's jointly opened [Old Orchard Shopping Center](/wiki/Old_Orchard_Shopping_Center \"Old Orchard Shopping Center\") in [Skokie, Illinois](/wiki/Skokie%2C_Illinois \"Skokie, Illinois\"), a center Klutznick developed on land that Field's already owned; the development included a new Field's store. This was followed by the 1959 opening of a Field's store in the [Mayfair Mall](/wiki/Mayfair_Mall \"Mayfair Mall\") in [Wauwatosa, Wisconsin](/wiki/Wauwatosa%2C_Wisconsin \"Wauwatosa, Wisconsin\"), to the northwest, and stores at later Klutznick\\-led shopping centers opened at [Oakbrook Center](/wiki/Oakbrook_Center \"Oakbrook Center\") in [Oak Brook, Illinois](/wiki/Oak_Brook%2C_Illinois \"Oak Brook, Illinois\"), in 1962 and [River Oaks Center](/wiki/River_Oaks_Center \"River Oaks Center\") in [Calumet City, Illinois](/wiki/Calumet_City%2C_Illinois \"Calumet City, Illinois\"), in 1966\\.",
"Marshall Field's even expanded further in the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest \"Pacific Northwest\"), acquiring [The Crescent](/wiki/The_Crescent_%28department_store%29 \"The Crescent (department store)\") department store in [Spokane, Washington](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Washington \"Spokane, Washington\"), in 1962 and in 1970, moved east with the purchase of [Halle Brothers Co.](/wiki/Halle_Brothers_Co. \"Halle Brothers Co.\"), a leading department store in [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\"). Field's also continued to expand its hometown base in Illinois, opening a store at [Woodfield Mall](/wiki/Woodfield_Mall \"Woodfield Mall\") in [Schaumburg](/wiki/Schaumburg%2C_Illinois \"Schaumburg, Illinois\") in 1971\\.",
"[CherryVale Mall](/wiki/CherryVale_Mall \"CherryVale Mall\") in [Rockford](/wiki/Rockford%2C_Illinois \"Rockford, Illinois\") and [Hawthorn Mall](/wiki/Hawthorn_Mall \"Hawthorn Mall\") in [Vernon Hills](/wiki/Vernon_Hills%2C_Illinois \"Vernon Hills, Illinois\") followed in 1973, and stores at [Water Tower Place](/wiki/Water_Tower_Place \"Water Tower Place\") in Chicago and [Fox Valley Mall](/wiki/Fox_Valley_Mall \"Fox Valley Mall\") in [Aurora](/wiki/Aurora%2C_Illinois \"Aurora, Illinois\") opened in 1975\\. The suburban expansion continued in 1976 with a location at [Orland Square Mall](/wiki/Orland_Square_Mall \"Orland Square Mall\") in [Orland Park](/wiki/Orland_Park%2C_Illinois \"Orland Park, Illinois\"), followed by the [Louis Joliet Mall](/wiki/Louis_Joliet_Mall \"Louis Joliet Mall\") in [Joliet](/wiki/Joliet%2C_Illinois \"Joliet, Illinois\") in 1978\\. In 1979, Marshall Field's expanded south into [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\") with a store at [The Galleria](/wiki/Houston_Galleria \"Houston Galleria\") in [Houston](/wiki/Houston%2C_Texas \"Houston, Texas\").",
"The year 1980 saw the rapid acquisition of [J.B. Ivey Co.](/wiki/Ivey%27s \"Ivey's\"), a department store chain with roots in [Charlotte, North Carolina](/wiki/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina \"Charlotte, North Carolina\"), and [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida \"Jacksonville, Florida\"); [The Union Co.](/wiki/The_Union_Co. \"The Union Co.\") in [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio \"Columbus, Ohio\"); the [Lipman's](/wiki/Lipman%27s \"Lipman's\") stores in [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\"); and several [Liberty House](/wiki/Liberty_House_%28US%29 \"Liberty House (US)\") stores in [Washington state](/wiki/Washington_state \"Washington state\"). Field's existing [Frederick \\& Nelson](/wiki/Frederick_%26_Nelson \"Frederick & Nelson\") unit in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\") absorbed the Lipman's and Liberty House stores under its name, but after initially merging The Union of [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio \"Columbus, Ohio\") with its earlier [Halle's](/wiki/Halle_Brothers_Co. \"Halle Brothers Co.\") stores from [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), Field's decided to sell the combined chain in November 1981; the new owners quickly liquidated it.",
"The early 1980s saw slower expansion, with just two store locations in Illinois added, one in October 1980 at [Spring Hill Mall](/wiki/Spring_Hill_Mall \"Spring Hill Mall\") in [West Dundee](/wiki/West_Dundee%2C_Illinois \"West Dundee, Illinois\"), and one in 1981 at [Stratford Square Mall](/wiki/Stratford_Square_Mall \"Stratford Square Mall\") in [Bloomingdale](/wiki/Bloomingdale%2C_Illinois \"Bloomingdale, Illinois\"). Another Texas store opened at the [Dallas Galleria](/wiki/Dallas_Galleria \"Dallas Galleria\"), in [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas \"Dallas\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"), in 1982\\.",
"### BATUS",
"In 1982, Marshall Field \\& Co. ceased to be a public company, being acquired by B.A.T. [British\\-American Tobacco](/wiki/British-American_Tobacco \"British-American Tobacco\"). As part of [BATUS](/wiki/BATUS_Inc. \"BATUS Inc.\") Retail Group, the American retailing arm of B.A.T., Field's and its Frederick \\& Nelson, Ivey's and [The Crescent](/wiki/The_Crescent_%28department_store%29 \"The Crescent (department store)\") department stores and the John Brueners home furnishings stores joined retailers [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels \"Gimbels\"), [Saks Fifth Avenue](/wiki/Saks_Fifth_Avenue \"Saks Fifth Avenue\") and [Kohl's](/wiki/Kohl%27s \"Kohl's\"). Field's continued to expand under BATUS, adding stores at Houston's [Town \\& Country Mall](/wiki/CityCentre \"CityCentre\") in 1983 and at the [North Star Mall](/wiki/North_Star_Mall \"North Star Mall\") in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\") in 1986\\.",
"Only four years after buying Marshall Field's, however, BATUS scaled back its retail operations in 1986, selling Field's former subsidiaries Frederick \\& Nelson and The Crescent to a local investor group. Frederick \\& Nelson quickly deteriorated and became defunct in 1992\\. Its 1914 building, the one acquired by Field's in 1929, was eventually bought by [Nordstrom](/wiki/Nordstrom \"Nordstrom\"); the structure was renovated and reopened in 1998 as a replacement for Nordstrom's own Seattle parent store.",
"BATUS closed its [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels \"Gimbels\") division in 1986 and transferred five former Gimbels locations in Wisconsin to its Marshall Field's division: downtown Milwaukee, [Northridge Mall](/wiki/Northridge_Mall_%28Milwaukee%29 \"Northridge Mall (Milwaukee)\") and [Southridge Mall](/wiki/Southridge_Mall_%28Wisconsin%29 \"Southridge Mall (Wisconsin)\") in Milwaukee, [Hilldale Shopping Center](/wiki/Hilldale_Shopping_Center \"Hilldale Shopping Center\") in Madison and in downtown [Appleton](/wiki/Appleton%2C_Wisconsin \"Appleton, Wisconsin\"). The former Gimbels Northridge and Southridge locations were retained by Field's for only three years; due to poor performance, they were sold in 1989 to H.C. Prange Co. of Sheboygan.",
"The Evanston and Oak Park stores were closed in 1986, their 1929 buildings deemed out of date and too costly to operate. A major restoration and renovation of the State Street flagship store led by Director of Construction and Maintenance Bill Allen commenced in 1987\\.",
"BATUS initially kept Saks Fifth Avenue, Marshall Field's, and Ivey's; however, it sold all its remaining U.S. retail assets in 1990, with Saks going to Bahrain\\-based [Investcorp](/wiki/Investcorp \"Investcorp\"), Ivey's sold to [Dillard's](/wiki/Dillard%27s \"Dillard's\"), and Marshall Field's sold to then Dayton\\-Hudson Corporation (now [Target Corporation](/wiki/Target_Corporation \"Target Corporation\")).",
"[250px\\|left\\|thumb\\|The name plaque at the State Street store in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\")](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field_and_Company.jpg \"Marshall Field and Company.jpg\")",
"### Dayton\\-Hudson, Target, and May",
"[Dayton\\-Hudson Corporation](/wiki/Dayton-Hudson_Corporation \"Dayton-Hudson Corporation\") renamed itself [Target Corporation](/wiki/Target_Corporation \"Target Corporation\") in 2000 and renamed its [Dayton's](/wiki/Dayton%27s \"Dayton's\") and [Hudson's](/wiki/Hudson%27s \"Hudson's\") department stores Marshall Field's in 2001\\. These stores were outside of Field's existing markets. Target Corporation introduced some of the brands carried there to the Marshall Field's stores, displacing some of Field's more expensive merchandise.",
"In 2004 Target Corporation sold the Marshall Field's chain to [May Co.](/wiki/The_May_Department_Stores_Company \"The May Department Stores Company\"), thereby exiting the department store business entirely. It was hoped that aligning with the May Company instead of the discounter Target would \"let Field's be Field's\" and allow it to recapture its former cachet and upper\\-class customer base. However, [Federated Department Stores, Inc.](/wiki/Federated_Department_Stores \"Federated Department Stores\") acquired the May Company in 2005\\.\n[thumb\\|Marshall Field's\\-Macy's logo](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field%27s-Macy%27s_Transition_Logo.png \"Marshall Field's-Macy's Transition Logo.png\")",
"### Federated acquisition, renaming and protest",
"[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Former Marshall Field's in [Lake Forest, IL](/wiki/Lake_Forest%2C_IL \"Lake Forest, IL\"), the last \"old\" suburban store until Macy's closed it in 2008\\.](/wiki/File:Fieldlf.JPG \"Fieldlf.JPG\")\nAfter the Federated purchase, Marshall Field's stores joined [L. S. Ayres](/wiki/L._S._Ayres \"L. S. Ayres\") and existing Macy's stores in the new [Macy's North](/wiki/Macy%27s_North \"Macy's North\") Division. During 2006, all Marshall Field's stores, most [Filene's](/wiki/Filene%27s \"Filene's\") and all the stores of nine other May\\-owned chains were renamed [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s \"Macy's\"), the conversion officially occurred on September 9, 2006\\.[Field's trades up stripes for Macy's stars](http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=local&id=4447069) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082240/http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section\\=local\\&id\\=4447069 \\|date\\=2007\\-03\\-11 }}, abc7chicago.com, August 9, 2006 Many Chicagoans resented the [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") brand replacing their local brand.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Yerak\\|first1\\=Becky\\|title\\=Field's no more\\|url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/chi\\-0509210195sep21\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2018\\|work\\=Chicago Tribune\\|date\\=21 September 2005}} Hundreds of protesters gathered under Marshall Field's famous clock that day,Chicago Tribune, Sept. 10, 2006 \\& Chicago Sun\\-Times, Sept. 10, 2006\\. and returned on the one\\-year anniversary, September 9, 2007\\.Chicago Tribune, September 10, 2007; Chicago Red Eye, Sept. 10, 2007 Dozens attended \"Field's Fans\" rallies each anniversary from 2008 to 2012\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1551309751\\.html?FMT\\=CITE\\&FMTS\\=CITE:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Sep\\+10%2C\\+2008\\&author\\=Anonymous\\&pub\\=Chicago\\+Tribune\\&edition\\=\\&startpage\\=3\\&desc\\=Marshall\\+Field%27s\\+forever\\+%5BCaption\\+text\\+only.%5D \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725044534/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1551309751\\.html?FMT\\=CITE\\&FMTS\\=CITE:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Sep\\+10%2C\\+2008\\&author\\=Anonymous\\&pub\\=Chicago\\+Tribune\\&edition\\=\\&startpage\\=3\\&desc\\=Marshall\\+Field%27s\\+forever\\+%5BCaption\\+text\\+only.%5D \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=July 25, 2012 \\| work\\=Chicago Tribune \\| title\\=Marshall Field's forever \\[Caption text only.] \\| date\\=September 10, 2008}}{{cite news\\| url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1858453471\\.html?FMT\\=CITE\\&FMTS\\=CITE:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Sep\\+14%2C\\+2009\\&author\\=Anonymous\\&pub\\=Chicago\\+Tribune\\&edition\\=\\&startpage\\=8\\&desc\\=More\\+grieving\\+in\\+store\\+%5BCaption\\+text\\+only.%5D \\| archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120715094459/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1858453471\\.html?FMT\\=CITE\\&FMTS\\=CITE:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Sep\\+14,\\+2009\\&author\\=Anonymous\\&pub\\=Chicago\\+Tribune\\&edition\\=\\&startpage\\=8\\&desc\\=More\\+grieving\\+in\\+store\\+%5BCaption\\+text\\+only.%5D \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2012 \\| work\\=Chicago Tribune \\| title\\=More grieving in store \\[Caption text only.] \\| date\\=September 14, 2009}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fieldsfanschicago.org \\|title\\=Chicago Wants Marshall Field's! \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-30}}",
"Many Chicagoans felt betrayed by Macy's takeover of Marshall Field’s when the company began to change its aesthetics and customer service standards, and demoted many Chicago\\-based brands. In December 2006, Macy's reported 30% slower sales in former Marshall Field's stores; the focus shifted to promoting the State Street location in 2007\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21693664 \\|title\\=Macy's turns up the charm to court Chicagoans \\|publisher\\=NBC News \\|date\\=2007\\-11\\-08 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-30}}",
"### Renovations",
"The [Marshall Field and Company Building](/wiki/Marshall_Field_and_Company_Building \"Marshall Field and Company Building\") at State and Washington Streets in Chicago was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") in 1978 and is part of the Loop Retail National Historic District. The building was designated a [Chicago Landmark](/wiki/Chicago_Landmark \"Chicago Landmark\") on November 1, 2005\\.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=CHICAGO LANDMARKS: Individual Landmarks and Landmark Districts designated as of January 1, 2008\\|publisher\\=Commission on Chicago Landmarks\\|date\\=2008\\-01\\-01\\|url\\=http://www.tonythetiger.frih.net/CCL\\_Booklet\\_1\\-1\\-08\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227233712/http://www.tonythetiger.frih.net/CCL\\_Booklet\\_1\\-1\\-08\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=February 27, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} With approximately two million square feet of available floor space, the building is the second\\-largest department store in the United States.",
"In 1987, while under BATUS ownership, Field's State Street store underwent significant restoration. In 2004, while Field's was still owned by Dayton Hudson/Target, another extensive restoration of the landmark State Street store, costing $115 million (\\~${{Format price\\|{{Inflation\\|index\\=US\\-GDP\\|value\\=115000000\\|start\\_year\\=2004}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US\\-GDP}}), was begun; the last of the renovation was completed after the May acquisition. The 2004 renovations included the installation of new lower\\-level shops, removal of steel grates from the upper portions of the store's historic light wells, and the addition of an eleven\\-story atrium in what had been an alley and mid\\-store light shaft.",
"In 2004, Field's also introduced significant upgrades to merchandise and the introduction of luxury vendor relationships, in which 10% of the floor space was leased to outside vendors in a manner similar to [Selfridge's](/wiki/Selfridge%27s \"Selfridge's\") in London (Selfridge's was founded by former Field's executive Harry Selfridge, who based his business model on Marshall Field's; likewise, the Selfridge's building in London was based on the architecture of the Marshall Field's store).",
""
] |
### BATUS
In 1982, Marshall Field \& Co. ceased to be a public company, being acquired by B.A.T. [British\-American Tobacco](/wiki/British-American_Tobacco "British-American Tobacco"). As part of [BATUS](/wiki/BATUS_Inc. "BATUS Inc.") Retail Group, the American retailing arm of B.A.T., Field's and its Frederick \& Nelson, Ivey's and [The Crescent](/wiki/The_Crescent_%28department_store%29 "The Crescent (department store)") department stores and the John Brueners home furnishings stores joined retailers [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels "Gimbels"), [Saks Fifth Avenue](/wiki/Saks_Fifth_Avenue "Saks Fifth Avenue") and [Kohl's](/wiki/Kohl%27s "Kohl's"). Field's continued to expand under BATUS, adding stores at Houston's [Town \& Country Mall](/wiki/CityCentre "CityCentre") in 1983 and at the [North Star Mall](/wiki/North_Star_Mall "North Star Mall") in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio "San Antonio") in 1986\.
Only four years after buying Marshall Field's, however, BATUS scaled back its retail operations in 1986, selling Field's former subsidiaries Frederick \& Nelson and The Crescent to a local investor group. Frederick \& Nelson quickly deteriorated and became defunct in 1992\. Its 1914 building, the one acquired by Field's in 1929, was eventually bought by [Nordstrom](/wiki/Nordstrom "Nordstrom"); the structure was renovated and reopened in 1998 as a replacement for Nordstrom's own Seattle parent store.
BATUS closed its [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels "Gimbels") division in 1986 and transferred five former Gimbels locations in Wisconsin to its Marshall Field's division: downtown Milwaukee, [Northridge Mall](/wiki/Northridge_Mall_%28Milwaukee%29 "Northridge Mall (Milwaukee)") and [Southridge Mall](/wiki/Southridge_Mall_%28Wisconsin%29 "Southridge Mall (Wisconsin)") in Milwaukee, [Hilldale Shopping Center](/wiki/Hilldale_Shopping_Center "Hilldale Shopping Center") in Madison and in downtown [Appleton](/wiki/Appleton%2C_Wisconsin "Appleton, Wisconsin"). The former Gimbels Northridge and Southridge locations were retained by Field's for only three years; due to poor performance, they were sold in 1989 to H.C. Prange Co. of Sheboygan.
The Evanston and Oak Park stores were closed in 1986, their 1929 buildings deemed out of date and too costly to operate. A major restoration and renovation of the State Street flagship store led by Director of Construction and Maintenance Bill Allen commenced in 1987\.
BATUS initially kept Saks Fifth Avenue, Marshall Field's, and Ivey's; however, it sold all its remaining U.S. retail assets in 1990, with Saks going to Bahrain\-based [Investcorp](/wiki/Investcorp "Investcorp"), Ivey's sold to [Dillard's](/wiki/Dillard%27s "Dillard's"), and Marshall Field's sold to then Dayton\-Hudson Corporation (now [Target Corporation](/wiki/Target_Corporation "Target Corporation")).
[250px\|left\|thumb\|The name plaque at the State Street store in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago")](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field_and_Company.jpg "Marshall Field and Company.jpg")
|
[
"### BATUS",
"In 1982, Marshall Field \\& Co. ceased to be a public company, being acquired by B.A.T. [British\\-American Tobacco](/wiki/British-American_Tobacco \"British-American Tobacco\"). As part of [BATUS](/wiki/BATUS_Inc. \"BATUS Inc.\") Retail Group, the American retailing arm of B.A.T., Field's and its Frederick \\& Nelson, Ivey's and [The Crescent](/wiki/The_Crescent_%28department_store%29 \"The Crescent (department store)\") department stores and the John Brueners home furnishings stores joined retailers [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels \"Gimbels\"), [Saks Fifth Avenue](/wiki/Saks_Fifth_Avenue \"Saks Fifth Avenue\") and [Kohl's](/wiki/Kohl%27s \"Kohl's\"). Field's continued to expand under BATUS, adding stores at Houston's [Town \\& Country Mall](/wiki/CityCentre \"CityCentre\") in 1983 and at the [North Star Mall](/wiki/North_Star_Mall \"North Star Mall\") in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\") in 1986\\.",
"Only four years after buying Marshall Field's, however, BATUS scaled back its retail operations in 1986, selling Field's former subsidiaries Frederick \\& Nelson and The Crescent to a local investor group. Frederick \\& Nelson quickly deteriorated and became defunct in 1992\\. Its 1914 building, the one acquired by Field's in 1929, was eventually bought by [Nordstrom](/wiki/Nordstrom \"Nordstrom\"); the structure was renovated and reopened in 1998 as a replacement for Nordstrom's own Seattle parent store.",
"BATUS closed its [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels \"Gimbels\") division in 1986 and transferred five former Gimbels locations in Wisconsin to its Marshall Field's division: downtown Milwaukee, [Northridge Mall](/wiki/Northridge_Mall_%28Milwaukee%29 \"Northridge Mall (Milwaukee)\") and [Southridge Mall](/wiki/Southridge_Mall_%28Wisconsin%29 \"Southridge Mall (Wisconsin)\") in Milwaukee, [Hilldale Shopping Center](/wiki/Hilldale_Shopping_Center \"Hilldale Shopping Center\") in Madison and in downtown [Appleton](/wiki/Appleton%2C_Wisconsin \"Appleton, Wisconsin\"). The former Gimbels Northridge and Southridge locations were retained by Field's for only three years; due to poor performance, they were sold in 1989 to H.C. Prange Co. of Sheboygan.",
"The Evanston and Oak Park stores were closed in 1986, their 1929 buildings deemed out of date and too costly to operate. A major restoration and renovation of the State Street flagship store led by Director of Construction and Maintenance Bill Allen commenced in 1987\\.",
"BATUS initially kept Saks Fifth Avenue, Marshall Field's, and Ivey's; however, it sold all its remaining U.S. retail assets in 1990, with Saks going to Bahrain\\-based [Investcorp](/wiki/Investcorp \"Investcorp\"), Ivey's sold to [Dillard's](/wiki/Dillard%27s \"Dillard's\"), and Marshall Field's sold to then Dayton\\-Hudson Corporation (now [Target Corporation](/wiki/Target_Corporation \"Target Corporation\")).",
"[250px\\|left\\|thumb\\|The name plaque at the State Street store in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\")](/wiki/File:Marshall_Field_and_Company.jpg \"Marshall Field and Company.jpg\")",
""
] |
Description
-----------
The North Hungarian Mountains begin with the mountain range of [Börzsöny](/wiki/B%C3%B6rzs%C3%B6ny "Börzsöny"), adjacent to the Danube Bend, where it meets the [Transdanubian Mountains](/wiki/Transdanubian_Mountains "Transdanubian Mountains").
The Börzsöny range is about 600 km2 in area, and mainly of [volcanic](/wiki/Volcanic "Volcanic") origin. The highest peak is the [Csóványos](/wiki/Cs%C3%B3v%C3%A1nyos "Csóványos") (938 m).
The next range towards the east is the [Cserhát](/wiki/Cserh%C3%A1t "Cserhát"), with the same geological composition as the [Börzsöny](/wiki/B%C3%B6rzs%C3%B6ny "Börzsöny"). [Erosion](/wiki/Erosion "Erosion") here was more severe: these are mere hills and comprise the lowest part of the North Hungarian Mountains. The highest point is Naszály (654 m).
[Kékes](/wiki/K%C3%A9kes "Kékes"), the country's highest peak at 1014 meters, is located in the next range, [Mátra](/wiki/M%C3%A1tra "Mátra"). However, the range's average height is only 600 meters, less than that of the neighboring [Bükk](/wiki/B%C3%BCkk "Bükk"). Mátra is also of [volcanic](/wiki/Volcanic "Volcanic") origin.
[250px\|right\|thumb\|Map of the [Carpathians](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains "Carpathian Mountains"). The North Hungarian Mountains are the most southern parts of the territory highlighted in light green.](/wiki/Image:Mapcarpat2.png "Mapcarpat2.png")
The [Bükk](/wiki/B%C3%BCkk "Bükk") is a [limestone](/wiki/Limestone "Limestone") range; it has the highest average height in [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary"). It is rich in caves, some of which were inhabited in ancient times.
The [Aggtelek Karst](/wiki/Aggtelek_Karst "Aggtelek Karst") area is a geologic formation spanning the Hungarian\-Slovakian border, and the reason for the [Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst](/wiki/Caves_of_Aggtelek_Karst_and_Slovak_Karst "Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst") [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site"), and the Hungarian [Aggtelek National Park](/wiki/Aggtelek_National_Park "Aggtelek National Park"). [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary")'s a most popular cave, the [Baradla](/wiki/Baradla "Baradla"), is located there.
The [Zemplén Mountains](/wiki/Zempl%C3%A9n_Mountains "Zemplén Mountains") are again of volcanic origin; the [soil](/wiki/Soil "Soil")'s high\-quality favors [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture "Viticulture").
### Natural resources
* [brown coal](/wiki/Brown_coal "Brown coal")
* [fertile soil](/wiki/Fertile_soil "Fertile soil")
* [forestry](/wiki/Forestry "Forestry")
* [lignite](/wiki/Lignite "Lignite")
* [limestone](/wiki/Limestone "Limestone")
* [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture "Viticulture")
### National parks
* [Aggtelek National Park](/wiki/Aggtelek_National_Park "Aggtelek National Park") (established in 1985\)
* [Bükk National Park](/wiki/B%C3%BCkk_National_Park "Bükk National Park") (established in 1976\)
* [Danube\-Ipoly National Park](/wiki/Danube-Ipoly_National_Park "Danube-Ipoly National Park") (established in 1997\)
{{wide image\|Borzsony, Hungary, landscape, panorama.jpg\|1700px\|Panorama in Börzsöny Mountains (Duna\-Ipoly National Park)}}
### Protected areas
* [Hollókő](/wiki/Holl%C3%B3k%C5%91 "Hollókő") (since 1977\)
* [East Cserhát](/wiki/East_Cserh%C3%A1t "East Cserhát") (since 1989\)
* [Karancs\-Medves](/wiki/Karancs-Medves "Karancs-Medves") (since 1989\)
* [Mátra](/wiki/M%C3%A1tra "Mátra") (since 1985\)
* [Tarnavidék](/wiki/Tarnavid%C3%A9k "Tarnavidék") (since 1993\)
* [Lázbérc](/wiki/L%C3%A1zb%C3%A9rc "Lázbérc") (since 1975\)
* [Tokaj\-Bodrogzug](/wiki/Tokaj-Bodrogzug "Tokaj-Bodrogzug") (since 1986\)
* [Zemplén](/wiki/Zempl%C3%A9n_Mountains "Zemplén Mountains") (since 1984\)
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"The North Hungarian Mountains begin with the mountain range of [Börzsöny](/wiki/B%C3%B6rzs%C3%B6ny \"Börzsöny\"), adjacent to the Danube Bend, where it meets the [Transdanubian Mountains](/wiki/Transdanubian_Mountains \"Transdanubian Mountains\").",
"The Börzsöny range is about 600 km2 in area, and mainly of [volcanic](/wiki/Volcanic \"Volcanic\") origin. The highest peak is the [Csóványos](/wiki/Cs%C3%B3v%C3%A1nyos \"Csóványos\") (938 m).",
"The next range towards the east is the [Cserhát](/wiki/Cserh%C3%A1t \"Cserhát\"), with the same geological composition as the [Börzsöny](/wiki/B%C3%B6rzs%C3%B6ny \"Börzsöny\"). [Erosion](/wiki/Erosion \"Erosion\") here was more severe: these are mere hills and comprise the lowest part of the North Hungarian Mountains. The highest point is Naszály (654 m).",
"[Kékes](/wiki/K%C3%A9kes \"Kékes\"), the country's highest peak at 1014 meters, is located in the next range, [Mátra](/wiki/M%C3%A1tra \"Mátra\"). However, the range's average height is only 600 meters, less than that of the neighboring [Bükk](/wiki/B%C3%BCkk \"Bükk\"). Mátra is also of [volcanic](/wiki/Volcanic \"Volcanic\") origin.\n[250px\\|right\\|thumb\\|Map of the [Carpathians](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains \"Carpathian Mountains\"). The North Hungarian Mountains are the most southern parts of the territory highlighted in light green.](/wiki/Image:Mapcarpat2.png \"Mapcarpat2.png\") \nThe [Bükk](/wiki/B%C3%BCkk \"Bükk\") is a [limestone](/wiki/Limestone \"Limestone\") range; it has the highest average height in [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\"). It is rich in caves, some of which were inhabited in ancient times.",
"The [Aggtelek Karst](/wiki/Aggtelek_Karst \"Aggtelek Karst\") area is a geologic formation spanning the Hungarian\\-Slovakian border, and the reason for the [Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst](/wiki/Caves_of_Aggtelek_Karst_and_Slovak_Karst \"Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst\") [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\"), and the Hungarian [Aggtelek National Park](/wiki/Aggtelek_National_Park \"Aggtelek National Park\"). [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\")'s a most popular cave, the [Baradla](/wiki/Baradla \"Baradla\"), is located there.",
"The [Zemplén Mountains](/wiki/Zempl%C3%A9n_Mountains \"Zemplén Mountains\") are again of volcanic origin; the [soil](/wiki/Soil \"Soil\")'s high\\-quality favors [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture \"Viticulture\").",
"### Natural resources",
"* [brown coal](/wiki/Brown_coal \"Brown coal\")\n* [fertile soil](/wiki/Fertile_soil \"Fertile soil\")\n* [forestry](/wiki/Forestry \"Forestry\")\n* [lignite](/wiki/Lignite \"Lignite\")\n* [limestone](/wiki/Limestone \"Limestone\")\n* [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture \"Viticulture\")",
"### National parks",
"* [Aggtelek National Park](/wiki/Aggtelek_National_Park \"Aggtelek National Park\") (established in 1985\\)\n* [Bükk National Park](/wiki/B%C3%BCkk_National_Park \"Bükk National Park\") (established in 1976\\)\n* [Danube\\-Ipoly National Park](/wiki/Danube-Ipoly_National_Park \"Danube-Ipoly National Park\") (established in 1997\\)",
"{{wide image\\|Borzsony, Hungary, landscape, panorama.jpg\\|1700px\\|Panorama in Börzsöny Mountains (Duna\\-Ipoly National Park)}}",
"### Protected areas",
"* [Hollókő](/wiki/Holl%C3%B3k%C5%91 \"Hollókő\") (since 1977\\)\n* [East Cserhát](/wiki/East_Cserh%C3%A1t \"East Cserhát\") (since 1989\\)\n* [Karancs\\-Medves](/wiki/Karancs-Medves \"Karancs-Medves\") (since 1989\\)\n* [Mátra](/wiki/M%C3%A1tra \"Mátra\") (since 1985\\)\n* [Tarnavidék](/wiki/Tarnavid%C3%A9k \"Tarnavidék\") (since 1993\\)\n* [Lázbérc](/wiki/L%C3%A1zb%C3%A9rc \"Lázbérc\") (since 1975\\)\n* [Tokaj\\-Bodrogzug](/wiki/Tokaj-Bodrogzug \"Tokaj-Bodrogzug\") (since 1986\\)\n* [Zemplén](/wiki/Zempl%C3%A9n_Mountains \"Zemplén Mountains\") (since 1984\\)"
] |
Game play
---------
### Format \#1
The original format featured a word\-association game played by two teams consisting of a contestant and a celebrity. Contestants completed their associations before the start of the show and their celebrity teammates had three tries to guess the association based on the clue word provided by McMahon. A correct guess won $10, while no correct identification allowed the other team to get the $10 by guessing correctly with one try. If both teams failed to guess correctly, the contestant would reveal the first letter of the association and each celebrity had one shot at guessing the association. The first team to score $100 won the game and played a bonus round, called "The Big 5".
With the contestant offstage in a soundproof room, the celebrity teammate was asked to come up with five associations to a clue word provided by the host, then designate one of those five as a bonus word, the one his or her teammate was most likely to say. The contestant would then return and have 20 seconds to come up with all five associations for $50 each.
Initially, the contestant merely had to say the bonus word in order to double the team's winnings. When it quickly became apparent that this was too easy, the producers added a new rule requiring the contestant to guess the bonus word to double the team's winnings. For the second game on the same show, the celebrities switched teams.
The score (and earnings) counters for each team consisted of three digits. On those rare occasions when a contestant's total earnings exceeded $1000\.00, the counter would display $999\.
### Format \#2
On December 23, 1968 the game format was changed to one virtually identical to *[Password](/wiki/Password_%28American_game_show%29 "Password (American game show)")*, which had been cancelled by [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") over a year earlier. In the new format, the objective was to guess a word from one\-word clues with a point structure identical to that of *Password* (10 points were awarded for guessing the password on the first clue, nine points on the second clue, eight points on the third clue, etc.) After the fifth word, point values doubled.
The first team to reach 25 points won $100 and played a reformatted "Big 5", played similarly to *Password*'s "Lightning Round", only with 30 seconds to guess five words at $100 each.
There were no returning champions in either format. Each show featured two new contestants.
|
[
"Game play\n---------",
"### Format \\#1",
"The original format featured a word\\-association game played by two teams consisting of a contestant and a celebrity. Contestants completed their associations before the start of the show and their celebrity teammates had three tries to guess the association based on the clue word provided by McMahon. A correct guess won $10, while no correct identification allowed the other team to get the $10 by guessing correctly with one try. If both teams failed to guess correctly, the contestant would reveal the first letter of the association and each celebrity had one shot at guessing the association. The first team to score $100 won the game and played a bonus round, called \"The Big 5\".",
"With the contestant offstage in a soundproof room, the celebrity teammate was asked to come up with five associations to a clue word provided by the host, then designate one of those five as a bonus word, the one his or her teammate was most likely to say. The contestant would then return and have 20 seconds to come up with all five associations for $50 each.",
"Initially, the contestant merely had to say the bonus word in order to double the team's winnings. When it quickly became apparent that this was too easy, the producers added a new rule requiring the contestant to guess the bonus word to double the team's winnings. For the second game on the same show, the celebrities switched teams.",
"The score (and earnings) counters for each team consisted of three digits. On those rare occasions when a contestant's total earnings exceeded $1000\\.00, the counter would display $999\\.",
"### Format \\#2",
"On December 23, 1968 the game format was changed to one virtually identical to *[Password](/wiki/Password_%28American_game_show%29 \"Password (American game show)\")*, which had been cancelled by [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") over a year earlier. In the new format, the objective was to guess a word from one\\-word clues with a point structure identical to that of *Password* (10 points were awarded for guessing the password on the first clue, nine points on the second clue, eight points on the third clue, etc.) After the fifth word, point values doubled.",
"The first team to reach 25 points won $100 and played a reformatted \"Big 5\", played similarly to *Password*'s \"Lightning Round\", only with 30 seconds to guess five words at $100 each.",
"There were no returning champions in either format. Each show featured two new contestants.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Origins
{{main\|Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania}}
The first traces of large nobility meetings can be found in the negotiations for [Treaty of Salynas](/wiki/Treaty_of_Salynas "Treaty of Salynas") in 1398\. However, it is considered that the first Seimas met in [Hrodna](/wiki/Hrodna "Hrodna") in 1445 during talks between [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon "Casimir IV Jagiellon") and the Council of Lords.{{cite web\| url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/home/w5\_viewer/statiniai/seimu\_istorija/w5\_show\-p\_r\=1003\&p\_k\=1\.html \|title\=Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės parlamentas (XV\-XVIIIa.) \| publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 25, 2015 \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=The parliament of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (XV\-XVIII centuries)}} As the [Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars](/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars "Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars") raged, the Grand Duke needed more tax revenues to finance the army and had to call the Seimas more frequently. In exchange for increased taxation, the nobility demanded various privileges, including strengthening the Seimas.
At first the Seimas did not have the legislative power. It would debate on foreign and domestic affairs, taxes, wars and treasury. At this time, there were no rules regulating how frequently the Seimas would assemble, who could participate, how the sessions should take place or what functions the Seimas had. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Seimas acquired some legislative powers and could petition the Grand Duke to pass certain laws, which the Duke usually granted in exchange for nobility's support and cooperation in taxation and war matters.
Major reforms were carried out between 1564 and 1566, just before the Union of Lublin. In the Second [Statute of Lithuania](/wiki/Statute_of_Lithuania "Statute of Lithuania"), the Seimas acquired full legislative powers, acting as the lower house of the parliament, with the [Lithuanian Council of Lords](/wiki/Lithuanian_Council_of_Lords "Lithuanian Council of Lords") as the upper house. It was at this point that elections to the Seimas were introduced (local nobles would elect their delegates) – any noble could participate in the Seimas before.
Seimas of the Grand Dutchy was abolished in 1569, with the [Union of Lublin](/wiki/Union_of_Lublin "Union of Lublin"). The Union created a new state, the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"), and joined the Seimas of Lithuania with the [Sejm](/wiki/Sejm "Sejm") of Poland into a single [Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/General_Sejm "General Sejm"). By this time, 40 Seimas of Lithuania had taken place.
Nobles of Lithuania continued to meet until the [partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Partitions_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth") under the name of Lithuanian Convocations. They debated matters concerning the Grand Duchy of Lithuania or tried to establish a common position among Lithuanian delegates before departing for the Sejm of the Commonwealth.
{{main\|General Sejm}}
The Sejm of the Commonwealth, General Sejm, was the parliament of Polish\-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the Union of Lublin until the late 18th century. The sejm was a powerful political institution, and from early 16th century, the Polish king (who was the Grand Duke of Lithuania) could not pass laws without the approval of that body.
[thumb\|left\|250px\|Sejm session at the [Royal Castle, Warsaw](/wiki/Royal_Castle%2C_Warsaw "Royal Castle, Warsaw"), 1622](/wiki/File:Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg "Polish Sejm 1622.jpg")
Duration and frequencies of the sejms changed over time, with the six\-week sejm session convened every two years being most common. Sejm locations changed throughout history, eventually with the Commonwealth capital of Warsaw emerging as the primary location. The number of sejm deputies and senators grew over time, from about 70 senators and 50 deputies in the 15th century to about 150 senators and 200 deputies in the 18th century. Early sejms have seen mostly majority voting, but beginning in the 17th century, unanimous voting became more common, and 32 sejms were vetoed with the infamous [liberum veto](/wiki/Liberum_veto "Liberum veto"), particularly in the first half of the 18th century. This vetoing procedure has been credited with significantly paralyzing the Commonwealth governance. In addition, beginning in 1573, three special types of sejms handled the process of the royal election in the interregnum period.
{{main\|Great Seimas of Vilnius}}
[right\|thumb\|200px\|Postage stamp commemorating the Great Seimas of VilniusThe](/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2005-31.jpg "Stamps of Lithuania, 2005-31.jpg") Great Seimas of Vilnius was a major assembly held on December 4 and 5, 1905 in Vilnius, Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire, largely inspired by the [Russian Revolution of 1905](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905 "Russian Revolution of 1905"). It was the first modern national congress in Lithuania, with over 2,000 participants. The assembly made the decision to demand wide political autonomy within the Russian Empire and achieve this by peaceful means. It is considered an important step towards the Act of Independence of Lithuania, adopted on February 16, 1918 by the Council of Lithuania, as the Seimas laid the groundwork for the establishment of an independent Lithuanian state.
### Interwar period
[right\|thumb\|250px\|The location of the [Constituent Assembly of Lithuania](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania "Constituent Assembly of Lithuania") in [Kaunas](/wiki/Kaunas "Kaunas") ([interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period "Interwar period"))](/wiki/File:The_Constituent_Assembly_Palace_%28Kaunas%29.jpg "The Constituent Assembly Palace (Kaunas).jpg")
The first widely elected body in Lithuania after the declaration of independence on February 16, 1918, was the [Constituent Assembly of Lithuania](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania "Constituent Assembly of Lithuania"). The election was held on April 14–15, 1920\. The voter turnout reached about 90%.
The primary role of the Constituent Assembly was to adopt the [Constitution of Lithuania](/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania "Constitution of Lithuania"), which was accomplished on August 1, 1922\. The new constitution gave broad powers to the parliament, the Seimas, elected to a three\-year term. Seimas would select the Cabinet of Ministers and elect the President. In addition, the Constituent Assembly adopted numerous laws, including a broad land reform and introduced [Litas](/wiki/Litas "Litas") as the national currency.
The [First Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/First_Seimas_of_Lithuania "First Seimas of Lithuania") was the first parliament of Lithuania elected in accordance with the constitution of 1922\. The [election](/wiki/1922_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1922 Lithuanian parliamentary election") took place on October 10–11, 1922\. However, no party was able to form a sustainable coalition and the Seimas was dissolved on March 12, 1923\. [New elections](/wiki/1923_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1923 Lithuanian parliamentary election") were held on May 12 and May 13\.
The [Second Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Second_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Second Seimas of Lithuania") was the only regular interwar Seimas which completed its full three\-year term. The [Christian Democrats](/wiki/Lithuanian_Christian_Democratic_Party "Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party") gained two additional seats which were enough to give them a slim majority. The Seimas continued the land reform, expanded the network of primary and secondary schools and introduced a system of social support. However, it did not bring political stability, as it saw several short\-lived governments.
[right\|thumb\|250px\|The [Third Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Third Seimas of Lithuania") in 1926The](/wiki/File:Tre%C4%8Diasseimas.jpg "Trečiasseimas.jpg") [Third Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Third Seimas of Lithuania") was [elected](/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1926 Lithuanian parliamentary election") on May 8–10, 1926, with the Christian Democrats in opposition for the first time. The [Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Popular_Peasants%27_Union "Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union") and Social Democrats formed a coalition government which lifted martial law, restored democratic freedoms, and declared broad amnesty to political prisoners. However, the government was sharply criticized following some unpopular decisions. The Seimas was interrupted by [1926 Lithuanian coup d'état](/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1926 Lithuanian coup d'état") in December, when the democratically elected government was replaced with the authoritarian rule of [Antanas Smetona](/wiki/Antanas_Smetona "Antanas Smetona"). The Third Seimas was dissolved on March 12, 1927 and new elections were not called until 1936\.
The [Fourth Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Fourth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Fourth Seimas of Lithuania") was [elected](/wiki/1936_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1936 Lithuanian parliamentary election") on 9 and 10 June 1936\. Elections took place under the constitution of 1928, which had been proclaimed by president Smetona without the assent of the Seimas. The parliament was elected to a five\-year term. With opposition parties effectively barred from participating, [Lithuanian Nationalists Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Nationalists_Union "Lithuanian Nationalists Union") got 42 (of 49\) seats, with the remaining seven seats taken by the Young Lithuania, a youth branch of the Nationalists Union. The primary task of the new Seimas was to adopt a new constitution, which was accomplished on 11 February 1938\. The new constitution provided for even more powers to the president.
After the [Soviet ultimatum in June 1940](/wiki/1940_Soviet_ultimatum_to_Lithuania "1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania") and subsequent occupation, the Fourth Seimas was dismissed and a puppet [People's Seimas](/wiki/People%27s_Seimas "People's Seimas") was elected in a heavily rigged elections, in order to give legal sanction to the occupation and annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union. The new parliament proclaimed the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, petitioned for admission to the Soviet Union (a petition that was accepted on August 3, 1940\), adopted a new constitution and renamed itself to the [Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Lithuanian_SSR "Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR"), a [rubber stamp](/wiki/Rubber_stamp_%28politics%29 "Rubber stamp (politics)") legislature.
| Parliament | Seats | Term | Prime ministers |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|[Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania "Constituent Assembly of Lithuania") 150 | 1920–1922 |[Kazys Grinius](/wiki/Kazys_Grinius "Kazys Grinius")
|[First Seimas](/wiki/First_Seimas_of_Lithuania "First Seimas of Lithuania") 78 | 1922–1923 |[Ernestas Galvanauskas](/wiki/Ernestas_Galvanauskas "Ernestas Galvanauskas")
|[Second Seimas](/wiki/Second_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Second Seimas of Lithuania") 78 | 1923–1926 |[Ernestas Galvanauskas](/wiki/Ernestas_Galvanauskas "Ernestas Galvanauskas"), [Antanas Tumėnas](/wiki/Antanas_Tum%C4%97nas "Antanas Tumėnas"), [Vytautas Petrulis](/wiki/Vytautas_Petrulis "Vytautas Petrulis"), [Leonas Bistras](/wiki/Leonas_Bistras "Leonas Bistras")
|[Third Seimas](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Third Seimas of Lithuania") 85 | 1926–1927 |[Mykolas Sleževičius](/wiki/Mykolas_Sle%C5%BEevi%C4%8Dius "Mykolas Sleževičius"), [Augustinas Voldemaras](/wiki/Augustinas_Voldemaras "Augustinas Voldemaras")
|[Fourth Seimas](/wiki/Fourth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Fourth Seimas of Lithuania") 49 | 1936–1940 |[Juozas Tūbelis](/wiki/Juozas_T%C5%ABbelis "Juozas Tūbelis"), [Vladas Mironas](/wiki/Vladas_Mironas "Vladas Mironas"), [Jonas Černius](/wiki/Jonas_%C4%8Cernius "Jonas Černius"), [Antanas Merkys](/wiki/Antanas_Merkys "Antanas Merkys")
### Since 1990
[left\|thumb\|150px\|[Vytautas Landsbergis](/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis "Vytautas Landsbergis") was the Chairman of the Supreme Council of LithuaniaOn](/wiki/File:Landsbergis%2C_Vytautas-0085.jpg "Landsbergis, Vytautas-0085.jpg") March 11, 1990, the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR proclaimed the independence of Lithuania from the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), renaming itself the [Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania](/wiki/Supreme_Council_%E2%80%93_Reconstituent_Seimas "Supreme Council – Reconstituent Seimas") (also called Supreme Council – Reconstituent Seimas, and regarded as the Fifth Seimas). The council adopted the Provisional Basic Law that served as a temporary constitution and worked on the [Constitution of Lithuania](/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania "Constitution of Lithuania") that was submitted and approved by voters in a [referendum on October 25, 1992](/wiki/1992_Lithuanian_constitutional_referendum "1992 Lithuanian constitutional referendum").{{cite book\|editor\=Walter R. Iwaskiw\| title\=Lithuania: A Country Study \|url\=http://countrystudies.us/lithuania/ \|access\-date\=November 5, 2015 \|date\=1995 \|publisher\=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress}}
Seven elections of the Seimas have since taken place under the constitution.
[thumb\|Vytautas Landsbergis near the primary Seimas door with the recently added [Vytis](/wiki/Vytis "Vytis") above them, in 1990\.](/wiki/File:KlpUniversitetasVlns90-10-5.jpg "KlpUniversitetasVlns90-10-5.jpg")
The [first election](/wiki/1992_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1992 Lithuanian parliamentary election") in independent Lithuania was held on October 25, 1992, with a run\-off on November 15\. The election was won by the (ex\-communist) [Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania](/wiki/Democratic_Labor_Party_of_Lithuania "Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania"), which gained 73 of the 141 seats in the [Sixth Seimas](/wiki/Sixth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Sixth Seimas of Lithuania"). [Algirdas Brazauskas](/wiki/Algirdas_Brazauskas "Algirdas Brazauskas") was elected the first speaker of the Seimas on November 25, 1992, becoming the acting President on the same day. [Česlovas Juršėnas](/wiki/%C4%8Ceslovas_Jur%C5%A1%C4%97nas "Česlovas Juršėnas") then became the acting (and later permanent) Speaker of the Seimas.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc\_l?p\_id\=8893 \|title\=Lietuvos Respublikos Seimo vakarinio posėdžio PROTOKOLAS Nr.2 \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=The minutes No. 2 of the evening sitting of the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|date\=November 25, 1992 \|access\-date\=December 1, 2015}} The period was plagued by poor economic situation and financial scandals, including one involving former Prime Minister [Adolfas Šleževičius](/wiki/Adolfas_%C5%A0le%C5%BEevi%C4%8Dius "Adolfas Šleževičius").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ipu.org/parline\-e/reports/arc/2189\_96\.htm \|title\=Elections Held in 1996 \|publisher\=Inter\-Parliamentary Union \|access\-date\=July 31, 2015}}
The [election](/wiki/1996_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1996 Lithuanian parliamentary election") to the [Seventh Seimas](/wiki/Seventh_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Seventh Seimas of Lithuania") was held on October 20, 1996 with the run\-off on November 10\. The election was won by the [Homeland Union](/wiki/Homeland_Union "Homeland Union") – Lithuanian Conservative Party, which gained 70 seats and formed a coalition with the [Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party](/wiki/Lithuanian_Christian_Democratic_Party "Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party") (16 seats). Later part of the term of the Seimas was again characterized by an economic crisis, brought about by [Russian financial crisis of 1998](/wiki/Russian_financial_crisis_of_1998 "Russian financial crisis of 1998"). In addition, several high\-profile privatizations were undertaken, including that of [Mazeikiu Nafta](/wiki/Mazeikiu_Nafta "Mazeikiu Nafta") oil refinery.{{cite web \|url\=http://195\.65\.105\.150/parline\-e/reports/arc/2189\_00\.htm \|title\=Elections Held in 2000 \|publisher\=Inter\-Parliamentary Union \|access\-date\=July 31, 2015}} Vytautas Landsbergis served as the Speaker of the Seimas during the term.
The [Eighth Seimas](/wiki/Eighth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Eighth Seimas of Lithuania") was [elected](/wiki/2000_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "2000 Lithuanian parliamentary election") on October 8, 2000\. [Liberal Union of Lithuania](/wiki/Liberal_Union_of_Lithuania "Liberal Union of Lithuania") won the most seats of any party in the election, with 33, forming the government with [New Union (Social Liberals)](/wiki/New_Union_%28Social_Liberals%29 "New Union (Social Liberals)") (its leader, [Artūras Paulauskas](/wiki/Art%C5%ABras_Paulauskas "Artūras Paulauskas") becoming the Speaker of the Seimas), [Lithuanian Centre Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Centre_Union "Lithuanian Centre Union") and the Modern Christian Democrats. The coalition was short\-lived and [Algirdas Brazauskas](/wiki/Algirdas_Brazauskas "Algirdas Brazauskas"), a social democrat, became the prime minister less than a year later.{{cite web \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1420594\.stm \|title\=Brazauskas returns as Lithuanian PM \|publisher\=BBC \|date\=July 3, 2001 \|access\-date\=December 1, 2015}} This term of the Seimas saw Lithuania fulfilling its long\-term foreign policy goals of joining [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO") and the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"). Speaker of the Seimas Artūras Paulauskas also served for two months in 2004 as the Acting President of Lithuania after the impeachement of [Rolandas Paksas](/wiki/Rolandas_Paksas "Rolandas Paksas") and before the new election took place.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/07/world/lithuanian\-parliament\-removes\-country\-s\-president\-after\-casting\-votes\-three.html?\_r\=0 \|last\=Meyers \|first\=Steven Lee \|title\=Lithuanian Parliament Removes Country's President After Casting Votes on Three Charges \|work\=New York Times \|date\=April 7, 2004 \|access\-date\=December 1, 2015}}
The Social Democrats remained at the helm of the government after the [2004 parliamentary election](/wiki/2004_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "2004 Lithuanian parliamentary election"), which was held on October 10, with the run\-off on October 24\. The party was the third\-largest in the [Ninth Seimas](/wiki/Ninth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Ninth Seimas of Lithuania") after the election with 20 seats, behind [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Lithuania%29 "Labour Party (Lithuania)") with 39 and Homeland Union (Lithuanian Conservatives) with 25,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ipu.org/parline\-e/reports/arc/2189\_04\.htm \|title\=Elections Held in 2004 \|publisher\=Inter\-Parliamentary Union \|access\-date\=July 31, 2015}} but managed to govern together with [New Union (Social Liberals)](/wiki/New_Union_%28Social_Liberals%29 "New Union (Social Liberals)") (11 seats), the Labour Party and the support of other parties. It was the first time since independence that a ruling government survived an election. Artūras Paulauskas was reelected as the Speaker of the Seimas, but was replaced by [Viktoras Muntianas](/wiki/Viktoras_Muntianas "Viktoras Muntianas") in 2006\. In 2006, the Labour Party left the coalition when its leader was removed from the post of Minister of Economy and the Social Democrats formed a coalition with the Civil Democracy Party, the Peasants and People's Party, and the [Liberal and Centre Union](/wiki/Liberal_and_Centre_Union "Liberal and Centre Union"), although the coalition had to rule in a minority and relied on support of opposition parties.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/leidiniai/Seimas\_kn\_en.pdf \|title\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 25, 2015}} New Union (Social Liberals) later rejoined the coalition in early 2008\.{{cite web \|url\=http://vz.lt/archive/straipsnis/2008/09/13/Seimas\_2004\-2008\_m\_\_valdantieji\_ruba\_keite\_kelis\_kartus \|title\=Seimas 2004–2008 m.: valdantieji rūbą keitė kelis kartus \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=Seimas 2004–2008: ruling coalition changes clothes several times \|date\= September 13, 2008 \|publisher\=Verslo Žinios \|access\-date\= November 30, 2015}} Česlovas Juršėnas once again became the Speaker of the Seimas in April 2008\.
The [Tenth Seimas](/wiki/Tenth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Tenth Seimas of Lithuania") was [elected](/wiki/2008_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "2008 Lithuanian parliamentary election") on October 12, 2008, with a run\-off on October 26\. Homeland Union became the largest party with 45 seats,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ipu.org/parline\-e/reports/arc/2189\_08\.htm \|title\=Elections Held in 2008 \|publisher\=Inter\-Parliamentary Union \|access\-date\=July 31, 2015}} forming a coalition with populist and short\-lived [National Resurrection Party](/wiki/National_Resurrection_Party "National Resurrection Party") (16 seats), [Liberal Movement](/wiki/Liberal_Movement_%28Lithuania%29 "Liberal Movement (Lithuania)") (11 seats) and [Liberal and Centre Union](/wiki/Liberal_and_Centre_Union "Liberal and Centre Union") (8 seats). [Arūnas Valinskas](/wiki/Ar%C5%ABnas_Valinskas "Arūnas Valinskas") of the National Resurrection Party was elected the Speaker of the Seimas. Ten months later, on September 17, 2009, he was replaced by [Irena Degutienė](/wiki/Irena_Degutien%C4%97 "Irena Degutienė") of the Homeland Union,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/idegutiene\-isrinkta\-seimo\-pirmininke\-atnaujinta\-1400\.d?id\=24092750 \|first\=Eglė \|last\=Samoškaitė \|title\=I.Degutienė išrinkta Seimo pirmininke \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=I. Degutienė elected the Speaker of the Seimas \|date\= September 17, 2009 \|publisher\=Delfi.lt \|access\-date\= November 30, 2015}} who became the first female Speaker of the Seimas.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\_show?p\_r\=6111\&p\_k\=1 \|title\=X Seimas (2008–2012\) \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=10th Seimas (2008–2012\) \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 30, 2015}} The term of the Tenth Seimas was plagued a severe economic crisis and the bust of the housing bubble. The Seimas and the Government responded with a wide\-ranging and much\-criticized tax reform and severe austerity, bringing about wide dissatisfaction and protests.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/lietuva/2008\-2012\-metu\-seimas\-reformos\-ir\-chuliganai\-56\-235305 \|first\=Eglė \|last\=Dirgytė \|title\=2008–2012 metų Seimas: reformos ir chuliganai \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=2008–2012 Seimas: reforms and hooligans \|date\= July 12, 2012 \|publisher\=15min.lt \|access\-date\= November 30, 2015}}
As a result of widespread dissatisfaction with the ruling coalition, the ruling parties fared poorly in the [2012 parliamentary election](/wiki/2012_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "2012 Lithuanian parliamentary election"). The Social Democrats became the largest party in the [Eleventh Seimas](/wiki/Eleventh_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Eleventh Seimas of Lithuania"), with 38 seats, forming a government coalition with Labour Party (19 seats), [Order and Justice](/wiki/Order_and_Justice "Order and Justice") (11 seats) and [Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania](/wiki/Electoral_Action_of_Poles_in_Lithuania "Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania") (8 seats). Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania withdrawn from the coalition in 2014\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvos\-diena/aktualijos/vyriausybe\-apsivale\-v\-tomasevskio\-partija\-uz\-borto.htm \|title\=Vyriausybe apsivalė, V. Tomaševskio partija – už borto \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=The government has cleaned up, the party of V. Tomaševski is overboard \|date\=August 26, 2014 \|publisher\=Lietuvos Rytas \|access\-date\=July 31, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006034412/http://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvos\-diena/aktualijos/vyriausybe\-apsivale\-v\-tomasevskio\-partija\-uz\-borto.htm \|archive\-date\=October 6, 2015 }}
[Elections in 2016](/wiki/2016_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "2016 Lithuanian parliamentary election") resulted in another shift of power. [Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Farmers_and_Greens_Union "Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union"), a minor party in the preceding parliament, won a sweeping victory, securing 54 seats in the [Twelfth Seimas](/wiki/Twelfth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Twelfth Seimas of Lithuania") (eventually rising to 59 as they were joined by several independents). The Social Democrats lost a lot of their support and finished with 17 seats (they were joined in the Seimas by the two members of Labour Party), but remained as a junior partner in the ruling coalition with Peasants and Greens Union.{{cite news\|last\=Samoškaitė\|first\=Eglė\|title\=Daliai socialdemokratų piktinantis R. Karbauskis ir A. Butkevičius pasirašė koalicijos susitarimą\|url\=http://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/daliai\-socialdemokratu\-piktinantis\-r\-karbauskis\-ir\-a\-butkevicius\-pasirase\-koalicijos\-susitarima.d?id\=72807848\|access\-date\=9 November 2016\|trans\-title\=With some Social Democrats protesting, R. Karbauskis and A. Butkevičius have signed the coalition agreement \|language\=lt \|publisher\=Delfi.lt\|date\=9 November 2016}} By 2019, coalition included two other parties (Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania and Order and Justice), but latter had been expelled in the same year.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Origins",
"{{main\\|Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania}}",
"The first traces of large nobility meetings can be found in the negotiations for [Treaty of Salynas](/wiki/Treaty_of_Salynas \"Treaty of Salynas\") in 1398\\. However, it is considered that the first Seimas met in [Hrodna](/wiki/Hrodna \"Hrodna\") in 1445 during talks between [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon \"Casimir IV Jagiellon\") and the Council of Lords.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/home/w5\\_viewer/statiniai/seimu\\_istorija/w5\\_show\\-p\\_r\\=1003\\&p\\_k\\=1\\.html \\|title\\=Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės parlamentas (XV\\-XVIIIa.) \\| publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2015 \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=The parliament of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (XV\\-XVIII centuries)}} As the [Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars](/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars \"Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars\") raged, the Grand Duke needed more tax revenues to finance the army and had to call the Seimas more frequently. In exchange for increased taxation, the nobility demanded various privileges, including strengthening the Seimas.",
"At first the Seimas did not have the legislative power. It would debate on foreign and domestic affairs, taxes, wars and treasury. At this time, there were no rules regulating how frequently the Seimas would assemble, who could participate, how the sessions should take place or what functions the Seimas had. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Seimas acquired some legislative powers and could petition the Grand Duke to pass certain laws, which the Duke usually granted in exchange for nobility's support and cooperation in taxation and war matters.",
"Major reforms were carried out between 1564 and 1566, just before the Union of Lublin. In the Second [Statute of Lithuania](/wiki/Statute_of_Lithuania \"Statute of Lithuania\"), the Seimas acquired full legislative powers, acting as the lower house of the parliament, with the [Lithuanian Council of Lords](/wiki/Lithuanian_Council_of_Lords \"Lithuanian Council of Lords\") as the upper house. It was at this point that elections to the Seimas were introduced (local nobles would elect their delegates) – any noble could participate in the Seimas before.",
"Seimas of the Grand Dutchy was abolished in 1569, with the [Union of Lublin](/wiki/Union_of_Lublin \"Union of Lublin\"). The Union created a new state, the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\"), and joined the Seimas of Lithuania with the [Sejm](/wiki/Sejm \"Sejm\") of Poland into a single [Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/General_Sejm \"General Sejm\"). By this time, 40 Seimas of Lithuania had taken place.",
"Nobles of Lithuania continued to meet until the [partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Partitions_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\") under the name of Lithuanian Convocations. They debated matters concerning the Grand Duchy of Lithuania or tried to establish a common position among Lithuanian delegates before departing for the Sejm of the Commonwealth.",
"{{main\\|General Sejm}}",
"The Sejm of the Commonwealth, General Sejm, was the parliament of Polish\\-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the Union of Lublin until the late 18th century. The sejm was a powerful political institution, and from early 16th century, the Polish king (who was the Grand Duke of Lithuania) could not pass laws without the approval of that body.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|Sejm session at the [Royal Castle, Warsaw](/wiki/Royal_Castle%2C_Warsaw \"Royal Castle, Warsaw\"), 1622](/wiki/File:Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg \"Polish Sejm 1622.jpg\")\nDuration and frequencies of the sejms changed over time, with the six\\-week sejm session convened every two years being most common. Sejm locations changed throughout history, eventually with the Commonwealth capital of Warsaw emerging as the primary location. The number of sejm deputies and senators grew over time, from about 70 senators and 50 deputies in the 15th century to about 150 senators and 200 deputies in the 18th century. Early sejms have seen mostly majority voting, but beginning in the 17th century, unanimous voting became more common, and 32 sejms were vetoed with the infamous [liberum veto](/wiki/Liberum_veto \"Liberum veto\"), particularly in the first half of the 18th century. This vetoing procedure has been credited with significantly paralyzing the Commonwealth governance. In addition, beginning in 1573, three special types of sejms handled the process of the royal election in the interregnum period.",
"{{main\\|Great Seimas of Vilnius}}",
"[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Postage stamp commemorating the Great Seimas of VilniusThe](/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2005-31.jpg \"Stamps of Lithuania, 2005-31.jpg\") Great Seimas of Vilnius was a major assembly held on December 4 and 5, 1905 in Vilnius, Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire, largely inspired by the [Russian Revolution of 1905](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905 \"Russian Revolution of 1905\"). It was the first modern national congress in Lithuania, with over 2,000 participants. The assembly made the decision to demand wide political autonomy within the Russian Empire and achieve this by peaceful means. It is considered an important step towards the Act of Independence of Lithuania, adopted on February 16, 1918 by the Council of Lithuania, as the Seimas laid the groundwork for the establishment of an independent Lithuanian state.",
"### Interwar period",
"[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The location of the [Constituent Assembly of Lithuania](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania \"Constituent Assembly of Lithuania\") in [Kaunas](/wiki/Kaunas \"Kaunas\") ([interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period \"Interwar period\"))](/wiki/File:The_Constituent_Assembly_Palace_%28Kaunas%29.jpg \"The Constituent Assembly Palace (Kaunas).jpg\")",
"The first widely elected body in Lithuania after the declaration of independence on February 16, 1918, was the [Constituent Assembly of Lithuania](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania \"Constituent Assembly of Lithuania\"). The election was held on April 14–15, 1920\\. The voter turnout reached about 90%.",
"The primary role of the Constituent Assembly was to adopt the [Constitution of Lithuania](/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania \"Constitution of Lithuania\"), which was accomplished on August 1, 1922\\. The new constitution gave broad powers to the parliament, the Seimas, elected to a three\\-year term. Seimas would select the Cabinet of Ministers and elect the President. In addition, the Constituent Assembly adopted numerous laws, including a broad land reform and introduced [Litas](/wiki/Litas \"Litas\") as the national currency.",
"The [First Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/First_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"First Seimas of Lithuania\") was the first parliament of Lithuania elected in accordance with the constitution of 1922\\. The [election](/wiki/1922_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1922 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") took place on October 10–11, 1922\\. However, no party was able to form a sustainable coalition and the Seimas was dissolved on March 12, 1923\\. [New elections](/wiki/1923_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1923 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") were held on May 12 and May 13\\.",
"The [Second Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Second_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Second Seimas of Lithuania\") was the only regular interwar Seimas which completed its full three\\-year term. The [Christian Democrats](/wiki/Lithuanian_Christian_Democratic_Party \"Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party\") gained two additional seats which were enough to give them a slim majority. The Seimas continued the land reform, expanded the network of primary and secondary schools and introduced a system of social support. However, it did not bring political stability, as it saw several short\\-lived governments.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The [Third Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Third Seimas of Lithuania\") in 1926The](/wiki/File:Tre%C4%8Diasseimas.jpg \"Trečiasseimas.jpg\") [Third Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Third Seimas of Lithuania\") was [elected](/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1926 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") on May 8–10, 1926, with the Christian Democrats in opposition for the first time. The [Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Popular_Peasants%27_Union \"Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union\") and Social Democrats formed a coalition government which lifted martial law, restored democratic freedoms, and declared broad amnesty to political prisoners. However, the government was sharply criticized following some unpopular decisions. The Seimas was interrupted by [1926 Lithuanian coup d'état](/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"1926 Lithuanian coup d'état\") in December, when the democratically elected government was replaced with the authoritarian rule of [Antanas Smetona](/wiki/Antanas_Smetona \"Antanas Smetona\"). The Third Seimas was dissolved on March 12, 1927 and new elections were not called until 1936\\.",
"The [Fourth Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Fourth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Fourth Seimas of Lithuania\") was [elected](/wiki/1936_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1936 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") on 9 and 10 June 1936\\. Elections took place under the constitution of 1928, which had been proclaimed by president Smetona without the assent of the Seimas. The parliament was elected to a five\\-year term. With opposition parties effectively barred from participating, [Lithuanian Nationalists Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Nationalists_Union \"Lithuanian Nationalists Union\") got 42 (of 49\\) seats, with the remaining seven seats taken by the Young Lithuania, a youth branch of the Nationalists Union. The primary task of the new Seimas was to adopt a new constitution, which was accomplished on 11 February 1938\\. The new constitution provided for even more powers to the president.",
"After the [Soviet ultimatum in June 1940](/wiki/1940_Soviet_ultimatum_to_Lithuania \"1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania\") and subsequent occupation, the Fourth Seimas was dismissed and a puppet [People's Seimas](/wiki/People%27s_Seimas \"People's Seimas\") was elected in a heavily rigged elections, in order to give legal sanction to the occupation and annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union. The new parliament proclaimed the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, petitioned for admission to the Soviet Union (a petition that was accepted on August 3, 1940\\), adopted a new constitution and renamed itself to the [Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Lithuanian_SSR \"Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR\"), a [rubber stamp](/wiki/Rubber_stamp_%28politics%29 \"Rubber stamp (politics)\") legislature.",
"",
"| Parliament | Seats | Term | Prime ministers |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|[Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania \"Constituent Assembly of Lithuania\") 150 | 1920–1922 |[Kazys Grinius](/wiki/Kazys_Grinius \"Kazys Grinius\")",
"|[First Seimas](/wiki/First_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"First Seimas of Lithuania\") 78 | 1922–1923 |[Ernestas Galvanauskas](/wiki/Ernestas_Galvanauskas \"Ernestas Galvanauskas\")",
"|[Second Seimas](/wiki/Second_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Second Seimas of Lithuania\") 78 | 1923–1926 |[Ernestas Galvanauskas](/wiki/Ernestas_Galvanauskas \"Ernestas Galvanauskas\"), [Antanas Tumėnas](/wiki/Antanas_Tum%C4%97nas \"Antanas Tumėnas\"), [Vytautas Petrulis](/wiki/Vytautas_Petrulis \"Vytautas Petrulis\"), [Leonas Bistras](/wiki/Leonas_Bistras \"Leonas Bistras\")",
"|[Third Seimas](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Third Seimas of Lithuania\") 85 | 1926–1927 |[Mykolas Sleževičius](/wiki/Mykolas_Sle%C5%BEevi%C4%8Dius \"Mykolas Sleževičius\"), [Augustinas Voldemaras](/wiki/Augustinas_Voldemaras \"Augustinas Voldemaras\")",
"|[Fourth Seimas](/wiki/Fourth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Fourth Seimas of Lithuania\") 49 | 1936–1940 |[Juozas Tūbelis](/wiki/Juozas_T%C5%ABbelis \"Juozas Tūbelis\"), [Vladas Mironas](/wiki/Vladas_Mironas \"Vladas Mironas\"), [Jonas Černius](/wiki/Jonas_%C4%8Cernius \"Jonas Černius\"), [Antanas Merkys](/wiki/Antanas_Merkys \"Antanas Merkys\")",
"",
"### Since 1990",
"[left\\|thumb\\|150px\\|[Vytautas Landsbergis](/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis \"Vytautas Landsbergis\") was the Chairman of the Supreme Council of LithuaniaOn](/wiki/File:Landsbergis%2C_Vytautas-0085.jpg \"Landsbergis, Vytautas-0085.jpg\") March 11, 1990, the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR proclaimed the independence of Lithuania from the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), renaming itself the [Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania](/wiki/Supreme_Council_%E2%80%93_Reconstituent_Seimas \"Supreme Council – Reconstituent Seimas\") (also called Supreme Council – Reconstituent Seimas, and regarded as the Fifth Seimas). The council adopted the Provisional Basic Law that served as a temporary constitution and worked on the [Constitution of Lithuania](/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania \"Constitution of Lithuania\") that was submitted and approved by voters in a [referendum on October 25, 1992](/wiki/1992_Lithuanian_constitutional_referendum \"1992 Lithuanian constitutional referendum\").{{cite book\\|editor\\=Walter R. Iwaskiw\\| title\\=Lithuania: A Country Study \\|url\\=http://countrystudies.us/lithuania/ \\|access\\-date\\=November 5, 2015 \\|date\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress}}",
"Seven elections of the Seimas have since taken place under the constitution.",
"[thumb\\|Vytautas Landsbergis near the primary Seimas door with the recently added [Vytis](/wiki/Vytis \"Vytis\") above them, in 1990\\.](/wiki/File:KlpUniversitetasVlns90-10-5.jpg \"KlpUniversitetasVlns90-10-5.jpg\")",
"The [first election](/wiki/1992_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1992 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") in independent Lithuania was held on October 25, 1992, with a run\\-off on November 15\\. The election was won by the (ex\\-communist) [Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania](/wiki/Democratic_Labor_Party_of_Lithuania \"Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania\"), which gained 73 of the 141 seats in the [Sixth Seimas](/wiki/Sixth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Sixth Seimas of Lithuania\"). [Algirdas Brazauskas](/wiki/Algirdas_Brazauskas \"Algirdas Brazauskas\") was elected the first speaker of the Seimas on November 25, 1992, becoming the acting President on the same day. [Česlovas Juršėnas](/wiki/%C4%8Ceslovas_Jur%C5%A1%C4%97nas \"Česlovas Juršėnas\") then became the acting (and later permanent) Speaker of the Seimas.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc\\_l?p\\_id\\=8893 \\|title\\=Lietuvos Respublikos Seimo vakarinio posėdžio PROTOKOLAS Nr.2 \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=The minutes No. 2 of the evening sitting of the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|date\\=November 25, 1992 \\|access\\-date\\=December 1, 2015}} The period was plagued by poor economic situation and financial scandals, including one involving former Prime Minister [Adolfas Šleževičius](/wiki/Adolfas_%C5%A0le%C5%BEevi%C4%8Dius \"Adolfas Šleževičius\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ipu.org/parline\\-e/reports/arc/2189\\_96\\.htm \\|title\\=Elections Held in 1996 \\|publisher\\=Inter\\-Parliamentary Union \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2015}}",
"The [election](/wiki/1996_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1996 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") to the [Seventh Seimas](/wiki/Seventh_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Seventh Seimas of Lithuania\") was held on October 20, 1996 with the run\\-off on November 10\\. The election was won by the [Homeland Union](/wiki/Homeland_Union \"Homeland Union\") – Lithuanian Conservative Party, which gained 70 seats and formed a coalition with the [Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party](/wiki/Lithuanian_Christian_Democratic_Party \"Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party\") (16 seats). Later part of the term of the Seimas was again characterized by an economic crisis, brought about by [Russian financial crisis of 1998](/wiki/Russian_financial_crisis_of_1998 \"Russian financial crisis of 1998\"). In addition, several high\\-profile privatizations were undertaken, including that of [Mazeikiu Nafta](/wiki/Mazeikiu_Nafta \"Mazeikiu Nafta\") oil refinery.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://195\\.65\\.105\\.150/parline\\-e/reports/arc/2189\\_00\\.htm \\|title\\=Elections Held in 2000 \\|publisher\\=Inter\\-Parliamentary Union \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2015}} Vytautas Landsbergis served as the Speaker of the Seimas during the term.",
"The [Eighth Seimas](/wiki/Eighth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Eighth Seimas of Lithuania\") was [elected](/wiki/2000_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"2000 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") on October 8, 2000\\. [Liberal Union of Lithuania](/wiki/Liberal_Union_of_Lithuania \"Liberal Union of Lithuania\") won the most seats of any party in the election, with 33, forming the government with [New Union (Social Liberals)](/wiki/New_Union_%28Social_Liberals%29 \"New Union (Social Liberals)\") (its leader, [Artūras Paulauskas](/wiki/Art%C5%ABras_Paulauskas \"Artūras Paulauskas\") becoming the Speaker of the Seimas), [Lithuanian Centre Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Centre_Union \"Lithuanian Centre Union\") and the Modern Christian Democrats. The coalition was short\\-lived and [Algirdas Brazauskas](/wiki/Algirdas_Brazauskas \"Algirdas Brazauskas\"), a social democrat, became the prime minister less than a year later.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1420594\\.stm \\|title\\=Brazauskas returns as Lithuanian PM \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|date\\=July 3, 2001 \\|access\\-date\\=December 1, 2015}} This term of the Seimas saw Lithuania fulfilling its long\\-term foreign policy goals of joining [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") and the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"). Speaker of the Seimas Artūras Paulauskas also served for two months in 2004 as the Acting President of Lithuania after the impeachement of [Rolandas Paksas](/wiki/Rolandas_Paksas \"Rolandas Paksas\") and before the new election took place.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/07/world/lithuanian\\-parliament\\-removes\\-country\\-s\\-president\\-after\\-casting\\-votes\\-three.html?\\_r\\=0 \\|last\\=Meyers \\|first\\=Steven Lee \\|title\\=Lithuanian Parliament Removes Country's President After Casting Votes on Three Charges \\|work\\=New York Times \\|date\\=April 7, 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=December 1, 2015}}",
"The Social Democrats remained at the helm of the government after the [2004 parliamentary election](/wiki/2004_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"2004 Lithuanian parliamentary election\"), which was held on October 10, with the run\\-off on October 24\\. The party was the third\\-largest in the [Ninth Seimas](/wiki/Ninth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Ninth Seimas of Lithuania\") after the election with 20 seats, behind [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Lithuania%29 \"Labour Party (Lithuania)\") with 39 and Homeland Union (Lithuanian Conservatives) with 25,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ipu.org/parline\\-e/reports/arc/2189\\_04\\.htm \\|title\\=Elections Held in 2004 \\|publisher\\=Inter\\-Parliamentary Union \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2015}} but managed to govern together with [New Union (Social Liberals)](/wiki/New_Union_%28Social_Liberals%29 \"New Union (Social Liberals)\") (11 seats), the Labour Party and the support of other parties. It was the first time since independence that a ruling government survived an election. Artūras Paulauskas was reelected as the Speaker of the Seimas, but was replaced by [Viktoras Muntianas](/wiki/Viktoras_Muntianas \"Viktoras Muntianas\") in 2006\\. In 2006, the Labour Party left the coalition when its leader was removed from the post of Minister of Economy and the Social Democrats formed a coalition with the Civil Democracy Party, the Peasants and People's Party, and the [Liberal and Centre Union](/wiki/Liberal_and_Centre_Union \"Liberal and Centre Union\"), although the coalition had to rule in a minority and relied on support of opposition parties.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/leidiniai/Seimas\\_kn\\_en.pdf \\|title\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2015}} New Union (Social Liberals) later rejoined the coalition in early 2008\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://vz.lt/archive/straipsnis/2008/09/13/Seimas\\_2004\\-2008\\_m\\_\\_valdantieji\\_ruba\\_keite\\_kelis\\_kartus \\|title\\=Seimas 2004–2008 m.: valdantieji rūbą keitė kelis kartus \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=Seimas 2004–2008: ruling coalition changes clothes several times \\|date\\= September 13, 2008 \\|publisher\\=Verslo Žinios \\|access\\-date\\= November 30, 2015}} Česlovas Juršėnas once again became the Speaker of the Seimas in April 2008\\.",
"The [Tenth Seimas](/wiki/Tenth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Tenth Seimas of Lithuania\") was [elected](/wiki/2008_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"2008 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") on October 12, 2008, with a run\\-off on October 26\\. Homeland Union became the largest party with 45 seats,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ipu.org/parline\\-e/reports/arc/2189\\_08\\.htm \\|title\\=Elections Held in 2008 \\|publisher\\=Inter\\-Parliamentary Union \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2015}} forming a coalition with populist and short\\-lived [National Resurrection Party](/wiki/National_Resurrection_Party \"National Resurrection Party\") (16 seats), [Liberal Movement](/wiki/Liberal_Movement_%28Lithuania%29 \"Liberal Movement (Lithuania)\") (11 seats) and [Liberal and Centre Union](/wiki/Liberal_and_Centre_Union \"Liberal and Centre Union\") (8 seats). [Arūnas Valinskas](/wiki/Ar%C5%ABnas_Valinskas \"Arūnas Valinskas\") of the National Resurrection Party was elected the Speaker of the Seimas. Ten months later, on September 17, 2009, he was replaced by [Irena Degutienė](/wiki/Irena_Degutien%C4%97 \"Irena Degutienė\") of the Homeland Union,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/idegutiene\\-isrinkta\\-seimo\\-pirmininke\\-atnaujinta\\-1400\\.d?id\\=24092750 \\|first\\=Eglė \\|last\\=Samoškaitė \\|title\\=I.Degutienė išrinkta Seimo pirmininke \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=I. Degutienė elected the Speaker of the Seimas \\|date\\= September 17, 2009 \\|publisher\\=Delfi.lt \\|access\\-date\\= November 30, 2015}} who became the first female Speaker of the Seimas.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\\_show?p\\_r\\=6111\\&p\\_k\\=1 \\|title\\=X Seimas (2008–2012\\) \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=10th Seimas (2008–2012\\) \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 30, 2015}} The term of the Tenth Seimas was plagued a severe economic crisis and the bust of the housing bubble. The Seimas and the Government responded with a wide\\-ranging and much\\-criticized tax reform and severe austerity, bringing about wide dissatisfaction and protests.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/lietuva/2008\\-2012\\-metu\\-seimas\\-reformos\\-ir\\-chuliganai\\-56\\-235305 \\|first\\=Eglė \\|last\\=Dirgytė \\|title\\=2008–2012 metų Seimas: reformos ir chuliganai \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=2008–2012 Seimas: reforms and hooligans \\|date\\= July 12, 2012 \\|publisher\\=15min.lt \\|access\\-date\\= November 30, 2015}}",
"As a result of widespread dissatisfaction with the ruling coalition, the ruling parties fared poorly in the [2012 parliamentary election](/wiki/2012_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"2012 Lithuanian parliamentary election\"). The Social Democrats became the largest party in the [Eleventh Seimas](/wiki/Eleventh_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Eleventh Seimas of Lithuania\"), with 38 seats, forming a government coalition with Labour Party (19 seats), [Order and Justice](/wiki/Order_and_Justice \"Order and Justice\") (11 seats) and [Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania](/wiki/Electoral_Action_of_Poles_in_Lithuania \"Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania\") (8 seats). Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania withdrawn from the coalition in 2014\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvos\\-diena/aktualijos/vyriausybe\\-apsivale\\-v\\-tomasevskio\\-partija\\-uz\\-borto.htm \\|title\\=Vyriausybe apsivalė, V. Tomaševskio partija – už borto \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=The government has cleaned up, the party of V. Tomaševski is overboard \\|date\\=August 26, 2014 \\|publisher\\=Lietuvos Rytas \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006034412/http://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvos\\-diena/aktualijos/vyriausybe\\-apsivale\\-v\\-tomasevskio\\-partija\\-uz\\-borto.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=October 6, 2015 }}",
"[Elections in 2016](/wiki/2016_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"2016 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") resulted in another shift of power. [Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Farmers_and_Greens_Union \"Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union\"), a minor party in the preceding parliament, won a sweeping victory, securing 54 seats in the [Twelfth Seimas](/wiki/Twelfth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Twelfth Seimas of Lithuania\") (eventually rising to 59 as they were joined by several independents). The Social Democrats lost a lot of their support and finished with 17 seats (they were joined in the Seimas by the two members of Labour Party), but remained as a junior partner in the ruling coalition with Peasants and Greens Union.{{cite news\\|last\\=Samoškaitė\\|first\\=Eglė\\|title\\=Daliai socialdemokratų piktinantis R. Karbauskis ir A. Butkevičius pasirašė koalicijos susitarimą\\|url\\=http://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/daliai\\-socialdemokratu\\-piktinantis\\-r\\-karbauskis\\-ir\\-a\\-butkevicius\\-pasirase\\-koalicijos\\-susitarima.d?id\\=72807848\\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2016\\|trans\\-title\\=With some Social Democrats protesting, R. Karbauskis and A. Butkevičius have signed the coalition agreement \\|language\\=lt \\|publisher\\=Delfi.lt\\|date\\=9 November 2016}} By 2019, coalition included two other parties (Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania and Order and Justice), but latter had been expelled in the same year.",
""
] |
### Origins
{{main\|Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania}}
The first traces of large nobility meetings can be found in the negotiations for [Treaty of Salynas](/wiki/Treaty_of_Salynas "Treaty of Salynas") in 1398\. However, it is considered that the first Seimas met in [Hrodna](/wiki/Hrodna "Hrodna") in 1445 during talks between [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon "Casimir IV Jagiellon") and the Council of Lords.{{cite web\| url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/home/w5\_viewer/statiniai/seimu\_istorija/w5\_show\-p\_r\=1003\&p\_k\=1\.html \|title\=Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės parlamentas (XV\-XVIIIa.) \| publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 25, 2015 \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=The parliament of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (XV\-XVIII centuries)}} As the [Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars](/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars "Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars") raged, the Grand Duke needed more tax revenues to finance the army and had to call the Seimas more frequently. In exchange for increased taxation, the nobility demanded various privileges, including strengthening the Seimas.
At first the Seimas did not have the legislative power. It would debate on foreign and domestic affairs, taxes, wars and treasury. At this time, there were no rules regulating how frequently the Seimas would assemble, who could participate, how the sessions should take place or what functions the Seimas had. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Seimas acquired some legislative powers and could petition the Grand Duke to pass certain laws, which the Duke usually granted in exchange for nobility's support and cooperation in taxation and war matters.
Major reforms were carried out between 1564 and 1566, just before the Union of Lublin. In the Second [Statute of Lithuania](/wiki/Statute_of_Lithuania "Statute of Lithuania"), the Seimas acquired full legislative powers, acting as the lower house of the parliament, with the [Lithuanian Council of Lords](/wiki/Lithuanian_Council_of_Lords "Lithuanian Council of Lords") as the upper house. It was at this point that elections to the Seimas were introduced (local nobles would elect their delegates) – any noble could participate in the Seimas before.
Seimas of the Grand Dutchy was abolished in 1569, with the [Union of Lublin](/wiki/Union_of_Lublin "Union of Lublin"). The Union created a new state, the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"), and joined the Seimas of Lithuania with the [Sejm](/wiki/Sejm "Sejm") of Poland into a single [Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/General_Sejm "General Sejm"). By this time, 40 Seimas of Lithuania had taken place.
Nobles of Lithuania continued to meet until the [partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Partitions_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth") under the name of Lithuanian Convocations. They debated matters concerning the Grand Duchy of Lithuania or tried to establish a common position among Lithuanian delegates before departing for the Sejm of the Commonwealth.
{{main\|General Sejm}}
The Sejm of the Commonwealth, General Sejm, was the parliament of Polish\-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the Union of Lublin until the late 18th century. The sejm was a powerful political institution, and from early 16th century, the Polish king (who was the Grand Duke of Lithuania) could not pass laws without the approval of that body.
[thumb\|left\|250px\|Sejm session at the [Royal Castle, Warsaw](/wiki/Royal_Castle%2C_Warsaw "Royal Castle, Warsaw"), 1622](/wiki/File:Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg "Polish Sejm 1622.jpg")
Duration and frequencies of the sejms changed over time, with the six\-week sejm session convened every two years being most common. Sejm locations changed throughout history, eventually with the Commonwealth capital of Warsaw emerging as the primary location. The number of sejm deputies and senators grew over time, from about 70 senators and 50 deputies in the 15th century to about 150 senators and 200 deputies in the 18th century. Early sejms have seen mostly majority voting, but beginning in the 17th century, unanimous voting became more common, and 32 sejms were vetoed with the infamous [liberum veto](/wiki/Liberum_veto "Liberum veto"), particularly in the first half of the 18th century. This vetoing procedure has been credited with significantly paralyzing the Commonwealth governance. In addition, beginning in 1573, three special types of sejms handled the process of the royal election in the interregnum period.
{{main\|Great Seimas of Vilnius}}
[right\|thumb\|200px\|Postage stamp commemorating the Great Seimas of VilniusThe](/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2005-31.jpg "Stamps of Lithuania, 2005-31.jpg") Great Seimas of Vilnius was a major assembly held on December 4 and 5, 1905 in Vilnius, Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire, largely inspired by the [Russian Revolution of 1905](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905 "Russian Revolution of 1905"). It was the first modern national congress in Lithuania, with over 2,000 participants. The assembly made the decision to demand wide political autonomy within the Russian Empire and achieve this by peaceful means. It is considered an important step towards the Act of Independence of Lithuania, adopted on February 16, 1918 by the Council of Lithuania, as the Seimas laid the groundwork for the establishment of an independent Lithuanian state.
|
[
"### Origins",
"{{main\\|Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania}}",
"The first traces of large nobility meetings can be found in the negotiations for [Treaty of Salynas](/wiki/Treaty_of_Salynas \"Treaty of Salynas\") in 1398\\. However, it is considered that the first Seimas met in [Hrodna](/wiki/Hrodna \"Hrodna\") in 1445 during talks between [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon \"Casimir IV Jagiellon\") and the Council of Lords.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/home/w5\\_viewer/statiniai/seimu\\_istorija/w5\\_show\\-p\\_r\\=1003\\&p\\_k\\=1\\.html \\|title\\=Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės parlamentas (XV\\-XVIIIa.) \\| publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2015 \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=The parliament of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (XV\\-XVIII centuries)}} As the [Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars](/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars \"Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars\") raged, the Grand Duke needed more tax revenues to finance the army and had to call the Seimas more frequently. In exchange for increased taxation, the nobility demanded various privileges, including strengthening the Seimas.",
"At first the Seimas did not have the legislative power. It would debate on foreign and domestic affairs, taxes, wars and treasury. At this time, there were no rules regulating how frequently the Seimas would assemble, who could participate, how the sessions should take place or what functions the Seimas had. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Seimas acquired some legislative powers and could petition the Grand Duke to pass certain laws, which the Duke usually granted in exchange for nobility's support and cooperation in taxation and war matters.",
"Major reforms were carried out between 1564 and 1566, just before the Union of Lublin. In the Second [Statute of Lithuania](/wiki/Statute_of_Lithuania \"Statute of Lithuania\"), the Seimas acquired full legislative powers, acting as the lower house of the parliament, with the [Lithuanian Council of Lords](/wiki/Lithuanian_Council_of_Lords \"Lithuanian Council of Lords\") as the upper house. It was at this point that elections to the Seimas were introduced (local nobles would elect their delegates) – any noble could participate in the Seimas before.",
"Seimas of the Grand Dutchy was abolished in 1569, with the [Union of Lublin](/wiki/Union_of_Lublin \"Union of Lublin\"). The Union created a new state, the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\"), and joined the Seimas of Lithuania with the [Sejm](/wiki/Sejm \"Sejm\") of Poland into a single [Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/General_Sejm \"General Sejm\"). By this time, 40 Seimas of Lithuania had taken place.",
"Nobles of Lithuania continued to meet until the [partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Partitions_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\") under the name of Lithuanian Convocations. They debated matters concerning the Grand Duchy of Lithuania or tried to establish a common position among Lithuanian delegates before departing for the Sejm of the Commonwealth.",
"{{main\\|General Sejm}}",
"The Sejm of the Commonwealth, General Sejm, was the parliament of Polish\\-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the Union of Lublin until the late 18th century. The sejm was a powerful political institution, and from early 16th century, the Polish king (who was the Grand Duke of Lithuania) could not pass laws without the approval of that body.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|Sejm session at the [Royal Castle, Warsaw](/wiki/Royal_Castle%2C_Warsaw \"Royal Castle, Warsaw\"), 1622](/wiki/File:Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg \"Polish Sejm 1622.jpg\")\nDuration and frequencies of the sejms changed over time, with the six\\-week sejm session convened every two years being most common. Sejm locations changed throughout history, eventually with the Commonwealth capital of Warsaw emerging as the primary location. The number of sejm deputies and senators grew over time, from about 70 senators and 50 deputies in the 15th century to about 150 senators and 200 deputies in the 18th century. Early sejms have seen mostly majority voting, but beginning in the 17th century, unanimous voting became more common, and 32 sejms were vetoed with the infamous [liberum veto](/wiki/Liberum_veto \"Liberum veto\"), particularly in the first half of the 18th century. This vetoing procedure has been credited with significantly paralyzing the Commonwealth governance. In addition, beginning in 1573, three special types of sejms handled the process of the royal election in the interregnum period.",
"{{main\\|Great Seimas of Vilnius}}",
"[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Postage stamp commemorating the Great Seimas of VilniusThe](/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2005-31.jpg \"Stamps of Lithuania, 2005-31.jpg\") Great Seimas of Vilnius was a major assembly held on December 4 and 5, 1905 in Vilnius, Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire, largely inspired by the [Russian Revolution of 1905](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905 \"Russian Revolution of 1905\"). It was the first modern national congress in Lithuania, with over 2,000 participants. The assembly made the decision to demand wide political autonomy within the Russian Empire and achieve this by peaceful means. It is considered an important step towards the Act of Independence of Lithuania, adopted on February 16, 1918 by the Council of Lithuania, as the Seimas laid the groundwork for the establishment of an independent Lithuanian state.",
""
] |
### Interwar period
[right\|thumb\|250px\|The location of the [Constituent Assembly of Lithuania](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania "Constituent Assembly of Lithuania") in [Kaunas](/wiki/Kaunas "Kaunas") ([interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period "Interwar period"))](/wiki/File:The_Constituent_Assembly_Palace_%28Kaunas%29.jpg "The Constituent Assembly Palace (Kaunas).jpg")
The first widely elected body in Lithuania after the declaration of independence on February 16, 1918, was the [Constituent Assembly of Lithuania](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania "Constituent Assembly of Lithuania"). The election was held on April 14–15, 1920\. The voter turnout reached about 90%.
The primary role of the Constituent Assembly was to adopt the [Constitution of Lithuania](/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania "Constitution of Lithuania"), which was accomplished on August 1, 1922\. The new constitution gave broad powers to the parliament, the Seimas, elected to a three\-year term. Seimas would select the Cabinet of Ministers and elect the President. In addition, the Constituent Assembly adopted numerous laws, including a broad land reform and introduced [Litas](/wiki/Litas "Litas") as the national currency.
The [First Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/First_Seimas_of_Lithuania "First Seimas of Lithuania") was the first parliament of Lithuania elected in accordance with the constitution of 1922\. The [election](/wiki/1922_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1922 Lithuanian parliamentary election") took place on October 10–11, 1922\. However, no party was able to form a sustainable coalition and the Seimas was dissolved on March 12, 1923\. [New elections](/wiki/1923_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1923 Lithuanian parliamentary election") were held on May 12 and May 13\.
The [Second Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Second_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Second Seimas of Lithuania") was the only regular interwar Seimas which completed its full three\-year term. The [Christian Democrats](/wiki/Lithuanian_Christian_Democratic_Party "Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party") gained two additional seats which were enough to give them a slim majority. The Seimas continued the land reform, expanded the network of primary and secondary schools and introduced a system of social support. However, it did not bring political stability, as it saw several short\-lived governments.
[right\|thumb\|250px\|The [Third Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Third Seimas of Lithuania") in 1926The](/wiki/File:Tre%C4%8Diasseimas.jpg "Trečiasseimas.jpg") [Third Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Third Seimas of Lithuania") was [elected](/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1926 Lithuanian parliamentary election") on May 8–10, 1926, with the Christian Democrats in opposition for the first time. The [Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Popular_Peasants%27_Union "Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union") and Social Democrats formed a coalition government which lifted martial law, restored democratic freedoms, and declared broad amnesty to political prisoners. However, the government was sharply criticized following some unpopular decisions. The Seimas was interrupted by [1926 Lithuanian coup d'état](/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1926 Lithuanian coup d'état") in December, when the democratically elected government was replaced with the authoritarian rule of [Antanas Smetona](/wiki/Antanas_Smetona "Antanas Smetona"). The Third Seimas was dissolved on March 12, 1927 and new elections were not called until 1936\.
The [Fourth Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Fourth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Fourth Seimas of Lithuania") was [elected](/wiki/1936_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election "1936 Lithuanian parliamentary election") on 9 and 10 June 1936\. Elections took place under the constitution of 1928, which had been proclaimed by president Smetona without the assent of the Seimas. The parliament was elected to a five\-year term. With opposition parties effectively barred from participating, [Lithuanian Nationalists Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Nationalists_Union "Lithuanian Nationalists Union") got 42 (of 49\) seats, with the remaining seven seats taken by the Young Lithuania, a youth branch of the Nationalists Union. The primary task of the new Seimas was to adopt a new constitution, which was accomplished on 11 February 1938\. The new constitution provided for even more powers to the president.
After the [Soviet ultimatum in June 1940](/wiki/1940_Soviet_ultimatum_to_Lithuania "1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania") and subsequent occupation, the Fourth Seimas was dismissed and a puppet [People's Seimas](/wiki/People%27s_Seimas "People's Seimas") was elected in a heavily rigged elections, in order to give legal sanction to the occupation and annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union. The new parliament proclaimed the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, petitioned for admission to the Soviet Union (a petition that was accepted on August 3, 1940\), adopted a new constitution and renamed itself to the [Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Lithuanian_SSR "Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR"), a [rubber stamp](/wiki/Rubber_stamp_%28politics%29 "Rubber stamp (politics)") legislature.
| Parliament | Seats | Term | Prime ministers |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|[Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania "Constituent Assembly of Lithuania") 150 | 1920–1922 |[Kazys Grinius](/wiki/Kazys_Grinius "Kazys Grinius")
|[First Seimas](/wiki/First_Seimas_of_Lithuania "First Seimas of Lithuania") 78 | 1922–1923 |[Ernestas Galvanauskas](/wiki/Ernestas_Galvanauskas "Ernestas Galvanauskas")
|[Second Seimas](/wiki/Second_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Second Seimas of Lithuania") 78 | 1923–1926 |[Ernestas Galvanauskas](/wiki/Ernestas_Galvanauskas "Ernestas Galvanauskas"), [Antanas Tumėnas](/wiki/Antanas_Tum%C4%97nas "Antanas Tumėnas"), [Vytautas Petrulis](/wiki/Vytautas_Petrulis "Vytautas Petrulis"), [Leonas Bistras](/wiki/Leonas_Bistras "Leonas Bistras")
|[Third Seimas](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Third Seimas of Lithuania") 85 | 1926–1927 |[Mykolas Sleževičius](/wiki/Mykolas_Sle%C5%BEevi%C4%8Dius "Mykolas Sleževičius"), [Augustinas Voldemaras](/wiki/Augustinas_Voldemaras "Augustinas Voldemaras")
|[Fourth Seimas](/wiki/Fourth_Seimas_of_Lithuania "Fourth Seimas of Lithuania") 49 | 1936–1940 |[Juozas Tūbelis](/wiki/Juozas_T%C5%ABbelis "Juozas Tūbelis"), [Vladas Mironas](/wiki/Vladas_Mironas "Vladas Mironas"), [Jonas Černius](/wiki/Jonas_%C4%8Cernius "Jonas Černius"), [Antanas Merkys](/wiki/Antanas_Merkys "Antanas Merkys")
|
[
"### Interwar period",
"[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The location of the [Constituent Assembly of Lithuania](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania \"Constituent Assembly of Lithuania\") in [Kaunas](/wiki/Kaunas \"Kaunas\") ([interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period \"Interwar period\"))](/wiki/File:The_Constituent_Assembly_Palace_%28Kaunas%29.jpg \"The Constituent Assembly Palace (Kaunas).jpg\")",
"The first widely elected body in Lithuania after the declaration of independence on February 16, 1918, was the [Constituent Assembly of Lithuania](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania \"Constituent Assembly of Lithuania\"). The election was held on April 14–15, 1920\\. The voter turnout reached about 90%.",
"The primary role of the Constituent Assembly was to adopt the [Constitution of Lithuania](/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania \"Constitution of Lithuania\"), which was accomplished on August 1, 1922\\. The new constitution gave broad powers to the parliament, the Seimas, elected to a three\\-year term. Seimas would select the Cabinet of Ministers and elect the President. In addition, the Constituent Assembly adopted numerous laws, including a broad land reform and introduced [Litas](/wiki/Litas \"Litas\") as the national currency.",
"The [First Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/First_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"First Seimas of Lithuania\") was the first parliament of Lithuania elected in accordance with the constitution of 1922\\. The [election](/wiki/1922_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1922 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") took place on October 10–11, 1922\\. However, no party was able to form a sustainable coalition and the Seimas was dissolved on March 12, 1923\\. [New elections](/wiki/1923_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1923 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") were held on May 12 and May 13\\.",
"The [Second Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Second_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Second Seimas of Lithuania\") was the only regular interwar Seimas which completed its full three\\-year term. The [Christian Democrats](/wiki/Lithuanian_Christian_Democratic_Party \"Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party\") gained two additional seats which were enough to give them a slim majority. The Seimas continued the land reform, expanded the network of primary and secondary schools and introduced a system of social support. However, it did not bring political stability, as it saw several short\\-lived governments.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The [Third Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Third Seimas of Lithuania\") in 1926The](/wiki/File:Tre%C4%8Diasseimas.jpg \"Trečiasseimas.jpg\") [Third Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Third Seimas of Lithuania\") was [elected](/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1926 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") on May 8–10, 1926, with the Christian Democrats in opposition for the first time. The [Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Popular_Peasants%27_Union \"Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union\") and Social Democrats formed a coalition government which lifted martial law, restored democratic freedoms, and declared broad amnesty to political prisoners. However, the government was sharply criticized following some unpopular decisions. The Seimas was interrupted by [1926 Lithuanian coup d'état](/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"1926 Lithuanian coup d'état\") in December, when the democratically elected government was replaced with the authoritarian rule of [Antanas Smetona](/wiki/Antanas_Smetona \"Antanas Smetona\"). The Third Seimas was dissolved on March 12, 1927 and new elections were not called until 1936\\.",
"The [Fourth Seimas of Lithuania](/wiki/Fourth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Fourth Seimas of Lithuania\") was [elected](/wiki/1936_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election \"1936 Lithuanian parliamentary election\") on 9 and 10 June 1936\\. Elections took place under the constitution of 1928, which had been proclaimed by president Smetona without the assent of the Seimas. The parliament was elected to a five\\-year term. With opposition parties effectively barred from participating, [Lithuanian Nationalists Union](/wiki/Lithuanian_Nationalists_Union \"Lithuanian Nationalists Union\") got 42 (of 49\\) seats, with the remaining seven seats taken by the Young Lithuania, a youth branch of the Nationalists Union. The primary task of the new Seimas was to adopt a new constitution, which was accomplished on 11 February 1938\\. The new constitution provided for even more powers to the president.",
"After the [Soviet ultimatum in June 1940](/wiki/1940_Soviet_ultimatum_to_Lithuania \"1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania\") and subsequent occupation, the Fourth Seimas was dismissed and a puppet [People's Seimas](/wiki/People%27s_Seimas \"People's Seimas\") was elected in a heavily rigged elections, in order to give legal sanction to the occupation and annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union. The new parliament proclaimed the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, petitioned for admission to the Soviet Union (a petition that was accepted on August 3, 1940\\), adopted a new constitution and renamed itself to the [Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Lithuanian_SSR \"Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR\"), a [rubber stamp](/wiki/Rubber_stamp_%28politics%29 \"Rubber stamp (politics)\") legislature.",
"",
"| Parliament | Seats | Term | Prime ministers |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|[Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Lithuania \"Constituent Assembly of Lithuania\") 150 | 1920–1922 |[Kazys Grinius](/wiki/Kazys_Grinius \"Kazys Grinius\")",
"|[First Seimas](/wiki/First_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"First Seimas of Lithuania\") 78 | 1922–1923 |[Ernestas Galvanauskas](/wiki/Ernestas_Galvanauskas \"Ernestas Galvanauskas\")",
"|[Second Seimas](/wiki/Second_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Second Seimas of Lithuania\") 78 | 1923–1926 |[Ernestas Galvanauskas](/wiki/Ernestas_Galvanauskas \"Ernestas Galvanauskas\"), [Antanas Tumėnas](/wiki/Antanas_Tum%C4%97nas \"Antanas Tumėnas\"), [Vytautas Petrulis](/wiki/Vytautas_Petrulis \"Vytautas Petrulis\"), [Leonas Bistras](/wiki/Leonas_Bistras \"Leonas Bistras\")",
"|[Third Seimas](/wiki/Third_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Third Seimas of Lithuania\") 85 | 1926–1927 |[Mykolas Sleževičius](/wiki/Mykolas_Sle%C5%BEevi%C4%8Dius \"Mykolas Sleževičius\"), [Augustinas Voldemaras](/wiki/Augustinas_Voldemaras \"Augustinas Voldemaras\")",
"|[Fourth Seimas](/wiki/Fourth_Seimas_of_Lithuania \"Fourth Seimas of Lithuania\") 49 | 1936–1940 |[Juozas Tūbelis](/wiki/Juozas_T%C5%ABbelis \"Juozas Tūbelis\"), [Vladas Mironas](/wiki/Vladas_Mironas \"Vladas Mironas\"), [Jonas Černius](/wiki/Jonas_%C4%8Cernius \"Jonas Černius\"), [Antanas Merkys](/wiki/Antanas_Merkys \"Antanas Merkys\")",
""
] |
Parliamentary operations
------------------------
The operations of the Seimas are primarily governed by the [Constitution of Lithuania](/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania "Constitution of Lithuania") and the Statute of the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania.
### Legislative procedure
The right of legislative initiative in the Seimas belongs to the members of the Seimas, the President, and the Government. Citizens of Lithuania can also propose laws and proposals backed by at least 50 000 voters must be considered by the Seimas. The legislative procedure for proposed laws is regulated by the Statute of the Seimas.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\_show?p\_r\=4029\&p\_d\=2874\&p\_k\=2 \|title\=Legislative Procedure \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 25, 2015}}
All draft laws and proposals submitted to the Seimas, and any changes or supplements to previously submitted proposals must be registered with the Secretariat of the Seimas Sittings. The legal department of the Seimas then reviews the draft law, issuing a conclusion on whether or not the draft is in compliance with existing laws and the technical rules of law\-making.
The draft laws are presented to the Seimas, which can vote to commence the procedure of consideration of the draft, postpone it or reject the draft. If the Seimas decides to commence the procedure of consideration, it appoints the principal and additional Committees to consider the draft law.
The Seimas Committees perform thorough analysis of the draft law, present it to interested state institutions and organizations, consult specialists in different fields and hear opinions on the draft. Interested persons can, at this stage, provide proposals and opinions on the draft.
The reports of the principal Committee and any other Committees are heard by the Seimas and a general discussion is held. A vote is taken on the amendments to the draft law, which can be proposed and presented by any person with the right of legislative initiative. Finally, the Seimas votes on whether to approve the draft law confirmed by the Committee together with amendments adopted at a sitting of the Seimas.
The adopted laws are submitted to the President. The President can return the law to the Seimas for additional consideration or sign it. Seimas can, but is not obliged to, take proposals by the President into account and can approve the laws returned by the President in a simple majority vote. If the President does not sign the law returned after additional consideration or neither signs nor returns the law after the initial submission, the Speaker of the Seimas can sign the law. The law comes into effect after being published in the "Official Gazette" ("Valstybės žinios").
### Plenary sittings
The Seimas meets annually in two regular sessions: a spring session (10 March – 30 June) and an autumn session (10 September – 23 December). Extraordinary sessions can be called by the Speaker of the Seimas upon the proposal of at least one third of all members of the Seimas, or, in some cases, by the President.
When the Seimas is in session, there are four [plenary](/wiki/Plenary_session "Plenary session") sittings of the Seimas per week: two on Tuesday and two on Thursday, which are presided by the Speaker of the Seimas or the Deputy Speaker. As a rule, the sittings of the Seimas are open to the public.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\_show?p\_r\=231\&p\_d\=2931\&p\_k\=2 \|title\=Plenary Sittings \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 25, 2015}} The open sittings of the Seimas are also broadcast on cable television and via the internet.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\_show?p\_r\=7715\&p\_k\=1 \|title\=TV transliacijos "Seimas – tiesiogiai" \|language\=lt \|trans\-title\=Television broadcasts "Seimas live" \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 25, 2015}}
The programmes for the sessions of the Seimas and the draft agendas of sittings are drafted and approved by the Assembly of the Elders, which is made up of the members of the Board of the Seimas and representatives of the parliamentary groups.
### Board of the Seimas
The board of the Seimas consists of the Speaker of the Seimas, the Deputy Speakers, and the leader of the opposition. The Speaker and the Deputy
Speakers are elected by the members of the parliament in session.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\_show?p\_r\=8799\&p\_k\=2 \|title\=Board of the Seimas \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 25, 2015}}
### Parliamentary committees
Parliamentary committees are elected by the Seimas from among its members. The committees consider draft legislation and can explore and clarify other issues in their area of competence.
The committees are formed during the first session of the newly elected Seimas and can have between 7 and 17 members (with the exception of the Committee on European Affairs, which has at least 15 members). Members are selected based on proportional representation of parliamentary groups. Each committee elects its Chair and Deputy Chair, subject to approval by the Seimas.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrs.lt/sip/portal.show?p\_r\=35733\&p\_k\=2\|title\= Committees \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=March 22, 2021}}
|Committees of the Seimas
| |
| Audit | Budget and Finance |
| Culture | Economics |
| Education and Science | Environment Protection |
| European Affairs | Foreign Affairs |
| Future | Health Affairs |
| Human Rights | Legal Affairs |
| National Security and Defence | Rural Affairs |
| Social Affairs and Labour | State Administration and Local Authorities |
|
[
"Parliamentary operations\n------------------------",
"The operations of the Seimas are primarily governed by the [Constitution of Lithuania](/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania \"Constitution of Lithuania\") and the Statute of the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania.",
"### Legislative procedure",
"The right of legislative initiative in the Seimas belongs to the members of the Seimas, the President, and the Government. Citizens of Lithuania can also propose laws and proposals backed by at least 50 000 voters must be considered by the Seimas. The legislative procedure for proposed laws is regulated by the Statute of the Seimas.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\\_show?p\\_r\\=4029\\&p\\_d\\=2874\\&p\\_k\\=2 \\|title\\=Legislative Procedure \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2015}}",
"All draft laws and proposals submitted to the Seimas, and any changes or supplements to previously submitted proposals must be registered with the Secretariat of the Seimas Sittings. The legal department of the Seimas then reviews the draft law, issuing a conclusion on whether or not the draft is in compliance with existing laws and the technical rules of law\\-making.",
"The draft laws are presented to the Seimas, which can vote to commence the procedure of consideration of the draft, postpone it or reject the draft. If the Seimas decides to commence the procedure of consideration, it appoints the principal and additional Committees to consider the draft law.",
"The Seimas Committees perform thorough analysis of the draft law, present it to interested state institutions and organizations, consult specialists in different fields and hear opinions on the draft. Interested persons can, at this stage, provide proposals and opinions on the draft.",
"The reports of the principal Committee and any other Committees are heard by the Seimas and a general discussion is held. A vote is taken on the amendments to the draft law, which can be proposed and presented by any person with the right of legislative initiative. Finally, the Seimas votes on whether to approve the draft law confirmed by the Committee together with amendments adopted at a sitting of the Seimas.",
"The adopted laws are submitted to the President. The President can return the law to the Seimas for additional consideration or sign it. Seimas can, but is not obliged to, take proposals by the President into account and can approve the laws returned by the President in a simple majority vote. If the President does not sign the law returned after additional consideration or neither signs nor returns the law after the initial submission, the Speaker of the Seimas can sign the law. The law comes into effect after being published in the \"Official Gazette\" (\"Valstybės žinios\").",
"### Plenary sittings",
"The Seimas meets annually in two regular sessions: a spring session (10 March – 30 June) and an autumn session (10 September – 23 December). Extraordinary sessions can be called by the Speaker of the Seimas upon the proposal of at least one third of all members of the Seimas, or, in some cases, by the President.",
"When the Seimas is in session, there are four [plenary](/wiki/Plenary_session \"Plenary session\") sittings of the Seimas per week: two on Tuesday and two on Thursday, which are presided by the Speaker of the Seimas or the Deputy Speaker. As a rule, the sittings of the Seimas are open to the public.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\\_show?p\\_r\\=231\\&p\\_d\\=2931\\&p\\_k\\=2 \\|title\\=Plenary Sittings \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2015}} The open sittings of the Seimas are also broadcast on cable television and via the internet.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\\_show?p\\_r\\=7715\\&p\\_k\\=1 \\|title\\=TV transliacijos \"Seimas – tiesiogiai\" \\|language\\=lt \\|trans\\-title\\=Television broadcasts \"Seimas live\" \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2015}}",
"The programmes for the sessions of the Seimas and the draft agendas of sittings are drafted and approved by the Assembly of the Elders, which is made up of the members of the Board of the Seimas and representatives of the parliamentary groups.",
"### Board of the Seimas",
"The board of the Seimas consists of the Speaker of the Seimas, the Deputy Speakers, and the leader of the opposition. The Speaker and the Deputy \nSpeakers are elected by the members of the parliament in session.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\\_show?p\\_r\\=8799\\&p\\_k\\=2 \\|title\\=Board of the Seimas \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2015}}",
"### Parliamentary committees",
"Parliamentary committees are elected by the Seimas from among its members. The committees consider draft legislation and can explore and clarify other issues in their area of competence.",
"The committees are formed during the first session of the newly elected Seimas and can have between 7 and 17 members (with the exception of the Committee on European Affairs, which has at least 15 members). Members are selected based on proportional representation of parliamentary groups. Each committee elects its Chair and Deputy Chair, subject to approval by the Seimas.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrs.lt/sip/portal.show?p\\_r\\=35733\\&p\\_k\\=2\\|title\\= Committees \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2021}}",
"",
"|Committees of the Seimas",
"| |\n| Audit | Budget and Finance |\n| Culture | Economics |\n| Education and Science | Environment Protection |\n| European Affairs | Foreign Affairs |\n| Future | Health Affairs |\n| Human Rights | Legal Affairs |\n| National Security and Defence | Rural Affairs |\n| Social Affairs and Labour | State Administration and Local Authorities |",
""
] |
### Legislative procedure
The right of legislative initiative in the Seimas belongs to the members of the Seimas, the President, and the Government. Citizens of Lithuania can also propose laws and proposals backed by at least 50 000 voters must be considered by the Seimas. The legislative procedure for proposed laws is regulated by the Statute of the Seimas.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\_show?p\_r\=4029\&p\_d\=2874\&p\_k\=2 \|title\=Legislative Procedure \|publisher\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \|access\-date\=November 25, 2015}}
All draft laws and proposals submitted to the Seimas, and any changes or supplements to previously submitted proposals must be registered with the Secretariat of the Seimas Sittings. The legal department of the Seimas then reviews the draft law, issuing a conclusion on whether or not the draft is in compliance with existing laws and the technical rules of law\-making.
The draft laws are presented to the Seimas, which can vote to commence the procedure of consideration of the draft, postpone it or reject the draft. If the Seimas decides to commence the procedure of consideration, it appoints the principal and additional Committees to consider the draft law.
The Seimas Committees perform thorough analysis of the draft law, present it to interested state institutions and organizations, consult specialists in different fields and hear opinions on the draft. Interested persons can, at this stage, provide proposals and opinions on the draft.
The reports of the principal Committee and any other Committees are heard by the Seimas and a general discussion is held. A vote is taken on the amendments to the draft law, which can be proposed and presented by any person with the right of legislative initiative. Finally, the Seimas votes on whether to approve the draft law confirmed by the Committee together with amendments adopted at a sitting of the Seimas.
The adopted laws are submitted to the President. The President can return the law to the Seimas for additional consideration or sign it. Seimas can, but is not obliged to, take proposals by the President into account and can approve the laws returned by the President in a simple majority vote. If the President does not sign the law returned after additional consideration or neither signs nor returns the law after the initial submission, the Speaker of the Seimas can sign the law. The law comes into effect after being published in the "Official Gazette" ("Valstybės žinios").
|
[
"### Legislative procedure",
"The right of legislative initiative in the Seimas belongs to the members of the Seimas, the President, and the Government. Citizens of Lithuania can also propose laws and proposals backed by at least 50 000 voters must be considered by the Seimas. The legislative procedure for proposed laws is regulated by the Statute of the Seimas.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5\\_show?p\\_r\\=4029\\&p\\_d\\=2874\\&p\\_k\\=2 \\|title\\=Legislative Procedure \\|publisher\\=Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2015}}",
"All draft laws and proposals submitted to the Seimas, and any changes or supplements to previously submitted proposals must be registered with the Secretariat of the Seimas Sittings. The legal department of the Seimas then reviews the draft law, issuing a conclusion on whether or not the draft is in compliance with existing laws and the technical rules of law\\-making.",
"The draft laws are presented to the Seimas, which can vote to commence the procedure of consideration of the draft, postpone it or reject the draft. If the Seimas decides to commence the procedure of consideration, it appoints the principal and additional Committees to consider the draft law.",
"The Seimas Committees perform thorough analysis of the draft law, present it to interested state institutions and organizations, consult specialists in different fields and hear opinions on the draft. Interested persons can, at this stage, provide proposals and opinions on the draft.",
"The reports of the principal Committee and any other Committees are heard by the Seimas and a general discussion is held. A vote is taken on the amendments to the draft law, which can be proposed and presented by any person with the right of legislative initiative. Finally, the Seimas votes on whether to approve the draft law confirmed by the Committee together with amendments adopted at a sitting of the Seimas.",
"The adopted laws are submitted to the President. The President can return the law to the Seimas for additional consideration or sign it. Seimas can, but is not obliged to, take proposals by the President into account and can approve the laws returned by the President in a simple majority vote. If the President does not sign the law returned after additional consideration or neither signs nor returns the law after the initial submission, the Speaker of the Seimas can sign the law. The law comes into effect after being published in the \"Official Gazette\" (\"Valstybės žinios\").",
""
] |
Format
------
Each episode featured 2 teams each consisting of a boy and girl representing schools from around the UK. There were 3 rounds in each episode.
### Round 1 (3 Messy Games)
The opening games, each worth 25 points, were referred to as messy games and typically used [gunge](/wiki/Gunge "Gunge") as opposed to food. One game would be for the two boys, another game for the two girls and a third game for all four players, though the order would vary from episode to episode. In later series occasionally all games would be for all four players. From Series 1 to 7 the contestants were usually barefoot when playing some of the messy games, this was discontinued from Series 8 until the show's end. One of the three games would be a "key game", in which the losing team would get the same points as their score in that game.
As in the original American version, a question would follow each game, to the value of 25 points if answered correctly.
### Round 2 (The Fun Kart Grand Prix)
#### 1989–1994
The Grand Prix was run in red and yellow coloured go\-karts and lasted for two (later three) laps. Teams race round the track picking up tokens to add to their score, alternating drivers with each lap. The first lap was for "10" tokens for 10 points, the second for "25" tokens for 25 points, plus 25 points for winning the race. Tokens that ended up on the floor were null and void.
The tokens were later dropped into appropriately coloured boxes and added to the team's current score.
#### 1995
By 1995, the Grand Prix was extended to three laps and the numbered tokens were replaced with generic silver tokens with a blue stripe, and they were all worth 25 points. The winning team received 50 points and there was no driver changeover after the second lap.
The original format was revived in late 1995, but kept the third lap (which became a speed lap for 25 points, not 50\) and the higher value tokens were collected first.
#### 1996–1997
In 1996, tokens were replaced with buttons and the start of the race was similar in style to a regular Grand Prix race. There were buttons for 10 points and 25 points, pressed on alternate laps.
When it came to adding the points up, they were represented by a column of lights for the "10" buttons and the "25" buttons, and added to the team's score.
#### 1998–1999
For the 1998 series, the buttons were replaced with wheels. There were four metal wires hanging above the track with all four steering wheels attached. There are four steering wheels for each team (valued at 25 points) bringing the maximum total points to 100\. The first lap was a "power up" lap, the second lap was for the second team member to collect their first 2 wheels, the third lap was for the first team member to collect the second 2 wheels, the fourth lap was another power\-up lap where the second team member has to win the race and collect an extra "50" points, (25 in 1999\). Wheels dropped on the floor were not counted and neither were wheels collected on the second and third laps. The points were shown on the lights, this time representing the number of wheels collected, by Pat Sharp hitting the button on top of the team's podium. In 1999 the lights resembled the steering wheels. The results, as usual, were then shown in numbers on the [LED](/wiki/LED "LED") screen on the team's podium.
### Round 3 (The Fun House)
For two minutes, each teammate in turn would enter the Fun House and collect three prize tags and exit.
In the UK version of the show, to actually win the power prize, they not only had to grab the tag (picking it up would be signaled by the sound of a rooster crowing, accompanied by the appropriate animation), they also had to answer one question (often multi\-parted) correctly within 10 seconds. Also, the only prizes in the Fun House were non\-monetary because of a law in Europe stating that children cannot win money on game shows. The Fun House itself was completely different from the US version. In that version the Fun House itself was actually designed like a house, whereas in the UK version it was designed to be a cross between a [Funhouse](/wiki/Funhouse "Funhouse") ride that is often found at fairgrounds and a soft play area found at indoor playgrounds. When Gary King announced the prizes available there was originally video footage of the prize location shown with an inset for a photograph of the prize. From 1998 a diagram of the Fun House was shown with the prize location illuminated, and the inset still shown, when the prize was announced.
|
[
"Format\n------",
"Each episode featured 2 teams each consisting of a boy and girl representing schools from around the UK. There were 3 rounds in each episode.",
"### Round 1 (3 Messy Games)",
"The opening games, each worth 25 points, were referred to as messy games and typically used [gunge](/wiki/Gunge \"Gunge\") as opposed to food. One game would be for the two boys, another game for the two girls and a third game for all four players, though the order would vary from episode to episode. In later series occasionally all games would be for all four players. From Series 1 to 7 the contestants were usually barefoot when playing some of the messy games, this was discontinued from Series 8 until the show's end. One of the three games would be a \"key game\", in which the losing team would get the same points as their score in that game.",
"As in the original American version, a question would follow each game, to the value of 25 points if answered correctly.",
"### Round 2 (The Fun Kart Grand Prix)",
"#### 1989–1994",
"The Grand Prix was run in red and yellow coloured go\\-karts and lasted for two (later three) laps. Teams race round the track picking up tokens to add to their score, alternating drivers with each lap. The first lap was for \"10\" tokens for 10 points, the second for \"25\" tokens for 25 points, plus 25 points for winning the race. Tokens that ended up on the floor were null and void.",
"The tokens were later dropped into appropriately coloured boxes and added to the team's current score.",
"#### 1995",
"By 1995, the Grand Prix was extended to three laps and the numbered tokens were replaced with generic silver tokens with a blue stripe, and they were all worth 25 points. The winning team received 50 points and there was no driver changeover after the second lap.",
"The original format was revived in late 1995, but kept the third lap (which became a speed lap for 25 points, not 50\\) and the higher value tokens were collected first.",
"#### 1996–1997",
"In 1996, tokens were replaced with buttons and the start of the race was similar in style to a regular Grand Prix race. There were buttons for 10 points and 25 points, pressed on alternate laps.",
"When it came to adding the points up, they were represented by a column of lights for the \"10\" buttons and the \"25\" buttons, and added to the team's score.",
"#### 1998–1999",
"For the 1998 series, the buttons were replaced with wheels. There were four metal wires hanging above the track with all four steering wheels attached. There are four steering wheels for each team (valued at 25 points) bringing the maximum total points to 100\\. The first lap was a \"power up\" lap, the second lap was for the second team member to collect their first 2 wheels, the third lap was for the first team member to collect the second 2 wheels, the fourth lap was another power\\-up lap where the second team member has to win the race and collect an extra \"50\" points, (25 in 1999\\). Wheels dropped on the floor were not counted and neither were wheels collected on the second and third laps. The points were shown on the lights, this time representing the number of wheels collected, by Pat Sharp hitting the button on top of the team's podium. In 1999 the lights resembled the steering wheels. The results, as usual, were then shown in numbers on the [LED](/wiki/LED \"LED\") screen on the team's podium.",
"### Round 3 (The Fun House)",
"For two minutes, each teammate in turn would enter the Fun House and collect three prize tags and exit. \nIn the UK version of the show, to actually win the power prize, they not only had to grab the tag (picking it up would be signaled by the sound of a rooster crowing, accompanied by the appropriate animation), they also had to answer one question (often multi\\-parted) correctly within 10 seconds. Also, the only prizes in the Fun House were non\\-monetary because of a law in Europe stating that children cannot win money on game shows. The Fun House itself was completely different from the US version. In that version the Fun House itself was actually designed like a house, whereas in the UK version it was designed to be a cross between a [Funhouse](/wiki/Funhouse \"Funhouse\") ride that is often found at fairgrounds and a soft play area found at indoor playgrounds. When Gary King announced the prizes available there was originally video footage of the prize location shown with an inset for a photograph of the prize. From 1998 a diagram of the Fun House was shown with the prize location illuminated, and the inset still shown, when the prize was announced.",
""
] |
### Round 2 (The Fun Kart Grand Prix)
#### 1989–1994
The Grand Prix was run in red and yellow coloured go\-karts and lasted for two (later three) laps. Teams race round the track picking up tokens to add to their score, alternating drivers with each lap. The first lap was for "10" tokens for 10 points, the second for "25" tokens for 25 points, plus 25 points for winning the race. Tokens that ended up on the floor were null and void.
The tokens were later dropped into appropriately coloured boxes and added to the team's current score.
#### 1995
By 1995, the Grand Prix was extended to three laps and the numbered tokens were replaced with generic silver tokens with a blue stripe, and they were all worth 25 points. The winning team received 50 points and there was no driver changeover after the second lap.
The original format was revived in late 1995, but kept the third lap (which became a speed lap for 25 points, not 50\) and the higher value tokens were collected first.
#### 1996–1997
In 1996, tokens were replaced with buttons and the start of the race was similar in style to a regular Grand Prix race. There were buttons for 10 points and 25 points, pressed on alternate laps.
When it came to adding the points up, they were represented by a column of lights for the "10" buttons and the "25" buttons, and added to the team's score.
#### 1998–1999
For the 1998 series, the buttons were replaced with wheels. There were four metal wires hanging above the track with all four steering wheels attached. There are four steering wheels for each team (valued at 25 points) bringing the maximum total points to 100\. The first lap was a "power up" lap, the second lap was for the second team member to collect their first 2 wheels, the third lap was for the first team member to collect the second 2 wheels, the fourth lap was another power\-up lap where the second team member has to win the race and collect an extra "50" points, (25 in 1999\). Wheels dropped on the floor were not counted and neither were wheels collected on the second and third laps. The points were shown on the lights, this time representing the number of wheels collected, by Pat Sharp hitting the button on top of the team's podium. In 1999 the lights resembled the steering wheels. The results, as usual, were then shown in numbers on the [LED](/wiki/LED "LED") screen on the team's podium.
|
[
"### Round 2 (The Fun Kart Grand Prix)",
"#### 1989–1994",
"The Grand Prix was run in red and yellow coloured go\\-karts and lasted for two (later three) laps. Teams race round the track picking up tokens to add to their score, alternating drivers with each lap. The first lap was for \"10\" tokens for 10 points, the second for \"25\" tokens for 25 points, plus 25 points for winning the race. Tokens that ended up on the floor were null and void.",
"The tokens were later dropped into appropriately coloured boxes and added to the team's current score.",
"#### 1995",
"By 1995, the Grand Prix was extended to three laps and the numbered tokens were replaced with generic silver tokens with a blue stripe, and they were all worth 25 points. The winning team received 50 points and there was no driver changeover after the second lap.",
"The original format was revived in late 1995, but kept the third lap (which became a speed lap for 25 points, not 50\\) and the higher value tokens were collected first.",
"#### 1996–1997",
"In 1996, tokens were replaced with buttons and the start of the race was similar in style to a regular Grand Prix race. There were buttons for 10 points and 25 points, pressed on alternate laps.",
"When it came to adding the points up, they were represented by a column of lights for the \"10\" buttons and the \"25\" buttons, and added to the team's score.",
"#### 1998–1999",
"For the 1998 series, the buttons were replaced with wheels. There were four metal wires hanging above the track with all four steering wheels attached. There are four steering wheels for each team (valued at 25 points) bringing the maximum total points to 100\\. The first lap was a \"power up\" lap, the second lap was for the second team member to collect their first 2 wheels, the third lap was for the first team member to collect the second 2 wheels, the fourth lap was another power\\-up lap where the second team member has to win the race and collect an extra \"50\" points, (25 in 1999\\). Wheels dropped on the floor were not counted and neither were wheels collected on the second and third laps. The points were shown on the lights, this time representing the number of wheels collected, by Pat Sharp hitting the button on top of the team's podium. In 1999 the lights resembled the steering wheels. The results, as usual, were then shown in numbers on the [LED](/wiki/LED \"LED\") screen on the team's podium.",
""
] |
Fun House designs
-----------------
### 1989–1993
Much smaller but more colourful than later ones. It is almost entirely different from later versions.
### 1994
Much larger than the previous version and had a recurring theme of a bully (an inflatable figurine of such a person) in the Fun House, this included the inflatable bully at the back that was the same size as the Fun House.
### 1995–1997
The bully element has been removed from the show and the space previously occupied by the large bully figure at the back incorporated some flashing coloured lights and fake 'windows' to emphasise the 'house feel'. This was accompanied by colourful flashing studio lamps whereas the final run in previous series simply had the same studio lighting level that had been present throughout the entire episode.
### 1998
The Fun House has been completely rebuilt, but much based on the 1993–1997 version (although the big leap has changed from another tube slide to some giant steps). This included the Fun House being coloured of only red and yellow, instead of the multi\-coloured Fun House used previously. The front entrance area has been completely redesigned. This included the removal of the "Fun House" logo hanging above the entrance and the removal of the two car\-wash style spirals, being replaced by two stacks (one at either side) with blocks on top, each one having a Fun House logo on it. Also, this Fun House seems larger than the previous incarnations, and certain parts of it have been completely redesigned (the Snake Pit, for example, instead of simply being a multicoloured box with springy snakes inside, is now a more traditional snake basket.) Also, when Pat Sharp introduces the Fun House at the start of each episode, from now on, there are more explosions and firework bangs in the Fun House rather than simply two spark machines either side of the Fun House entrance logo. These "improved" explosions also included a few smoke machines to give a better impression of the special effects and along with sound effects throughout the teams 'run' through the fun\-house added to the 'wackiness' and atmosphere. Also, a wall of stacked boxes was added at the entrance of the fun house after Gary King announced the episode's prizes, and the 1st player would plough through the wall to start the round when Pat said GO.
### 1999
The final version was a slight redesigning of the Fun House. This included a change to the Big Leap from a tall fire fighter's pole leading to the giant steps to a zip\-line seat built to carry the player from the top of the Fun House to the bottom ball pool.
|
[
"Fun House designs\n-----------------",
"### 1989–1993",
"Much smaller but more colourful than later ones. It is almost entirely different from later versions.",
"### 1994",
"Much larger than the previous version and had a recurring theme of a bully (an inflatable figurine of such a person) in the Fun House, this included the inflatable bully at the back that was the same size as the Fun House.",
"### 1995–1997",
"The bully element has been removed from the show and the space previously occupied by the large bully figure at the back incorporated some flashing coloured lights and fake 'windows' to emphasise the 'house feel'. This was accompanied by colourful flashing studio lamps whereas the final run in previous series simply had the same studio lighting level that had been present throughout the entire episode.",
"### 1998",
"The Fun House has been completely rebuilt, but much based on the 1993–1997 version (although the big leap has changed from another tube slide to some giant steps). This included the Fun House being coloured of only red and yellow, instead of the multi\\-coloured Fun House used previously. The front entrance area has been completely redesigned. This included the removal of the \"Fun House\" logo hanging above the entrance and the removal of the two car\\-wash style spirals, being replaced by two stacks (one at either side) with blocks on top, each one having a Fun House logo on it. Also, this Fun House seems larger than the previous incarnations, and certain parts of it have been completely redesigned (the Snake Pit, for example, instead of simply being a multicoloured box with springy snakes inside, is now a more traditional snake basket.) Also, when Pat Sharp introduces the Fun House at the start of each episode, from now on, there are more explosions and firework bangs in the Fun House rather than simply two spark machines either side of the Fun House entrance logo. These \"improved\" explosions also included a few smoke machines to give a better impression of the special effects and along with sound effects throughout the teams 'run' through the fun\\-house added to the 'wackiness' and atmosphere. Also, a wall of stacked boxes was added at the entrance of the fun house after Gary King announced the episode's prizes, and the 1st player would plough through the wall to start the round when Pat said GO.",
"### 1999",
"The final version was a slight redesigning of the Fun House. This included a change to the Big Leap from a tall fire fighter's pole leading to the giant steps to a zip\\-line seat built to carry the player from the top of the Fun House to the bottom ball pool.",
""
] |
Background
----------
### Strategic overview
{{Main\|German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II \|Battle of the Netherlands\|Battle of Belgium\|Battle of France}}
After the declaration of war on [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") by Britain and [France](/wiki/France "France") in the aftermath of the German invasion of Poland, nine months of stalemate took place along the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_II%29 "Western Front (World War II)"). After the [Polish Campaign](/wiki/Polish_Campaign "Polish Campaign"), in October 1939, the planners of the *Oberkommando der Luftwaffe* (*Luftwaffe* High Command) and the *[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht](/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht")* (Supreme Command of the Armed Forces) turned their attentions to [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe "Western Europe").Healy 2007, pp. 3–5\.
The German offensive—named *Unternehmen Gelb* (Operation Yellow), and also known as the [Manstein Plan](/wiki/Manstein_Plan "Manstein Plan")—began in the West on 10 May 1940\. The central campaign—the [Battle of France](/wiki/Battle_of_France "Battle of France")—ended in Allied defeat and the destruction of the main [French Army](/wiki/French_Army "French Army") forces. The [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") escaped encirclement during the [Battle of Dunkirk](/wiki/Battle_of_Dunkirk "Battle of Dunkirk"), but the *Wehrmacht* captured [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") on 14 June and overran half of France. The French surrendered on 25 June 1940\.Hooton 2007, pp. 47–48, p. 77, p. 86\.
With Western Europe neutralised, the OKL and OKW turned their attention to Britain, which was now home to the Allied base of operations in Europe. Hitler hoped Britain would negotiate for an armistice, for which he was prepared to offer generous terms. The tentative offers made by Hitler were rejected by the [Churchill coalition government](/wiki/Churchill_war_ministry "Churchill war ministry").Parker 2000, pp. 98–99\. Hitler now ordered the *Luftwaffe* and *Kriegsmarine* to prepare for an [amphibious assault](/wiki/Amphibious_assault "Amphibious assault") of Britain, codenamed Operation Sealion. The *Luftwaffe* was to eliminate enemy [air power](/wiki/Airpower "Airpower") and the *Kriegsmarine* was ordered to make all the necessary preparations for transporting the German army (*Heer*) across the English Channel.{{Efn\|The head of the German Navy Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, did not believe an amphibious attack could be launched until 1941 {{cite book \| last\=Bungay \| first\=Stephen \|author\-link\=Stephen Bungay \| title\=The Most Dangerous Enemy : A History of the Battle of Britain \| publisher\=Aurum Press \| location\=London \| year\=2000 \| isbn\=978\-1\-85410\-721\-3 \|page\=113}}}} The *Luftwaffe's* task came first. Once the RAF had been rendered impotent, Göring and Hitler hoped that an invasion would be unnecessary.Murray 1983, p. 45\. If this proved not to be the case, the *Luftwaffe* would then support the army and prevent the Royal Navy interdicting German sea traffic.Hooton 1997, p. 17–18\.Parker 2000, p. 93\. Göring named the offensive against the RAF as Operation Eagle Attack (*Adlerangriff*).Hooton 2010, p. 75\.
### Background: early battles
The losses of the spring campaign had weakened the *Luftwaffe* before the Battle of Britain. Over 1400 aircraft had been lost in the Battle of France on top of about 500 lost in conquering Poland and Norway in 1939\.Bungay 2000 p124 The service was forced to wait until it had reached acceptable levels before a main assault against the RAF could be made.Murray 1983, p. 44\.
Therefore, the first phase of the German air offensive took place over the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel "English Channel"). The *[Kanalkampf](/wiki/Kanalkampf "Kanalkampf")* ("Channel battle") rarely involved attacks against RAF airfields inland, but encouraged RAF units to engage in battle by attacking British Channel convoys. These operations would last from 10 July\-8 August 1940\.James 2000, p. 17\. The attacks against shipping were not successful; only 24,000 tons ([Gross register](/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage "Gross register tonnage")) was sunk. Mine laying from aircraft had proved more profitable, sinking 38,000 tons .James 2000, p. 43\. The impact on Fighter Command was minimal. It had lost 74 fighter pilots killed or missing and 48 wounded in July, and its strength rose to 1,429 by 3 August. By that date, it was only short of 124 pilots.James 2000, p. 45\.
In the second phase of attacks, shipping, coastal airfields, radar and stations south of London were attacked during 8–18 August. The *Luftwaffe* gradually increased the frequency of attacks. German bombers also raided targets as far north as [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool") during night hours.James 2000, pp. 49–62\. The first major raid inland and against RAF airfields came on 12 August. [RAF Hawkinge](/wiki/RAF_Hawkinge "RAF Hawkinge"), [Lympne](/wiki/RAF_Lympne "RAF Lympne"), [Manston](/wiki/RAF_Manston "RAF Manston") and radar stations at [Pevensey](/wiki/Pevensey "Pevensey"), [Rye](/wiki/Rye%2C_East_Sussex "Rye, East Sussex") and [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover") were to be destroyed. [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth "Portsmouth") docks were also targeted.James 2000, pp. 63–64, 70\. The results of the raids were mixed. The Radar station at [Ventnor](/wiki/Ventnor "Ventnor") was badly damaged and others targeted were also damaged, but not destroyed. All were in working order by the following morning. The attacks against the harbour and RAF stations had failed to destroy them. All were not in fully working order by the end of the day, but were back in action the following morning. Unknown to German intelligence, Lympne itself was not even an operational station. This sort of intelligence blunder contributed to the failure of *Adlertag*.James 2000, p. 70\.
The Germans had not achieved a degree of success commensurate with their exertions. Nevertheless, in the belief they were having considerable effect on Fighter Command, they prepared to launch their all\-out assault on the RAF the following day.James 2000, p. 71\. By 12 August, German air strength had reached acceptable levels. After bringing its serviceable rates up, the *Luftwaffe* began *Adlertag* with 71 percent of its bomber force, 85 percent of its Bf 109 units, and 83 percent of its Bf 110 units operational.Murray 1983, p. 51\.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"### Strategic overview",
"{{Main\\|German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II \\|Battle of the Netherlands\\|Battle of Belgium\\|Battle of France}}",
"After the declaration of war on [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") by Britain and [France](/wiki/France \"France\") in the aftermath of the German invasion of Poland, nine months of stalemate took place along the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_II%29 \"Western Front (World War II)\"). After the [Polish Campaign](/wiki/Polish_Campaign \"Polish Campaign\"), in October 1939, the planners of the *Oberkommando der Luftwaffe* (*Luftwaffe* High Command) and the *[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht](/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht \"Oberkommando der Wehrmacht\")* (Supreme Command of the Armed Forces) turned their attentions to [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe \"Western Europe\").Healy 2007, pp. 3–5\\.",
"The German offensive—named *Unternehmen Gelb* (Operation Yellow), and also known as the [Manstein Plan](/wiki/Manstein_Plan \"Manstein Plan\")—began in the West on 10 May 1940\\. The central campaign—the [Battle of France](/wiki/Battle_of_France \"Battle of France\")—ended in Allied defeat and the destruction of the main [French Army](/wiki/French_Army \"French Army\") forces. The [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") escaped encirclement during the [Battle of Dunkirk](/wiki/Battle_of_Dunkirk \"Battle of Dunkirk\"), but the *Wehrmacht* captured [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") on 14 June and overran half of France. The French surrendered on 25 June 1940\\.Hooton 2007, pp. 47–48, p. 77, p. 86\\.",
"With Western Europe neutralised, the OKL and OKW turned their attention to Britain, which was now home to the Allied base of operations in Europe. Hitler hoped Britain would negotiate for an armistice, for which he was prepared to offer generous terms. The tentative offers made by Hitler were rejected by the [Churchill coalition government](/wiki/Churchill_war_ministry \"Churchill war ministry\").Parker 2000, pp. 98–99\\. Hitler now ordered the *Luftwaffe* and *Kriegsmarine* to prepare for an [amphibious assault](/wiki/Amphibious_assault \"Amphibious assault\") of Britain, codenamed Operation Sealion. The *Luftwaffe* was to eliminate enemy [air power](/wiki/Airpower \"Airpower\") and the *Kriegsmarine* was ordered to make all the necessary preparations for transporting the German army (*Heer*) across the English Channel.{{Efn\\|The head of the German Navy Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, did not believe an amphibious attack could be launched until 1941 {{cite book \\| last\\=Bungay \\| first\\=Stephen \\|author\\-link\\=Stephen Bungay \\| title\\=The Most Dangerous Enemy : A History of the Battle of Britain \\| publisher\\=Aurum Press \\| location\\=London \\| year\\=2000 \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85410\\-721\\-3 \\|page\\=113}}}} The *Luftwaffe's* task came first. Once the RAF had been rendered impotent, Göring and Hitler hoped that an invasion would be unnecessary.Murray 1983, p. 45\\. If this proved not to be the case, the *Luftwaffe* would then support the army and prevent the Royal Navy interdicting German sea traffic.Hooton 1997, p. 17–18\\.Parker 2000, p. 93\\. Göring named the offensive against the RAF as Operation Eagle Attack (*Adlerangriff*).Hooton 2010, p. 75\\.",
"### Background: early battles",
"The losses of the spring campaign had weakened the *Luftwaffe* before the Battle of Britain. Over 1400 aircraft had been lost in the Battle of France on top of about 500 lost in conquering Poland and Norway in 1939\\.Bungay 2000 p124 The service was forced to wait until it had reached acceptable levels before a main assault against the RAF could be made.Murray 1983, p. 44\\.\nTherefore, the first phase of the German air offensive took place over the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel \"English Channel\"). The *[Kanalkampf](/wiki/Kanalkampf \"Kanalkampf\")* (\"Channel battle\") rarely involved attacks against RAF airfields inland, but encouraged RAF units to engage in battle by attacking British Channel convoys. These operations would last from 10 July\\-8 August 1940\\.James 2000, p. 17\\. The attacks against shipping were not successful; only 24,000 tons ([Gross register](/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage \"Gross register tonnage\")) was sunk. Mine laying from aircraft had proved more profitable, sinking 38,000 tons .James 2000, p. 43\\. The impact on Fighter Command was minimal. It had lost 74 fighter pilots killed or missing and 48 wounded in July, and its strength rose to 1,429 by 3 August. By that date, it was only short of 124 pilots.James 2000, p. 45\\.",
"In the second phase of attacks, shipping, coastal airfields, radar and stations south of London were attacked during 8–18 August. The *Luftwaffe* gradually increased the frequency of attacks. German bombers also raided targets as far north as [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\") during night hours.James 2000, pp. 49–62\\. The first major raid inland and against RAF airfields came on 12 August. [RAF Hawkinge](/wiki/RAF_Hawkinge \"RAF Hawkinge\"), [Lympne](/wiki/RAF_Lympne \"RAF Lympne\"), [Manston](/wiki/RAF_Manston \"RAF Manston\") and radar stations at [Pevensey](/wiki/Pevensey \"Pevensey\"), [Rye](/wiki/Rye%2C_East_Sussex \"Rye, East Sussex\") and [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\") were to be destroyed. [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth \"Portsmouth\") docks were also targeted.James 2000, pp. 63–64, 70\\. The results of the raids were mixed. The Radar station at [Ventnor](/wiki/Ventnor \"Ventnor\") was badly damaged and others targeted were also damaged, but not destroyed. All were in working order by the following morning. The attacks against the harbour and RAF stations had failed to destroy them. All were not in fully working order by the end of the day, but were back in action the following morning. Unknown to German intelligence, Lympne itself was not even an operational station. This sort of intelligence blunder contributed to the failure of *Adlertag*.James 2000, p. 70\\.",
"The Germans had not achieved a degree of success commensurate with their exertions. Nevertheless, in the belief they were having considerable effect on Fighter Command, they prepared to launch their all\\-out assault on the RAF the following day.James 2000, p. 71\\. By 12 August, German air strength had reached acceptable levels. After bringing its serviceable rates up, the *Luftwaffe* began *Adlertag* with 71 percent of its bomber force, 85 percent of its Bf 109 units, and 83 percent of its Bf 110 units operational.Murray 1983, p. 51\\.",
""
] |
Battle
------
### KG 2 raid
[thumb\| KG 2 flew [Dornier Do 17s](/wiki/Dornier_Do_17 "Dornier Do 17") like these throughout the Battle of Britain.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-342-0603-25%2C_Belgien-Frankreich%2C_Flugzeuge_Dornier_Do_17.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-342-0603-25, Belgien-Frankreich, Flugzeuge Dornier Do 17.jpg")
On the morning of 13 August, the weather was bad and Göring ordered a postponement of raids.Bungay 2000, p. 208\. However, the [Dornier Do 17s](/wiki/Dornier_Do_17 "Dornier Do 17") of KG 2 were not informed and took off at 04:50 for their target. They were to meet with their escorts from ZG 26 over the Channel. ZG 26 received the cancellation order, but II., and III./KG 2 did not. KG 2 had formed up by 05:10, led by *Geschwaderkommodore* Johannes Fink. Part of the ZG 26 formation that had taken off—led by *[Oberstleutnant](/wiki/Oberstleutnant "Oberstleutnant")* [Joachim Huth](/wiki/Joachim_Huth "Joachim Huth")—tried to warn the Dorniers of the cancellation. Unable to contact the bombers by radio, Huth tried to signal them by flying in front of them and performing aerobatics. Fink ignored him and flew on. KG 2 flew around the coast to his target, [Eastchurch](/wiki/Eastchurch "Eastchurch") airfield on the [Isle of Sheppey](/wiki/Isle_of_Sheppey "Isle of Sheppey"). [Albert Kesselring](/wiki/Albert_Kesselring "Albert Kesselring") had issued orders for bombers to abandon missions if their escorts did not show up, but Fink did not want to be accused of failing to obey orders and continued onward even though the Bf 110s turned back. The return leg would take KG 2 across No. 11 Group's territory, which could have been disastrous without fighter escort. But owing to the [Observer Corps](/wiki/Observer_Corps "Observer Corps") misjudging the direction of the bombers, due to low\-lying cloud,Collier 1980, p. 51\. and the radar not picking up the direction of the German bombers, the WAAF plotted the course of the raid incorrectly and the RAF failed to prevent the target being attacked.
For an hour after dawn on 13 August, there were few German tracks upon the plot tables in operations rooms, and none at all in the central and eastern Channel. The first signs of concentration, however, came earlier than usual, for between 05:30 and 05:40 two formations of 30 or more aircraft were located in the [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens "Amiens") area. For 30 minutes, they remained over land, but at 06:10 they began moving inland. The Observer Corps and radar tracked them and guided the RAF units to intercept. Unaware of the German intent, the controllers directed three full Squadrons and detachments of three others were alerted by 06:15\. [No. 151](/wiki/No._151_Squadron_RAF "No. 151 Squadron RAF") was protecting a convoy in the Thames, [No. 111](/wiki/No._111_Squadron_RAF "No. 111 Squadron RAF") was protecting RAF Hawkinge and [No. 74 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._74_Squadron_RAF "No. 74 Squadron RAF") was covering RAF Manston. Parts of [No. 85](/wiki/No._85_Squadron_RAF "No. 85 Squadron RAF"), [No. 43](/wiki/No._43_Squadron_RAF "No. 43 Squadron RAF") and [No. 238 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._238_Squadron_RAF "No. 238 Squadron RAF") were also airborne near London. By 06:25, the German formations were well over the Channel. No. 238 was moved to cover their own base at [RAF Warmwell](/wiki/RAF_Warmwell "RAF Warmwell"). [No. 257 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._257_Squadron_RAF "No. 257 Squadron RAF") was also ordered to take off at 06:20 to patrol [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury "Canterbury"). Not satisfied with the strength of the forces already airborne, controllers dispatched [No. 601](/wiki/No._601_Squadron_RAF "No. 601 Squadron RAF"), [213](/wiki/No._213_Squadron_RAF "No. 213 Squadron RAF"), [64](/wiki/No._64_Squadron_RAF "No. 64 Squadron RAF") and [87](/wiki/No._87_Squadron_RAF "No. 87 Squadron RAF") Squadrons to intercept between 06:30 and 06:35\. The first combats began at 06:30\.James 2000, pp. 71–73\.
Owing to the mistake by the Observer Corps, and the *Geschwader* being missed approaching the eastern, instead of central Channel by radar, KG 2 hit the RAF airfield. KG 2 claimed 10 Spitfires destroyed on the ground. In fact, no Fighter Command fighters were lost. For some time afterward, this wrong claim convinced German intelligence that Eastchurch was a fighter station and the *Luftwaffe* would launch seven fruitless raids on it in the coming weeks. Added to this mistake was the failure to keep up pressure. Raids were spaced out, giving the field time to recover.Bungay 2000, pp. 207–208\. The station was used by RAF Coastal Command, which lost five [Bristol Blenheims](/wiki/Bristol_Blenheim "Bristol Blenheim") in the attack and one Coastal Command Spitfire. However, severe damage was done to the infrastructure. Much equipment and ammunition was destroyed and 16 of the Command's personnel were killed.Mason 1969, p. 238\. RAF Eastchurch was back in operation by 16:00\.James 2000, p. 73\.Hough and Richards 2007, p. 157\.
Eventually the bombers were intercepted. KG 2 lost five Do 17s in the attempt. Six Dorniers were also badly damaged. In return, accurate fire from the Dornier gunners shot down two Hurricanes from the attacking Squadrons: No. 111, No. 151 and No. 74 Squadron led by [Adolph Malan](/wiki/Adolph_Malan "Adolph Malan"). Malan himself shot down one Do 17\.Hough and Richards 2007, pp. 155–157\. Another source suggests the destruction of five Do 17s and another seven damaged.Goss 2005, p. 60\. German manpower losses amounted to 11 [killed in action](/wiki/Killed_in_action "Killed in action") and nine [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war "Prisoners of war").
### Coastal airfields and ports
[thumb\|right\|Messerschmitt Bf 110s of 1\./[LG 1](/wiki/LG_1 "LG 1"). The type suffered heavy losses on *Adlertag*.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-427-0412-033%2C_Flugzeug_Messerschmitt_Me_110.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-427-0412-033, Flugzeug Messerschmitt Me 110.jpg")
Most units of *Luftflotte* 2 received the order to abandon morning operations, but some began their attacks aimed at airfields and ports in southern Britain. KG 76 abandoned its attack on Debdende Zeng 2007 Vol 2, p. 232\. but struck at [RAF Kenley](/wiki/RAF_Kenley "RAF Kenley") and other airfields in [Kent](/wiki/Kent "Kent") and [Essex](/wiki/Essex "Essex"). Losses and results are unknown.de Zeng 2007 Vol 2, p. 228\. KG 27 also abandoned most of its operations. III./KG 27 did attempt to make it through to the Bristol docks, losing one He 111 to No. 87 Squadron RAF in the attempt. Little damage was done.Mason 1969, p. 241\.
The cancellation order had not reached *Luftflotte* 3 HQ at all. Its commander, [Hugo Sperrle](/wiki/Hugo_Sperrle "Hugo Sperrle") ordered attacks to commence. At 05:00, 20 [Junkers Ju 88s](/wiki/Junkers_Ju_88 "Junkers Ju 88") of I./KG 54 took off to bomb the [Royal Aircraft Establishment](/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment "Royal Aircraft Establishment")'s airfield at 'RAF Farnborough' (RAE Farnborough). At 05:05, 18 Ju 88s from II./KG 54 took off for [RAF Odiham](/wiki/RAF_Odiham "RAF Odiham"). At 05:50, 88 [Junkers Ju 87s](/wiki/Junkers_Ju_87 "Junkers Ju 87") of StG 77 began heading for [Portland Harbour](/wiki/Portland_Harbour "Portland Harbour"). The raids were escorted by about 60 Bf 110s of [*Zerstörergeschwader* 2](/wiki/Zerst%C3%B6rergeschwader_2 "Zerstörergeschwader 2") (Destroyer Wing 2; ZG 2\), and V./LG 1 and 173 Bf 109s from [*Jagdgeschwader* 27](/wiki/Jagdgeschwader_27 "Jagdgeschwader 27") (JG 27\), [JG 53](/wiki/Jagdgeschwader_53 "Jagdgeschwader 53") and [JG 3](/wiki/Jagdgeschwader_3 "Jagdgeschwader 3"), which all flew ahead of the bomber stream to clear the airspace of enemy fighters. StG 77's target was obscured by cloud, but KG 54 continued to their target. RAF fighters from [RAF Northolt](/wiki/RAF_Northolt "RAF Northolt"), [RAF Tangmere](/wiki/RAF_Tangmere "RAF Tangmere") and [RAF Middle Wallop](/wiki/RAF_Middle_Wallop "RAF Middle Wallop") intercepted. Four Ju 88s and one Bf 109 from JG 2 were shot down. The German fighters claimed six RAF fighters and the bombers another 14\. In reality, the bombers only damaged five. The Bf 109s destroyed only one and damaged another. Of the five RAF fighters damaged by the bombers, two were write\-offs. Of the 20 claimed, just three fighters were lost and three pilots were wounded. None were killed.Bungay 2000, p. 208\.{{sfn\|Mackay\|2001\|p\=31}}
Further missions by II./KG 54 to [RAF Croydon](/wiki/RAF_Croydon "RAF Croydon") were cancelled.de Zeng 2007 Vol 1, p. 184\. I./KG 54 struck at the [Fleet Air Arm](/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm "Fleet Air Arm") (FAA) base at [Gosport](/wiki/Gosport "Gosport").de Zeng 2007 Vol 1, p. 179\. ZG 2 was supposed to provide escort during one these attacks, and in a breakdown of communications, arrived over the target without their Ju 88s, which had been ordered to stand down. One Bf 110 was shot down by No. 238 Squadron RAF.Mason 1969, pp. 238–239\.
At 11:10, V./LG 1 Bf 110s took off in advance of a raid by KG 54, possibly to tempt RAF fighters into battle before the main assault, so the RAF would be out of position. The bombers' mission was cancelled. The order did not reach V./LG 1 who continued to their target area. The 23 Bf 110s continued to the target of Portland. They ran into No. 601 Squadron RAF Hurricanes and lost six Bf 110s destroyed and three damaged. Only one Hurricane was shot down and another damaged.Bungay 2000, p. 208\. A second source states only four Bf 110s were destroyed,de Zeng 2007 Vol 2, p. 372\. whilst a third gives the loss of five destroyed and five damaged.{{sfn\|Mackay\|2000\|p\=51}} The *Zerstörergeschwader* optimistically claimed 30 RAF fighters destroyed (in reality RAF fighter losses in aerial combat amounted to 13 throughout the entire day), for a loss of 13 Bf 110s.Weal 1999, p. 47\. The morning's effort had been a fiasco.Bungay 2000, p. 210\. The attacks showed a serious German technical failure in air\-to\-air communication.{{sfn\|Mackay\|2003\|p\=71}}
### Renewed attacks
[thumb\|Junkers Ju 88\. In the mid\-afternoon, this aircraft formed the backbone of German bomber formations.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-363-2258-11%2C_Flugzeug_Junkers_Ju_88.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-363-2258-11, Flugzeug Junkers Ju 88.jpg")
The official go\-ahead was given at 14:00\. At 15:30, some 58–80 Ju 88s from I., II., and III./LG 1, escorted by 30 Bf 110s of V./LG 1, took off to bomb [Boscombe Down](/wiki/Boscombe_Down "Boscombe Down") and [Worthy Down](/wiki/RAF_Worthy_Down "RAF Worthy Down"). [RAF Andover](/wiki/RAF_Andover "RAF Andover") was to be bombed as well, with the support of 52 Ju 87s from StG 1 and StG 2 who were to strike at RAF Warmwell and Yeovil. I./JG 53 flew a fighter sweep ahead of the bombers from Poole to Lyme Regis in order to tempt the RAF into battle. I./JG 53 made landfall at 16:00\. The sweep failed to attract and divert RAF squadrons. Instead, all it succeeded in doing was to alert the RAF defences a critical five minutes earlier. When the main wave of LG 1 and StG 2 arrived over the coast, they were greeted by 77 RAF fighters.Mason 1969, p. 239\.
II., and III./JG 53 and III./ZG 76 flew escort for the Ju 87s. ZG 2 and JG 27 flew escort for LG 1\. In response the whole of [No. 10 Group RAF](/wiki/No._10_Group_RAF "No. 10 Group RAF") intercepted. One *[Staffel](/wiki/Organization_of_the_Luftwaffe_%281933%E2%80%931945%29%23Staffel "Organization of the Luftwaffe (1933–1945)#Staffel")* (Squadron) of II./StG 2 was badly hit by [No. 609 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._609_Squadron_RAF "No. 609 Squadron RAF"); six out of nine Ju 87s were shot down.Bungay 2000, p. 210\. StG 1 and 2 gave up on their original targets owing to clouds. Both headed for Portland.Bungay 2000, p. 210\.
I./LG 1 abandoned Boscombe Down and bombed [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton "Southampton") instead. No. 238 Squadron had been detailed to intercept, but the fighter escort was too strong and the bombers were not diverted from their course. Several warehouses were destroyed and a cold storage plant was also knocked out. All fires were under control by dusk.James 2000, p. 77\. One III./LG 1 dropped its bombs by RAF Middle Wallop Sector Station by mistake. Only Andover airfield was hit, and it was used for bomber operations, not fighters.Bungay 2000, p. 210\. III./LG 1 lost two Ju 88s. The 13 Ju 88 *Gruppen* (Groups) had lost six destroyed and many damaged. They had escaped lightly.Weal 2000\. p. 54\. The bombing succeeded in destroying a bicycle factory, a furniture warehouse and a refrigerated meat depot.Korda 2009, p. 167\. *Luftwaffe* intelligence had not identified the Southampton Spitfire factory—on the waterfront near the docks—as an important target. Poor intelligence suggested it was a bomber factory. Only later, in September, was it attacked and severely damaged. However, even then the Germans were unaware of the damage inflicted to Spitfire production. The factory would later be broken up and production dispersed.Mason 1969, p. 237\.
### Ju 87 operations
[thumb\|Ju 87Bs. The Ju 87s severely damaged RAF Detling.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-1210-502%2C_Polen%2C_Stukas.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1987-1210-502, Polen, Stukas.jpg")
StG 77 was also in action, escorted by JG 27 Bf 109s. StG 77s 52 Ju 87s were joined by 40 Ju 88s of KG 54\. Both formations were heading for No. 10 Group RAF's airfields. StG 77 was targeting RAF Warmwell. The *Geschwader* failed to find its target, dropping its bombs at random. The other Ju 87 units had attracted much attention and StG 77 escaped unnoticed.Mason 1969, pp. 239–240\.
*Erprobungsgruppe* 210 were sent further east for an operation to attack targets near [Southend](/wiki/Southend "Southend"). They took off at 15:15 and were escorted by ZG 76\. They found unbroken cloud over Essex. [No. 56 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._56_Squadron_RAF "No. 56 Squadron RAF") intercepted, but *Erprobungsgruppe* 210 dropped their bombs over Canterbury. II./StG 1 was sent to bomb airfields near [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester_Airport_%28England%29 "Rochester Airport (England)"). It failed to find the target and returned without incident. IV./LG 1—also with Ju 87s—was sent after [RAF Detling](/wiki/RAF_Detling "RAF Detling"). JG 26 went out on a fighter sweep to clear the skies in advance of the attack. JG 26 lost one Bf 109 over [Folkestone](/wiki/Folkestone "Folkestone") from an unknown cause. The Ju 87s bombed the station and 40 Bf 109s strafed it, killing the commander.Bungay 2000, p. 211\. The operations block was hit, causing high casualties. The losses were disastrous for [No. 53 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._53_Squadron_RAF "No. 53 Squadron RAF"), which lost a number of Blenheims on the ground.Warner 2005, p. 258\. The commander killed was [Group Captain](/wiki/Group_Captain "Group Captain") E P Meggs\-Davis.[RAF Station Commanders – South East England](http://www.rafweb.org/Stations/Station%20OCs-SE.htm) One Squadron Leader was killed—a J.H Lowe—and a further two were wounded. One of the wounded men was a [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") ace [Robert J. O. Compston](/wiki/Robert_J._O._Compston "Robert J. O. Compston").Saunders 2013, p. 211\. The station's casualties amounted to 24 killed and 42 wounded.Saunders 2013, p. 212\. However, Detling was not an RAF Fighter Command station and the attack did not affect [No. 11 Group RAF](/wiki/No._11_Group_RAF "No. 11 Group RAF") in any way.Mason 1969, p. 240\.
### South East raids
I., II., and III./KG 55 were also in action. III./KG 55 bombed [Heathrow Airport](/wiki/Heathrow_Airport "Heathrow Airport"). Results are unknown and losses are unclear. KG 55 suffered heavy losses the previous day, so its operations seemed limited. On 12 August it lost 13 [Heinkel He 111s](/wiki/Heinkel_He_111 "Heinkel He 111") and their crews. The next day, 14 August, they would lose their *[Geschwaderkommodore](/wiki/Geschwaderkommodore "Geschwaderkommodore")* ([Wing Commander](/wiki/Wing_Commander_%28rank%29 "Wing Commander (rank)")) [Alois Stoeckl](/wiki/Alois_Stoeckl "Alois Stoeckl").Dierich 1975, p. 39\.Hall and Quinlan 2000, p. 18\.
In the afternoon, a force of 80 Do 17s of KG 3—escorted by JG 51, JG 52, JG 54 and 60 Bf 109s from JG 26 (some 270 aircraft in all)—headed for Eastchurch airfield and the [Short Brothers](/wiki/Short_Brothers "Short Brothers") factory at Rochester. III./KG 3 broke away from the main formation and attacked Eastchurch while II./KG 3 headed for Rochester. Significant damage was done to the factory producing the [Short Stirling](/wiki/Short_Stirling "Short Stirling") [heavy bomber](/wiki/Heavy_bomber "Heavy bomber"). The RAF's [No. 3](/wiki/No._3_Squadron_RAF "No. 3 Squadron RAF"), No. 64, No. 111, No. 151, [No. 234](/wiki/No._234_Squadron_RAF "No. 234 Squadron RAF"), [No. 249](/wiki/No._249_Squadron_RAF "No. 249 Squadron RAF"), No. 601 and No. 609 Squadrons intercepted. According to the account of JG 26, the British fighters made little impression on the bombers.Baker 1996, p. 113\. Three JG 51 Bf 109s were shot down in skirmishes with RAF fighters.Mason 1969, p. 242\.
RAF Bomber Command also took part in the day's fighting. Although [Charles Portal](/wiki/Charles_Portal "Charles Portal")—AOC (Air Officer Commanding)—had protested against the pointlessness of attacking airfields in [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia"), the [Air Ministry](/wiki/Air_Ministry "Air Ministry") insisted on such raids. [No. 82 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._82_Squadron_RAF "No. 82 Squadron RAF") sent twelve Bristol Blenheims to bomb KG 30 airfields at [Aalborg](/wiki/Aalborg "Aalborg"), [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"). One pilot turned back complaining of "fuel problems" and was court\-martialled. That bomber was the only one to return. The rest fell to AAA fire and fighters.Bungay 2000, p. 211\. Some 24 airmen were killed and nine were captured.
### Night raids
As darkness fell at the close of *Adlertag*, Sperrle sent nine [*Kampfgruppe* 100](/wiki/Kampfgruppe_100 "Kampfgruppe 100") (Bombing Group 100\) He 111s to conduct a [strategic bombing](/wiki/Strategic_bombing "Strategic bombing") raid against the Supermarine Spitfire factory at [Castle Bromwich](/wiki/Castle_Bromwich "Castle Bromwich"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"). Despite the group being a specialist night strike unit which had high expertise in night navigation, only four of the crews found their targets. The eleven {{convert\|551\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} bombs dropped were not sufficient to disrupt fighter production. Around five of the 11 fell inside the compound. Casualties were small as workers had gone to shelter. Serious damage was done only to offices and a tool room, while a gas main was fractured.James 2000, p. 80\. Another group, led by *Gruppenkommandeur* *[Hauptmann](/wiki/Hauptmann "Hauptmann")* (Captain) Friedrich Achenbrenner, dispatched 15 He 111s from bases in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany "Brittany") across the [Irish Sea](/wiki/Irish_Sea "Irish Sea") to strike at the Short Brothers factory at [Queen's Island](/wiki/Queen%27s_Island "Queen's Island"), [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast") [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland"). Five Short Stirling aircraft were destroyed. KG 27 also took part in the missions, and bombed [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow") during the night although their specific target is unclear. Other bombers, commencing the night stage of *Adlertag*, resolutely flew the length and breadth of Great Britain, bombing [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol"), [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), [Swansea](/wiki/Swansea "Swansea"), Liverpool, [Sheffield](/wiki/Sheffield "Sheffield"), [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich "Norwich"), [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh") and [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen "Aberdeen"). Very little damage was done, though some rail tracks were cut temporarily and around 100 casualties were suffered.Mason 1969, p. 243\.Goss 2000, p. 80\. It is unknown if any German aircraft were lost. One German airman was found wandering around the countryside in [Balcombe](/wiki/Balcombe "Balcombe"), West Sussex. No other traces of the aircraft or other crew members were found.
|
[
"Battle\n------",
"### KG 2 raid",
"[thumb\\| KG 2 flew [Dornier Do 17s](/wiki/Dornier_Do_17 \"Dornier Do 17\") like these throughout the Battle of Britain.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-342-0603-25%2C_Belgien-Frankreich%2C_Flugzeuge_Dornier_Do_17.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-342-0603-25, Belgien-Frankreich, Flugzeuge Dornier Do 17.jpg\")",
"On the morning of 13 August, the weather was bad and Göring ordered a postponement of raids.Bungay 2000, p. 208\\. However, the [Dornier Do 17s](/wiki/Dornier_Do_17 \"Dornier Do 17\") of KG 2 were not informed and took off at 04:50 for their target. They were to meet with their escorts from ZG 26 over the Channel. ZG 26 received the cancellation order, but II., and III./KG 2 did not. KG 2 had formed up by 05:10, led by *Geschwaderkommodore* Johannes Fink. Part of the ZG 26 formation that had taken off—led by *[Oberstleutnant](/wiki/Oberstleutnant \"Oberstleutnant\")* [Joachim Huth](/wiki/Joachim_Huth \"Joachim Huth\")—tried to warn the Dorniers of the cancellation. Unable to contact the bombers by radio, Huth tried to signal them by flying in front of them and performing aerobatics. Fink ignored him and flew on. KG 2 flew around the coast to his target, [Eastchurch](/wiki/Eastchurch \"Eastchurch\") airfield on the [Isle of Sheppey](/wiki/Isle_of_Sheppey \"Isle of Sheppey\"). [Albert Kesselring](/wiki/Albert_Kesselring \"Albert Kesselring\") had issued orders for bombers to abandon missions if their escorts did not show up, but Fink did not want to be accused of failing to obey orders and continued onward even though the Bf 110s turned back. The return leg would take KG 2 across No. 11 Group's territory, which could have been disastrous without fighter escort. But owing to the [Observer Corps](/wiki/Observer_Corps \"Observer Corps\") misjudging the direction of the bombers, due to low\\-lying cloud,Collier 1980, p. 51\\. and the radar not picking up the direction of the German bombers, the WAAF plotted the course of the raid incorrectly and the RAF failed to prevent the target being attacked.",
"For an hour after dawn on 13 August, there were few German tracks upon the plot tables in operations rooms, and none at all in the central and eastern Channel. The first signs of concentration, however, came earlier than usual, for between 05:30 and 05:40 two formations of 30 or more aircraft were located in the [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens \"Amiens\") area. For 30 minutes, they remained over land, but at 06:10 they began moving inland. The Observer Corps and radar tracked them and guided the RAF units to intercept. Unaware of the German intent, the controllers directed three full Squadrons and detachments of three others were alerted by 06:15\\. [No. 151](/wiki/No._151_Squadron_RAF \"No. 151 Squadron RAF\") was protecting a convoy in the Thames, [No. 111](/wiki/No._111_Squadron_RAF \"No. 111 Squadron RAF\") was protecting RAF Hawkinge and [No. 74 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._74_Squadron_RAF \"No. 74 Squadron RAF\") was covering RAF Manston. Parts of [No. 85](/wiki/No._85_Squadron_RAF \"No. 85 Squadron RAF\"), [No. 43](/wiki/No._43_Squadron_RAF \"No. 43 Squadron RAF\") and [No. 238 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._238_Squadron_RAF \"No. 238 Squadron RAF\") were also airborne near London. By 06:25, the German formations were well over the Channel. No. 238 was moved to cover their own base at [RAF Warmwell](/wiki/RAF_Warmwell \"RAF Warmwell\"). [No. 257 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._257_Squadron_RAF \"No. 257 Squadron RAF\") was also ordered to take off at 06:20 to patrol [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury \"Canterbury\"). Not satisfied with the strength of the forces already airborne, controllers dispatched [No. 601](/wiki/No._601_Squadron_RAF \"No. 601 Squadron RAF\"), [213](/wiki/No._213_Squadron_RAF \"No. 213 Squadron RAF\"), [64](/wiki/No._64_Squadron_RAF \"No. 64 Squadron RAF\") and [87](/wiki/No._87_Squadron_RAF \"No. 87 Squadron RAF\") Squadrons to intercept between 06:30 and 06:35\\. The first combats began at 06:30\\.James 2000, pp. 71–73\\.",
"Owing to the mistake by the Observer Corps, and the *Geschwader* being missed approaching the eastern, instead of central Channel by radar, KG 2 hit the RAF airfield. KG 2 claimed 10 Spitfires destroyed on the ground. In fact, no Fighter Command fighters were lost. For some time afterward, this wrong claim convinced German intelligence that Eastchurch was a fighter station and the *Luftwaffe* would launch seven fruitless raids on it in the coming weeks. Added to this mistake was the failure to keep up pressure. Raids were spaced out, giving the field time to recover.Bungay 2000, pp. 207–208\\. The station was used by RAF Coastal Command, which lost five [Bristol Blenheims](/wiki/Bristol_Blenheim \"Bristol Blenheim\") in the attack and one Coastal Command Spitfire. However, severe damage was done to the infrastructure. Much equipment and ammunition was destroyed and 16 of the Command's personnel were killed.Mason 1969, p. 238\\. RAF Eastchurch was back in operation by 16:00\\.James 2000, p. 73\\.Hough and Richards 2007, p. 157\\.",
"Eventually the bombers were intercepted. KG 2 lost five Do 17s in the attempt. Six Dorniers were also badly damaged. In return, accurate fire from the Dornier gunners shot down two Hurricanes from the attacking Squadrons: No. 111, No. 151 and No. 74 Squadron led by [Adolph Malan](/wiki/Adolph_Malan \"Adolph Malan\"). Malan himself shot down one Do 17\\.Hough and Richards 2007, pp. 155–157\\. Another source suggests the destruction of five Do 17s and another seven damaged.Goss 2005, p. 60\\. German manpower losses amounted to 11 [killed in action](/wiki/Killed_in_action \"Killed in action\") and nine [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war \"Prisoners of war\").",
"### Coastal airfields and ports",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Messerschmitt Bf 110s of 1\\./[LG 1](/wiki/LG_1 \"LG 1\"). The type suffered heavy losses on *Adlertag*.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-427-0412-033%2C_Flugzeug_Messerschmitt_Me_110.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-427-0412-033, Flugzeug Messerschmitt Me 110.jpg\")",
"Most units of *Luftflotte* 2 received the order to abandon morning operations, but some began their attacks aimed at airfields and ports in southern Britain. KG 76 abandoned its attack on Debdende Zeng 2007 Vol 2, p. 232\\. but struck at [RAF Kenley](/wiki/RAF_Kenley \"RAF Kenley\") and other airfields in [Kent](/wiki/Kent \"Kent\") and [Essex](/wiki/Essex \"Essex\"). Losses and results are unknown.de Zeng 2007 Vol 2, p. 228\\. KG 27 also abandoned most of its operations. III./KG 27 did attempt to make it through to the Bristol docks, losing one He 111 to No. 87 Squadron RAF in the attempt. Little damage was done.Mason 1969, p. 241\\.",
"The cancellation order had not reached *Luftflotte* 3 HQ at all. Its commander, [Hugo Sperrle](/wiki/Hugo_Sperrle \"Hugo Sperrle\") ordered attacks to commence. At 05:00, 20 [Junkers Ju 88s](/wiki/Junkers_Ju_88 \"Junkers Ju 88\") of I./KG 54 took off to bomb the [Royal Aircraft Establishment](/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment \"Royal Aircraft Establishment\")'s airfield at 'RAF Farnborough' (RAE Farnborough). At 05:05, 18 Ju 88s from II./KG 54 took off for [RAF Odiham](/wiki/RAF_Odiham \"RAF Odiham\"). At 05:50, 88 [Junkers Ju 87s](/wiki/Junkers_Ju_87 \"Junkers Ju 87\") of StG 77 began heading for [Portland Harbour](/wiki/Portland_Harbour \"Portland Harbour\"). The raids were escorted by about 60 Bf 110s of [*Zerstörergeschwader* 2](/wiki/Zerst%C3%B6rergeschwader_2 \"Zerstörergeschwader 2\") (Destroyer Wing 2; ZG 2\\), and V./LG 1 and 173 Bf 109s from [*Jagdgeschwader* 27](/wiki/Jagdgeschwader_27 \"Jagdgeschwader 27\") (JG 27\\), [JG 53](/wiki/Jagdgeschwader_53 \"Jagdgeschwader 53\") and [JG 3](/wiki/Jagdgeschwader_3 \"Jagdgeschwader 3\"), which all flew ahead of the bomber stream to clear the airspace of enemy fighters. StG 77's target was obscured by cloud, but KG 54 continued to their target. RAF fighters from [RAF Northolt](/wiki/RAF_Northolt \"RAF Northolt\"), [RAF Tangmere](/wiki/RAF_Tangmere \"RAF Tangmere\") and [RAF Middle Wallop](/wiki/RAF_Middle_Wallop \"RAF Middle Wallop\") intercepted. Four Ju 88s and one Bf 109 from JG 2 were shot down. The German fighters claimed six RAF fighters and the bombers another 14\\. In reality, the bombers only damaged five. The Bf 109s destroyed only one and damaged another. Of the five RAF fighters damaged by the bombers, two were write\\-offs. Of the 20 claimed, just three fighters were lost and three pilots were wounded. None were killed.Bungay 2000, p. 208\\.{{sfn\\|Mackay\\|2001\\|p\\=31}}",
"Further missions by II./KG 54 to [RAF Croydon](/wiki/RAF_Croydon \"RAF Croydon\") were cancelled.de Zeng 2007 Vol 1, p. 184\\. I./KG 54 struck at the [Fleet Air Arm](/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm \"Fleet Air Arm\") (FAA) base at [Gosport](/wiki/Gosport \"Gosport\").de Zeng 2007 Vol 1, p. 179\\. ZG 2 was supposed to provide escort during one these attacks, and in a breakdown of communications, arrived over the target without their Ju 88s, which had been ordered to stand down. One Bf 110 was shot down by No. 238 Squadron RAF.Mason 1969, pp. 238–239\\.",
"At 11:10, V./LG 1 Bf 110s took off in advance of a raid by KG 54, possibly to tempt RAF fighters into battle before the main assault, so the RAF would be out of position. The bombers' mission was cancelled. The order did not reach V./LG 1 who continued to their target area. The 23 Bf 110s continued to the target of Portland. They ran into No. 601 Squadron RAF Hurricanes and lost six Bf 110s destroyed and three damaged. Only one Hurricane was shot down and another damaged.Bungay 2000, p. 208\\. A second source states only four Bf 110s were destroyed,de Zeng 2007 Vol 2, p. 372\\. whilst a third gives the loss of five destroyed and five damaged.{{sfn\\|Mackay\\|2000\\|p\\=51}} The *Zerstörergeschwader* optimistically claimed 30 RAF fighters destroyed (in reality RAF fighter losses in aerial combat amounted to 13 throughout the entire day), for a loss of 13 Bf 110s.Weal 1999, p. 47\\. The morning's effort had been a fiasco.Bungay 2000, p. 210\\. The attacks showed a serious German technical failure in air\\-to\\-air communication.{{sfn\\|Mackay\\|2003\\|p\\=71}}",
"### Renewed attacks",
"[thumb\\|Junkers Ju 88\\. In the mid\\-afternoon, this aircraft formed the backbone of German bomber formations.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-363-2258-11%2C_Flugzeug_Junkers_Ju_88.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-363-2258-11, Flugzeug Junkers Ju 88.jpg\")",
"The official go\\-ahead was given at 14:00\\. At 15:30, some 58–80 Ju 88s from I., II., and III./LG 1, escorted by 30 Bf 110s of V./LG 1, took off to bomb [Boscombe Down](/wiki/Boscombe_Down \"Boscombe Down\") and [Worthy Down](/wiki/RAF_Worthy_Down \"RAF Worthy Down\"). [RAF Andover](/wiki/RAF_Andover \"RAF Andover\") was to be bombed as well, with the support of 52 Ju 87s from StG 1 and StG 2 who were to strike at RAF Warmwell and Yeovil. I./JG 53 flew a fighter sweep ahead of the bombers from Poole to Lyme Regis in order to tempt the RAF into battle. I./JG 53 made landfall at 16:00\\. The sweep failed to attract and divert RAF squadrons. Instead, all it succeeded in doing was to alert the RAF defences a critical five minutes earlier. When the main wave of LG 1 and StG 2 arrived over the coast, they were greeted by 77 RAF fighters.Mason 1969, p. 239\\.",
"II., and III./JG 53 and III./ZG 76 flew escort for the Ju 87s. ZG 2 and JG 27 flew escort for LG 1\\. In response the whole of [No. 10 Group RAF](/wiki/No._10_Group_RAF \"No. 10 Group RAF\") intercepted. One *[Staffel](/wiki/Organization_of_the_Luftwaffe_%281933%E2%80%931945%29%23Staffel \"Organization of the Luftwaffe (1933–1945)#Staffel\")* (Squadron) of II./StG 2 was badly hit by [No. 609 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._609_Squadron_RAF \"No. 609 Squadron RAF\"); six out of nine Ju 87s were shot down.Bungay 2000, p. 210\\. StG 1 and 2 gave up on their original targets owing to clouds. Both headed for Portland.Bungay 2000, p. 210\\.",
"I./LG 1 abandoned Boscombe Down and bombed [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\") instead. No. 238 Squadron had been detailed to intercept, but the fighter escort was too strong and the bombers were not diverted from their course. Several warehouses were destroyed and a cold storage plant was also knocked out. All fires were under control by dusk.James 2000, p. 77\\. One III./LG 1 dropped its bombs by RAF Middle Wallop Sector Station by mistake. Only Andover airfield was hit, and it was used for bomber operations, not fighters.Bungay 2000, p. 210\\. III./LG 1 lost two Ju 88s. The 13 Ju 88 *Gruppen* (Groups) had lost six destroyed and many damaged. They had escaped lightly.Weal 2000\\. p. 54\\. The bombing succeeded in destroying a bicycle factory, a furniture warehouse and a refrigerated meat depot.Korda 2009, p. 167\\. *Luftwaffe* intelligence had not identified the Southampton Spitfire factory—on the waterfront near the docks—as an important target. Poor intelligence suggested it was a bomber factory. Only later, in September, was it attacked and severely damaged. However, even then the Germans were unaware of the damage inflicted to Spitfire production. The factory would later be broken up and production dispersed.Mason 1969, p. 237\\.",
"### Ju 87 operations",
"[thumb\\|Ju 87Bs. The Ju 87s severely damaged RAF Detling.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-1210-502%2C_Polen%2C_Stukas.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1987-1210-502, Polen, Stukas.jpg\")",
"StG 77 was also in action, escorted by JG 27 Bf 109s. StG 77s 52 Ju 87s were joined by 40 Ju 88s of KG 54\\. Both formations were heading for No. 10 Group RAF's airfields. StG 77 was targeting RAF Warmwell. The *Geschwader* failed to find its target, dropping its bombs at random. The other Ju 87 units had attracted much attention and StG 77 escaped unnoticed.Mason 1969, pp. 239–240\\.",
"*Erprobungsgruppe* 210 were sent further east for an operation to attack targets near [Southend](/wiki/Southend \"Southend\"). They took off at 15:15 and were escorted by ZG 76\\. They found unbroken cloud over Essex. [No. 56 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._56_Squadron_RAF \"No. 56 Squadron RAF\") intercepted, but *Erprobungsgruppe* 210 dropped their bombs over Canterbury. II./StG 1 was sent to bomb airfields near [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester_Airport_%28England%29 \"Rochester Airport (England)\"). It failed to find the target and returned without incident. IV./LG 1—also with Ju 87s—was sent after [RAF Detling](/wiki/RAF_Detling \"RAF Detling\"). JG 26 went out on a fighter sweep to clear the skies in advance of the attack. JG 26 lost one Bf 109 over [Folkestone](/wiki/Folkestone \"Folkestone\") from an unknown cause. The Ju 87s bombed the station and 40 Bf 109s strafed it, killing the commander.Bungay 2000, p. 211\\. The operations block was hit, causing high casualties. The losses were disastrous for [No. 53 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._53_Squadron_RAF \"No. 53 Squadron RAF\"), which lost a number of Blenheims on the ground.Warner 2005, p. 258\\. The commander killed was [Group Captain](/wiki/Group_Captain \"Group Captain\") E P Meggs\\-Davis.[RAF Station Commanders – South East England](http://www.rafweb.org/Stations/Station%20OCs-SE.htm) One Squadron Leader was killed—a J.H Lowe—and a further two were wounded. One of the wounded men was a [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") ace [Robert J. O. Compston](/wiki/Robert_J._O._Compston \"Robert J. O. Compston\").Saunders 2013, p. 211\\. The station's casualties amounted to 24 killed and 42 wounded.Saunders 2013, p. 212\\. However, Detling was not an RAF Fighter Command station and the attack did not affect [No. 11 Group RAF](/wiki/No._11_Group_RAF \"No. 11 Group RAF\") in any way.Mason 1969, p. 240\\.",
"### South East raids",
"I., II., and III./KG 55 were also in action. III./KG 55 bombed [Heathrow Airport](/wiki/Heathrow_Airport \"Heathrow Airport\"). Results are unknown and losses are unclear. KG 55 suffered heavy losses the previous day, so its operations seemed limited. On 12 August it lost 13 [Heinkel He 111s](/wiki/Heinkel_He_111 \"Heinkel He 111\") and their crews. The next day, 14 August, they would lose their *[Geschwaderkommodore](/wiki/Geschwaderkommodore \"Geschwaderkommodore\")* ([Wing Commander](/wiki/Wing_Commander_%28rank%29 \"Wing Commander (rank)\")) [Alois Stoeckl](/wiki/Alois_Stoeckl \"Alois Stoeckl\").Dierich 1975, p. 39\\.Hall and Quinlan 2000, p. 18\\.",
"In the afternoon, a force of 80 Do 17s of KG 3—escorted by JG 51, JG 52, JG 54 and 60 Bf 109s from JG 26 (some 270 aircraft in all)—headed for Eastchurch airfield and the [Short Brothers](/wiki/Short_Brothers \"Short Brothers\") factory at Rochester. III./KG 3 broke away from the main formation and attacked Eastchurch while II./KG 3 headed for Rochester. Significant damage was done to the factory producing the [Short Stirling](/wiki/Short_Stirling \"Short Stirling\") [heavy bomber](/wiki/Heavy_bomber \"Heavy bomber\"). The RAF's [No. 3](/wiki/No._3_Squadron_RAF \"No. 3 Squadron RAF\"), No. 64, No. 111, No. 151, [No. 234](/wiki/No._234_Squadron_RAF \"No. 234 Squadron RAF\"), [No. 249](/wiki/No._249_Squadron_RAF \"No. 249 Squadron RAF\"), No. 601 and No. 609 Squadrons intercepted. According to the account of JG 26, the British fighters made little impression on the bombers.Baker 1996, p. 113\\. Three JG 51 Bf 109s were shot down in skirmishes with RAF fighters.Mason 1969, p. 242\\.",
"RAF Bomber Command also took part in the day's fighting. Although [Charles Portal](/wiki/Charles_Portal \"Charles Portal\")—AOC (Air Officer Commanding)—had protested against the pointlessness of attacking airfields in [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\"), the [Air Ministry](/wiki/Air_Ministry \"Air Ministry\") insisted on such raids. [No. 82 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._82_Squadron_RAF \"No. 82 Squadron RAF\") sent twelve Bristol Blenheims to bomb KG 30 airfields at [Aalborg](/wiki/Aalborg \"Aalborg\"), [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\"). One pilot turned back complaining of \"fuel problems\" and was court\\-martialled. That bomber was the only one to return. The rest fell to AAA fire and fighters.Bungay 2000, p. 211\\. Some 24 airmen were killed and nine were captured.",
"### Night raids",
"As darkness fell at the close of *Adlertag*, Sperrle sent nine [*Kampfgruppe* 100](/wiki/Kampfgruppe_100 \"Kampfgruppe 100\") (Bombing Group 100\\) He 111s to conduct a [strategic bombing](/wiki/Strategic_bombing \"Strategic bombing\") raid against the Supermarine Spitfire factory at [Castle Bromwich](/wiki/Castle_Bromwich \"Castle Bromwich\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"). Despite the group being a specialist night strike unit which had high expertise in night navigation, only four of the crews found their targets. The eleven {{convert\\|551\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} bombs dropped were not sufficient to disrupt fighter production. Around five of the 11 fell inside the compound. Casualties were small as workers had gone to shelter. Serious damage was done only to offices and a tool room, while a gas main was fractured.James 2000, p. 80\\. Another group, led by *Gruppenkommandeur* *[Hauptmann](/wiki/Hauptmann \"Hauptmann\")* (Captain) Friedrich Achenbrenner, dispatched 15 He 111s from bases in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\") across the [Irish Sea](/wiki/Irish_Sea \"Irish Sea\") to strike at the Short Brothers factory at [Queen's Island](/wiki/Queen%27s_Island \"Queen's Island\"), [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\") [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\"). Five Short Stirling aircraft were destroyed. KG 27 also took part in the missions, and bombed [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\") during the night although their specific target is unclear. Other bombers, commencing the night stage of *Adlertag*, resolutely flew the length and breadth of Great Britain, bombing [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\"), [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), [Swansea](/wiki/Swansea \"Swansea\"), Liverpool, [Sheffield](/wiki/Sheffield \"Sheffield\"), [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich \"Norwich\"), [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") and [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen \"Aberdeen\"). Very little damage was done, though some rail tracks were cut temporarily and around 100 casualties were suffered.Mason 1969, p. 243\\.Goss 2000, p. 80\\. It is unknown if any German aircraft were lost. One German airman was found wandering around the countryside in [Balcombe](/wiki/Balcombe \"Balcombe\"), West Sussex. No other traces of the aircraft or other crew members were found.",
""
] |
Architecture and Decoration
---------------------------
The façade was designed to be a monument at the end of the Borgo Santa Croce, running from the [Prato della Valle](/wiki/Prato_della_Valle "Prato della Valle") to the outer wall. It has a pediment supported by pilasters and half\-columns of [Corinthian order](/wiki/Corinthian_order "Corinthian order"). Two circular turrets lighten the architecture. The main door has a curved [tympanum](/wiki/Tympanum_%28architecture%29 "Tympanum (architecture)") under the inscription that commemorates the consecration of the church. The late\-[Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_architecture "Baroque architecture") and early [Neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture") design was by the architect [Girolamo Frigimelica Roberti](/wiki/Girolamo_Frigimelica_Roberti "Girolamo Frigimelica Roberti") of Padua. The bell tower on the side of the twentieth\-century church is built on the area of the cemetery.
The well\-lit nave features a rich decoration on which is placed a series of openings in fenestrated fake balcony, probably as choirs. The presbytery with semicircular apse is decorated with impressive semi\-columns. The ceiling of the church is decorated with coffers, stucco and gilding. The frescoes have been attributed to [Gualtieri](/wiki/Gualtieri "Gualtieri"), [Girolamo dal Santo](/wiki/Girolamo_Tessari "Girolamo Tessari"), [Domenico Campagnola](/wiki/Domenico_Campagnola "Domenico Campagnola"), and [Stefano Dall' Arzere](/wiki/Stefano_Dall%27_Arzere "Stefano Dall' Arzere").[Padovando](http://www.padovando.com/monumenti/santa-croce/), entry on oratory and church.
The main altar has two angels sculpted by [Antonio Bonazza](/wiki/Antonio_Bonazza "Antonio Bonazza") (1698–1763\) surmounted by a canopy. The apse has a wooden choir. The church has four altarpieces by [Giovanni Battista Mariotti](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Mariotti "Giovanni Battista Mariotti") (1690–1748\), including depicting the founder of the Somaschi order *San Girolamo Miani praying in a grotto*. Another fresco depicting the *Holy Heart of Jesus* was painted by [Giovanni Dandolo](/wiki/Giovanni_Dandolo "Giovanni Dandolo").
Through a door on the right, one can enter the *Cappella della Madonna della Neve* (Chapel of the Madonna of the Snows) and the *Sala del Redentore* or Oratory of the Confraternity of the Redeemer. The oratory dates to the 15th century and was the home of the former Confraternity of the *Corpo di Cristo di Santa Croce* established at the end of the 15th century. The confraternity was involved in tending to the poor and burying the impoverished. The frescoes of the oratory have been restored.[Santa Croce](http://www.santacrocepd.it/storia.php).
Cleric Somascan entrusted the large ceiling fresco, depicting the *Exaltation of the Cross*, and the oval dome of the presbytery to the Venetian [Nicolo Baldassini](/wiki/Nicolo_Baldassini "Nicolo Baldassini"). The paintings at side altars and walls of the apse were commissioned Giambattista Mariotti. The location of the paintings was altered with the arrival of the early 800 Salus Populi Patavini, venerated seventeenth\-century wooden statue of Our Lady of Health, coming from the oratory and linked to the plague that struck the city in the seventeenth century.
On the first altar to the right from the entrance is a painting of the Mariotti with [St. John Nepomuk](/wiki/St._John_of_Nepomuk "St. John of Nepomuk"), [St. Francis of Paola](/wiki/St._Francis_of_Paola "St. Francis of Paola") and Antonio. The wooden choir is below *Adoration of the True Cross by St Helena* was painted by [Antonio Bonazza](/wiki/Antonio_Bonazza "Antonio Bonazza").[Guida per la città di Padova all'amico delle belle arti](https://books.google.com/books?id=kNo4xXg-BKcC) by Giovanni Antonio Moschini pages 60\-61\. On the first altar on the left from the entrance there is the painting of [St. Jerome](/wiki/St._Jerome "St. Jerome") by Emiliani.
The one story building to the right of the entrance of this church, with a marble portal and plaque above, is the *Oratorio del Redentore* or *Scuola del Santissimo Sacramento di Santa Croce*. The interior was frescoed circa 1537 with biblical scenes; the works have been attributed to [Girolamo Dal Santo](/wiki/Girolamo_Dal_Santo "Girolamo Dal Santo"), [Domenico Campagnola](/wiki/Domenico_Campagnola "Domenico Campagnola"), [Stefano Dall'Arzere](/wiki/Stefano_Dall%27Arzere "Stefano Dall'Arzere"), and others. The confraternity was suppressed in the 19th century. The works extant include a *Last supper*; a *Prayer at Gesthemane*, a *Kiss of Judas*, *Christ before Caiphas*, *Christ before Pilate*; *Christ made to wear crown with thorns*, *Christ carries the Cross*, *Christ kneels before Cross*, *Crucifixion*, *Deposition*, and *Burial of Christ*, and *Sacrifice of Isaac*, portraits of the patrons of the city: Saints Giustina, Prosdocimo, Antonio, and Daniele.[Lega Ambiente Padova](http://salvalarte.legambientepadova.it/redent.htm) website.
|
[
"Architecture and Decoration\n---------------------------",
"The façade was designed to be a monument at the end of the Borgo Santa Croce, running from the [Prato della Valle](/wiki/Prato_della_Valle \"Prato della Valle\") to the outer wall. It has a pediment supported by pilasters and half\\-columns of [Corinthian order](/wiki/Corinthian_order \"Corinthian order\"). Two circular turrets lighten the architecture. The main door has a curved [tympanum](/wiki/Tympanum_%28architecture%29 \"Tympanum (architecture)\") under the inscription that commemorates the consecration of the church. The late\\-[Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_architecture \"Baroque architecture\") and early [Neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\") design was by the architect [Girolamo Frigimelica Roberti](/wiki/Girolamo_Frigimelica_Roberti \"Girolamo Frigimelica Roberti\") of Padua. The bell tower on the side of the twentieth\\-century church is built on the area of the cemetery.",
"The well\\-lit nave features a rich decoration on which is placed a series of openings in fenestrated fake balcony, probably as choirs. The presbytery with semicircular apse is decorated with impressive semi\\-columns. The ceiling of the church is decorated with coffers, stucco and gilding. The frescoes have been attributed to [Gualtieri](/wiki/Gualtieri \"Gualtieri\"), [Girolamo dal Santo](/wiki/Girolamo_Tessari \"Girolamo Tessari\"), [Domenico Campagnola](/wiki/Domenico_Campagnola \"Domenico Campagnola\"), and [Stefano Dall' Arzere](/wiki/Stefano_Dall%27_Arzere \"Stefano Dall' Arzere\").[Padovando](http://www.padovando.com/monumenti/santa-croce/), entry on oratory and church.",
"The main altar has two angels sculpted by [Antonio Bonazza](/wiki/Antonio_Bonazza \"Antonio Bonazza\") (1698–1763\\) surmounted by a canopy. The apse has a wooden choir. The church has four altarpieces by [Giovanni Battista Mariotti](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Mariotti \"Giovanni Battista Mariotti\") (1690–1748\\), including depicting the founder of the Somaschi order *San Girolamo Miani praying in a grotto*. Another fresco depicting the *Holy Heart of Jesus* was painted by [Giovanni Dandolo](/wiki/Giovanni_Dandolo \"Giovanni Dandolo\").",
"Through a door on the right, one can enter the *Cappella della Madonna della Neve* (Chapel of the Madonna of the Snows) and the *Sala del Redentore* or Oratory of the Confraternity of the Redeemer. The oratory dates to the 15th century and was the home of the former Confraternity of the *Corpo di Cristo di Santa Croce* established at the end of the 15th century. The confraternity was involved in tending to the poor and burying the impoverished. The frescoes of the oratory have been restored.[Santa Croce](http://www.santacrocepd.it/storia.php).",
"Cleric Somascan entrusted the large ceiling fresco, depicting the *Exaltation of the Cross*, and the oval dome of the presbytery to the Venetian [Nicolo Baldassini](/wiki/Nicolo_Baldassini \"Nicolo Baldassini\"). The paintings at side altars and walls of the apse were commissioned Giambattista Mariotti. The location of the paintings was altered with the arrival of the early 800 Salus Populi Patavini, venerated seventeenth\\-century wooden statue of Our Lady of Health, coming from the oratory and linked to the plague that struck the city in the seventeenth century.",
"On the first altar to the right from the entrance is a painting of the Mariotti with [St. John Nepomuk](/wiki/St._John_of_Nepomuk \"St. John of Nepomuk\"), [St. Francis of Paola](/wiki/St._Francis_of_Paola \"St. Francis of Paola\") and Antonio. The wooden choir is below *Adoration of the True Cross by St Helena* was painted by [Antonio Bonazza](/wiki/Antonio_Bonazza \"Antonio Bonazza\").[Guida per la città di Padova all'amico delle belle arti](https://books.google.com/books?id=kNo4xXg-BKcC) by Giovanni Antonio Moschini pages 60\\-61\\. On the first altar on the left from the entrance there is the painting of [St. Jerome](/wiki/St._Jerome \"St. Jerome\") by Emiliani.",
"The one story building to the right of the entrance of this church, with a marble portal and plaque above, is the *Oratorio del Redentore* or *Scuola del Santissimo Sacramento di Santa Croce*. The interior was frescoed circa 1537 with biblical scenes; the works have been attributed to [Girolamo Dal Santo](/wiki/Girolamo_Dal_Santo \"Girolamo Dal Santo\"), [Domenico Campagnola](/wiki/Domenico_Campagnola \"Domenico Campagnola\"), [Stefano Dall'Arzere](/wiki/Stefano_Dall%27Arzere \"Stefano Dall'Arzere\"), and others. The confraternity was suppressed in the 19th century. The works extant include a *Last supper*; a *Prayer at Gesthemane*, a *Kiss of Judas*, *Christ before Caiphas*, *Christ before Pilate*; *Christ made to wear crown with thorns*, *Christ carries the Cross*, *Christ kneels before Cross*, *Crucifixion*, *Deposition*, and *Burial of Christ*, and *Sacrifice of Isaac*, portraits of the patrons of the city: Saints Giustina, Prosdocimo, Antonio, and Daniele.[Lega Ambiente Padova](http://salvalarte.legambientepadova.it/redent.htm) website.",
""
] |
Langley Field, 1920–1931
------------------------
### Air Service Field Officers School
Major [Thomas DeWitt Milling](/wiki/Thomas_DeWitt_Milling "Thomas DeWitt Milling") was assigned as officer\-in\-charge of the Field Officers Course at the new school and sent to Langley in July 1920 to set it up. War Department General Order No. 18 authorized the school on 14 August 1920\.Reither, Joseph. Army Air Forces Historical Study No. 13: *The Development of Tactical Doctrines at AAFSAT and AAFTAC*. 1944, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, p. 6\. The balloon courses were split off into a separate school in a different area of Langley and the Air Service School was renamed the **Air Service Field Officers School** on 10 February 1921,[Air University Chronology 1920s–1930s](https://web.archive.org/web/20080312051553/http://www.au.af.mil/au/history/history_1920s_1930s.asp) after its primary function.Finney, p. 6, and note 18, p. 44\. The Air Service ordered 17 officers to Langley, eight as students and nine as instructors, although several officers swapped roles and some instructors were students as well.Finney, p. 6\. The 1920–1921 class opened on 1 November 1920, and although scheduled to last nine months, was concluded in May when both students and instructors were assigned to the 1st Provisional Air Brigade, as part of [the experimental bombing of captured warships](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell%23Project_B:Anti-ship_bombing_demonstration "Anti-ship bombing demonstration") by the Air Service and the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy"). 11 officers, including four instructors, graduated the first course. The second class, beginning in October 1921, was devoted to the further training of instructors, the creation of a sound administrative system, and development of a well\-rounded course curriculum.
In the first two classes, despite the school's title and function, only six of the first 23 graduates were field grade officers. A board reviewing all service schools of the United States Army observed that the Field Officers School had a course load that in other branches of the Army was distributed among several schools. Because all other Air Service schools were technical training in nature, the board recommended that the school be opened to all air service officers regardless of rank. Accordingly, Army regulations changed the name of the school to that of **Air Service Tactical School** on 8 November 1922\. With the passage of the Air Corps Act of 1926, the school again changed its name, becoming the **Air Corps Tactical School** on 2 July 1926\.Reither, p. 6\.
While at Langley, the ACTS was hampered by a chronic shortage of instructors, caused by a lack of policy within the Army for filling vacancies despite a rapid turnover in staff in the first three years. School administrators were forced to double as instructors. The situation was somewhat ameliorated in August 1924 when the Chief of the Air Service authorized extended duty for instructors, most of whom afterwards served four\-year tours on the faculty, with an overlap between incoming and outgoing staff. Between 1925 and 1929 the number of instructors gradually doubled to 16 but even that number proved insufficient to research the vast collection of aviation literature the school's library was collecting to establish doctrine.Finney, p. 10\.
Despite school recommendations to the contrary, class size gradually increased, reaching 40 students by 1931\.Finney, p. 11\. The first student from a branch other than the Air Service (an [infantry](/wiki/Infantry "Infantry") officer) attended ASTS in 1923–1924\. This became standard when the 1926–1927 class had five officers representing the other combat branches of the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") and three from the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") assigned as students.Finney, p. 12\.
The functioning of the school was also handicapped by a lack of permanent facilities, especially in quarters, and the school did not have a permanent academic building. When the five\-year expansion program outlined in the Air Corps Act of 1926 failed to address these problems, and the creation of new units at Langley interrupted the functioning of the practical flying course, the Air Service began seeking a new location for the Tactical School.Finney, p. 14\.
The 1930–1931 class was the last at Langley. In its eleven years at Langley, the Tactical School graduated 221 students.
### Tactical School curriculum
The academic curriculum was standardized in 1922 by the Army's board tasked with preparing "programs of instruction" for all Army schools. 1,345 hours of instruction in 20 subjects, taught over a nine\-month period beginning on or about 1 September of each school year, included approximately 900 hours of [tactics](/wiki/Military_tactics "Military tactics"), including those of other services and combined arms tactics, although more than half (480 hours) were devoted to air tactics in observation, [bombardment](/wiki/Bombardment "Bombardment"), [pursuit](/wiki/Fighter_aircraft "Fighter aircraft"), and attack aviation. Approximately 290 hours involved technical subjects, including [aeronautical engineering](/wiki/Aeronautical_engineering "Aeronautical engineering"), [armament](/wiki/Armament "Armament") and gunnery, [navigation](/wiki/Navigation "Navigation"), [meteorology](/wiki/Meteorology "Meteorology"), and photography, and 150 to administrative studies, covering staff duties, combat orders, organization of the Army, [military](/wiki/Military_law "Military law") and [international law](/wiki/International_law "International law"), supply and courses in [equitation](/wiki/Equitation "Equitation") and stable management.Finney, p. 7\.
The curriculum was altered in July 1923 by the newly created Director of Instruction, Capt. Earl Naiden, cutting the academic course by 500 hours to 845 total hours. 450 hours of the cuts came from the various tactics subjects, although the equitation courses were also eliminated, and all academic courses were scheduled in mornings.Finney, p. 8\. Naiden added courses in the history of the Air Service and map reading to the academics, and a 126\-hour afternoon course in practical flying, instituted to provide refresher training to pilots but required of all students, including those of non\-aviation branches. The course structure remained the same until 1939, with changes only in individual course subjects, averaging 25 hours per week of classroom study and 3\.7 hours weekly of flying.
The first printed texts covering air tactics replaced [mimeographed](/wiki/Mimeograph "Mimeograph") texts in 1924\. This development of the tactics portion of the school led to increased emphasis, and in 1925 aeronautical engineering was eliminated from the curriculum. Theoretical use of airpower was first advanced in 1928, and beginning in 1929 a new course was taught at the end of each class, "The Air Force", coordinating all air topics covered during the year.Finney, pp. 12–13\.
Army regulations also made the commander of the 2nd Wing, as the base commander at Langley, the commandant of the Tactical School. However, during its first four years this caused little disruption as Milling, first as officer in charge and then as assistant commandant, remained in actual charge of the school. In 1924 Maj. [Oscar Westover](/wiki/Oscar_Westover "Oscar Westover") became the first commandant to exercise control over school activities. The assistant commandant then became responsible for academics, assisted by the director of instruction, directors of the individual academic departments, and the school secretary (formerly the school adjutant).
Course instruction assumed a pattern combining both theory and practical instruction. Subjects were generally scheduled in blocks, particularly tactics, beginning with those of other branches and services, along with logistics and staff functions, from the beginning of each class until December. The courses in air tactics followed, described by one student as coming with "bewildering rapidity."Finney, p. 22\.
Practical instruction came in the form of "field problems," initiated in the classroom, then demonstrated and practiced in the practical flying course. Annual inspection trips were also undertaken until 1930 to the Engineering Division at [McCook](/wiki/McCook_Field "McCook Field") and [Wright Fields](/wiki/Wright_Field "Wright Field") in [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio "Dayton, Ohio"), when trips began to the [Infantry School](/wiki/Infantry_School "Infantry School") at [Fort Benning](/wiki/Fort_Benning "Fort Benning"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"). Beginning in 1924, ACTS students also participated in the annual [Army War College](/wiki/United_States_Army_War_College "United States Army War College") maneuvers at [Ft. DuPont](/wiki/Fort_DuPont_State_Park "Fort DuPont State Park"), [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware "Delaware"). However, by 1931 doctrinal disagreements between the schools and the exclusion of ACTS staff from the planning process created a perceived misuse of airpower on the part of AWC planners that ACTS assistant commandant Maj. [John F. Curry](/wiki/John_F._Curry "John F. Curry") criticized as not being of value to students of either school. Although Air Corps input resulted in some improvements, a lack of funds eliminated ACTS participation after 1933\.Finney, pp. 13–14, 20\.
|
[
"Langley Field, 1920–1931\n------------------------",
"### Air Service Field Officers School",
"Major [Thomas DeWitt Milling](/wiki/Thomas_DeWitt_Milling \"Thomas DeWitt Milling\") was assigned as officer\\-in\\-charge of the Field Officers Course at the new school and sent to Langley in July 1920 to set it up. War Department General Order No. 18 authorized the school on 14 August 1920\\.Reither, Joseph. Army Air Forces Historical Study No. 13: *The Development of Tactical Doctrines at AAFSAT and AAFTAC*. 1944, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, p. 6\\. The balloon courses were split off into a separate school in a different area of Langley and the Air Service School was renamed the **Air Service Field Officers School** on 10 February 1921,[Air University Chronology 1920s–1930s](https://web.archive.org/web/20080312051553/http://www.au.af.mil/au/history/history_1920s_1930s.asp) after its primary function.Finney, p. 6, and note 18, p. 44\\. The Air Service ordered 17 officers to Langley, eight as students and nine as instructors, although several officers swapped roles and some instructors were students as well.Finney, p. 6\\. The 1920–1921 class opened on 1 November 1920, and although scheduled to last nine months, was concluded in May when both students and instructors were assigned to the 1st Provisional Air Brigade, as part of [the experimental bombing of captured warships](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell%23Project_B:Anti-ship_bombing_demonstration \"Anti-ship bombing demonstration\") by the Air Service and the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"). 11 officers, including four instructors, graduated the first course. The second class, beginning in October 1921, was devoted to the further training of instructors, the creation of a sound administrative system, and development of a well\\-rounded course curriculum.",
"In the first two classes, despite the school's title and function, only six of the first 23 graduates were field grade officers. A board reviewing all service schools of the United States Army observed that the Field Officers School had a course load that in other branches of the Army was distributed among several schools. Because all other Air Service schools were technical training in nature, the board recommended that the school be opened to all air service officers regardless of rank. Accordingly, Army regulations changed the name of the school to that of **Air Service Tactical School** on 8 November 1922\\. With the passage of the Air Corps Act of 1926, the school again changed its name, becoming the **Air Corps Tactical School** on 2 July 1926\\.Reither, p. 6\\.",
"While at Langley, the ACTS was hampered by a chronic shortage of instructors, caused by a lack of policy within the Army for filling vacancies despite a rapid turnover in staff in the first three years. School administrators were forced to double as instructors. The situation was somewhat ameliorated in August 1924 when the Chief of the Air Service authorized extended duty for instructors, most of whom afterwards served four\\-year tours on the faculty, with an overlap between incoming and outgoing staff. Between 1925 and 1929 the number of instructors gradually doubled to 16 but even that number proved insufficient to research the vast collection of aviation literature the school's library was collecting to establish doctrine.Finney, p. 10\\.",
"Despite school recommendations to the contrary, class size gradually increased, reaching 40 students by 1931\\.Finney, p. 11\\. The first student from a branch other than the Air Service (an [infantry](/wiki/Infantry \"Infantry\") officer) attended ASTS in 1923–1924\\. This became standard when the 1926–1927 class had five officers representing the other combat branches of the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") and three from the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") assigned as students.Finney, p. 12\\.",
"The functioning of the school was also handicapped by a lack of permanent facilities, especially in quarters, and the school did not have a permanent academic building. When the five\\-year expansion program outlined in the Air Corps Act of 1926 failed to address these problems, and the creation of new units at Langley interrupted the functioning of the practical flying course, the Air Service began seeking a new location for the Tactical School.Finney, p. 14\\.",
"The 1930–1931 class was the last at Langley. In its eleven years at Langley, the Tactical School graduated 221 students.",
"### Tactical School curriculum",
"The academic curriculum was standardized in 1922 by the Army's board tasked with preparing \"programs of instruction\" for all Army schools. 1,345 hours of instruction in 20 subjects, taught over a nine\\-month period beginning on or about 1 September of each school year, included approximately 900 hours of [tactics](/wiki/Military_tactics \"Military tactics\"), including those of other services and combined arms tactics, although more than half (480 hours) were devoted to air tactics in observation, [bombardment](/wiki/Bombardment \"Bombardment\"), [pursuit](/wiki/Fighter_aircraft \"Fighter aircraft\"), and attack aviation. Approximately 290 hours involved technical subjects, including [aeronautical engineering](/wiki/Aeronautical_engineering \"Aeronautical engineering\"), [armament](/wiki/Armament \"Armament\") and gunnery, [navigation](/wiki/Navigation \"Navigation\"), [meteorology](/wiki/Meteorology \"Meteorology\"), and photography, and 150 to administrative studies, covering staff duties, combat orders, organization of the Army, [military](/wiki/Military_law \"Military law\") and [international law](/wiki/International_law \"International law\"), supply and courses in [equitation](/wiki/Equitation \"Equitation\") and stable management.Finney, p. 7\\.",
"The curriculum was altered in July 1923 by the newly created Director of Instruction, Capt. Earl Naiden, cutting the academic course by 500 hours to 845 total hours. 450 hours of the cuts came from the various tactics subjects, although the equitation courses were also eliminated, and all academic courses were scheduled in mornings.Finney, p. 8\\. Naiden added courses in the history of the Air Service and map reading to the academics, and a 126\\-hour afternoon course in practical flying, instituted to provide refresher training to pilots but required of all students, including those of non\\-aviation branches. The course structure remained the same until 1939, with changes only in individual course subjects, averaging 25 hours per week of classroom study and 3\\.7 hours weekly of flying.",
"The first printed texts covering air tactics replaced [mimeographed](/wiki/Mimeograph \"Mimeograph\") texts in 1924\\. This development of the tactics portion of the school led to increased emphasis, and in 1925 aeronautical engineering was eliminated from the curriculum. Theoretical use of airpower was first advanced in 1928, and beginning in 1929 a new course was taught at the end of each class, \"The Air Force\", coordinating all air topics covered during the year.Finney, pp. 12–13\\.",
"Army regulations also made the commander of the 2nd Wing, as the base commander at Langley, the commandant of the Tactical School. However, during its first four years this caused little disruption as Milling, first as officer in charge and then as assistant commandant, remained in actual charge of the school. In 1924 Maj. [Oscar Westover](/wiki/Oscar_Westover \"Oscar Westover\") became the first commandant to exercise control over school activities. The assistant commandant then became responsible for academics, assisted by the director of instruction, directors of the individual academic departments, and the school secretary (formerly the school adjutant).",
"Course instruction assumed a pattern combining both theory and practical instruction. Subjects were generally scheduled in blocks, particularly tactics, beginning with those of other branches and services, along with logistics and staff functions, from the beginning of each class until December. The courses in air tactics followed, described by one student as coming with \"bewildering rapidity.\"Finney, p. 22\\.",
"Practical instruction came in the form of \"field problems,\" initiated in the classroom, then demonstrated and practiced in the practical flying course. Annual inspection trips were also undertaken until 1930 to the Engineering Division at [McCook](/wiki/McCook_Field \"McCook Field\") and [Wright Fields](/wiki/Wright_Field \"Wright Field\") in [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio \"Dayton, Ohio\"), when trips began to the [Infantry School](/wiki/Infantry_School \"Infantry School\") at [Fort Benning](/wiki/Fort_Benning \"Fort Benning\"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"). Beginning in 1924, ACTS students also participated in the annual [Army War College](/wiki/United_States_Army_War_College \"United States Army War College\") maneuvers at [Ft. DuPont](/wiki/Fort_DuPont_State_Park \"Fort DuPont State Park\"), [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware \"Delaware\"). However, by 1931 doctrinal disagreements between the schools and the exclusion of ACTS staff from the planning process created a perceived misuse of airpower on the part of AWC planners that ACTS assistant commandant Maj. [John F. Curry](/wiki/John_F._Curry \"John F. Curry\") criticized as not being of value to students of either school. Although Air Corps input resulted in some improvements, a lack of funds eliminated ACTS participation after 1933\\.Finney, pp. 13–14, 20\\.",
""
] |
### Air Service Field Officers School
Major [Thomas DeWitt Milling](/wiki/Thomas_DeWitt_Milling "Thomas DeWitt Milling") was assigned as officer\-in\-charge of the Field Officers Course at the new school and sent to Langley in July 1920 to set it up. War Department General Order No. 18 authorized the school on 14 August 1920\.Reither, Joseph. Army Air Forces Historical Study No. 13: *The Development of Tactical Doctrines at AAFSAT and AAFTAC*. 1944, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, p. 6\. The balloon courses were split off into a separate school in a different area of Langley and the Air Service School was renamed the **Air Service Field Officers School** on 10 February 1921,[Air University Chronology 1920s–1930s](https://web.archive.org/web/20080312051553/http://www.au.af.mil/au/history/history_1920s_1930s.asp) after its primary function.Finney, p. 6, and note 18, p. 44\. The Air Service ordered 17 officers to Langley, eight as students and nine as instructors, although several officers swapped roles and some instructors were students as well.Finney, p. 6\. The 1920–1921 class opened on 1 November 1920, and although scheduled to last nine months, was concluded in May when both students and instructors were assigned to the 1st Provisional Air Brigade, as part of [the experimental bombing of captured warships](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell%23Project_B:Anti-ship_bombing_demonstration "Anti-ship bombing demonstration") by the Air Service and the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy"). 11 officers, including four instructors, graduated the first course. The second class, beginning in October 1921, was devoted to the further training of instructors, the creation of a sound administrative system, and development of a well\-rounded course curriculum.
In the first two classes, despite the school's title and function, only six of the first 23 graduates were field grade officers. A board reviewing all service schools of the United States Army observed that the Field Officers School had a course load that in other branches of the Army was distributed among several schools. Because all other Air Service schools were technical training in nature, the board recommended that the school be opened to all air service officers regardless of rank. Accordingly, Army regulations changed the name of the school to that of **Air Service Tactical School** on 8 November 1922\. With the passage of the Air Corps Act of 1926, the school again changed its name, becoming the **Air Corps Tactical School** on 2 July 1926\.Reither, p. 6\.
While at Langley, the ACTS was hampered by a chronic shortage of instructors, caused by a lack of policy within the Army for filling vacancies despite a rapid turnover in staff in the first three years. School administrators were forced to double as instructors. The situation was somewhat ameliorated in August 1924 when the Chief of the Air Service authorized extended duty for instructors, most of whom afterwards served four\-year tours on the faculty, with an overlap between incoming and outgoing staff. Between 1925 and 1929 the number of instructors gradually doubled to 16 but even that number proved insufficient to research the vast collection of aviation literature the school's library was collecting to establish doctrine.Finney, p. 10\.
Despite school recommendations to the contrary, class size gradually increased, reaching 40 students by 1931\.Finney, p. 11\. The first student from a branch other than the Air Service (an [infantry](/wiki/Infantry "Infantry") officer) attended ASTS in 1923–1924\. This became standard when the 1926–1927 class had five officers representing the other combat branches of the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") and three from the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") assigned as students.Finney, p. 12\.
The functioning of the school was also handicapped by a lack of permanent facilities, especially in quarters, and the school did not have a permanent academic building. When the five\-year expansion program outlined in the Air Corps Act of 1926 failed to address these problems, and the creation of new units at Langley interrupted the functioning of the practical flying course, the Air Service began seeking a new location for the Tactical School.Finney, p. 14\.
The 1930–1931 class was the last at Langley. In its eleven years at Langley, the Tactical School graduated 221 students.
|
[
"### Air Service Field Officers School",
"Major [Thomas DeWitt Milling](/wiki/Thomas_DeWitt_Milling \"Thomas DeWitt Milling\") was assigned as officer\\-in\\-charge of the Field Officers Course at the new school and sent to Langley in July 1920 to set it up. War Department General Order No. 18 authorized the school on 14 August 1920\\.Reither, Joseph. Army Air Forces Historical Study No. 13: *The Development of Tactical Doctrines at AAFSAT and AAFTAC*. 1944, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, p. 6\\. The balloon courses were split off into a separate school in a different area of Langley and the Air Service School was renamed the **Air Service Field Officers School** on 10 February 1921,[Air University Chronology 1920s–1930s](https://web.archive.org/web/20080312051553/http://www.au.af.mil/au/history/history_1920s_1930s.asp) after its primary function.Finney, p. 6, and note 18, p. 44\\. The Air Service ordered 17 officers to Langley, eight as students and nine as instructors, although several officers swapped roles and some instructors were students as well.Finney, p. 6\\. The 1920–1921 class opened on 1 November 1920, and although scheduled to last nine months, was concluded in May when both students and instructors were assigned to the 1st Provisional Air Brigade, as part of [the experimental bombing of captured warships](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell%23Project_B:Anti-ship_bombing_demonstration \"Anti-ship bombing demonstration\") by the Air Service and the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"). 11 officers, including four instructors, graduated the first course. The second class, beginning in October 1921, was devoted to the further training of instructors, the creation of a sound administrative system, and development of a well\\-rounded course curriculum.",
"In the first two classes, despite the school's title and function, only six of the first 23 graduates were field grade officers. A board reviewing all service schools of the United States Army observed that the Field Officers School had a course load that in other branches of the Army was distributed among several schools. Because all other Air Service schools were technical training in nature, the board recommended that the school be opened to all air service officers regardless of rank. Accordingly, Army regulations changed the name of the school to that of **Air Service Tactical School** on 8 November 1922\\. With the passage of the Air Corps Act of 1926, the school again changed its name, becoming the **Air Corps Tactical School** on 2 July 1926\\.Reither, p. 6\\.",
"While at Langley, the ACTS was hampered by a chronic shortage of instructors, caused by a lack of policy within the Army for filling vacancies despite a rapid turnover in staff in the first three years. School administrators were forced to double as instructors. The situation was somewhat ameliorated in August 1924 when the Chief of the Air Service authorized extended duty for instructors, most of whom afterwards served four\\-year tours on the faculty, with an overlap between incoming and outgoing staff. Between 1925 and 1929 the number of instructors gradually doubled to 16 but even that number proved insufficient to research the vast collection of aviation literature the school's library was collecting to establish doctrine.Finney, p. 10\\.",
"Despite school recommendations to the contrary, class size gradually increased, reaching 40 students by 1931\\.Finney, p. 11\\. The first student from a branch other than the Air Service (an [infantry](/wiki/Infantry \"Infantry\") officer) attended ASTS in 1923–1924\\. This became standard when the 1926–1927 class had five officers representing the other combat branches of the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") and three from the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") assigned as students.Finney, p. 12\\.",
"The functioning of the school was also handicapped by a lack of permanent facilities, especially in quarters, and the school did not have a permanent academic building. When the five\\-year expansion program outlined in the Air Corps Act of 1926 failed to address these problems, and the creation of new units at Langley interrupted the functioning of the practical flying course, the Air Service began seeking a new location for the Tactical School.Finney, p. 14\\.",
"The 1930–1931 class was the last at Langley. In its eleven years at Langley, the Tactical School graduated 221 students.",
""
] |
### Tactical School curriculum
The academic curriculum was standardized in 1922 by the Army's board tasked with preparing "programs of instruction" for all Army schools. 1,345 hours of instruction in 20 subjects, taught over a nine\-month period beginning on or about 1 September of each school year, included approximately 900 hours of [tactics](/wiki/Military_tactics "Military tactics"), including those of other services and combined arms tactics, although more than half (480 hours) were devoted to air tactics in observation, [bombardment](/wiki/Bombardment "Bombardment"), [pursuit](/wiki/Fighter_aircraft "Fighter aircraft"), and attack aviation. Approximately 290 hours involved technical subjects, including [aeronautical engineering](/wiki/Aeronautical_engineering "Aeronautical engineering"), [armament](/wiki/Armament "Armament") and gunnery, [navigation](/wiki/Navigation "Navigation"), [meteorology](/wiki/Meteorology "Meteorology"), and photography, and 150 to administrative studies, covering staff duties, combat orders, organization of the Army, [military](/wiki/Military_law "Military law") and [international law](/wiki/International_law "International law"), supply and courses in [equitation](/wiki/Equitation "Equitation") and stable management.Finney, p. 7\.
The curriculum was altered in July 1923 by the newly created Director of Instruction, Capt. Earl Naiden, cutting the academic course by 500 hours to 845 total hours. 450 hours of the cuts came from the various tactics subjects, although the equitation courses were also eliminated, and all academic courses were scheduled in mornings.Finney, p. 8\. Naiden added courses in the history of the Air Service and map reading to the academics, and a 126\-hour afternoon course in practical flying, instituted to provide refresher training to pilots but required of all students, including those of non\-aviation branches. The course structure remained the same until 1939, with changes only in individual course subjects, averaging 25 hours per week of classroom study and 3\.7 hours weekly of flying.
The first printed texts covering air tactics replaced [mimeographed](/wiki/Mimeograph "Mimeograph") texts in 1924\. This development of the tactics portion of the school led to increased emphasis, and in 1925 aeronautical engineering was eliminated from the curriculum. Theoretical use of airpower was first advanced in 1928, and beginning in 1929 a new course was taught at the end of each class, "The Air Force", coordinating all air topics covered during the year.Finney, pp. 12–13\.
Army regulations also made the commander of the 2nd Wing, as the base commander at Langley, the commandant of the Tactical School. However, during its first four years this caused little disruption as Milling, first as officer in charge and then as assistant commandant, remained in actual charge of the school. In 1924 Maj. [Oscar Westover](/wiki/Oscar_Westover "Oscar Westover") became the first commandant to exercise control over school activities. The assistant commandant then became responsible for academics, assisted by the director of instruction, directors of the individual academic departments, and the school secretary (formerly the school adjutant).
Course instruction assumed a pattern combining both theory and practical instruction. Subjects were generally scheduled in blocks, particularly tactics, beginning with those of other branches and services, along with logistics and staff functions, from the beginning of each class until December. The courses in air tactics followed, described by one student as coming with "bewildering rapidity."Finney, p. 22\.
Practical instruction came in the form of "field problems," initiated in the classroom, then demonstrated and practiced in the practical flying course. Annual inspection trips were also undertaken until 1930 to the Engineering Division at [McCook](/wiki/McCook_Field "McCook Field") and [Wright Fields](/wiki/Wright_Field "Wright Field") in [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio "Dayton, Ohio"), when trips began to the [Infantry School](/wiki/Infantry_School "Infantry School") at [Fort Benning](/wiki/Fort_Benning "Fort Benning"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"). Beginning in 1924, ACTS students also participated in the annual [Army War College](/wiki/United_States_Army_War_College "United States Army War College") maneuvers at [Ft. DuPont](/wiki/Fort_DuPont_State_Park "Fort DuPont State Park"), [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware "Delaware"). However, by 1931 doctrinal disagreements between the schools and the exclusion of ACTS staff from the planning process created a perceived misuse of airpower on the part of AWC planners that ACTS assistant commandant Maj. [John F. Curry](/wiki/John_F._Curry "John F. Curry") criticized as not being of value to students of either school. Although Air Corps input resulted in some improvements, a lack of funds eliminated ACTS participation after 1933\.Finney, pp. 13–14, 20\.
|
[
"### Tactical School curriculum",
"The academic curriculum was standardized in 1922 by the Army's board tasked with preparing \"programs of instruction\" for all Army schools. 1,345 hours of instruction in 20 subjects, taught over a nine\\-month period beginning on or about 1 September of each school year, included approximately 900 hours of [tactics](/wiki/Military_tactics \"Military tactics\"), including those of other services and combined arms tactics, although more than half (480 hours) were devoted to air tactics in observation, [bombardment](/wiki/Bombardment \"Bombardment\"), [pursuit](/wiki/Fighter_aircraft \"Fighter aircraft\"), and attack aviation. Approximately 290 hours involved technical subjects, including [aeronautical engineering](/wiki/Aeronautical_engineering \"Aeronautical engineering\"), [armament](/wiki/Armament \"Armament\") and gunnery, [navigation](/wiki/Navigation \"Navigation\"), [meteorology](/wiki/Meteorology \"Meteorology\"), and photography, and 150 to administrative studies, covering staff duties, combat orders, organization of the Army, [military](/wiki/Military_law \"Military law\") and [international law](/wiki/International_law \"International law\"), supply and courses in [equitation](/wiki/Equitation \"Equitation\") and stable management.Finney, p. 7\\.",
"The curriculum was altered in July 1923 by the newly created Director of Instruction, Capt. Earl Naiden, cutting the academic course by 500 hours to 845 total hours. 450 hours of the cuts came from the various tactics subjects, although the equitation courses were also eliminated, and all academic courses were scheduled in mornings.Finney, p. 8\\. Naiden added courses in the history of the Air Service and map reading to the academics, and a 126\\-hour afternoon course in practical flying, instituted to provide refresher training to pilots but required of all students, including those of non\\-aviation branches. The course structure remained the same until 1939, with changes only in individual course subjects, averaging 25 hours per week of classroom study and 3\\.7 hours weekly of flying.",
"The first printed texts covering air tactics replaced [mimeographed](/wiki/Mimeograph \"Mimeograph\") texts in 1924\\. This development of the tactics portion of the school led to increased emphasis, and in 1925 aeronautical engineering was eliminated from the curriculum. Theoretical use of airpower was first advanced in 1928, and beginning in 1929 a new course was taught at the end of each class, \"The Air Force\", coordinating all air topics covered during the year.Finney, pp. 12–13\\.",
"Army regulations also made the commander of the 2nd Wing, as the base commander at Langley, the commandant of the Tactical School. However, during its first four years this caused little disruption as Milling, first as officer in charge and then as assistant commandant, remained in actual charge of the school. In 1924 Maj. [Oscar Westover](/wiki/Oscar_Westover \"Oscar Westover\") became the first commandant to exercise control over school activities. The assistant commandant then became responsible for academics, assisted by the director of instruction, directors of the individual academic departments, and the school secretary (formerly the school adjutant).",
"Course instruction assumed a pattern combining both theory and practical instruction. Subjects were generally scheduled in blocks, particularly tactics, beginning with those of other branches and services, along with logistics and staff functions, from the beginning of each class until December. The courses in air tactics followed, described by one student as coming with \"bewildering rapidity.\"Finney, p. 22\\.",
"Practical instruction came in the form of \"field problems,\" initiated in the classroom, then demonstrated and practiced in the practical flying course. Annual inspection trips were also undertaken until 1930 to the Engineering Division at [McCook](/wiki/McCook_Field \"McCook Field\") and [Wright Fields](/wiki/Wright_Field \"Wright Field\") in [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio \"Dayton, Ohio\"), when trips began to the [Infantry School](/wiki/Infantry_School \"Infantry School\") at [Fort Benning](/wiki/Fort_Benning \"Fort Benning\"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"). Beginning in 1924, ACTS students also participated in the annual [Army War College](/wiki/United_States_Army_War_College \"United States Army War College\") maneuvers at [Ft. DuPont](/wiki/Fort_DuPont_State_Park \"Fort DuPont State Park\"), [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware \"Delaware\"). However, by 1931 doctrinal disagreements between the schools and the exclusion of ACTS staff from the planning process created a perceived misuse of airpower on the part of AWC planners that ACTS assistant commandant Maj. [John F. Curry](/wiki/John_F._Curry \"John F. Curry\") criticized as not being of value to students of either school. Although Air Corps input resulted in some improvements, a lack of funds eliminated ACTS participation after 1933\\.Finney, pp. 13–14, 20\\.",
""
] |
Maxwell Field, 1931–1940
------------------------
### Relocation
[thumb\|Austin Hall, Air Corps Tactical School](/wiki/File:A_Concise_History_of_the_U.S._Air_Force_Page_14-1.jpg "A Concise History of the U.S. Air Force Page 14-1.jpg")
Difficulties with dilapidated facilities at Langley were not resolved, and a proposed relocation to [Staten Island](/wiki/Staten_Island "Staten Island") was rejected by the staff for lack of year\-round flying weather, urban restrictions on flying, and a lack of support facilities.Finner, p. 46\. Locations at [Bolling Field](/wiki/Bolling_Air_Force_Base "Bolling Air Force Base"), Washington, D.C.; [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia"); [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio "San Antonio"), Texas; [Fort Riley](/wiki/Fort_Riley "Fort Riley"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas"); and another area of Langley Field were studied before the choice was made of [Maxwell Field](/wiki/Maxwell_Air_Force_Base "Maxwell Air Force Base"), a depot in [Montgomery, Alabama](/wiki/Montgomery%2C_Alabama "Montgomery, Alabama"), as the site for the school.
Plans were developed for a campus to accommodate a tactical school of 75 students, a squadron officers school of 50 junior officer students, and a school demonstration flying group of four squadrons. Congress appropriated almost $700,000 by July 1929 for new buildings, including [Building 800\-Austin Hall](/wiki/Building_800-Austin_Hall "Building 800-Austin Hall") to house the Tactical School, and $200,000 to purchase acreage on which to build new officer quarters. Delays in construction caused two postponements of the relocation until June 1931, when Austin Hall was completed. On 15 July 1931, the school completed its move, although officer quarters were not begun until 1932\.Finney, p. 15\. Architects commissioned by the [Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps "Quartermaster Corps") designed 99 residences for officers in an elegant style they deemed "French Provencial," and placed them in a neighborhood setting that became "the showplace of the Air Corps."[Maxwell AFB Senior Officers Quarters Historic District](http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/aviation/max.htm) The construction program at Maxwell continued until 1938, funded primarily by the [WPA](/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration "Works Progress Administration") and [PWA](/wiki/Public_Works_Administration "Public Works Administration"). A bombing and gunnery range was also set up near [Valparaiso, Florida](/wiki/Valparaiso%2C_Florida "Valparaiso, Florida"), for Tactical School use.Finney, p. 16\.
### Course restructured
[thumb\|Aerial view of Maxwell Field in 1937](/wiki/File:Maxwellfield-al-21oct1937.jpg "Maxwellfield-al-21oct1937.jpg")
In 1934 Curry, now ACTS Commandant, reorganized the academic structure of the school along functional lines into three principal departments: Air Tactics, Ground Tactics, and Basic and Special Instruction. Flying was a fourth department. The "Air Force", "Attack", "Bombardment", "Pursuit", and "Observation" sections were placed within the Department of Air Tactics. The next year these departments became the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy, Department of Ground Tactics, and Department of Command, Staff and Logistics.
Four faculty committees were also established to administrate scheduling, the school library, and publication of doctrine. The Air Corps Board, which had been inactive since the move from Langley, was permanently relocated to Maxwell in 1933\. Restructured by the Tactical School faculty, who doubled as its members, the Board was directed by the War Department to formulate Air Corps doctrine. The Board became indistinguishable from the Tactical School and undertook 77 projects between 1935 and 1942, a third of which dealt with tactical doctrine, and the remainder with equipment, armaments, field manuals, and training texts.Finney, p. 18\.
After the move to Maxwell, the practice of requiring students to fly actual missions as part of the instruction process was discontinued for safety reasons. Plans for a composite school group were suspended by the Chief of the Air Corps because of a service\-wide shortage of personnel and aircraft, and attempts to have demonstrations by existing combat units were mostly unsatisfactory. The demonstration group was not authorized until August 1939 and was utilized for less than a year before classes were suspended.
In 1938 the Department of Flying Instruction was dissolved and its functions parceled out to the remaining departments. The Department of Air Tactics and Strategy became the dominant division at the school, and its Air Force Section the most important course, in which airpower theories were presented and explored, doctrine emerging as much from the students as from the faculty.Shiner, John F. (1997\). "The Coming of the GHQ Air Force, 1925–1935", *Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force*, Vol. I 1907–1950\. Air Force History and Museums Program. pp. 111–112\.
Association with the Infantry School increased, but inspection trips formerly used at Langley first became voluntary and then were discontinued. Only a handful of graduates had gone on to attend the [Command and General Staff School](/wiki/Command_and_General_Staff_College "Command and General Staff College"), and as a result the Tactical School ended its role as a preparatory school. Instead the ACTS became the equivalent for Air Corps officers of C\&GSS, and increased the emphasis on air subjects to more than half of the total course hours by 1934–1935, with an accompanying decrease in hours for ground and administrative subjects.Finney, p. 20\. Classroom studies were similarly altered. Lectures occupied only half of a classroom hour, with the remainder given over to discussion and debate of concepts presented and of alternative ideas.
### Short course
The limited class size at the Tactical School led the Air Corps in 1938 to study the feasibility of using a series of shorter courses to allow a greater number of officers to attend. The study concluded that a significant number of potential staff and command officers had not attended the school and was growing annually. It recommended that the nine\-month course be discontinued for a year and four 12\-week courses scheduled, each having 100 students, all drawn from the group of prospective senior staff.
The plan had the drawbacks of limiting the amount of detail to which students could be exposed, and would require a rebuilding of the staff and curriculum when the long course was reinstated. Nevertheless, the curriculum was changed from 712 academic hours to 298\. The short courses began on 1 June 1939, and continued for the next year.
|
[
"Maxwell Field, 1931–1940\n------------------------",
"### Relocation",
"[thumb\\|Austin Hall, Air Corps Tactical School](/wiki/File:A_Concise_History_of_the_U.S._Air_Force_Page_14-1.jpg \"A Concise History of the U.S. Air Force Page 14-1.jpg\")",
"Difficulties with dilapidated facilities at Langley were not resolved, and a proposed relocation to [Staten Island](/wiki/Staten_Island \"Staten Island\") was rejected by the staff for lack of year\\-round flying weather, urban restrictions on flying, and a lack of support facilities.Finner, p. 46\\. Locations at [Bolling Field](/wiki/Bolling_Air_Force_Base \"Bolling Air Force Base\"), Washington, D.C.; [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\"); [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\"), Texas; [Fort Riley](/wiki/Fort_Riley \"Fort Riley\"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\"); and another area of Langley Field were studied before the choice was made of [Maxwell Field](/wiki/Maxwell_Air_Force_Base \"Maxwell Air Force Base\"), a depot in [Montgomery, Alabama](/wiki/Montgomery%2C_Alabama \"Montgomery, Alabama\"), as the site for the school.",
"Plans were developed for a campus to accommodate a tactical school of 75 students, a squadron officers school of 50 junior officer students, and a school demonstration flying group of four squadrons. Congress appropriated almost $700,000 by July 1929 for new buildings, including [Building 800\\-Austin Hall](/wiki/Building_800-Austin_Hall \"Building 800-Austin Hall\") to house the Tactical School, and $200,000 to purchase acreage on which to build new officer quarters. Delays in construction caused two postponements of the relocation until June 1931, when Austin Hall was completed. On 15 July 1931, the school completed its move, although officer quarters were not begun until 1932\\.Finney, p. 15\\. Architects commissioned by the [Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps \"Quartermaster Corps\") designed 99 residences for officers in an elegant style they deemed \"French Provencial,\" and placed them in a neighborhood setting that became \"the showplace of the Air Corps.\"[Maxwell AFB Senior Officers Quarters Historic District](http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/aviation/max.htm) The construction program at Maxwell continued until 1938, funded primarily by the [WPA](/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration \"Works Progress Administration\") and [PWA](/wiki/Public_Works_Administration \"Public Works Administration\"). A bombing and gunnery range was also set up near [Valparaiso, Florida](/wiki/Valparaiso%2C_Florida \"Valparaiso, Florida\"), for Tactical School use.Finney, p. 16\\.",
"### Course restructured",
"[thumb\\|Aerial view of Maxwell Field in 1937](/wiki/File:Maxwellfield-al-21oct1937.jpg \"Maxwellfield-al-21oct1937.jpg\")\nIn 1934 Curry, now ACTS Commandant, reorganized the academic structure of the school along functional lines into three principal departments: Air Tactics, Ground Tactics, and Basic and Special Instruction. Flying was a fourth department. The \"Air Force\", \"Attack\", \"Bombardment\", \"Pursuit\", and \"Observation\" sections were placed within the Department of Air Tactics. The next year these departments became the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy, Department of Ground Tactics, and Department of Command, Staff and Logistics.",
"Four faculty committees were also established to administrate scheduling, the school library, and publication of doctrine. The Air Corps Board, which had been inactive since the move from Langley, was permanently relocated to Maxwell in 1933\\. Restructured by the Tactical School faculty, who doubled as its members, the Board was directed by the War Department to formulate Air Corps doctrine. The Board became indistinguishable from the Tactical School and undertook 77 projects between 1935 and 1942, a third of which dealt with tactical doctrine, and the remainder with equipment, armaments, field manuals, and training texts.Finney, p. 18\\.",
"After the move to Maxwell, the practice of requiring students to fly actual missions as part of the instruction process was discontinued for safety reasons. Plans for a composite school group were suspended by the Chief of the Air Corps because of a service\\-wide shortage of personnel and aircraft, and attempts to have demonstrations by existing combat units were mostly unsatisfactory. The demonstration group was not authorized until August 1939 and was utilized for less than a year before classes were suspended.",
"In 1938 the Department of Flying Instruction was dissolved and its functions parceled out to the remaining departments. The Department of Air Tactics and Strategy became the dominant division at the school, and its Air Force Section the most important course, in which airpower theories were presented and explored, doctrine emerging as much from the students as from the faculty.Shiner, John F. (1997\\). \"The Coming of the GHQ Air Force, 1925–1935\", *Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force*, Vol. I 1907–1950\\. Air Force History and Museums Program. pp. 111–112\\.",
"Association with the Infantry School increased, but inspection trips formerly used at Langley first became voluntary and then were discontinued. Only a handful of graduates had gone on to attend the [Command and General Staff School](/wiki/Command_and_General_Staff_College \"Command and General Staff College\"), and as a result the Tactical School ended its role as a preparatory school. Instead the ACTS became the equivalent for Air Corps officers of C\\&GSS, and increased the emphasis on air subjects to more than half of the total course hours by 1934–1935, with an accompanying decrease in hours for ground and administrative subjects.Finney, p. 20\\. Classroom studies were similarly altered. Lectures occupied only half of a classroom hour, with the remainder given over to discussion and debate of concepts presented and of alternative ideas.",
"### Short course",
"The limited class size at the Tactical School led the Air Corps in 1938 to study the feasibility of using a series of shorter courses to allow a greater number of officers to attend. The study concluded that a significant number of potential staff and command officers had not attended the school and was growing annually. It recommended that the nine\\-month course be discontinued for a year and four 12\\-week courses scheduled, each having 100 students, all drawn from the group of prospective senior staff.",
"The plan had the drawbacks of limiting the amount of detail to which students could be exposed, and would require a rebuilding of the staff and curriculum when the long course was reinstated. Nevertheless, the curriculum was changed from 712 academic hours to 298\\. The short courses began on 1 June 1939, and continued for the next year.",
""
] |
Theory and doctrine
-------------------
### Ascendance of bomber theory
In its first years, the Tactical School taught that pursuit aviation was the most important of air operations, epitomized by the 1925–1926 class text *Employment of Combined Air Force* that compared the importance of pursuit to the Air Service to that of infantry to the Army. However, in 1926 the Tactical School modified this principle by asserting for the first time that airpower could strike at vital points deep inside enemy territory rather than merely targeting an enemy's military forces in a war of attrition. By 1931 the Tactical School was teaching that "a determined air attack, once launched, is most difficult, if not impossible to stop." This shift in emphasis from pursuit to bombardment was the result of two factors: the air war theories of the time and the state of aviation technology.Griffith, pp. 39–40\.
Devotees of [Billy Mitchell](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell "Billy Mitchell"), many of whom had served with the 1st Provisional Air Brigade, dominated the faculty of the Tactical School at Maxwell. With their students, they developed a theory of warfare that invoked the superiority of the long\-range bomber over all other types of aircraft. Going beyond Mitchell's ideas, they de\-emphasized balanced forces and support of ground troops in favor of a doctrine that heavily armed bombers could fight their way to industrial targets in daylight, unescorted by fighters, and with precision bombing (made possible by the introduction of the [Norden bombsight](/wiki/Norden_bombsight "Norden bombsight") in 1931\),Miller, p. 39Griffith, p. 15\. defeat an enemy by destroying key war production targets, rather than engaging in costly and prolonged ground campaigns aimed at destroying enemy armies.Shiner, p. 112\. While the theory was based on tenets of strategic airpower developed by Mitchell, [Hugh Trenchard](/wiki/Hugh_Trenchard%2C_1st_Viscount_Trenchard "Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard"), and [Giulio Douhet](/wiki/Giulio_Douhet "Giulio Douhet"),Griffith, p. 43\. it rejected the concept of terror\-bombing of civil populations as a means of destroying the morale and coercing the will of an enemy state.Griffith, pp. 49–50\.Miller, pp. 39–40\.
The formulators of this doctrine were relatively young junior officers, nearly all of them former reservists commissioned during or immediately after World War I. They viewed war in the abstract, admitted (and even apologized for) being unable to offer conclusive proof of their theories,Finney, p. 26\. but firmly believed that the dominance of airpower lay ahead in the future, when existing limitations of technology had been overcome. Nine key advocates, all of whom instructed at the Tactical School, became known as the "[Bomber Mafia](/wiki/Bomber_Mafia "Bomber Mafia")." The unofficial leader of the group was the bombardment section chief and later director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy, Major [Harold L. George](/wiki/Harold_L._George "Harold L. George").{{cite web\|last\=Boyne\|first\=Walter\|url\=http://www.airforce\-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2003/September%202003/0903school.aspx\| title\=The Tactical School\|publisher\=AIR FORCE Magazine\|access\-date\=27 July 2008}}In addition to George, the Bomber Mafia consisted of future generals [Haywood S. Hansell](/wiki/Haywood_S._Hansell "Haywood S. Hansell"), [Laurence Kuter](/wiki/Laurence_Kuter "Laurence Kuter"), [Muir Fairchild](/wiki/Muir_Fairchild "Muir Fairchild"), [Robert Olds](/wiki/Robert_Olds "Robert Olds"), [Kenneth Walker](/wiki/Kenneth_Walker_%28general%29 "Kenneth Walker (general)"), [Robert M. Webster](/wiki/Robert_M._Webster "Robert M. Webster"), and [Donald Wilson](/wiki/Donald_Wilson_%28general%29 "Donald Wilson (general)"), and Major [Odas Moon](/wiki/Odas_Moon "Odas Moon"), who died in 1937\. Their impact was such that when the fighter community worked to gain primacy in the USAF in the 1970s, the initial driving force, led by Col. [John Boyd](/wiki/John_Boyd_%28military_strategist%29 "John Boyd (military strategist)"), was dubbed the "[Fighter Mafia](/wiki/Fighter_Mafia "Fighter Mafia")".
The doctrine brought them in conflict with the Army [General Staff](/wiki/General_Staff "General Staff"), which did not view airpower as a major striking arm but as an auxiliary to the ground forces. Despite the poor performance of what few bombers the Air Corps possessed, the air theorists persisted in their beliefs, testifying in favor of a separate air force before commissions set up in the wake of the [Air Mail scandal](/wiki/Air_Mail_scandal "Air Mail scandal").Shiner, p. 128\.
Although flawed and tested only under optimal conditions, the doctrine (originally known as the "[industrial web theory](/wiki/Industrial_web_theory "Industrial web theory")")Griffith, p. 45\. Lt.Col. [Donald Wilson](/wiki/Donald_Wilson_%28general%29 "Donald Wilson (general)") of ACTS and a "Bomber Mafia" member is credited with the term. became the primary airpower strategy of the United States in the planning for World War II. Four former instructors of the school, the core of the "Bomber Mafia", produced the two airpower war plans (AWPD\-1 and AWPD\-42\) that guided the wartime expansion and deployment of the Army Air Forces.
### Failure of pursuit theory
The doctrine was not universally held among air officers, however. [Claire L. Chennault](/wiki/Claire_L._Chennault "Claire L. Chennault"), chief of the pursuit section between 1931 and 1936, reasoned that the same technology that would increase the performance of the bomber would also eventually enable the single\-engine fighter to challenge the bomber at high altitude, which it could not do in the years when the daylight bombing doctrine was formulated. Combined with a centralized early warning and control system (which came with the development of [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar")), defending interceptors would inflict serious losses on unescorted forces.Greer, Thomas H. (1985\). *The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air Arm, 1917–1941* USAF Historical Studies No. 89\. Office of Air Force History, pp. 63–65\. The doctrine also ran counter to the theories of Billy Mitchell, who believed that pursuit support was essential for daylight bombing operations.Griffith, p. 13\.
Chennault, however, also had a blind spot in his zealous advocacy of fighters as the offensive weapon of the Air Corps. He consciously avoided acknowledging the role of accompanying escort fighters as part of an offensive air strike. When his tour at ACTS ended, the fighter\-versus\-bomber controversy became a moot point among the staff, to the detriment of developing a role for escort fighters.{{cite web\|last\=Hansell\|first\=Haywood S.\|url\=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/readings/awpd\-1\-jfacc/awpdproc.htm\#ii\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020521221315/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/readings/awpd\-1\-jfacc/awpdproc.htm\#ii\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=21 May 2002\|title\=AWPD\-1, The Process\|publisher\=Air University, USAF\|access\-date\=10 May 2009}}Hansell noted that when Chennault commanded the China Air Task Force/14th Air Force a few years later, he both demanded more fighters as bomber escorts and made extravagant claims regarding the effectiveness of his bombers.
Although the proponents of daylight precision bombing at the Tactical School had a "failure of imagination" in not expanding the doctrine to include establishing air superiority as a prerequisite for success,Miller, p. 41\. and thus contributed to the delay in the development of a long\-range escort fighter until two years into the war, the doctrine nonetheless became the foundation for the separation of the Air Force from the Army, and the basis for modern airpower theory. ACTS graduate, instructor, and "Bomber Mafia" member [Haywood S. Hansell](/wiki/Haywood_S._Hansell "Haywood S. Hansell"), concurred that both the theorists and the authors of the AWPD\-1 war plan (he was both) made a serious mistake in neglecting long\-range fighter escort in their ideas.Hansell, Haywood S. Jr. (1979\). *The Air Plan That Defeated Hitler*, Ayer Press, {{ISBN\|0\-405\-12178\-4}}, p. 22\. Hansell wrote:
> It was recognized that fighter escort was inherently desirable, but no one could quite conceive how a small fighter could have the range of the bomber yet retain its combat maneuverability. Failure to see this issue through proved one of the Air Corps Tactical School's major shortcomings.
However he also stated that ignorance of radar was fortuitous in the long run. He surmised that had radar been a factor in doctrine, many theorists would have reasoned that massed defenses would make all strategic air attacks too costly, inhibiting if not entirely suppressing the concepts that proved decisive in World War II and essential to the creation of the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force").Greer, p. 60\.Tate, Dr. James P. (1998\). *The Army and its Air Corps: Army Policy Toward Aviation 1919–1941*, Air University Press, p. 163\. Development of fighters was not ignored; by October 1940, over a year before Pearl Harbor, every type of piston\-driven single\-engine fighter used by the [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces") (USAAF) in World War II had made its first flight except the [P\-47 Thunderbolt](/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt "P-47 Thunderbolt"). However, the press of the enormous tasks confronting the Air Corps and the primacy of strategic bombing doctrine meant that development of a long\-range capability for these new fighters was not undertaken until combat losses to bombers forced the issue.
|
[
"Theory and doctrine\n-------------------",
"### Ascendance of bomber theory",
"In its first years, the Tactical School taught that pursuit aviation was the most important of air operations, epitomized by the 1925–1926 class text *Employment of Combined Air Force* that compared the importance of pursuit to the Air Service to that of infantry to the Army. However, in 1926 the Tactical School modified this principle by asserting for the first time that airpower could strike at vital points deep inside enemy territory rather than merely targeting an enemy's military forces in a war of attrition. By 1931 the Tactical School was teaching that \"a determined air attack, once launched, is most difficult, if not impossible to stop.\" This shift in emphasis from pursuit to bombardment was the result of two factors: the air war theories of the time and the state of aviation technology.Griffith, pp. 39–40\\.",
"Devotees of [Billy Mitchell](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell \"Billy Mitchell\"), many of whom had served with the 1st Provisional Air Brigade, dominated the faculty of the Tactical School at Maxwell. With their students, they developed a theory of warfare that invoked the superiority of the long\\-range bomber over all other types of aircraft. Going beyond Mitchell's ideas, they de\\-emphasized balanced forces and support of ground troops in favor of a doctrine that heavily armed bombers could fight their way to industrial targets in daylight, unescorted by fighters, and with precision bombing (made possible by the introduction of the [Norden bombsight](/wiki/Norden_bombsight \"Norden bombsight\") in 1931\\),Miller, p. 39Griffith, p. 15\\. defeat an enemy by destroying key war production targets, rather than engaging in costly and prolonged ground campaigns aimed at destroying enemy armies.Shiner, p. 112\\. While the theory was based on tenets of strategic airpower developed by Mitchell, [Hugh Trenchard](/wiki/Hugh_Trenchard%2C_1st_Viscount_Trenchard \"Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard\"), and [Giulio Douhet](/wiki/Giulio_Douhet \"Giulio Douhet\"),Griffith, p. 43\\. it rejected the concept of terror\\-bombing of civil populations as a means of destroying the morale and coercing the will of an enemy state.Griffith, pp. 49–50\\.Miller, pp. 39–40\\.",
"The formulators of this doctrine were relatively young junior officers, nearly all of them former reservists commissioned during or immediately after World War I. They viewed war in the abstract, admitted (and even apologized for) being unable to offer conclusive proof of their theories,Finney, p. 26\\. but firmly believed that the dominance of airpower lay ahead in the future, when existing limitations of technology had been overcome. Nine key advocates, all of whom instructed at the Tactical School, became known as the \"[Bomber Mafia](/wiki/Bomber_Mafia \"Bomber Mafia\").\" The unofficial leader of the group was the bombardment section chief and later director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy, Major [Harold L. George](/wiki/Harold_L._George \"Harold L. George\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Boyne\\|first\\=Walter\\|url\\=http://www.airforce\\-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2003/September%202003/0903school.aspx\\| title\\=The Tactical School\\|publisher\\=AIR FORCE Magazine\\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2008}}In addition to George, the Bomber Mafia consisted of future generals [Haywood S. Hansell](/wiki/Haywood_S._Hansell \"Haywood S. Hansell\"), [Laurence Kuter](/wiki/Laurence_Kuter \"Laurence Kuter\"), [Muir Fairchild](/wiki/Muir_Fairchild \"Muir Fairchild\"), [Robert Olds](/wiki/Robert_Olds \"Robert Olds\"), [Kenneth Walker](/wiki/Kenneth_Walker_%28general%29 \"Kenneth Walker (general)\"), [Robert M. Webster](/wiki/Robert_M._Webster \"Robert M. Webster\"), and [Donald Wilson](/wiki/Donald_Wilson_%28general%29 \"Donald Wilson (general)\"), and Major [Odas Moon](/wiki/Odas_Moon \"Odas Moon\"), who died in 1937\\. Their impact was such that when the fighter community worked to gain primacy in the USAF in the 1970s, the initial driving force, led by Col. [John Boyd](/wiki/John_Boyd_%28military_strategist%29 \"John Boyd (military strategist)\"), was dubbed the \"[Fighter Mafia](/wiki/Fighter_Mafia \"Fighter Mafia\")\".",
"The doctrine brought them in conflict with the Army [General Staff](/wiki/General_Staff \"General Staff\"), which did not view airpower as a major striking arm but as an auxiliary to the ground forces. Despite the poor performance of what few bombers the Air Corps possessed, the air theorists persisted in their beliefs, testifying in favor of a separate air force before commissions set up in the wake of the [Air Mail scandal](/wiki/Air_Mail_scandal \"Air Mail scandal\").Shiner, p. 128\\.",
"Although flawed and tested only under optimal conditions, the doctrine (originally known as the \"[industrial web theory](/wiki/Industrial_web_theory \"Industrial web theory\")\")Griffith, p. 45\\. Lt.Col. [Donald Wilson](/wiki/Donald_Wilson_%28general%29 \"Donald Wilson (general)\") of ACTS and a \"Bomber Mafia\" member is credited with the term. became the primary airpower strategy of the United States in the planning for World War II. Four former instructors of the school, the core of the \"Bomber Mafia\", produced the two airpower war plans (AWPD\\-1 and AWPD\\-42\\) that guided the wartime expansion and deployment of the Army Air Forces.",
"### Failure of pursuit theory",
"The doctrine was not universally held among air officers, however. [Claire L. Chennault](/wiki/Claire_L._Chennault \"Claire L. Chennault\"), chief of the pursuit section between 1931 and 1936, reasoned that the same technology that would increase the performance of the bomber would also eventually enable the single\\-engine fighter to challenge the bomber at high altitude, which it could not do in the years when the daylight bombing doctrine was formulated. Combined with a centralized early warning and control system (which came with the development of [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\")), defending interceptors would inflict serious losses on unescorted forces.Greer, Thomas H. (1985\\). *The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air Arm, 1917–1941* USAF Historical Studies No. 89\\. Office of Air Force History, pp. 63–65\\. The doctrine also ran counter to the theories of Billy Mitchell, who believed that pursuit support was essential for daylight bombing operations.Griffith, p. 13\\.",
"Chennault, however, also had a blind spot in his zealous advocacy of fighters as the offensive weapon of the Air Corps. He consciously avoided acknowledging the role of accompanying escort fighters as part of an offensive air strike. When his tour at ACTS ended, the fighter\\-versus\\-bomber controversy became a moot point among the staff, to the detriment of developing a role for escort fighters.{{cite web\\|last\\=Hansell\\|first\\=Haywood S.\\|url\\=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/readings/awpd\\-1\\-jfacc/awpdproc.htm\\#ii\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020521221315/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/readings/awpd\\-1\\-jfacc/awpdproc.htm\\#ii\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2002\\|title\\=AWPD\\-1, The Process\\|publisher\\=Air University, USAF\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2009}}Hansell noted that when Chennault commanded the China Air Task Force/14th Air Force a few years later, he both demanded more fighters as bomber escorts and made extravagant claims regarding the effectiveness of his bombers.",
"Although the proponents of daylight precision bombing at the Tactical School had a \"failure of imagination\" in not expanding the doctrine to include establishing air superiority as a prerequisite for success,Miller, p. 41\\. and thus contributed to the delay in the development of a long\\-range escort fighter until two years into the war, the doctrine nonetheless became the foundation for the separation of the Air Force from the Army, and the basis for modern airpower theory. ACTS graduate, instructor, and \"Bomber Mafia\" member [Haywood S. Hansell](/wiki/Haywood_S._Hansell \"Haywood S. Hansell\"), concurred that both the theorists and the authors of the AWPD\\-1 war plan (he was both) made a serious mistake in neglecting long\\-range fighter escort in their ideas.Hansell, Haywood S. Jr. (1979\\). *The Air Plan That Defeated Hitler*, Ayer Press, {{ISBN\\|0\\-405\\-12178\\-4}}, p. 22\\. Hansell wrote:",
"",
"> It was recognized that fighter escort was inherently desirable, but no one could quite conceive how a small fighter could have the range of the bomber yet retain its combat maneuverability. Failure to see this issue through proved one of the Air Corps Tactical School's major shortcomings.",
"However he also stated that ignorance of radar was fortuitous in the long run. He surmised that had radar been a factor in doctrine, many theorists would have reasoned that massed defenses would make all strategic air attacks too costly, inhibiting if not entirely suppressing the concepts that proved decisive in World War II and essential to the creation of the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\").Greer, p. 60\\.Tate, Dr. James P. (1998\\). *The Army and its Air Corps: Army Policy Toward Aviation 1919–1941*, Air University Press, p. 163\\. Development of fighters was not ignored; by October 1940, over a year before Pearl Harbor, every type of piston\\-driven single\\-engine fighter used by the [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") (USAAF) in World War II had made its first flight except the [P\\-47 Thunderbolt](/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt \"P-47 Thunderbolt\"). However, the press of the enormous tasks confronting the Air Corps and the primacy of strategic bombing doctrine meant that development of a long\\-range capability for these new fighters was not undertaken until combat losses to bombers forced the issue.",
""
] |
### Ascendance of bomber theory
In its first years, the Tactical School taught that pursuit aviation was the most important of air operations, epitomized by the 1925–1926 class text *Employment of Combined Air Force* that compared the importance of pursuit to the Air Service to that of infantry to the Army. However, in 1926 the Tactical School modified this principle by asserting for the first time that airpower could strike at vital points deep inside enemy territory rather than merely targeting an enemy's military forces in a war of attrition. By 1931 the Tactical School was teaching that "a determined air attack, once launched, is most difficult, if not impossible to stop." This shift in emphasis from pursuit to bombardment was the result of two factors: the air war theories of the time and the state of aviation technology.Griffith, pp. 39–40\.
Devotees of [Billy Mitchell](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell "Billy Mitchell"), many of whom had served with the 1st Provisional Air Brigade, dominated the faculty of the Tactical School at Maxwell. With their students, they developed a theory of warfare that invoked the superiority of the long\-range bomber over all other types of aircraft. Going beyond Mitchell's ideas, they de\-emphasized balanced forces and support of ground troops in favor of a doctrine that heavily armed bombers could fight their way to industrial targets in daylight, unescorted by fighters, and with precision bombing (made possible by the introduction of the [Norden bombsight](/wiki/Norden_bombsight "Norden bombsight") in 1931\),Miller, p. 39Griffith, p. 15\. defeat an enemy by destroying key war production targets, rather than engaging in costly and prolonged ground campaigns aimed at destroying enemy armies.Shiner, p. 112\. While the theory was based on tenets of strategic airpower developed by Mitchell, [Hugh Trenchard](/wiki/Hugh_Trenchard%2C_1st_Viscount_Trenchard "Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard"), and [Giulio Douhet](/wiki/Giulio_Douhet "Giulio Douhet"),Griffith, p. 43\. it rejected the concept of terror\-bombing of civil populations as a means of destroying the morale and coercing the will of an enemy state.Griffith, pp. 49–50\.Miller, pp. 39–40\.
The formulators of this doctrine were relatively young junior officers, nearly all of them former reservists commissioned during or immediately after World War I. They viewed war in the abstract, admitted (and even apologized for) being unable to offer conclusive proof of their theories,Finney, p. 26\. but firmly believed that the dominance of airpower lay ahead in the future, when existing limitations of technology had been overcome. Nine key advocates, all of whom instructed at the Tactical School, became known as the "[Bomber Mafia](/wiki/Bomber_Mafia "Bomber Mafia")." The unofficial leader of the group was the bombardment section chief and later director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy, Major [Harold L. George](/wiki/Harold_L._George "Harold L. George").{{cite web\|last\=Boyne\|first\=Walter\|url\=http://www.airforce\-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2003/September%202003/0903school.aspx\| title\=The Tactical School\|publisher\=AIR FORCE Magazine\|access\-date\=27 July 2008}}In addition to George, the Bomber Mafia consisted of future generals [Haywood S. Hansell](/wiki/Haywood_S._Hansell "Haywood S. Hansell"), [Laurence Kuter](/wiki/Laurence_Kuter "Laurence Kuter"), [Muir Fairchild](/wiki/Muir_Fairchild "Muir Fairchild"), [Robert Olds](/wiki/Robert_Olds "Robert Olds"), [Kenneth Walker](/wiki/Kenneth_Walker_%28general%29 "Kenneth Walker (general)"), [Robert M. Webster](/wiki/Robert_M._Webster "Robert M. Webster"), and [Donald Wilson](/wiki/Donald_Wilson_%28general%29 "Donald Wilson (general)"), and Major [Odas Moon](/wiki/Odas_Moon "Odas Moon"), who died in 1937\. Their impact was such that when the fighter community worked to gain primacy in the USAF in the 1970s, the initial driving force, led by Col. [John Boyd](/wiki/John_Boyd_%28military_strategist%29 "John Boyd (military strategist)"), was dubbed the "[Fighter Mafia](/wiki/Fighter_Mafia "Fighter Mafia")".
The doctrine brought them in conflict with the Army [General Staff](/wiki/General_Staff "General Staff"), which did not view airpower as a major striking arm but as an auxiliary to the ground forces. Despite the poor performance of what few bombers the Air Corps possessed, the air theorists persisted in their beliefs, testifying in favor of a separate air force before commissions set up in the wake of the [Air Mail scandal](/wiki/Air_Mail_scandal "Air Mail scandal").Shiner, p. 128\.
Although flawed and tested only under optimal conditions, the doctrine (originally known as the "[industrial web theory](/wiki/Industrial_web_theory "Industrial web theory")")Griffith, p. 45\. Lt.Col. [Donald Wilson](/wiki/Donald_Wilson_%28general%29 "Donald Wilson (general)") of ACTS and a "Bomber Mafia" member is credited with the term. became the primary airpower strategy of the United States in the planning for World War II. Four former instructors of the school, the core of the "Bomber Mafia", produced the two airpower war plans (AWPD\-1 and AWPD\-42\) that guided the wartime expansion and deployment of the Army Air Forces.
|
[
"### Ascendance of bomber theory",
"In its first years, the Tactical School taught that pursuit aviation was the most important of air operations, epitomized by the 1925–1926 class text *Employment of Combined Air Force* that compared the importance of pursuit to the Air Service to that of infantry to the Army. However, in 1926 the Tactical School modified this principle by asserting for the first time that airpower could strike at vital points deep inside enemy territory rather than merely targeting an enemy's military forces in a war of attrition. By 1931 the Tactical School was teaching that \"a determined air attack, once launched, is most difficult, if not impossible to stop.\" This shift in emphasis from pursuit to bombardment was the result of two factors: the air war theories of the time and the state of aviation technology.Griffith, pp. 39–40\\.",
"Devotees of [Billy Mitchell](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell \"Billy Mitchell\"), many of whom had served with the 1st Provisional Air Brigade, dominated the faculty of the Tactical School at Maxwell. With their students, they developed a theory of warfare that invoked the superiority of the long\\-range bomber over all other types of aircraft. Going beyond Mitchell's ideas, they de\\-emphasized balanced forces and support of ground troops in favor of a doctrine that heavily armed bombers could fight their way to industrial targets in daylight, unescorted by fighters, and with precision bombing (made possible by the introduction of the [Norden bombsight](/wiki/Norden_bombsight \"Norden bombsight\") in 1931\\),Miller, p. 39Griffith, p. 15\\. defeat an enemy by destroying key war production targets, rather than engaging in costly and prolonged ground campaigns aimed at destroying enemy armies.Shiner, p. 112\\. While the theory was based on tenets of strategic airpower developed by Mitchell, [Hugh Trenchard](/wiki/Hugh_Trenchard%2C_1st_Viscount_Trenchard \"Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard\"), and [Giulio Douhet](/wiki/Giulio_Douhet \"Giulio Douhet\"),Griffith, p. 43\\. it rejected the concept of terror\\-bombing of civil populations as a means of destroying the morale and coercing the will of an enemy state.Griffith, pp. 49–50\\.Miller, pp. 39–40\\.",
"The formulators of this doctrine were relatively young junior officers, nearly all of them former reservists commissioned during or immediately after World War I. They viewed war in the abstract, admitted (and even apologized for) being unable to offer conclusive proof of their theories,Finney, p. 26\\. but firmly believed that the dominance of airpower lay ahead in the future, when existing limitations of technology had been overcome. Nine key advocates, all of whom instructed at the Tactical School, became known as the \"[Bomber Mafia](/wiki/Bomber_Mafia \"Bomber Mafia\").\" The unofficial leader of the group was the bombardment section chief and later director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy, Major [Harold L. George](/wiki/Harold_L._George \"Harold L. George\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Boyne\\|first\\=Walter\\|url\\=http://www.airforce\\-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2003/September%202003/0903school.aspx\\| title\\=The Tactical School\\|publisher\\=AIR FORCE Magazine\\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2008}}In addition to George, the Bomber Mafia consisted of future generals [Haywood S. Hansell](/wiki/Haywood_S._Hansell \"Haywood S. Hansell\"), [Laurence Kuter](/wiki/Laurence_Kuter \"Laurence Kuter\"), [Muir Fairchild](/wiki/Muir_Fairchild \"Muir Fairchild\"), [Robert Olds](/wiki/Robert_Olds \"Robert Olds\"), [Kenneth Walker](/wiki/Kenneth_Walker_%28general%29 \"Kenneth Walker (general)\"), [Robert M. Webster](/wiki/Robert_M._Webster \"Robert M. Webster\"), and [Donald Wilson](/wiki/Donald_Wilson_%28general%29 \"Donald Wilson (general)\"), and Major [Odas Moon](/wiki/Odas_Moon \"Odas Moon\"), who died in 1937\\. Their impact was such that when the fighter community worked to gain primacy in the USAF in the 1970s, the initial driving force, led by Col. [John Boyd](/wiki/John_Boyd_%28military_strategist%29 \"John Boyd (military strategist)\"), was dubbed the \"[Fighter Mafia](/wiki/Fighter_Mafia \"Fighter Mafia\")\".",
"The doctrine brought them in conflict with the Army [General Staff](/wiki/General_Staff \"General Staff\"), which did not view airpower as a major striking arm but as an auxiliary to the ground forces. Despite the poor performance of what few bombers the Air Corps possessed, the air theorists persisted in their beliefs, testifying in favor of a separate air force before commissions set up in the wake of the [Air Mail scandal](/wiki/Air_Mail_scandal \"Air Mail scandal\").Shiner, p. 128\\.",
"Although flawed and tested only under optimal conditions, the doctrine (originally known as the \"[industrial web theory](/wiki/Industrial_web_theory \"Industrial web theory\")\")Griffith, p. 45\\. Lt.Col. [Donald Wilson](/wiki/Donald_Wilson_%28general%29 \"Donald Wilson (general)\") of ACTS and a \"Bomber Mafia\" member is credited with the term. became the primary airpower strategy of the United States in the planning for World War II. Four former instructors of the school, the core of the \"Bomber Mafia\", produced the two airpower war plans (AWPD\\-1 and AWPD\\-42\\) that guided the wartime expansion and deployment of the Army Air Forces.",
""
] |
School closure and legacy
-------------------------
Before the short courses began, President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") called for an expansion of the Air Corps in January 1939\. The need for experienced officers to supervise the expansion led to plans to reduce the size of the faculty and long course classes as a compromise to keep the school functioning. Six of the 24 Air Corps instructors would be returned to regular duty and class sizes would be reduced from 60 to 20 students. However World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939, before the staff and class reductions could be implemented. The Air Corps permitted the short courses to be finished, but suspended all instruction on 30 June 1940\. The Tactical School was reduced to a caretaker staff of seven officers, including two librarians.Finney, p. 41\.
One year later the Tactical School came under the control of the [Southeast Air Corps Training Center](/wiki/Southeast_Air_Corps_Training_Center "Southeast Air Corps Training Center"), headquartered at Maxwell, with the objective of re\-opening the school immediately. After completion of a study, the center recommended in July 1941 that the Tactical School curriculum be modified into a ten\-week basic course in tactics for [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 "Squadron (aviation)") and [group](/wiki/Group_%28air_force%29 "Group (air force)") level junior grade officers, to instruct 2,000 officers its first year and 5,000 officers thereafter, ending its twin missions of senior officer service school and doctrine development center. Instead the Air Corps Board was moved to [Eglin Field](/wiki/Eglin_Air_Force_Base "Eglin Air Force Base"), Florida and absorbed by the Air Corps Proving Ground, while all remaining staff of the Tactical School were transferred to Washington, D.C., where they continued work (mainly the production of training literature) until 30 June 1942, after which the school went unstaffed until its formal dissolution in 1946\.Finney, pp. 41–42\.
The ACTS at Maxwell graduated 870 officers, 400 of them in the short courses. During its entire history, the Tactical School trained 1,091 officers, 916 of them in the Air Service or Air Corps. 158 graduates from other arms included 118 Army officers, 35 Marines, and five Naval officers. The Tactical School also trained 17 officers from foreign countries.Finney, p. 24\. Of the 320 general officers in the Army Air Forces at the end of World War II, 261 were Tactical School graduates, including 14 of the 18 highest\-ranking AAF generals.Finney, p. 25\. 134 officers (including 21 from the Army and Navy) served on the faculty of the Tactical School during its 20 years of existence, 58 of whom became general officers.Finney, pp. 53–63\.Notable non\-Air Corps instructors were [Courtney Hodges](/wiki/Courtney_Hodges "Courtney Hodges") and [Miles Browning](/wiki/Miles_Browning "Miles Browning").
The senior service school function was abandoned for the duration of World War II in favor of development of an actual tactical center, responsible for the mass teaching of all aspects of air warfare to inexperienced officers who would become commanders of newly created units. Although commandants at ACTS had lobbied throughout its existence for the Tactical School to serve as the nucleus of such a center, it instead became the function of a new school, the [Army Air Force School of Applied Tactics](/wiki/Army_Air_Force_School_of_Applied_Tactics "Army Air Force School of Applied Tactics"), activated 27 October 1942, in [Orlando, Florida](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida "Orlando, Florida"), both for the training of unit cadres and the continuing development of tactical doctrine.Finney, p. 42\.
The experiences of World War II created a new impetus for professional education of air commanders, as it had after World War I, but on a much vaster scale. The expectation of becoming a separate service from the Army resulted in planning for a service\-wide educational system, the nucleus of which would be the [Air University](/wiki/Air_University_%28United_States_Air_Force%29 "Air University (United States Air Force)"). Established in 1946, AU coordinated all professional education for Air Force officers, and "fell heir to the purpose and tradition of the old Tactical School".Finney, p. 43\.
|
[
"School closure and legacy\n-------------------------",
"Before the short courses began, President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") called for an expansion of the Air Corps in January 1939\\. The need for experienced officers to supervise the expansion led to plans to reduce the size of the faculty and long course classes as a compromise to keep the school functioning. Six of the 24 Air Corps instructors would be returned to regular duty and class sizes would be reduced from 60 to 20 students. However World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939, before the staff and class reductions could be implemented. The Air Corps permitted the short courses to be finished, but suspended all instruction on 30 June 1940\\. The Tactical School was reduced to a caretaker staff of seven officers, including two librarians.Finney, p. 41\\.",
"One year later the Tactical School came under the control of the [Southeast Air Corps Training Center](/wiki/Southeast_Air_Corps_Training_Center \"Southeast Air Corps Training Center\"), headquartered at Maxwell, with the objective of re\\-opening the school immediately. After completion of a study, the center recommended in July 1941 that the Tactical School curriculum be modified into a ten\\-week basic course in tactics for [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 \"Squadron (aviation)\") and [group](/wiki/Group_%28air_force%29 \"Group (air force)\") level junior grade officers, to instruct 2,000 officers its first year and 5,000 officers thereafter, ending its twin missions of senior officer service school and doctrine development center. Instead the Air Corps Board was moved to [Eglin Field](/wiki/Eglin_Air_Force_Base \"Eglin Air Force Base\"), Florida and absorbed by the Air Corps Proving Ground, while all remaining staff of the Tactical School were transferred to Washington, D.C., where they continued work (mainly the production of training literature) until 30 June 1942, after which the school went unstaffed until its formal dissolution in 1946\\.Finney, pp. 41–42\\.",
"The ACTS at Maxwell graduated 870 officers, 400 of them in the short courses. During its entire history, the Tactical School trained 1,091 officers, 916 of them in the Air Service or Air Corps. 158 graduates from other arms included 118 Army officers, 35 Marines, and five Naval officers. The Tactical School also trained 17 officers from foreign countries.Finney, p. 24\\. Of the 320 general officers in the Army Air Forces at the end of World War II, 261 were Tactical School graduates, including 14 of the 18 highest\\-ranking AAF generals.Finney, p. 25\\. 134 officers (including 21 from the Army and Navy) served on the faculty of the Tactical School during its 20 years of existence, 58 of whom became general officers.Finney, pp. 53–63\\.Notable non\\-Air Corps instructors were [Courtney Hodges](/wiki/Courtney_Hodges \"Courtney Hodges\") and [Miles Browning](/wiki/Miles_Browning \"Miles Browning\").",
"The senior service school function was abandoned for the duration of World War II in favor of development of an actual tactical center, responsible for the mass teaching of all aspects of air warfare to inexperienced officers who would become commanders of newly created units. Although commandants at ACTS had lobbied throughout its existence for the Tactical School to serve as the nucleus of such a center, it instead became the function of a new school, the [Army Air Force School of Applied Tactics](/wiki/Army_Air_Force_School_of_Applied_Tactics \"Army Air Force School of Applied Tactics\"), activated 27 October 1942, in [Orlando, Florida](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida \"Orlando, Florida\"), both for the training of unit cadres and the continuing development of tactical doctrine.Finney, p. 42\\.",
"The experiences of World War II created a new impetus for professional education of air commanders, as it had after World War I, but on a much vaster scale. The expectation of becoming a separate service from the Army resulted in planning for a service\\-wide educational system, the nucleus of which would be the [Air University](/wiki/Air_University_%28United_States_Air_Force%29 \"Air University (United States Air Force)\"). Established in 1946, AU coordinated all professional education for Air Force officers, and \"fell heir to the purpose and tradition of the old Tactical School\".Finney, p. 43\\.",
""
] |
Career history
--------------
### Formation (1993–1996\)
The band is said to be greatly influenced by sounds of the 1960s and the 1980s, particularly artists such as [The Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles"), [The Who](/wiki/The_Who "The Who") and [Depeche Mode](/wiki/Depeche_Mode "Depeche Mode"). The band was initially formed through a local magazine known as "Visions" that had a contact advertisement for new musicians. As a demo recording, they initially recorded a number of songs in an old [8\-Track](/wiki/Multitrack_recording "Multitrack recording") studio that belonged to Kurt. They sent the demo tape to multiple recording studios.
The response from the studios was quite shaky, but they were able to engage in the services of recording legend, Stuart Bruce, who had just moved into the area of [Koblenz](/wiki/Koblenz "Koblenz"). Stuart owned a very advanced recording studio in his house. With some luck they were able to record eight songs in three months. After that, they went ahead to search for a recording studio, and this time, responses were much more positive. Their first live performance was in a club located in [Bonn](/wiki/Bonn "Bonn") known as Carpe Noctem as a sample for a scout from [Virgin Records](/wiki/Virgin_Records "Virgin Records") who had come there to judge their performance. Due to an "unpredictable incident" that occurred, however, they were not taken into Virgin Records. As Abay explained on the biography section of the site:
{{cquote\|Prior to the show, one good\-humoured and extremely drunk black guy took great pleasure in presenting his genitals to everyone in the crowd. The scout from \[\[Virgin Records\|Virgin]] was disgusted and left early. When we met him after the concert, he apologised for doing so. He also announced that he wasn't going to take us in.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blackmail\-music.com \|title\=Access Biography Section of the Site \|publisher\=blackmail\-music.com \|date\= \|accessdate\=2011\-10\-22}}}}
### *Blackmail* and *Science Fiction* (1997–1999\)
{{Main\|Blackmail (album)\|Science Fiction (Blackmail album)}}
Instead they managed to approach Guido Lucas, who had started his own label "bluNoise Records". They recorded their first album, *[Blackmail](/wiki/Blackmail_%28album%29 "Blackmail (album)")*, late in 1996\. After presenting it to Guido, he decided to release it the fall of 1997\. Stuart Bruce, who currently works at [Peter Gabriel](/wiki/Peter_Gabriel "Peter Gabriel")'s [Real World Studios](/wiki/Real_World_Studios "Real World Studios"), produced the band's first demo recordings from this album.
In October 1997, they went on their first ever tour, that was in conjunction with the album release alongside [Swedish](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") rock band B\-Thong. Unfortunately the first album release did not go that smoothly. During the tour, however, they played various one\-off shows in numerous places, including [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria").
Two years later, they released their second album *[Science Fiction](/wiki/Science_Fiction_%28Blackmail_album%29 "Science Fiction (Blackmail album)")*. Surprisingly, reactions were really much better, there were many positive reactions in all directions. So much so that they were asked to participate in festivals like [Rock am Ring](/wiki/Rock_am_Ring "Rock am Ring") and the Bizarre Festival. They were also supported by the [Manic Street Preachers](/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers "Manic Street Preachers"). After *Science Fiction*, they were approached by many music label companies, finally the band decided to sign a contract with the [Warner Music](/wiki/Warner_Music "Warner Music") sub\-label "Speicherstadt". In 2000, the band released an entirely remixed version of *Science Fiction* entitled *[Do Robots Dream of Electric Sheep?](/wiki/Do_Robots_Dream_of_Electric_Sheep%3F "Do Robots Dream of Electric Sheep?")* under this label.
### *Bliss, Please*, *Friend or Foe?* and *Summer Sonic* (2001–2004\)
{{Main\|Bliss, Please\|Friend or Foe? (Blackmail album)}}
Following a continuous tour throughout Germany, they started recording *Bliss, Please* in the summer of 2000\. After its release in 2001, songs such as "Same Sane", "A Reptile For The Saint" and "Ken I Die" became exceptionally popular. Blackmail also gained recognition worldwide due to this album release. The first single, "Same Sane", came out in February 2001\. It was extremely popular in Germany. Their first music video release, "Same Sane", as well as the other videos from Bliss, Please first aired on VIVA 2 (VIVA Zwei), a subsidiary of popular German music video channel, [VIVA](/wiki/Viva_%28TV_station%29 "Viva (TV station)"). At the end of 2001, they were informed that Speicherstadt was going to close down.
From this point on they signed their further contracts with the mother\-label: The Warner/Elektra/Atlantic recording group, now known as the [Warner Music Group](/wiki/Warner_Music_Group "Warner Music Group"). WEA had given them their own studio in 2002, and since Kurt had produced all their work in the previous album, they decided to record their next album, *[Friend or Foe?](/wiki/Friend_or_Foe%3F_%28Blackmail_album%29 "Friend or Foe? (Blackmail album)")*, in midway 2002\. During recording the album, they recorded 28 songs. Out of these, only 11 songs made it into the album. Completing the album in February 2003, they released it on 26 May 2003\. From the album, the first single was "It Could Be Yours". From the album they also released an [EP](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play") entitled *[Foe](/wiki/Foe_EP "Foe EP")* in which they packed four other songs.
Following this release, the band went on a tour to [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") to perform in the [Summer Sonic](/wiki/Summer_Sonic "Summer Sonic") Festival in 2004\. They also released an export version of *Bliss, Please* in Japan in 2005\.
During this time, they released a special version of *Friend or Foe?* with bonus tracks, as well as an album entitled *The Lost Summer* (a.k.a. The Ventricular EP). Both albums, which were released exclusively in [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), are still available for purchase on [Amazon Deutschland](/wiki/Amazon.com "Amazon.com").
### *Kammerflimmern* and *Aerial View*
In 2005, they met with producer Hendrik Hölzemann and German techno artist, Lee Buddah to compose the soundtrack for the German film "Kammerflimmern" (Off Beat) which starred [Matthias Schweighöfer](/wiki/Matthias_Schweigh%C3%B6fer "Matthias Schweighöfer") and [Jessica Schwarz](/wiki/Jessica_Schwarz "Jessica Schwarz"). In the same year, they signed a contract with [City Slang](/wiki/City_Slang_Records "City Slang Records")/[Rough Trade](/wiki/Rough_Trade_Records "Rough Trade Records") and approached producer Andi Jung to help them mix tracks for their next album. After all the necessary preparations they released their latest album, *Aerial View*, on 13 January 2006, and were on tour in countries such as [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") to promote it. One track, "Never Forever", which originally appeared on Kammerflimmern's soundtrack was also re\-released in *Aerial View*.
### *Tempo Tempo* (2008–present)
In 2008, Blackmail released their album *Tempo Tempo*. On 11 December 2008 Blackmail announced the separation from lead singer [Aydo Abay](/wiki/Aydo_Abay "Aydo Abay") for personal reasons and aborted their tour.
In 2010, Mathias Reetz joined the band and they started recording a new album with the working title *Judas Love* in March 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blackmail.de/ \|title\=Blackmail \| ANIMA NOW! (Neues Album ab 29\.04\.2011\) \|publisher\=blackmail.de \|date\= \|accessdate\=2011\-10\-22}}
In March 2011 the song "Deborah" was released as a free download. The album now titled *Anima Now!* was released 29 April 2011 on their own label "45 Records".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blackmail.de/ \|title\=Blackmail \| ANIMA NOW! (Neues Album ab 29\.04\.2011\) \|publisher\=blackmail.de \|date\= \|accessdate\=2011\-10\-22}} On 22 February 2013 the second album without Abay, *II*, was released.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.plattentests.de/mobile/rezi.php?id\=10039\|title \= Blackmail \- II \- Plattentests.de\-Rezension}}
|
[
"Career history\n--------------",
"### Formation (1993–1996\\)",
"The band is said to be greatly influenced by sounds of the 1960s and the 1980s, particularly artists such as [The Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles \"The Beatles\"), [The Who](/wiki/The_Who \"The Who\") and [Depeche Mode](/wiki/Depeche_Mode \"Depeche Mode\"). The band was initially formed through a local magazine known as \"Visions\" that had a contact advertisement for new musicians. As a demo recording, they initially recorded a number of songs in an old [8\\-Track](/wiki/Multitrack_recording \"Multitrack recording\") studio that belonged to Kurt. They sent the demo tape to multiple recording studios.",
"The response from the studios was quite shaky, but they were able to engage in the services of recording legend, Stuart Bruce, who had just moved into the area of [Koblenz](/wiki/Koblenz \"Koblenz\"). Stuart owned a very advanced recording studio in his house. With some luck they were able to record eight songs in three months. After that, they went ahead to search for a recording studio, and this time, responses were much more positive. Their first live performance was in a club located in [Bonn](/wiki/Bonn \"Bonn\") known as Carpe Noctem as a sample for a scout from [Virgin Records](/wiki/Virgin_Records \"Virgin Records\") who had come there to judge their performance. Due to an \"unpredictable incident\" that occurred, however, they were not taken into Virgin Records. As Abay explained on the biography section of the site:",
"{{cquote\\|Prior to the show, one good\\-humoured and extremely drunk black guy took great pleasure in presenting his genitals to everyone in the crowd. The scout from \\[\\[Virgin Records\\|Virgin]] was disgusted and left early. When we met him after the concert, he apologised for doing so. He also announced that he wasn't going to take us in.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blackmail\\-music.com \\|title\\=Access Biography Section of the Site \\|publisher\\=blackmail\\-music.com \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-10\\-22}}}}",
"### *Blackmail* and *Science Fiction* (1997–1999\\)",
"{{Main\\|Blackmail (album)\\|Science Fiction (Blackmail album)}}",
"Instead they managed to approach Guido Lucas, who had started his own label \"bluNoise Records\". They recorded their first album, *[Blackmail](/wiki/Blackmail_%28album%29 \"Blackmail (album)\")*, late in 1996\\. After presenting it to Guido, he decided to release it the fall of 1997\\. Stuart Bruce, who currently works at [Peter Gabriel](/wiki/Peter_Gabriel \"Peter Gabriel\")'s [Real World Studios](/wiki/Real_World_Studios \"Real World Studios\"), produced the band's first demo recordings from this album.",
"In October 1997, they went on their first ever tour, that was in conjunction with the album release alongside [Swedish](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") rock band B\\-Thong. Unfortunately the first album release did not go that smoothly. During the tour, however, they played various one\\-off shows in numerous places, including [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\").",
"Two years later, they released their second album *[Science Fiction](/wiki/Science_Fiction_%28Blackmail_album%29 \"Science Fiction (Blackmail album)\")*. Surprisingly, reactions were really much better, there were many positive reactions in all directions. So much so that they were asked to participate in festivals like [Rock am Ring](/wiki/Rock_am_Ring \"Rock am Ring\") and the Bizarre Festival. They were also supported by the [Manic Street Preachers](/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers \"Manic Street Preachers\"). After *Science Fiction*, they were approached by many music label companies, finally the band decided to sign a contract with the [Warner Music](/wiki/Warner_Music \"Warner Music\") sub\\-label \"Speicherstadt\". In 2000, the band released an entirely remixed version of *Science Fiction* entitled *[Do Robots Dream of Electric Sheep?](/wiki/Do_Robots_Dream_of_Electric_Sheep%3F \"Do Robots Dream of Electric Sheep?\")* under this label.",
"### *Bliss, Please*, *Friend or Foe?* and *Summer Sonic* (2001–2004\\)",
"{{Main\\|Bliss, Please\\|Friend or Foe? (Blackmail album)}}",
"Following a continuous tour throughout Germany, they started recording *Bliss, Please* in the summer of 2000\\. After its release in 2001, songs such as \"Same Sane\", \"A Reptile For The Saint\" and \"Ken I Die\" became exceptionally popular. Blackmail also gained recognition worldwide due to this album release. The first single, \"Same Sane\", came out in February 2001\\. It was extremely popular in Germany. Their first music video release, \"Same Sane\", as well as the other videos from Bliss, Please first aired on VIVA 2 (VIVA Zwei), a subsidiary of popular German music video channel, [VIVA](/wiki/Viva_%28TV_station%29 \"Viva (TV station)\"). At the end of 2001, they were informed that Speicherstadt was going to close down.",
"From this point on they signed their further contracts with the mother\\-label: The Warner/Elektra/Atlantic recording group, now known as the [Warner Music Group](/wiki/Warner_Music_Group \"Warner Music Group\"). WEA had given them their own studio in 2002, and since Kurt had produced all their work in the previous album, they decided to record their next album, *[Friend or Foe?](/wiki/Friend_or_Foe%3F_%28Blackmail_album%29 \"Friend or Foe? (Blackmail album)\")*, in midway 2002\\. During recording the album, they recorded 28 songs. Out of these, only 11 songs made it into the album. Completing the album in February 2003, they released it on 26 May 2003\\. From the album, the first single was \"It Could Be Yours\". From the album they also released an [EP](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\") entitled *[Foe](/wiki/Foe_EP \"Foe EP\")* in which they packed four other songs.",
"Following this release, the band went on a tour to [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") to perform in the [Summer Sonic](/wiki/Summer_Sonic \"Summer Sonic\") Festival in 2004\\. They also released an export version of *Bliss, Please* in Japan in 2005\\.",
"During this time, they released a special version of *Friend or Foe?* with bonus tracks, as well as an album entitled *The Lost Summer* (a.k.a. The Ventricular EP). Both albums, which were released exclusively in [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), are still available for purchase on [Amazon Deutschland](/wiki/Amazon.com \"Amazon.com\").",
"### *Kammerflimmern* and *Aerial View*",
"In 2005, they met with producer Hendrik Hölzemann and German techno artist, Lee Buddah to compose the soundtrack for the German film \"Kammerflimmern\" (Off Beat) which starred [Matthias Schweighöfer](/wiki/Matthias_Schweigh%C3%B6fer \"Matthias Schweighöfer\") and [Jessica Schwarz](/wiki/Jessica_Schwarz \"Jessica Schwarz\"). In the same year, they signed a contract with [City Slang](/wiki/City_Slang_Records \"City Slang Records\")/[Rough Trade](/wiki/Rough_Trade_Records \"Rough Trade Records\") and approached producer Andi Jung to help them mix tracks for their next album. After all the necessary preparations they released their latest album, *Aerial View*, on 13 January 2006, and were on tour in countries such as [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") to promote it. One track, \"Never Forever\", which originally appeared on Kammerflimmern's soundtrack was also re\\-released in *Aerial View*.",
"### *Tempo Tempo* (2008–present)",
"In 2008, Blackmail released their album *Tempo Tempo*. On 11 December 2008 Blackmail announced the separation from lead singer [Aydo Abay](/wiki/Aydo_Abay \"Aydo Abay\") for personal reasons and aborted their tour.",
"In 2010, Mathias Reetz joined the band and they started recording a new album with the working title *Judas Love* in March 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blackmail.de/ \\|title\\=Blackmail \\| ANIMA NOW! (Neues Album ab 29\\.04\\.2011\\) \\|publisher\\=blackmail.de \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-10\\-22}}",
"In March 2011 the song \"Deborah\" was released as a free download. The album now titled *Anima Now!* was released 29 April 2011 on their own label \"45 Records\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blackmail.de/ \\|title\\=Blackmail \\| ANIMA NOW! (Neues Album ab 29\\.04\\.2011\\) \\|publisher\\=blackmail.de \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-10\\-22}} On 22 February 2013 the second album without Abay, *II*, was released.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.plattentests.de/mobile/rezi.php?id\\=10039\\|title \\= Blackmail \\- II \\- Plattentests.de\\-Rezension}}",
""
] |
Motorsport career
-----------------
[thumb\|left\|Audetto (left) as co\-driver of [Luca di Montezemolo](/wiki/Luca_di_Montezemolo "Luca di Montezemolo") in 1971](/wiki/File:Audetto_and_Montezemolo%27s_Lancia_Fulvia_Coup%C3%A9_HF_%281971_Rallye_Sanremo-Sestriere%29.jpg "Audetto and Montezemolo's Lancia Fulvia Coupé HF (1971 Rallye Sanremo-Sestriere).jpg")
Audetto started his [motorsport](/wiki/Motorsport "Motorsport") career in [rallying](/wiki/Rallying "Rallying") as a co\-driver of [Luca di Montezemolo](/wiki/Luca_di_Montezemolo "Luca di Montezemolo") and [Sandro Munari](/wiki/Sandro_Munari "Sandro Munari") in the factory [Lancia](/wiki/Lancia "Lancia") team. During his three years with the team he earned management degree at [Bocconi University](/wiki/Bocconi_University "Bocconi University"). He severely injured his legs during an accident at the San Martino di Castrozza Rally in 1972 and turned his attention to management within [FIAT](/wiki/FIAT "FIAT"). In 1976 he replaced Montezemolo as [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari") team manager. At the end of that season he was promoted as supervisor of all FIAT motorsport activities.
He left FIAT four years later and began working as an independent sponsor\-hunter and liaison, working with a variety of F1 teams and [powerboat](/wiki/Powerboat "Powerboat") organisations, notably with the Ceramiche Ragno [sponsorship](/wiki/Sponsor_%28commercial%29 "Sponsor (commercial)") of [Arrows F1](/wiki/Arrows_Grand_Prix_International "Arrows Grand Prix International"). After three years he was recruited by [Lamborghini](/wiki/Lamborghini "Lamborghini") Engineering and within a year had been promoted to managing\-director, overseeing the company's F1 engine program between 1989 and 1993\. After Lamborghini Engineering shut down Audetto worked in the [Superbike World Championship](/wiki/Superbike_World_Championship "Superbike World Championship").
At the beginning of 1996 Audetto joined [Tom Walkinshaw](/wiki/Tom_Walkinshaw "Tom Walkinshaw")'s [Ligier](/wiki/Equipe_Ligier "Equipe Ligier") operation in F1 but within a few weeks Walkinshaw split with the French team, which was controlled by [Flavio Briatore](/wiki/Flavio_Briatore "Flavio Briatore") at the time, and bought a majority shareholding in the Arrows F1 team; Audetto, along with many others, followed him and joined Arrows. He stayed with Arrows until it closed down at the end of 2002\. The following year he joined [Renault F1](/wiki/Renault_F1 "Renault F1") to coordinate the engine department and later became the business development director. He left the team at the end of 2003 for [Menard](/wiki/Team_Menard "Team Menard"), where he was the Vice President and Commercial Director.
Two years later he moved to [Super Aguri](/wiki/Super_Aguri_F1 "Super Aguri F1"), where he was appointed as managing director. He remained in that position until the team ceased racing in 2008\.
He then took up the position of managing director at [HRT F1](/wiki/HRT_Formula_1_Team "HRT Formula 1 Team").
|
[
"Motorsport career\n-----------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Audetto (left) as co\\-driver of [Luca di Montezemolo](/wiki/Luca_di_Montezemolo \"Luca di Montezemolo\") in 1971](/wiki/File:Audetto_and_Montezemolo%27s_Lancia_Fulvia_Coup%C3%A9_HF_%281971_Rallye_Sanremo-Sestriere%29.jpg \"Audetto and Montezemolo's Lancia Fulvia Coupé HF (1971 Rallye Sanremo-Sestriere).jpg\")",
"Audetto started his [motorsport](/wiki/Motorsport \"Motorsport\") career in [rallying](/wiki/Rallying \"Rallying\") as a co\\-driver of [Luca di Montezemolo](/wiki/Luca_di_Montezemolo \"Luca di Montezemolo\") and [Sandro Munari](/wiki/Sandro_Munari \"Sandro Munari\") in the factory [Lancia](/wiki/Lancia \"Lancia\") team. During his three years with the team he earned management degree at [Bocconi University](/wiki/Bocconi_University \"Bocconi University\"). He severely injured his legs during an accident at the San Martino di Castrozza Rally in 1972 and turned his attention to management within [FIAT](/wiki/FIAT \"FIAT\"). In 1976 he replaced Montezemolo as [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\") team manager. At the end of that season he was promoted as supervisor of all FIAT motorsport activities.",
"He left FIAT four years later and began working as an independent sponsor\\-hunter and liaison, working with a variety of F1 teams and [powerboat](/wiki/Powerboat \"Powerboat\") organisations, notably with the Ceramiche Ragno [sponsorship](/wiki/Sponsor_%28commercial%29 \"Sponsor (commercial)\") of [Arrows F1](/wiki/Arrows_Grand_Prix_International \"Arrows Grand Prix International\"). After three years he was recruited by [Lamborghini](/wiki/Lamborghini \"Lamborghini\") Engineering and within a year had been promoted to managing\\-director, overseeing the company's F1 engine program between 1989 and 1993\\. After Lamborghini Engineering shut down Audetto worked in the [Superbike World Championship](/wiki/Superbike_World_Championship \"Superbike World Championship\").",
"At the beginning of 1996 Audetto joined [Tom Walkinshaw](/wiki/Tom_Walkinshaw \"Tom Walkinshaw\")'s [Ligier](/wiki/Equipe_Ligier \"Equipe Ligier\") operation in F1 but within a few weeks Walkinshaw split with the French team, which was controlled by [Flavio Briatore](/wiki/Flavio_Briatore \"Flavio Briatore\") at the time, and bought a majority shareholding in the Arrows F1 team; Audetto, along with many others, followed him and joined Arrows. He stayed with Arrows until it closed down at the end of 2002\\. The following year he joined [Renault F1](/wiki/Renault_F1 \"Renault F1\") to coordinate the engine department and later became the business development director. He left the team at the end of 2003 for [Menard](/wiki/Team_Menard \"Team Menard\"), where he was the Vice President and Commercial Director.",
"Two years later he moved to [Super Aguri](/wiki/Super_Aguri_F1 \"Super Aguri F1\"), where he was appointed as managing director. He remained in that position until the team ceased racing in 2008\\.",
"He then took up the position of managing director at [HRT F1](/wiki/HRT_Formula_1_Team \"HRT Formula 1 Team\").",
""
] |
Film\-making career
-------------------
After obtaining a degree in science from the [University College of the South West of England](/wiki/University_of_Exeter "University of Exeter"), [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter "Exeter"), Christopher Parsons joined the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") in 1955\. He began as an apprentice [film editor](/wiki/Film_editor "Film editor") at the newly formed West Region Film Unit in [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol"), [England](/wiki/England "England").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1414374/Chris\-Parsons.html \|title\=Obituaries: Chris Parsons \|newspaper\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \|date\=2002\-11\-26}} Here, he worked on a wide range of programmes in the fledgling medium of [television](/wiki/Television "Television"), including some of the BBC's earliest natural history films.
In 1957 he was one of the founding members of the [BBC Natural History Unit](/wiki/BBC_Natural_History_Unit "BBC Natural History Unit"), becoming a pioneer of the genre alongside names such as [Peter Scott](/wiki/Peter_Scott "Peter Scott"), [Tony Soper](/wiki/Tony_Soper "Tony Soper"), Pat Beech and Eric Ashby. His early work included roles editing and producing *Look*, the Unit's first series, which was presented by Scott. In 1963 he produced the Unit's first film in colour, *[The Major](/wiki/The_Major "The Major")*,{{cite web \|url\=http://info.uwe.ac.uk/news/uwenews/article.asp?item\=171\&year\=2001 \|title\=UWE Awards Honorary Degree to Christopher Parsons OBE \|publisher\=UWE press office \|date\=2001\-11\-13}} though it was another four years before the programme could be transmitted in colour.
Parsons accompanied his friend [Gerald Durrell](/wiki/Gerald_Durrell "Gerald Durrell") on animal\-collecting expeditions to [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") and [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone") to produce the television series *Two in the Bush* (1962\) and *Catch Me a Colobus* (1966\). In 1968, he became series editor of *The World About Us*, a new strand of nature documentaries commissioned for [BBC Two](/wiki/BBC_Two "BBC Two") by then controller David Attenborough. The strand was renamed *[The Natural World](/wiki/Natural_World_%28BBC_TV_series%29 "Natural World (BBC TV series)")* in 1983 and was still on air as of 2012\.
When Attenborough began commissioning ambitious landmark documentary series for BBC Two on subjects as diverse as science, economics and art history, Parsons decided that [natural history](/wiki/Natural_history "Natural history") would make an ideal subject for such a venture, and drafted the synopsis of a 13\-part series he called *Life on Earth*. In 1970, he travelled to [London](/wiki/London "London") to persuade Attenborough to present the series, only to discover that both of them had had the same idea. Financing and filming challenges delayed production, and it was not until 1979 that *Life on Earth* finally reached the screen. The series drew widespread acclaim and helped to establish the reputation of the Natural History Unit. When it was rewarded with departmental status in 1979, Parsons became the first official Head of the Unit (previous leaders were called senior producers).
In 1982, he received an award for programme excellence from the [Royal Television Society](/wiki/Royal_Television_Society "Royal Television Society") and was appointed OBE for his outstanding services to [broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting "Broadcasting"). The same year, his history of the first 25 years of the Natural History Unit, *True to Nature*, was published. After stepping down from his role as Head in 1983, he was appointed to develop commercial opportunities for the BBC by utilising the growing library of archive natural history footage. He set up Wildvision to sell re\-packaged programmes and videos internationally, and helped to establish *[BBC Wildlife](/wiki/BBC_Wildlife "BBC Wildlife")* magazine in 1983\.
Parsons left the BBC in 1988 to return to film production, making for large\-format films for museums, zoos and aquaria. In the 1990s he produced a number of [IMAX](/wiki/IMAX "IMAX") nature documentaries, working with the IMAX Natural History Film Unit and West Eagle Films. These included *Mountain Gorillas* (1992\), *The Secret of Life on Earth* (1992\) and *Survival Island* (1996\), the latter a second collaboration with David Attenborough. His final film was a millennium project about his home village of [Littleton\-upon\-Severn](/wiki/Littleton-upon-Severn "Littleton-upon-Severn") in [Gloucestershire](/wiki/Gloucestershire "Gloucestershire").
|
[
"Film\\-making career\n-------------------",
"After obtaining a degree in science from the [University College of the South West of England](/wiki/University_of_Exeter \"University of Exeter\"), [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter \"Exeter\"), Christopher Parsons joined the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") in 1955\\. He began as an apprentice [film editor](/wiki/Film_editor \"Film editor\") at the newly formed West Region Film Unit in [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1414374/Chris\\-Parsons.html \\|title\\=Obituaries: Chris Parsons \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\|date\\=2002\\-11\\-26}} Here, he worked on a wide range of programmes in the fledgling medium of [television](/wiki/Television \"Television\"), including some of the BBC's earliest natural history films.",
"In 1957 he was one of the founding members of the [BBC Natural History Unit](/wiki/BBC_Natural_History_Unit \"BBC Natural History Unit\"), becoming a pioneer of the genre alongside names such as [Peter Scott](/wiki/Peter_Scott \"Peter Scott\"), [Tony Soper](/wiki/Tony_Soper \"Tony Soper\"), Pat Beech and Eric Ashby. His early work included roles editing and producing *Look*, the Unit's first series, which was presented by Scott. In 1963 he produced the Unit's first film in colour, *[The Major](/wiki/The_Major \"The Major\")*,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://info.uwe.ac.uk/news/uwenews/article.asp?item\\=171\\&year\\=2001 \\|title\\=UWE Awards Honorary Degree to Christopher Parsons OBE \\|publisher\\=UWE press office \\|date\\=2001\\-11\\-13}} though it was another four years before the programme could be transmitted in colour.",
"Parsons accompanied his friend [Gerald Durrell](/wiki/Gerald_Durrell \"Gerald Durrell\") on animal\\-collecting expeditions to [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone \"Sierra Leone\") to produce the television series *Two in the Bush* (1962\\) and *Catch Me a Colobus* (1966\\). In 1968, he became series editor of *The World About Us*, a new strand of nature documentaries commissioned for [BBC Two](/wiki/BBC_Two \"BBC Two\") by then controller David Attenborough. The strand was renamed *[The Natural World](/wiki/Natural_World_%28BBC_TV_series%29 \"Natural World (BBC TV series)\")* in 1983 and was still on air as of 2012\\.",
"When Attenborough began commissioning ambitious landmark documentary series for BBC Two on subjects as diverse as science, economics and art history, Parsons decided that [natural history](/wiki/Natural_history \"Natural history\") would make an ideal subject for such a venture, and drafted the synopsis of a 13\\-part series he called *Life on Earth*. In 1970, he travelled to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") to persuade Attenborough to present the series, only to discover that both of them had had the same idea. Financing and filming challenges delayed production, and it was not until 1979 that *Life on Earth* finally reached the screen. The series drew widespread acclaim and helped to establish the reputation of the Natural History Unit. When it was rewarded with departmental status in 1979, Parsons became the first official Head of the Unit (previous leaders were called senior producers).",
"In 1982, he received an award for programme excellence from the [Royal Television Society](/wiki/Royal_Television_Society \"Royal Television Society\") and was appointed OBE for his outstanding services to [broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting \"Broadcasting\"). The same year, his history of the first 25 years of the Natural History Unit, *True to Nature*, was published. After stepping down from his role as Head in 1983, he was appointed to develop commercial opportunities for the BBC by utilising the growing library of archive natural history footage. He set up Wildvision to sell re\\-packaged programmes and videos internationally, and helped to establish *[BBC Wildlife](/wiki/BBC_Wildlife \"BBC Wildlife\")* magazine in 1983\\.",
"Parsons left the BBC in 1988 to return to film production, making for large\\-format films for museums, zoos and aquaria. In the 1990s he produced a number of [IMAX](/wiki/IMAX \"IMAX\") nature documentaries, working with the IMAX Natural History Film Unit and West Eagle Films. These included *Mountain Gorillas* (1992\\), *The Secret of Life on Earth* (1992\\) and *Survival Island* (1996\\), the latter a second collaboration with David Attenborough. His final film was a millennium project about his home village of [Littleton\\-upon\\-Severn](/wiki/Littleton-upon-Severn \"Littleton-upon-Severn\") in [Gloucestershire](/wiki/Gloucestershire \"Gloucestershire\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Jacques Labouchere is a forever travelling troubadour and activist who is unquestionably a pioneer of true Americana folk music in Scandinavia. His independent work ethic combined with an impressive body of live performances set him apart from his indie contemporaries. Perhaps more poignantly his empathetic songwriting of heart\-wrenching and compassionate life\-stories mark him as the last of a dying breed of artists in the current nmusic industry where a photo of someone is worth more than a musician reaching out to connect emotionally with his audience. Labouchere can confidently claim to have done the latter.
Jacques was born near the trails of the Appalachian mountains in Sharon, Connecticut, US. He grew up all over the East Coast before moving to London in his teens only to return again to the US before heading back to the EU and settling in Gothenburg (Göteborg), Sweden, where he now resides and is a citizen. He quickly started a band called Ghost Dance Disturbance that in their brief time together recorded one EP, *Welcome in the Cabin Fever*, before disbanding after many local gigs in late summer 2006\. He also sang backing vocals for We do not negotiate with terrorists as a guest musician on their first CD, and later joined the band to play bass for a brief period. After some time off he decided to make a comeback solo and has as of present released three full\-length albums. Self\-titled, *Jacques Labouchere* in 2007, recorded and produced by Martin Molin of [Detektivbyrån](/wiki/Detektivbyr%C3%A5n "Detektivbyrån"), *Bi\-polar Baby Strollers* in 2010, recorded at Music\-a\-matic Studios. And the latest album *Piece*, was released on October 27, 2017\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.monthly.se/nucleus/index.php?itemid\=1757 \|title\=Monthly Magazine: Göteborg \|website\=www.monthly.se \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811154836/http://www.monthly.se/nucleus/index.php?itemid\=1757 \|archive\-date\=2010\-08\-11}}
His self\-titled debut album was independently released in March 2007\. He then released his second album *Bi\-polar Baby Strollers* and accompanying music video of the single "2nd Long Street" on June 21, 2010\.
On June 2, 2017, he released the first single; "It´s Not What You Think"; from his third album “Piece”. The second single off of “Piece” was released September 1, 2017 and is called "Do What You Want". “Piece” was recorded together with Thomas Frank and Christian Dyresjö from Gothenburg’s well known prog band, Den Stora Vilan.
Jacques shared the bill with Alan Mcgee, José González and his band Junip, at The Gothenburg International Film Festival (Europe's largest) in February 2011\. He has a catalogue of many new songs that are redefining his sound and live performance constantly as he continues to tour whenever and wherever possible.
In addition to extensive gigging in Scandinavia, and regular performances in Göteborg, Sweden and London, UK, a full\-length tour of the UK in June 2011 followed a performance on the Antje Oeklesund stage at Fête de la Musique in Berlin before returning to Sweden to play at Sweden's largest music festival, Peace and Love Festival, on July 1, 2011, supporting headliner [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan"), Jacques returned home from a month of shows and residencies in New York City and Brooklyn in late January through February 2012\.
After the release of his album “Piece” Jacques embarked on a tour to support the album(28 October 2017 to 3 December 2017\); along with [This Frontier Needs Heroes](/wiki/This_Frontier_Needs_Heroes "This Frontier Needs Heroes") at most of the venues. They played in Spain, Italy, Germany and The Netherlands.
Labouchere has opened for acts such as [Arlo Guthrie](/wiki/Arlo_Guthrie "Arlo Guthrie"), [Quilt (band)](/wiki/Quilt_%28band%29 "Quilt (band)")(members of [Woods (band)](/wiki/Woods_%28band%29 "Woods (band)") \& Olden Yolk),[The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart](/wiki/The_Pains_Of_Being_Pure_At_Heart "The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart"),[Daniel Norgren](/wiki/Daniel_Norgren "Daniel Norgren"), Den Stora Vilan,[José González (singer)in](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%28singer%29 "José González (singer)")([Junip](/wiki/Junip "Junip")), and [This Frontier Needs Heroes](/wiki/This_Frontier_Needs_Heroes "This Frontier Needs Heroes").
Over the course of the last 15 years, Jacques has released 4 full length albums, numerous singles, and has toured extensively in the US and EU playing 100's of gigs and festivals in Sweden, Norway, Denmark the UK , Holland, Germany, Spain, Switzerland, and Italy. Germany has taken to him and since January 2016, Labouchere has toured the country five times.
Jacques is currently putting the finishing touches on his 5th album due out in early 2024 with the 2nd single, “No Man's Gonna Stop Me!” being released Saturday September 16, 2023!
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Jacques Labouchere is a forever travelling troubadour and activist who is unquestionably a pioneer of true Americana folk music in Scandinavia. His independent work ethic combined with an impressive body of live performances set him apart from his indie contemporaries. Perhaps more poignantly his empathetic songwriting of heart\\-wrenching and compassionate life\\-stories mark him as the last of a dying breed of artists in the current nmusic industry where a photo of someone is worth more than a musician reaching out to connect emotionally with his audience. Labouchere can confidently claim to have done the latter.",
"Jacques was born near the trails of the Appalachian mountains in Sharon, Connecticut, US. He grew up all over the East Coast before moving to London in his teens only to return again to the US before heading back to the EU and settling in Gothenburg (Göteborg), Sweden, where he now resides and is a citizen. He quickly started a band called Ghost Dance Disturbance that in their brief time together recorded one EP, *Welcome in the Cabin Fever*, before disbanding after many local gigs in late summer 2006\\. He also sang backing vocals for We do not negotiate with terrorists as a guest musician on their first CD, and later joined the band to play bass for a brief period. After some time off he decided to make a comeback solo and has as of present released three full\\-length albums. Self\\-titled, *Jacques Labouchere* in 2007, recorded and produced by Martin Molin of [Detektivbyrån](/wiki/Detektivbyr%C3%A5n \"Detektivbyrån\"), *Bi\\-polar Baby Strollers* in 2010, recorded at Music\\-a\\-matic Studios. And the latest album *Piece*, was released on October 27, 2017\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.monthly.se/nucleus/index.php?itemid\\=1757 \\|title\\=Monthly Magazine: Göteborg \\|website\\=www.monthly.se \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811154836/http://www.monthly.se/nucleus/index.php?itemid\\=1757 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-11}}",
"His self\\-titled debut album was independently released in March 2007\\. He then released his second album *Bi\\-polar Baby Strollers* and accompanying music video of the single \"2nd Long Street\" on June 21, 2010\\.",
"On June 2, 2017, he released the first single; \"It´s Not What You Think\"; from his third album “Piece”. The second single off of “Piece” was released September 1, 2017 and is called \"Do What You Want\". “Piece” was recorded together with Thomas Frank and Christian Dyresjö from Gothenburg’s well known prog band, Den Stora Vilan.",
"Jacques shared the bill with Alan Mcgee, José González and his band Junip, at The Gothenburg International Film Festival (Europe's largest) in February 2011\\. He has a catalogue of many new songs that are redefining his sound and live performance constantly as he continues to tour whenever and wherever possible.",
"In addition to extensive gigging in Scandinavia, and regular performances in Göteborg, Sweden and London, UK, a full\\-length tour of the UK in June 2011 followed a performance on the Antje Oeklesund stage at Fête de la Musique in Berlin before returning to Sweden to play at Sweden's largest music festival, Peace and Love Festival, on July 1, 2011, supporting headliner [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\"), Jacques returned home from a month of shows and residencies in New York City and Brooklyn in late January through February 2012\\.",
"After the release of his album “Piece” Jacques embarked on a tour to support the album(28 October 2017 to 3 December 2017\\); along with [This Frontier Needs Heroes](/wiki/This_Frontier_Needs_Heroes \"This Frontier Needs Heroes\") at most of the venues. They played in Spain, Italy, Germany and The Netherlands.",
"Labouchere has opened for acts such as [Arlo Guthrie](/wiki/Arlo_Guthrie \"Arlo Guthrie\"), [Quilt (band)](/wiki/Quilt_%28band%29 \"Quilt (band)\")(members of [Woods (band)](/wiki/Woods_%28band%29 \"Woods (band)\") \\& Olden Yolk),[The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart](/wiki/The_Pains_Of_Being_Pure_At_Heart \"The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart\"),[Daniel Norgren](/wiki/Daniel_Norgren \"Daniel Norgren\"), Den Stora Vilan,[José González (singer)in](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%28singer%29 \"José González (singer)\")([Junip](/wiki/Junip \"Junip\")), and [This Frontier Needs Heroes](/wiki/This_Frontier_Needs_Heroes \"This Frontier Needs Heroes\").",
"Over the course of the last 15 years, Jacques has released 4 full length albums, numerous singles, and has toured extensively in the US and EU playing 100's of gigs and festivals in Sweden, Norway, Denmark the UK , Holland, Germany, Spain, Switzerland, and Italy. Germany has taken to him and since January 2016, Labouchere has toured the country five times.",
"Jacques is currently putting the finishing touches on his 5th album due out in early 2024 with the 2nd single, “No Man's Gonna Stop Me!” being released Saturday September 16, 2023!",
""
] |
Types and roles
---------------
Military helicopters play an integral part in the sea, land and air operations of modern militaries. Generally manufacturers will develop airframes in different weight/size classes which can be adapted to different roles through the installation of mission specific equipment. To minimise development costs the basic airframes can be stretched and shortened, be updated with new engines and electronics and have the entire mechanical and flight systems mated to new fuselages to create new aircraft. For example, the [Bell UH\-1 Iroquois](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois "Bell UH-1 Iroquois") (known as the "Huey") has given rise to a number of derivatives through stretching and re\-engining, including the [Bell AH\-1](/wiki/Bell_Huey_family%23Military_designations_%28UH-1_and_AH-1%29 "Bell Huey family#Military designations (UH-1 and AH-1)").
Modern helicopters have introduced modular systems which allow the same airframe to be configured for different roles, for example the [Augusta Westland AW101 "Merlin"](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW101 "AgustaWestland AW101") in [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") service can be rapidly configured for ASW or transport missions in hours. To at the same time retain flexibility and limit costs, it is possible to fit an airframe [for but not with](/wiki/For_but_not_with "For but not with") a system, for example in the US Army's [Boeing AH\-64D Apache](/wiki/Boeing_AH-64_Apache "Boeing AH-64 Apache") variants are all fitted to be able to take the Longbow radar system, but not enough sets have been bought to equip the whole force. The systems can be fitted to only those airframes that need it, or when finances allow the purchase of enough units.
### Equipment
Most military helicopters are [armoured](/wiki/Vehicle_armour "Vehicle armour") to some extent; however, all equipment is limited to the installed power and lift capability and the limits installed equipment places on useful payload. The most extensive armour is placed around the pilots, engines, transmission, and fuel tanks. Fuel lines, control cables and power to the tail rotor may also be shrouded by Kevlar armour. The most heavily armoured helicopters are attack, assault and special forces helicopters. In transport helicopters the crew compartment may or may not be fully armoured, a compromise being to give the passengers Kevlar lined seats but to leave the compartment for the most part unarmoured. [Survivability](/wiki/Survivability "Survivability") is enhanced by [redundancy](/wiki/Redundancy_%28engineering%29 "Redundancy (engineering)") and the placement of components to protect each other. For example, the [Blackhawk](/wiki/UH-60_Black_Hawk "UH-60 Black Hawk") family of helicopters uses two engines and can continue to fly on only one (under certain conditions), the engines are separated by the transmission and placed so that if attacked from any one flank, the engine on that flank acts to protect the transmission and the engine on the other side from damage.
Aviation electronics, or [avionics](/wiki/Avionics "Avionics"), such as communication radios and navigation aids are common on most military helicopters. Specialized avionics, such as [electronic countermeasures](/wiki/Electronic_countermeasures "Electronic countermeasures") and [identification friend or foe](/wiki/Identification_friend_or_foe "Identification friend or foe") systems, are military specific systems that can also be installed on military helicopters. Other payload or mission systems are installed either permanently or temporarily, based on specific mission requirements; optical and IR cameras for scout helicopters, dunking sonar and search radar for anti\-submarine helicopters, extra radio transceivers and computers for helicopters used as airborne [command posts](/wiki/Command_post "Command post").
Armour, fire suppression, dynamic and electronics systems enhancements are invisible to casual inspection; as a cost\-cutting measure some nations and services have been tempted to use what are essentially commercial helicopters for military purposes. For example, it has been reported that China is carrying out a rapid enlargement of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version of the Russian [Mil Mi\-17](/wiki/Mil_Mi-17 "Mil Mi-17").Kanwa Defense Review No26, "Is China's 20\-year build\-up Army Aviation Corps effective", February 2007\. These helicopters without armour and electronic counter measures will function well enough for training exercises and photo opportunities but would be suicidal to deploy in the assault role in actual combat situations. The intention of China appears to be to [retrofit](/wiki/Retrofit "Retrofit") these helicopters with locally produced electronics and armour when possible, freeing available funds to allow rapid creation of enough regiments to equip each of its [Group Armies](/wiki/Group_Army "Group Army"), allowing a widespread buildup of experience in helicopter operations.
### Attack
{{main\|Attack helicopter}}
[thumb\|A [Z\-10](/wiki/Changhe_Z-10 "Changhe Z-10") of the [People's Liberation Army Ground Aviation](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force "People's Liberation Army Ground Force")](/wiki/File:PLAAF_Changhe_WZ-10_-_Jordan.jpg "PLAAF Changhe WZ-10 - Jordan.jpg")
[Attack helicopters](/wiki/Attack_helicopter "Attack helicopter") are helicopters used in the [anti\-tank](/wiki/Anti-tank%23Helicopters "Anti-tank#Helicopters") and [close air support](/wiki/Close_air_support "Close air support") roles. The first of the modern attack helicopters was the Vietnam era [Bell AH\-1 Cobra](/wiki/Bell_AH-1_Cobra "Bell AH-1 Cobra"), which pioneered the now classic format of pilot and weapons officer seated in [tandem](/wiki/Tandem "Tandem") in a narrow fuselage, chin mounted guns, and [rockets](/wiki/Rocket_%28weapon%29 "Rocket (weapon)") and [missiles](/wiki/Missile "Missile") mounted on stub wings. To enable them to find and identify their targets, some modern attack helicopters are equipped with very capable sensors[Give us an enemy to fight, says chief of Britain's Apache helicopter fleet](https://web.archive.org/web/20060209131710/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/06/12/napac12.xml) such as a [millimeter wave](/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency "Extremely high frequency") radar system.
### Transport
{{main\|Transport helicopter}}
[thumb\|An [Mi\-26](/wiki/Mil_Mi-26 "Mil Mi-26") operated by the [Russian Air Force](/wiki/Russian_Air_Force "Russian Air Force")](/wiki/File:Mil_Mi-26%2C_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN1581640.jpg "Mil Mi-26, Russia - Air Force AN1581640.jpg")
Transport helicopters are used for transporting personnel (troops) and cargo in support of military operations. In larger militaries, these helicopters are often purpose\-built for military operations, but commercially available aircraft are also used. The benefit of using helicopters for these operations is that personnel and cargo can be moved to and from locations without requiring a runway for takeoffs and landings. Cargo is carried either internally, or externally by slung load where the load is suspended from an attachment point underneath the aircraft. Personnel are primarily loaded and unloaded while the helicopter is on the ground. However, when the terrain restricts even helicopters from landing, personnel may also be picked up and dropped off using specialized devices, such as rescue hoists or special rope lines, while the aircraft hovers overhead.
[Air assault](/wiki/Air_assault "Air assault") is a military strategy that relies heavily on the use of transport helicopters. An air assault involves a customized assault force that is assembled on the pick\-up zone and staged for sequential transport to a [landing zone](/wiki/Landing_zone "Landing zone") (LZ). The idea is to use the helicopters to transport and land a large number of troops and equipment in a relatively short amount of time, in order to assault and overwhelm an objective near the LZ. The advantage of air assault over an airborne assault is the ability of the helicopters to continually resupply the force during the operation, as well as to transport the personnel and equipment to their previous location, or a follow\-on location if the mission dictates.
### Observation
[thumb\|An [Aérospatiale Gazelle](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Gazelle "Aérospatiale Gazelle") operated by the [French Army](/wiki/French_Army "French Army") [Light Aviation](/wiki/French_Army_Light_Aviation "French Army Light Aviation")](/wiki/File:Helicopter_Gazelle%2C_ALAT%2C_NATO_Tiger_Meet_2017%2C_Landivisiau.jpg "Helicopter Gazelle, ALAT, NATO Tiger Meet 2017, Landivisiau.jpg")
The first [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") and [observation aircraft](/wiki/Surveillance_aircraft "Surveillance aircraft") were balloons, followed by light airplanes, such as the [Taylorcraft L\-2](/wiki/Taylorcraft_L-2 "Taylorcraft L-2") and [Fieseler Fi 156](/wiki/Fieseler_Fi_156 "Fieseler Fi 156"). As the first military helicopters became available, their ability to both maneuver and to remain in one location made them ideal for reconnaissance. Initially observation helicopters were limited to visual observation by the aircrew, and most helicopters featured rounded, well\-glazed cockpits for maximum visibility. Over time, the human eye became supplemented by optical sensor systems. Today, these include [low light level television](/wiki/Low_light_level_television "Low light level television") and [forward looking infrared](/wiki/Forward_looking_infrared "Forward looking infrared") cameras. Often, these are mounted in a stabilised mount along with multi\-function [lasers](/wiki/Laser "Laser") capable of acting as [laser rangefinder](/wiki/Laser_rangefinder "Laser rangefinder") and [targeting designators](/wiki/Laser_designator "Laser designator") for weapons systems.[Rotary Aircraft:Doctrinal Development](http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/rotary-doctrine-dev.htm)
By nature of the mission, the observation helicopter's primary weapons are its sensor suite and communications equipment. Early observation helicopters were effective at calling for artillery fire and [airstrikes](/wiki/Airstrike "Airstrike"). With modern sensor suites, they are also able to provide terminal guidance to anti\-tank guided weapons, laser\-guided bombs and other missiles and munitions fired by other armed aircraft.[OH\-58D Kiowa Warrior Reconnaissance / Attack Helicopter, USA](http://www.army-technology.com/projects/kiowa/)[Comanche's Child: The ARH\-70 Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter](http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/comanches-child-the-arh70-armed-reconnaissance-helicopter-updated-02421/) Observation helicopters may also be armed with combinations of gun and rocket pods and sometimes [anti\-tank guided missiles](/wiki/Anti-tank_guided_missile "Anti-tank guided missile") or [air\-to\-air missiles](/wiki/Air-to-air_missile "Air-to-air missile"), but in smaller quantities than larger attack helicopters.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/military/utility/1533\.html \|title\=Filling Comanche's Shoes \|access\-date\=2007\-09\-14 \|archive\-date\=2016\-09\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911223957/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/military/utility/1533\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} Primarily, these weapons were intended for the counter\-reconnaissance fight—to eliminate an enemy's reconnaissance assets—but they can also be used to provide limited direct fire support or close air support.
### Maritime {{anchor\|Maritime helicopters}}
{{see also\|Maritime patrol aircraft}}
[thumb\|An [AH\-1 SuperCobra](/wiki/Bell_AH-1_SuperCobra "Bell AH-1 SuperCobra") (left) and [UH\-1Y Venom](/wiki/Bell_UH-1Y_Venom "Bell UH-1Y Venom") (right) operated by the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps")](/wiki/File:A_U.S._Marine_Corps_UH-1Y_Venom_helicopter_%28right%29_and_AH-1W_Super_Cobra_helicopter_of_Marine_Light_Attack_Helicopter_Squadron_369_%28HMLA-369%29_in_flight%2C_Forward_Operating_Base_Edinburgh%2C_Helmand_Province_111209-M-CL319-101.jpg "A U.S. Marine Corps UH-1Y Venom helicopter (right) and AH-1W Super Cobra helicopter of Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 369 (HMLA-369) in flight, Forward Operating Base Edinburgh, Helmand Province 111209-M-CL319-101.jpg")
Among the first practical uses of helicopters when the [Sikorsky R\-4](/wiki/Sikorsky_R-4 "Sikorsky R-4") and [R\-5](/wiki/Sikorsky_H-5 "Sikorsky H-5") became available to British and American forces was deployment from navy cruisers and battleships, at first supplementing and later replacing [catapult\-launched](/wiki/Aircraft_catapult "Aircraft catapult") [observation aircraft](/wiki/Observation_aircraft "Observation aircraft"). Another niche within the capability of the early helicopters was as [plane guard](/wiki/Plane_guard "Plane guard") \- tasked with the recovery of pilots who had [ditched](/wiki/Water_landing "Water landing") near an [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier").
As helicopter technology matured with increased payload and [endurance](/wiki/Combat_endurance "Combat endurance"), anti\-submarine warfare (ASW) was added to the helicopter's repertoire. Initially, helicopters operated as weapons delivery systems, attacking with [air\-launched torpedoes](/wiki/Aerial_torpedo "Aerial torpedo") and [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge "Depth charge") based on information provided by its parent and other warships. In the 1960s, the development of the [turboshaft](/wiki/Turboshaft "Turboshaft") engine and [transistor](/wiki/Transistor "Transistor") technology changed the face of maritime helicopter aviation. The turboshaft engine allowed smaller helicopters, such as the [Westland Wasp](/wiki/Westland_Wasp "Westland Wasp"), to operate from smaller vessels than their [reciprocating engine](/wiki/Reciprocating_engine "Reciprocating engine") predecessors. The introduction of transistors allowed helicopters, such as the [Sikorsky SH\-3 Sea King](/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-3_Sea_King "Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King"), to be equipped with integral dunking [sonar](/wiki/Sonar "Sonar"), [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar") and [magnetic anomaly detection](/wiki/Magnetic_anomaly_detector "Magnetic anomaly detector") equipment. The result was an aircraft able to more quickly respond to submarine threats to the fleet without waiting for directions from fleet vessels.
Today, maritime helicopters such as the [Sikorksy SH\-60 Seahawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-60_Seahawk "Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk") and the [Westland Lynx](/wiki/Westland_Lynx "Westland Lynx") are designed to be operated from [frigates](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate"), [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer") and similar size vessels. The desire to carry and operate two helicopters from frigate\- and destroyer\-sized vessels has affected the maximum size of the helicopters and the minimum size of the ships. Increasing [miniaturisation](/wiki/Miniaturization "Miniaturization") of electronics, better engines and modern weapons now allow even the modern, destroyer\-based, multi\-role helicopter to operate nearly autonomously in the ASW, anti\-shipping, transport, [SAR](/wiki/Search_and_rescue "Search and rescue") and [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") roles.
Medium\- and large\-sized helicopters are operated from carriers and land bases. In the British, Spanish, and Italian navies, the larger helicopters form the main anti\-submarine strength of carrier air wings. When operating from shore bases, the helicopters are used as anti\-submarine pickets to protect against hostile submarines loitering outside military ports and harbours; their endurance and payload providing advantages over smaller helicopters.
Soviet maritime helicopters, operating from its cruisers, had the additional role of guidance of the cruisers' long range anti\-shipping missiles.
Maritime helicopters are [navalised aircraft](/wiki/Navalised_aircraft "Navalised aircraft") for operation from ships. This includes enhanced protection against [salt water](/wiki/Seawater "Seawater") [corrosion](/wiki/Corrosion "Corrosion"), protection against ingestion of water, and provision for forced ditching at sea.
### Multi\-mission and rescue
[thumb\|A [flight medic](/wiki/Flight_paramedic "Flight paramedic") and a [military dog](/wiki/Military_dog "Military dog") being lifted into a rescue\-equipped UH\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/File:A_flight_medic_with_Charlie_Company%2C_2nd_Battalion%2C_3rd_Aviation_Regiment%2C_is_hoisted_into_a_medical_helicopter_with_Luca%2C_a_Military_Working_Dog_with_4th_Stryker_Brigade_Combat_Team%2C_2nd_Infantry_Division_110224-A-XA218-0025.jpg "A flight medic with Charlie Company, 2nd Battalion, 3rd Aviation Regiment, is hoisted into a medical helicopter with Luca, a Military Working Dog with 4th Stryker Brigade Combat Team, 2nd Infantry Division 110224-A-XA218-0025.jpg")
As helicopters came into military service, they were quickly pressed into service for [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue "Search and rescue")Search and rescue is sometimes referred to as *SAR*. Search and rescue during combat is referred to by NATO countries as *CSAR* and is a specialized personnel recovery mission. and [medical evacuation](/wiki/MEDEVAC "MEDEVAC"). During World War II, [Flettner Fl 282s](/wiki/Flettner_Fl_282 "Flettner Fl 282") were used in Germany for [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance"), and [Sikorsky R\-4s](/wiki/Sikorsky_R-4 "Sikorsky R-4") were used by the United States to rescue downed aircrews and injured personnel in remote areas of the [China Burma India Theater](/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater_of_World_War_II "China Burma India Theater of World War II"), from April 1944 until the war's end. The use of helicopters for rescue during combat increased during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") and the [Algerian War](/wiki/Algerian_War "Algerian War"). In the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") the [USAF](/wiki/USAF "USAF") acquired [Sikorsky S\-61R](/wiki/Sikorsky_S-61R "Sikorsky S-61R") (Jolly Green Giant) and [Sikorsky CH\-53 Sea Stallion](/wiki/Sikorsky_CH-53_Sea_Stallion "Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion") (Super Jolly Green Giant) helicopters for the [Combat search and rescue](/wiki/Combat_search_and_rescue "Combat search and rescue") (CSAR) mission.{{cite book\|last\=Cacutt\|first\=Len\|title\=Combat\|publisher\=Aerospace Publishing Ltd \|year\=1989 \|isbn\=1\-55521\-240\-9 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/combat0000unse/page/185 185] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/combat0000unse/page/185}}
### Training
Some services use a version of their operational helicopters, usually in the light class, for pilot training. For example, the British have used the [Aérospatiale Gazelle](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Gazelle "Aérospatiale Gazelle") both in operations and as a trainer. Some services also have an *[ab initio](/wiki/Ab_initio "Ab initio")* phase in training that uses very basic helicopters. The [Mexican Navy](/wiki/Mexican_Navy "Mexican Navy") has acquired a number of the commercially available [Robinson R22](/wiki/Robinson_R22 "Robinson R22")[Air Forces Monthly](/wiki/Air_Forces_Monthly "Air Forces Monthly"), February 2001, "Mexico Navy acquires Robinson R22s" and [R44](/wiki/Robinson_R44 "Robinson R44") helicopters for this purpose.
### Utility
{{main\|Utility helicopter}}
A utility helicopter is a multi\-purpose [helicopter](/wiki/Helicopter "Helicopter"). A utility military helicopter can fill roles such as [ground attack](/wiki/Attack_helicopter "Attack helicopter"), [air assault](/wiki/Air_assault "Air assault"), [military logistics](/wiki/Military_logistics "Military logistics"), [medical evacuation](/wiki/Medical_evacuation "Medical evacuation"), [command and control](/wiki/Command_and_control "Command and control"), and [troop transport](/wiki/Airlift "Airlift").{{cite web\|url \= http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Utility\+helicopter\|title \= Utility helicopter\|access\-date \= 10 January 2012\|last \= Farlex, Inc\|date \= 2012}}
|
[
"Types and roles\n---------------",
"Military helicopters play an integral part in the sea, land and air operations of modern militaries. Generally manufacturers will develop airframes in different weight/size classes which can be adapted to different roles through the installation of mission specific equipment. To minimise development costs the basic airframes can be stretched and shortened, be updated with new engines and electronics and have the entire mechanical and flight systems mated to new fuselages to create new aircraft. For example, the [Bell UH\\-1 Iroquois](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois \"Bell UH-1 Iroquois\") (known as the \"Huey\") has given rise to a number of derivatives through stretching and re\\-engining, including the [Bell AH\\-1](/wiki/Bell_Huey_family%23Military_designations_%28UH-1_and_AH-1%29 \"Bell Huey family#Military designations (UH-1 and AH-1)\").",
"Modern helicopters have introduced modular systems which allow the same airframe to be configured for different roles, for example the [Augusta Westland AW101 \"Merlin\"](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW101 \"AgustaWestland AW101\") in [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") service can be rapidly configured for ASW or transport missions in hours. To at the same time retain flexibility and limit costs, it is possible to fit an airframe [for but not with](/wiki/For_but_not_with \"For but not with\") a system, for example in the US Army's [Boeing AH\\-64D Apache](/wiki/Boeing_AH-64_Apache \"Boeing AH-64 Apache\") variants are all fitted to be able to take the Longbow radar system, but not enough sets have been bought to equip the whole force. The systems can be fitted to only those airframes that need it, or when finances allow the purchase of enough units.",
"### Equipment",
"Most military helicopters are [armoured](/wiki/Vehicle_armour \"Vehicle armour\") to some extent; however, all equipment is limited to the installed power and lift capability and the limits installed equipment places on useful payload. The most extensive armour is placed around the pilots, engines, transmission, and fuel tanks. Fuel lines, control cables and power to the tail rotor may also be shrouded by Kevlar armour. The most heavily armoured helicopters are attack, assault and special forces helicopters. In transport helicopters the crew compartment may or may not be fully armoured, a compromise being to give the passengers Kevlar lined seats but to leave the compartment for the most part unarmoured. [Survivability](/wiki/Survivability \"Survivability\") is enhanced by [redundancy](/wiki/Redundancy_%28engineering%29 \"Redundancy (engineering)\") and the placement of components to protect each other. For example, the [Blackhawk](/wiki/UH-60_Black_Hawk \"UH-60 Black Hawk\") family of helicopters uses two engines and can continue to fly on only one (under certain conditions), the engines are separated by the transmission and placed so that if attacked from any one flank, the engine on that flank acts to protect the transmission and the engine on the other side from damage.",
"Aviation electronics, or [avionics](/wiki/Avionics \"Avionics\"), such as communication radios and navigation aids are common on most military helicopters. Specialized avionics, such as [electronic countermeasures](/wiki/Electronic_countermeasures \"Electronic countermeasures\") and [identification friend or foe](/wiki/Identification_friend_or_foe \"Identification friend or foe\") systems, are military specific systems that can also be installed on military helicopters. Other payload or mission systems are installed either permanently or temporarily, based on specific mission requirements; optical and IR cameras for scout helicopters, dunking sonar and search radar for anti\\-submarine helicopters, extra radio transceivers and computers for helicopters used as airborne [command posts](/wiki/Command_post \"Command post\").",
"Armour, fire suppression, dynamic and electronics systems enhancements are invisible to casual inspection; as a cost\\-cutting measure some nations and services have been tempted to use what are essentially commercial helicopters for military purposes. For example, it has been reported that China is carrying out a rapid enlargement of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version of the Russian [Mil Mi\\-17](/wiki/Mil_Mi-17 \"Mil Mi-17\").Kanwa Defense Review No26, \"Is China's 20\\-year build\\-up Army Aviation Corps effective\", February 2007\\. These helicopters without armour and electronic counter measures will function well enough for training exercises and photo opportunities but would be suicidal to deploy in the assault role in actual combat situations. The intention of China appears to be to [retrofit](/wiki/Retrofit \"Retrofit\") these helicopters with locally produced electronics and armour when possible, freeing available funds to allow rapid creation of enough regiments to equip each of its [Group Armies](/wiki/Group_Army \"Group Army\"), allowing a widespread buildup of experience in helicopter operations.",
"### Attack",
"{{main\\|Attack helicopter}}\n[thumb\\|A [Z\\-10](/wiki/Changhe_Z-10 \"Changhe Z-10\") of the [People's Liberation Army Ground Aviation](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force \"People's Liberation Army Ground Force\")](/wiki/File:PLAAF_Changhe_WZ-10_-_Jordan.jpg \"PLAAF Changhe WZ-10 - Jordan.jpg\")\n[Attack helicopters](/wiki/Attack_helicopter \"Attack helicopter\") are helicopters used in the [anti\\-tank](/wiki/Anti-tank%23Helicopters \"Anti-tank#Helicopters\") and [close air support](/wiki/Close_air_support \"Close air support\") roles. The first of the modern attack helicopters was the Vietnam era [Bell AH\\-1 Cobra](/wiki/Bell_AH-1_Cobra \"Bell AH-1 Cobra\"), which pioneered the now classic format of pilot and weapons officer seated in [tandem](/wiki/Tandem \"Tandem\") in a narrow fuselage, chin mounted guns, and [rockets](/wiki/Rocket_%28weapon%29 \"Rocket (weapon)\") and [missiles](/wiki/Missile \"Missile\") mounted on stub wings. To enable them to find and identify their targets, some modern attack helicopters are equipped with very capable sensors[Give us an enemy to fight, says chief of Britain's Apache helicopter fleet](https://web.archive.org/web/20060209131710/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/06/12/napac12.xml) such as a [millimeter wave](/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency \"Extremely high frequency\") radar system.",
"### Transport",
"{{main\\|Transport helicopter}}\n[thumb\\|An [Mi\\-26](/wiki/Mil_Mi-26 \"Mil Mi-26\") operated by the [Russian Air Force](/wiki/Russian_Air_Force \"Russian Air Force\")](/wiki/File:Mil_Mi-26%2C_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN1581640.jpg \"Mil Mi-26, Russia - Air Force AN1581640.jpg\")\nTransport helicopters are used for transporting personnel (troops) and cargo in support of military operations. In larger militaries, these helicopters are often purpose\\-built for military operations, but commercially available aircraft are also used. The benefit of using helicopters for these operations is that personnel and cargo can be moved to and from locations without requiring a runway for takeoffs and landings. Cargo is carried either internally, or externally by slung load where the load is suspended from an attachment point underneath the aircraft. Personnel are primarily loaded and unloaded while the helicopter is on the ground. However, when the terrain restricts even helicopters from landing, personnel may also be picked up and dropped off using specialized devices, such as rescue hoists or special rope lines, while the aircraft hovers overhead.",
"[Air assault](/wiki/Air_assault \"Air assault\") is a military strategy that relies heavily on the use of transport helicopters. An air assault involves a customized assault force that is assembled on the pick\\-up zone and staged for sequential transport to a [landing zone](/wiki/Landing_zone \"Landing zone\") (LZ). The idea is to use the helicopters to transport and land a large number of troops and equipment in a relatively short amount of time, in order to assault and overwhelm an objective near the LZ. The advantage of air assault over an airborne assault is the ability of the helicopters to continually resupply the force during the operation, as well as to transport the personnel and equipment to their previous location, or a follow\\-on location if the mission dictates.",
"### Observation",
"[thumb\\|An [Aérospatiale Gazelle](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Gazelle \"Aérospatiale Gazelle\") operated by the [French Army](/wiki/French_Army \"French Army\") [Light Aviation](/wiki/French_Army_Light_Aviation \"French Army Light Aviation\")](/wiki/File:Helicopter_Gazelle%2C_ALAT%2C_NATO_Tiger_Meet_2017%2C_Landivisiau.jpg \"Helicopter Gazelle, ALAT, NATO Tiger Meet 2017, Landivisiau.jpg\")\nThe first [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") and [observation aircraft](/wiki/Surveillance_aircraft \"Surveillance aircraft\") were balloons, followed by light airplanes, such as the [Taylorcraft L\\-2](/wiki/Taylorcraft_L-2 \"Taylorcraft L-2\") and [Fieseler Fi 156](/wiki/Fieseler_Fi_156 \"Fieseler Fi 156\"). As the first military helicopters became available, their ability to both maneuver and to remain in one location made them ideal for reconnaissance. Initially observation helicopters were limited to visual observation by the aircrew, and most helicopters featured rounded, well\\-glazed cockpits for maximum visibility. Over time, the human eye became supplemented by optical sensor systems. Today, these include [low light level television](/wiki/Low_light_level_television \"Low light level television\") and [forward looking infrared](/wiki/Forward_looking_infrared \"Forward looking infrared\") cameras. Often, these are mounted in a stabilised mount along with multi\\-function [lasers](/wiki/Laser \"Laser\") capable of acting as [laser rangefinder](/wiki/Laser_rangefinder \"Laser rangefinder\") and [targeting designators](/wiki/Laser_designator \"Laser designator\") for weapons systems.[Rotary Aircraft:Doctrinal Development](http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/rotary-doctrine-dev.htm)",
"By nature of the mission, the observation helicopter's primary weapons are its sensor suite and communications equipment. Early observation helicopters were effective at calling for artillery fire and [airstrikes](/wiki/Airstrike \"Airstrike\"). With modern sensor suites, they are also able to provide terminal guidance to anti\\-tank guided weapons, laser\\-guided bombs and other missiles and munitions fired by other armed aircraft.[OH\\-58D Kiowa Warrior Reconnaissance / Attack Helicopter, USA](http://www.army-technology.com/projects/kiowa/)[Comanche's Child: The ARH\\-70 Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter](http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/comanches-child-the-arh70-armed-reconnaissance-helicopter-updated-02421/) Observation helicopters may also be armed with combinations of gun and rocket pods and sometimes [anti\\-tank guided missiles](/wiki/Anti-tank_guided_missile \"Anti-tank guided missile\") or [air\\-to\\-air missiles](/wiki/Air-to-air_missile \"Air-to-air missile\"), but in smaller quantities than larger attack helicopters.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/military/utility/1533\\.html \\|title\\=Filling Comanche's Shoes \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911223957/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/military/utility/1533\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Primarily, these weapons were intended for the counter\\-reconnaissance fight—to eliminate an enemy's reconnaissance assets—but they can also be used to provide limited direct fire support or close air support.",
"### Maritime {{anchor\\|Maritime helicopters}}",
"{{see also\\|Maritime patrol aircraft}}\n[thumb\\|An [AH\\-1 SuperCobra](/wiki/Bell_AH-1_SuperCobra \"Bell AH-1 SuperCobra\") (left) and [UH\\-1Y Venom](/wiki/Bell_UH-1Y_Venom \"Bell UH-1Y Venom\") (right) operated by the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\")](/wiki/File:A_U.S._Marine_Corps_UH-1Y_Venom_helicopter_%28right%29_and_AH-1W_Super_Cobra_helicopter_of_Marine_Light_Attack_Helicopter_Squadron_369_%28HMLA-369%29_in_flight%2C_Forward_Operating_Base_Edinburgh%2C_Helmand_Province_111209-M-CL319-101.jpg \"A U.S. Marine Corps UH-1Y Venom helicopter (right) and AH-1W Super Cobra helicopter of Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 369 (HMLA-369) in flight, Forward Operating Base Edinburgh, Helmand Province 111209-M-CL319-101.jpg\")\nAmong the first practical uses of helicopters when the [Sikorsky R\\-4](/wiki/Sikorsky_R-4 \"Sikorsky R-4\") and [R\\-5](/wiki/Sikorsky_H-5 \"Sikorsky H-5\") became available to British and American forces was deployment from navy cruisers and battleships, at first supplementing and later replacing [catapult\\-launched](/wiki/Aircraft_catapult \"Aircraft catapult\") [observation aircraft](/wiki/Observation_aircraft \"Observation aircraft\"). Another niche within the capability of the early helicopters was as [plane guard](/wiki/Plane_guard \"Plane guard\") \\- tasked with the recovery of pilots who had [ditched](/wiki/Water_landing \"Water landing\") near an [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\").",
"As helicopter technology matured with increased payload and [endurance](/wiki/Combat_endurance \"Combat endurance\"), anti\\-submarine warfare (ASW) was added to the helicopter's repertoire. Initially, helicopters operated as weapons delivery systems, attacking with [air\\-launched torpedoes](/wiki/Aerial_torpedo \"Aerial torpedo\") and [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge \"Depth charge\") based on information provided by its parent and other warships. In the 1960s, the development of the [turboshaft](/wiki/Turboshaft \"Turboshaft\") engine and [transistor](/wiki/Transistor \"Transistor\") technology changed the face of maritime helicopter aviation. The turboshaft engine allowed smaller helicopters, such as the [Westland Wasp](/wiki/Westland_Wasp \"Westland Wasp\"), to operate from smaller vessels than their [reciprocating engine](/wiki/Reciprocating_engine \"Reciprocating engine\") predecessors. The introduction of transistors allowed helicopters, such as the [Sikorsky SH\\-3 Sea King](/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-3_Sea_King \"Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King\"), to be equipped with integral dunking [sonar](/wiki/Sonar \"Sonar\"), [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\") and [magnetic anomaly detection](/wiki/Magnetic_anomaly_detector \"Magnetic anomaly detector\") equipment. The result was an aircraft able to more quickly respond to submarine threats to the fleet without waiting for directions from fleet vessels.",
"Today, maritime helicopters such as the [Sikorksy SH\\-60 Seahawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-60_Seahawk \"Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk\") and the [Westland Lynx](/wiki/Westland_Lynx \"Westland Lynx\") are designed to be operated from [frigates](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\"), [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\") and similar size vessels. The desire to carry and operate two helicopters from frigate\\- and destroyer\\-sized vessels has affected the maximum size of the helicopters and the minimum size of the ships. Increasing [miniaturisation](/wiki/Miniaturization \"Miniaturization\") of electronics, better engines and modern weapons now allow even the modern, destroyer\\-based, multi\\-role helicopter to operate nearly autonomously in the ASW, anti\\-shipping, transport, [SAR](/wiki/Search_and_rescue \"Search and rescue\") and [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") roles.",
"Medium\\- and large\\-sized helicopters are operated from carriers and land bases. In the British, Spanish, and Italian navies, the larger helicopters form the main anti\\-submarine strength of carrier air wings. When operating from shore bases, the helicopters are used as anti\\-submarine pickets to protect against hostile submarines loitering outside military ports and harbours; their endurance and payload providing advantages over smaller helicopters.",
"Soviet maritime helicopters, operating from its cruisers, had the additional role of guidance of the cruisers' long range anti\\-shipping missiles.",
"Maritime helicopters are [navalised aircraft](/wiki/Navalised_aircraft \"Navalised aircraft\") for operation from ships. This includes enhanced protection against [salt water](/wiki/Seawater \"Seawater\") [corrosion](/wiki/Corrosion \"Corrosion\"), protection against ingestion of water, and provision for forced ditching at sea.",
"### Multi\\-mission and rescue",
"[thumb\\|A [flight medic](/wiki/Flight_paramedic \"Flight paramedic\") and a [military dog](/wiki/Military_dog \"Military dog\") being lifted into a rescue\\-equipped UH\\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/File:A_flight_medic_with_Charlie_Company%2C_2nd_Battalion%2C_3rd_Aviation_Regiment%2C_is_hoisted_into_a_medical_helicopter_with_Luca%2C_a_Military_Working_Dog_with_4th_Stryker_Brigade_Combat_Team%2C_2nd_Infantry_Division_110224-A-XA218-0025.jpg \"A flight medic with Charlie Company, 2nd Battalion, 3rd Aviation Regiment, is hoisted into a medical helicopter with Luca, a Military Working Dog with 4th Stryker Brigade Combat Team, 2nd Infantry Division 110224-A-XA218-0025.jpg\")\nAs helicopters came into military service, they were quickly pressed into service for [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue \"Search and rescue\")Search and rescue is sometimes referred to as *SAR*. Search and rescue during combat is referred to by NATO countries as *CSAR* and is a specialized personnel recovery mission. and [medical evacuation](/wiki/MEDEVAC \"MEDEVAC\"). During World War II, [Flettner Fl 282s](/wiki/Flettner_Fl_282 \"Flettner Fl 282\") were used in Germany for [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\"), and [Sikorsky R\\-4s](/wiki/Sikorsky_R-4 \"Sikorsky R-4\") were used by the United States to rescue downed aircrews and injured personnel in remote areas of the [China Burma India Theater](/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater_of_World_War_II \"China Burma India Theater of World War II\"), from April 1944 until the war's end. The use of helicopters for rescue during combat increased during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") and the [Algerian War](/wiki/Algerian_War \"Algerian War\"). In the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") the [USAF](/wiki/USAF \"USAF\") acquired [Sikorsky S\\-61R](/wiki/Sikorsky_S-61R \"Sikorsky S-61R\") (Jolly Green Giant) and [Sikorsky CH\\-53 Sea Stallion](/wiki/Sikorsky_CH-53_Sea_Stallion \"Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion\") (Super Jolly Green Giant) helicopters for the [Combat search and rescue](/wiki/Combat_search_and_rescue \"Combat search and rescue\") (CSAR) mission.{{cite book\\|last\\=Cacutt\\|first\\=Len\\|title\\=Combat\\|publisher\\=Aerospace Publishing Ltd \\|year\\=1989 \\|isbn\\=1\\-55521\\-240\\-9 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/combat0000unse/page/185 185] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/combat0000unse/page/185}}",
"### Training",
"Some services use a version of their operational helicopters, usually in the light class, for pilot training. For example, the British have used the [Aérospatiale Gazelle](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Gazelle \"Aérospatiale Gazelle\") both in operations and as a trainer. Some services also have an *[ab initio](/wiki/Ab_initio \"Ab initio\")* phase in training that uses very basic helicopters. The [Mexican Navy](/wiki/Mexican_Navy \"Mexican Navy\") has acquired a number of the commercially available [Robinson R22](/wiki/Robinson_R22 \"Robinson R22\")[Air Forces Monthly](/wiki/Air_Forces_Monthly \"Air Forces Monthly\"), February 2001, \"Mexico Navy acquires Robinson R22s\" and [R44](/wiki/Robinson_R44 \"Robinson R44\") helicopters for this purpose.",
"### Utility",
"{{main\\|Utility helicopter}}\nA utility helicopter is a multi\\-purpose [helicopter](/wiki/Helicopter \"Helicopter\"). A utility military helicopter can fill roles such as [ground attack](/wiki/Attack_helicopter \"Attack helicopter\"), [air assault](/wiki/Air_assault \"Air assault\"), [military logistics](/wiki/Military_logistics \"Military logistics\"), [medical evacuation](/wiki/Medical_evacuation \"Medical evacuation\"), [command and control](/wiki/Command_and_control \"Command and control\"), and [troop transport](/wiki/Airlift \"Airlift\").{{cite web\\|url \\= http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Utility\\+helicopter\\|title \\= Utility helicopter\\|access\\-date \\= 10 January 2012\\|last \\= Farlex, Inc\\|date \\= 2012}}",
""
] |
### Maritime {{anchor\|Maritime helicopters}}
{{see also\|Maritime patrol aircraft}}
[thumb\|An [AH\-1 SuperCobra](/wiki/Bell_AH-1_SuperCobra "Bell AH-1 SuperCobra") (left) and [UH\-1Y Venom](/wiki/Bell_UH-1Y_Venom "Bell UH-1Y Venom") (right) operated by the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps")](/wiki/File:A_U.S._Marine_Corps_UH-1Y_Venom_helicopter_%28right%29_and_AH-1W_Super_Cobra_helicopter_of_Marine_Light_Attack_Helicopter_Squadron_369_%28HMLA-369%29_in_flight%2C_Forward_Operating_Base_Edinburgh%2C_Helmand_Province_111209-M-CL319-101.jpg "A U.S. Marine Corps UH-1Y Venom helicopter (right) and AH-1W Super Cobra helicopter of Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 369 (HMLA-369) in flight, Forward Operating Base Edinburgh, Helmand Province 111209-M-CL319-101.jpg")
Among the first practical uses of helicopters when the [Sikorsky R\-4](/wiki/Sikorsky_R-4 "Sikorsky R-4") and [R\-5](/wiki/Sikorsky_H-5 "Sikorsky H-5") became available to British and American forces was deployment from navy cruisers and battleships, at first supplementing and later replacing [catapult\-launched](/wiki/Aircraft_catapult "Aircraft catapult") [observation aircraft](/wiki/Observation_aircraft "Observation aircraft"). Another niche within the capability of the early helicopters was as [plane guard](/wiki/Plane_guard "Plane guard") \- tasked with the recovery of pilots who had [ditched](/wiki/Water_landing "Water landing") near an [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier").
As helicopter technology matured with increased payload and [endurance](/wiki/Combat_endurance "Combat endurance"), anti\-submarine warfare (ASW) was added to the helicopter's repertoire. Initially, helicopters operated as weapons delivery systems, attacking with [air\-launched torpedoes](/wiki/Aerial_torpedo "Aerial torpedo") and [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge "Depth charge") based on information provided by its parent and other warships. In the 1960s, the development of the [turboshaft](/wiki/Turboshaft "Turboshaft") engine and [transistor](/wiki/Transistor "Transistor") technology changed the face of maritime helicopter aviation. The turboshaft engine allowed smaller helicopters, such as the [Westland Wasp](/wiki/Westland_Wasp "Westland Wasp"), to operate from smaller vessels than their [reciprocating engine](/wiki/Reciprocating_engine "Reciprocating engine") predecessors. The introduction of transistors allowed helicopters, such as the [Sikorsky SH\-3 Sea King](/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-3_Sea_King "Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King"), to be equipped with integral dunking [sonar](/wiki/Sonar "Sonar"), [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar") and [magnetic anomaly detection](/wiki/Magnetic_anomaly_detector "Magnetic anomaly detector") equipment. The result was an aircraft able to more quickly respond to submarine threats to the fleet without waiting for directions from fleet vessels.
Today, maritime helicopters such as the [Sikorksy SH\-60 Seahawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-60_Seahawk "Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk") and the [Westland Lynx](/wiki/Westland_Lynx "Westland Lynx") are designed to be operated from [frigates](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate"), [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer") and similar size vessels. The desire to carry and operate two helicopters from frigate\- and destroyer\-sized vessels has affected the maximum size of the helicopters and the minimum size of the ships. Increasing [miniaturisation](/wiki/Miniaturization "Miniaturization") of electronics, better engines and modern weapons now allow even the modern, destroyer\-based, multi\-role helicopter to operate nearly autonomously in the ASW, anti\-shipping, transport, [SAR](/wiki/Search_and_rescue "Search and rescue") and [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") roles.
Medium\- and large\-sized helicopters are operated from carriers and land bases. In the British, Spanish, and Italian navies, the larger helicopters form the main anti\-submarine strength of carrier air wings. When operating from shore bases, the helicopters are used as anti\-submarine pickets to protect against hostile submarines loitering outside military ports and harbours; their endurance and payload providing advantages over smaller helicopters.
Soviet maritime helicopters, operating from its cruisers, had the additional role of guidance of the cruisers' long range anti\-shipping missiles.
Maritime helicopters are [navalised aircraft](/wiki/Navalised_aircraft "Navalised aircraft") for operation from ships. This includes enhanced protection against [salt water](/wiki/Seawater "Seawater") [corrosion](/wiki/Corrosion "Corrosion"), protection against ingestion of water, and provision for forced ditching at sea.
|
[
"### Maritime {{anchor\\|Maritime helicopters}}",
"{{see also\\|Maritime patrol aircraft}}\n[thumb\\|An [AH\\-1 SuperCobra](/wiki/Bell_AH-1_SuperCobra \"Bell AH-1 SuperCobra\") (left) and [UH\\-1Y Venom](/wiki/Bell_UH-1Y_Venom \"Bell UH-1Y Venom\") (right) operated by the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\")](/wiki/File:A_U.S._Marine_Corps_UH-1Y_Venom_helicopter_%28right%29_and_AH-1W_Super_Cobra_helicopter_of_Marine_Light_Attack_Helicopter_Squadron_369_%28HMLA-369%29_in_flight%2C_Forward_Operating_Base_Edinburgh%2C_Helmand_Province_111209-M-CL319-101.jpg \"A U.S. Marine Corps UH-1Y Venom helicopter (right) and AH-1W Super Cobra helicopter of Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 369 (HMLA-369) in flight, Forward Operating Base Edinburgh, Helmand Province 111209-M-CL319-101.jpg\")\nAmong the first practical uses of helicopters when the [Sikorsky R\\-4](/wiki/Sikorsky_R-4 \"Sikorsky R-4\") and [R\\-5](/wiki/Sikorsky_H-5 \"Sikorsky H-5\") became available to British and American forces was deployment from navy cruisers and battleships, at first supplementing and later replacing [catapult\\-launched](/wiki/Aircraft_catapult \"Aircraft catapult\") [observation aircraft](/wiki/Observation_aircraft \"Observation aircraft\"). Another niche within the capability of the early helicopters was as [plane guard](/wiki/Plane_guard \"Plane guard\") \\- tasked with the recovery of pilots who had [ditched](/wiki/Water_landing \"Water landing\") near an [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\").",
"As helicopter technology matured with increased payload and [endurance](/wiki/Combat_endurance \"Combat endurance\"), anti\\-submarine warfare (ASW) was added to the helicopter's repertoire. Initially, helicopters operated as weapons delivery systems, attacking with [air\\-launched torpedoes](/wiki/Aerial_torpedo \"Aerial torpedo\") and [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge \"Depth charge\") based on information provided by its parent and other warships. In the 1960s, the development of the [turboshaft](/wiki/Turboshaft \"Turboshaft\") engine and [transistor](/wiki/Transistor \"Transistor\") technology changed the face of maritime helicopter aviation. The turboshaft engine allowed smaller helicopters, such as the [Westland Wasp](/wiki/Westland_Wasp \"Westland Wasp\"), to operate from smaller vessels than their [reciprocating engine](/wiki/Reciprocating_engine \"Reciprocating engine\") predecessors. The introduction of transistors allowed helicopters, such as the [Sikorsky SH\\-3 Sea King](/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-3_Sea_King \"Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King\"), to be equipped with integral dunking [sonar](/wiki/Sonar \"Sonar\"), [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\") and [magnetic anomaly detection](/wiki/Magnetic_anomaly_detector \"Magnetic anomaly detector\") equipment. The result was an aircraft able to more quickly respond to submarine threats to the fleet without waiting for directions from fleet vessels.",
"Today, maritime helicopters such as the [Sikorksy SH\\-60 Seahawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-60_Seahawk \"Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk\") and the [Westland Lynx](/wiki/Westland_Lynx \"Westland Lynx\") are designed to be operated from [frigates](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\"), [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\") and similar size vessels. The desire to carry and operate two helicopters from frigate\\- and destroyer\\-sized vessels has affected the maximum size of the helicopters and the minimum size of the ships. Increasing [miniaturisation](/wiki/Miniaturization \"Miniaturization\") of electronics, better engines and modern weapons now allow even the modern, destroyer\\-based, multi\\-role helicopter to operate nearly autonomously in the ASW, anti\\-shipping, transport, [SAR](/wiki/Search_and_rescue \"Search and rescue\") and [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") roles.",
"Medium\\- and large\\-sized helicopters are operated from carriers and land bases. In the British, Spanish, and Italian navies, the larger helicopters form the main anti\\-submarine strength of carrier air wings. When operating from shore bases, the helicopters are used as anti\\-submarine pickets to protect against hostile submarines loitering outside military ports and harbours; their endurance and payload providing advantages over smaller helicopters.",
"Soviet maritime helicopters, operating from its cruisers, had the additional role of guidance of the cruisers' long range anti\\-shipping missiles.",
"Maritime helicopters are [navalised aircraft](/wiki/Navalised_aircraft \"Navalised aircraft\") for operation from ships. This includes enhanced protection against [salt water](/wiki/Seawater \"Seawater\") [corrosion](/wiki/Corrosion \"Corrosion\"), protection against ingestion of water, and provision for forced ditching at sea.",
""
] |
History
-------
The area has been inhabited since the [Great Migration](/wiki/Migration_period "Migration period"). It is likely that the first Hungarian settlement was formed here shortly after the [conquest of Hungary](/wiki/Conquest_of_Hungary "Conquest of Hungary"), but in 1275 in a church document it was mentioned as a deserted place. The village was likely destroyed during the [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols "Mongols") invasion of Hungary.
In the 13th century, Mezőkövesd was the southernmost town belonging to the [Diósgyőr estate](/wiki/Castle_of_Di%C3%B3sgy%C5%91r "Castle of Diósgyőr"). In 1464 the town got a seal and privileges from [King Matthias](/wiki/Matthias_I_of_Hungary "Matthias I of Hungary"). The name of the *[Matyó](/wiki/Maty%C3%B3 "Matyó")* people, who inhabited the town and the area, is likely to have come from his name.
In 1544 the town was occupied by the Turks. In 1552 – in the year when the Castle of Eger was under siege by the Turks – Mezőkövesd was completely destroyed. Though it was rebuilt, after the battle in the nearby village of [Mezőkeresztes](/wiki/Mez%C5%91keresztes "Mezőkeresztes"), it was destroyed again in 1596 and wasn't rebuilt for almost 100 years.
Until 1784 Mezőkövesd was royal estate. In that year the town freed itself from its [feudal](/wiki/Feudalism "Feudalism") obligations. The following years brought prosperity. In 1860 the railway line reached the town.
In 1938 a thermal spring was found in the estate of Lajos Zsóry. A [thermal bath](/wiki/Thermal_bath "Thermal bath") was built and now it is one of the main tourist attractions of the town. In 1941 the town had 21,000 residents, the highest population ever recorded.
Before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), there was a Jewish community in Mezőkövesd. At its height, there were 862 Jews in the community most of them were murdered by the Nazis in the [Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust "Holocaust").{{JewishGen\-LocalityPage\|861468\|Mezőkövesd, Hungary}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The area has been inhabited since the [Great Migration](/wiki/Migration_period \"Migration period\"). It is likely that the first Hungarian settlement was formed here shortly after the [conquest of Hungary](/wiki/Conquest_of_Hungary \"Conquest of Hungary\"), but in 1275 in a church document it was mentioned as a deserted place. The village was likely destroyed during the [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols \"Mongols\") invasion of Hungary.",
"In the 13th century, Mezőkövesd was the southernmost town belonging to the [Diósgyőr estate](/wiki/Castle_of_Di%C3%B3sgy%C5%91r \"Castle of Diósgyőr\"). In 1464 the town got a seal and privileges from [King Matthias](/wiki/Matthias_I_of_Hungary \"Matthias I of Hungary\"). The name of the *[Matyó](/wiki/Maty%C3%B3 \"Matyó\")* people, who inhabited the town and the area, is likely to have come from his name.",
"In 1544 the town was occupied by the Turks. In 1552 – in the year when the Castle of Eger was under siege by the Turks – Mezőkövesd was completely destroyed. Though it was rebuilt, after the battle in the nearby village of [Mezőkeresztes](/wiki/Mez%C5%91keresztes \"Mezőkeresztes\"), it was destroyed again in 1596 and wasn't rebuilt for almost 100 years.",
"Until 1784 Mezőkövesd was royal estate. In that year the town freed itself from its [feudal](/wiki/Feudalism \"Feudalism\") obligations. The following years brought prosperity. In 1860 the railway line reached the town.",
"In 1938 a thermal spring was found in the estate of Lajos Zsóry. A [thermal bath](/wiki/Thermal_bath \"Thermal bath\") was built and now it is one of the main tourist attractions of the town. In 1941 the town had 21,000 residents, the highest population ever recorded.",
"Before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), there was a Jewish community in Mezőkövesd. At its height, there were 862 Jews in the community most of them were murdered by the Nazis in the [Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust \"Holocaust\").{{JewishGen\\-LocalityPage\\|861468\\|Mezőkövesd, Hungary}}",
""
] |
Professional wrestling career
-----------------------------
### World Wrestling Council (1999–2016\)
Colón debuted in 1999, wrestling in the [cruiserweight division](/wiki/Cruiserweight_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Cruiserweight (professional wrestling)"). He won the first title on February 10, 2001, when he defeated [Damian Steele](/wiki/Tim_Fischer_%28wrestler%29 "Tim Fischer (wrestler)") for the [WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWC_World_Junior_Heavyweight_Championship "WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.411mania.com/wrestling/columns/37948/Historical\-Perspective:\-WWC\-World\-Junior\-Heavyweight\-Title\-1993–2005\.htm\|title\=Historical Perspective: WWC World Junior Heavyweight Title 1993– 2005\|first\=Armando\|last\=Rodriguez\|publisher\=411mania.com\|date\=February 19, 2006\|access\-date\=May 25, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607021838/http://www.411mania.com/wrestling/columns/37948/Historical\-Perspective:\-WWC\-World\-Junior\-Heavyweight\-Title\-1993–2005\.htm\|archive\-date\=June 7, 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} His feud with Steele continued for a month, during which he dropped and recovered the title on March 10, 2001\. He feuded over the title for six months, losing and winning it once. By autumn, Colón was involved in a storyline involving [Justin McCully](/wiki/Justin_McCully "Justin McCully"), continuing a similar pattern. In early 2002, Colón was involved in a storyline with [Rey Mysterio Jr](/wiki/Rey_Mysterio "Rey Mysterio"), who defeated Colón for the title on January 6, 2002\. Mysterio held the title for two months before dropping it back on April 6, 2002, which marked Colón's final Junior Championship reign. Following a long feud with Rico Casanova and then [Kid Kash](/wiki/Kid_Kash "Kid Kash"), the belt was held up and Colón ascended to the Heavyweight division.
Shortly after Carly Colón signed with WWE, a tournament was organized to determine the new champion. Colón was considered an early favorite and reached the final, but lost. Colón then entered a feud with El Diamante over the [WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWC_Puerto_Rico_Heavyweight_Championship "WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship"). In late 2004, Colón was involved in a [battle royal](/wiki/Battle_royal_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Battle royal (professional wrestling)") for the first contender's position. One week later on November 6, 2004, Colón defeated [El Bronco](/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_%C3%81lvarez_%28wrestler%29 "Ramón Álvarez (wrestler)") and won the Universal Heavyweight Championship for the first time in his career. He then entered a feud with El Diamante, eventually dropping the title to him.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.411mania.com/wrestling/columns/37520/Historical\-Perspective:\-WWC\-Universal\-Title\-2000\-2005\.htm\|title\=Historical Perspective: WWC Universal Title 2000–2005\|first\=Armando\|last\=Rodriguez\|publisher\=411mania.com\|date\=February 8, 2006\|access\-date\=May 23, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805162202/http://www.411mania.com/wrestling/columns/37520/Historical\-Perspective:\-WWC\-Universal\-Title\-2000\-2005\.htm\|archive\-date\=August 5, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} On July 31, 2005, he formed a tag team with his father as part of the [Funking Conservatory](/wiki/Funking_Conservatory "Funking Conservatory")‘s television show, [!Bang!](/wiki/%21Bang%21 "!Bang!"), competing against [Dory Funk, Jr.](/wiki/Dory_Funk%2C_Jr. "Dory Funk, Jr.") and Johnny Magnum. The team was victorious, winning the promotion’s Television Tag Team Championship. On March 5, 2006, he participated in [WCW Saturday Night](/wiki/WCW_Saturday_Night "WCW Saturday Night") tribute show [World Wrestling Legends: 6:05 \- The Reunion](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Legends "World Wrestling Legends"), he was defeated by [Vampiro](/wiki/Vampiro "Vampiro").{{cite web\| url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/p/primo\-colon.html\| title\=Primo Colon\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling\| access\-date\=April 9, 2009}} On July 13, 2007 at World Wrestling Council’s anniversary event, ‘’Aniversario 2007’', Colón wrestled [Christian Cage](/wiki/Christian_Cage "Christian Cage") in a match that resulted in a [double\-countout](/wiki/Countout "Countout").{{cite web\|author\=Juan Rosario\|url\=http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4299\.php\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131123756/http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4299\.php\|archive\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=WWC: Resultados Aniversario 2007 en el Choliseo\|language\=es\|date\=July 13, 2007\|access\-date\=July 13, 2007}}
After signing with WWE, Primo would make occasional appearances with WWC while working for WWE until 2016\.
### World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE (2007 \- 2020\)
#### Florida Championship Wrestling (2007–2008\)
On May 7, 2007, Colón had a closed door workout match before the ‘’[Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw "WWE Raw")‘’ television tapings where he was evaluated by the personnel responsible for talent management.{{cite web\|author\=Eduardo Aponte\|url\=http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4027\.php\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131123741/http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4027\.php\|archive\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=WWE: Eddie Colón también ve acción en "tryout" dentro de ''RAW''\|access\-date\=May 11, 2007\|date\=May 10, 2007}} The following day, Colón participated in a [dark match](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Dark_match "List of professional wrestling terms#Dark match") before that night’s ‘’[SmackDown](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown "WWE SmackDown")‘’ television tapings, where he defeated [Shannon Moore](/wiki/Shannon_Moore "Shannon Moore").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4017\.php\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131123736/http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4017\.php\|archive\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=WWE: Eddie Colón hoy en su "tryout" en ''SmackDown!''\|first\=Elvin\|last\=Ruiz\|date\=May 8, 2007\|access\-date\=May 8, 2007}}
On January 26, 2008, Colón made his [Florida Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Florida_Championship_Wrestling "Florida Championship Wrestling") debut, defeating Shawn Osbourne. On February 23, Colón and [Eric Pérez](/wiki/Eric_P%C3%A9rez "Eric Pérez"), collectively known as The Puerto Rican Nightmares, defeated [Heath Miller](/wiki/Heath_Slater "Heath Slater") and [Steve Lewington](/wiki/Steven_Lewington "Steven Lewington") in a tournament final to become the inaugural [FCW Florida Tag Team Champions](/wiki/FCW_Florida_Tag_Team_Championship "FCW Florida Tag Team Championship").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.fcwwrestling.info/champions.html\|title\=Champions Roll Call\|access\-date\=January 1, 2011\|publisher\=\[\[Florida Championship Wrestling]]\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206212026/http://www.fcwwrestling.info/champions.html\|archive\-date\=February 6, 2012\|df\=mdy\-all}} The team lost the title to Brad Allen and [Nic Nemeth](/wiki/Dolph_Ziggler "Dolph Ziggler") on March 23, 2008, before winning them back via disqualification on April 15, 2008\. They lost the title to [Drew McIntyre](/wiki/Drew_McIntyre "Drew McIntyre") and [Stu Sanders](/wiki/Wade_Barrett "Wade Barrett") on May 6, 2008\. On July 17, Colón and Pérez reclaimed the title by defeating McIntyre and Sanders. On August 16, Colón and Perez lost the title to Nic Nemeth and [Gavin Spears](/wiki/Tye_Dillinger "Tye Dillinger").
#### Teaming with Carlito (2008–2010\)
{{Main\|The Colóns (2002–2010\)\|l1\=The Colóns}}
[thumb\|right\|250px\|The Colóns as Unified WWE Tag Team Champions](/wiki/File:Primo_%26_Carlito.jpg "Primo & Carlito.jpg")
On August 18, 2008 episode of ‘’[Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw "WWE Raw")‘’, Colón made his main roster debut under the [ring name](/wiki/Ring_name "Ring name") ‘’'Primo Colón’'’ and was involved in a backstage segment with Raw General Manager, [Mike Adamle](/wiki/Mike_Adamle "Mike Adamle"), talking about his dislike for his brother [Carlito](/wiki/Carly_Col%C3%B3n "Carly Colón")‘s attitude and how he was nothing like him.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/archive/08182008/mainarticle\|title\=Hometown Heartbreak\|date\=August 18, 2008\|last\=Sitterson\|first\=Aubrey\|access\-date\=August 26, 2008\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}} His in\-ring wrestling debut on the Raw brand took place on August 25, when he defeated [Charlie Haas](/wiki/Charlie_Haas "Charlie Haas"), dressed as Carlito and named Charlito, in singles competition.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/archive/08252008/mainarticle\|title\=Championship Scramble scrambled\|date\=August 26, 2008\|last\=Sitterson\|first\=Aubrey\|access\-date\=October 28, 2008\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}
After only one match on ‘’Raw’', Primo Colón, now billed as simply ‘’'Primo’'’, was moved to the [SmackDown brand](/wiki/SmackDown_%28WWE_brand%29 "SmackDown (WWE brand)") where his animosity for his brother was dropped and they formed a tag team. On the September 12 episode of ‘’[SmackDown](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown "WWE SmackDown")‘’, he teamed with his brother Carlito to defeat [WWE Tag Team Champions](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Tag_Team_Championship "WWE Raw Tag Team Championship") [Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder](/wiki/Curt_Hawkins_and_Zack_Ryder "Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder") in a non\-title match. Two weeks later, both teams competed in a title rematch, with The Colóns winning to become WWE Tag Team Champions. In January 2009, The Colóns entered a feud with [World Tag Team Champions](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28WWE%2C_1971%E2%80%932010%29 "World Tag Team Championship (WWE, 1971–2010)") [John Morrison and The Miz](/wiki/John_Morrison_and_The_Miz "John Morrison and The Miz"). On the [WrestleMania 25](/wiki/WrestleMania_25 "WrestleMania 25") pre\-show, The Colóns defeated John Morrison and The Miz in a tag team unification match, becoming the first team to hold the newly dubbed “Unified WWE Tag Team Championship”.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/25/matches/9592012\|title\=WWE Tag Team Champions def. World Tag Team Champions (New Unified Tag Team Champions)\|access\-date\=April 7, 2012\|publisher\=\[\[WWE]]}} On the April 6 episode of *Raw*, they successfully defended their titles for the first time in a rematch.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2009/04/06/9032951\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120630032307/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2009/04/06/9032951\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=June 30, 2012\|title\=Raw: The Animal destroys Legacy\|date\=April 6, 2009\|last\=Plummer\|first\=Dale\|access\-date\=April 17, 2009\|work\=Slam! Sports\|publisher\=\[\[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}
On April 15, both Primo and Carlito were drafted back to the Raw brand as part of the [2009 Supplemental draft](/wiki/2009_WWE_draft%23Supplemental_draft "2009 WWE draft#Supplemental draft").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2009draft/2009supplementaldraftresults/\|title\=2009 WWE Supplemental Draft results\|date\=April 15, 2009\|access\-date\=April 15, 2009\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}} At [The Bash](/wiki/WWE_The_Bash "WWE The Bash"), they lost the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship to the team of [Edge](/wiki/Edge_%28wrestler%29 "Edge (wrestler)") and [Chris Jericho](/wiki/Chris_Jericho "Chris Jericho"), who were added to a standard tag team match between The Colóns and [The Legacy](/wiki/The_Legacy_%28professional_wrestling%29 "The Legacy (professional wrestling)") ([Cody Rhodes](/wiki/Cody_Rhodes "Cody Rhodes") and [Ted DiBiase](/wiki/Ted_DiBiase_Jr. "Ted DiBiase Jr.")) moments before the match started.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/PPVReports/2009/06/29/9968166\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120629143632/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/PPVReports/2009/06/29/9968166\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=June 29, 2012\|title\=Mysterio \& Jericho save The Bash from wash\-out\|date\=June 29, 2009\|last\=Elliott\|first\=Brian\|access\-date\=July 7, 2009\|work\=Slam! Sports\|publisher\=\[\[Canadian Online Explorer]]}} The Colóns invoked their rematch clause the next night on ‘’Raw’', but were unsuccessful.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2009/06/30/9977216\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120629143631/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2009/06/30/9977216\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=June 29, 2012\|title\=Raw: Dubious guest host makes Orton run "The Gauntlet"\|date\=June 30, 2009\|last\=Plummer\|first\=Dale\|access\-date\=July 7, 2009\|work\=Slam! Sports\|publisher\=\[\[Canadian Online Explorer]]}} On the July 6 episode of ‘’Raw’', they lost again to Edge and Jericho, and afterwards Carlito attacked Primo, leading to a feud between the two which ended after Carlito defeated Primo on the August 3 episode of ‘’Raw’'. At [Night of Champions](/wiki/Night_of_Champions_%282009%29 "Night of Champions (2009)"), Primo competed in a [Six\-pack challenge](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Basic_non-elimination_matches "Professional wrestling match types#Basic non-elimination matches") for the [United States Championship](/wiki/WWE_United_States_Championship "WWE United States Championship"), which [Kofi Kingston](/wiki/Kofi_Kingston "Kofi Kingston") won to retain his title. On the May 6, 2010 episode of ‘’[Superstars](/wiki/WWE_Superstars "WWE Superstars")‘’, Carlito stopped their match against each other and asked him to work as a team again, thus turning Primo into a [heel](/wiki/Heel_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Heel (professional wrestling)") in the process. On the May 10 episode of ‘’Raw’', Primo and Carlito brutally attacked [R\-Truth](/wiki/Ron_Killings "Ron Killings") for [Ted DiBiase](/wiki/Ted_DiBiase_Jr. "Ted DiBiase Jr."), who paid them straight after the attack. The team was split up again after Carlito was released from his contract on May 21\.[Carlito released](http://www.wwe.com/inside/news/carlitoreleased). WWE.com (May 21, 2010\). Retrieved on July 15, 2014\.
In September, Primo was one of the WWE Pros for the [third season](/wiki/WWE_NXT%23Season_3 "WWE NXT#Season 3") of [NXT](/wiki/WWE_NXT "WWE NXT"), with [AJ](/wiki/AJ_Lee "AJ Lee") as his NXT rookie. On the November 23 episode of ‘’NXT’', A.J. was eliminated from the competition. Primo then mainly featured on Superstars.
#### Teaming with Epico (2011–2020\)
{{Main\|Primo and Epico}}
[thumb\|right\|upright\|Primo (left) and Epico with [Rosa Mendes](/wiki/Rosa_Mendes "Rosa Mendes") at [WrestleMania XXVIII](/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII "WrestleMania XXVIII")](/wiki/File:Primo_%26_Epico_with_Rosa.jpg "Primo & Epico with Rosa.jpg")
On the November 11, 2011 episode of ‘’SmackDown’', Primo returned to the brand by accompanying [Hunico](/wiki/Hunico "Hunico") and his real\-life cousin [Epico](/wiki/Epico_Col%C3%B3n "Epico Colón") to the ring for their tag team match against [The Usos](/wiki/The_Usos "The Usos") (Jimmy and Jey Uso).{{cite web\|last\=Tedesco\|first\=Mike\|title\=Smackdown Results – 11/11/11\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1321094623\|publisher\=Wrestleview\|access\-date\=November 26, 2011}} Primo then began teaming with Epico, with [Rosa Mendes](/wiki/Rosa_Mendes "Rosa Mendes") as their manager, where they defeated The Usos on the November 17 episode of ‘’Superstars’'.{{cite web\|last\=Namako\|first\=Jason\|title\=Superstars Results – 11/17/11\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1321593125\|publisher\=Wrestleview\|access\-date\=November 26, 2011}} They began a feud with [WWE Tag Team Champions](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Tag_Team_Championship "WWE Raw Tag Team Championship") Air Boom ([Evan Bourne](/wiki/Matt_Sydal "Matt Sydal") and [Kofi Kingston](/wiki/Kofi_Kingston "Kofi Kingston")), trading victories.{{cite web\|last\=James\|first\=Justin\|title\=James's WWE Superstars Report 12/8: Bourne returns to TV from suspension, Mason vs. Mac, Kidd vs. Gabriel, Swagger\|url\=http://www.pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwsuperstarsreport/article\_55846\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=December 24, 2011}}[\*Spoiler:\* Another WWE Tribute To The Troops Taping Report](http://www.wrestlezone.com/news/246403-spoiler-another-wwe-tribute-to-the-troops-taping-report). Wrestlezone (December 12, 2011\). Retrieved on July 15, 2014\.{{cite web\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|title\=Caldwell's WWE Tribute to the Troops REport 12/13: Complete "virtual\-time" coverage of USA Network special\|url\=http://www.pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/TV\_Reports\_9/article\_55980\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=December 24, 2011}}{{cite web\|last\=Namako\|first\=Jason\|title\=Superstars Results – 12/15/11\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1324041962\|publisher\=Wrestleview\|access\-date\=December 24, 2011}} At [Tables, Ladders \& Chairs](/wiki/TLC:Tables%2C_Ladders_%26_Chairs_%282011%29 "Tables, Ladders & Chairs (2011)"), Primo and Epico failed to capture the WWE Tag Team Championships from Air Boom.{{cite web\|last\=Martin\|first\=Adam\|title\=PPV: WWE TLC\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1324257677\|publisher\=Wrestleview\|access\-date\=December 24, 2011}} The feud continued in singles and non\-title matches, with both teams trading wins.{{cite web\|last\=Cupach\|first\=Mike\|title\=Cupach's WWE Smackdown Report 12/23: Alt. perspective review of post\-TLC episode, Bryan's first Smackdown as World champ\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwesmackdownreport/article\_56275\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=January 17, 2012}}{{cite web\|last\=James\|first\=Justin\|title\=James's WWE Superstars Report 1/5: New Year begins with familiar matches – Kidd vs. Yoshi, Tag champ in singles action, Rack vs. Clutch main event\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwsuperstarsreport/article\_56656\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=January 17, 2012}}{{cite web\|last\=Parks\|first\=Greg\|title\=Parks' WWE Smackdown Report 1/6: Ongoing "virtual time" coverage of the show, including Daniel Bryan vs. Big Show for the World Title\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwesmackdownreport/article\_56699\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=January 17, 2012}} At a [live event](/wiki/House_show "House show") on January 15, 2012, Primo and Epico defeated Air Boom to win the WWE Tag Team Championship.{{cite web\|title\=Primo \& Epico crowned WWE Tag Team Champions at WWE Live Event!\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2012\-01\-09/primo\-epico\-new\-wwe\-tag\-champions\|publisher\=\[\[WWE]]\|access\-date\=January 16, 2012}} The following night on ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico successfully defended their titles against Air Boom in a rematch.{{cite web\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|title\=Caldwell's WWE Raw Results 1/16: Complete "virtual\-time" coverage of live Raw – Kane\-Cena latest, Jericho Week 3, Clay Week 2\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwerawreport/article\_57029\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=January 17, 2012}} On the February 27 episode of ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico successfully defended their titles in a Triple Threat tag team match against the teams of Kofi Kingston and R\-Truth, and [Dolph Ziggler](/wiki/Dolph_Ziggler "Dolph Ziggler") and [Jack Swagger](/wiki/Jack_Swagger "Jack Swagger").{{cite web\|title\=Raw Results – 2/27/12\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1330396060\|first\=David\|last\=Stephens\|publisher\=Wrestleview}} In the pre\-show of [WrestleMania XXVIII](/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII "WrestleMania XXVIII"), Primo and Epico successfully defended the title against The Usos, and [Justin Gabriel](/wiki/Justin_Gabriel "Justin Gabriel") and [Tyson Kidd](/wiki/Tyson_Kidd "Tyson Kidd") in a triple threat tag team match.{{cite web\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/quicknews/article\_59859\.shtml\|title\=Pre\-WM28 update – Tag Title result\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=April 1, 2012\|first\=James\|last\=Caldwell}} On the April 30 episode of ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico lost the tag team titles to Kofi Kingston and R\-Truth.{{cite web\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|title\=Caldwell's WWE Raw Results 4/30: Ongoing "virtual\-time" coverage of live Raw Starring Brock Lesnar – PPV fall\-out, Triple H returns\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwerawreport/article\_60937\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=May 1, 2012\|date\=April 30, 2012}}
In May, Primo and Epico joined [A.W.](/wiki/Abraham_Washington "Abraham Washington")‘s talent agency.{{cite web\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|title\=WWE storyline – A.W. signs talent trio\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/quicknews/article\_61055\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=May 13, 2012}} At [No Way Out](/wiki/No_Way_Out_%282012%29 "No Way Out (2012)"), A.W. turned on them during their number one contender Fatal Four\-Way [tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_tag_team_match_types "Professional wrestling tag team match types"), aligned with [The Prime Time Players](/wiki/The_Prime_Time_Players "The Prime Time Players") ([Darren Young](/wiki/Darren_Young "Darren Young") and [Titus O'Neil](/wiki/Titus_O%27Neil "Titus O'Neil")).{{cite web\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|title\=Caldwell's WWE No Way Out PPV Report 6/17: Ongoing "virtual time" coverage of live PPV – Cena vs. Show, potential "firings," who will A.J. choose?\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wweppvs/article\_62544\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=June 23, 2012}} The following night on ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico defeated The Prime Time Players by count\-out after Young and O’Neil walked out of the match.{{cite web\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|title\=Caldwell's WWE Raw Results 6/18: Ongoing "virtual\-time" coverage of live Raw \#994 – PPV fall\-out, Johnny says good\-bye, Hunter\-Heyman\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwerawreport/article\_62576\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=June 23, 2012}} The feud continued on ‘’Superstars’', where Epico lost to Young and Primo beat O’Neil in singles matches.{{cite web\|last\=Namako\|first\=Jason\|title\=Superstars Results – 6/28/12\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1340983977\|publisher\=Wrestleview\|access\-date\=July 8, 2012}}{{cite web\|last\=Namako\|first\=Jason\|title\=Superstars Results – 7/5/12\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1341544840\|publisher\=Wrestleview\|access\-date\=July 8, 2012}} At [Money in the Bank](/wiki/Money_in_the_Bank_%282012%29 "Money in the Bank (2012)"), Primo and Epico defeated Young and O’Neil.{{cite web\|title\=7/15 WWE MITB PPV Box Score: Snapshot of Sunday's PPV – match times, Star Ratings, W/L Records, Tons of Streaks\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwestatistics/article\_63365\.shtml}} The feud ended in August when A.W. was released from WWE.{{cite web\|last\=Parks\|first\=Greg\|title\=Parks' WWE Smackdown Report 8/10: Complete "virtual time" coverage of the Friday night show, including Dolph Ziggler as guest on Jericho's Highlight Reel\|url\=http://www.pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwesmackdownreport/article\_64175\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=January 12, 2013}} At [Survivor Series](/wiki/Survivor_Series_%282012%29 "Survivor Series (2012)"), Primo took part in a [10–man elimination tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_tag_team_match_types%23Elimination_tag_team_matches "Professional wrestling tag team match types#Elimination tag team matches"), but was eliminated by [Rey Mysterio](/wiki/Rey_Mysterio "Rey Mysterio").{{cite web\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|title\=Caldwell's WWE Survivor Series PPV Report 11/18: Complete "virtual time" coverage of live PPV – Punk\-Cena\-Ryback\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wweppvs/article\_66714\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=November 19, 2012}} Primo and Epico could not find any wins after August 2012, and by the first ‘’SmackDown’' of 2013, Primo was on a 20 match losing streak, and Epico was at 17\.{{cite web\|last\=Parks\|first\=Greg\|title\=Parks' WWE Smackdown Report 1/4: Complete coverage of Friday night show, including Sheamus \& Orton vs. Big Show \& Cesaro (updated w/Box Score)\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwesmackdownreport/article\_67666\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=January 13, 2013}} On the January 9, 2013 episode of ‘’NXT’', Primo and Epico broke their losing streaks with a win over [Bo Dallas](/wiki/Bo_Dallas "Bo Dallas") and [Michael McGillicutty](/wiki/Curtis_Axel "Curtis Axel").{{cite web\|last\=James\|first\=Justin\|title\=James's WWE NXT Report 1/9: Big E. captures NXT Title, Shield involved, PAC debut promo, Overall Reax\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwenxtreport/article\_67768\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=January 13, 2013}} However, Dallas and McGillicutty gained revenge by defeating Primo and Epico in the first round of the [NXT Tag Team Championship tournament](/wiki/NXT_Tag_Team_Championship%23Inaugural_tournament "NXT Tag Team Championship#Inaugural tournament").{{cite web\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwenxtreport/article\_68301\.shtml\|title\=James's WWE NXT Results 1/30: Tournament continues, Bo Dallas in main event, returns of Bateman, A\-Ry \& Mason Ryan\|date\=January 31, 2013\|last\=James\|first\=Justin\|access\-date\=June 1, 2013\|publisher\=Pro Wrestling Torch}}
[thumb\|left\|In mid–2013, Primo and Epico changed their [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Gimmick (professional wrestling)") to Los Matadores](/wiki/File:Los_Matadores_%26_El_Torito.jpg "Los Matadores & El Torito.jpg")
On the August 19, 2013 episode of Raw, a vignette was aired introducing the debut of ‘’'Los Matadores’'’,Jaso, Brian (September 30, 2013\) [Raw Results\- Orton and Bryan have a Final Showdown](https://web.archive.org/web/20131029203846/http://www.gerweck.net/2013/09/30/ongoing-live-raw-results-093013/). gerweck.net. and on the September 30 episode of ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico debuted new characters, as Diego and Fernando of Los Matadores, a [face](/wiki/Face_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Face (professional wrestling)") team of two masked Spanish [bullfighters](/wiki/Torero "Torero") with [El Torito](/wiki/Mascarita_Dorada "Mascarita Dorada") as mascot as they defeated 3MB ([Heath Slater](/wiki/Heath_Slater "Heath Slater"), [Drew McIntyre](/wiki/Drew_McIntyre "Drew McIntyre") and [Jinder Mahal](/wiki/Jinder_Mahal "Jinder Mahal").{{cite web\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|title\=Caldwell's WWE Raw Results 8/19 (Hour 3\): Orton's Coronation in Main Event segment, Punk responds to Heyman\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwerawreport/article\_72816\.shtml\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch\|access\-date\=August 20, 2013}}{{cite web\|last\=Johnson\|first\=Mike\|title\=Los Matadores Are....\|url\=http://www.pwinsider.com/article/79729/los\-matadores\-are.html?p\=1\|work\=PWInsider\|access\-date\=September 30, 2013}} It was the start of a winning streak that featured nine wins over 3MB, (with El Torito wrestling in some matches), and also over The Real Americans ([Antonio Cesaro](/wiki/Cesaro_%28wrestler%29 "Cesaro (wrestler)") and [Jack Swagger](/wiki/Jack_Swagger "Jack Swagger")) at [Hell in a Cell](/wiki/Hell_in_a_Cell_%282013%29 "Hell in a Cell (2013)").{{cite web\|title\=Diego in 2014\|url\=http://profightdb.com/wrestlers/diego\-3240\.html?year\=2014\|work\=The Internet Wrestling Database\|access\-date\=11 January 2014}} Los Matadores’ winning streak was snapped on the January 24, 2014 episode of ‘’SmackDown’', courtesy of RybAxel ([Ryback](/wiki/Ryback "Ryback") and Curtis Axel). On the [WrestleMania XXX](/wiki/WrestleMania_XXX "WrestleMania XXX") pre\-show, Los Matadores received a WWE Tag Team Championship shot against The Usos, RybAxel and The Real Americans, in a Fatal Four\-Way tag team elimination match, but lost after eliminated by The Real Americans. At [Battleground](/wiki/Battleground_%282014%29 "Battleground (2014)"), Diego competed in a battle royal for the vacant [Intercontinental Championship](/wiki/WWE_Intercontinental_Championship "WWE Intercontinental Championship"), but was eliminated by [Ryback](/wiki/Ryback "Ryback"). On March 29, 2015, at the [WrestleMania 31](/wiki/WrestleMania_31 "WrestleMania 31") pre\-show, Los Matadores were in a Fatal 4\-way match for the WWE Tag Team Championship, but failed to win the titles. Diego participated in the [André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_the_Giant_Memorial_Battle_Royal "André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal") but was eliminated by [Kane](/wiki/Kane_%28wrestler%29 "Kane (wrestler)"). After months of chasing the WWE Tag Team Championship, Los Matadores fell out and seemingly broke up, as they no longer appeared on TV.
[thumb\|right\|upright\|Primo (right) and Epico in September 2016](/wiki/File:The_Shining_Stars_in_September_2016.jpg "The Shining Stars in September 2016.jpg")
From April 4 to May 9, 2016, several videos aired on ‘’Raw’' promoted the return of Primo and Epico, who revived their Puerto Rican gimmick{{cite web \|url\=http://www.f4wonline.com/wwe\-news/wwe\-raw\-live\-results\-post\-wrestlemania\-roman\-reigns\-champ\-once\-again\-2104 \|title\={{!}} WON/F4W \- WWE news, Pro Wrestling News, WWE Results, UFC News, UFC results \|website\=www.f4wonline.com \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426001805/http://www.f4wonline.com/wwe\-news/wwe\-raw\-live\-results\-post\-wrestlemania\-roman\-reigns\-champ\-once\-again\-2104 \|archive\-date\=2016\-04\-26}} {{Cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=dTb2rwFkBy4 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/dTb2rwFkBy4 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-13 \|url\-status\=live\|title \= Primo \& Epico explore the rich history of Puerto Rico: Raw, April 18, 2016\|website \= \[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} under the new name ‘’'The Shining Stars’'’.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=YHQxwP078O4 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/YHQxwP078O4 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-13 \|url\-status\=live\|publisher\=WWE\|title\=The Shining Stars arrive next week: Raw, May 9, 2016\|date\=2016\-05\-09\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-10}}{{cbignore}} On the May 16 episode of ‘’Raw’', The Shining Stars debuted by defeating a local tag team Scott Jackson and Brian Kennedy in a squash match. They then began showing tendencies of [con men](/wiki/Confidence_trick "Confidence trick"), trying to persuade various superstars to purchase [timeshares](/wiki/Timeshare "Timeshare") to their Puerto Rican resort. This led to a feud with The Golden Truth ([Goldust](/wiki/Goldust "Goldust") and R\-Truth){{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2016\-10\-24\#full\-detail\-40013562\&toURL\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2016\-10\-24\#full\-detail\-40013562/\|title\=Raw results, Oct. 24, 2016: Kevin Owens tears down The Architect before WWE Hell in a Cell}} On the November 7 episode of ‘’Raw’', after R\-Truth sold his team's [Survivor Series](/wiki/Survivor_Series_%282016%29 "Survivor Series (2016)") spot for a stay at a [timeshare](/wiki/Timeshare "Timeshare") to The Shining Stars, both teams competed to qualify for the [10–on–10 Survivor Series Tag Team Elimination match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_tag_team_match_types%23Elimination_tag_team_matches "Professional wrestling tag team match types#Elimination tag team matches"), which Primo and Epico won.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2016\-11\-07/article/the\-shining\-stars\-def\-the\-golden\-truth\-to\-qualify\-for\-the\-5\-on\-5\|title\=Could The Golden Truth save their Survivor Series spot?}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.prowrestling.com/the\-golden\-truth\-vs\-the\-shining\-stars\-raw\-nov\-7\-2016/\|title\=The Golden Truth vs. The Shining Stars: Raw, Nov. 7, 2016 \- ProWrestling.com\|first\=William\|last\=Baker\|date\=8 November 2016}} At the event, Team Raw defeated Team SmackDown. At [WrestleMania 33](/wiki/WrestleMania_33 "WrestleMania 33"), Primo participated in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal but was eliminated by [Braun Strowman](/wiki/Braun_Strowman "Braun Strowman").
On April 11, 2017, they were traded to the SmackDown brand as part of the [2017 Superstar Shake\-up](/wiki/2017_WWE_Superstar_Shake-up "2017 WWE Superstar Shake-up") when they attacked [American Alpha](/wiki/American_Alpha "American Alpha") ([Chad Gable](/wiki/Chad_Gable "Chad Gable") and [Jason Jordan](/wiki/Jason_Jordan "Jason Jordan")). The following week on *SmackDown Live*, the team were officially renamed **The Colóns**, after defeating American Alpha. In June, Colón suffered a knee injury. After a long hiatus, Colón returned on the April 3, 2018 episode of *SmackDown Live*, teaming with [Baron Corbin](/wiki/Baron_Corbin "Baron Corbin"), [Dolph Ziggler](/wiki/Dolph_Ziggler "Dolph Ziggler") and [Mojo Rawley](/wiki/Mojo_Rawley "Mojo Rawley") in a winning effort against Breezango ([Tyler Breeze](/wiki/Tyler_Breeze "Tyler Breeze") and [Fandango](/wiki/Fandango_%28wrestler%29 "Fandango (wrestler)")), [Tye Dillinger](/wiki/Tye_Dillinger "Tye Dillinger") and [Zack Ryder](/wiki/Zack_Ryder "Zack Ryder"). At [WrestleMania 34](/wiki/WrestleMania_34 "WrestleMania 34"), Colón participated in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, which he failed to win. Following this, the team rarely appeared on TV or at live events, virtually disappearing.{{Cite web\|url\=https://theovertimer.com/are\-primo\-epico\-colon\-finished\-with\-wwe/\|title \= Are Primo \& Epico Colon Finished with WWE?\|date \= November 8, 2019}} On December 10, 2019, Colón was suspended for 30 days, for violating of WWE's Wellness Policy.{{cite web\|title\=Robert Roode and Primo Colon suspended\|url\=https://www.wwe.com/article/robert\-roode\-and\-primo\-colon\-suspended\|website\=WWE.com\|access\-date\=December 10, 2019}} Primo claimed that he didn't fail the test and was suspended due to missing the test, as he was in Puerto Rico at the time and stated that he plans to appeal the decision.{{Cite web\|url\=https://411mania.com/wrestling/primo\-colons\-explanation\-of\-failed\-wellness\-test\-reportedly\-not\-accurate/\|title \= 411Mania}} On April 15, 2020, Primo was released from his WWE contract due to the budget cuts stemming from the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), ending his 13\-year tenure with the company.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.wwe.com/article/wwe\-talent\-releases\-drake\-maverick\-curt\-hawkins\-karl\-anderson\|title\=Rusev, Kurt Angle and other Superstars released\|work\=WWE\|date\=April 15, 2020\|access\-date\=April 16, 2020}}
### Return to WWC (2019–present)
While still part of WWE's roster (yet inactive), The Colóns returned to WWC, working in both administrative roles and as in\-ring talent in 2019\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://superluchas.com/epico\-yo\-voy\-a\-seguir\-en\-wwe\-pero\-es\-tiempo\-de\-regresar\-a\-casa/\|title \= Epico: "Yo voy a seguir en WWE pero es tiempo de regresar a casa" \| Superluchas\|date \= May 20, 2019}} By the summer, Epico was harassed by a wrestler sporting his former mantle of La Pesadilla, but this did not prevent him from earning his first reign as Universal Heavyweight Champion.{{Cite web\|url\=https://superluchas.com/gilbert\-orlando\-colon\-quieres\-guerra\-pues\-guerra\-vas\-a\-tener/\|title\=Gilbert: "Orlando Colón quieres GUERRA pues GUERRA vas a tener" \| Superluchas\|date\=May 20, 2019}} Afterwards, a storyline began where both Primo and Carlito began pursuing the title.{{Cite web\|url\=https://superluchas.com/ray\-gonzalez\-orlando\-colon\-tu\-oponente\-para\-septiembre\-negro\-es\-eddie\-primo\-colon/\|title\=Ray Gonzalez: "Orlando Colón tu oponente para Septiembre Negro es Eddie Primo Colón" \| Superluchas\|date\=August 19, 2019}} In the first intrafamiliar match, Colón failed to capture the title at Septiembre Negro. At Noche de Campeones, all three cousins wrestled each other for the first time in their careers. Epico retained, but Colón turned on the family and rebranded himself Eddie "La Maravilla" Colón, forming a faction known as The Dynasty along [Gilbert](/wiki/Gilbert_%28wrestler%29 "Gilbert (wrestler)") and [Peter John Ramos](/wiki/Peter_John_Ramos "Peter John Ramos"). The three then began a campaign to dethrone the champion. In the process, Colón was faced with the new allies of his cousin, losing to a returning Apollo (part of the "Dream Team", along Ricky Banderas) when the rest of The Dynasty intervened.{{Cite web\|url \= http://impactoestelar.com/wwc\-superestrellas\-de\-la\-lucha\-libre\-02\-01\-20\-supongo\-que\-es\-algo/\|title \= WWC Superestrellas de la Lucha Libre 02/01/20 \| Supongo Que Es Algo \~ Impacto Estelar\|date \= February 2020\|access\-date \= February 3, 2020\|archive\-date \= February 4, 2020\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200204095140/http://impactoestelar.com/wwc\-superestrellas\-de\-la\-lucha\-libre\-02\-01\-20\-supongo\-que\-es\-algo/\|url\-status \= dead}}
|
[
"Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------",
"### World Wrestling Council (1999–2016\\)",
"Colón debuted in 1999, wrestling in the [cruiserweight division](/wiki/Cruiserweight_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Cruiserweight (professional wrestling)\"). He won the first title on February 10, 2001, when he defeated [Damian Steele](/wiki/Tim_Fischer_%28wrestler%29 \"Tim Fischer (wrestler)\") for the [WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWC_World_Junior_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.411mania.com/wrestling/columns/37948/Historical\\-Perspective:\\-WWC\\-World\\-Junior\\-Heavyweight\\-Title\\-1993–2005\\.htm\\|title\\=Historical Perspective: WWC World Junior Heavyweight Title 1993– 2005\\|first\\=Armando\\|last\\=Rodriguez\\|publisher\\=411mania.com\\|date\\=February 19, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607021838/http://www.411mania.com/wrestling/columns/37948/Historical\\-Perspective:\\-WWC\\-World\\-Junior\\-Heavyweight\\-Title\\-1993–2005\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=June 7, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} His feud with Steele continued for a month, during which he dropped and recovered the title on March 10, 2001\\. He feuded over the title for six months, losing and winning it once. By autumn, Colón was involved in a storyline involving [Justin McCully](/wiki/Justin_McCully \"Justin McCully\"), continuing a similar pattern. In early 2002, Colón was involved in a storyline with [Rey Mysterio Jr](/wiki/Rey_Mysterio \"Rey Mysterio\"), who defeated Colón for the title on January 6, 2002\\. Mysterio held the title for two months before dropping it back on April 6, 2002, which marked Colón's final Junior Championship reign. Following a long feud with Rico Casanova and then [Kid Kash](/wiki/Kid_Kash \"Kid Kash\"), the belt was held up and Colón ascended to the Heavyweight division.",
"Shortly after Carly Colón signed with WWE, a tournament was organized to determine the new champion. Colón was considered an early favorite and reached the final, but lost. Colón then entered a feud with El Diamante over the [WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWC_Puerto_Rico_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship\"). In late 2004, Colón was involved in a [battle royal](/wiki/Battle_royal_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Battle royal (professional wrestling)\") for the first contender's position. One week later on November 6, 2004, Colón defeated [El Bronco](/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_%C3%81lvarez_%28wrestler%29 \"Ramón Álvarez (wrestler)\") and won the Universal Heavyweight Championship for the first time in his career. He then entered a feud with El Diamante, eventually dropping the title to him.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.411mania.com/wrestling/columns/37520/Historical\\-Perspective:\\-WWC\\-Universal\\-Title\\-2000\\-2005\\.htm\\|title\\=Historical Perspective: WWC Universal Title 2000–2005\\|first\\=Armando\\|last\\=Rodriguez\\|publisher\\=411mania.com\\|date\\=February 8, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=May 23, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805162202/http://www.411mania.com/wrestling/columns/37520/Historical\\-Perspective:\\-WWC\\-Universal\\-Title\\-2000\\-2005\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=August 5, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} On July 31, 2005, he formed a tag team with his father as part of the [Funking Conservatory](/wiki/Funking_Conservatory \"Funking Conservatory\")‘s television show, [!Bang!](/wiki/%21Bang%21 \"!Bang!\"), competing against [Dory Funk, Jr.](/wiki/Dory_Funk%2C_Jr. \"Dory Funk, Jr.\") and Johnny Magnum. The team was victorious, winning the promotion’s Television Tag Team Championship. On March 5, 2006, he participated in [WCW Saturday Night](/wiki/WCW_Saturday_Night \"WCW Saturday Night\") tribute show [World Wrestling Legends: 6:05 \\- The Reunion](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Legends \"World Wrestling Legends\"), he was defeated by [Vampiro](/wiki/Vampiro \"Vampiro\").{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/p/primo\\-colon.html\\| title\\=Primo Colon\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling\\| access\\-date\\=April 9, 2009}} On July 13, 2007 at World Wrestling Council’s anniversary event, ‘’Aniversario 2007’', Colón wrestled [Christian Cage](/wiki/Christian_Cage \"Christian Cage\") in a match that resulted in a [double\\-countout](/wiki/Countout \"Countout\").{{cite web\\|author\\=Juan Rosario\\|url\\=http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4299\\.php\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131123756/http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4299\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=WWC: Resultados Aniversario 2007 en el Choliseo\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=July 13, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=July 13, 2007}}",
"After signing with WWE, Primo would make occasional appearances with WWC while working for WWE until 2016\\.",
"### World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE (2007 \\- 2020\\)",
"#### Florida Championship Wrestling (2007–2008\\)",
"On May 7, 2007, Colón had a closed door workout match before the ‘’[Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw \"WWE Raw\")‘’ television tapings where he was evaluated by the personnel responsible for talent management.{{cite web\\|author\\=Eduardo Aponte\\|url\\=http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4027\\.php\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131123741/http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4027\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=WWE: Eddie Colón también ve acción en \"tryout\" dentro de ''RAW''\\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2007\\|date\\=May 10, 2007}} The following day, Colón participated in a [dark match](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Dark_match \"List of professional wrestling terms#Dark match\") before that night’s ‘’[SmackDown](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown \"WWE SmackDown\")‘’ television tapings, where he defeated [Shannon Moore](/wiki/Shannon_Moore \"Shannon Moore\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4017\\.php\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131123736/http://www.prwrestling.com/noticiasprw/4017\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=WWE: Eddie Colón hoy en su \"tryout\" en ''SmackDown!''\\|first\\=Elvin\\|last\\=Ruiz\\|date\\=May 8, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2007}}",
"On January 26, 2008, Colón made his [Florida Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Florida_Championship_Wrestling \"Florida Championship Wrestling\") debut, defeating Shawn Osbourne. On February 23, Colón and [Eric Pérez](/wiki/Eric_P%C3%A9rez \"Eric Pérez\"), collectively known as The Puerto Rican Nightmares, defeated [Heath Miller](/wiki/Heath_Slater \"Heath Slater\") and [Steve Lewington](/wiki/Steven_Lewington \"Steven Lewington\") in a tournament final to become the inaugural [FCW Florida Tag Team Champions](/wiki/FCW_Florida_Tag_Team_Championship \"FCW Florida Tag Team Championship\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fcwwrestling.info/champions.html\\|title\\=Champions Roll Call\\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2011\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Florida Championship Wrestling]]\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206212026/http://www.fcwwrestling.info/champions.html\\|archive\\-date\\=February 6, 2012\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}} The team lost the title to Brad Allen and [Nic Nemeth](/wiki/Dolph_Ziggler \"Dolph Ziggler\") on March 23, 2008, before winning them back via disqualification on April 15, 2008\\. They lost the title to [Drew McIntyre](/wiki/Drew_McIntyre \"Drew McIntyre\") and [Stu Sanders](/wiki/Wade_Barrett \"Wade Barrett\") on May 6, 2008\\. On July 17, Colón and Pérez reclaimed the title by defeating McIntyre and Sanders. On August 16, Colón and Perez lost the title to Nic Nemeth and [Gavin Spears](/wiki/Tye_Dillinger \"Tye Dillinger\").",
"#### Teaming with Carlito (2008–2010\\)",
"{{Main\\|The Colóns (2002–2010\\)\\|l1\\=The Colóns}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|The Colóns as Unified WWE Tag Team Champions](/wiki/File:Primo_%26_Carlito.jpg \"Primo & Carlito.jpg\")\nOn August 18, 2008 episode of ‘’[Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw \"WWE Raw\")‘’, Colón made his main roster debut under the [ring name](/wiki/Ring_name \"Ring name\") ‘’'Primo Colón’'’ and was involved in a backstage segment with Raw General Manager, [Mike Adamle](/wiki/Mike_Adamle \"Mike Adamle\"), talking about his dislike for his brother [Carlito](/wiki/Carly_Col%C3%B3n \"Carly Colón\")‘s attitude and how he was nothing like him.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/archive/08182008/mainarticle\\|title\\=Hometown Heartbreak\\|date\\=August 18, 2008\\|last\\=Sitterson\\|first\\=Aubrey\\|access\\-date\\=August 26, 2008\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}} His in\\-ring wrestling debut on the Raw brand took place on August 25, when he defeated [Charlie Haas](/wiki/Charlie_Haas \"Charlie Haas\"), dressed as Carlito and named Charlito, in singles competition.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/archive/08252008/mainarticle\\|title\\=Championship Scramble scrambled\\|date\\=August 26, 2008\\|last\\=Sitterson\\|first\\=Aubrey\\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2008\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}",
"After only one match on ‘’Raw’', Primo Colón, now billed as simply ‘’'Primo’'’, was moved to the [SmackDown brand](/wiki/SmackDown_%28WWE_brand%29 \"SmackDown (WWE brand)\") where his animosity for his brother was dropped and they formed a tag team. On the September 12 episode of ‘’[SmackDown](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown \"WWE SmackDown\")‘’, he teamed with his brother Carlito to defeat [WWE Tag Team Champions](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWE Raw Tag Team Championship\") [Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder](/wiki/Curt_Hawkins_and_Zack_Ryder \"Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder\") in a non\\-title match. Two weeks later, both teams competed in a title rematch, with The Colóns winning to become WWE Tag Team Champions. In January 2009, The Colóns entered a feud with [World Tag Team Champions](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28WWE%2C_1971%E2%80%932010%29 \"World Tag Team Championship (WWE, 1971–2010)\") [John Morrison and The Miz](/wiki/John_Morrison_and_The_Miz \"John Morrison and The Miz\"). On the [WrestleMania 25](/wiki/WrestleMania_25 \"WrestleMania 25\") pre\\-show, The Colóns defeated John Morrison and The Miz in a tag team unification match, becoming the first team to hold the newly dubbed “Unified WWE Tag Team Championship”.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/25/matches/9592012\\|title\\=WWE Tag Team Champions def. World Tag Team Champions (New Unified Tag Team Champions)\\|access\\-date\\=April 7, 2012\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[WWE]]}} On the April 6 episode of *Raw*, they successfully defended their titles for the first time in a rematch.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2009/04/06/9032951\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120630032307/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2009/04/06/9032951\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=June 30, 2012\\|title\\=Raw: The Animal destroys Legacy\\|date\\=April 6, 2009\\|last\\=Plummer\\|first\\=Dale\\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2009\\|work\\=Slam! Sports\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}",
"On April 15, both Primo and Carlito were drafted back to the Raw brand as part of the [2009 Supplemental draft](/wiki/2009_WWE_draft%23Supplemental_draft \"2009 WWE draft#Supplemental draft\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2009draft/2009supplementaldraftresults/\\|title\\=2009 WWE Supplemental Draft results\\|date\\=April 15, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=April 15, 2009\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}} At [The Bash](/wiki/WWE_The_Bash \"WWE The Bash\"), they lost the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship to the team of [Edge](/wiki/Edge_%28wrestler%29 \"Edge (wrestler)\") and [Chris Jericho](/wiki/Chris_Jericho \"Chris Jericho\"), who were added to a standard tag team match between The Colóns and [The Legacy](/wiki/The_Legacy_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"The Legacy (professional wrestling)\") ([Cody Rhodes](/wiki/Cody_Rhodes \"Cody Rhodes\") and [Ted DiBiase](/wiki/Ted_DiBiase_Jr. \"Ted DiBiase Jr.\")) moments before the match started.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/PPVReports/2009/06/29/9968166\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120629143632/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/PPVReports/2009/06/29/9968166\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2012\\|title\\=Mysterio \\& Jericho save The Bash from wash\\-out\\|date\\=June 29, 2009\\|last\\=Elliott\\|first\\=Brian\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2009\\|work\\=Slam! Sports\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Canadian Online Explorer]]}} The Colóns invoked their rematch clause the next night on ‘’Raw’', but were unsuccessful.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2009/06/30/9977216\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120629143631/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2009/06/30/9977216\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2012\\|title\\=Raw: Dubious guest host makes Orton run \"The Gauntlet\"\\|date\\=June 30, 2009\\|last\\=Plummer\\|first\\=Dale\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2009\\|work\\=Slam! Sports\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Canadian Online Explorer]]}} On the July 6 episode of ‘’Raw’', they lost again to Edge and Jericho, and afterwards Carlito attacked Primo, leading to a feud between the two which ended after Carlito defeated Primo on the August 3 episode of ‘’Raw’'. At [Night of Champions](/wiki/Night_of_Champions_%282009%29 \"Night of Champions (2009)\"), Primo competed in a [Six\\-pack challenge](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Basic_non-elimination_matches \"Professional wrestling match types#Basic non-elimination matches\") for the [United States Championship](/wiki/WWE_United_States_Championship \"WWE United States Championship\"), which [Kofi Kingston](/wiki/Kofi_Kingston \"Kofi Kingston\") won to retain his title. On the May 6, 2010 episode of ‘’[Superstars](/wiki/WWE_Superstars \"WWE Superstars\")‘’, Carlito stopped their match against each other and asked him to work as a team again, thus turning Primo into a [heel](/wiki/Heel_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Heel (professional wrestling)\") in the process. On the May 10 episode of ‘’Raw’', Primo and Carlito brutally attacked [R\\-Truth](/wiki/Ron_Killings \"Ron Killings\") for [Ted DiBiase](/wiki/Ted_DiBiase_Jr. \"Ted DiBiase Jr.\"), who paid them straight after the attack. The team was split up again after Carlito was released from his contract on May 21\\.[Carlito released](http://www.wwe.com/inside/news/carlitoreleased). WWE.com (May 21, 2010\\). Retrieved on July 15, 2014\\.",
"In September, Primo was one of the WWE Pros for the [third season](/wiki/WWE_NXT%23Season_3 \"WWE NXT#Season 3\") of [NXT](/wiki/WWE_NXT \"WWE NXT\"), with [AJ](/wiki/AJ_Lee \"AJ Lee\") as his NXT rookie. On the November 23 episode of ‘’NXT’', A.J. was eliminated from the competition. Primo then mainly featured on Superstars.",
"#### Teaming with Epico (2011–2020\\)",
"{{Main\\|Primo and Epico}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|Primo (left) and Epico with [Rosa Mendes](/wiki/Rosa_Mendes \"Rosa Mendes\") at [WrestleMania XXVIII](/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII \"WrestleMania XXVIII\")](/wiki/File:Primo_%26_Epico_with_Rosa.jpg \"Primo & Epico with Rosa.jpg\")\nOn the November 11, 2011 episode of ‘’SmackDown’', Primo returned to the brand by accompanying [Hunico](/wiki/Hunico \"Hunico\") and his real\\-life cousin [Epico](/wiki/Epico_Col%C3%B3n \"Epico Colón\") to the ring for their tag team match against [The Usos](/wiki/The_Usos \"The Usos\") (Jimmy and Jey Uso).{{cite web\\|last\\=Tedesco\\|first\\=Mike\\|title\\=Smackdown Results – 11/11/11\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1321094623\\|publisher\\=Wrestleview\\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2011}} Primo then began teaming with Epico, with [Rosa Mendes](/wiki/Rosa_Mendes \"Rosa Mendes\") as their manager, where they defeated The Usos on the November 17 episode of ‘’Superstars’'.{{cite web\\|last\\=Namako\\|first\\=Jason\\|title\\=Superstars Results – 11/17/11\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1321593125\\|publisher\\=Wrestleview\\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2011}} They began a feud with [WWE Tag Team Champions](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWE Raw Tag Team Championship\") Air Boom ([Evan Bourne](/wiki/Matt_Sydal \"Matt Sydal\") and [Kofi Kingston](/wiki/Kofi_Kingston \"Kofi Kingston\")), trading victories.{{cite web\\|last\\=James\\|first\\=Justin\\|title\\=James's WWE Superstars Report 12/8: Bourne returns to TV from suspension, Mason vs. Mac, Kidd vs. Gabriel, Swagger\\|url\\=http://www.pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwsuperstarsreport/article\\_55846\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2011}}[\\*Spoiler:\\* Another WWE Tribute To The Troops Taping Report](http://www.wrestlezone.com/news/246403-spoiler-another-wwe-tribute-to-the-troops-taping-report). Wrestlezone (December 12, 2011\\). Retrieved on July 15, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Caldwell's WWE Tribute to the Troops REport 12/13: Complete \"virtual\\-time\" coverage of USA Network special\\|url\\=http://www.pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/TV\\_Reports\\_9/article\\_55980\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2011}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Namako\\|first\\=Jason\\|title\\=Superstars Results – 12/15/11\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1324041962\\|publisher\\=Wrestleview\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2011}} At [Tables, Ladders \\& Chairs](/wiki/TLC:Tables%2C_Ladders_%26_Chairs_%282011%29 \"Tables, Ladders & Chairs (2011)\"), Primo and Epico failed to capture the WWE Tag Team Championships from Air Boom.{{cite web\\|last\\=Martin\\|first\\=Adam\\|title\\=PPV: WWE TLC\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1324257677\\|publisher\\=Wrestleview\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2011}} The feud continued in singles and non\\-title matches, with both teams trading wins.{{cite web\\|last\\=Cupach\\|first\\=Mike\\|title\\=Cupach's WWE Smackdown Report 12/23: Alt. perspective review of post\\-TLC episode, Bryan's first Smackdown as World champ\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwesmackdownreport/article\\_56275\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=January 17, 2012}}{{cite web\\|last\\=James\\|first\\=Justin\\|title\\=James's WWE Superstars Report 1/5: New Year begins with familiar matches – Kidd vs. Yoshi, Tag champ in singles action, Rack vs. Clutch main event\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwsuperstarsreport/article\\_56656\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=January 17, 2012}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Parks\\|first\\=Greg\\|title\\=Parks' WWE Smackdown Report 1/6: Ongoing \"virtual time\" coverage of the show, including Daniel Bryan vs. Big Show for the World Title\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwesmackdownreport/article\\_56699\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=January 17, 2012}} At a [live event](/wiki/House_show \"House show\") on January 15, 2012, Primo and Epico defeated Air Boom to win the WWE Tag Team Championship.{{cite web\\|title\\=Primo \\& Epico crowned WWE Tag Team Champions at WWE Live Event!\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2012\\-01\\-09/primo\\-epico\\-new\\-wwe\\-tag\\-champions\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[WWE]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 16, 2012}} The following night on ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico successfully defended their titles against Air Boom in a rematch.{{cite web\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Caldwell's WWE Raw Results 1/16: Complete \"virtual\\-time\" coverage of live Raw – Kane\\-Cena latest, Jericho Week 3, Clay Week 2\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwerawreport/article\\_57029\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=January 17, 2012}} On the February 27 episode of ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico successfully defended their titles in a Triple Threat tag team match against the teams of Kofi Kingston and R\\-Truth, and [Dolph Ziggler](/wiki/Dolph_Ziggler \"Dolph Ziggler\") and [Jack Swagger](/wiki/Jack_Swagger \"Jack Swagger\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Raw Results – 2/27/12\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1330396060\\|first\\=David\\|last\\=Stephens\\|publisher\\=Wrestleview}} In the pre\\-show of [WrestleMania XXVIII](/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII \"WrestleMania XXVIII\"), Primo and Epico successfully defended the title against The Usos, and [Justin Gabriel](/wiki/Justin_Gabriel \"Justin Gabriel\") and [Tyson Kidd](/wiki/Tyson_Kidd \"Tyson Kidd\") in a triple threat tag team match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/quicknews/article\\_59859\\.shtml\\|title\\=Pre\\-WM28 update – Tag Title result\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=April 1, 2012\\|first\\=James\\|last\\=Caldwell}} On the April 30 episode of ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico lost the tag team titles to Kofi Kingston and R\\-Truth.{{cite web\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Caldwell's WWE Raw Results 4/30: Ongoing \"virtual\\-time\" coverage of live Raw Starring Brock Lesnar – PPV fall\\-out, Triple H returns\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwerawreport/article\\_60937\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2012\\|date\\=April 30, 2012}}",
"In May, Primo and Epico joined [A.W.](/wiki/Abraham_Washington \"Abraham Washington\")‘s talent agency.{{cite web\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=WWE storyline – A.W. signs talent trio\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/quicknews/article\\_61055\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=May 13, 2012}} At [No Way Out](/wiki/No_Way_Out_%282012%29 \"No Way Out (2012)\"), A.W. turned on them during their number one contender Fatal Four\\-Way [tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_tag_team_match_types \"Professional wrestling tag team match types\"), aligned with [The Prime Time Players](/wiki/The_Prime_Time_Players \"The Prime Time Players\") ([Darren Young](/wiki/Darren_Young \"Darren Young\") and [Titus O'Neil](/wiki/Titus_O%27Neil \"Titus O'Neil\")).{{cite web\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Caldwell's WWE No Way Out PPV Report 6/17: Ongoing \"virtual time\" coverage of live PPV – Cena vs. Show, potential \"firings,\" who will A.J. choose?\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wweppvs/article\\_62544\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2012}} The following night on ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico defeated The Prime Time Players by count\\-out after Young and O’Neil walked out of the match.{{cite web\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Caldwell's WWE Raw Results 6/18: Ongoing \"virtual\\-time\" coverage of live Raw \\#994 – PPV fall\\-out, Johnny says good\\-bye, Hunter\\-Heyman\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwerawreport/article\\_62576\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2012}} The feud continued on ‘’Superstars’', where Epico lost to Young and Primo beat O’Neil in singles matches.{{cite web\\|last\\=Namako\\|first\\=Jason\\|title\\=Superstars Results – 6/28/12\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1340983977\\|publisher\\=Wrestleview\\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2012}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Namako\\|first\\=Jason\\|title\\=Superstars Results – 7/5/12\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1341544840\\|publisher\\=Wrestleview\\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2012}} At [Money in the Bank](/wiki/Money_in_the_Bank_%282012%29 \"Money in the Bank (2012)\"), Primo and Epico defeated Young and O’Neil.{{cite web\\|title\\=7/15 WWE MITB PPV Box Score: Snapshot of Sunday's PPV – match times, Star Ratings, W/L Records, Tons of Streaks\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwestatistics/article\\_63365\\.shtml}} The feud ended in August when A.W. was released from WWE.{{cite web\\|last\\=Parks\\|first\\=Greg\\|title\\=Parks' WWE Smackdown Report 8/10: Complete \"virtual time\" coverage of the Friday night show, including Dolph Ziggler as guest on Jericho's Highlight Reel\\|url\\=http://www.pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwesmackdownreport/article\\_64175\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=January 12, 2013}} At [Survivor Series](/wiki/Survivor_Series_%282012%29 \"Survivor Series (2012)\"), Primo took part in a [10–man elimination tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_tag_team_match_types%23Elimination_tag_team_matches \"Professional wrestling tag team match types#Elimination tag team matches\"), but was eliminated by [Rey Mysterio](/wiki/Rey_Mysterio \"Rey Mysterio\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Caldwell's WWE Survivor Series PPV Report 11/18: Complete \"virtual time\" coverage of live PPV – Punk\\-Cena\\-Ryback\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wweppvs/article\\_66714\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=November 19, 2012}} Primo and Epico could not find any wins after August 2012, and by the first ‘’SmackDown’' of 2013, Primo was on a 20 match losing streak, and Epico was at 17\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Parks\\|first\\=Greg\\|title\\=Parks' WWE Smackdown Report 1/4: Complete coverage of Friday night show, including Sheamus \\& Orton vs. Big Show \\& Cesaro (updated w/Box Score)\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwesmackdownreport/article\\_67666\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2013}} On the January 9, 2013 episode of ‘’NXT’', Primo and Epico broke their losing streaks with a win over [Bo Dallas](/wiki/Bo_Dallas \"Bo Dallas\") and [Michael McGillicutty](/wiki/Curtis_Axel \"Curtis Axel\").{{cite web\\|last\\=James\\|first\\=Justin\\|title\\=James's WWE NXT Report 1/9: Big E. captures NXT Title, Shield involved, PAC debut promo, Overall Reax\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwenxtreport/article\\_67768\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2013}} However, Dallas and McGillicutty gained revenge by defeating Primo and Epico in the first round of the [NXT Tag Team Championship tournament](/wiki/NXT_Tag_Team_Championship%23Inaugural_tournament \"NXT Tag Team Championship#Inaugural tournament\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwenxtreport/article\\_68301\\.shtml\\|title\\=James's WWE NXT Results 1/30: Tournament continues, Bo Dallas in main event, returns of Bateman, A\\-Ry \\& Mason Ryan\\|date\\=January 31, 2013\\|last\\=James\\|first\\=Justin\\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2013\\|publisher\\=Pro Wrestling Torch}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|In mid–2013, Primo and Epico changed their [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Gimmick (professional wrestling)\") to Los Matadores](/wiki/File:Los_Matadores_%26_El_Torito.jpg \"Los Matadores & El Torito.jpg\")\nOn the August 19, 2013 episode of Raw, a vignette was aired introducing the debut of ‘’'Los Matadores’'’,Jaso, Brian (September 30, 2013\\) [Raw Results\\- Orton and Bryan have a Final Showdown](https://web.archive.org/web/20131029203846/http://www.gerweck.net/2013/09/30/ongoing-live-raw-results-093013/). gerweck.net. and on the September 30 episode of ‘’Raw’', Primo and Epico debuted new characters, as Diego and Fernando of Los Matadores, a [face](/wiki/Face_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Face (professional wrestling)\") team of two masked Spanish [bullfighters](/wiki/Torero \"Torero\") with [El Torito](/wiki/Mascarita_Dorada \"Mascarita Dorada\") as mascot as they defeated 3MB ([Heath Slater](/wiki/Heath_Slater \"Heath Slater\"), [Drew McIntyre](/wiki/Drew_McIntyre \"Drew McIntyre\") and [Jinder Mahal](/wiki/Jinder_Mahal \"Jinder Mahal\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Caldwell's WWE Raw Results 8/19 (Hour 3\\): Orton's Coronation in Main Event segment, Punk responds to Heyman\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wwerawreport/article\\_72816\\.shtml\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch\\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2013}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Johnson\\|first\\=Mike\\|title\\=Los Matadores Are....\\|url\\=http://www.pwinsider.com/article/79729/los\\-matadores\\-are.html?p\\=1\\|work\\=PWInsider\\|access\\-date\\=September 30, 2013}} It was the start of a winning streak that featured nine wins over 3MB, (with El Torito wrestling in some matches), and also over The Real Americans ([Antonio Cesaro](/wiki/Cesaro_%28wrestler%29 \"Cesaro (wrestler)\") and [Jack Swagger](/wiki/Jack_Swagger \"Jack Swagger\")) at [Hell in a Cell](/wiki/Hell_in_a_Cell_%282013%29 \"Hell in a Cell (2013)\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Diego in 2014\\|url\\=http://profightdb.com/wrestlers/diego\\-3240\\.html?year\\=2014\\|work\\=The Internet Wrestling Database\\|access\\-date\\=11 January 2014}} Los Matadores’ winning streak was snapped on the January 24, 2014 episode of ‘’SmackDown’', courtesy of RybAxel ([Ryback](/wiki/Ryback \"Ryback\") and Curtis Axel). On the [WrestleMania XXX](/wiki/WrestleMania_XXX \"WrestleMania XXX\") pre\\-show, Los Matadores received a WWE Tag Team Championship shot against The Usos, RybAxel and The Real Americans, in a Fatal Four\\-Way tag team elimination match, but lost after eliminated by The Real Americans. At [Battleground](/wiki/Battleground_%282014%29 \"Battleground (2014)\"), Diego competed in a battle royal for the vacant [Intercontinental Championship](/wiki/WWE_Intercontinental_Championship \"WWE Intercontinental Championship\"), but was eliminated by [Ryback](/wiki/Ryback \"Ryback\"). On March 29, 2015, at the [WrestleMania 31](/wiki/WrestleMania_31 \"WrestleMania 31\") pre\\-show, Los Matadores were in a Fatal 4\\-way match for the WWE Tag Team Championship, but failed to win the titles. Diego participated in the [André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_the_Giant_Memorial_Battle_Royal \"André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal\") but was eliminated by [Kane](/wiki/Kane_%28wrestler%29 \"Kane (wrestler)\"). After months of chasing the WWE Tag Team Championship, Los Matadores fell out and seemingly broke up, as they no longer appeared on TV.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|Primo (right) and Epico in September 2016](/wiki/File:The_Shining_Stars_in_September_2016.jpg \"The Shining Stars in September 2016.jpg\")\nFrom April 4 to May 9, 2016, several videos aired on ‘’Raw’' promoted the return of Primo and Epico, who revived their Puerto Rican gimmick{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.f4wonline.com/wwe\\-news/wwe\\-raw\\-live\\-results\\-post\\-wrestlemania\\-roman\\-reigns\\-champ\\-once\\-again\\-2104 \\|title\\={{!}} WON/F4W \\- WWE news, Pro Wrestling News, WWE Results, UFC News, UFC results \\|website\\=www.f4wonline.com \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426001805/http://www.f4wonline.com/wwe\\-news/wwe\\-raw\\-live\\-results\\-post\\-wrestlemania\\-roman\\-reigns\\-champ\\-once\\-again\\-2104 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-26}} {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=dTb2rwFkBy4 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/dTb2rwFkBy4 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title \\= Primo \\& Epico explore the rich history of Puerto Rico: Raw, April 18, 2016\\|website \\= \\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} under the new name ‘’'The Shining Stars’'’.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=YHQxwP078O4 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/YHQxwP078O4 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|publisher\\=WWE\\|title\\=The Shining Stars arrive next week: Raw, May 9, 2016\\|date\\=2016\\-05\\-09\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-10}}{{cbignore}} On the May 16 episode of ‘’Raw’', The Shining Stars debuted by defeating a local tag team Scott Jackson and Brian Kennedy in a squash match. They then began showing tendencies of [con men](/wiki/Confidence_trick \"Confidence trick\"), trying to persuade various superstars to purchase [timeshares](/wiki/Timeshare \"Timeshare\") to their Puerto Rican resort. This led to a feud with The Golden Truth ([Goldust](/wiki/Goldust \"Goldust\") and R\\-Truth){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2016\\-10\\-24\\#full\\-detail\\-40013562\\&toURL\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2016\\-10\\-24\\#full\\-detail\\-40013562/\\|title\\=Raw results, Oct. 24, 2016: Kevin Owens tears down The Architect before WWE Hell in a Cell}} On the November 7 episode of ‘’Raw’', after R\\-Truth sold his team's [Survivor Series](/wiki/Survivor_Series_%282016%29 \"Survivor Series (2016)\") spot for a stay at a [timeshare](/wiki/Timeshare \"Timeshare\") to The Shining Stars, both teams competed to qualify for the [10–on–10 Survivor Series Tag Team Elimination match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_tag_team_match_types%23Elimination_tag_team_matches \"Professional wrestling tag team match types#Elimination tag team matches\"), which Primo and Epico won.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2016\\-11\\-07/article/the\\-shining\\-stars\\-def\\-the\\-golden\\-truth\\-to\\-qualify\\-for\\-the\\-5\\-on\\-5\\|title\\=Could The Golden Truth save their Survivor Series spot?}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prowrestling.com/the\\-golden\\-truth\\-vs\\-the\\-shining\\-stars\\-raw\\-nov\\-7\\-2016/\\|title\\=The Golden Truth vs. The Shining Stars: Raw, Nov. 7, 2016 \\- ProWrestling.com\\|first\\=William\\|last\\=Baker\\|date\\=8 November 2016}} At the event, Team Raw defeated Team SmackDown. At [WrestleMania 33](/wiki/WrestleMania_33 \"WrestleMania 33\"), Primo participated in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal but was eliminated by [Braun Strowman](/wiki/Braun_Strowman \"Braun Strowman\").",
"On April 11, 2017, they were traded to the SmackDown brand as part of the [2017 Superstar Shake\\-up](/wiki/2017_WWE_Superstar_Shake-up \"2017 WWE Superstar Shake-up\") when they attacked [American Alpha](/wiki/American_Alpha \"American Alpha\") ([Chad Gable](/wiki/Chad_Gable \"Chad Gable\") and [Jason Jordan](/wiki/Jason_Jordan \"Jason Jordan\")). The following week on *SmackDown Live*, the team were officially renamed **The Colóns**, after defeating American Alpha. In June, Colón suffered a knee injury. After a long hiatus, Colón returned on the April 3, 2018 episode of *SmackDown Live*, teaming with [Baron Corbin](/wiki/Baron_Corbin \"Baron Corbin\"), [Dolph Ziggler](/wiki/Dolph_Ziggler \"Dolph Ziggler\") and [Mojo Rawley](/wiki/Mojo_Rawley \"Mojo Rawley\") in a winning effort against Breezango ([Tyler Breeze](/wiki/Tyler_Breeze \"Tyler Breeze\") and [Fandango](/wiki/Fandango_%28wrestler%29 \"Fandango (wrestler)\")), [Tye Dillinger](/wiki/Tye_Dillinger \"Tye Dillinger\") and [Zack Ryder](/wiki/Zack_Ryder \"Zack Ryder\"). At [WrestleMania 34](/wiki/WrestleMania_34 \"WrestleMania 34\"), Colón participated in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, which he failed to win. Following this, the team rarely appeared on TV or at live events, virtually disappearing.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://theovertimer.com/are\\-primo\\-epico\\-colon\\-finished\\-with\\-wwe/\\|title \\= Are Primo \\& Epico Colon Finished with WWE?\\|date \\= November 8, 2019}} On December 10, 2019, Colón was suspended for 30 days, for violating of WWE's Wellness Policy.{{cite web\\|title\\=Robert Roode and Primo Colon suspended\\|url\\=https://www.wwe.com/article/robert\\-roode\\-and\\-primo\\-colon\\-suspended\\|website\\=WWE.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2019}} Primo claimed that he didn't fail the test and was suspended due to missing the test, as he was in Puerto Rico at the time and stated that he plans to appeal the decision.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://411mania.com/wrestling/primo\\-colons\\-explanation\\-of\\-failed\\-wellness\\-test\\-reportedly\\-not\\-accurate/\\|title \\= 411Mania}} On April 15, 2020, Primo was released from his WWE contract due to the budget cuts stemming from the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), ending his 13\\-year tenure with the company.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wwe.com/article/wwe\\-talent\\-releases\\-drake\\-maverick\\-curt\\-hawkins\\-karl\\-anderson\\|title\\=Rusev, Kurt Angle and other Superstars released\\|work\\=WWE\\|date\\=April 15, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=April 16, 2020}}",
"### Return to WWC (2019–present)",
"While still part of WWE's roster (yet inactive), The Colóns returned to WWC, working in both administrative roles and as in\\-ring talent in 2019\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://superluchas.com/epico\\-yo\\-voy\\-a\\-seguir\\-en\\-wwe\\-pero\\-es\\-tiempo\\-de\\-regresar\\-a\\-casa/\\|title \\= Epico: \"Yo voy a seguir en WWE pero es tiempo de regresar a casa\" \\| Superluchas\\|date \\= May 20, 2019}} By the summer, Epico was harassed by a wrestler sporting his former mantle of La Pesadilla, but this did not prevent him from earning his first reign as Universal Heavyweight Champion.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://superluchas.com/gilbert\\-orlando\\-colon\\-quieres\\-guerra\\-pues\\-guerra\\-vas\\-a\\-tener/\\|title\\=Gilbert: \"Orlando Colón quieres GUERRA pues GUERRA vas a tener\" \\| Superluchas\\|date\\=May 20, 2019}} Afterwards, a storyline began where both Primo and Carlito began pursuing the title.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://superluchas.com/ray\\-gonzalez\\-orlando\\-colon\\-tu\\-oponente\\-para\\-septiembre\\-negro\\-es\\-eddie\\-primo\\-colon/\\|title\\=Ray Gonzalez: \"Orlando Colón tu oponente para Septiembre Negro es Eddie Primo Colón\" \\| Superluchas\\|date\\=August 19, 2019}} In the first intrafamiliar match, Colón failed to capture the title at Septiembre Negro. At Noche de Campeones, all three cousins wrestled each other for the first time in their careers. Epico retained, but Colón turned on the family and rebranded himself Eddie \"La Maravilla\" Colón, forming a faction known as The Dynasty along [Gilbert](/wiki/Gilbert_%28wrestler%29 \"Gilbert (wrestler)\") and [Peter John Ramos](/wiki/Peter_John_Ramos \"Peter John Ramos\"). The three then began a campaign to dethrone the champion. In the process, Colón was faced with the new allies of his cousin, losing to a returning Apollo (part of the \"Dream Team\", along Ricky Banderas) when the rest of The Dynasty intervened.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://impactoestelar.com/wwc\\-superestrellas\\-de\\-la\\-lucha\\-libre\\-02\\-01\\-20\\-supongo\\-que\\-es\\-algo/\\|title \\= WWC Superestrellas de la Lucha Libre 02/01/20 \\| Supongo Que Es Algo \\~ Impacto Estelar\\|date \\= February 2020\\|access\\-date \\= February 3, 2020\\|archive\\-date \\= February 4, 2020\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200204095140/http://impactoestelar.com/wwc\\-superestrellas\\-de\\-la\\-lucha\\-libre\\-02\\-01\\-20\\-supongo\\-que\\-es\\-algo/\\|url\\-status \\= dead}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early career
Kelly attended [Hilton Head High School](/wiki/Hilton_Head_High_School "Hilton Head High School") in [Hilton Head, South Carolina](/wiki/Hilton_Head%2C_South_Carolina "Hilton Head, South Carolina"), and [Walters State Community College](/wiki/Walters_State_Community_College "Walters State Community College") in [Morristown, Tennessee](/wiki/Morristown%2C_Tennessee "Morristown, Tennessee").
### Pittsburgh Pirates
The [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates "Pittsburgh Pirates") selected Kelly in the 26th round of the [2006 Major League Baseball Draft](/wiki/2006_Major_League_Baseball_Draft "2006 Major League Baseball Draft").
### Texas Rangers
On December 23, 2010, Kelly was traded to the [Oakland Athletics](/wiki/Oakland_Athletics "Oakland Athletics") for in exchange for [Corey Wimberly](/wiki/Corey_Wimberly "Corey Wimberly").{{cite news\|title\=Pirates acquire Corey Wimberly from Oakland in exchange for Minor Leaguer Ryan Kelly\|url\=http://pittsburgh.pirates.mlb.com/news/press\_releases/press\_release.jsp?ymd\=20101223\&content\_id\=16365332\&vkey\=pr\_pit\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=pit\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705185404/http://pittsburgh.pirates.mlb.com/news/press\_releases/press\_release.jsp?ymd\=20101223\&content\_id\=16365332\&vkey\=pr\_pit\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=pit\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 5, 2015\|access\-date\=March 5, 2016\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=December 23, 2010}} On January 11, 2011, the Athletics traded him to the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)") in exchange for [Guillermo Moscoso](/wiki/Guillermo_Moscoso "Guillermo Moscoso").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.islandpacket.com/2011/01/11/1506196/latest\-trade\-makes\-kelly\-optimistic.html\|title\=Latest trade makes Kelly optimistic: Former HHH baseball standout now member of Rangers organization\|first\=San\|last\=McDowell\|work\=\[\[The Island Packet]]\|date\=January 11, 2011\|access\-date\=June 28, 2015}} Kelly spent the year with the High–A [Myrtle Beach Pelicans](/wiki/Myrtle_Beach_Pelicans "Myrtle Beach Pelicans"), making 40 appearances and posting a 3\.95 ERA with 64 strikeouts in 82\.0 innings of work.{{Cite web\|title\=Rangers Trade RHP Kelly for Padres Catcher Luis Martinez\|url\=https://www.nbcdfw.com/news/sports/rangers\-trade\-rhp\-kelly\-for\-padres\-catcher\-luis\-martinez/1909758/?amp\=1\|access\-date\=July 29, 2023\|website\=nbcdfw.com\|language\=en}}
### San Diego Padres
On December 21, 2011, the Rangers traded Kelly to the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres "San Diego Padres") for [Luis Martinez](/wiki/Luis_Martinez_%28catcher%29 "Luis Martinez (catcher)").{{cite press release\|url\=http://m.padres.mlb.com/news/article/26219322/padres\-acquire\-rhp\-ryan\-kelly\-from\-texas\-rangers\-in\-exchange\-for\-c\-luis\-martinez\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403024929/http://m.padres.mlb.com/news/article/26219322/padres\-acquire\-rhp\-ryan\-kelly\-from\-texas\-rangers\-in\-exchange\-for\-c\-luis\-martinez\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=April 3, 2015\|title\=Padres acquire RHP Ryan Kelly from Texas Rangers in exchange for C Luis Martinez.\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=December 21, 2011\|access\-date\=June 28, 2015}} For the next two seasons, Kelly pitched in relief with the Texas League Champion Double–A [San Antonio Missions](/wiki/San_Antonio_Missions "San Antonio Missions") and Triple–A [Tucson Padres](/wiki/Tucson_Padres "Tucson Padres").
### Atlanta Braves
Kelly signed as a free agent with the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves "Atlanta Braves") in November 2013\.{{cite news\|last1\=Eddy\|first1\=Matt\|title\=Minor League Transactions: Nov. 22–28\|url\=http://web1\.baseballamerica.com/minors/minor\-league\-transactions\-nov\-22\-28/\|access\-date\=June 29, 2015\|work\=Baseball America\|date\=December 3, 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630225919/http://web1\.baseballamerica.com/minors/minor\-league\-transactions\-nov\-22\-28/\|archive\-date\=June 30, 2015\|df\=mdy\-all}} He was promoted to the major leagues on June 28, 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ajc.com/news/sports/baseball/braves\-promote\-pitcher\-ryan\-kelly\-from\-gwinnett/nmnM7/\|title\=Braves promote pitcher Ryan Kelly from Gwinnett\|work\=\[\[Atlanta Journal\-Constitution]]\|date\=June 28, 2015\|access\-date\=June 28, 2015}}{{cite news\|last1\=McGonigal\|first1\=John\|title\=Braves call up RP Kelly for first taste of bigs\|url\=http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/133378284/braves\-call\-up\-reliever\-ryan\-kelly\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701010327/http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/133378284/braves\-call\-up\-reliever\-ryan\-kelly\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 1, 2015\|access\-date\=June 29, 2015\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=June 28, 2015}} He made his major league debut on June 30 against the [Washington Nationals](/wiki/Washington_Nationals "Washington Nationals"), pitching one inning, in which he gave up one run on two hits, while recording a strikeout and a walk.{{cite news\|title\=Hilton Head's Kelly makes major league debut for Braves\|url\=http://www.islandpacket.com/sports/high\-school/article33694266\.html\|access\-date\=March 5, 2016\|work\=The Island Packet\|date\=June 30, 2015}} He was released on March 5, 2016\.{{cite news\|last1\=Bowman\|first1\=Mark\|title\=Braves release comeback candidate Carpenter\|url\=http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/166295488/reliever\-david\-carpenter\-released\-by\-braves\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306095854/http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/166295488/reliever\-david\-carpenter\-released\-by\-braves\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=March 6, 2016\|access\-date\=March 5, 2016\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=March 5, 2016}}
### Uni\-President 7\-Eleven Lions
After his release from the Braves, Kelly signed with the [Uni\-President 7\-Eleven Lions](/wiki/Uni-President_7-Eleven_Lions "Uni-President 7-Eleven Lions") of the [Chinese Professional Baseball League](/wiki/Chinese_Professional_Baseball_League "Chinese Professional Baseball League").{{cn\|date\=December 2021}} In 15 appearances for the Lions, he compiled a 2–2 record and 4\.19 ERA with 20 strikeouts and 3 saves over {{fraction\|19\|1\|3}} innings pitched. Kelly was released by the team on June 15, 2016\.{{Cite web\|title\=Lions signed Dustin Crenshaw, Ryan Kelly released\|url\=http://cpblstats.com/lions\-signed\-dustin\-crenshaw\-ryan\-kelly\-released\-foreign\-players\-update\-15june2016\-vol12/\|access\-date\=September 16, 2024\|website\=cpblstats.com\|language\=en}}
### Vaqueros Laguna
On July 15, 2016, Kelly signed with the [Vaqueros Laguna](/wiki/Vaqueros_Laguna "Vaqueros Laguna") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"). In 14 games for Laguna, he recorded a 4\.38 ERA with 10 strikeouts across {{fraction\|12\|1\|3}} innings pitched. Kelly was released by the Vaqueros on August 11\.{{Cite web\|title\=Ryan Kelly Player Card\|url\=https://www.baseballprospectus.com/player/57418/ryan\-kelly/\|access\-date\=September 16, 2024\|website\=baseballprospectus.com\|language\=en}}
### Somerset Patriots
On April 6, 2017, Kelly signed with the [Somerset Patriots](/wiki/Somerset_Patriots "Somerset Patriots") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball "Atlantic League of Professional Baseball").{{Cite web\|title\=Patriots Ink Major League Right\-Handed Pitcher Ryan Kelly\|url\=https://ism3\.infinityprosports.com/ismdata/2015060304/std\-sitebuilder/sites/201910/www/en/news/index.html?article\_id\=755\|access\-date\=September 16, 2024\|website\=ism3\.infinityprosports.com\|language\=en}} In 10 outings for Somerset, Kelly compiled a 2\.00 ERA with 16 strikeouts and 3 [saves](/wiki/Save_%28baseball%29 "Save (baseball)") over 9 innings of work.
### Seattle Mariners
On May 17, 2017, Kelly signed a minor league contract with the [Seattle Mariners](/wiki/Seattle_Mariners "Seattle Mariners"). He pitched in relief for the Triple–A [Tacoma Rainiers](/wiki/Tacoma_Rainiers "Tacoma Rainiers") \& Double–A [Arkansas Travelers](/wiki/Arkansas_Travelers "Arkansas Travelers"), finishing the season with 2\.97 ERA, 32 strikeouts in {{fraction\|30\|1\|3}} innings, and an .86 WHIP with 6 saves.{{Cite web\|url\=http://alpb.bbstats.pointstreak.com/transactions.html?leagueid\=174\|title\=404 Not Found}} He elected free agency following the season on November 6\.{{Cite web\|title\=Minor League Free Agents 2017\|url\=https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/minor\-league\-free\-agents\-2017/?amphtml\|access\-date\=April 28, 2024\|website\=baseballamerica.com\|language\=en}}
Kelly continued putting up good numbers in 2017 when he signed on for the off\-season first half with Cardenales de Lara in Liga Venezuela Beisbol Professional. He finished the half 1\-1, 1\.71 ERA, 21 IP, .76 WHIP and 9 saves. Kelly again pitched for Cardenales de Lara in 2018 winter season and on November 20, 2018, converted his 19th consecutive save, a club record.{{Cite news\|url\=https://twitter.com/CardenalesDice/status/1066754866964508672\|title\=Cardenales de Lara on Twitter\|work\=Twitter\|access\-date\=2018\-11\-28\|language\=en}}
### Somerset Patriots (second stint)
On March 28, 2018, Kelly signed with the [Somerset Patriots](/wiki/Somerset_Patriots "Somerset Patriots") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball "Atlantic League of Professional Baseball").{{Cite web\|title\=Somerset Patriots Re\-Sign MLB RHP Ryan Kelly\|url\=https://ism3\.infinityprosports.com/ismdata/2005041947/std\-sitebuilder/sites/201601/www/en/news/index.html?article\_id\=3202\|access\-date\=September 16, 2024\|website\=ism3\.infinityprosports.com\|language\=en}} On July 14, Kelly earned his 100th professional career save with three strikeouts in the ninth inning to preserve the 3–1 Patriots victory. In 46 appearances out of the [bullpen](/wiki/Bullpen "Bullpen") for Somerset, he accumulated a 3\.16 ERA with 57 strikeouts and 23 saves across {{fraction\|42\|2\|3}} innings pitched. Kelly became a free agent following the 2018 season.
### Later career
On April 3, 2019, Kelly signed with the [Toros de Tijuana](/wiki/Toros_de_Tijuana "Toros de Tijuana") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"). He was traded to the Pericos de Puebla on May 14\. On May 15, Kelly signed with the [Pericos de Puebla](/wiki/Pericos_de_Puebla "Pericos de Puebla") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"). He was released on June 13\. On June 22, Kelly signed with the [High Point Rockers](/wiki/High_Point_Rockers "High Point Rockers") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball "Atlantic League of Professional Baseball"). He finished the regular season with 13 saves with 24 strikeouts in 24 innings pitched. In this, their inaugural season, the Rockers made the 2019 ALPB playoffs via wild card. He became a free agent following the season.{{cn\|date\=July 2021}}
In the off\-season 2019, Kelly signed with The Tomateros de Culiacán in the Mexican Pacific League based in Culiacán, Sinaloa. The Tomateros won the 2019\-20 Mexican Pacific League title and went on to the Caribbean World Series.{{cn\|date\=July 2021}} On November 22, 2019, Kelly signed with the [Acereros de Monclova](/wiki/Acereros_de_Monclova "Acereros de Monclova") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"). Kelly did not play in a game in 2020 due to the cancellation of the Mexican League season because of the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2020/07/mexican\-league\-cancels\-2020\-season.html\|title\=Mexican League Cancels 2020 Season}} He later became a free agent.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early career",
"Kelly attended [Hilton Head High School](/wiki/Hilton_Head_High_School \"Hilton Head High School\") in [Hilton Head, South Carolina](/wiki/Hilton_Head%2C_South_Carolina \"Hilton Head, South Carolina\"), and [Walters State Community College](/wiki/Walters_State_Community_College \"Walters State Community College\") in [Morristown, Tennessee](/wiki/Morristown%2C_Tennessee \"Morristown, Tennessee\").",
"### Pittsburgh Pirates",
"The [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates \"Pittsburgh Pirates\") selected Kelly in the 26th round of the [2006 Major League Baseball Draft](/wiki/2006_Major_League_Baseball_Draft \"2006 Major League Baseball Draft\").",
"### Texas Rangers",
"On December 23, 2010, Kelly was traded to the [Oakland Athletics](/wiki/Oakland_Athletics \"Oakland Athletics\") for in exchange for [Corey Wimberly](/wiki/Corey_Wimberly \"Corey Wimberly\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Pirates acquire Corey Wimberly from Oakland in exchange for Minor Leaguer Ryan Kelly\\|url\\=http://pittsburgh.pirates.mlb.com/news/press\\_releases/press\\_release.jsp?ymd\\=20101223\\&content\\_id\\=16365332\\&vkey\\=pr\\_pit\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=pit\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705185404/http://pittsburgh.pirates.mlb.com/news/press\\_releases/press\\_release.jsp?ymd\\=20101223\\&content\\_id\\=16365332\\&vkey\\=pr\\_pit\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=pit\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 5, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=March 5, 2016\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=December 23, 2010}} On January 11, 2011, the Athletics traded him to the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\") in exchange for [Guillermo Moscoso](/wiki/Guillermo_Moscoso \"Guillermo Moscoso\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.islandpacket.com/2011/01/11/1506196/latest\\-trade\\-makes\\-kelly\\-optimistic.html\\|title\\=Latest trade makes Kelly optimistic: Former HHH baseball standout now member of Rangers organization\\|first\\=San\\|last\\=McDowell\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Island Packet]]\\|date\\=January 11, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=June 28, 2015}} Kelly spent the year with the High–A [Myrtle Beach Pelicans](/wiki/Myrtle_Beach_Pelicans \"Myrtle Beach Pelicans\"), making 40 appearances and posting a 3\\.95 ERA with 64 strikeouts in 82\\.0 innings of work.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Rangers Trade RHP Kelly for Padres Catcher Luis Martinez\\|url\\=https://www.nbcdfw.com/news/sports/rangers\\-trade\\-rhp\\-kelly\\-for\\-padres\\-catcher\\-luis\\-martinez/1909758/?amp\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=July 29, 2023\\|website\\=nbcdfw.com\\|language\\=en}}",
"### San Diego Padres",
"On December 21, 2011, the Rangers traded Kelly to the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres \"San Diego Padres\") for [Luis Martinez](/wiki/Luis_Martinez_%28catcher%29 \"Luis Martinez (catcher)\").{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://m.padres.mlb.com/news/article/26219322/padres\\-acquire\\-rhp\\-ryan\\-kelly\\-from\\-texas\\-rangers\\-in\\-exchange\\-for\\-c\\-luis\\-martinez\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403024929/http://m.padres.mlb.com/news/article/26219322/padres\\-acquire\\-rhp\\-ryan\\-kelly\\-from\\-texas\\-rangers\\-in\\-exchange\\-for\\-c\\-luis\\-martinez\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=April 3, 2015\\|title\\=Padres acquire RHP Ryan Kelly from Texas Rangers in exchange for C Luis Martinez.\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=December 21, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=June 28, 2015}} For the next two seasons, Kelly pitched in relief with the Texas League Champion Double–A [San Antonio Missions](/wiki/San_Antonio_Missions \"San Antonio Missions\") and Triple–A [Tucson Padres](/wiki/Tucson_Padres \"Tucson Padres\").",
"### Atlanta Braves",
"Kelly signed as a free agent with the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves \"Atlanta Braves\") in November 2013\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Eddy\\|first1\\=Matt\\|title\\=Minor League Transactions: Nov. 22–28\\|url\\=http://web1\\.baseballamerica.com/minors/minor\\-league\\-transactions\\-nov\\-22\\-28/\\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2015\\|work\\=Baseball America\\|date\\=December 3, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630225919/http://web1\\.baseballamerica.com/minors/minor\\-league\\-transactions\\-nov\\-22\\-28/\\|archive\\-date\\=June 30, 2015\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}} He was promoted to the major leagues on June 28, 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ajc.com/news/sports/baseball/braves\\-promote\\-pitcher\\-ryan\\-kelly\\-from\\-gwinnett/nmnM7/\\|title\\=Braves promote pitcher Ryan Kelly from Gwinnett\\|work\\=\\[\\[Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution]]\\|date\\=June 28, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=June 28, 2015}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=McGonigal\\|first1\\=John\\|title\\=Braves call up RP Kelly for first taste of bigs\\|url\\=http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/133378284/braves\\-call\\-up\\-reliever\\-ryan\\-kelly\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701010327/http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/133378284/braves\\-call\\-up\\-reliever\\-ryan\\-kelly\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 1, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2015\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=June 28, 2015}} He made his major league debut on June 30 against the [Washington Nationals](/wiki/Washington_Nationals \"Washington Nationals\"), pitching one inning, in which he gave up one run on two hits, while recording a strikeout and a walk.{{cite news\\|title\\=Hilton Head's Kelly makes major league debut for Braves\\|url\\=http://www.islandpacket.com/sports/high\\-school/article33694266\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 5, 2016\\|work\\=The Island Packet\\|date\\=June 30, 2015}} He was released on March 5, 2016\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Bowman\\|first1\\=Mark\\|title\\=Braves release comeback candidate Carpenter\\|url\\=http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/166295488/reliever\\-david\\-carpenter\\-released\\-by\\-braves\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306095854/http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/166295488/reliever\\-david\\-carpenter\\-released\\-by\\-braves\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=March 6, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 5, 2016\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=March 5, 2016}}",
"### Uni\\-President 7\\-Eleven Lions",
"After his release from the Braves, Kelly signed with the [Uni\\-President 7\\-Eleven Lions](/wiki/Uni-President_7-Eleven_Lions \"Uni-President 7-Eleven Lions\") of the [Chinese Professional Baseball League](/wiki/Chinese_Professional_Baseball_League \"Chinese Professional Baseball League\").{{cn\\|date\\=December 2021}} In 15 appearances for the Lions, he compiled a 2–2 record and 4\\.19 ERA with 20 strikeouts and 3 saves over {{fraction\\|19\\|1\\|3}} innings pitched. Kelly was released by the team on June 15, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Lions signed Dustin Crenshaw, Ryan Kelly released\\|url\\=http://cpblstats.com/lions\\-signed\\-dustin\\-crenshaw\\-ryan\\-kelly\\-released\\-foreign\\-players\\-update\\-15june2016\\-vol12/\\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2024\\|website\\=cpblstats.com\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Vaqueros Laguna",
"On July 15, 2016, Kelly signed with the [Vaqueros Laguna](/wiki/Vaqueros_Laguna \"Vaqueros Laguna\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"). In 14 games for Laguna, he recorded a 4\\.38 ERA with 10 strikeouts across {{fraction\\|12\\|1\\|3}} innings pitched. Kelly was released by the Vaqueros on August 11\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Ryan Kelly Player Card\\|url\\=https://www.baseballprospectus.com/player/57418/ryan\\-kelly/\\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2024\\|website\\=baseballprospectus.com\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Somerset Patriots",
"On April 6, 2017, Kelly signed with the [Somerset Patriots](/wiki/Somerset_Patriots \"Somerset Patriots\") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball \"Atlantic League of Professional Baseball\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Patriots Ink Major League Right\\-Handed Pitcher Ryan Kelly\\|url\\=https://ism3\\.infinityprosports.com/ismdata/2015060304/std\\-sitebuilder/sites/201910/www/en/news/index.html?article\\_id\\=755\\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2024\\|website\\=ism3\\.infinityprosports.com\\|language\\=en}} In 10 outings for Somerset, Kelly compiled a 2\\.00 ERA with 16 strikeouts and 3 [saves](/wiki/Save_%28baseball%29 \"Save (baseball)\") over 9 innings of work.",
"### Seattle Mariners",
"On May 17, 2017, Kelly signed a minor league contract with the [Seattle Mariners](/wiki/Seattle_Mariners \"Seattle Mariners\"). He pitched in relief for the Triple–A [Tacoma Rainiers](/wiki/Tacoma_Rainiers \"Tacoma Rainiers\") \\& Double–A [Arkansas Travelers](/wiki/Arkansas_Travelers \"Arkansas Travelers\"), finishing the season with 2\\.97 ERA, 32 strikeouts in {{fraction\\|30\\|1\\|3}} innings, and an .86 WHIP with 6 saves.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://alpb.bbstats.pointstreak.com/transactions.html?leagueid\\=174\\|title\\=404 Not Found}} He elected free agency following the season on November 6\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Minor League Free Agents 2017\\|url\\=https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/minor\\-league\\-free\\-agents\\-2017/?amphtml\\|access\\-date\\=April 28, 2024\\|website\\=baseballamerica.com\\|language\\=en}}",
"Kelly continued putting up good numbers in 2017 when he signed on for the off\\-season first half with Cardenales de Lara in Liga Venezuela Beisbol Professional. He finished the half 1\\-1, 1\\.71 ERA, 21 IP, .76 WHIP and 9 saves. Kelly again pitched for Cardenales de Lara in 2018 winter season and on November 20, 2018, converted his 19th consecutive save, a club record.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/CardenalesDice/status/1066754866964508672\\|title\\=Cardenales de Lara on Twitter\\|work\\=Twitter\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-28\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Somerset Patriots (second stint)",
"On March 28, 2018, Kelly signed with the [Somerset Patriots](/wiki/Somerset_Patriots \"Somerset Patriots\") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball \"Atlantic League of Professional Baseball\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Somerset Patriots Re\\-Sign MLB RHP Ryan Kelly\\|url\\=https://ism3\\.infinityprosports.com/ismdata/2005041947/std\\-sitebuilder/sites/201601/www/en/news/index.html?article\\_id\\=3202\\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2024\\|website\\=ism3\\.infinityprosports.com\\|language\\=en}} On July 14, Kelly earned his 100th professional career save with three strikeouts in the ninth inning to preserve the 3–1 Patriots victory. In 46 appearances out of the [bullpen](/wiki/Bullpen \"Bullpen\") for Somerset, he accumulated a 3\\.16 ERA with 57 strikeouts and 23 saves across {{fraction\\|42\\|2\\|3}} innings pitched. Kelly became a free agent following the 2018 season.",
"### Later career",
"On April 3, 2019, Kelly signed with the [Toros de Tijuana](/wiki/Toros_de_Tijuana \"Toros de Tijuana\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"). He was traded to the Pericos de Puebla on May 14\\. On May 15, Kelly signed with the [Pericos de Puebla](/wiki/Pericos_de_Puebla \"Pericos de Puebla\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"). He was released on June 13\\. On June 22, Kelly signed with the [High Point Rockers](/wiki/High_Point_Rockers \"High Point Rockers\") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball \"Atlantic League of Professional Baseball\"). He finished the regular season with 13 saves with 24 strikeouts in 24 innings pitched. In this, their inaugural season, the Rockers made the 2019 ALPB playoffs via wild card. He became a free agent following the season.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2021}}",
"In the off\\-season 2019, Kelly signed with The Tomateros de Culiacán in the Mexican Pacific League based in Culiacán, Sinaloa. The Tomateros won the 2019\\-20 Mexican Pacific League title and went on to the Caribbean World Series.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2021}} On November 22, 2019, Kelly signed with the [Acereros de Monclova](/wiki/Acereros_de_Monclova \"Acereros de Monclova\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"). Kelly did not play in a game in 2020 due to the cancellation of the Mexican League season because of the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2020/07/mexican\\-league\\-cancels\\-2020\\-season.html\\|title\\=Mexican League Cancels 2020 Season}} He later became a free agent.",
""
] |
Advantages
----------
The boundary organization provides a strategic website for studying the process of transferring information and provides a system to combine knowledge from various communities for single research. The existence of boundary organizations can facilitate collaboration between scientists and politicians, and as a result, generate a large number of various social interactions and relationships between researchers and politicians. For a long period of time, boundary organizations have been regarded as an effective method of relating knowledge and practice, reflecting the forms of interdisciplinary and multi\-institutional cooperation in the field of scientific research. During the process of jointly producing knowledge, the concept of boundary organization also make contributions to stabilizing the boundary between political and scientific communities while helping these two communities maintain their own independence and authority. Researches show that work produced by a boundary organization shares a higher level of diversity and is easier to be accepted by a large number of professionals.
Besides, boundary organizations provide critical practical tools for research and public policy linkages; therefore, create the potential to strengthen the capability of using science to enhance human well\-being and enable international governments to make decisions on environmental problems. Moreover, boundary organization is an essential means to promote decision\-makers to absorb scientific information. The concept of boundary organization is significant because it states that the interplay of scientific and political communities is a dynamic and two\-way action instead of a simple one\-way knowledge transfer from the scientific world to the political world.
Miller best describes the need for boundary organization: to find institutions, networks, and cultural approaches to combine order and knowledge while managing to maintain their internal mechanism and build effective relationships between each other. Boundary organizations play three different roles: coordinating between scientific and political groups, existing between two different social worlds, bearing clear responsibility on two sides of the boundary. Efficient boundary organizations can mediate cultural differences between members, encourage them to understand each other, and give space for them to reflect on their own cultural and intellectual characteristics if needed.
According to O'Mahony and Bechky, social systems have both challengers and defenders. Through material cooperation and partnership, boundary organizations bridge different worlds and enable challengers and defenders to protect their competitive interests. Boundary organizations collaborate by recruiting participants based on their converging interests.{{Cite journal\|last1\=O'Mahony\|first1\=Siobhán\|last2\=Bechky\|first2\=Beth A.\|date\=1 September 2008\|title\=Boundary Organizations: Enabling Collaboration among Unexpected Allies\|journal\=Administrative Science Quarterly\|language\=en\|volume\=53\|issue\=3\|pages\=422–459\|doi\=10\.2189/asqu.53\.3\.422\|s2cid\=154854062 \|issn\=0001\-8392}} Boundary organizations can develop a mechanism which allows the [existence](/wiki/Existence "Existence") of different interests, adapts to the different interests of different political parties, and most significantly, strengthens the integration of interests. These boundary organizations have a more durable structure that encourages all communities to identify their own interests and later generate a common goal which all groups are willing to work for. These shared goals include enhancing [sustainability](/wiki/Sustainability "Sustainability"), strengthen all involved communities' problem\-solving capabilities, achieving social improvement.{{Cite journal\|last\=Gorman\|first\=Michael\|date\=2014\|title\=Boundary Organizations\|url\=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10\.1007/978\-3\-319\-04033\-2\_46\-1\.pdf\|journal\=Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence\|pages\=1–10\|access\-date\=14 May 2019\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-319\-04033\-2\_46\-1\|isbn\=978\-3\-319\-04033\-2}} For boundary organizations, the improvement of social situation can be considered as a sign of success after any of environmental, political, economic, or social events.
The tasks of boundary organizations are complicated but well\-organized. One strength of boundary organizations is that they encourage communication between Experts from different communities during the knowledge\-transfer and knowledge\-producing processes. The participants of boundary organizations can discuss issues, prioritize researches, plan the [rehabilitation](/wiki/Rehabilitation_%28penology%29 "Rehabilitation (penology)"), conduct [surveys](/wiki/Survey_%28human_research%29 "Survey (human research)"), and take parts in other programs at the same time. Because the work of boundary organizations needs the joint efforts of various communities and is beneficial for all participants, boundary organizations take a unique place in the society which is extremely hard and nearly impossible for other groups or organizations to replace. As a matter of fact, some researches have suggested that boundary organization structure shows the direction for many current organizations to transform and grow.
|
[
"Advantages\n----------",
"The boundary organization provides a strategic website for studying the process of transferring information and provides a system to combine knowledge from various communities for single research. The existence of boundary organizations can facilitate collaboration between scientists and politicians, and as a result, generate a large number of various social interactions and relationships between researchers and politicians. For a long period of time, boundary organizations have been regarded as an effective method of relating knowledge and practice, reflecting the forms of interdisciplinary and multi\\-institutional cooperation in the field of scientific research. During the process of jointly producing knowledge, the concept of boundary organization also make contributions to stabilizing the boundary between political and scientific communities while helping these two communities maintain their own independence and authority. Researches show that work produced by a boundary organization shares a higher level of diversity and is easier to be accepted by a large number of professionals.",
"Besides, boundary organizations provide critical practical tools for research and public policy linkages; therefore, create the potential to strengthen the capability of using science to enhance human well\\-being and enable international governments to make decisions on environmental problems. Moreover, boundary organization is an essential means to promote decision\\-makers to absorb scientific information. The concept of boundary organization is significant because it states that the interplay of scientific and political communities is a dynamic and two\\-way action instead of a simple one\\-way knowledge transfer from the scientific world to the political world.",
"Miller best describes the need for boundary organization: to find institutions, networks, and cultural approaches to combine order and knowledge while managing to maintain their internal mechanism and build effective relationships between each other. Boundary organizations play three different roles: coordinating between scientific and political groups, existing between two different social worlds, bearing clear responsibility on two sides of the boundary. Efficient boundary organizations can mediate cultural differences between members, encourage them to understand each other, and give space for them to reflect on their own cultural and intellectual characteristics if needed.",
"According to O'Mahony and Bechky, social systems have both challengers and defenders. Through material cooperation and partnership, boundary organizations bridge different worlds and enable challengers and defenders to protect their competitive interests. Boundary organizations collaborate by recruiting participants based on their converging interests.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=O'Mahony\\|first1\\=Siobhán\\|last2\\=Bechky\\|first2\\=Beth A.\\|date\\=1 September 2008\\|title\\=Boundary Organizations: Enabling Collaboration among Unexpected Allies\\|journal\\=Administrative Science Quarterly\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=53\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=422–459\\|doi\\=10\\.2189/asqu.53\\.3\\.422\\|s2cid\\=154854062 \\|issn\\=0001\\-8392}} Boundary organizations can develop a mechanism which allows the [existence](/wiki/Existence \"Existence\") of different interests, adapts to the different interests of different political parties, and most significantly, strengthens the integration of interests. These boundary organizations have a more durable structure that encourages all communities to identify their own interests and later generate a common goal which all groups are willing to work for. These shared goals include enhancing [sustainability](/wiki/Sustainability \"Sustainability\"), strengthen all involved communities' problem\\-solving capabilities, achieving social improvement.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Gorman\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=2014\\|title\\=Boundary Organizations\\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-319\\-04033\\-2\\_46\\-1\\.pdf\\|journal\\=Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence\\|pages\\=1–10\\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2019\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-319\\-04033\\-2\\_46\\-1\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-319\\-04033\\-2}} For boundary organizations, the improvement of social situation can be considered as a sign of success after any of environmental, political, economic, or social events.",
"The tasks of boundary organizations are complicated but well\\-organized. One strength of boundary organizations is that they encourage communication between Experts from different communities during the knowledge\\-transfer and knowledge\\-producing processes. The participants of boundary organizations can discuss issues, prioritize researches, plan the [rehabilitation](/wiki/Rehabilitation_%28penology%29 \"Rehabilitation (penology)\"), conduct [surveys](/wiki/Survey_%28human_research%29 \"Survey (human research)\"), and take parts in other programs at the same time. Because the work of boundary organizations needs the joint efforts of various communities and is beneficial for all participants, boundary organizations take a unique place in the society which is extremely hard and nearly impossible for other groups or organizations to replace. As a matter of fact, some researches have suggested that boundary organization structure shows the direction for many current organizations to transform and grow.",
""
] |
Weaknesses
----------
The problems of boundary organizations include the different interest of scientific and political communities, the divergences in the culture and knowledge transfer process, and the lack of productive cooperation between scientists and Politicians.
Since this theory was initially created on the basis of American politics, focusing on the characteristics of governments and the broader institutional environment which cannot be applied to the relationships between countries on the international level. With regards to international relations, science and politics are indistinguishable because they no longer operate in a highly polarized American political culture. The original boundary organization theory is static and cannot adapt to the rapid changes brought by the process of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization"). The definition of politics and science in America is clear; however, international boundary organizations do not operate among clearly defined institutions.
According to Miller, when it comes to the researches on the international environment, many unsteady assumptions can be found on the traditional boundary organization model. One flaw of the traditional model is its tendency to over\-unitized scientific and political communities, although the boundary organization theory identifies that these two communities have different life forms, it often eliminates the institutional differences between them. These differences require to be paid great attention to when it comes to international relations. Thus, researchers should pay more attention to the differences between various groups and try to understand the actions of specific boundary organizations. From the perspective of international relations, the deficiency of traditional boundary organization theory is that it puts forward an overly static scientific and political viewpoint. Real changes in global governance arrangements now clearly demonstrate the flexibility of science and politics at the international level. In terms of cultural and geopolitical differences, the definition and criteria of expertise are as controversial as the concept of appropriate political institutions governing the global public sector.
As a boundary organization, knowledge and practical actions between developed and developing countries face many challenges. Getting the best experts involved is crucial when trying to solve problems or combine expertise. However, one obstacle to this collaboration is that experts from one community may not be able to understand the theories and practices of another community. As a matter of fact, what is accepted in one area may actually make no sense at all to another group, and this can preclude any potential collaboration.
Moreover, while the term boundary organizations is widely used, it does not represent any clear structure of an organization or provides any direction about how to manage such organizations. Boundary organization is generally only used as a concept during the research of the cooperation of scientific and political communities.
|
[
"Weaknesses\n----------",
"The problems of boundary organizations include the different interest of scientific and political communities, the divergences in the culture and knowledge transfer process, and the lack of productive cooperation between scientists and Politicians.",
"Since this theory was initially created on the basis of American politics, focusing on the characteristics of governments and the broader institutional environment which cannot be applied to the relationships between countries on the international level. With regards to international relations, science and politics are indistinguishable because they no longer operate in a highly polarized American political culture. The original boundary organization theory is static and cannot adapt to the rapid changes brought by the process of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\"). The definition of politics and science in America is clear; however, international boundary organizations do not operate among clearly defined institutions.",
"According to Miller, when it comes to the researches on the international environment, many unsteady assumptions can be found on the traditional boundary organization model. One flaw of the traditional model is its tendency to over\\-unitized scientific and political communities, although the boundary organization theory identifies that these two communities have different life forms, it often eliminates the institutional differences between them. These differences require to be paid great attention to when it comes to international relations. Thus, researchers should pay more attention to the differences between various groups and try to understand the actions of specific boundary organizations. From the perspective of international relations, the deficiency of traditional boundary organization theory is that it puts forward an overly static scientific and political viewpoint. Real changes in global governance arrangements now clearly demonstrate the flexibility of science and politics at the international level. In terms of cultural and geopolitical differences, the definition and criteria of expertise are as controversial as the concept of appropriate political institutions governing the global public sector.",
"As a boundary organization, knowledge and practical actions between developed and developing countries face many challenges. Getting the best experts involved is crucial when trying to solve problems or combine expertise. However, one obstacle to this collaboration is that experts from one community may not be able to understand the theories and practices of another community. As a matter of fact, what is accepted in one area may actually make no sense at all to another group, and this can preclude any potential collaboration.",
"Moreover, while the term boundary organizations is widely used, it does not represent any clear structure of an organization or provides any direction about how to manage such organizations. Boundary organization is generally only used as a concept during the research of the cooperation of scientific and political communities.",
""
] |
History
-------
[Gregory of Tours](/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours "Gregory of Tours")'s {{lang\|la\|De Gloria Martyrum}}*De gloria martyrum* Book I, chapter 14, in [*Patrologiae Latinae Tomus LXXI*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2lIwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719) (Paris: J.P. Migne 1858\), p. 719\. relates how the church of Maurienne, belonging then to the Diocese of Turin, became a place of pilgrimage, after the holy woman Thigris or Thecla,Billiet (1861\), [*Mémoires... Maurienne*, pp. 290\-291; 293\-294](https://books.google.com/books?id=9qaRuCnqNzUC&pg=PA291), places the dramatic date of Thecla {{circa}} 545–550\. R.L. Poole, p. 4, places the insertion of Thecla into Gregory of Tours' narrative between 907 and 915\. a native of Valloires, had brought to it as sacred relic from the East a fingerThe cathedral of Troyes possessed another finger; another was held at Brienne\-le\-Château; the entire right hand was at Cîteaux until the French Revolution. Pierre\-Marie\-Jean\-Baptiste Gauthier, *La Légende de Saint Jean\-Baptiste,* {{in lang\|fr}} (Plancy: Société de St\-Victor, 1850\), pp. 177\-183\. Jacques Albin Simon Collin de Plancy, [*Grande vie des saints*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4sChaxwVFgQC&pg=PA663), {{in lang\|fr}}, Volume 16 (Paris: Louis Vivès 1878\), pp. 663\-665\. There were three heads of the Baptist in Italy, in Rome, Florence, and Reggio: S. I. Mahoney, *Six Years in the Monasteries of Italy, and Two Years in the Islands of the Mediterranean and in Asia Minor* (Boston: Jordan, Swift and Wiley, 1845\), p. 217\. There was another at Amiens: Charles Salmon, [*Histoire du Chef de Saint Jean Baptiste conservé à Amiens depuis 1206,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=VoDk-tHW1AkC&pg=PA1) {{in lang\|fr}}, Amiens: Langlois, 1876\. of [John the Baptist](/wiki/John_the_Baptist "John the Baptist"),Duchesne, p. 240\. the same figure which touched Jesus Christ during his baptism.Billiet \& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [p. 289](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA289): "...videlicet proprii manus digiti qui Christum baptizando tetigerunt." The Latin text appears to state that Maurienne possessed more than one finger. The pope owned another. Jacob of Voragine, who is using the work of Gregory, says that the finger of John the Baptist suddenly appeared on the altar of the church at Maurienne, after a Gallic matron earnestly prayed God to give her a relic of the Baptist.Jacobus de Voragine, [*Legenda aurea*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9X3o22jqZl0C&pg=PA574) (the Golden Legend, ed. Th. Graesse, 1890\), ch. 125\. 2: "Apud Mariennam urbem Galliae matrona quaedam Johanni baptistae valde devota Deum instantius exorabat, ut sibi de reliquiis Johannis aliquando donaretur aliquid. Cum autem orando nihil proficere se videret, sumta de Deo fiducia juramento se adstrinxit, quod hactenus non comederet, donec, quod petebat, acciperet. Cum autem diebus aliquibus jejunasset, pollicem super altare miri candoris vidit et Dei donum laeta suscepit...." Bishop Étienne de Morel (1483–1499\) procured for the cathedral a finger of the right hand of Saint Peter.Besson, p. 302\. [Guntram](/wiki/Guntram "Guntram"), King of Burgundy, took from the Lombards in 574 the valleys of [Maurienne](/wiki/Maurienne "Maurienne") and [Suse](/wiki/Susa_Valley "Susa Valley"), and in 576 founded near the shrine a bishopric, detached from the then [Diocese of Turin](/wiki/Diocese_of_Turin "Diocese of Turin") (in [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont "Piedmont"), northern Italy), as suffragan of the [Archdiocese of Vienne](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Vienne "Archdiocese of Vienne"), also comprising the [Briançonnais](/wiki/Brian%C3%A7on "Briançon").Duchesne, [pp. 239\-240\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=G2gUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA239)
Its first bishop was Felmasius, known from a document on the Baptist relic's first miracle.Jean\-Barthélemy Hauréau, *Gallia christiana*, vol. XVI, Paris 1865, coll. 611\-654 In 599, [Gregory the Great](/wiki/Gregory_the_Great "Gregory the Great") failed to make the Merovingian Queen [Brunehaut](/wiki/Brunhilda_of_Austrasia "Brunhilda of Austrasia") oblige the protests of the Bishop of Turin against this foundation.
[Leo III](/wiki/Pope_Leo_III "Pope Leo III") (795\-816\) made [Darantasia (Tarantaise, Loire)](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Tarentaise "Archdiocese of Tarentaise") a Metropolitan archbishopric with three suffragans, [Aosta](/wiki/Aosta "Aosta"), [Sitten](/wiki/Sion%2C_Switzerland "Sion, Switzerland"), and Maurienne, but maintained the Ancient [primatial status](/wiki/Primate_%28bishop%29 "Primate (bishop)") of [Vienne](/wiki/Vienne%2C_Is%C3%A8re "Vienne, Isère").
A letter written by [John VIII](/wiki/Pope_John_VIII "Pope John VIII") in 878 acknowledged the claim of Archbishop Teutrannus of Tarantaise that the Bishop of Maurienne was suffragan of [Tarentaise](/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Tarentaise "Ancient Diocese of Tarentaise"), but ordered the archbishop to settle his claim with the Archbishop of Vienne.J.P. Migne (ed.), *Patrologiae Series Latina* Tomus 126 (Paris 1855\), p. 781\-782; [*Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Epistolarum Tomus VII*](https://archive.org/details/monumentagerman07geseuoft/page/106/mode/2up) (Berlin: Weidmann 1928\), p. 107, no. 117: "... Innotescimus denique quia venerabilis frater et coepiscopus noster Bernarius, nostram nuper audiens praesentiam, reclamavit se super fratre Adalberlo suffraganeo tuo, de quo jam Romae proclamaverat et libellum suae reclamationis ostenderat. Unde tibi et Viennensi arcbiepiscopo epistolas direximus, ut amborum querimonias ventilantes, quae canonum sunt instituta dijudicaretis...." For four centuries this supremacy was the cause of conflicts between the archbishops of Tarentaise and the Metropolitans of Vienne, who continued to claim Maurienne as a suffragan see.
In 904 or 908, Pope Sergius III purportedly wrote to Archbishop Alexander of Vienne, according to Cardinal Billiet, confirming that the diocese of Maurienne was a suffragan of the archbishop of Vienne.Billiet (1861\), *Mémoires... Maurienne*, p. 328, quoting an unpublished document: "Utque largiter admodum Guntramnus ecclesiam maurianensem per concessum apostolicæ sedis cum omnibus pagis suis subjectam jure perenni sanctæ viennensi fecit ecclesiæ, ità unà cum ecclesia Secusina et ecclesiis de eadem valle ad eam pertinentibus cum omnibus pagis integram eam illi subjectam esse firmamus." The document, however, is one of the notorious "Vienne Forgeries."R.L. Poole (1916\), p. 5\. Wilhelm Grundlach, "Der Streit der Bisthümer Arles und Vienne um den Primatus Galliarum. (Zweiter Theil. )," {{in lang\|de}}, in: [*Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für Ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde*](https://books.google.com/books?id=uac%20AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1) 15 (Hannover: Hahn 1890\), 9\-102, esp. pp. 58, 71\-77\.; *Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Epistolarum Tomus III.* Merowingici et Karolini aevi, I (Berlin: Weidmann 1892\), pp. 100\-102, no. 23\.
In an apostolic brief of 26 April 1123, addressed to Bishop Amedeus, [Pope Callistus II](/wiki/Pope_Callistus_II "Pope Callistus II") affirmed that Maurienne was a suffragan of the metropolis of Vienne, as it had been when he himself was archbishop of Vienne (1088–1119\); he also ruled that the city of Susa belonged to the diocese of Maurienne.Billiet (1861\), *Mémoires...*, pp. 332\-333\. Billiet \& Albrieux (1861\) [*Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne: Documents recueillis*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA24), pp. 24\-26, no. 14\.
As its first see, a cathedral of [John the Baptist](/wiki/John_the_Baptist "John the Baptist") was built in the 6th century, destroyed by invading Saracens in 943 and rebuilt in the 11th century.Saturnin Truchet, *Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, {{in lang\|fr}}, pp. 25\-42\.
S. Jean\-de\-Maurienne was twice sacked by the Saracens, in 732 and 906\.Saturnin Truchet, *Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, {{in lang\|fr}}, p. 25\. After the Saracens had been driven out, the temporal sovereignty of the Bishop of Maurienne appears to have been very extensive. By the beginning of the 11th century, according to Cardinal Billiet, the bishop was temporal ruler of 19 parishes on the left bank of the River Arc, the parish of S. Jean at Valmeinier, and two or three on the right bank.Billiet (1861\), [*Mémoires... Maurienne*, p. 320\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9qaRuCnqNzUC&pg=PA320) But there is no proof that such sovereignty had been recognized since Gontran's time.
### Imperial and royal influence
At the death in 1032 of [Rudolph III of Burgundy](/wiki/Rudolph_III_of_Burgundy "Rudolph III of Burgundy"), the last ruler of the independent [Kingdom of Burgundy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy-Arles "Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles"), Bishop Thibaut was powerful enough to join a league against [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor "Holy Roman Emperor") [Conrad II of Franconia](/wiki/Conrad_II_of_Franconia "Conrad II of Franconia").Billiet (1861\), [*Mémoires... Maurienne*, p. 324\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9qaRuCnqNzUC&pg=PA324) In 1033 the city of Maurienne was destroyed by imperial troops.Besson, p. 285\. The bishopric lost part of its territory (the Susa valley) to the diocese of Turin, which was promised all.
In 1038, it is claimed, the Emperor Conrad suppressed the see of Maurienne altogether, giving over its title and possessions to the Bishops of Turin.Besson (1759\), pp. 344\-345, no. 6: "...sanctae Ecclesiae Taurinensi... donamus, Episcopatum scilicet Maurianensis civitatis, domos cum omnibus ædificiis suis; curtem videlicet... decimas quoque ipsius Episcopatûs, nec non Ecclesias eidem Episcopatui pertinentes, montes verò et valles, aquas, molendina, piscationes, foresta, sylvas, pascua; buscalia omnia in integrum, quidquid videtur esse de appenditiis supradictæ civitatis Moriennæ, donamus, concedimus atque delegamus jam dictæ Ecclesiæ S. Joannis\-Baptista Taurinensis sedis...." This imperial decree was never executed though, due probably to the death of Conrad on 4 June 1039\. At the death of Bishop Guido of Turin in 1044, it is stated, Bishop Thibaud was fully reinstated at Maurienne. The imperial diploma concerning the handing over of Maurienne to Turin, however, has been shown to be a forgery, and thus the entire story is called into question.H. Bresslau, *Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Diplomatum Regum et Imperatorum Germaniae* {{in lang\|la\|de}}, Tomus IV: [Conradi II Diplomata](https://books.google.com/books?id=x-sJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA407) (Hannover: Hahn 1909\), pp. 411\-413, no. 291\. If the diploma is a forgery, then the transfer of Maurienne to Turin did not take place, which explains why Conrad's decree did not go into effect, and why Maurienne continued independent after 1044\. Harry Bresslau, [*Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Konrad II,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dnsNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA475) {{in lang\|de}}, Volume 2 (Leipzig: Duncker \& Humblot, 1884\), pp. 475\-476\. R.L. Poole, p. 1: "The influence of the fabrications of the church of Vienne has not been finally extirpated; the forged charter of King Boso (887\) is still appealed to as an authority; and the spuriousness of the diploma of the Emperor Conrad II (1038\) has not yet everywhere been recognized." On the Boso charter being a forgery, see also: Réné Poupardin, [*Le royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens (855\-933?)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BdEDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111), {{in lang\|fr}}, (Paris: É. Bouillon, 1901\), p. 111 with note 2: "La donation, faite par Boson à l'église de Maurienne, du château d'Hermillon (*Hist. de Fr.*, t. IX, p. 672\) est un faux datant probablement du XIe siècle."
#### Maurienne in the 15th century
Arvan
In February 1440, a major flood from the Bonrieu river to the west, overran the entire city of Maurienne. In a 1447 report of Canon Hugo de Fabrica, the vicar\-general, to Bishop Louis de La Palud, the Cardinal de Varambone, a great part of the houses of the city as well as the cathedral were ruined. The cathedral was so badly damaged that the upper church had to be completely rebuilt, and the lower church was filled with debris and unusable. A bridge over the flooding Arvan river was washed away, as well as another bridge over the Arc river, which was also in flood.Truchet, *Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle* [pp. 27\-28\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27) Billiet \& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [pp. 258\-260\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA258)
During much of the fifteenth century, the administration of the diocese was neglected. Saturnin Truchet notes that from 1441 to 1483 the bishops were non\-residential, with the exception of the last five years of the life of Cardinal Louis de La Palud (1441–1451\), the Cardinal de Varambon. The *decima* tax of the bishops was frequently not paid or was irregularly collected, due to the inattention and lack of supervision of the collectors.Truchet (1887\), *Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, [p. 247\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA333) Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville (1453–1483\) was particularly remiss."Guillaume d'Estouteville n'y avait jamais résidé . Les droits de l'évêché avaient été fort mal défendus; ses revenus avaient même été réduits sous la main de l'Etat pendant la plus grande partie de l'épiscopat de Guillaume d'Estouteville."
The next bishop, Étienne de Morel (1483–1499\) was also an absent pastor. He was papal datary of [Pope Sixtus IV](/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV "Pope Sixtus IV") when he was appointed to the diocese of Maurienne on 31 January 1483\.Eubel II, p. 188\. He was still in Rome, and still functioning as datary at the pope's death on 12 August 1484; he was an official custodian at the main gate of the conclave that followed.John Burchard, *Diarium*, in: L. Thuasne, [*Johannis Burchardi Diarium, sive Rerum urbanarum commentarii,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA73) {{in lang\|la\|fr}}, Vol. 1 (Paris: E. Leroux 1883\), p. 73\. He participated in the papal consistory of 20 December 1484 on the subject of the canonization of Duke Leopold of Austria.Eubel II, p. 48, no. 507\. On 11 February 1485, he was present at the papal consistory in which [Pope Innocent VIII](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_VIII "Pope Innocent VIII") received Cardinal [Jean Balue](/wiki/Jean_Balue "Jean Balue") on his return from his embassy to the French court; Bishop Morel had the honor of reading aloud in French the letter from King [Charles VIII](/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France "Charles VIII of France") to the pope.Burchard, [p. 140\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA140) Morel was a Referendary of Pope Innocent VIII, who, on 17 November 1487, ratified an agreement between the bishop and the commune of Maurienne with regard to the wine *decima*.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 644\. Billiet \& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [pp. 303\-307\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303)
On 2 March 1506, Bishop Louis de Gorrevod de Challand (1499–1532\) issued a set of *Constitutions* for the diocese of Maurienne. They were particularly concerned with taxation and the regulation of tax officials.Eugène Burnier, "Les constitutions du cardinal Louis II de Gorrevod, évêque de Maurienne et prince (1506\). Étude historique," in: *Mémoires et documents publiés par la Société savoisienne d'histoire et d'archéologie*, {{in lang\|fr\|la}}, Vol. 7 (Chambéry: A. Bottero 1863\), pp. 225\-271, text at pp. 255\-271\.
In 1512, Bishop Louis de Gorrevod ordered the publication of an official liturgical book for the diocese of Maurienne, the *Breviarium ad usum Maurianensis ecclesiae*, based on that used by the cathedral Chapter. During his administration two collegiate churches were founded, Ste. Anne de Chamoux and S. Marcel de la Chambre. The house of the Celestines at Villard\-Sallet and the convent of the Carmelites of la Rochette were also founded.Truchet (1887\), *Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, [*Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, pp. 345\-348](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA345).
#### The diocese of Bourg\-en\-Bresse and Francis I
As early as 1451, the dukes of Savoy had been interested in raising the profile of their ecclesiastical establishment. [Louis, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Louis%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Louis, Duke of Savoy"), sent an embassy to [Pope Nicholas V](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V "Pope Nicholas V"), indicating his wish that Turin be made a metropolitan archdiocese, and that new dioceses be created at Bourg en Bresse and Chambéry.Charles Buet, [*Les ducs de Savoie aux XVe et XVIe siècles,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sU9KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA318) {{in lang\|fr}}, (Tours: A. Mame, 1878\), p. 318\. In July 1515, at the urging of [Charles III, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Charles III, Duke of Savoy"), and over the objections of Francis I of France, the archbishop of Vienne, and the bishop of Grenoble, [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X "Pope Leo X") established a new diocese, Bourg in Bresse, out of territory belonging to the diocese of Maurienne, and a new diocese at Chambéry. The church of S. Maria de Burgo in Bressia was elevated to the status of a cathedral.Paulin Piolin (ed.), [*Gallia christiana in provincias ecclesiasticas distributa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e5MUj3m4K-wC&pg=PA181), Tomus quartus {{in lang\|la}} (Bruxelles: G. Lebrocquy; Paris: V. Palmé 1876\), p. 181\. The first bishop of Bourg was Bishop Louis de Gorrevod of Maurienne, who was allowed to hold both dioceses at the same time. He was also assigned an auxiliary bishop, Jean de Joly, O.P., titular bishop of Hebron, in 1524;Eubel III, p. 208\. in 1544 the auxiliary bishop was Pierre Meynard, also titular bishop of Hebron.Eugène Burnier, ["Le Parlement de Chambéry sous François Ier et Henri II ( 1536\-1559 ). Fragment historique,"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA368) {{in lang\|fr}}, *Mémoires et documents, Société savoisienne d'histoire et d'archéologie*, vol. 6 (Chambéry: Bottero 1862\), p. 368\. In November 1515, Bishop de Gorrevod convened a synod of all the ecclesiastics in the new diocese of Bourg, and drew up a set of statutes, which were published in 1516\.Besson, *Mémoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne,* [p. 303\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZA-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA303) Gorrevod was named a cardinal by [Pope Clement VII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII "Pope Clement VII") on 9 March 1530,Eubel III, p. 21, no. 21\. and on the same day his nephew, Jean Philibert de Challant, was appointed bishop of Bourg\-en\-Bresse.Eubel III, p. 238, note 3: "1530 Mart. 9 el. in episc. Burgien. (Bourg) (cfr. *AC* 3 f. 165\), qui ep(iscop)atus de novo e partibus eccl(esiae) Maurianen(sis) erectus et nunc cum eodem iterum conjungitur."
In 1531, Cardinal de Gorrevod was appointed papal legate in all the territories possessed by the dukes of Savoy, and his powers were confirmed on 2 April 1531 by a letter of Duke Charles III .Besson, *Mémoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne,* [p. 303\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZA-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA303) He resigned the diocese of Maurienne on 10 April 1532, in favor of his nephew, Jean Philibert de Challant, thereby once again bringing the two dioceses together under the leadership of one bishop.Eubel III, p. 238 with note 3\. Challant was only bishop\-elect of Bresse, however, since he did not receive episcopal consecration until 22 May 1541\.Besson, p. 303\.
In the struggle between France ([King Francis I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France "Francis I of France")) and Spain ([Emperor Charles V](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor")) over the duchy of Milan, the duke of Savoy found himself drawn, especially after the defeat and capture of Francis at the [Battle of Pavia](/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia "Battle of Pavia") in 1525, into the orbit of Charles V.Eugène Burnier, "Le Parlement de Chambéry...," [pp. 279\-280\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA279) By 1535, Francis I believed himself strong enough to confront [Charles III of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Charles III, Duke of Savoy"). He confronted Charles and the exiled bishop of Geneva who were besieging Protestant Geneva, raising the siege, capturing the Vaud, and expelling the bishop of Lausanne.Burnier, pp. 281\-282\. On 11 February 1536, the king gave the order to invade Bugey and Bresse, and on 24 February his troops entered Savoy. He immediately ordered the suppression of the diocese of Bourg\-en\-Bresse, whose establishment he had protested, and also refused the bishop\-elect of Chambéry, Urbain de Miolans,The diocese was established and Urbain de Miolans was appointed in 1515 by [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X "Pope Leo X") at the urging of Duke Charles III, but Pope Leo was compelled by Francis I of France to void the bull. Picolet d'Hermillon, ["Note sur la fondation du diocèse de Chambéry"](https://books.google.com/books?id=K8swAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA69), {{in lang\|fr}}, in: *Bulletin mensual de l'Académie delphinale* 4e série, Tome 19 (Grenoble: Allier 1904 \[1905]), pp. 51\-83, at p. 69\. to take possession of his diocese.Burnier, p. 368\.
#### Maurienne in the 16th century
When Bishop de Challant died in 1544, the cathedral Chapter of Maurienne, in accordance with tradition, assembled on 20 July 1544 to elect a new bishop. They chose François de Luxembourg, vicomte de Martigues, who was not in holy orders. Their choice was rejected by King Francis, and he himself attempted to install Dominique de Saint\-Séverin as bishop of Maurienne. The Chapter, however, rejected Saint\-Severin, and therefore the diocese depended on an auxiliary bishop for several years.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 645\. Burnier, "Le Parlement de Chambéry...", [p. 368\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA368) [Pope Paul III](/wiki/Pope_Paul_III "Pope Paul III") transferred bishop\-elect Girolamo Recanati Capodiferro from Nice to Maurienne on 30 July 1544, but there is no evidence that he was in Holy Orders or ever consecrated a bishop; he was named a cardinal on 19 December 1444, and appointed papal legate in the Romandiola on 26 August 1545, where he continued to serve under Pope Julius III, and Marcellus II, and Paul IV.Eubel III, p. 29, no. 59 with notes 5\-7; p. 238 with note 4\.
By the time of the Reformation, the cathedral Chapter possessed eleven parishes and were patrons of twenty\-two others, as well as the hôpital de la Rochette and the priories of La Corbière, Aiton, and Saint\-Julien.S. Truchet, *Saint\-Jean\-de\-Maurienne...*, p. 53\.
On 23 August 1489, Bishop Etienne de Morel (1483–1499\) solemnly invested [Charles I, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_I%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Charles I, Duke of Savoy") (1482–1490\) as a canon of the cathedral of Maurienne. All subsequent dukes, with papal permission, were granted the same privilege, as though it were a hereditary possession.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 644; "Instrumenta", p. 320, no. 34\. Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, took solemn possession of a canonry in the cathedral of Maurienne in 1564\.
#### Diocese of Maurienne in the mid\-17th century
A major plague struck the diocese of Maurienne in 1630\.Alexis Billiet, *Notice sur la peste qui a affligé le diocèse de Maurienne en 1630,* {{in lang\|fr}}, Chambéry: Puthod, 1836\.
Before the appointment of Hercule Berzetti as bishop of Maurienne in 1658, [Pope Alexander VII](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VII "Pope Alexander VII") ordered Cardinal [Antonio Barberini](/wiki/Antonio_Barberini "Antonio Barberini") to provide a report on the state of the diocese and the suitability of the candidate. The report stated that in civil affairs the diocese was subject to the Dukes of Savoy, and in ecclesiastical matters to the metropolitan of Vienne. The cathedral, which was in need of extensive repairs, was administered by a Chapter of 18 canons, though it had no dignities, and there was no special provision for a theologus or penitentiarius. The canons were responsible for the spiritual care of the cathedral parish. The episcopal palace, which was near the cathedral, was in good repair. Besides the cathedral, there were two parishes in the city, a convent of men and one of women, and a hospice for pilgrims. There were around 100 parishes in the diocese, most of them so poor that the incumbent priest relied to an extent on alms.Eugène Burnier, ["Pièces inédits relatives à la province de Maurienne, et tirées des archives du Sénat de Savoie,"](https://books.google.com/books?id=8towAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA393) in: *Travaux de la Société d'histoire et d'archéologie de la Maurienne (Savoie),* Vol. 1 (1878\), pp. 393\-396\.
### Revolution, Repression
In 1792, Savoy was invaded and occupied by forces of the French National Assembly. Bishops and priests were ordered to swear a prescribed oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, or to lose their offices; on 23 April 1792, [Pope Pius VI](/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI "Pope Pius VI") ordered that any clergy who *did* swear the oaths were automatically suspended.Billiet (1865\), p. 23\. Four of the five bishops then in office went into exile, including the bishop of Maurienne; the fifth was too aged to flee. Commissioners sent from Paris imposed a revolutionary government, and on 8 March 1793 issued an ecclesiastical decree which followed metropolitan French policy by reducing the number of dioceses from 5 to 1, to be centered in Annecy and called the diocese of Mont\-Blanc.François Molin, [*Souvenirs de la persécution soufferte par le clergé du Diocèse de Maurienne pendant la révolutionnaire de 1792 à 1802,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CyEtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7) {{in lang\|fr}}, (A. Pouchet et Cie, 1868\), pp. 7\-9\. A new bishop for each diocese was to be elected by an assembly of electors chosen for loyalty to the French constitution. Electors did not have to be Catholic or even Christian. Papal participation in any form was forbidden. These arrangements were uncanonical and schismatic,Paul Pisani, [*Répertoire biographique de l'épiscopat constitutionnel (1791\-1802\)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=aAQ9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA4306), {{in lang\|fr}}, (Paris: A. Picard 1907\), pp. 19\-24; 306\. as were the consecrations of any of the "Constitutional bishops."Billiet (1865\), pp. 22\-23\.
On 29 November 1801, in the [concordat of 1801](/wiki/Concordat_of_1801 "Concordat of 1801") between the [French Consulate](/wiki/French_Consulate "French Consulate"), headed by First Consul [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") Bonaparte, and [Pope Pius VII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII "Pope Pius VII"), the bishopric was suppressed, its territory being merged into the [Diocese of Chambéry](/wiki/Diocese_of_Chamb%C3%A9ry "Diocese of Chambéry").J.B. Duvergier (ed.), [*Collection complète des lois, décrets, ordonnances, réglemens et avis du Conseil d'état,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=De01AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA373) {{in lang\|fr\|la}}, Volume 13 (Paris: A. Guyot et Scribe, 1826\), pp. 372\-373: "L'archevêché de Vienne dans le ci\-devant Dauphiné et ses suffragans, les évèchés de Grenoble, Viviers, Valence, Die, Maurienne et Genève;" p. 387\.
There was already a charity hospital in Maurienne by the 13th century, established and subsidized by the bishops. It had fallen into decay in the 15th century, and was revived in the 16th by the Confraternity of the Bienheureuse Vierge Marie de la Miséricorde. The agents of the French Revolution abolished both the confraternity and the diocese of Maurienne in 1801\. The operation of the hospital was placed in the hands of nine administrators, including a lawyer, a physician, a surgeon, and a pharmacist; there was a staff of 14, for 28 sick and 9 orphans. In 1805, the administrators petitioned the Emperor [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") for assistance with their dilapidated building; he assigned them the former Major Seminary in Maurienne, which had been used as a military hospital by the French, and was in a bad sanitary condition. In 1821, the priest of the city wrote about the state of the hospice to his friend, who was the spiritual director of the *Soeurs de Saint\-Joseph\-de\-Chambéry,* who were not able to respond immediately. In May 1822, the administrators made an official request of the sisters. In the first week of June, Mother St.\-Jean of Chambéry and three other sisters took charge of the hospital. In November 1822, another sister was requested from Chambéry to organize a school for poor girls; the school opened in January 1824, and in January 1825 was authorized to accept paying students.Leon Bouchage, [*Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\-Joseph de Chambéry,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA233) {{in lang\|fr}} (Chambéry: Imprimerie générale Savoisienne 1911\) \[*Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences, belles\-lettres et arts de Savoie* 4e série, Tome 12], pp. 233\-248\.
The papacy was already interested in stabilizing the establishment at Maurienne, and, in May 1824, Cardinal Giulio\-Maria della Somaglia was engaged in negotiations with the bishop of Chambéry and with the archbishop of Lyon to make the sisters in Maurienne an independent congregation.Bouchage, *Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\-Joseph de Chambéry,* [pp. 611\-612\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA233) {{in lang\|it}}
The [Sisters of St. Joseph](/wiki/Sisters_of_St._Joseph "Sisters of St. Joseph"), a nursing and teaching order, with mother\-house at St\-Jean\-de\-Maurienne, are a branch of the Congregation of St. Joseph at Lyon. At the end of the nineteenth century, they were in charge of 8 day nurseries and 2 hospitals. In Algeria, the East IndiesBouchage, [*Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\-Joseph de Chambéry,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA403) Book VIII, pp. 403\-581\. and Argentina houses were founded, controlled by the motherhouse at Maurienne.Bouchage, [*Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\-Joseph de Chambéry,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA233) pp. 233\-248\.
### Restoration
In the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, Chambéry became part of France.[Treaty of Paris (1814\)](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Paris%20(1814)), Article III, section 7\. In the General Treaty of the Congress of Vienna, signed on 9 June 1815, the ancient boundaries of the Kingdom of Sardinia were restored. This act returned Maurienne to the control of King Charles Felix.[Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/General Treaty](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Final%20Act%20of%20the%20Congress%20of%20Vienna/General%20Treaty): Article 85: "The frontiers of the states of his Majesty the King of Sardinia shall be: On the side of France, such as they were on the 1st of January 1792, with the exception of the changes effected by the Treaty of Paris of 30th May 1814\. On the side or the Helvetic Confederation, such as they existed on the 1st of January 1792, with the exception of the change produced by the cession in favour of the canton of Geneva, as specified by the 80th Article of the present Act."
At the request of King [Charles Felix of Sardinia](/wiki/Charles_Felix_of_Sardinia "Charles Felix of Sardinia") and his ambassador at the Vatican, Giovanni Nicolao Ludovico Crosa, on 5 August 1825, with the papal bull "Ecclesias quae antiquitate", [Pope Leo XII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XII "Pope Leo XII") restored the Diocese of Saint\-Jean\-de\-Maurienne with territory consisting of 80 parishes removed from the [diocese of Chambéry](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Chamb%C3%A9ry "Archdiocese of Chambéry"). The parish church of S. John the Baptist was restored to cathedral status, and it was assigned a cathedral chapter consisting of three dignities (Provost, Archdeacon, and Cantor) and ten canons, two of whom would be the Theologus and the Penitentiarius. The right of the king to nominate a candidate for an episcopal vacancy, as well as a vacancy in the office of archdeacon and cantor, as well as the vacancy in a canonry (except for the theologus and penitentiarius) was confirmed or granted. The pope retained the right to nominate the provost. The restored diocese of Maurienne was made a suffragan of the archbishop of Chambéry.A. Barberi; R. Segreti (edd.), [*Bullarii Romani continuatio,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pTrf0ocRlN4C&pg=PA336) {{in lang\|la}}, Tomus decimus sextus, Volume 16 (Rome: 1854\), pp. 336\-340 (*nonis Augusti* 1825\).
Bishop Alexis Billiet was installed on 18 April 1826, and he immediately set to work to recover the diocese's rights and property, as well as to unify a clergy and people who had been thrown into confusion by the French occupation. He began the process of canonically separating the house of the Sisters of S.\-Joseph from their mother\-house in Chambéry, which was approved by King Charles Felix on 18 April 1827\. In 1828, the Sisters signed a contract to purchase the château of the comtes d'Arves as a new mother\-house.Bouchage, *Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\-Joseph de Chambéry,* [p. 240\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA240)
### Modern changes
In 1947, the diocese of Maurienne gained territory from the Metropolitan [Archdiocese of Torino](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Torino "Archdiocese of Torino").
On 26 April 1966, Maurienne was suppressed as an independent diocese, its title and territory being merged into the renamed Metropolitan [Archdiocese of Chambéry–Saint\-Jean\-de\-Maurienne–Tarentaise](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Chamb%C3%A9ry%E2%80%93Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne%E2%80%93Tarentaise "Archdiocese of Chambéry–Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne–Tarentaise").Pope Paul VI, "Animorum bonum," in: *Acta Apostolicae Sedis* 58 (1966\), pp. 625\-626: "Maurianensem et Tarantasiensem dioeceses archidioecesi Chamberiensi aeque principaliter unimus, ita scilicet ut unus idemque Antistes tribus praesit Ecclesiis sitqüe simul Archiepiscopus Chamberiensis atque Episcopus Maurianensis et Tarantasiensis."
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[Gregory of Tours](/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours \"Gregory of Tours\")'s {{lang\\|la\\|De Gloria Martyrum}}*De gloria martyrum* Book I, chapter 14, in [*Patrologiae Latinae Tomus LXXI*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2lIwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719) (Paris: J.P. Migne 1858\\), p. 719\\. relates how the church of Maurienne, belonging then to the Diocese of Turin, became a place of pilgrimage, after the holy woman Thigris or Thecla,Billiet (1861\\), [*Mémoires... Maurienne*, pp. 290\\-291; 293\\-294](https://books.google.com/books?id=9qaRuCnqNzUC&pg=PA291), places the dramatic date of Thecla {{circa}} 545–550\\. R.L. Poole, p. 4, places the insertion of Thecla into Gregory of Tours' narrative between 907 and 915\\. a native of Valloires, had brought to it as sacred relic from the East a fingerThe cathedral of Troyes possessed another finger; another was held at Brienne\\-le\\-Château; the entire right hand was at Cîteaux until the French Revolution. Pierre\\-Marie\\-Jean\\-Baptiste Gauthier, *La Légende de Saint Jean\\-Baptiste,* {{in lang\\|fr}} (Plancy: Société de St\\-Victor, 1850\\), pp. 177\\-183\\. Jacques Albin Simon Collin de Plancy, [*Grande vie des saints*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4sChaxwVFgQC&pg=PA663), {{in lang\\|fr}}, Volume 16 (Paris: Louis Vivès 1878\\), pp. 663\\-665\\. There were three heads of the Baptist in Italy, in Rome, Florence, and Reggio: S. I. Mahoney, *Six Years in the Monasteries of Italy, and Two Years in the Islands of the Mediterranean and in Asia Minor* (Boston: Jordan, Swift and Wiley, 1845\\), p. 217\\. There was another at Amiens: Charles Salmon, [*Histoire du Chef de Saint Jean Baptiste conservé à Amiens depuis 1206,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=VoDk-tHW1AkC&pg=PA1) {{in lang\\|fr}}, Amiens: Langlois, 1876\\. of [John the Baptist](/wiki/John_the_Baptist \"John the Baptist\"),Duchesne, p. 240\\. the same figure which touched Jesus Christ during his baptism.Billiet \\& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [p. 289](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA289): \"...videlicet proprii manus digiti qui Christum baptizando tetigerunt.\" The Latin text appears to state that Maurienne possessed more than one finger. The pope owned another. Jacob of Voragine, who is using the work of Gregory, says that the finger of John the Baptist suddenly appeared on the altar of the church at Maurienne, after a Gallic matron earnestly prayed God to give her a relic of the Baptist.Jacobus de Voragine, [*Legenda aurea*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9X3o22jqZl0C&pg=PA574) (the Golden Legend, ed. Th. Graesse, 1890\\), ch. 125\\. 2: \"Apud Mariennam urbem Galliae matrona quaedam Johanni baptistae valde devota Deum instantius exorabat, ut sibi de reliquiis Johannis aliquando donaretur aliquid. Cum autem orando nihil proficere se videret, sumta de Deo fiducia juramento se adstrinxit, quod hactenus non comederet, donec, quod petebat, acciperet. Cum autem diebus aliquibus jejunasset, pollicem super altare miri candoris vidit et Dei donum laeta suscepit....\" Bishop Étienne de Morel (1483–1499\\) procured for the cathedral a finger of the right hand of Saint Peter.Besson, p. 302\\. [Guntram](/wiki/Guntram \"Guntram\"), King of Burgundy, took from the Lombards in 574 the valleys of [Maurienne](/wiki/Maurienne \"Maurienne\") and [Suse](/wiki/Susa_Valley \"Susa Valley\"), and in 576 founded near the shrine a bishopric, detached from the then [Diocese of Turin](/wiki/Diocese_of_Turin \"Diocese of Turin\") (in [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont \"Piedmont\"), northern Italy), as suffragan of the [Archdiocese of Vienne](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Vienne \"Archdiocese of Vienne\"), also comprising the [Briançonnais](/wiki/Brian%C3%A7on \"Briançon\").Duchesne, [pp. 239\\-240\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=G2gUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA239)",
"Its first bishop was Felmasius, known from a document on the Baptist relic's first miracle.Jean\\-Barthélemy Hauréau, *Gallia christiana*, vol. XVI, Paris 1865, coll. 611\\-654 In 599, [Gregory the Great](/wiki/Gregory_the_Great \"Gregory the Great\") failed to make the Merovingian Queen [Brunehaut](/wiki/Brunhilda_of_Austrasia \"Brunhilda of Austrasia\") oblige the protests of the Bishop of Turin against this foundation.",
"[Leo III](/wiki/Pope_Leo_III \"Pope Leo III\") (795\\-816\\) made [Darantasia (Tarantaise, Loire)](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Tarentaise \"Archdiocese of Tarentaise\") a Metropolitan archbishopric with three suffragans, [Aosta](/wiki/Aosta \"Aosta\"), [Sitten](/wiki/Sion%2C_Switzerland \"Sion, Switzerland\"), and Maurienne, but maintained the Ancient [primatial status](/wiki/Primate_%28bishop%29 \"Primate (bishop)\") of [Vienne](/wiki/Vienne%2C_Is%C3%A8re \"Vienne, Isère\").",
"A letter written by [John VIII](/wiki/Pope_John_VIII \"Pope John VIII\") in 878 acknowledged the claim of Archbishop Teutrannus of Tarantaise that the Bishop of Maurienne was suffragan of [Tarentaise](/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Tarentaise \"Ancient Diocese of Tarentaise\"), but ordered the archbishop to settle his claim with the Archbishop of Vienne.J.P. Migne (ed.), *Patrologiae Series Latina* Tomus 126 (Paris 1855\\), p. 781\\-782; [*Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Epistolarum Tomus VII*](https://archive.org/details/monumentagerman07geseuoft/page/106/mode/2up) (Berlin: Weidmann 1928\\), p. 107, no. 117: \"... Innotescimus denique quia venerabilis frater et coepiscopus noster Bernarius, nostram nuper audiens praesentiam, reclamavit se super fratre Adalberlo suffraganeo tuo, de quo jam Romae proclamaverat et libellum suae reclamationis ostenderat. Unde tibi et Viennensi arcbiepiscopo epistolas direximus, ut amborum querimonias ventilantes, quae canonum sunt instituta dijudicaretis....\" For four centuries this supremacy was the cause of conflicts between the archbishops of Tarentaise and the Metropolitans of Vienne, who continued to claim Maurienne as a suffragan see.",
"In 904 or 908, Pope Sergius III purportedly wrote to Archbishop Alexander of Vienne, according to Cardinal Billiet, confirming that the diocese of Maurienne was a suffragan of the archbishop of Vienne.Billiet (1861\\), *Mémoires... Maurienne*, p. 328, quoting an unpublished document: \"Utque largiter admodum Guntramnus ecclesiam maurianensem per concessum apostolicæ sedis cum omnibus pagis suis subjectam jure perenni sanctæ viennensi fecit ecclesiæ, ità unà cum ecclesia Secusina et ecclesiis de eadem valle ad eam pertinentibus cum omnibus pagis integram eam illi subjectam esse firmamus.\" The document, however, is one of the notorious \"Vienne Forgeries.\"R.L. Poole (1916\\), p. 5\\. Wilhelm Grundlach, \"Der Streit der Bisthümer Arles und Vienne um den Primatus Galliarum. (Zweiter Theil. ),\" {{in lang\\|de}}, in: [*Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für Ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde*](https://books.google.com/books?id=uac%20AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1) 15 (Hannover: Hahn 1890\\), 9\\-102, esp. pp. 58, 71\\-77\\.; *Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Epistolarum Tomus III.* Merowingici et Karolini aevi, I (Berlin: Weidmann 1892\\), pp. 100\\-102, no. 23\\.",
"In an apostolic brief of 26 April 1123, addressed to Bishop Amedeus, [Pope Callistus II](/wiki/Pope_Callistus_II \"Pope Callistus II\") affirmed that Maurienne was a suffragan of the metropolis of Vienne, as it had been when he himself was archbishop of Vienne (1088–1119\\); he also ruled that the city of Susa belonged to the diocese of Maurienne.Billiet (1861\\), *Mémoires...*, pp. 332\\-333\\. Billiet \\& Albrieux (1861\\) [*Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne: Documents recueillis*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA24), pp. 24\\-26, no. 14\\.",
"As its first see, a cathedral of [John the Baptist](/wiki/John_the_Baptist \"John the Baptist\") was built in the 6th century, destroyed by invading Saracens in 943 and rebuilt in the 11th century.Saturnin Truchet, *Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, {{in lang\\|fr}}, pp. 25\\-42\\.",
"S. Jean\\-de\\-Maurienne was twice sacked by the Saracens, in 732 and 906\\.Saturnin Truchet, *Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, {{in lang\\|fr}}, p. 25\\. After the Saracens had been driven out, the temporal sovereignty of the Bishop of Maurienne appears to have been very extensive. By the beginning of the 11th century, according to Cardinal Billiet, the bishop was temporal ruler of 19 parishes on the left bank of the River Arc, the parish of S. Jean at Valmeinier, and two or three on the right bank.Billiet (1861\\), [*Mémoires... Maurienne*, p. 320\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9qaRuCnqNzUC&pg=PA320) But there is no proof that such sovereignty had been recognized since Gontran's time.",
"### Imperial and royal influence",
"At the death in 1032 of [Rudolph III of Burgundy](/wiki/Rudolph_III_of_Burgundy \"Rudolph III of Burgundy\"), the last ruler of the independent [Kingdom of Burgundy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy-Arles \"Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles\"), Bishop Thibaut was powerful enough to join a league against [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Holy Roman Emperor\") [Conrad II of Franconia](/wiki/Conrad_II_of_Franconia \"Conrad II of Franconia\").Billiet (1861\\), [*Mémoires... Maurienne*, p. 324\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9qaRuCnqNzUC&pg=PA324) In 1033 the city of Maurienne was destroyed by imperial troops.Besson, p. 285\\. The bishopric lost part of its territory (the Susa valley) to the diocese of Turin, which was promised all.",
"In 1038, it is claimed, the Emperor Conrad suppressed the see of Maurienne altogether, giving over its title and possessions to the Bishops of Turin.Besson (1759\\), pp. 344\\-345, no. 6: \"...sanctae Ecclesiae Taurinensi... donamus, Episcopatum scilicet Maurianensis civitatis, domos cum omnibus ædificiis suis; curtem videlicet... decimas quoque ipsius Episcopatûs, nec non Ecclesias eidem Episcopatui pertinentes, montes verò et valles, aquas, molendina, piscationes, foresta, sylvas, pascua; buscalia omnia in integrum, quidquid videtur esse de appenditiis supradictæ civitatis Moriennæ, donamus, concedimus atque delegamus jam dictæ Ecclesiæ S. Joannis\\-Baptista Taurinensis sedis....\" This imperial decree was never executed though, due probably to the death of Conrad on 4 June 1039\\. At the death of Bishop Guido of Turin in 1044, it is stated, Bishop Thibaud was fully reinstated at Maurienne. The imperial diploma concerning the handing over of Maurienne to Turin, however, has been shown to be a forgery, and thus the entire story is called into question.H. Bresslau, *Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Diplomatum Regum et Imperatorum Germaniae* {{in lang\\|la\\|de}}, Tomus IV: [Conradi II Diplomata](https://books.google.com/books?id=x-sJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA407) (Hannover: Hahn 1909\\), pp. 411\\-413, no. 291\\. If the diploma is a forgery, then the transfer of Maurienne to Turin did not take place, which explains why Conrad's decree did not go into effect, and why Maurienne continued independent after 1044\\. Harry Bresslau, [*Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Konrad II,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dnsNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA475) {{in lang\\|de}}, Volume 2 (Leipzig: Duncker \\& Humblot, 1884\\), pp. 475\\-476\\. R.L. Poole, p. 1: \"The influence of the fabrications of the church of Vienne has not been finally extirpated; the forged charter of King Boso (887\\) is still appealed to as an authority; and the spuriousness of the diploma of the Emperor Conrad II (1038\\) has not yet everywhere been recognized.\" On the Boso charter being a forgery, see also: Réné Poupardin, [*Le royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens (855\\-933?)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BdEDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111), {{in lang\\|fr}}, (Paris: É. Bouillon, 1901\\), p. 111 with note 2: \"La donation, faite par Boson à l'église de Maurienne, du château d'Hermillon (*Hist. de Fr.*, t. IX, p. 672\\) est un faux datant probablement du XIe siècle.\"",
"#### Maurienne in the 15th century",
"Arvan \nIn February 1440, a major flood from the Bonrieu river to the west, overran the entire city of Maurienne. In a 1447 report of Canon Hugo de Fabrica, the vicar\\-general, to Bishop Louis de La Palud, the Cardinal de Varambone, a great part of the houses of the city as well as the cathedral were ruined. The cathedral was so badly damaged that the upper church had to be completely rebuilt, and the lower church was filled with debris and unusable. A bridge over the flooding Arvan river was washed away, as well as another bridge over the Arc river, which was also in flood.Truchet, *Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle* [pp. 27\\-28\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27) Billiet \\& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [pp. 258\\-260\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA258)",
"During much of the fifteenth century, the administration of the diocese was neglected. Saturnin Truchet notes that from 1441 to 1483 the bishops were non\\-residential, with the exception of the last five years of the life of Cardinal Louis de La Palud (1441–1451\\), the Cardinal de Varambon. The *decima* tax of the bishops was frequently not paid or was irregularly collected, due to the inattention and lack of supervision of the collectors.Truchet (1887\\), *Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, [p. 247\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA333) Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville (1453–1483\\) was particularly remiss.\"Guillaume d'Estouteville n'y avait jamais résidé . Les droits de l'évêché avaient été fort mal défendus; ses revenus avaient même été réduits sous la main de l'Etat pendant la plus grande partie de l'épiscopat de Guillaume d'Estouteville.\"",
"The next bishop, Étienne de Morel (1483–1499\\) was also an absent pastor. He was papal datary of [Pope Sixtus IV](/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV \"Pope Sixtus IV\") when he was appointed to the diocese of Maurienne on 31 January 1483\\.Eubel II, p. 188\\. He was still in Rome, and still functioning as datary at the pope's death on 12 August 1484; he was an official custodian at the main gate of the conclave that followed.John Burchard, *Diarium*, in: L. Thuasne, [*Johannis Burchardi Diarium, sive Rerum urbanarum commentarii,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA73) {{in lang\\|la\\|fr}}, Vol. 1 (Paris: E. Leroux 1883\\), p. 73\\. He participated in the papal consistory of 20 December 1484 on the subject of the canonization of Duke Leopold of Austria.Eubel II, p. 48, no. 507\\. On 11 February 1485, he was present at the papal consistory in which [Pope Innocent VIII](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_VIII \"Pope Innocent VIII\") received Cardinal [Jean Balue](/wiki/Jean_Balue \"Jean Balue\") on his return from his embassy to the French court; Bishop Morel had the honor of reading aloud in French the letter from King [Charles VIII](/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France \"Charles VIII of France\") to the pope.Burchard, [p. 140\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA140) Morel was a Referendary of Pope Innocent VIII, who, on 17 November 1487, ratified an agreement between the bishop and the commune of Maurienne with regard to the wine *decima*.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 644\\. Billiet \\& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [pp. 303\\-307\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303)",
"On 2 March 1506, Bishop Louis de Gorrevod de Challand (1499–1532\\) issued a set of *Constitutions* for the diocese of Maurienne. They were particularly concerned with taxation and the regulation of tax officials.Eugène Burnier, \"Les constitutions du cardinal Louis II de Gorrevod, évêque de Maurienne et prince (1506\\). Étude historique,\" in: *Mémoires et documents publiés par la Société savoisienne d'histoire et d'archéologie*, {{in lang\\|fr\\|la}}, Vol. 7 (Chambéry: A. Bottero 1863\\), pp. 225\\-271, text at pp. 255\\-271\\.",
"In 1512, Bishop Louis de Gorrevod ordered the publication of an official liturgical book for the diocese of Maurienne, the *Breviarium ad usum Maurianensis ecclesiae*, based on that used by the cathedral Chapter. During his administration two collegiate churches were founded, Ste. Anne de Chamoux and S. Marcel de la Chambre. The house of the Celestines at Villard\\-Sallet and the convent of the Carmelites of la Rochette were also founded.Truchet (1887\\), *Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, [*Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, pp. 345\\-348](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA345).",
"#### The diocese of Bourg\\-en\\-Bresse and Francis I",
"As early as 1451, the dukes of Savoy had been interested in raising the profile of their ecclesiastical establishment. [Louis, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Louis%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Louis, Duke of Savoy\"), sent an embassy to [Pope Nicholas V](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V \"Pope Nicholas V\"), indicating his wish that Turin be made a metropolitan archdiocese, and that new dioceses be created at Bourg en Bresse and Chambéry.Charles Buet, [*Les ducs de Savoie aux XVe et XVIe siècles,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sU9KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA318) {{in lang\\|fr}}, (Tours: A. Mame, 1878\\), p. 318\\. In July 1515, at the urging of [Charles III, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Charles III, Duke of Savoy\"), and over the objections of Francis I of France, the archbishop of Vienne, and the bishop of Grenoble, [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X \"Pope Leo X\") established a new diocese, Bourg in Bresse, out of territory belonging to the diocese of Maurienne, and a new diocese at Chambéry. The church of S. Maria de Burgo in Bressia was elevated to the status of a cathedral.Paulin Piolin (ed.), [*Gallia christiana in provincias ecclesiasticas distributa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e5MUj3m4K-wC&pg=PA181), Tomus quartus {{in lang\\|la}} (Bruxelles: G. Lebrocquy; Paris: V. Palmé 1876\\), p. 181\\. The first bishop of Bourg was Bishop Louis de Gorrevod of Maurienne, who was allowed to hold both dioceses at the same time. He was also assigned an auxiliary bishop, Jean de Joly, O.P., titular bishop of Hebron, in 1524;Eubel III, p. 208\\. in 1544 the auxiliary bishop was Pierre Meynard, also titular bishop of Hebron.Eugène Burnier, [\"Le Parlement de Chambéry sous François Ier et Henri II ( 1536\\-1559 ). Fragment historique,\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA368) {{in lang\\|fr}}, *Mémoires et documents, Société savoisienne d'histoire et d'archéologie*, vol. 6 (Chambéry: Bottero 1862\\), p. 368\\. In November 1515, Bishop de Gorrevod convened a synod of all the ecclesiastics in the new diocese of Bourg, and drew up a set of statutes, which were published in 1516\\.Besson, *Mémoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne,* [p. 303\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZA-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA303) Gorrevod was named a cardinal by [Pope Clement VII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII \"Pope Clement VII\") on 9 March 1530,Eubel III, p. 21, no. 21\\. and on the same day his nephew, Jean Philibert de Challant, was appointed bishop of Bourg\\-en\\-Bresse.Eubel III, p. 238, note 3: \"1530 Mart. 9 el. in episc. Burgien. (Bourg) (cfr. *AC* 3 f. 165\\), qui ep(iscop)atus de novo e partibus eccl(esiae) Maurianen(sis) erectus et nunc cum eodem iterum conjungitur.\"",
"In 1531, Cardinal de Gorrevod was appointed papal legate in all the territories possessed by the dukes of Savoy, and his powers were confirmed on 2 April 1531 by a letter of Duke Charles III .Besson, *Mémoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne,* [p. 303\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZA-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA303) He resigned the diocese of Maurienne on 10 April 1532, in favor of his nephew, Jean Philibert de Challant, thereby once again bringing the two dioceses together under the leadership of one bishop.Eubel III, p. 238 with note 3\\. Challant was only bishop\\-elect of Bresse, however, since he did not receive episcopal consecration until 22 May 1541\\.Besson, p. 303\\.",
"In the struggle between France ([King Francis I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France \"Francis I of France\")) and Spain ([Emperor Charles V](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\")) over the duchy of Milan, the duke of Savoy found himself drawn, especially after the defeat and capture of Francis at the [Battle of Pavia](/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia \"Battle of Pavia\") in 1525, into the orbit of Charles V.Eugène Burnier, \"Le Parlement de Chambéry...,\" [pp. 279\\-280\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA279) By 1535, Francis I believed himself strong enough to confront [Charles III of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Charles III, Duke of Savoy\"). He confronted Charles and the exiled bishop of Geneva who were besieging Protestant Geneva, raising the siege, capturing the Vaud, and expelling the bishop of Lausanne.Burnier, pp. 281\\-282\\. On 11 February 1536, the king gave the order to invade Bugey and Bresse, and on 24 February his troops entered Savoy. He immediately ordered the suppression of the diocese of Bourg\\-en\\-Bresse, whose establishment he had protested, and also refused the bishop\\-elect of Chambéry, Urbain de Miolans,The diocese was established and Urbain de Miolans was appointed in 1515 by [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X \"Pope Leo X\") at the urging of Duke Charles III, but Pope Leo was compelled by Francis I of France to void the bull. Picolet d'Hermillon, [\"Note sur la fondation du diocèse de Chambéry\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=K8swAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA69), {{in lang\\|fr}}, in: *Bulletin mensual de l'Académie delphinale* 4e série, Tome 19 (Grenoble: Allier 1904 \\[1905]), pp. 51\\-83, at p. 69\\. to take possession of his diocese.Burnier, p. 368\\.",
"#### Maurienne in the 16th century",
"When Bishop de Challant died in 1544, the cathedral Chapter of Maurienne, in accordance with tradition, assembled on 20 July 1544 to elect a new bishop. They chose François de Luxembourg, vicomte de Martigues, who was not in holy orders. Their choice was rejected by King Francis, and he himself attempted to install Dominique de Saint\\-Séverin as bishop of Maurienne. The Chapter, however, rejected Saint\\-Severin, and therefore the diocese depended on an auxiliary bishop for several years.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 645\\. Burnier, \"Le Parlement de Chambéry...\", [p. 368\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA368) [Pope Paul III](/wiki/Pope_Paul_III \"Pope Paul III\") transferred bishop\\-elect Girolamo Recanati Capodiferro from Nice to Maurienne on 30 July 1544, but there is no evidence that he was in Holy Orders or ever consecrated a bishop; he was named a cardinal on 19 December 1444, and appointed papal legate in the Romandiola on 26 August 1545, where he continued to serve under Pope Julius III, and Marcellus II, and Paul IV.Eubel III, p. 29, no. 59 with notes 5\\-7; p. 238 with note 4\\.",
"By the time of the Reformation, the cathedral Chapter possessed eleven parishes and were patrons of twenty\\-two others, as well as the hôpital de la Rochette and the priories of La Corbière, Aiton, and Saint\\-Julien.S. Truchet, *Saint\\-Jean\\-de\\-Maurienne...*, p. 53\\.",
"On 23 August 1489, Bishop Etienne de Morel (1483–1499\\) solemnly invested [Charles I, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_I%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Charles I, Duke of Savoy\") (1482–1490\\) as a canon of the cathedral of Maurienne. All subsequent dukes, with papal permission, were granted the same privilege, as though it were a hereditary possession.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 644; \"Instrumenta\", p. 320, no. 34\\. Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, took solemn possession of a canonry in the cathedral of Maurienne in 1564\\.",
"#### Diocese of Maurienne in the mid\\-17th century",
"A major plague struck the diocese of Maurienne in 1630\\.Alexis Billiet, *Notice sur la peste qui a affligé le diocèse de Maurienne en 1630,* {{in lang\\|fr}}, Chambéry: Puthod, 1836\\.",
"Before the appointment of Hercule Berzetti as bishop of Maurienne in 1658, [Pope Alexander VII](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VII \"Pope Alexander VII\") ordered Cardinal [Antonio Barberini](/wiki/Antonio_Barberini \"Antonio Barberini\") to provide a report on the state of the diocese and the suitability of the candidate. The report stated that in civil affairs the diocese was subject to the Dukes of Savoy, and in ecclesiastical matters to the metropolitan of Vienne. The cathedral, which was in need of extensive repairs, was administered by a Chapter of 18 canons, though it had no dignities, and there was no special provision for a theologus or penitentiarius. The canons were responsible for the spiritual care of the cathedral parish. The episcopal palace, which was near the cathedral, was in good repair. Besides the cathedral, there were two parishes in the city, a convent of men and one of women, and a hospice for pilgrims. There were around 100 parishes in the diocese, most of them so poor that the incumbent priest relied to an extent on alms.Eugène Burnier, [\"Pièces inédits relatives à la province de Maurienne, et tirées des archives du Sénat de Savoie,\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=8towAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA393) in: *Travaux de la Société d'histoire et d'archéologie de la Maurienne (Savoie),* Vol. 1 (1878\\), pp. 393\\-396\\.",
"### Revolution, Repression",
"In 1792, Savoy was invaded and occupied by forces of the French National Assembly. Bishops and priests were ordered to swear a prescribed oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, or to lose their offices; on 23 April 1792, [Pope Pius VI](/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI \"Pope Pius VI\") ordered that any clergy who *did* swear the oaths were automatically suspended.Billiet (1865\\), p. 23\\. Four of the five bishops then in office went into exile, including the bishop of Maurienne; the fifth was too aged to flee. Commissioners sent from Paris imposed a revolutionary government, and on 8 March 1793 issued an ecclesiastical decree which followed metropolitan French policy by reducing the number of dioceses from 5 to 1, to be centered in Annecy and called the diocese of Mont\\-Blanc.François Molin, [*Souvenirs de la persécution soufferte par le clergé du Diocèse de Maurienne pendant la révolutionnaire de 1792 à 1802,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CyEtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7) {{in lang\\|fr}}, (A. Pouchet et Cie, 1868\\), pp. 7\\-9\\. A new bishop for each diocese was to be elected by an assembly of electors chosen for loyalty to the French constitution. Electors did not have to be Catholic or even Christian. Papal participation in any form was forbidden. These arrangements were uncanonical and schismatic,Paul Pisani, [*Répertoire biographique de l'épiscopat constitutionnel (1791\\-1802\\)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=aAQ9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA4306), {{in lang\\|fr}}, (Paris: A. Picard 1907\\), pp. 19\\-24; 306\\. as were the consecrations of any of the \"Constitutional bishops.\"Billiet (1865\\), pp. 22\\-23\\.",
"On 29 November 1801, in the [concordat of 1801](/wiki/Concordat_of_1801 \"Concordat of 1801\") between the [French Consulate](/wiki/French_Consulate \"French Consulate\"), headed by First Consul [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") Bonaparte, and [Pope Pius VII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII \"Pope Pius VII\"), the bishopric was suppressed, its territory being merged into the [Diocese of Chambéry](/wiki/Diocese_of_Chamb%C3%A9ry \"Diocese of Chambéry\").J.B. Duvergier (ed.), [*Collection complète des lois, décrets, ordonnances, réglemens et avis du Conseil d'état,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=De01AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA373) {{in lang\\|fr\\|la}}, Volume 13 (Paris: A. Guyot et Scribe, 1826\\), pp. 372\\-373: \"L'archevêché de Vienne dans le ci\\-devant Dauphiné et ses suffragans, les évèchés de Grenoble, Viviers, Valence, Die, Maurienne et Genève;\" p. 387\\.",
"There was already a charity hospital in Maurienne by the 13th century, established and subsidized by the bishops. It had fallen into decay in the 15th century, and was revived in the 16th by the Confraternity of the Bienheureuse Vierge Marie de la Miséricorde. The agents of the French Revolution abolished both the confraternity and the diocese of Maurienne in 1801\\. The operation of the hospital was placed in the hands of nine administrators, including a lawyer, a physician, a surgeon, and a pharmacist; there was a staff of 14, for 28 sick and 9 orphans. In 1805, the administrators petitioned the Emperor [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") for assistance with their dilapidated building; he assigned them the former Major Seminary in Maurienne, which had been used as a military hospital by the French, and was in a bad sanitary condition. In 1821, the priest of the city wrote about the state of the hospice to his friend, who was the spiritual director of the *Soeurs de Saint\\-Joseph\\-de\\-Chambéry,* who were not able to respond immediately. In May 1822, the administrators made an official request of the sisters. In the first week of June, Mother St.\\-Jean of Chambéry and three other sisters took charge of the hospital. In November 1822, another sister was requested from Chambéry to organize a school for poor girls; the school opened in January 1824, and in January 1825 was authorized to accept paying students.Leon Bouchage, [*Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\\-Joseph de Chambéry,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA233) {{in lang\\|fr}} (Chambéry: Imprimerie générale Savoisienne 1911\\) \\[*Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences, belles\\-lettres et arts de Savoie* 4e série, Tome 12], pp. 233\\-248\\.",
"The papacy was already interested in stabilizing the establishment at Maurienne, and, in May 1824, Cardinal Giulio\\-Maria della Somaglia was engaged in negotiations with the bishop of Chambéry and with the archbishop of Lyon to make the sisters in Maurienne an independent congregation.Bouchage, *Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\\-Joseph de Chambéry,* [pp. 611\\-612\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA233) {{in lang\\|it}}",
"The [Sisters of St. Joseph](/wiki/Sisters_of_St._Joseph \"Sisters of St. Joseph\"), a nursing and teaching order, with mother\\-house at St\\-Jean\\-de\\-Maurienne, are a branch of the Congregation of St. Joseph at Lyon. At the end of the nineteenth century, they were in charge of 8 day nurseries and 2 hospitals. In Algeria, the East IndiesBouchage, [*Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\\-Joseph de Chambéry,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA403) Book VIII, pp. 403\\-581\\. and Argentina houses were founded, controlled by the motherhouse at Maurienne.Bouchage, [*Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\\-Joseph de Chambéry,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA233) pp. 233\\-248\\.",
"### Restoration",
"In the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, Chambéry became part of France.[Treaty of Paris (1814\\)](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Paris%20(1814)), Article III, section 7\\. In the General Treaty of the Congress of Vienna, signed on 9 June 1815, the ancient boundaries of the Kingdom of Sardinia were restored. This act returned Maurienne to the control of King Charles Felix.[Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/General Treaty](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Final%20Act%20of%20the%20Congress%20of%20Vienna/General%20Treaty): Article 85: \"The frontiers of the states of his Majesty the King of Sardinia shall be: On the side of France, such as they were on the 1st of January 1792, with the exception of the changes effected by the Treaty of Paris of 30th May 1814\\. On the side or the Helvetic Confederation, such as they existed on the 1st of January 1792, with the exception of the change produced by the cession in favour of the canton of Geneva, as specified by the 80th Article of the present Act.\"",
"At the request of King [Charles Felix of Sardinia](/wiki/Charles_Felix_of_Sardinia \"Charles Felix of Sardinia\") and his ambassador at the Vatican, Giovanni Nicolao Ludovico Crosa, on 5 August 1825, with the papal bull \"Ecclesias quae antiquitate\", [Pope Leo XII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XII \"Pope Leo XII\") restored the Diocese of Saint\\-Jean\\-de\\-Maurienne with territory consisting of 80 parishes removed from the [diocese of Chambéry](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Chamb%C3%A9ry \"Archdiocese of Chambéry\"). The parish church of S. John the Baptist was restored to cathedral status, and it was assigned a cathedral chapter consisting of three dignities (Provost, Archdeacon, and Cantor) and ten canons, two of whom would be the Theologus and the Penitentiarius. The right of the king to nominate a candidate for an episcopal vacancy, as well as a vacancy in the office of archdeacon and cantor, as well as the vacancy in a canonry (except for the theologus and penitentiarius) was confirmed or granted. The pope retained the right to nominate the provost. The restored diocese of Maurienne was made a suffragan of the archbishop of Chambéry.A. Barberi; R. Segreti (edd.), [*Bullarii Romani continuatio,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pTrf0ocRlN4C&pg=PA336) {{in lang\\|la}}, Tomus decimus sextus, Volume 16 (Rome: 1854\\), pp. 336\\-340 (*nonis Augusti* 1825\\).",
"Bishop Alexis Billiet was installed on 18 April 1826, and he immediately set to work to recover the diocese's rights and property, as well as to unify a clergy and people who had been thrown into confusion by the French occupation. He began the process of canonically separating the house of the Sisters of S.\\-Joseph from their mother\\-house in Chambéry, which was approved by King Charles Felix on 18 April 1827\\. In 1828, the Sisters signed a contract to purchase the château of the comtes d'Arves as a new mother\\-house.Bouchage, *Chroniques de la Congregation des Soeurs de Saint\\-Joseph de Chambéry,* [p. 240\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=c2U2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA240)",
"### Modern changes",
"In 1947, the diocese of Maurienne gained territory from the Metropolitan [Archdiocese of Torino](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Torino \"Archdiocese of Torino\").",
"On 26 April 1966, Maurienne was suppressed as an independent diocese, its title and territory being merged into the renamed Metropolitan [Archdiocese of Chambéry–Saint\\-Jean\\-de\\-Maurienne–Tarentaise](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Chamb%C3%A9ry%E2%80%93Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne%E2%80%93Tarentaise \"Archdiocese of Chambéry–Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne–Tarentaise\").Pope Paul VI, \"Animorum bonum,\" in: *Acta Apostolicae Sedis* 58 (1966\\), pp. 625\\-626: \"Maurianensem et Tarantasiensem dioeceses archidioecesi Chamberiensi aeque principaliter unimus, ita scilicet ut unus idemque Antistes tribus praesit Ecclesiis sitqüe simul Archiepiscopus Chamberiensis atque Episcopus Maurianensis et Tarantasiensis.\"",
""
] |
### Imperial and royal influence
At the death in 1032 of [Rudolph III of Burgundy](/wiki/Rudolph_III_of_Burgundy "Rudolph III of Burgundy"), the last ruler of the independent [Kingdom of Burgundy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy-Arles "Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles"), Bishop Thibaut was powerful enough to join a league against [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor "Holy Roman Emperor") [Conrad II of Franconia](/wiki/Conrad_II_of_Franconia "Conrad II of Franconia").Billiet (1861\), [*Mémoires... Maurienne*, p. 324\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9qaRuCnqNzUC&pg=PA324) In 1033 the city of Maurienne was destroyed by imperial troops.Besson, p. 285\. The bishopric lost part of its territory (the Susa valley) to the diocese of Turin, which was promised all.
In 1038, it is claimed, the Emperor Conrad suppressed the see of Maurienne altogether, giving over its title and possessions to the Bishops of Turin.Besson (1759\), pp. 344\-345, no. 6: "...sanctae Ecclesiae Taurinensi... donamus, Episcopatum scilicet Maurianensis civitatis, domos cum omnibus ædificiis suis; curtem videlicet... decimas quoque ipsius Episcopatûs, nec non Ecclesias eidem Episcopatui pertinentes, montes verò et valles, aquas, molendina, piscationes, foresta, sylvas, pascua; buscalia omnia in integrum, quidquid videtur esse de appenditiis supradictæ civitatis Moriennæ, donamus, concedimus atque delegamus jam dictæ Ecclesiæ S. Joannis\-Baptista Taurinensis sedis...." This imperial decree was never executed though, due probably to the death of Conrad on 4 June 1039\. At the death of Bishop Guido of Turin in 1044, it is stated, Bishop Thibaud was fully reinstated at Maurienne. The imperial diploma concerning the handing over of Maurienne to Turin, however, has been shown to be a forgery, and thus the entire story is called into question.H. Bresslau, *Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Diplomatum Regum et Imperatorum Germaniae* {{in lang\|la\|de}}, Tomus IV: [Conradi II Diplomata](https://books.google.com/books?id=x-sJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA407) (Hannover: Hahn 1909\), pp. 411\-413, no. 291\. If the diploma is a forgery, then the transfer of Maurienne to Turin did not take place, which explains why Conrad's decree did not go into effect, and why Maurienne continued independent after 1044\. Harry Bresslau, [*Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Konrad II,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dnsNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA475) {{in lang\|de}}, Volume 2 (Leipzig: Duncker \& Humblot, 1884\), pp. 475\-476\. R.L. Poole, p. 1: "The influence of the fabrications of the church of Vienne has not been finally extirpated; the forged charter of King Boso (887\) is still appealed to as an authority; and the spuriousness of the diploma of the Emperor Conrad II (1038\) has not yet everywhere been recognized." On the Boso charter being a forgery, see also: Réné Poupardin, [*Le royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens (855\-933?)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BdEDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111), {{in lang\|fr}}, (Paris: É. Bouillon, 1901\), p. 111 with note 2: "La donation, faite par Boson à l'église de Maurienne, du château d'Hermillon (*Hist. de Fr.*, t. IX, p. 672\) est un faux datant probablement du XIe siècle."
#### Maurienne in the 15th century
Arvan
In February 1440, a major flood from the Bonrieu river to the west, overran the entire city of Maurienne. In a 1447 report of Canon Hugo de Fabrica, the vicar\-general, to Bishop Louis de La Palud, the Cardinal de Varambone, a great part of the houses of the city as well as the cathedral were ruined. The cathedral was so badly damaged that the upper church had to be completely rebuilt, and the lower church was filled with debris and unusable. A bridge over the flooding Arvan river was washed away, as well as another bridge over the Arc river, which was also in flood.Truchet, *Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle* [pp. 27\-28\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27) Billiet \& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [pp. 258\-260\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA258)
During much of the fifteenth century, the administration of the diocese was neglected. Saturnin Truchet notes that from 1441 to 1483 the bishops were non\-residential, with the exception of the last five years of the life of Cardinal Louis de La Palud (1441–1451\), the Cardinal de Varambon. The *decima* tax of the bishops was frequently not paid or was irregularly collected, due to the inattention and lack of supervision of the collectors.Truchet (1887\), *Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, [p. 247\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA333) Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville (1453–1483\) was particularly remiss."Guillaume d'Estouteville n'y avait jamais résidé . Les droits de l'évêché avaient été fort mal défendus; ses revenus avaient même été réduits sous la main de l'Etat pendant la plus grande partie de l'épiscopat de Guillaume d'Estouteville."
The next bishop, Étienne de Morel (1483–1499\) was also an absent pastor. He was papal datary of [Pope Sixtus IV](/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV "Pope Sixtus IV") when he was appointed to the diocese of Maurienne on 31 January 1483\.Eubel II, p. 188\. He was still in Rome, and still functioning as datary at the pope's death on 12 August 1484; he was an official custodian at the main gate of the conclave that followed.John Burchard, *Diarium*, in: L. Thuasne, [*Johannis Burchardi Diarium, sive Rerum urbanarum commentarii,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA73) {{in lang\|la\|fr}}, Vol. 1 (Paris: E. Leroux 1883\), p. 73\. He participated in the papal consistory of 20 December 1484 on the subject of the canonization of Duke Leopold of Austria.Eubel II, p. 48, no. 507\. On 11 February 1485, he was present at the papal consistory in which [Pope Innocent VIII](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_VIII "Pope Innocent VIII") received Cardinal [Jean Balue](/wiki/Jean_Balue "Jean Balue") on his return from his embassy to the French court; Bishop Morel had the honor of reading aloud in French the letter from King [Charles VIII](/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France "Charles VIII of France") to the pope.Burchard, [p. 140\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA140) Morel was a Referendary of Pope Innocent VIII, who, on 17 November 1487, ratified an agreement between the bishop and the commune of Maurienne with regard to the wine *decima*.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 644\. Billiet \& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [pp. 303\-307\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303)
On 2 March 1506, Bishop Louis de Gorrevod de Challand (1499–1532\) issued a set of *Constitutions* for the diocese of Maurienne. They were particularly concerned with taxation and the regulation of tax officials.Eugène Burnier, "Les constitutions du cardinal Louis II de Gorrevod, évêque de Maurienne et prince (1506\). Étude historique," in: *Mémoires et documents publiés par la Société savoisienne d'histoire et d'archéologie*, {{in lang\|fr\|la}}, Vol. 7 (Chambéry: A. Bottero 1863\), pp. 225\-271, text at pp. 255\-271\.
In 1512, Bishop Louis de Gorrevod ordered the publication of an official liturgical book for the diocese of Maurienne, the *Breviarium ad usum Maurianensis ecclesiae*, based on that used by the cathedral Chapter. During his administration two collegiate churches were founded, Ste. Anne de Chamoux and S. Marcel de la Chambre. The house of the Celestines at Villard\-Sallet and the convent of the Carmelites of la Rochette were also founded.Truchet (1887\), *Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, [*Saint\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, pp. 345\-348](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA345).
#### The diocese of Bourg\-en\-Bresse and Francis I
As early as 1451, the dukes of Savoy had been interested in raising the profile of their ecclesiastical establishment. [Louis, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Louis%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Louis, Duke of Savoy"), sent an embassy to [Pope Nicholas V](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V "Pope Nicholas V"), indicating his wish that Turin be made a metropolitan archdiocese, and that new dioceses be created at Bourg en Bresse and Chambéry.Charles Buet, [*Les ducs de Savoie aux XVe et XVIe siècles,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sU9KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA318) {{in lang\|fr}}, (Tours: A. Mame, 1878\), p. 318\. In July 1515, at the urging of [Charles III, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Charles III, Duke of Savoy"), and over the objections of Francis I of France, the archbishop of Vienne, and the bishop of Grenoble, [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X "Pope Leo X") established a new diocese, Bourg in Bresse, out of territory belonging to the diocese of Maurienne, and a new diocese at Chambéry. The church of S. Maria de Burgo in Bressia was elevated to the status of a cathedral.Paulin Piolin (ed.), [*Gallia christiana in provincias ecclesiasticas distributa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e5MUj3m4K-wC&pg=PA181), Tomus quartus {{in lang\|la}} (Bruxelles: G. Lebrocquy; Paris: V. Palmé 1876\), p. 181\. The first bishop of Bourg was Bishop Louis de Gorrevod of Maurienne, who was allowed to hold both dioceses at the same time. He was also assigned an auxiliary bishop, Jean de Joly, O.P., titular bishop of Hebron, in 1524;Eubel III, p. 208\. in 1544 the auxiliary bishop was Pierre Meynard, also titular bishop of Hebron.Eugène Burnier, ["Le Parlement de Chambéry sous François Ier et Henri II ( 1536\-1559 ). Fragment historique,"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA368) {{in lang\|fr}}, *Mémoires et documents, Société savoisienne d'histoire et d'archéologie*, vol. 6 (Chambéry: Bottero 1862\), p. 368\. In November 1515, Bishop de Gorrevod convened a synod of all the ecclesiastics in the new diocese of Bourg, and drew up a set of statutes, which were published in 1516\.Besson, *Mémoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne,* [p. 303\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZA-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA303) Gorrevod was named a cardinal by [Pope Clement VII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII "Pope Clement VII") on 9 March 1530,Eubel III, p. 21, no. 21\. and on the same day his nephew, Jean Philibert de Challant, was appointed bishop of Bourg\-en\-Bresse.Eubel III, p. 238, note 3: "1530 Mart. 9 el. in episc. Burgien. (Bourg) (cfr. *AC* 3 f. 165\), qui ep(iscop)atus de novo e partibus eccl(esiae) Maurianen(sis) erectus et nunc cum eodem iterum conjungitur."
In 1531, Cardinal de Gorrevod was appointed papal legate in all the territories possessed by the dukes of Savoy, and his powers were confirmed on 2 April 1531 by a letter of Duke Charles III .Besson, *Mémoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne,* [p. 303\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZA-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA303) He resigned the diocese of Maurienne on 10 April 1532, in favor of his nephew, Jean Philibert de Challant, thereby once again bringing the two dioceses together under the leadership of one bishop.Eubel III, p. 238 with note 3\. Challant was only bishop\-elect of Bresse, however, since he did not receive episcopal consecration until 22 May 1541\.Besson, p. 303\.
In the struggle between France ([King Francis I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France "Francis I of France")) and Spain ([Emperor Charles V](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor")) over the duchy of Milan, the duke of Savoy found himself drawn, especially after the defeat and capture of Francis at the [Battle of Pavia](/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia "Battle of Pavia") in 1525, into the orbit of Charles V.Eugène Burnier, "Le Parlement de Chambéry...," [pp. 279\-280\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA279) By 1535, Francis I believed himself strong enough to confront [Charles III of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Charles III, Duke of Savoy"). He confronted Charles and the exiled bishop of Geneva who were besieging Protestant Geneva, raising the siege, capturing the Vaud, and expelling the bishop of Lausanne.Burnier, pp. 281\-282\. On 11 February 1536, the king gave the order to invade Bugey and Bresse, and on 24 February his troops entered Savoy. He immediately ordered the suppression of the diocese of Bourg\-en\-Bresse, whose establishment he had protested, and also refused the bishop\-elect of Chambéry, Urbain de Miolans,The diocese was established and Urbain de Miolans was appointed in 1515 by [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X "Pope Leo X") at the urging of Duke Charles III, but Pope Leo was compelled by Francis I of France to void the bull. Picolet d'Hermillon, ["Note sur la fondation du diocèse de Chambéry"](https://books.google.com/books?id=K8swAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA69), {{in lang\|fr}}, in: *Bulletin mensual de l'Académie delphinale* 4e série, Tome 19 (Grenoble: Allier 1904 \[1905]), pp. 51\-83, at p. 69\. to take possession of his diocese.Burnier, p. 368\.
#### Maurienne in the 16th century
When Bishop de Challant died in 1544, the cathedral Chapter of Maurienne, in accordance with tradition, assembled on 20 July 1544 to elect a new bishop. They chose François de Luxembourg, vicomte de Martigues, who was not in holy orders. Their choice was rejected by King Francis, and he himself attempted to install Dominique de Saint\-Séverin as bishop of Maurienne. The Chapter, however, rejected Saint\-Severin, and therefore the diocese depended on an auxiliary bishop for several years.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 645\. Burnier, "Le Parlement de Chambéry...", [p. 368\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA368) [Pope Paul III](/wiki/Pope_Paul_III "Pope Paul III") transferred bishop\-elect Girolamo Recanati Capodiferro from Nice to Maurienne on 30 July 1544, but there is no evidence that he was in Holy Orders or ever consecrated a bishop; he was named a cardinal on 19 December 1444, and appointed papal legate in the Romandiola on 26 August 1545, where he continued to serve under Pope Julius III, and Marcellus II, and Paul IV.Eubel III, p. 29, no. 59 with notes 5\-7; p. 238 with note 4\.
By the time of the Reformation, the cathedral Chapter possessed eleven parishes and were patrons of twenty\-two others, as well as the hôpital de la Rochette and the priories of La Corbière, Aiton, and Saint\-Julien.S. Truchet, *Saint\-Jean\-de\-Maurienne...*, p. 53\.
On 23 August 1489, Bishop Etienne de Morel (1483–1499\) solemnly invested [Charles I, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_I%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Charles I, Duke of Savoy") (1482–1490\) as a canon of the cathedral of Maurienne. All subsequent dukes, with papal permission, were granted the same privilege, as though it were a hereditary possession.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 644; "Instrumenta", p. 320, no. 34\. Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, took solemn possession of a canonry in the cathedral of Maurienne in 1564\.
#### Diocese of Maurienne in the mid\-17th century
A major plague struck the diocese of Maurienne in 1630\.Alexis Billiet, *Notice sur la peste qui a affligé le diocèse de Maurienne en 1630,* {{in lang\|fr}}, Chambéry: Puthod, 1836\.
Before the appointment of Hercule Berzetti as bishop of Maurienne in 1658, [Pope Alexander VII](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VII "Pope Alexander VII") ordered Cardinal [Antonio Barberini](/wiki/Antonio_Barberini "Antonio Barberini") to provide a report on the state of the diocese and the suitability of the candidate. The report stated that in civil affairs the diocese was subject to the Dukes of Savoy, and in ecclesiastical matters to the metropolitan of Vienne. The cathedral, which was in need of extensive repairs, was administered by a Chapter of 18 canons, though it had no dignities, and there was no special provision for a theologus or penitentiarius. The canons were responsible for the spiritual care of the cathedral parish. The episcopal palace, which was near the cathedral, was in good repair. Besides the cathedral, there were two parishes in the city, a convent of men and one of women, and a hospice for pilgrims. There were around 100 parishes in the diocese, most of them so poor that the incumbent priest relied to an extent on alms.Eugène Burnier, ["Pièces inédits relatives à la province de Maurienne, et tirées des archives du Sénat de Savoie,"](https://books.google.com/books?id=8towAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA393) in: *Travaux de la Société d'histoire et d'archéologie de la Maurienne (Savoie),* Vol. 1 (1878\), pp. 393\-396\.
|
[
"### Imperial and royal influence",
"At the death in 1032 of [Rudolph III of Burgundy](/wiki/Rudolph_III_of_Burgundy \"Rudolph III of Burgundy\"), the last ruler of the independent [Kingdom of Burgundy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy-Arles \"Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles\"), Bishop Thibaut was powerful enough to join a league against [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Holy Roman Emperor\") [Conrad II of Franconia](/wiki/Conrad_II_of_Franconia \"Conrad II of Franconia\").Billiet (1861\\), [*Mémoires... Maurienne*, p. 324\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9qaRuCnqNzUC&pg=PA324) In 1033 the city of Maurienne was destroyed by imperial troops.Besson, p. 285\\. The bishopric lost part of its territory (the Susa valley) to the diocese of Turin, which was promised all.",
"In 1038, it is claimed, the Emperor Conrad suppressed the see of Maurienne altogether, giving over its title and possessions to the Bishops of Turin.Besson (1759\\), pp. 344\\-345, no. 6: \"...sanctae Ecclesiae Taurinensi... donamus, Episcopatum scilicet Maurianensis civitatis, domos cum omnibus ædificiis suis; curtem videlicet... decimas quoque ipsius Episcopatûs, nec non Ecclesias eidem Episcopatui pertinentes, montes verò et valles, aquas, molendina, piscationes, foresta, sylvas, pascua; buscalia omnia in integrum, quidquid videtur esse de appenditiis supradictæ civitatis Moriennæ, donamus, concedimus atque delegamus jam dictæ Ecclesiæ S. Joannis\\-Baptista Taurinensis sedis....\" This imperial decree was never executed though, due probably to the death of Conrad on 4 June 1039\\. At the death of Bishop Guido of Turin in 1044, it is stated, Bishop Thibaud was fully reinstated at Maurienne. The imperial diploma concerning the handing over of Maurienne to Turin, however, has been shown to be a forgery, and thus the entire story is called into question.H. Bresslau, *Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Diplomatum Regum et Imperatorum Germaniae* {{in lang\\|la\\|de}}, Tomus IV: [Conradi II Diplomata](https://books.google.com/books?id=x-sJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA407) (Hannover: Hahn 1909\\), pp. 411\\-413, no. 291\\. If the diploma is a forgery, then the transfer of Maurienne to Turin did not take place, which explains why Conrad's decree did not go into effect, and why Maurienne continued independent after 1044\\. Harry Bresslau, [*Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Konrad II,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dnsNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA475) {{in lang\\|de}}, Volume 2 (Leipzig: Duncker \\& Humblot, 1884\\), pp. 475\\-476\\. R.L. Poole, p. 1: \"The influence of the fabrications of the church of Vienne has not been finally extirpated; the forged charter of King Boso (887\\) is still appealed to as an authority; and the spuriousness of the diploma of the Emperor Conrad II (1038\\) has not yet everywhere been recognized.\" On the Boso charter being a forgery, see also: Réné Poupardin, [*Le royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens (855\\-933?)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BdEDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111), {{in lang\\|fr}}, (Paris: É. Bouillon, 1901\\), p. 111 with note 2: \"La donation, faite par Boson à l'église de Maurienne, du château d'Hermillon (*Hist. de Fr.*, t. IX, p. 672\\) est un faux datant probablement du XIe siècle.\"",
"#### Maurienne in the 15th century",
"Arvan \nIn February 1440, a major flood from the Bonrieu river to the west, overran the entire city of Maurienne. In a 1447 report of Canon Hugo de Fabrica, the vicar\\-general, to Bishop Louis de La Palud, the Cardinal de Varambone, a great part of the houses of the city as well as the cathedral were ruined. The cathedral was so badly damaged that the upper church had to be completely rebuilt, and the lower church was filled with debris and unusable. A bridge over the flooding Arvan river was washed away, as well as another bridge over the Arc river, which was also in flood.Truchet, *Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle* [pp. 27\\-28\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27) Billiet \\& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [pp. 258\\-260\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA258)",
"During much of the fifteenth century, the administration of the diocese was neglected. Saturnin Truchet notes that from 1441 to 1483 the bishops were non\\-residential, with the exception of the last five years of the life of Cardinal Louis de La Palud (1441–1451\\), the Cardinal de Varambon. The *decima* tax of the bishops was frequently not paid or was irregularly collected, due to the inattention and lack of supervision of the collectors.Truchet (1887\\), *Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, [p. 247\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA333) Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville (1453–1483\\) was particularly remiss.\"Guillaume d'Estouteville n'y avait jamais résidé . Les droits de l'évêché avaient été fort mal défendus; ses revenus avaient même été réduits sous la main de l'Etat pendant la plus grande partie de l'épiscopat de Guillaume d'Estouteville.\"",
"The next bishop, Étienne de Morel (1483–1499\\) was also an absent pastor. He was papal datary of [Pope Sixtus IV](/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV \"Pope Sixtus IV\") when he was appointed to the diocese of Maurienne on 31 January 1483\\.Eubel II, p. 188\\. He was still in Rome, and still functioning as datary at the pope's death on 12 August 1484; he was an official custodian at the main gate of the conclave that followed.John Burchard, *Diarium*, in: L. Thuasne, [*Johannis Burchardi Diarium, sive Rerum urbanarum commentarii,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA73) {{in lang\\|la\\|fr}}, Vol. 1 (Paris: E. Leroux 1883\\), p. 73\\. He participated in the papal consistory of 20 December 1484 on the subject of the canonization of Duke Leopold of Austria.Eubel II, p. 48, no. 507\\. On 11 February 1485, he was present at the papal consistory in which [Pope Innocent VIII](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_VIII \"Pope Innocent VIII\") received Cardinal [Jean Balue](/wiki/Jean_Balue \"Jean Balue\") on his return from his embassy to the French court; Bishop Morel had the honor of reading aloud in French the letter from King [Charles VIII](/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France \"Charles VIII of France\") to the pope.Burchard, [p. 140\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA140) Morel was a Referendary of Pope Innocent VIII, who, on 17 November 1487, ratified an agreement between the bishop and the commune of Maurienne with regard to the wine *decima*.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 644\\. Billiet \\& Albrieux, *Chartes du diocèse de Maurienne* [pp. 303\\-307\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=3RcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303)",
"On 2 March 1506, Bishop Louis de Gorrevod de Challand (1499–1532\\) issued a set of *Constitutions* for the diocese of Maurienne. They were particularly concerned with taxation and the regulation of tax officials.Eugène Burnier, \"Les constitutions du cardinal Louis II de Gorrevod, évêque de Maurienne et prince (1506\\). Étude historique,\" in: *Mémoires et documents publiés par la Société savoisienne d'histoire et d'archéologie*, {{in lang\\|fr\\|la}}, Vol. 7 (Chambéry: A. Bottero 1863\\), pp. 225\\-271, text at pp. 255\\-271\\.",
"In 1512, Bishop Louis de Gorrevod ordered the publication of an official liturgical book for the diocese of Maurienne, the *Breviarium ad usum Maurianensis ecclesiae*, based on that used by the cathedral Chapter. During his administration two collegiate churches were founded, Ste. Anne de Chamoux and S. Marcel de la Chambre. The house of the Celestines at Villard\\-Sallet and the convent of the Carmelites of la Rochette were also founded.Truchet (1887\\), *Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, [*Saint\\-Jean de Maurienne au XVIe siècle*, pp. 345\\-348](https://books.google.com/books?id=IeoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA345).",
"#### The diocese of Bourg\\-en\\-Bresse and Francis I",
"As early as 1451, the dukes of Savoy had been interested in raising the profile of their ecclesiastical establishment. [Louis, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Louis%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Louis, Duke of Savoy\"), sent an embassy to [Pope Nicholas V](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V \"Pope Nicholas V\"), indicating his wish that Turin be made a metropolitan archdiocese, and that new dioceses be created at Bourg en Bresse and Chambéry.Charles Buet, [*Les ducs de Savoie aux XVe et XVIe siècles,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sU9KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA318) {{in lang\\|fr}}, (Tours: A. Mame, 1878\\), p. 318\\. In July 1515, at the urging of [Charles III, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Charles III, Duke of Savoy\"), and over the objections of Francis I of France, the archbishop of Vienne, and the bishop of Grenoble, [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X \"Pope Leo X\") established a new diocese, Bourg in Bresse, out of territory belonging to the diocese of Maurienne, and a new diocese at Chambéry. The church of S. Maria de Burgo in Bressia was elevated to the status of a cathedral.Paulin Piolin (ed.), [*Gallia christiana in provincias ecclesiasticas distributa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e5MUj3m4K-wC&pg=PA181), Tomus quartus {{in lang\\|la}} (Bruxelles: G. Lebrocquy; Paris: V. Palmé 1876\\), p. 181\\. The first bishop of Bourg was Bishop Louis de Gorrevod of Maurienne, who was allowed to hold both dioceses at the same time. He was also assigned an auxiliary bishop, Jean de Joly, O.P., titular bishop of Hebron, in 1524;Eubel III, p. 208\\. in 1544 the auxiliary bishop was Pierre Meynard, also titular bishop of Hebron.Eugène Burnier, [\"Le Parlement de Chambéry sous François Ier et Henri II ( 1536\\-1559 ). Fragment historique,\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA368) {{in lang\\|fr}}, *Mémoires et documents, Société savoisienne d'histoire et d'archéologie*, vol. 6 (Chambéry: Bottero 1862\\), p. 368\\. In November 1515, Bishop de Gorrevod convened a synod of all the ecclesiastics in the new diocese of Bourg, and drew up a set of statutes, which were published in 1516\\.Besson, *Mémoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne,* [p. 303\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZA-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA303) Gorrevod was named a cardinal by [Pope Clement VII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII \"Pope Clement VII\") on 9 March 1530,Eubel III, p. 21, no. 21\\. and on the same day his nephew, Jean Philibert de Challant, was appointed bishop of Bourg\\-en\\-Bresse.Eubel III, p. 238, note 3: \"1530 Mart. 9 el. in episc. Burgien. (Bourg) (cfr. *AC* 3 f. 165\\), qui ep(iscop)atus de novo e partibus eccl(esiae) Maurianen(sis) erectus et nunc cum eodem iterum conjungitur.\"",
"In 1531, Cardinal de Gorrevod was appointed papal legate in all the territories possessed by the dukes of Savoy, and his powers were confirmed on 2 April 1531 by a letter of Duke Charles III .Besson, *Mémoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne,* [p. 303\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZA-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA303) He resigned the diocese of Maurienne on 10 April 1532, in favor of his nephew, Jean Philibert de Challant, thereby once again bringing the two dioceses together under the leadership of one bishop.Eubel III, p. 238 with note 3\\. Challant was only bishop\\-elect of Bresse, however, since he did not receive episcopal consecration until 22 May 1541\\.Besson, p. 303\\.",
"In the struggle between France ([King Francis I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France \"Francis I of France\")) and Spain ([Emperor Charles V](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\")) over the duchy of Milan, the duke of Savoy found himself drawn, especially after the defeat and capture of Francis at the [Battle of Pavia](/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia \"Battle of Pavia\") in 1525, into the orbit of Charles V.Eugène Burnier, \"Le Parlement de Chambéry...,\" [pp. 279\\-280\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA279) By 1535, Francis I believed himself strong enough to confront [Charles III of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Charles III, Duke of Savoy\"). He confronted Charles and the exiled bishop of Geneva who were besieging Protestant Geneva, raising the siege, capturing the Vaud, and expelling the bishop of Lausanne.Burnier, pp. 281\\-282\\. On 11 February 1536, the king gave the order to invade Bugey and Bresse, and on 24 February his troops entered Savoy. He immediately ordered the suppression of the diocese of Bourg\\-en\\-Bresse, whose establishment he had protested, and also refused the bishop\\-elect of Chambéry, Urbain de Miolans,The diocese was established and Urbain de Miolans was appointed in 1515 by [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X \"Pope Leo X\") at the urging of Duke Charles III, but Pope Leo was compelled by Francis I of France to void the bull. Picolet d'Hermillon, [\"Note sur la fondation du diocèse de Chambéry\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=K8swAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA69), {{in lang\\|fr}}, in: *Bulletin mensual de l'Académie delphinale* 4e série, Tome 19 (Grenoble: Allier 1904 \\[1905]), pp. 51\\-83, at p. 69\\. to take possession of his diocese.Burnier, p. 368\\.",
"#### Maurienne in the 16th century",
"When Bishop de Challant died in 1544, the cathedral Chapter of Maurienne, in accordance with tradition, assembled on 20 July 1544 to elect a new bishop. They chose François de Luxembourg, vicomte de Martigues, who was not in holy orders. Their choice was rejected by King Francis, and he himself attempted to install Dominique de Saint\\-Séverin as bishop of Maurienne. The Chapter, however, rejected Saint\\-Severin, and therefore the diocese depended on an auxiliary bishop for several years.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 645\\. Burnier, \"Le Parlement de Chambéry...\", [p. 368\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=-7BUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA368) [Pope Paul III](/wiki/Pope_Paul_III \"Pope Paul III\") transferred bishop\\-elect Girolamo Recanati Capodiferro from Nice to Maurienne on 30 July 1544, but there is no evidence that he was in Holy Orders or ever consecrated a bishop; he was named a cardinal on 19 December 1444, and appointed papal legate in the Romandiola on 26 August 1545, where he continued to serve under Pope Julius III, and Marcellus II, and Paul IV.Eubel III, p. 29, no. 59 with notes 5\\-7; p. 238 with note 4\\.",
"By the time of the Reformation, the cathedral Chapter possessed eleven parishes and were patrons of twenty\\-two others, as well as the hôpital de la Rochette and the priories of La Corbière, Aiton, and Saint\\-Julien.S. Truchet, *Saint\\-Jean\\-de\\-Maurienne...*, p. 53\\.",
"On 23 August 1489, Bishop Etienne de Morel (1483–1499\\) solemnly invested [Charles I, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_I%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Charles I, Duke of Savoy\") (1482–1490\\) as a canon of the cathedral of Maurienne. All subsequent dukes, with papal permission, were granted the same privilege, as though it were a hereditary possession.Hauréau, *Gallia christiana* XVI, p. 644; \"Instrumenta\", p. 320, no. 34\\. Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, took solemn possession of a canonry in the cathedral of Maurienne in 1564\\.",
"#### Diocese of Maurienne in the mid\\-17th century",
"A major plague struck the diocese of Maurienne in 1630\\.Alexis Billiet, *Notice sur la peste qui a affligé le diocèse de Maurienne en 1630,* {{in lang\\|fr}}, Chambéry: Puthod, 1836\\.",
"Before the appointment of Hercule Berzetti as bishop of Maurienne in 1658, [Pope Alexander VII](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VII \"Pope Alexander VII\") ordered Cardinal [Antonio Barberini](/wiki/Antonio_Barberini \"Antonio Barberini\") to provide a report on the state of the diocese and the suitability of the candidate. The report stated that in civil affairs the diocese was subject to the Dukes of Savoy, and in ecclesiastical matters to the metropolitan of Vienne. The cathedral, which was in need of extensive repairs, was administered by a Chapter of 18 canons, though it had no dignities, and there was no special provision for a theologus or penitentiarius. The canons were responsible for the spiritual care of the cathedral parish. The episcopal palace, which was near the cathedral, was in good repair. Besides the cathedral, there were two parishes in the city, a convent of men and one of women, and a hospice for pilgrims. There were around 100 parishes in the diocese, most of them so poor that the incumbent priest relied to an extent on alms.Eugène Burnier, [\"Pièces inédits relatives à la province de Maurienne, et tirées des archives du Sénat de Savoie,\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=8towAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA393) in: *Travaux de la Société d'histoire et d'archéologie de la Maurienne (Savoie),* Vol. 1 (1878\\), pp. 393\\-396\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
The team's founder, [Ambrose O'Brien](/wiki/Ambrose_O%27Brien "Ambrose O'Brien") had played varsity hockey at the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto "University of Toronto"), then continued his interest as a team founder and owner, financed by his father's amassed great wealth during the [Cobalt silver rush](/wiki/Cobalt_silver_rush "Cobalt silver rush") –mining magnate Senator [M. J. O'Brien](/wiki/Michael_John_O%27Brien "Michael John O'Brien").[HHOF](https://www.hhof.com/LegendsOfHockey/jsp/LegendsMember.jsp?mem=b196205&type=Builder&page=bio&list=ByName) "Legends of Hockey — Builders", Hockey Hall of Fame. Retrieved April 21, 2018\.
In 1909, when O'Brien sought to join the new [Canadian Hockey Association](/wiki/Canadian_Hockey_Association_%281909-1910%29 "Canadian Hockey Association (1909-1910)") with his existing Renfrew team in the semi\-pro [Federal Hockey League](/wiki/Federal_Amateur_Hockey_League "Federal Amateur Hockey League"), the application was rejected. With fellow rejectee [Montreal Wanderers](/wiki/Montreal_Wanderers "Montreal Wanderers"), O'Brien founded the NHA, along with franchises in [Cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt%2C_Ontario "Cobalt, Ontario"), [Haileybury](/wiki/Haileybury%2C_Ontario "Haileybury, Ontario") and [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal").
With O'Brien Silver Mine money backing the Creamery Kings, Renfrew iced a powerful team during its first season, with players [Frank Patrick](/wiki/Frank_Patrick_%28ice_hockey%29 "Frank Patrick (ice hockey)") and [Lester Patrick](/wiki/Lester_Patrick "Lester Patrick") commanding salaries of $3,000 each, and [Cyclone Taylor](/wiki/Cyclone_Taylor "Cyclone Taylor") receiving a record\-setting $5,250 for a two\-month season.
In consequence, the team became widely nicknamed the "Millionaires" for the over the top salaries. O'Brien also secured the services of [Newsy Lalonde](/wiki/Newsy_Lalonde "Newsy Lalonde") midseason from the Canadiens franchise, and Lalonde would wind up the season as NHA's first scoring champion. Coached by [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators_%28original%29 "Ottawa Senators (original)") legend and future [Hall of Famer](/wiki/Hall_of_Famer "Hall of Famer") [Alf Smith](/wiki/Alf_Smith_%28ice_hockey%29 "Alf Smith (ice hockey)"), Renfrew finished in third place in the [1910](/wiki/1910_NHA_season "1910 NHA season") season with an 8\-3\-1 record. The team had been held as a favorite to win the [Stanley Cup](/wiki/Stanley_Cup "Stanley Cup") at the onset of the season, and at the end of the season Ottawa Senators player [Bruce Stuart](/wiki/Bruce_Stuart "Bruce Stuart") claimed lack of confidence played a role in the missed opportunity:
{{quote box\| quote\="Renfrew should have won the cup this winter. Why they had positively the greatest collection of players that I have ever seen together. Why did they lose? Simply because the team lacked confidence in itself and because it was not\-properly handled until Alf Smith took charge. Those men didn't know the extent of their hockey abilities. They became discouraged too easily and again did not appear to take things with sufficient seriousness." \|source\=\[\[Bruce Stuart]] on why Renfrew failed to win the Stanley Cup in 1910\. \[\[Ottawa Citizen]], Apr. 1, 1910\.\[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/73686355/confidence\-main\-thing\-in\-sport/ "Confidence main thing in sport – Stuarts' secret of success"], ''Ottawa Citizen''. 1910\-04\-01\. Retrieved 2021\-03\-17\.\|align\=center\|width\=500px}}
Its second and final [season](/wiki/1910%E2%80%9311_NHA_season "1910–11 NHA season"), Renfrew lost Lalonde to the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens "Montreal Canadiens"), and finished with a less than stellar 8\-8 record, with [Don Smith](/wiki/Don_Smith_%28ice_hockey_b._1887%29 "Don Smith (ice hockey b. 1887)") and [Odie Cleghorn](/wiki/Odie_Cleghorn "Odie Cleghorn") being the leading scorers. Renfrew's final major professional game was a 7\-6 victory on March 7, 1911, against the Wanderers.
Thereafter, with it being apparent that the small towns such as Renfrew, Cobalt and Haileybury could not support major senior hockey, O'Brien folded the franchise for good.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The team's founder, [Ambrose O'Brien](/wiki/Ambrose_O%27Brien \"Ambrose O'Brien\") had played varsity hockey at the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\"), then continued his interest as a team founder and owner, financed by his father's amassed great wealth during the [Cobalt silver rush](/wiki/Cobalt_silver_rush \"Cobalt silver rush\") –mining magnate Senator [M. J. O'Brien](/wiki/Michael_John_O%27Brien \"Michael John O'Brien\").[HHOF](https://www.hhof.com/LegendsOfHockey/jsp/LegendsMember.jsp?mem=b196205&type=Builder&page=bio&list=ByName) \"Legends of Hockey — Builders\", Hockey Hall of Fame. Retrieved April 21, 2018\\.",
"In 1909, when O'Brien sought to join the new [Canadian Hockey Association](/wiki/Canadian_Hockey_Association_%281909-1910%29 \"Canadian Hockey Association (1909-1910)\") with his existing Renfrew team in the semi\\-pro [Federal Hockey League](/wiki/Federal_Amateur_Hockey_League \"Federal Amateur Hockey League\"), the application was rejected. With fellow rejectee [Montreal Wanderers](/wiki/Montreal_Wanderers \"Montreal Wanderers\"), O'Brien founded the NHA, along with franchises in [Cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt%2C_Ontario \"Cobalt, Ontario\"), [Haileybury](/wiki/Haileybury%2C_Ontario \"Haileybury, Ontario\") and [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\").",
"With O'Brien Silver Mine money backing the Creamery Kings, Renfrew iced a powerful team during its first season, with players [Frank Patrick](/wiki/Frank_Patrick_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Frank Patrick (ice hockey)\") and [Lester Patrick](/wiki/Lester_Patrick \"Lester Patrick\") commanding salaries of $3,000 each, and [Cyclone Taylor](/wiki/Cyclone_Taylor \"Cyclone Taylor\") receiving a record\\-setting $5,250 for a two\\-month season.",
"In consequence, the team became widely nicknamed the \"Millionaires\" for the over the top salaries. O'Brien also secured the services of [Newsy Lalonde](/wiki/Newsy_Lalonde \"Newsy Lalonde\") midseason from the Canadiens franchise, and Lalonde would wind up the season as NHA's first scoring champion. Coached by [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators_%28original%29 \"Ottawa Senators (original)\") legend and future [Hall of Famer](/wiki/Hall_of_Famer \"Hall of Famer\") [Alf Smith](/wiki/Alf_Smith_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Alf Smith (ice hockey)\"), Renfrew finished in third place in the [1910](/wiki/1910_NHA_season \"1910 NHA season\") season with an 8\\-3\\-1 record. The team had been held as a favorite to win the [Stanley Cup](/wiki/Stanley_Cup \"Stanley Cup\") at the onset of the season, and at the end of the season Ottawa Senators player [Bruce Stuart](/wiki/Bruce_Stuart \"Bruce Stuart\") claimed lack of confidence played a role in the missed opportunity:",
"{{quote box\\| quote\\=\"Renfrew should have won the cup this winter. Why they had positively the greatest collection of players that I have ever seen together. Why did they lose? Simply because the team lacked confidence in itself and because it was not\\-properly handled until Alf Smith took charge. Those men didn't know the extent of their hockey abilities. They became discouraged too easily and again did not appear to take things with sufficient seriousness.\" \\|source\\=\\[\\[Bruce Stuart]] on why Renfrew failed to win the Stanley Cup in 1910\\. \\[\\[Ottawa Citizen]], Apr. 1, 1910\\.\\[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/73686355/confidence\\-main\\-thing\\-in\\-sport/ \"Confidence main thing in sport – Stuarts' secret of success\"], ''Ottawa Citizen''. 1910\\-04\\-01\\. Retrieved 2021\\-03\\-17\\.\\|align\\=center\\|width\\=500px}}",
"Its second and final [season](/wiki/1910%E2%80%9311_NHA_season \"1910–11 NHA season\"), Renfrew lost Lalonde to the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens \"Montreal Canadiens\"), and finished with a less than stellar 8\\-8 record, with [Don Smith](/wiki/Don_Smith_%28ice_hockey_b._1887%29 \"Don Smith (ice hockey b. 1887)\") and [Odie Cleghorn](/wiki/Odie_Cleghorn \"Odie Cleghorn\") being the leading scorers. Renfrew's final major professional game was a 7\\-6 victory on March 7, 1911, against the Wanderers.",
"Thereafter, with it being apparent that the small towns such as Renfrew, Cobalt and Haileybury could not support major senior hockey, O'Brien folded the franchise for good.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early history
{{location map\+\|West Midlands \|float\=right \|width\=400 \|caption\=Locations of the teams within the West Midlands county \|places\=
{{location map\~ \| West Midlands \|lat\=52\.567 \|long\=\-1\.988 \|label\=\|mark\=Red ff0000 pog.svg\|position\=right}}
{{location map\~ \| West Midlands \|lat\=52\.511 \|long\=\-1\.965 \|label\=\|mark\=Blue 000080 pog.svg\|position\=right}}
{{location map\~ \| West Midlands \|lat\=52\.592 \|long\=\-2\.129 \|label\=\|mark\=Orange ff8040 pog.svg\|position\=right}}
\[\[Walsall F.C.\|Walsall]]
\[\[West Bromwich Albion F.C.\|West Bromwich Albion]]
\[\[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.\|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]
}}
The earliest Black Country derbies were contested before the formation of the [Football League](/wiki/Football_League "Football League"). The first ever derby took place on 20 January 1883, when Albion won 4–2 in the third round of the [Birmingham Senior Cup](/wiki/Birmingham_Senior_Cup "Birmingham Senior Cup").{{cite book \|last\=Matthews \|first\=Tony \|title\=Albion! A Complete Record of West Bromwich Albion 1879–1987 \|publisher\=Breedon Books \|date\=1987 \| isbn \= 0\-907969\-23\-2}} Wolves and Albion's first two 'official' meetings came in the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") in 1886 and 1887,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\_id\=2744\&team2\_id\=2848\&teamTabs\=h2h \|title\=West Brom head\-to\-head v Wolves \|access\-date\=1 August 2017 \|archive\-date\=2 August 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802002156/http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\_id\=2744\&team2\_id\=2848\&teamTabs\=h2h \|url\-status\=live }} with Albion recording victories on both occasions and going on to reach the final in both years. The first of Walsall's fixtures against Wolves and Albion were also in the FA Cup, in 1889 and 1900 respectively.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\_id\=2737\&team2\_id\=2848\&teamTabs\=h2h \|title\=Walsall head\-to\-head v Wolves \|access\-date\=1 August 2017 \|archive\-date\=28 October 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028075256/https://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\_id\=2737\&team2\_id\=2848\&teamTabs\=h2h \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\_id\=2737\&team2\_id\=2744\&teamTabs\=h2h \|title\=Walsall head\-to\-head v West Brom \|access\-date\=1 August 2017 \|archive\-date\=28 October 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028080937/https://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\_id\=2737\&team2\_id\=2744\&teamTabs\=h2h \|url\-status\=live }}
With both West Bromwich Albion and Wolverhampton Wanderers being founder members of the Football League in 1888, the Black Country derby between these two teams is one of the oldest in the world in league football. The fixture was contested in each of the first 13 league seasons from 1888 to 1901\. Attendances in these early fixtures were modest, but that was the case across much of the country as football gradually grew in popularity at the turn of the century. By the 1906–07 season, the fixtures began to regularly attract crowds above 20,000 and a more intense rivalry emerged.
### Post\-war zenith
The Albion–Wolves derby reached its peak in the 1950s when both sides challenged for honours at the top of English football, with each in the First Division from 1949 to 1965\. Wolves enjoyed league and cup domination for a good deal of the 1950s; finishing in the top 3 on nine occasions, winning the title three times and FA Cup twice in this period. Albion were also a strong side, renowned for their attacking flair, and also challenged near the top of the league. They won the FA Cup in 1954\.
It was the 1953–54 season in which the sides finished as the top 2 clubs in the country for the first and only time. Wolves won the league title, finishing four points ahead of the *Baggies*, despite Albion topping the table for the majority of the season. Wolves' league win coupled with Albion's cup win meant they contested the Charity Shield in 1954 – the only time the two teams have met in the final of any competition. [The game finished 4–4](/wiki/1954_FA_Charity_Shield "1954 FA Charity Shield") in front of a Molineux crowd of 45,035\.
Throughout the rest of the century both sides met frequently, with a six\-year period in the 1980s the longest gap without a meeting between the two Black Country rivals. Walsall's continued existence in the lower divisions meant they avoided any league meetings with either of their neighbours for decade after decade. However, in the 1980s they met Wolves for one season in 1985–86 and Albion for one season in 1988–89\.
When the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") was formed in 1992 both Albion and Wolves were outside the top division but they continued to meet in the 'new' First Division throughout the 1990s. The rivalry remained intense and due to police concerns and televised games, the fixture has not been staged at the traditional English kick\-off time of 3pm on a Saturday since 1996\. Hooliganism in the fixtures was a big problem in the 1960s{{fact\|date\=January 2024}} and the frictions between fanbases causes regular restrictions on local pubs on match days.{{cite news\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/west\_midlands/7348071\.stm \| publisher\=BBC News \| title\=Pubs urged to shut ahead of derby \| date\=15 April 2008 \| access\-date\=26 April 2010}}
### Modern meetings
[right\|thumb\|350px\|Chart of yearly table positions of the Derby participants in the English football leagueFollowing](/wiki/File:Black_Country_Derby_League_Performance.svg "Black Country Derby League Performance.svg") Walsall's unlikely promotion to the First Division in 1999,{{cite news\| title\=Walsall in dreamland\| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/1999/may/01/match.sport9\| work\=The Guardian\| access\-date\=13 July 2017\| archive\-date\=1 August 2017\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801234612/https://www.theguardian.com/football/1999/may/01/match.sport9\| url\-status\=live}} the [1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_Football_League "1999–2000 Football League") represented the first time all three sides had ever been in the same division. Walsall took the bragging rights with a double over Albion and an away win at Molineux, while Albion and Wolves shared the spoils in both league fixtures. Albion and Walsall were in a battle with each other to avoid relegation and ultimately it was the *Saddlers* who faced the drop, putting an end to the three\-way Black Country derbies after only one season.
A year later Walsall earned an immediate return to the First Division{{cite news\| title\=Walsall break Reading hearts\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_2/1352124\.stm\| publisher\=BBC Sport\| access\-date\=15 July 2017\| archive\-date\=22 October 2002\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20021022204136/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_2/1352124\.stm\| url\-status\=live}} and once again all three sides occupied the same level in the 2001–02 season. This time around it was Albion and Wolves who were in direct competition in the league, with both sides going for promotion. Both fixtures against each other were in the first half of the season, with a 1–1 draw at the Hawthorns{{cite news\| title\=West Brom 1–1 Wolves\| url\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/1618028\.stm
\| publisher\=BBC Sport \| access\-date\=15 July 2017}} and a 1–0 victory for Albion at Molineux.{{cite news\| title\=Wolves 0–1 West Brom\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/1683442\.stm\| publisher\=BBC Sport\| access\-date\=15 July 2017\| archive\-date\=2 August 2017\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802014738/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/1683442\.stm\| url\-status\=live}} By 6 March 2002, after 38 games of the season, Wolves were ten points ahead of Albion{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\-championship\-2001\-2002\-spieltag/38/ \|title\=Championship 2001/2002 » 38\. Round \|access\-date\=1 August 2017 \|archive\-date\=25 September 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925091147/http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\-championship\-2001\-2002\-spieltag/38/ \|url\-status\=live }} but gained only 9 more points compared to Albion's 22 in the last eight matches{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\-championship\-2001\-2002\-spieltag/46/ \|title\=Championship 2001/2002 » 46\. Round \|access\-date\=1 August 2017 \|archive\-date\=25 September 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925091150/http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\-championship\-2001\-2002\-spieltag/46/ \|url\-status\=live }} and the *Baggies* clinched automatic promotion in second place on the final day of the season.{{cite news\| title\=West Brom take leap into the unknown\| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2002/apr/22/match.sport5\| work\=The Guardian\| access\-date\=15 July 2017\| archive\-date\=21 September 2019\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921163515/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2002/apr/22/match.sport5\| url\-status\=live}} Wolves were subsequently beaten in the play\-offs by [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich_City_F.C. "Norwich City F.C.").{{cite news\| title\=Norwich end Wolves hopes\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/1959203\.stm\| publisher\=BBC Sport\| access\-date\=15 July 2017\| archive\-date\=17 August 2022\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817025231/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/1959203\.stm\| url\-status\=live}}
The *Baggies* were relegated from the Premier League after only one season and saw Wolves take their place in the top flight.{{cite news \| title\=Wolves back in big time \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/3050993\.stm \| publisher\=BBC Sport \| access\-date\=15 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=2 February 2020 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202233537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/3050993\.stm \| url\-status\=live }} To rub even more salt into the wounds, a [Paul Merson](/wiki/Paul_Merson "Paul Merson")\-inspired Walsall side thumped them 4–1 on the opening day of the 2003–04 season.{{cite news\| title\=Merson works like a charm on Walsall\| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/aug/11/newsstory.sport3\| work\=The Guardian\| access\-date\=15 July 2017\| archive\-date\=1 August 2017\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235106/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/aug/11/newsstory.sport3\| url\-status\=live}} But it was Albion who had the last laugh, as they were promoted once again and Walsall's stint in the second tier came to an end as they dropped into [League One](/wiki/EFL_League_One "EFL League One").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\-championship\-2003\-2004\-spieltag/46/ \|title\=Championship 2003/2004 » 46\. Round \|access\-date\=1 August 2017 \|archive\-date\=18 August 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818130522/http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\-championship\-2003\-2004\-spieltag/46/ \|url\-status\=live }}
After a five\-year break without a derby between Albion and Wolves the [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_in_English_football "2006–07 in English football") saw the teams meet a record five times. Albion won the first meeting 3–0 at the Hawthorns before Wolves won the return fixture 1–0 at Molineux. The clubs also met in the FA Cup fourth round, with Albion triumphing 3–0 at Molineux – a major riot followed in the city centre as hundreds of fans clashed.{{cite news \| title\=Bitter rivals do battle \| url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/2297404/Wolves\-v\-West\-Brom\-Bitter\-rivals\-do\-battle.html \| work\=The Guardian \| access\-date\=16 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=20 June 2017 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620155658/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/2297404/Wolves\-v\-West\-Brom\-Bitter\-rivals\-do\-battle.html \| url\-status\=live }} At the end of the season the clubs finished level on points and met in the [Championship play\-offs](/wiki/2007_Football_League_play-offs "2007 Football League play-offs").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\-championship\-2006\-2007\-spieltag/46/ \|title\=Championship 2006/2007 » 46\. Round \|access\-date\=1 August 2017 \|archive\-date\=18 August 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818132020/http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\-championship\-2006\-2007\-spieltag/46/ \|url\-status\=live }} Both legs were won by Albion, sending them through to the final 4–2 on aggregate. However, they lost 1–0 in the final to [Derby](/wiki/Derby_County_F.C. "Derby County F.C.") at [Wembley](/wiki/Wembley_Stadium "Wembley Stadium").{{cite news \| title\=Derby 1\-0 West Brom \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/6689971\.stm \| publisher\=BBC Sport \| access\-date\=16 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=1 August 2017 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801234400/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/6689971\.stm \| url\-status\=live }}
In the [2010–11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_in_English_football "2010–11 in English football") the two sides met for the first time in the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League"), marking the first top flight derby in nearly 27 years. The first league meeting at the Hawthorns ended 1–1 with [Jamie O'Hara](/wiki/Jamie_O%27Hara_%28footballer%29 "Jamie O'Hara (footballer)") giving Wolves a first\-half lead before an injury time equaliser from Albion's [Carlos Vela](/wiki/Carlos_Vela "Carlos Vela") earned the *Baggies* a point.{{cite news \| title\=West Brom 1\-1 Wolverhampton \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_prem/9398454\.stm \| publisher\=BBC Sport \| access\-date\=19 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=1 August 2017 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235405/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_prem/9398454\.stm \| url\-status\=live }} In the return fixture at Molineux, Wolves claimed the bragging rights with a 3–1 win. The victory was particularly crucial in helping Wolves escape relegation.{{cite news \| title\=Wolverhampton 3\-1 West Brom \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_prem/9474065\.stm \| publisher\=BBC Sport \| access\-date\=19 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=26 April 2021 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426032409/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_prem/9474065\.stm \| url\-status\=live }}
The latest meetings between Albion and Wolves were in the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_in_English_football "2011–12 in English football") when both clubs, again, competed in the top flight. Albion claimed a league double over their bitter rivals for the first time since 1997–98\. A 2–0 win at the Hawthorns{{cite news \| title\=West Brom 2\-0 Wolves: Baggies beat Black Country rivals \| url\=http://talksport.com/sports\-news/football/premier\-league/1195/77/west\-brom\-2\-0\-wolves\-baggies\-beat\-black\-country\-rivals \| work\=Talk Sport \| access\-date\=19 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=1 August 2017 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235435/http://talksport.com/sports\-news/football/premier\-league/1195/77/west\-brom\-2\-0\-wolves\-baggies\-beat\-black\-country\-rivals \| url\-status\=live }} was followed by a 5–1 demolition of Wolves away at Molineux where [Peter Odemwingie](/wiki/Peter_Odemwingie "Peter Odemwingie") grabbed a hat\-trick.{{cite news \| title\=Peter Odemwingie sparkles as five\-goal West Brom leave Wolves in peril \| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2012/feb/12/wolverhampton\-wanderers\-west\-bromwich\-albion\-premier\-league \| work\=The Guardian \| access\-date\=19 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=1 August 2017 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235059/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2012/feb/12/wolverhampton\-wanderers\-west\-bromwich\-albion\-premier\-league \| url\-status\=live }} Wolves manager [Mick McCarthy](/wiki/Mick_McCarthy "Mick McCarthy") was sacked the next day and Wolves were relegated from the Premier League at the end of the season.{{cite news \| title\=Mick McCarthy sacked as Wolves manager after West Brom defeat \| url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/17012933 \| publisher\=BBC Sport \| access\-date\=19 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=13 January 2016 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113022552/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17012933 \| url\-status\=live }}
Wolves' demise continued and they found themselves relegated again the following season, meeting up with Walsall in [League One](/wiki/EFL_League_One "EFL League One") in 2013–14\. The two Black Country rivals met twice in the league and once in the [Football League Trophy](/wiki/Football_League_Trophy "Football League Trophy"). The most recent derby being a 3–0 victory for Wolves at Bescot Stadium on 8 March 2014\.{{cite news \| title\=Walsall 0\-3 Wolves \| url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/26395620 \| publisher\=BBC Sport \| access\-date\=19 July 2017 \| archive\-date\=31 January 2019 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131132641/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/26395620 \| url\-status\=live }}
The 2020–21 season saw Wolves and Albion\- the latter, who had won promotion the season before\- clash for the first time in 9 years. Their first meeting at the Molineux on 16 January 2021 ended in a 3–2 win for Albion, with two penalties from [Matheus Pereira](/wiki/Matheus_Pereira_%28footballer%2C_born_1996%29 "Matheus Pereira (footballer, born 1996)") and a goal from [Semi Ajayi](/wiki/Semi_Ajayi "Semi Ajayi") winning the match for WBA. Albion were relegated at the end of the season.
Since the [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_in_English_football "2021–22 in English football") the three clubs are in three different divisions, as Wolves compete in the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League"), Albion in the [EFL Championship](/wiki/EFL_Championship "EFL Championship"), and Walsall in the [EFL League Two](/wiki/EFL_League_Two "EFL League Two").
In January 2024, in the FA Cup, Wolves and West Brom played in front of fans for the first time in a dozen years with Wolves winning at [The Hawthorns](/wiki/The_Hawthorns "The Hawthorns") for the first time since 1996\.{{Cite news \|date\=2024\-01\-27 \|title\=FA Cup: Man Utd survive scare to progress against Newport \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/live/football/68026390 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-30 \|work\=BBC Sport \|language\=en\-GB}} However, the game was marred by fighting in the home end roughly 80 minutes into the game.{{Cite news \|date\=2024\-01\-27 \|title\=FA Cup: Man Utd survive scare to progress against Newport \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/live/football/68026390 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-30 \|work\=BBC Sport \|language\=en\-GB}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early history",
"{{location map\\+\\|West Midlands \\|float\\=right \\|width\\=400 \\|caption\\=Locations of the teams within the West Midlands county \\|places\\=\n{{location map\\~ \\| West Midlands \\|lat\\=52\\.567 \\|long\\=\\-1\\.988 \\|label\\=\\|mark\\=Red ff0000 pog.svg\\|position\\=right}}\n{{location map\\~ \\| West Midlands \\|lat\\=52\\.511 \\|long\\=\\-1\\.965 \\|label\\=\\|mark\\=Blue 000080 pog.svg\\|position\\=right}}\n{{location map\\~ \\| West Midlands \\|lat\\=52\\.592 \\|long\\=\\-2\\.129 \\|label\\=\\|mark\\=Orange ff8040 pog.svg\\|position\\=right}}",
"\\[\\[Walsall F.C.\\|Walsall]]\n\\[\\[West Bromwich Albion F.C.\\|West Bromwich Albion]]\n\\[\\[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.\\|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]\n}}",
"The earliest Black Country derbies were contested before the formation of the [Football League](/wiki/Football_League \"Football League\"). The first ever derby took place on 20 January 1883, when Albion won 4–2 in the third round of the [Birmingham Senior Cup](/wiki/Birmingham_Senior_Cup \"Birmingham Senior Cup\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Matthews \\|first\\=Tony \\|title\\=Albion! A Complete Record of West Bromwich Albion 1879–1987 \\|publisher\\=Breedon Books \\|date\\=1987 \\| isbn \\= 0\\-907969\\-23\\-2}} Wolves and Albion's first two 'official' meetings came in the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") in 1886 and 1887,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\\_id\\=2744\\&team2\\_id\\=2848\\&teamTabs\\=h2h \\|title\\=West Brom head\\-to\\-head v Wolves \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802002156/http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\\_id\\=2744\\&team2\\_id\\=2848\\&teamTabs\\=h2h \\|url\\-status\\=live }} with Albion recording victories on both occasions and going on to reach the final in both years. The first of Walsall's fixtures against Wolves and Albion were also in the FA Cup, in 1889 and 1900 respectively.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\\_id\\=2737\\&team2\\_id\\=2848\\&teamTabs\\=h2h \\|title\\=Walsall head\\-to\\-head v Wolves \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 October 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028075256/https://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\\_id\\=2737\\&team2\\_id\\=2848\\&teamTabs\\=h2h \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\\_id\\=2737\\&team2\\_id\\=2744\\&teamTabs\\=h2h \\|title\\=Walsall head\\-to\\-head v West Brom \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 October 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028080937/https://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\\_id\\=2737\\&team2\\_id\\=2744\\&teamTabs\\=h2h \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"With both West Bromwich Albion and Wolverhampton Wanderers being founder members of the Football League in 1888, the Black Country derby between these two teams is one of the oldest in the world in league football. The fixture was contested in each of the first 13 league seasons from 1888 to 1901\\. Attendances in these early fixtures were modest, but that was the case across much of the country as football gradually grew in popularity at the turn of the century. By the 1906–07 season, the fixtures began to regularly attract crowds above 20,000 and a more intense rivalry emerged.",
"### Post\\-war zenith",
"The Albion–Wolves derby reached its peak in the 1950s when both sides challenged for honours at the top of English football, with each in the First Division from 1949 to 1965\\. Wolves enjoyed league and cup domination for a good deal of the 1950s; finishing in the top 3 on nine occasions, winning the title three times and FA Cup twice in this period. Albion were also a strong side, renowned for their attacking flair, and also challenged near the top of the league. They won the FA Cup in 1954\\.",
"It was the 1953–54 season in which the sides finished as the top 2 clubs in the country for the first and only time. Wolves won the league title, finishing four points ahead of the *Baggies*, despite Albion topping the table for the majority of the season. Wolves' league win coupled with Albion's cup win meant they contested the Charity Shield in 1954 – the only time the two teams have met in the final of any competition. [The game finished 4–4](/wiki/1954_FA_Charity_Shield \"1954 FA Charity Shield\") in front of a Molineux crowd of 45,035\\.",
"Throughout the rest of the century both sides met frequently, with a six\\-year period in the 1980s the longest gap without a meeting between the two Black Country rivals. Walsall's continued existence in the lower divisions meant they avoided any league meetings with either of their neighbours for decade after decade. However, in the 1980s they met Wolves for one season in 1985–86 and Albion for one season in 1988–89\\.",
"When the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") was formed in 1992 both Albion and Wolves were outside the top division but they continued to meet in the 'new' First Division throughout the 1990s. The rivalry remained intense and due to police concerns and televised games, the fixture has not been staged at the traditional English kick\\-off time of 3pm on a Saturday since 1996\\. Hooliganism in the fixtures was a big problem in the 1960s{{fact\\|date\\=January 2024}} and the frictions between fanbases causes regular restrictions on local pubs on match days.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/west\\_midlands/7348071\\.stm \\| publisher\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Pubs urged to shut ahead of derby \\| date\\=15 April 2008 \\| access\\-date\\=26 April 2010}}",
"### Modern meetings",
"[right\\|thumb\\|350px\\|Chart of yearly table positions of the Derby participants in the English football leagueFollowing](/wiki/File:Black_Country_Derby_League_Performance.svg \"Black Country Derby League Performance.svg\") Walsall's unlikely promotion to the First Division in 1999,{{cite news\\| title\\=Walsall in dreamland\\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/1999/may/01/match.sport9\\| work\\=The Guardian\\| access\\-date\\=13 July 2017\\| archive\\-date\\=1 August 2017\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801234612/https://www.theguardian.com/football/1999/may/01/match.sport9\\| url\\-status\\=live}} the [1999–2000 season](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_Football_League \"1999–2000 Football League\") represented the first time all three sides had ever been in the same division. Walsall took the bragging rights with a double over Albion and an away win at Molineux, while Albion and Wolves shared the spoils in both league fixtures. Albion and Walsall were in a battle with each other to avoid relegation and ultimately it was the *Saddlers* who faced the drop, putting an end to the three\\-way Black Country derbies after only one season.",
"A year later Walsall earned an immediate return to the First Division{{cite news\\| title\\=Walsall break Reading hearts\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_2/1352124\\.stm\\| publisher\\=BBC Sport\\| access\\-date\\=15 July 2017\\| archive\\-date\\=22 October 2002\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20021022204136/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_2/1352124\\.stm\\| url\\-status\\=live}} and once again all three sides occupied the same level in the 2001–02 season. This time around it was Albion and Wolves who were in direct competition in the league, with both sides going for promotion. Both fixtures against each other were in the first half of the season, with a 1–1 draw at the Hawthorns{{cite news\\| title\\=West Brom 1–1 Wolves\\| url\\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/1618028\\.stm\n\\| publisher\\=BBC Sport \\| access\\-date\\=15 July 2017}} and a 1–0 victory for Albion at Molineux.{{cite news\\| title\\=Wolves 0–1 West Brom\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/1683442\\.stm\\| publisher\\=BBC Sport\\| access\\-date\\=15 July 2017\\| archive\\-date\\=2 August 2017\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802014738/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/1683442\\.stm\\| url\\-status\\=live}} By 6 March 2002, after 38 games of the season, Wolves were ten points ahead of Albion{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\\-championship\\-2001\\-2002\\-spieltag/38/ \\|title\\=Championship 2001/2002 » 38\\. Round \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925091147/http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\\-championship\\-2001\\-2002\\-spieltag/38/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} but gained only 9 more points compared to Albion's 22 in the last eight matches{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\\-championship\\-2001\\-2002\\-spieltag/46/ \\|title\\=Championship 2001/2002 » 46\\. Round \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925091150/http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\\-championship\\-2001\\-2002\\-spieltag/46/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and the *Baggies* clinched automatic promotion in second place on the final day of the season.{{cite news\\| title\\=West Brom take leap into the unknown\\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2002/apr/22/match.sport5\\| work\\=The Guardian\\| access\\-date\\=15 July 2017\\| archive\\-date\\=21 September 2019\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921163515/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2002/apr/22/match.sport5\\| url\\-status\\=live}} Wolves were subsequently beaten in the play\\-offs by [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich_City_F.C. \"Norwich City F.C.\").{{cite news\\| title\\=Norwich end Wolves hopes\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/1959203\\.stm\\| publisher\\=BBC Sport\\| access\\-date\\=15 July 2017\\| archive\\-date\\=17 August 2022\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817025231/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/1959203\\.stm\\| url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The *Baggies* were relegated from the Premier League after only one season and saw Wolves take their place in the top flight.{{cite news \\| title\\=Wolves back in big time \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/3050993\\.stm \\| publisher\\=BBC Sport \\| access\\-date\\=15 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=2 February 2020 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202233537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/3050993\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }} To rub even more salt into the wounds, a [Paul Merson](/wiki/Paul_Merson \"Paul Merson\")\\-inspired Walsall side thumped them 4–1 on the opening day of the 2003–04 season.{{cite news\\| title\\=Merson works like a charm on Walsall\\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/aug/11/newsstory.sport3\\| work\\=The Guardian\\| access\\-date\\=15 July 2017\\| archive\\-date\\=1 August 2017\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235106/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/aug/11/newsstory.sport3\\| url\\-status\\=live}} But it was Albion who had the last laugh, as they were promoted once again and Walsall's stint in the second tier came to an end as they dropped into [League One](/wiki/EFL_League_One \"EFL League One\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\\-championship\\-2003\\-2004\\-spieltag/46/ \\|title\\=Championship 2003/2004 » 46\\. Round \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818130522/http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\\-championship\\-2003\\-2004\\-spieltag/46/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"After a five\\-year break without a derby between Albion and Wolves the [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_in_English_football \"2006–07 in English football\") saw the teams meet a record five times. Albion won the first meeting 3–0 at the Hawthorns before Wolves won the return fixture 1–0 at Molineux. The clubs also met in the FA Cup fourth round, with Albion triumphing 3–0 at Molineux – a major riot followed in the city centre as hundreds of fans clashed.{{cite news \\| title\\=Bitter rivals do battle \\| url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/2297404/Wolves\\-v\\-West\\-Brom\\-Bitter\\-rivals\\-do\\-battle.html \\| work\\=The Guardian \\| access\\-date\\=16 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=20 June 2017 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620155658/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/2297404/Wolves\\-v\\-West\\-Brom\\-Bitter\\-rivals\\-do\\-battle.html \\| url\\-status\\=live }} At the end of the season the clubs finished level on points and met in the [Championship play\\-offs](/wiki/2007_Football_League_play-offs \"2007 Football League play-offs\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\\-championship\\-2006\\-2007\\-spieltag/46/ \\|title\\=Championship 2006/2007 » 46\\. Round \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818132020/http://www.worldfootball.net/schedule/eng\\-championship\\-2006\\-2007\\-spieltag/46/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Both legs were won by Albion, sending them through to the final 4–2 on aggregate. However, they lost 1–0 in the final to [Derby](/wiki/Derby_County_F.C. \"Derby County F.C.\") at [Wembley](/wiki/Wembley_Stadium \"Wembley Stadium\").{{cite news \\| title\\=Derby 1\\-0 West Brom \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/6689971\\.stm \\| publisher\\=BBC Sport \\| access\\-date\\=16 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801234400/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/6689971\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In the [2010–11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_in_English_football \"2010–11 in English football\") the two sides met for the first time in the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\"), marking the first top flight derby in nearly 27 years. The first league meeting at the Hawthorns ended 1–1 with [Jamie O'Hara](/wiki/Jamie_O%27Hara_%28footballer%29 \"Jamie O'Hara (footballer)\") giving Wolves a first\\-half lead before an injury time equaliser from Albion's [Carlos Vela](/wiki/Carlos_Vela \"Carlos Vela\") earned the *Baggies* a point.{{cite news \\| title\\=West Brom 1\\-1 Wolverhampton \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_prem/9398454\\.stm \\| publisher\\=BBC Sport \\| access\\-date\\=19 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235405/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_prem/9398454\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }} In the return fixture at Molineux, Wolves claimed the bragging rights with a 3–1 win. The victory was particularly crucial in helping Wolves escape relegation.{{cite news \\| title\\=Wolverhampton 3\\-1 West Brom \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_prem/9474065\\.stm \\| publisher\\=BBC Sport \\| access\\-date\\=19 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=26 April 2021 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426032409/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_prem/9474065\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The latest meetings between Albion and Wolves were in the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_in_English_football \"2011–12 in English football\") when both clubs, again, competed in the top flight. Albion claimed a league double over their bitter rivals for the first time since 1997–98\\. A 2–0 win at the Hawthorns{{cite news \\| title\\=West Brom 2\\-0 Wolves: Baggies beat Black Country rivals \\| url\\=http://talksport.com/sports\\-news/football/premier\\-league/1195/77/west\\-brom\\-2\\-0\\-wolves\\-baggies\\-beat\\-black\\-country\\-rivals \\| work\\=Talk Sport \\| access\\-date\\=19 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235435/http://talksport.com/sports\\-news/football/premier\\-league/1195/77/west\\-brom\\-2\\-0\\-wolves\\-baggies\\-beat\\-black\\-country\\-rivals \\| url\\-status\\=live }} was followed by a 5–1 demolition of Wolves away at Molineux where [Peter Odemwingie](/wiki/Peter_Odemwingie \"Peter Odemwingie\") grabbed a hat\\-trick.{{cite news \\| title\\=Peter Odemwingie sparkles as five\\-goal West Brom leave Wolves in peril \\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2012/feb/12/wolverhampton\\-wanderers\\-west\\-bromwich\\-albion\\-premier\\-league \\| work\\=The Guardian \\| access\\-date\\=19 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=1 August 2017 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235059/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2012/feb/12/wolverhampton\\-wanderers\\-west\\-bromwich\\-albion\\-premier\\-league \\| url\\-status\\=live }} Wolves manager [Mick McCarthy](/wiki/Mick_McCarthy \"Mick McCarthy\") was sacked the next day and Wolves were relegated from the Premier League at the end of the season.{{cite news \\| title\\=Mick McCarthy sacked as Wolves manager after West Brom defeat \\| url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/17012933 \\| publisher\\=BBC Sport \\| access\\-date\\=19 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=13 January 2016 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113022552/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17012933 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Wolves' demise continued and they found themselves relegated again the following season, meeting up with Walsall in [League One](/wiki/EFL_League_One \"EFL League One\") in 2013–14\\. The two Black Country rivals met twice in the league and once in the [Football League Trophy](/wiki/Football_League_Trophy \"Football League Trophy\"). The most recent derby being a 3–0 victory for Wolves at Bescot Stadium on 8 March 2014\\.{{cite news \\| title\\=Walsall 0\\-3 Wolves \\| url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/26395620 \\| publisher\\=BBC Sport \\| access\\-date\\=19 July 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=31 January 2019 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131132641/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/26395620 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The 2020–21 season saw Wolves and Albion\\- the latter, who had won promotion the season before\\- clash for the first time in 9 years. Their first meeting at the Molineux on 16 January 2021 ended in a 3–2 win for Albion, with two penalties from [Matheus Pereira](/wiki/Matheus_Pereira_%28footballer%2C_born_1996%29 \"Matheus Pereira (footballer, born 1996)\") and a goal from [Semi Ajayi](/wiki/Semi_Ajayi \"Semi Ajayi\") winning the match for WBA. Albion were relegated at the end of the season.",
"Since the [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_in_English_football \"2021–22 in English football\") the three clubs are in three different divisions, as Wolves compete in the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\"), Albion in the [EFL Championship](/wiki/EFL_Championship \"EFL Championship\"), and Walsall in the [EFL League Two](/wiki/EFL_League_Two \"EFL League Two\").",
"In January 2024, in the FA Cup, Wolves and West Brom played in front of fans for the first time in a dozen years with Wolves winning at [The Hawthorns](/wiki/The_Hawthorns \"The Hawthorns\") for the first time since 1996\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-27 \\|title\\=FA Cup: Man Utd survive scare to progress against Newport \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/live/football/68026390 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-30 \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} However, the game was marred by fighting in the home end roughly 80 minutes into the game.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-27 \\|title\\=FA Cup: Man Utd survive scare to progress against Newport \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/live/football/68026390 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-30 \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
""
] |
Common design characteristics
-----------------------------
### Overall construction
All four Jimny generations have separate frame and body (["ladder frame chassis"](/wiki/Ladder_frame "Ladder frame")). The body has no structural carrying role. It serves only as a cabin to protect the occupants from the elements, provide comfort, and protect them in the case of a crash.
### Suspension
All four Jimny generations have [dependent suspension](/wiki/Beam_axle "Beam axle") (solid\-beam axles) both at the front and rear axles. This used to be a common suspension design for all\-terrain vehicles up to 1990s, but has become a rarity in vehicle design in the 21st century. Dependent suspension is particularly well suited for all\-terrain duty, both from the durability and performance perspectives.
The first two Jimny generations used [leaf\-sprung suspension](/wiki/Leaf_spring "Leaf spring") at all four wheels, with the third and fourth generations using [coil\-sprung suspension](/wiki/Coil_spring "Coil spring") at all four wheels. The late second\-generation model called SJ800 Coily had coil\-sprung suspension, as well.
### Steering
All four Jimny generations have [recirculating ball](/wiki/Recirculating_ball "Recirculating ball") steering mechanism, which is particularly well suited for all\-terrain duty, but relatively imprecise on\-road compared to modern [rack\-and\-pinion steering construction](/wiki/Rack_and_pinion "Rack and pinion").
### Transmission
All four Jimny generations have manually user\-selectable [part\-time four\-wheel drive (4WD) transmission](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive%23Part-time "Four-wheel drive#Part-time"), where the default (on\-road) transmission mode is two\-wheel drive (rear\-wheel drive). Rear\-wheel drive can never be disengaged. The user, however, can (dis)engage the front\-wheel drive (FWD) manually at any time under certain operating conditions. When FWD is also engaged, this provides 4WD.
Jimnys have no centre (interaxle) [differential](/wiki/Differential_%28mechanical_device%29 "Differential (mechanical device)"). This has a positive effect that at least two wheels, where each wheel is on a different axle, have to lose traction for the vehicle to lose traction when in 4WD transmission mode. However, the negative effect is that 4WD transmission mode must not be used on any surface not rather slippery, especially if having to steer. In other words, 4WD transmission mode should be used only on rather slippery surfaces, like snow, ice, mud, loose gravel, wet grass, and sand. Wet asphalt, wet concrete, and hard\-packed gravel are not considered slippery enough.
All four Jimny generations have manually user\-selectable dual\-ratio (dual\-range) [gearing mechanism](/wiki/Gear_train "Gear train"). The two ratios or ranges are called "high range" (for regular on\-road driving and light to moderate all\-terrain driving) and "low range" (for moderate to hard all\-terrain driving and for all\-terrain towing). The overall transmission gearing ratio is exactly halved when the vehicle is in low range transmission mode. This has the effect of the vehicle moving about half as fast, but with double torque at the wheels in any transmission gear. For example, the fourth gear in low range behaves similar to the second gear in high range, and third gear in low range behaves similarly as "1\.5th gear" in high range. The transmission gearing range is selectable only when the vehicle is in 4WD transmission mode. Therefore, low range cannot be used for on\-road towing.
The (dis)engagement of 4WD transmission mode and the switch from one gearing range to another is performed by a dedicated [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case "Transfer case") mechanical unit, which is separate from the regular [gear box](/wiki/Transmission_%28mechanics%29 "Transmission (mechanics)") unit. All four Jimny generations have a transfer case with an attached selection lever protruding in the cabin between the main gear box lever and the handbrake lever. The lever allows the user to select 2WD\-H, 4WD\-H or 4WD\-L transmission modes at will. The only exceptions are later production years of third\-generation Jimnys (more info in a dedicated chapter), which do not have a selection lever, but instead have servo\-actuated mechanism to perform the same actions when invoked by the push of certain buttons in the cabin.
### Factory rear axle differential locker
{{unreferenced\|section\|date\=August 2022}}
LJ80, SJ410, and early SJ413 vehicles sold in Germany were fitted from the factory with a manually operated, mechanical rear axle differential locker. A cable connected the locker to a small, dedicated lever in the cabin near the hand brake lever. By operating the lever, the driver could manually fully (un)lock the rear axle differential.
The reason for inclusion of the differential locker was legislative in nature. LJ80s, SJ410s, and early SJ413s have a parking brake that brakes the gears in the transfer case instead of braking the individual rear wheels directly and simultaneously (as with most passenger vehicles). That design has several advantages, as well as an important disadvantage \- because of the open rear differential, the hand brake has no effect when one of the rear wheels is raised in the air while the transfer case is in two\-wheel drive (rear\-wheel drive). Therefore, relying on the parking brake itself would be dangerous in some unusual situations (when parking on a severely undulated ground). German law required that this risk must not exist. Instead of redesigning the parking brake system for that market, Suzuki appeased the legal requirement by the inclusion of a rear differential locker. The idea was that German drivers, when parking, should lock both the hand brake lever and this additional differential lock lever.
Despite being formally intended as a parking brake assistance only, this rear axle differential locker is a fully fledged device. Therefore, it is perfectly usable and durable in all\-terrain driving situations over undulated or very slippery ground.
Later SJ413s (and all Samurais) have a standard parking brake that works on both rear wheels directly. This design appeased the German legal requirement, so no differential locker has been factory fitted to SJ413s nor to any Samurai since.
A retrofit of a genuine rear differential locker to LJ80s, SJ410s and SJ413s which lack it, is possible by using the parts from a dismantled LJ80, SJ410, or early SJ413 which had that locker. Lockers from LJ80 are usable on another LJ80 only, while lockers should be interchangeable between SJ410 and SJ413 and vice versa. A retrofit from SJ41x onto a Samurai is not easily possible, because Samurai has wider track and axle than SJ41x.
|
[
"Common design characteristics\n-----------------------------",
"### Overall construction",
"All four Jimny generations have separate frame and body ([\"ladder frame chassis\"](/wiki/Ladder_frame \"Ladder frame\")). The body has no structural carrying role. It serves only as a cabin to protect the occupants from the elements, provide comfort, and protect them in the case of a crash.",
"### Suspension",
"All four Jimny generations have [dependent suspension](/wiki/Beam_axle \"Beam axle\") (solid\\-beam axles) both at the front and rear axles. This used to be a common suspension design for all\\-terrain vehicles up to 1990s, but has become a rarity in vehicle design in the 21st century. Dependent suspension is particularly well suited for all\\-terrain duty, both from the durability and performance perspectives.",
"The first two Jimny generations used [leaf\\-sprung suspension](/wiki/Leaf_spring \"Leaf spring\") at all four wheels, with the third and fourth generations using [coil\\-sprung suspension](/wiki/Coil_spring \"Coil spring\") at all four wheels. The late second\\-generation model called SJ800 Coily had coil\\-sprung suspension, as well.",
"### Steering",
"All four Jimny generations have [recirculating ball](/wiki/Recirculating_ball \"Recirculating ball\") steering mechanism, which is particularly well suited for all\\-terrain duty, but relatively imprecise on\\-road compared to modern [rack\\-and\\-pinion steering construction](/wiki/Rack_and_pinion \"Rack and pinion\").",
"### Transmission",
"All four Jimny generations have manually user\\-selectable [part\\-time four\\-wheel drive (4WD) transmission](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive%23Part-time \"Four-wheel drive#Part-time\"), where the default (on\\-road) transmission mode is two\\-wheel drive (rear\\-wheel drive). Rear\\-wheel drive can never be disengaged. The user, however, can (dis)engage the front\\-wheel drive (FWD) manually at any time under certain operating conditions. When FWD is also engaged, this provides 4WD.",
"Jimnys have no centre (interaxle) [differential](/wiki/Differential_%28mechanical_device%29 \"Differential (mechanical device)\"). This has a positive effect that at least two wheels, where each wheel is on a different axle, have to lose traction for the vehicle to lose traction when in 4WD transmission mode. However, the negative effect is that 4WD transmission mode must not be used on any surface not rather slippery, especially if having to steer. In other words, 4WD transmission mode should be used only on rather slippery surfaces, like snow, ice, mud, loose gravel, wet grass, and sand. Wet asphalt, wet concrete, and hard\\-packed gravel are not considered slippery enough.",
"All four Jimny generations have manually user\\-selectable dual\\-ratio (dual\\-range) [gearing mechanism](/wiki/Gear_train \"Gear train\"). The two ratios or ranges are called \"high range\" (for regular on\\-road driving and light to moderate all\\-terrain driving) and \"low range\" (for moderate to hard all\\-terrain driving and for all\\-terrain towing). The overall transmission gearing ratio is exactly halved when the vehicle is in low range transmission mode. This has the effect of the vehicle moving about half as fast, but with double torque at the wheels in any transmission gear. For example, the fourth gear in low range behaves similar to the second gear in high range, and third gear in low range behaves similarly as \"1\\.5th gear\" in high range. The transmission gearing range is selectable only when the vehicle is in 4WD transmission mode. Therefore, low range cannot be used for on\\-road towing.",
"The (dis)engagement of 4WD transmission mode and the switch from one gearing range to another is performed by a dedicated [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case \"Transfer case\") mechanical unit, which is separate from the regular [gear box](/wiki/Transmission_%28mechanics%29 \"Transmission (mechanics)\") unit. All four Jimny generations have a transfer case with an attached selection lever protruding in the cabin between the main gear box lever and the handbrake lever. The lever allows the user to select 2WD\\-H, 4WD\\-H or 4WD\\-L transmission modes at will. The only exceptions are later production years of third\\-generation Jimnys (more info in a dedicated chapter), which do not have a selection lever, but instead have servo\\-actuated mechanism to perform the same actions when invoked by the push of certain buttons in the cabin.",
"### Factory rear axle differential locker",
"{{unreferenced\\|section\\|date\\=August 2022}}\nLJ80, SJ410, and early SJ413 vehicles sold in Germany were fitted from the factory with a manually operated, mechanical rear axle differential locker. A cable connected the locker to a small, dedicated lever in the cabin near the hand brake lever. By operating the lever, the driver could manually fully (un)lock the rear axle differential.",
"The reason for inclusion of the differential locker was legislative in nature. LJ80s, SJ410s, and early SJ413s have a parking brake that brakes the gears in the transfer case instead of braking the individual rear wheels directly and simultaneously (as with most passenger vehicles). That design has several advantages, as well as an important disadvantage \\- because of the open rear differential, the hand brake has no effect when one of the rear wheels is raised in the air while the transfer case is in two\\-wheel drive (rear\\-wheel drive). Therefore, relying on the parking brake itself would be dangerous in some unusual situations (when parking on a severely undulated ground). German law required that this risk must not exist. Instead of redesigning the parking brake system for that market, Suzuki appeased the legal requirement by the inclusion of a rear differential locker. The idea was that German drivers, when parking, should lock both the hand brake lever and this additional differential lock lever.",
"Despite being formally intended as a parking brake assistance only, this rear axle differential locker is a fully fledged device. Therefore, it is perfectly usable and durable in all\\-terrain driving situations over undulated or very slippery ground.",
"Later SJ413s (and all Samurais) have a standard parking brake that works on both rear wheels directly. This design appeased the German legal requirement, so no differential locker has been factory fitted to SJ413s nor to any Samurai since.",
"A retrofit of a genuine rear differential locker to LJ80s, SJ410s and SJ413s which lack it, is possible by using the parts from a dismantled LJ80, SJ410, or early SJ413 which had that locker. Lockers from LJ80 are usable on another LJ80 only, while lockers should be interchangeable between SJ410 and SJ413 and vice versa. A retrofit from SJ41x onto a Samurai is not easily possible, because Samurai has wider track and axle than SJ41x.",
""
] |
{{anchor\|Second\|2nd\|1981}} Second generation (1981\)
-------------------------------------------------------
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= Second generation
\| image \= Suzuki Samurai SJ410 photographed in Sérres, Greece.jpg
\| aka \= {{ubl
\| Suzuki {{Proper name\|Caribian}}
\| Suzuki Katana
\| Suzuki Potohar (Pakistan)
\| Suzuki SJ410/413
\| Suzuki Samurai
\| Suzuki Santana
\| Suzuki Sierra
\| Suzuki Fox (Iceland)
\| Chevrolet Samurai
\| Holden Drover
\| \[\[Maruti Gypsy]]
\| Santana Samurai
}}
\| production \= 1981–1998
1981–2005 (Indonesia)
1985–2018 (India)
1986–2004 (Spain)
\| assembly \= {{ubl
\| Japan: \[\[Iwata, Shizuoka\|Iwata]]
\| \[\[Colombia]]: \[\[Bogotá]] (\[\[GM Colmotores\|GM Colombia]])
\| India: \[\[Gurgaon]]
\| \[\[Indonesia]]: \[\[Bekasi]]
\| \[\[Kenya]]: \[\[Nairobi]] ({{Hover title\|CMC\|Cooper Motor Corporation}})
\| Pakistan: \[\[Karachi]]
\| \[\[Spain]]: \[\[Linares, Jaén\|Linares]] (\[\[Santana Motor]])
\| \[\[Thailand]]: \[\[Bangkok]]
}}
\| body\_style \= 2\-door \[\[station wagon\|wagon]]
2\-door \[\[van]]
2\-door \[\[convertible]]
2\-door \[\[pickup truck\|pickup]]\[https://www.suzuki\-samurai.nl/special/special\-eng.htm www.suzuki\-samurai.nl] Retrieved 11 July 2016
2\-door \[\[cab chassis]]\[https://web.archive.org/web/20160711103121/http://www.ebay.com.au/itm/1985\-Holden\-Drover\-4wd\-original\-12\-page\-Australian\-brochure\-/152130032215?hash\=item236ba81257:g:YZsAAOSwc1FXYP9Y 1985 Holden Drover 4wd original 12 page Australian brochure, www.ebay.com.au via web.archive.org] Retrieved 11 July 2016
3\-door \[\[station wagon\|wagon]]{{cite web \|url\=https://www.mobilmotorlama.com/2017/01/macam\-macam\-suzuki\-jimny\-dan\-katana\-di.html?m\=1 \|title \= Macam\-macam Suzuki Jimny dan Katana di Indonesia\| date\=13 January 2017 }}
5\-door \[\[station wagon\|wagon]]
\| layout \= {{unbulleted list
\|\[\[Front\-engine, rear\-wheel\-drive layout\|Front\-engine, rear\-wheel\-drive]]
\|\[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive layout\|Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
}}
\| engine \= {{ubl
\| '''\[\[Petrol engine\|petrol]]:'''
\| 539 cc ''\[\[Suzuki FB series engine\#LJ50\|LJ50]]'' 2\-stroke \[\[Straight\-three engine\|I3]]
\| 547 cc ''\[\[Suzuki F engine\#F5A\|F5A]]'' I3
\| 657 cc ''\[\[Suzuki F engine\#F6A\|F6A]]'' I3
\| 658 cc ''\[\[Suzuki K engine\#K6A\|K6A]]'' I3
\| 970 cc ''\[\[Suzuki F engine\#F10A\|F10A]]'' \[\[Straight\-four engine\|I4]]
\| 1298 cc ''\[\[Suzuki G engine\#G13BA\|G13BA]]''/''\[\[Suzuki G engine\#G13BB\|G13BB]]'' I4
\| 1324 cc ''\[\[Suzuki G engine\#G13A\|G13A]]'' I4
\| '''\[\[Diesel engine\|diesel]] (Santana only):'''
\| 1870 cc ''\[\[Renault F\-Type engine\#F8x\|F8Q]]'' I4
\| 1905 cc ''\[\[PSA XUD\#XUD9\|XUD 9]]'' \[\[Turbo\-diesel\|turbo]] I4
}}
\| transmission \= 4/5\-speed \[\[Manual transmission\|manual]]
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2030\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
The **Suzuki SJ30** began production in May 1981\. In Japan, it was marketd as the Suzuki Jimny, meeting [kei car](/wiki/Kei_car "Kei car") regulations, and offering both 550 cc and 660 cc [3\-cylinder](/wiki/Straight-three_engine "Straight-three engine") engines. The SJ\-Series received a larger engine and was lengthened and widened for export markets, where it was branded variously, including as the Suzuki SJ410/413, Suzuki Samurai, Suzuki Sierra, Suzuki Potohar ([Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan")), Suzuki Santana ([Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain")), Suzuki {{Proper name\|Caribian}} (Thailand), Suzuki Katana (Indonesia), Chevrolet Samurai, Holden Drover (Australia) and [Maruti Gypsy](/wiki/Maruti_Gypsy "Maruti Gypsy") (India).
### SJ30
The SJ30 Jimny 550 was mainly for Japanese domestic market consumption where it suited the Kei car category. Still powered by the [LJ50](/wiki/Suzuki_FB_series_engine%23LJ50 "Suzuki FB series engine#LJ50") engine also used in its predecessor, the Jimny 550 was by a sizable margin the last two\-stroke car engine built in Japan. Production ended with the withdrawal of type approval in November 1987 in favor of its [F5A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 "List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3")\-engined brother, the JA71\. The two\-stroke had been favored by Japanese off\-roaders (and by Suzuki) due to its light weight and superior low\-speed torque.{{cite web \| url \= https://autoc\-one.jp/suzuki/jimny/special\-5007494/ \| title \= 日本最後の2ストエンジン搭載！実は歴代最強？スズキ ジムニー SJ30 \| trans\-title \= Japan's last 2\-stroke engine! Actually the strongest in history? Suzuki Jimny SJ30 \| date \= 2020\-06\-04 \| publisher \= MOTA Corporation }}
### SJ40
{{Multiple image \| align \= left \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 220
\| image1 \= 1989 Suzuki SJ410 1\.0 (cropped).jpg
\| caption1 \= Suzuki SJ410 (rear view)
\| image2 \= Holden Drover (16193353179\).jpg
\| caption2 \= Holden Drover cab chassis (QB, Australia)
}}
The SJ40 Jimny 1000 was introduced for 1982 to replace the LJ80 range. The Jimny 1000, sold as the **Suzuki SJ410** in most export markets, used the [F10A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23F10A "List of Suzuki engines#F10A") \- a larger 1\-litre version of the LJ's 0\.8\-litre [four\-cylinder](/wiki/Straight-four_engine "Straight-four engine") engine. This engine produced {{cvt\|45\|PS\|kW hp\|0}} and it had a top speed of {{convert\|68\|mph\|abbr\=on}}. The Japanese market models claimed {{cvt\|52\|PS\|kW hp\|0}} at 5,000 rpm.{{citation \| title \= Jimny 1000 ''(Catalog)'' \| publisher \= Suzuki Motor Co \| year \= 1982 \| id \= 99999\-30000\-700 }} So that owners of 550 cc Jimnys would not be able to retrofit the larger, wider wheels of the Jimny 1000 to their cars, the Japanese [ministry of transportation](/wiki/Ministry_of_Land%2C_Infrastructure%2C_Transport_and_Tourism "Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism") dictated that Suzuki fit wheels with a different bolt pattern.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2018}}
A four\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission") was standard, as were non\-power assisted [drum brakes](/wiki/Drum_brake "Drum brake") front and rear. The SJ410 came as a half\-door [convertible](/wiki/Convertible "Convertible"), long\-wheelbase [pickup truck](/wiki/Pickup_truck "Pickup truck"), two\-door [hardtop](/wiki/Hardtop "Hardtop") (called "Van" in Japan), raised\-roof hardtop, and no\-glass hardtop (panel van). In Japan, the pickup truck was intended as a bare\-bones work vehicle and did not receive fender extensions, and had diagonal tires on black\-painted steel wheels rather than the sportier wheels fitted to the regular Jimny. Maximum payload is {{convert\|350\|kg\|lb\|\-1\|abbr\=on}}. In the autumn of 1983 a covered long\-wheelbase version was added for export markets.
The SJ410 was also produced in [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") by [Santana Motor](/wiki/Santana_Motor "Santana Motor") in their [Linares, Jaén](/wiki/Linares%2C_Ja%C3%A9n "Linares, Jaén") factory as of March 1985 and was sold as a domestic vehicle in Europe due to its over 60% native parts content, thereby evading limits on imports of Japanese\-built automobiles.{{cite book \| title \= World of Cars 2006·2007 \| publisher \= Media Connection Sp. z o.o. \| location \= Warsaw, Poland \| pages \= 76–77 \| year \= 2006 }} It was built only on the short wheelbase, as a two\-door convertible and commercial, or with the three door wagon or van bodywork. Some later models of the SJ410 would switch to disk brakes in the front depending on the factory they were made at. In March 1990, Santana\-built versions received the same chassis developments which turned the SJ413 into the Samurai; this version was sold as **Samurai 1\.0** where it was offered ("Samurai Mil" in Spain).{{cite book \| title \= Quattroruote: Tutte le Auto del Mondo 1992 \| publisher \= Editoriale Domus S.p.A. \| year \= 1992 \| pages \= 1323–1327 \| location \= Milano }} Cooper Motor Corporation (CMC) of [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi "Nairobi"), Kenya, had been building the first generation Jimny and continued with assembly of the SJ410 in the mid\-eighties.{{Cite book \| title \= Quattroruote: Tutte le Auto del Mondo 1985 \| editor \= Mastrostefano, Raffaele \| publisher \= Editoriale Domus S.p.A \| ref \= TAM85 \| year \= 1985 \| page \= 225 \| language \= it \| location \= Milano \| isbn \= 88\-7212\-012\-8 }}
#### Indonesian production
[thumb\|left\|Facelifted Indonesian market "Suzuki Katana", as built by [Suzuki Indomobil Motor](/wiki/Suzuki_Indomobil_Motor "Suzuki Indomobil Motor") until 2006](/wiki/File:2005_Suzuki_Katana_GX_4x2_1.0_SJ410_%2820190131%29.jpg "2005 Suzuki Katana GX 4x2 1.0 SJ410 (20190131).jpg")
The SJ410 was also assembled in Indonesia by [Suzuki Indomobil Motor](/wiki/Suzuki_Indomobil_Motor "Suzuki Indomobil Motor") since late 1982 until 2006, where it was marketed with different names. The original version was marketed as **Suzuki Super Jimny**, continuing from the previous LJ Suzuki Jimny. The canvas soft\-top model was marketed in fairly small numbers from 1983 until late 1985 as **Jimny Sierra**.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.mobilmotorlama.com/2017/01/macam\-macam\-suzuki\-jimny\-dan\-katana\-di.html \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170613193849/http://www.mobilmotorlama.com/2017/01/macam\-macam\-suzuki\-jimny\-dan\-katana\-di.html \| title \= Macam\-macam Suzuki Jimny dan Katana di Indonesia \| archive\-date \= 2017\-06\-13 \| trans\-title \= The various kinds of Suzuki Katanas and Jimnys in Indonesia \| date \= 2017\-01\-13 \| first \= Charis \| last \= Alfan \| publisher \= Mobil Motor Lama }} In the late 1980s, responding to the introduction of higher taxes for vehicles with four\-wheel\-drive, Suzuki introduced a 4x2 version as the **Suzuki Katana** in September 1989\. The earlier model built until 1984 were low\-roof, metal\-bodied wagons. A higher\-roofed model arrived in 1984 and continued to be built until about 1988, while the Katana has an even higher roof than the previous versions. Later, there were also 1\.3\-litre models sold in small numbers as the **Jimny Samurai**.
As of September 1989, it received updated square headlights. The rear\-wheel drive Katana was also used as a basis for an Indonesian\-built, 1930s' style kit\-car called the Marvia Classic.*Tutte le Auto del Mondo 1992*, p. 460 The earlier Katana is only available with "Blitz" variant until a light facelift in late 1992 (round headlights) and mid\-1993 (new grille design with round headlights and "S" logo). In the same year, the Blitz variant was replaced with the long\-running Suzuki Katana GX. The Suzuki Katana GX was produced from 1993 to 2006, with updates only on body sticker design in 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2002, and 2005\. There was also a DX variant of Katana below the GX marketed from 1993 to 2000, after which the GX was the sole variant remaining. Both the GX and DX variants were equipped with power steering as standard. As of March 1995, both the Katana GX and DX received a new redesigned steering wheel with the Suzuki "S" logo. In 2005, Suzuki introduced the SJ413 {{Proper name\|Caribian}} Spacecab pickup, which was imported from Thailand and sold until 2007\. Production of the second generation Jimny (and Katana) in Indonesia ended in July 2006\.
### Maruti Gypsy
{{main\|Maruti Gypsy}}
The Indian built SJ\-410 has only ever been available in a long\-wheelbase version. The Gypsy remained in production for the Indian Subcontinent market until 2019\. The version still produced in India by [Maruti Suzuki](/wiki/Maruti_Suzuki "Maruti Suzuki") was the Maruti Gypsy King, using the sixteen valve, {{cvt\|80\|PS\|kW\|0}} 1\.3\-litre G13 engine. The Gypsy King is still popular with the Indian armed forces and police units.
### Farm Worker 4x4
In 2013, Suzuki New Zealand reintroduced the Suzuki SJ series into New Zealand badged as the Suzuki Farm Worker 4x4,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.suzuki.co.nz/Automotive/Farm\+Worker \|title\=Suzuki New Zealand \- Farm Worker \|access\-date\=2015\-01\-14 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420045942/http://www.suzuki.co.nz/Automotive/Farm%2BWorker/ \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-20 }} Suzuki NZ Farm Worker website although the [Maruti](/wiki/Maruti_Suzuki "Maruti Suzuki") badge can clearly be seen in the centre of the radiator grille. The vehicle is actually the leaf\-sprung [Suzuki Maruti Gypsy King MG413W](/wiki/Maruti_Gypsy "Maruti Gypsy"), powered by the [G13BB](/wiki/Suzuki_G_engine%23G13B "Suzuki G engine#G13B") 1\.3\-litre, 16 valve engine, producing {{convert\|80\|hp\|abbr\=on}} at 6,000 rpm and {{convert\|103\|Nm\|lbft\|abbr\=on}} of torque at 4,500 rpm, mated to a five\-speed, all synchromesh gearbox and a high/low 2wd/4wd transfer box. The Farm Worker is available in four slightly differing styles, two having a rear window and fibreglass bulkhead, and two having canvas roofs with foldable front windscreens, all based on the long wheelbase version (the only version built by Maruti) and offering a maximum payload of 500 kg. As its name suggests the Farm Worker is intended for farm work only and is not able to be road registered due to the vehicle not meeting current crash protection regulations,{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2018}} although it does come with seat belts for the front two seats.
{{clear left}}
### {{Anchor\|Samurai}}SJ413/Samurai
#### JA51 1300
In 1984, the SJ was revamped with the launch of the SJ413 (internal model code **JA51**). The SJ413 included a larger 1\.3\-litre four\-cylinder engine, 5\-speed manual transmission and power brakes (disc brakes on the front and drum brakes on the rear) all around. The body and interior were also redesigned, with the introduction of a roll bar, along with a new dashboard, seats, and grille. The SJ410 remained in production for various other markets with the old specifications. After the 1988 introduction of the [Escudo](/wiki/Suzuki_Vitara "Suzuki Vitara"), sales of the Jimny 1300 ended in Japan. The model returned to the Japanese market in May 1993, after a thorough update.
SJ413 had the same track width as SJ410\. As those two car models were relatively susceptible to a rollover, Suzuki introduced a wider edition of SJ413 around 1988, with its track widened by 10 cm. Wider track gave the vehicle more stability. This wider edition received the nameplate "Samurai". The difference in width is the only major difference between SJ413 and Samurai, apart from some minor cosmetic changes in the interior and the exterior.
The Samurai was also produced in a long wheel base (LWB) edition for certain markets, but still with three doors. That LWB edition still had only two rear seats (if fitted at all) for two rear passengers, and the rear passenger leg room was the same as in the standard SWB edition. The extended vehicle length only affected the boot/trunk space behind the rear seats, which was significantly larger in the LWB edition.
#### North American market
The SJ\-Series Samurai was introduced to the United States in 1985 for the 1986 model year. It had gone on sale earlier in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico") (as the Suzuki SJ410\). It was priced at $6200 when introduced in the United States and 47,000 were sold in its first year. It had a 1\.3\-litre, {{convert\|63\|hp\|kW PS\|0\|abbr\=on}}, four\-cylinder engine and was available as a [convertible](/wiki/Convertible_%28car%29 "Convertible (car)") or a [hardtop](/wiki/Hardtop "Hardtop"), and came equipped with rear seats until 1994\. The Suzuki Samurai became intensely popular within the serious 4WD community for its good off\-road performance and reliability compared to other 4WDs of the time, outselling the Jeep Wrangler by two to one in 1987\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ORo9\-VxlHoY\|title\=Here's Why The Tiny Suzuki Samurai Outsold The Jeep Wrangler 2 to 1 in 1987!\|date\=11 November 2018 \|via\=www.youtube.com}} This is due to the fact that while very compact and light, it is a real 4WD vehicle equipped with a transfer case, switchable 4WD and low range. Its lightness makes it a very nimble off\-roader less prone to sinking in softer ground than heavier vehicles. It was also sold as the Chevrolet Samurai in Puerto Rico.
The 1988\.5 model Samurai was re\-tuned for better on\-road use in the United States. This revision included softer suspension settings and a larger anti\-roll bar to reduce body roll. A lower fifth gear (.865:1 vs the earlier .795:1\) increased engine speed and power on the highway, and improved dashboard and seats made the Samurai more comfortable.
A new 1\.3 litre four\-cylinder engine with throttle\-body [fuel injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection "Fuel injection") was introduced with {{convert\|66\|hp\|kW PS\|0\|abbr\=on}} in September 1991\. The Samurai was supplemented in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and the United States markets in 1989 by the [Suzuki Sidekick](/wiki/Suzuki_Sidekick "Suzuki Sidekick"), which eventually replaced the Samurai in 1995\. The rear seat was removed from 1994 and 1995 Samurai models with rear shoulder safety belts becoming mandatory, and the partial roll cage not having the required mounting provisions, unlike the larger [Jeep Wrangler](/wiki/Jeep_Wrangler "Jeep Wrangler"). Low sales and pending stricter safety legislation prompted the withdrawal of the Samurai from [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and the United States markets after 1995\.
##### Consumers Union lawsuit
{{Main\|Suzuki Motor Corp. v. Consumers Union of the U.S., Inc.}}
An unfavorable 1988 review in *[Consumer Reports](/wiki/Consumer_Reports "Consumer Reports")* magazine said the Samurai was unsafe and prone to [rollovers](/wiki/Vehicle_rollover "Vehicle rollover").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/06/03/business/consumer\-group\-asks\-recall\-of\-suzuki\-samurai\-as\-unsafe.html\| first\=Doron P. \|last\=Levine\| title\=Consumer Group Asks Recall Of Suzuki Samurai as Unsafe\| newspaper\=\[\[New York Times]] \| date\=3 June 1988}} In 1996, after investigating the CU's claims, Suzuki of North America sued the magazine's publisher, [Consumers Union](/wiki/Consumers_Union "Consumers Union") (CU), for libel. The suit resulted in an inconclusive settlement. CU agreed that it "never intended to imply that the Samurai easily rolls over in routine driving conditions."{{Citation \|url\= http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/suzuki\-and\-consumers\-union\-agree\-on\-dismissal\-of\-lawsuit\-704/index.htm?resultPageIndex\=1\&resultIndex\=1\&searchTerm\=Suzuki%20Samurai \|title\= Suzuki lawsuit dismissed \|website\= consumerreports.org \|access\-date\=13 August 2006 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312091559/http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/suzuki\-and\-consumers\-union\-agree\-on\-dismissal\-of\-lawsuit\-704/index.htm?resultPageIndex\=1\&resultIndex\=1\&searchTerm\=Suzuki%20Samurai \|archive\-date\= 12 March 2007 }} CU and Suzuki made a joint statement, saying, "CU and Suzuki disagree with respect to the validity" of CU's tests and that "Suzuki disputes the validity" of the tests, while "CU stands by its test protocol and findings."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/new\-cars/news/suzuki\-and\-consumers\-union\-agree\-on\-lawsuit\-dismissal/overview/index.htm \|title\=Suzuki and Consumers Union agree on dismissal of lawsuit \|publisher\=Consumerreports.org \|date\=2010\-04\-13 \|access\-date\=2011\-11\-13}}
### Ranger kitcar
[Rickman Cars](/wiki/Rickman_Ranger "Rickman Ranger") developed a [GFRP](/wiki/GFRP "GFRP")\-bodied copy of the Samurai called the **Rickman Ranger**. Strictly a rear\-wheel\-drive vehicle, it uses the underpinnings of a [Mark II Ford Escort](/wiki/Ford_Escort_%28Europe%29%23Mk2 "Ford Escort (Europe)#Mk2"). It was produced in the UK as a [kitcar](/wiki/Kitcar "Kitcar") and later in Russia by [Avtokam](/wiki/Avtokam "Avtokam").[https://forum.azlk\-team.ru/index.php/topic,39636\.0\.html](https://forum.azlk-team.ru/index.php/topic,39636.0.html) Russian Rickman, and later the Lomax Company, produced over 1000 vehicles.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rickmancarsownersclub.org.uk/history.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811220808/http://rickmancarsownersclub.org.uk/history.htm \|archive\-date\=11 August 2013 \|title\=RCOC History Page}} Avtokam and later [Velta](/wiki/Velta_Machine-Building_Plant "Velta Machine-Building Plant") produced around 150 further kits.{{cite news\|title\=Как на патефонном заводе подвеску к "Москвичу" и пластиковый джип делали\|url\=https://properm.ru/auto/news/145730/\|access\-date\=16 December 2017\|work\=ПермАвтоПром\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216001400/https://properm.ru/auto/news/145730/\|archive\-date\=16 December 2017}} The Velta plant went bankrupt in 2006\.{{cite web\|title\=Открытое акционерное общество "Велта".\|url\=http://www.archive.perm.ru/projects/weeklyphoto/open\-joint\-stock\-company\-velta\-/\|website\=Archive.perm.ru\|access\-date\=23 July 2017 \| url\-status \= live \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20171029070411/http://www.archive.perm.ru/projects/weeklyphoto/open\-joint\-stock\-company\-velta\-/ \| archive\-date\=29 October 2017}} Rickman also made a camper version known as the **Rancher**.
File:Rickman Ranger \- Flickr \- mick \- Lumix(1\).jpg\|Rickman Ranger/2160 short wheelbase version
File:1993 Rickman Space Ranger 2\.0 Front.jpg\|Rickman Space Ranger 2160 long wheelbase version
File:Rickman\_Rancher\_(Q\_418\_GBF).JPG\|The Rickman Rancher.
#### Other markets
[thumb\|left\|Post\-1998 Santana\-built Samurai](/wiki/File:Suzuki_Samurai.jpg "Suzuki Samurai.jpg") The SJ413/Samurai had a longer history in the rest of the world. Australian market JA51s were sold as either Suzuki Sierra or Holden Drover, while those built in Thailand are called Suzuki {{Proper name\|Caribian}}. The {{Proper name\|Caribian}} has also been available as the "{{Proper name\|Caribian}} Sporty", a unique LWB extended cab pickup.
Due to various trade obstacles for Japanese cars, Spanish [Santana Motors](/wiki/Santana_Motors "Santana Motors") (in addition to the SJ410\) began local production of the SJ413 in 1986\. The Santana built SJs had softer springs for an improved on\-road ride, colour coordinated interiors with cloth seats and carpeted floors, all to broaden appeal to those who did not intend to primarily off\-road the vehicle.{{cite book \| title \= Off Road and 4 Wheel Drive July 1987 \| publisher \= Link House Publications \| location \= Poole, England \| year \= 1987 }} In 1989 it received some optical as well as chassis updates and received the "Samurai" nameplate. Santana\-built Samurais did not benefit from the updated coil sprung chassis introduced around 1996, instead receiving a facelift (new grille, more rounded bumpers) specific to European and neighboring markets. Also around 1998, Santana developed a version which used [PSA](/wiki/PSA_Peugeot_Citro%C3%ABn "PSA Peugeot Citroën")'s [XUD 9](/wiki/PSA_XUD%23XUD9 "PSA XUD#XUD9") 1\.9\-litre turbodiesel engine, producing {{convert\|63\|PS\|kW hp\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite journal \| title \= Suzuki en España: fabricante de automóviles japonés consolida su presencia en España con nuevos modelos \| trans\-title \= Suzuki in Spain: Japanese car manufacturer consolidates its presence in Spain with new models \| language \= es \| last \= de Miguel \| first \= Carlos \| journal \= Epoca \| date \= 1998\-01\-26 \| publisher \= Difusora de Informacion Periodica, S.A. \[DINPESA] \| issue \= 674 \| page \= 96 }} Top speed is 130 km/h (80\.8 mph).{{cite book \| title \= Katalog der Automobil Revue 2002 \| publisher \= Revue Automobile \| location \= Berne, Switzerland \| pages \= 552–553 \| year \= 2002 }} Santana then replaced this diesel Samurai edition with another diesel edition sometime in year 2001, based on Renault's F8Q 1\.9\-litre non\-turbo diesel engine, producing {{convert\|64\|PS\|kW hp\|abbr\=on}}). Santana also produced petrol editions alongside the diesel editions. Spanish Samurai production (both for petrol and for diesel editions) ended in late 2003 or early 2004\.
The Samurai was sold in Colombia and Venezuela as Chevrolet Samurai, assembled in [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 "Bogotá"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia") by General Motors Colmotores. In other South American markets ([Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"), Brazil, Chile, Peru, Paraguay and Uruguay) it was sold as the Suzuki Samurai. Long wheelbase models were not offered in the [Mercosur](/wiki/Mercosur "Mercosur").
{{Multiple image \| align \= right \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 220
\| image1 \= Suzuki Caribian Sporty (SJ413\), front right.jpg
\| image2 \= Suzuki Caribian Sporty (SJ413\), rear.jpg
\| caption2 \= Thai\-built Suzuki {{Proper name\|Caribian}} Sporty extended\-cab pickup
}}
In Asia the SJ/Samurai was sold under a few different names. In Thailand it was called the Suzuki {{Proper name\|Caribian}}. The Thai market also received a special version called the "Suzuki {{Proper name\|Caribian}} Sporty", a pickup with an extended cab with a small rear seat best suited for occasional use.
#### High altitude world record
[thumb\|left\|The modified vehicle used in the expedition.](/wiki/File:Suzuki_Samurai_near_the_summit_of_Ojos_del_Salado.jpg "Suzuki Samurai near the summit of Ojos del Salado.jpg")
On 21 April 2007, the Chilean duo of Gonzalo Bravo and Eduardo Canales drove their modified Suzuki Samurai (SJ413\) up [Ojos del Salado](/wiki/Ojos_del_Salado "Ojos del Salado") to an altitude of {{convert\|6688\|m\|ft\|0\|abbr\=on}}, setting a new record for the highest altitude attained by a four\-wheeled vehicle, surpassing the previous record of {{convert\|6646\|m\|ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} set by a [Jeep](/wiki/Jeep "Jeep").
The Samurai in question benefited from wheel, tire, and suspension changes, and a supercharged G16A 4\-cylinder engine. It was the third attempt for the two man team, after encountering weather difficulties on the first attempt and an engine fire in the second. The previous record holder's team led by Matthias Jeschke driving a [Jeep Wrangler](/wiki/Jeep_Wrangler "Jeep Wrangler"), left a sign reading "Jeep Parking Only: All others don't make it up here anyway". The Chilean team found the sign, blown down by strong winds, and brought it back to civilization as a souvenir.
This record was duly certified by the [Guinness World Record](/wiki/Guinness_World_Record "Guinness World Record") in July 2007\.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2018}}
On 13 December 2019, Jeschke reclaimed the record with a Mercedes Benz [Unimog](/wiki/Unimog "Unimog").{{cite web \|url\=https://mbs.mercedes\-benz.com/en/special\-trucks/allterrain\-mobile\-homes/a\-performance\-that\-breaks\-records.html \|title \= Unimog expedition team wins the world altitude record. \- MBS World}}
### Kei history
[thumb\|right\|Suzuki Jimny JA71 series](/wiki/File:Suzuki_Jimny_JA71_005.JPG "Suzuki Jimny JA71 005.JPG") In January 1986 the **JA71**, a four\-stroke, turbocharged and fuel\-injected ([F5A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 "List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3")) {{convert\|543\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} three\-cylinder engine was introduced to complement the two\-stroke SJ30\. It used the upgraded interior from the Jimny 1300, which was simultaneously introduced to the SJ30\. Power was {{convert\|42\|PS\|kW bhp\|0\|abbr\=on}} (JIS gross), although this was increased to {{convert\|52\|PS\|kW bhp\|0\|abbr\=on}} (JIS Net) in a November 1987 facelift by adding an intercooler. The non\-intercooled engine continued to be offered in the lowest spec Van version. Claimed power was down to {{convert\|38\|PS\|kW bhp\|0\|abbr\=on}} as the ratings were switched from gross to net. At the same time, a glassed high\-roof version ("Panoramic Roof") was added.{{cite book \| title \= Car Graphic: Car Archives Vol. 11, '80s Japanese Cars \| publisher \= Nigensha \| year \= 2007 \| pages \= xx \| location \= Tokyo \| isbn \= 978\-4\-544\-91018\-6 }}
#### 660 cc Era
The JA71 was replaced in March 1990 by the new **JA11** as new Kei category regulations took effect. Now with 657 cc on offer, the otherwise similar **[F6A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 "List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3")** engine only came with an intercooler and {{convert\|55\|PS\|kW bhp\|0\|abbr\=on}}. A utilitarian van (HA), as well as more luxurious Hardtop, Convertible, and Panoramic Roof (HC, CC, EC) versions were on offer.{{cite web
\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209101856/http://www.suzuki\-w.co.jp/history2/jimny/jimJA11\.html
\| title\=U's Station On the Net \- Short Catalog by Model
\| url\=http://www.suzuki\-w.co.jp/history2/jimny/jimJA11\.html
\| publisher\=Suzuki Motor Corporation
\| archive\-date\=9 December 2008
\| access\-date\=27 June 2010
\| url\-status\=bot: unknown
}} The suspension was also upgraded, while a longer front bumper meant that the foglights could be mounted in front of the grille rather than in it. In June 1991, power was increased to {{convert\|58\|PS\|kW bhp\|0\|abbr\=on}} and a year later power steering and automatic transmission became available for the first time. Top speed of this version was {{convert\|120\|km/h\|mi/h\|0\|abbr\=on}}. In February 1995 power increased to {{convert\|64\|PS\|kW bhp\|0\|abbr\=on}}, but production of the JA11 ended only nine months later with the introduction of the coil spring JA12/22\.
### Coil spring edition
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= Second generation
\| image \= Suzuki Jimny JA12W 001\.JPG
\| caption \= Suzuki Jimny JA12W series
\| production \= 1995–1998
\| assembly \= \[\[Iwata, Shizuoka\|Iwata]], Japan
\| body\_style \= 2\-door \[\[station wagon\|wagon]]
2\-door \[\[convertible]]
\| engine \= {{ubl
\| 657 cc ''\[\[Suzuki F engine\#F6A\|F6A]]'' \[\[Straight\-three engine\|I3]]
\| 658 cc ''\[\[List of Suzuki engines\#K6A\|K6A]]'' I3
\| 1298 cc ''\[\[Suzuki G engine\#G13BA\|G13BA]]''/''\[\[Suzuki G engine\#G13BB\|G13BB]]'' \[\[Straight\-four engine\|I4]]
}}
\| transmission \= 5\-speed \[\[Manual transmission\|manual]]
3\-speed \[\[Automatic transmission\|automatic]]
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2030\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| length \= {{convert\|3295\|\-\|3430\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}{{cite book \| title \= Auto Katalog 1997 \| publisher \= \[\[:de:Motor Presse Stuttgart\|Motor Presse International]] \| location \= Stuttgart \| pages \= 232–235 \| year \= 1996 }}
\| width \= {{convert\|1395\|\-\|1550\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= {{convert\|1670\|\-\|1825\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| model\_code \= JA12/JA22/JB32
}}
[thumb\|left\|Suzuki Jimny JA12W series](/wiki/File:Suzuki_Jimny_JA12W_002.JPG "Suzuki Jimny JA12W 002.JPG")
The Samurai continued for sale outside the United States (where the newer version is referred to as the 'Coily'), with a substantial update in November 1995\. This included a [coil spring](/wiki/Coil_spring "Coil spring") suspension, though both [live axles](/wiki/Live_axle "Live axle") were retained. The rest of the truck was redesigned as well, with new seats, dashboard, steering wheel, doors and front grille.
There were three Samurai coil sprung models.
* The **JA12** used the {{convert\|657\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} [F6A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 "List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3") three\-cylinder engine from the JA11\.
* The **JA22** received the newly developed and more powerful [K6A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 "List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3") engine.
* The **JB32** received the larger {{cvt\|85\|PS\|kW\|0}}, {{convert\|1\.3\|L\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} [G13BB](/wiki/Suzuki_G_engine%23G13B "Suzuki G engine#G13B") 16\-valve engine. It was slightly longer and wider than the other two models, due to larger bumpers and fenders. This model also bears the designation **SJ80**. This was the model seen in most export markets, although abroad it was usually equipped with the eight\-valve, {{convert\|70\|hp\|abbr\=on}} [G13BA](/wiki/Suzuki_G_engine%23G13BA "Suzuki G engine#G13BA") engine instead.
Additional notes:
* In order to abide by the [Kei Jidōsha regulations](/wiki/Kei_car%23History_of_regulations "Kei car#History of regulations"), claimed output was {{cvt\|64\|PS\|kW\|0}} for both engines used in **JA12** and **JA22**, although the K6A produced considerably more power than the F6A.
* As far as it is known, no coil sprung Samurai has ever been produced in a long wheel base edition, but there have been some produced with a raised roof ("high roof") and soft/open top ("cabrio").
* Some vehicle parts are specific to coil sprung Samurais compared to leaf sprung Samurais, and even later Jimny models \- most suspension parts, transfer cases, several body panels, as well as most interior and exterior trim pieces.
* **JB32** was sold in Europe only during the years 1997 and 1998, and is therefore very rare in Europe, with the availability of the parts specific to **JB32** being almost non\-existent in local European markets.
Not all production plants switched over to produce coil sprung Samurais. The most notable examples are Maruti Suzuki plant in India (Producing it as the Maruti Gypsy) (still produces the original narrow SJ410 as of year 2020\) and Santana plant in Spain (continued producing leaf\-sprung Samurais until year 2004\). While the third\-generation Jimny replaced the Jimny/Samurai in most markets after 1998, it still remains in production in India.
{{Clear}}
|
[
"{{anchor\\|Second\\|2nd\\|1981}} Second generation (1981\\)\n-------------------------------------------------------",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Second generation\n\\| image \\= Suzuki Samurai SJ410 photographed in Sérres, Greece.jpg\n\\| aka \\= {{ubl\n \\| Suzuki {{Proper name\\|Caribian}}\n \\| Suzuki Katana\n \\| Suzuki Potohar (Pakistan)\n \\| Suzuki SJ410/413\n \\| Suzuki Samurai\n \\| Suzuki Santana\n \\| Suzuki Sierra\n \\| Suzuki Fox (Iceland)\n \\| Chevrolet Samurai\n \\| Holden Drover\n \\| \\[\\[Maruti Gypsy]]\n \\| Santana Samurai\n }}\n\\| production \\= 1981–1998 \n1981–2005 (Indonesia) \n1985–2018 (India) \n1986–2004 (Spain)\n\\| assembly \\= {{ubl\n \\| Japan: \\[\\[Iwata, Shizuoka\\|Iwata]]\n \\| \\[\\[Colombia]]: \\[\\[Bogotá]] (\\[\\[GM Colmotores\\|GM Colombia]])\n \\| India: \\[\\[Gurgaon]]\n \\| \\[\\[Indonesia]]: \\[\\[Bekasi]]\n \\| \\[\\[Kenya]]: \\[\\[Nairobi]] ({{Hover title\\|CMC\\|Cooper Motor Corporation}})\n \\| Pakistan: \\[\\[Karachi]]\n \\| \\[\\[Spain]]: \\[\\[Linares, Jaén\\|Linares]] (\\[\\[Santana Motor]])\n \\| \\[\\[Thailand]]: \\[\\[Bangkok]]\n }}\n\\| body\\_style \\= 2\\-door \\[\\[station wagon\\|wagon]] \n2\\-door \\[\\[van]] \n2\\-door \\[\\[convertible]] \n2\\-door \\[\\[pickup truck\\|pickup]]\\[https://www.suzuki\\-samurai.nl/special/special\\-eng.htm www.suzuki\\-samurai.nl] Retrieved 11 July 2016 \n 2\\-door \\[\\[cab chassis]]\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20160711103121/http://www.ebay.com.au/itm/1985\\-Holden\\-Drover\\-4wd\\-original\\-12\\-page\\-Australian\\-brochure\\-/152130032215?hash\\=item236ba81257:g:YZsAAOSwc1FXYP9Y 1985 Holden Drover 4wd original 12 page Australian brochure, www.ebay.com.au via web.archive.org] Retrieved 11 July 2016 \n3\\-door \\[\\[station wagon\\|wagon]]{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.mobilmotorlama.com/2017/01/macam\\-macam\\-suzuki\\-jimny\\-dan\\-katana\\-di.html?m\\=1 \\|title \\= Macam\\-macam Suzuki Jimny dan Katana di Indonesia\\| date\\=13 January 2017 }} \n5\\-door \\[\\[station wagon\\|wagon]]\n\\| layout \\= {{unbulleted list\n\\|\\[\\[Front\\-engine, rear\\-wheel\\-drive layout\\|Front\\-engine, rear\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\|\\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive layout\\|Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n}}\n\\| engine \\= {{ubl\n \\| '''\\[\\[Petrol engine\\|petrol]]:'''\n \\| 539 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki FB series engine\\#LJ50\\|LJ50]]'' 2\\-stroke \\[\\[Straight\\-three engine\\|I3]]\n \\| 547 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki F engine\\#F5A\\|F5A]]'' I3\n \\| 657 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki F engine\\#F6A\\|F6A]]'' I3\n \\| 658 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki K engine\\#K6A\\|K6A]]'' I3\n \\| 970 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki F engine\\#F10A\\|F10A]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-four engine\\|I4]]\n \\| 1298 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki G engine\\#G13BA\\|G13BA]]''/''\\[\\[Suzuki G engine\\#G13BB\\|G13BB]]'' I4\n \\| 1324 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki G engine\\#G13A\\|G13A]]'' I4\n \\| '''\\[\\[Diesel engine\\|diesel]] (Santana only):'''\n \\| 1870 cc ''\\[\\[Renault F\\-Type engine\\#F8x\\|F8Q]]'' I4\n \\| 1905 cc ''\\[\\[PSA XUD\\#XUD9\\|XUD 9]]'' \\[\\[Turbo\\-diesel\\|turbo]] I4\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= 4/5\\-speed \\[\\[Manual transmission\\|manual]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2030\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}",
"The **Suzuki SJ30** began production in May 1981\\. In Japan, it was marketd as the Suzuki Jimny, meeting [kei car](/wiki/Kei_car \"Kei car\") regulations, and offering both 550 cc and 660 cc [3\\-cylinder](/wiki/Straight-three_engine \"Straight-three engine\") engines. The SJ\\-Series received a larger engine and was lengthened and widened for export markets, where it was branded variously, including as the Suzuki SJ410/413, Suzuki Samurai, Suzuki Sierra, Suzuki Potohar ([Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\")), Suzuki Santana ([Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\")), Suzuki {{Proper name\\|Caribian}} (Thailand), Suzuki Katana (Indonesia), Chevrolet Samurai, Holden Drover (Australia) and [Maruti Gypsy](/wiki/Maruti_Gypsy \"Maruti Gypsy\") (India).",
"### SJ30",
"The SJ30 Jimny 550 was mainly for Japanese domestic market consumption where it suited the Kei car category. Still powered by the [LJ50](/wiki/Suzuki_FB_series_engine%23LJ50 \"Suzuki FB series engine#LJ50\") engine also used in its predecessor, the Jimny 550 was by a sizable margin the last two\\-stroke car engine built in Japan. Production ended with the withdrawal of type approval in November 1987 in favor of its [F5A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 \"List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3\")\\-engined brother, the JA71\\. The two\\-stroke had been favored by Japanese off\\-roaders (and by Suzuki) due to its light weight and superior low\\-speed torque.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://autoc\\-one.jp/suzuki/jimny/special\\-5007494/ \\| title \\= 日本最後の2ストエンジン搭載！実は歴代最強？スズキ ジムニー SJ30 \\| trans\\-title \\= Japan's last 2\\-stroke engine! Actually the strongest in history? Suzuki Jimny SJ30 \\| date \\= 2020\\-06\\-04 \\| publisher \\= MOTA Corporation }}",
"### SJ40",
"{{Multiple image \\| align \\= left \\| direction \\= vertical \\| width \\= 220\n\\| image1 \\= 1989 Suzuki SJ410 1\\.0 (cropped).jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= Suzuki SJ410 (rear view)\n\\| image2 \\= Holden Drover (16193353179\\).jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= Holden Drover cab chassis (QB, Australia)\n}}\nThe SJ40 Jimny 1000 was introduced for 1982 to replace the LJ80 range. The Jimny 1000, sold as the **Suzuki SJ410** in most export markets, used the [F10A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23F10A \"List of Suzuki engines#F10A\") \\- a larger 1\\-litre version of the LJ's 0\\.8\\-litre [four\\-cylinder](/wiki/Straight-four_engine \"Straight-four engine\") engine. This engine produced {{cvt\\|45\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0}} and it had a top speed of {{convert\\|68\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}. The Japanese market models claimed {{cvt\\|52\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0}} at 5,000 rpm.{{citation \\| title \\= Jimny 1000 ''(Catalog)'' \\| publisher \\= Suzuki Motor Co \\| year \\= 1982 \\| id \\= 99999\\-30000\\-700 }} So that owners of 550 cc Jimnys would not be able to retrofit the larger, wider wheels of the Jimny 1000 to their cars, the Japanese [ministry of transportation](/wiki/Ministry_of_Land%2C_Infrastructure%2C_Transport_and_Tourism \"Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism\") dictated that Suzuki fit wheels with a different bolt pattern.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2018}}",
"A four\\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\") was standard, as were non\\-power assisted [drum brakes](/wiki/Drum_brake \"Drum brake\") front and rear. The SJ410 came as a half\\-door [convertible](/wiki/Convertible \"Convertible\"), long\\-wheelbase [pickup truck](/wiki/Pickup_truck \"Pickup truck\"), two\\-door [hardtop](/wiki/Hardtop \"Hardtop\") (called \"Van\" in Japan), raised\\-roof hardtop, and no\\-glass hardtop (panel van). In Japan, the pickup truck was intended as a bare\\-bones work vehicle and did not receive fender extensions, and had diagonal tires on black\\-painted steel wheels rather than the sportier wheels fitted to the regular Jimny. Maximum payload is {{convert\\|350\\|kg\\|lb\\|\\-1\\|abbr\\=on}}. In the autumn of 1983 a covered long\\-wheelbase version was added for export markets.",
"The SJ410 was also produced in [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") by [Santana Motor](/wiki/Santana_Motor \"Santana Motor\") in their [Linares, Jaén](/wiki/Linares%2C_Ja%C3%A9n \"Linares, Jaén\") factory as of March 1985 and was sold as a domestic vehicle in Europe due to its over 60% native parts content, thereby evading limits on imports of Japanese\\-built automobiles.{{cite book \\| title \\= World of Cars 2006·2007 \\| publisher \\= Media Connection Sp. z o.o. \\| location \\= Warsaw, Poland \\| pages \\= 76–77 \\| year \\= 2006 }} It was built only on the short wheelbase, as a two\\-door convertible and commercial, or with the three door wagon or van bodywork. Some later models of the SJ410 would switch to disk brakes in the front depending on the factory they were made at. In March 1990, Santana\\-built versions received the same chassis developments which turned the SJ413 into the Samurai; this version was sold as **Samurai 1\\.0** where it was offered (\"Samurai Mil\" in Spain).{{cite book \\| title \\= Quattroruote: Tutte le Auto del Mondo 1992 \\| publisher \\= Editoriale Domus S.p.A. \\| year \\= 1992 \\| pages \\= 1323–1327 \\| location \\= Milano }} Cooper Motor Corporation (CMC) of [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi \"Nairobi\"), Kenya, had been building the first generation Jimny and continued with assembly of the SJ410 in the mid\\-eighties.{{Cite book \\| title \\= Quattroruote: Tutte le Auto del Mondo 1985 \\| editor \\= Mastrostefano, Raffaele \\| publisher \\= Editoriale Domus S.p.A \\| ref \\= TAM85 \\| year \\= 1985 \\| page \\= 225 \\| language \\= it \\| location \\= Milano \\| isbn \\= 88\\-7212\\-012\\-8 }}",
"#### Indonesian production",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Facelifted Indonesian market \"Suzuki Katana\", as built by [Suzuki Indomobil Motor](/wiki/Suzuki_Indomobil_Motor \"Suzuki Indomobil Motor\") until 2006](/wiki/File:2005_Suzuki_Katana_GX_4x2_1.0_SJ410_%2820190131%29.jpg \"2005 Suzuki Katana GX 4x2 1.0 SJ410 (20190131).jpg\")",
"The SJ410 was also assembled in Indonesia by [Suzuki Indomobil Motor](/wiki/Suzuki_Indomobil_Motor \"Suzuki Indomobil Motor\") since late 1982 until 2006, where it was marketed with different names. The original version was marketed as **Suzuki Super Jimny**, continuing from the previous LJ Suzuki Jimny. The canvas soft\\-top model was marketed in fairly small numbers from 1983 until late 1985 as **Jimny Sierra**.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.mobilmotorlama.com/2017/01/macam\\-macam\\-suzuki\\-jimny\\-dan\\-katana\\-di.html \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170613193849/http://www.mobilmotorlama.com/2017/01/macam\\-macam\\-suzuki\\-jimny\\-dan\\-katana\\-di.html \\| title \\= Macam\\-macam Suzuki Jimny dan Katana di Indonesia \\| archive\\-date \\= 2017\\-06\\-13 \\| trans\\-title \\= The various kinds of Suzuki Katanas and Jimnys in Indonesia \\| date \\= 2017\\-01\\-13 \\| first \\= Charis \\| last \\= Alfan \\| publisher \\= Mobil Motor Lama }} In the late 1980s, responding to the introduction of higher taxes for vehicles with four\\-wheel\\-drive, Suzuki introduced a 4x2 version as the **Suzuki Katana** in September 1989\\. The earlier model built until 1984 were low\\-roof, metal\\-bodied wagons. A higher\\-roofed model arrived in 1984 and continued to be built until about 1988, while the Katana has an even higher roof than the previous versions. Later, there were also 1\\.3\\-litre models sold in small numbers as the **Jimny Samurai**.",
"As of September 1989, it received updated square headlights. The rear\\-wheel drive Katana was also used as a basis for an Indonesian\\-built, 1930s' style kit\\-car called the Marvia Classic.*Tutte le Auto del Mondo 1992*, p. 460 The earlier Katana is only available with \"Blitz\" variant until a light facelift in late 1992 (round headlights) and mid\\-1993 (new grille design with round headlights and \"S\" logo). In the same year, the Blitz variant was replaced with the long\\-running Suzuki Katana GX. The Suzuki Katana GX was produced from 1993 to 2006, with updates only on body sticker design in 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2002, and 2005\\. There was also a DX variant of Katana below the GX marketed from 1993 to 2000, after which the GX was the sole variant remaining. Both the GX and DX variants were equipped with power steering as standard. As of March 1995, both the Katana GX and DX received a new redesigned steering wheel with the Suzuki \"S\" logo. In 2005, Suzuki introduced the SJ413 {{Proper name\\|Caribian}} Spacecab pickup, which was imported from Thailand and sold until 2007\\. Production of the second generation Jimny (and Katana) in Indonesia ended in July 2006\\.",
"### Maruti Gypsy",
"{{main\\|Maruti Gypsy}}\nThe Indian built SJ\\-410 has only ever been available in a long\\-wheelbase version. The Gypsy remained in production for the Indian Subcontinent market until 2019\\. The version still produced in India by [Maruti Suzuki](/wiki/Maruti_Suzuki \"Maruti Suzuki\") was the Maruti Gypsy King, using the sixteen valve, {{cvt\\|80\\|PS\\|kW\\|0}} 1\\.3\\-litre G13 engine. The Gypsy King is still popular with the Indian armed forces and police units.",
"### Farm Worker 4x4",
"In 2013, Suzuki New Zealand reintroduced the Suzuki SJ series into New Zealand badged as the Suzuki Farm Worker 4x4,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.suzuki.co.nz/Automotive/Farm\\+Worker \\|title\\=Suzuki New Zealand \\- Farm Worker \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-01\\-14 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420045942/http://www.suzuki.co.nz/Automotive/Farm%2BWorker/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-20 }} Suzuki NZ Farm Worker website although the [Maruti](/wiki/Maruti_Suzuki \"Maruti Suzuki\") badge can clearly be seen in the centre of the radiator grille. The vehicle is actually the leaf\\-sprung [Suzuki Maruti Gypsy King MG413W](/wiki/Maruti_Gypsy \"Maruti Gypsy\"), powered by the [G13BB](/wiki/Suzuki_G_engine%23G13B \"Suzuki G engine#G13B\") 1\\.3\\-litre, 16 valve engine, producing {{convert\\|80\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}} at 6,000 rpm and {{convert\\|103\\|Nm\\|lbft\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque at 4,500 rpm, mated to a five\\-speed, all synchromesh gearbox and a high/low 2wd/4wd transfer box. The Farm Worker is available in four slightly differing styles, two having a rear window and fibreglass bulkhead, and two having canvas roofs with foldable front windscreens, all based on the long wheelbase version (the only version built by Maruti) and offering a maximum payload of 500 kg. As its name suggests the Farm Worker is intended for farm work only and is not able to be road registered due to the vehicle not meeting current crash protection regulations,{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2018}} although it does come with seat belts for the front two seats.\n{{clear left}}",
"### {{Anchor\\|Samurai}}SJ413/Samurai",
"#### JA51 1300",
"In 1984, the SJ was revamped with the launch of the SJ413 (internal model code **JA51**). The SJ413 included a larger 1\\.3\\-litre four\\-cylinder engine, 5\\-speed manual transmission and power brakes (disc brakes on the front and drum brakes on the rear) all around. The body and interior were also redesigned, with the introduction of a roll bar, along with a new dashboard, seats, and grille. The SJ410 remained in production for various other markets with the old specifications. After the 1988 introduction of the [Escudo](/wiki/Suzuki_Vitara \"Suzuki Vitara\"), sales of the Jimny 1300 ended in Japan. The model returned to the Japanese market in May 1993, after a thorough update.",
"SJ413 had the same track width as SJ410\\. As those two car models were relatively susceptible to a rollover, Suzuki introduced a wider edition of SJ413 around 1988, with its track widened by 10 cm. Wider track gave the vehicle more stability. This wider edition received the nameplate \"Samurai\". The difference in width is the only major difference between SJ413 and Samurai, apart from some minor cosmetic changes in the interior and the exterior.",
"The Samurai was also produced in a long wheel base (LWB) edition for certain markets, but still with three doors. That LWB edition still had only two rear seats (if fitted at all) for two rear passengers, and the rear passenger leg room was the same as in the standard SWB edition. The extended vehicle length only affected the boot/trunk space behind the rear seats, which was significantly larger in the LWB edition.",
"#### North American market",
"The SJ\\-Series Samurai was introduced to the United States in 1985 for the 1986 model year. It had gone on sale earlier in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") (as the Suzuki SJ410\\). It was priced at $6200 when introduced in the United States and 47,000 were sold in its first year. It had a 1\\.3\\-litre, {{convert\\|63\\|hp\\|kW PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, four\\-cylinder engine and was available as a [convertible](/wiki/Convertible_%28car%29 \"Convertible (car)\") or a [hardtop](/wiki/Hardtop \"Hardtop\"), and came equipped with rear seats until 1994\\. The Suzuki Samurai became intensely popular within the serious 4WD community for its good off\\-road performance and reliability compared to other 4WDs of the time, outselling the Jeep Wrangler by two to one in 1987\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ORo9\\-VxlHoY\\|title\\=Here's Why The Tiny Suzuki Samurai Outsold The Jeep Wrangler 2 to 1 in 1987!\\|date\\=11 November 2018 \\|via\\=www.youtube.com}} This is due to the fact that while very compact and light, it is a real 4WD vehicle equipped with a transfer case, switchable 4WD and low range. Its lightness makes it a very nimble off\\-roader less prone to sinking in softer ground than heavier vehicles. It was also sold as the Chevrolet Samurai in Puerto Rico.",
"The 1988\\.5 model Samurai was re\\-tuned for better on\\-road use in the United States. This revision included softer suspension settings and a larger anti\\-roll bar to reduce body roll. A lower fifth gear (.865:1 vs the earlier .795:1\\) increased engine speed and power on the highway, and improved dashboard and seats made the Samurai more comfortable.",
"A new 1\\.3 litre four\\-cylinder engine with throttle\\-body [fuel injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection \"Fuel injection\") was introduced with {{convert\\|66\\|hp\\|kW PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} in September 1991\\. The Samurai was supplemented in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and the United States markets in 1989 by the [Suzuki Sidekick](/wiki/Suzuki_Sidekick \"Suzuki Sidekick\"), which eventually replaced the Samurai in 1995\\. The rear seat was removed from 1994 and 1995 Samurai models with rear shoulder safety belts becoming mandatory, and the partial roll cage not having the required mounting provisions, unlike the larger [Jeep Wrangler](/wiki/Jeep_Wrangler \"Jeep Wrangler\"). Low sales and pending stricter safety legislation prompted the withdrawal of the Samurai from [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and the United States markets after 1995\\.",
"##### Consumers Union lawsuit",
"{{Main\\|Suzuki Motor Corp. v. Consumers Union of the U.S., Inc.}}\nAn unfavorable 1988 review in *[Consumer Reports](/wiki/Consumer_Reports \"Consumer Reports\")* magazine said the Samurai was unsafe and prone to [rollovers](/wiki/Vehicle_rollover \"Vehicle rollover\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/06/03/business/consumer\\-group\\-asks\\-recall\\-of\\-suzuki\\-samurai\\-as\\-unsafe.html\\| first\\=Doron P. \\|last\\=Levine\\| title\\=Consumer Group Asks Recall Of Suzuki Samurai as Unsafe\\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[New York Times]] \\| date\\=3 June 1988}} In 1996, after investigating the CU's claims, Suzuki of North America sued the magazine's publisher, [Consumers Union](/wiki/Consumers_Union \"Consumers Union\") (CU), for libel. The suit resulted in an inconclusive settlement. CU agreed that it \"never intended to imply that the Samurai easily rolls over in routine driving conditions.\"{{Citation \\|url\\= http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/suzuki\\-and\\-consumers\\-union\\-agree\\-on\\-dismissal\\-of\\-lawsuit\\-704/index.htm?resultPageIndex\\=1\\&resultIndex\\=1\\&searchTerm\\=Suzuki%20Samurai \\|title\\= Suzuki lawsuit dismissed \\|website\\= consumerreports.org \\|access\\-date\\=13 August 2006 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312091559/http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/suzuki\\-and\\-consumers\\-union\\-agree\\-on\\-dismissal\\-of\\-lawsuit\\-704/index.htm?resultPageIndex\\=1\\&resultIndex\\=1\\&searchTerm\\=Suzuki%20Samurai \\|archive\\-date\\= 12 March 2007 }} CU and Suzuki made a joint statement, saying, \"CU and Suzuki disagree with respect to the validity\" of CU's tests and that \"Suzuki disputes the validity\" of the tests, while \"CU stands by its test protocol and findings.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/new\\-cars/news/suzuki\\-and\\-consumers\\-union\\-agree\\-on\\-lawsuit\\-dismissal/overview/index.htm \\|title\\=Suzuki and Consumers Union agree on dismissal of lawsuit \\|publisher\\=Consumerreports.org \\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-13}}",
"### Ranger kitcar",
"[Rickman Cars](/wiki/Rickman_Ranger \"Rickman Ranger\") developed a [GFRP](/wiki/GFRP \"GFRP\")\\-bodied copy of the Samurai called the **Rickman Ranger**. Strictly a rear\\-wheel\\-drive vehicle, it uses the underpinnings of a [Mark II Ford Escort](/wiki/Ford_Escort_%28Europe%29%23Mk2 \"Ford Escort (Europe)#Mk2\"). It was produced in the UK as a [kitcar](/wiki/Kitcar \"Kitcar\") and later in Russia by [Avtokam](/wiki/Avtokam \"Avtokam\").[https://forum.azlk\\-team.ru/index.php/topic,39636\\.0\\.html](https://forum.azlk-team.ru/index.php/topic,39636.0.html) Russian Rickman, and later the Lomax Company, produced over 1000 vehicles.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rickmancarsownersclub.org.uk/history.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811220808/http://rickmancarsownersclub.org.uk/history.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=11 August 2013 \\|title\\=RCOC History Page}} Avtokam and later [Velta](/wiki/Velta_Machine-Building_Plant \"Velta Machine-Building Plant\") produced around 150 further kits.{{cite news\\|title\\=Как на патефонном заводе подвеску к \"Москвичу\" и пластиковый джип делали\\|url\\=https://properm.ru/auto/news/145730/\\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2017\\|work\\=ПермАвтоПром\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216001400/https://properm.ru/auto/news/145730/\\|archive\\-date\\=16 December 2017}} The Velta plant went bankrupt in 2006\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Открытое акционерное общество \"Велта\".\\|url\\=http://www.archive.perm.ru/projects/weeklyphoto/open\\-joint\\-stock\\-company\\-velta\\-/\\|website\\=Archive.perm.ru\\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2017 \\| url\\-status \\= live \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171029070411/http://www.archive.perm.ru/projects/weeklyphoto/open\\-joint\\-stock\\-company\\-velta\\-/ \\| archive\\-date\\=29 October 2017}} Rickman also made a camper version known as the **Rancher**.",
"",
"File:Rickman Ranger \\- Flickr \\- mick \\- Lumix(1\\).jpg\\|Rickman Ranger/2160 short wheelbase version\nFile:1993 Rickman Space Ranger 2\\.0 Front.jpg\\|Rickman Space Ranger 2160 long wheelbase version\nFile:Rickman\\_Rancher\\_(Q\\_418\\_GBF).JPG\\|The Rickman Rancher.",
"",
"#### Other markets",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Post\\-1998 Santana\\-built Samurai](/wiki/File:Suzuki_Samurai.jpg \"Suzuki Samurai.jpg\") The SJ413/Samurai had a longer history in the rest of the world. Australian market JA51s were sold as either Suzuki Sierra or Holden Drover, while those built in Thailand are called Suzuki {{Proper name\\|Caribian}}. The {{Proper name\\|Caribian}} has also been available as the \"{{Proper name\\|Caribian}} Sporty\", a unique LWB extended cab pickup.",
"Due to various trade obstacles for Japanese cars, Spanish [Santana Motors](/wiki/Santana_Motors \"Santana Motors\") (in addition to the SJ410\\) began local production of the SJ413 in 1986\\. The Santana built SJs had softer springs for an improved on\\-road ride, colour coordinated interiors with cloth seats and carpeted floors, all to broaden appeal to those who did not intend to primarily off\\-road the vehicle.{{cite book \\| title \\= Off Road and 4 Wheel Drive July 1987 \\| publisher \\= Link House Publications \\| location \\= Poole, England \\| year \\= 1987 }} In 1989 it received some optical as well as chassis updates and received the \"Samurai\" nameplate. Santana\\-built Samurais did not benefit from the updated coil sprung chassis introduced around 1996, instead receiving a facelift (new grille, more rounded bumpers) specific to European and neighboring markets. Also around 1998, Santana developed a version which used [PSA](/wiki/PSA_Peugeot_Citro%C3%ABn \"PSA Peugeot Citroën\")'s [XUD 9](/wiki/PSA_XUD%23XUD9 \"PSA XUD#XUD9\") 1\\.9\\-litre turbodiesel engine, producing {{convert\\|63\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite journal \\| title \\= Suzuki en España: fabricante de automóviles japonés consolida su presencia en España con nuevos modelos \\| trans\\-title \\= Suzuki in Spain: Japanese car manufacturer consolidates its presence in Spain with new models \\| language \\= es \\| last \\= de Miguel \\| first \\= Carlos \\| journal \\= Epoca \\| date \\= 1998\\-01\\-26 \\| publisher \\= Difusora de Informacion Periodica, S.A. \\[DINPESA] \\| issue \\= 674 \\| page \\= 96 }} Top speed is 130 km/h (80\\.8 mph).{{cite book \\| title \\= Katalog der Automobil Revue 2002 \\| publisher \\= Revue Automobile \\| location \\= Berne, Switzerland \\| pages \\= 552–553 \\| year \\= 2002 }} Santana then replaced this diesel Samurai edition with another diesel edition sometime in year 2001, based on Renault's F8Q 1\\.9\\-litre non\\-turbo diesel engine, producing {{convert\\|64\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|abbr\\=on}}). Santana also produced petrol editions alongside the diesel editions. Spanish Samurai production (both for petrol and for diesel editions) ended in late 2003 or early 2004\\.",
"The Samurai was sold in Colombia and Venezuela as Chevrolet Samurai, assembled in [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 \"Bogotá\"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") by General Motors Colmotores. In other South American markets ([Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"), Brazil, Chile, Peru, Paraguay and Uruguay) it was sold as the Suzuki Samurai. Long wheelbase models were not offered in the [Mercosur](/wiki/Mercosur \"Mercosur\").",
"{{Multiple image \\| align \\= right \\| direction \\= vertical \\| width \\= 220\n\\| image1 \\= Suzuki Caribian Sporty (SJ413\\), front right.jpg\n\\| image2 \\= Suzuki Caribian Sporty (SJ413\\), rear.jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= Thai\\-built Suzuki {{Proper name\\|Caribian}} Sporty extended\\-cab pickup\n}}\nIn Asia the SJ/Samurai was sold under a few different names. In Thailand it was called the Suzuki {{Proper name\\|Caribian}}. The Thai market also received a special version called the \"Suzuki {{Proper name\\|Caribian}} Sporty\", a pickup with an extended cab with a small rear seat best suited for occasional use.",
"#### High altitude world record",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The modified vehicle used in the expedition.](/wiki/File:Suzuki_Samurai_near_the_summit_of_Ojos_del_Salado.jpg \"Suzuki Samurai near the summit of Ojos del Salado.jpg\")\nOn 21 April 2007, the Chilean duo of Gonzalo Bravo and Eduardo Canales drove their modified Suzuki Samurai (SJ413\\) up [Ojos del Salado](/wiki/Ojos_del_Salado \"Ojos del Salado\") to an altitude of {{convert\\|6688\\|m\\|ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, setting a new record for the highest altitude attained by a four\\-wheeled vehicle, surpassing the previous record of {{convert\\|6646\\|m\\|ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} set by a [Jeep](/wiki/Jeep \"Jeep\").",
"The Samurai in question benefited from wheel, tire, and suspension changes, and a supercharged G16A 4\\-cylinder engine. It was the third attempt for the two man team, after encountering weather difficulties on the first attempt and an engine fire in the second. The previous record holder's team led by Matthias Jeschke driving a [Jeep Wrangler](/wiki/Jeep_Wrangler \"Jeep Wrangler\"), left a sign reading \"Jeep Parking Only: All others don't make it up here anyway\". The Chilean team found the sign, blown down by strong winds, and brought it back to civilization as a souvenir.",
"This record was duly certified by the [Guinness World Record](/wiki/Guinness_World_Record \"Guinness World Record\") in July 2007\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2018}}",
"On 13 December 2019, Jeschke reclaimed the record with a Mercedes Benz [Unimog](/wiki/Unimog \"Unimog\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://mbs.mercedes\\-benz.com/en/special\\-trucks/allterrain\\-mobile\\-homes/a\\-performance\\-that\\-breaks\\-records.html \\|title \\= Unimog expedition team wins the world altitude record. \\- MBS World}}",
"### Kei history",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Suzuki Jimny JA71 series](/wiki/File:Suzuki_Jimny_JA71_005.JPG \"Suzuki Jimny JA71 005.JPG\") In January 1986 the **JA71**, a four\\-stroke, turbocharged and fuel\\-injected ([F5A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 \"List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3\")) {{convert\\|543\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} three\\-cylinder engine was introduced to complement the two\\-stroke SJ30\\. It used the upgraded interior from the Jimny 1300, which was simultaneously introduced to the SJ30\\. Power was {{convert\\|42\\|PS\\|kW bhp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (JIS gross), although this was increased to {{convert\\|52\\|PS\\|kW bhp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (JIS Net) in a November 1987 facelift by adding an intercooler. The non\\-intercooled engine continued to be offered in the lowest spec Van version. Claimed power was down to {{convert\\|38\\|PS\\|kW bhp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} as the ratings were switched from gross to net. At the same time, a glassed high\\-roof version (\"Panoramic Roof\") was added.{{cite book \\| title \\= Car Graphic: Car Archives Vol. 11, '80s Japanese Cars \\| publisher \\= Nigensha \\| year \\= 2007 \\| pages \\= xx \\| location \\= Tokyo \\| isbn \\= 978\\-4\\-544\\-91018\\-6 }}",
"#### 660 cc Era",
"The JA71 was replaced in March 1990 by the new **JA11** as new Kei category regulations took effect. Now with 657 cc on offer, the otherwise similar **[F6A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 \"List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3\")** engine only came with an intercooler and {{convert\\|55\\|PS\\|kW bhp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. A utilitarian van (HA), as well as more luxurious Hardtop, Convertible, and Panoramic Roof (HC, CC, EC) versions were on offer.{{cite web\n\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209101856/http://www.suzuki\\-w.co.jp/history2/jimny/jimJA11\\.html\n\\| title\\=U's Station On the Net \\- Short Catalog by Model\n\\| url\\=http://www.suzuki\\-w.co.jp/history2/jimny/jimJA11\\.html\n\\| publisher\\=Suzuki Motor Corporation\n\\| archive\\-date\\=9 December 2008\n\\| access\\-date\\=27 June 2010\n\\| url\\-status\\=bot: unknown\n}} The suspension was also upgraded, while a longer front bumper meant that the foglights could be mounted in front of the grille rather than in it. In June 1991, power was increased to {{convert\\|58\\|PS\\|kW bhp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and a year later power steering and automatic transmission became available for the first time. Top speed of this version was {{convert\\|120\\|km/h\\|mi/h\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. In February 1995 power increased to {{convert\\|64\\|PS\\|kW bhp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, but production of the JA11 ended only nine months later with the introduction of the coil spring JA12/22\\.",
"### Coil spring edition",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Second generation\n\\| image \\= Suzuki Jimny JA12W 001\\.JPG\n\\| caption \\= Suzuki Jimny JA12W series\n\\| production \\= 1995–1998\n\\| assembly \\= \\[\\[Iwata, Shizuoka\\|Iwata]], Japan\n\\| body\\_style \\= 2\\-door \\[\\[station wagon\\|wagon]] \n2\\-door \\[\\[convertible]]\n\\| engine \\= {{ubl\n \\| 657 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki F engine\\#F6A\\|F6A]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-three engine\\|I3]]\n \\| 658 cc ''\\[\\[List of Suzuki engines\\#K6A\\|K6A]]'' I3\n \\| 1298 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki G engine\\#G13BA\\|G13BA]]''/''\\[\\[Suzuki G engine\\#G13BB\\|G13BB]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-four engine\\|I4]]\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= 5\\-speed \\[\\[Manual transmission\\|manual]] \n3\\-speed \\[\\[Automatic transmission\\|automatic]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2030\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|3295\\|\\-\\|3430\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}{{cite book \\| title \\= Auto Katalog 1997 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[:de:Motor Presse Stuttgart\\|Motor Presse International]] \\| location \\= Stuttgart \\| pages \\= 232–235 \\| year \\= 1996 }}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|1395\\|\\-\\|1550\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|1670\\|\\-\\|1825\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| model\\_code \\= JA12/JA22/JB32\n}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Suzuki Jimny JA12W series](/wiki/File:Suzuki_Jimny_JA12W_002.JPG \"Suzuki Jimny JA12W 002.JPG\")\nThe Samurai continued for sale outside the United States (where the newer version is referred to as the 'Coily'), with a substantial update in November 1995\\. This included a [coil spring](/wiki/Coil_spring \"Coil spring\") suspension, though both [live axles](/wiki/Live_axle \"Live axle\") were retained. The rest of the truck was redesigned as well, with new seats, dashboard, steering wheel, doors and front grille.",
"There were three Samurai coil sprung models.\n* The **JA12** used the {{convert\\|657\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} [F6A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 \"List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3\") three\\-cylinder engine from the JA11\\.\n* The **JA22** received the newly developed and more powerful [K6A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 \"List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3\") engine.\n* The **JB32** received the larger {{cvt\\|85\\|PS\\|kW\\|0}}, {{convert\\|1\\.3\\|L\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} [G13BB](/wiki/Suzuki_G_engine%23G13B \"Suzuki G engine#G13B\") 16\\-valve engine. It was slightly longer and wider than the other two models, due to larger bumpers and fenders. This model also bears the designation **SJ80**. This was the model seen in most export markets, although abroad it was usually equipped with the eight\\-valve, {{convert\\|70\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}} [G13BA](/wiki/Suzuki_G_engine%23G13BA \"Suzuki G engine#G13BA\") engine instead.",
"Additional notes:\n* In order to abide by the [Kei Jidōsha regulations](/wiki/Kei_car%23History_of_regulations \"Kei car#History of regulations\"), claimed output was {{cvt\\|64\\|PS\\|kW\\|0}} for both engines used in **JA12** and **JA22**, although the K6A produced considerably more power than the F6A.\n* As far as it is known, no coil sprung Samurai has ever been produced in a long wheel base edition, but there have been some produced with a raised roof (\"high roof\") and soft/open top (\"cabrio\").\n* Some vehicle parts are specific to coil sprung Samurais compared to leaf sprung Samurais, and even later Jimny models \\- most suspension parts, transfer cases, several body panels, as well as most interior and exterior trim pieces.\n* **JB32** was sold in Europe only during the years 1997 and 1998, and is therefore very rare in Europe, with the availability of the parts specific to **JB32** being almost non\\-existent in local European markets.",
"Not all production plants switched over to produce coil sprung Samurais. The most notable examples are Maruti Suzuki plant in India (Producing it as the Maruti Gypsy) (still produces the original narrow SJ410 as of year 2020\\) and Santana plant in Spain (continued producing leaf\\-sprung Samurais until year 2004\\). While the third\\-generation Jimny replaced the Jimny/Samurai in most markets after 1998, it still remains in production in India.",
"{{Clear}}",
""
] |
### {{Anchor\|Samurai}}SJ413/Samurai
#### JA51 1300
In 1984, the SJ was revamped with the launch of the SJ413 (internal model code **JA51**). The SJ413 included a larger 1\.3\-litre four\-cylinder engine, 5\-speed manual transmission and power brakes (disc brakes on the front and drum brakes on the rear) all around. The body and interior were also redesigned, with the introduction of a roll bar, along with a new dashboard, seats, and grille. The SJ410 remained in production for various other markets with the old specifications. After the 1988 introduction of the [Escudo](/wiki/Suzuki_Vitara "Suzuki Vitara"), sales of the Jimny 1300 ended in Japan. The model returned to the Japanese market in May 1993, after a thorough update.
SJ413 had the same track width as SJ410\. As those two car models were relatively susceptible to a rollover, Suzuki introduced a wider edition of SJ413 around 1988, with its track widened by 10 cm. Wider track gave the vehicle more stability. This wider edition received the nameplate "Samurai". The difference in width is the only major difference between SJ413 and Samurai, apart from some minor cosmetic changes in the interior and the exterior.
The Samurai was also produced in a long wheel base (LWB) edition for certain markets, but still with three doors. That LWB edition still had only two rear seats (if fitted at all) for two rear passengers, and the rear passenger leg room was the same as in the standard SWB edition. The extended vehicle length only affected the boot/trunk space behind the rear seats, which was significantly larger in the LWB edition.
#### North American market
The SJ\-Series Samurai was introduced to the United States in 1985 for the 1986 model year. It had gone on sale earlier in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico") (as the Suzuki SJ410\). It was priced at $6200 when introduced in the United States and 47,000 were sold in its first year. It had a 1\.3\-litre, {{convert\|63\|hp\|kW PS\|0\|abbr\=on}}, four\-cylinder engine and was available as a [convertible](/wiki/Convertible_%28car%29 "Convertible (car)") or a [hardtop](/wiki/Hardtop "Hardtop"), and came equipped with rear seats until 1994\. The Suzuki Samurai became intensely popular within the serious 4WD community for its good off\-road performance and reliability compared to other 4WDs of the time, outselling the Jeep Wrangler by two to one in 1987\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ORo9\-VxlHoY\|title\=Here's Why The Tiny Suzuki Samurai Outsold The Jeep Wrangler 2 to 1 in 1987!\|date\=11 November 2018 \|via\=www.youtube.com}} This is due to the fact that while very compact and light, it is a real 4WD vehicle equipped with a transfer case, switchable 4WD and low range. Its lightness makes it a very nimble off\-roader less prone to sinking in softer ground than heavier vehicles. It was also sold as the Chevrolet Samurai in Puerto Rico.
The 1988\.5 model Samurai was re\-tuned for better on\-road use in the United States. This revision included softer suspension settings and a larger anti\-roll bar to reduce body roll. A lower fifth gear (.865:1 vs the earlier .795:1\) increased engine speed and power on the highway, and improved dashboard and seats made the Samurai more comfortable.
A new 1\.3 litre four\-cylinder engine with throttle\-body [fuel injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection "Fuel injection") was introduced with {{convert\|66\|hp\|kW PS\|0\|abbr\=on}} in September 1991\. The Samurai was supplemented in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and the United States markets in 1989 by the [Suzuki Sidekick](/wiki/Suzuki_Sidekick "Suzuki Sidekick"), which eventually replaced the Samurai in 1995\. The rear seat was removed from 1994 and 1995 Samurai models with rear shoulder safety belts becoming mandatory, and the partial roll cage not having the required mounting provisions, unlike the larger [Jeep Wrangler](/wiki/Jeep_Wrangler "Jeep Wrangler"). Low sales and pending stricter safety legislation prompted the withdrawal of the Samurai from [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and the United States markets after 1995\.
##### Consumers Union lawsuit
{{Main\|Suzuki Motor Corp. v. Consumers Union of the U.S., Inc.}}
An unfavorable 1988 review in *[Consumer Reports](/wiki/Consumer_Reports "Consumer Reports")* magazine said the Samurai was unsafe and prone to [rollovers](/wiki/Vehicle_rollover "Vehicle rollover").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/06/03/business/consumer\-group\-asks\-recall\-of\-suzuki\-samurai\-as\-unsafe.html\| first\=Doron P. \|last\=Levine\| title\=Consumer Group Asks Recall Of Suzuki Samurai as Unsafe\| newspaper\=\[\[New York Times]] \| date\=3 June 1988}} In 1996, after investigating the CU's claims, Suzuki of North America sued the magazine's publisher, [Consumers Union](/wiki/Consumers_Union "Consumers Union") (CU), for libel. The suit resulted in an inconclusive settlement. CU agreed that it "never intended to imply that the Samurai easily rolls over in routine driving conditions."{{Citation \|url\= http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/suzuki\-and\-consumers\-union\-agree\-on\-dismissal\-of\-lawsuit\-704/index.htm?resultPageIndex\=1\&resultIndex\=1\&searchTerm\=Suzuki%20Samurai \|title\= Suzuki lawsuit dismissed \|website\= consumerreports.org \|access\-date\=13 August 2006 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312091559/http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/suzuki\-and\-consumers\-union\-agree\-on\-dismissal\-of\-lawsuit\-704/index.htm?resultPageIndex\=1\&resultIndex\=1\&searchTerm\=Suzuki%20Samurai \|archive\-date\= 12 March 2007 }} CU and Suzuki made a joint statement, saying, "CU and Suzuki disagree with respect to the validity" of CU's tests and that "Suzuki disputes the validity" of the tests, while "CU stands by its test protocol and findings."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/new\-cars/news/suzuki\-and\-consumers\-union\-agree\-on\-lawsuit\-dismissal/overview/index.htm \|title\=Suzuki and Consumers Union agree on dismissal of lawsuit \|publisher\=Consumerreports.org \|date\=2010\-04\-13 \|access\-date\=2011\-11\-13}}
|
[
"### {{Anchor\\|Samurai}}SJ413/Samurai",
"#### JA51 1300",
"In 1984, the SJ was revamped with the launch of the SJ413 (internal model code **JA51**). The SJ413 included a larger 1\\.3\\-litre four\\-cylinder engine, 5\\-speed manual transmission and power brakes (disc brakes on the front and drum brakes on the rear) all around. The body and interior were also redesigned, with the introduction of a roll bar, along with a new dashboard, seats, and grille. The SJ410 remained in production for various other markets with the old specifications. After the 1988 introduction of the [Escudo](/wiki/Suzuki_Vitara \"Suzuki Vitara\"), sales of the Jimny 1300 ended in Japan. The model returned to the Japanese market in May 1993, after a thorough update.",
"SJ413 had the same track width as SJ410\\. As those two car models were relatively susceptible to a rollover, Suzuki introduced a wider edition of SJ413 around 1988, with its track widened by 10 cm. Wider track gave the vehicle more stability. This wider edition received the nameplate \"Samurai\". The difference in width is the only major difference between SJ413 and Samurai, apart from some minor cosmetic changes in the interior and the exterior.",
"The Samurai was also produced in a long wheel base (LWB) edition for certain markets, but still with three doors. That LWB edition still had only two rear seats (if fitted at all) for two rear passengers, and the rear passenger leg room was the same as in the standard SWB edition. The extended vehicle length only affected the boot/trunk space behind the rear seats, which was significantly larger in the LWB edition.",
"#### North American market",
"The SJ\\-Series Samurai was introduced to the United States in 1985 for the 1986 model year. It had gone on sale earlier in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") (as the Suzuki SJ410\\). It was priced at $6200 when introduced in the United States and 47,000 were sold in its first year. It had a 1\\.3\\-litre, {{convert\\|63\\|hp\\|kW PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, four\\-cylinder engine and was available as a [convertible](/wiki/Convertible_%28car%29 \"Convertible (car)\") or a [hardtop](/wiki/Hardtop \"Hardtop\"), and came equipped with rear seats until 1994\\. The Suzuki Samurai became intensely popular within the serious 4WD community for its good off\\-road performance and reliability compared to other 4WDs of the time, outselling the Jeep Wrangler by two to one in 1987\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ORo9\\-VxlHoY\\|title\\=Here's Why The Tiny Suzuki Samurai Outsold The Jeep Wrangler 2 to 1 in 1987!\\|date\\=11 November 2018 \\|via\\=www.youtube.com}} This is due to the fact that while very compact and light, it is a real 4WD vehicle equipped with a transfer case, switchable 4WD and low range. Its lightness makes it a very nimble off\\-roader less prone to sinking in softer ground than heavier vehicles. It was also sold as the Chevrolet Samurai in Puerto Rico.",
"The 1988\\.5 model Samurai was re\\-tuned for better on\\-road use in the United States. This revision included softer suspension settings and a larger anti\\-roll bar to reduce body roll. A lower fifth gear (.865:1 vs the earlier .795:1\\) increased engine speed and power on the highway, and improved dashboard and seats made the Samurai more comfortable.",
"A new 1\\.3 litre four\\-cylinder engine with throttle\\-body [fuel injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection \"Fuel injection\") was introduced with {{convert\\|66\\|hp\\|kW PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} in September 1991\\. The Samurai was supplemented in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and the United States markets in 1989 by the [Suzuki Sidekick](/wiki/Suzuki_Sidekick \"Suzuki Sidekick\"), which eventually replaced the Samurai in 1995\\. The rear seat was removed from 1994 and 1995 Samurai models with rear shoulder safety belts becoming mandatory, and the partial roll cage not having the required mounting provisions, unlike the larger [Jeep Wrangler](/wiki/Jeep_Wrangler \"Jeep Wrangler\"). Low sales and pending stricter safety legislation prompted the withdrawal of the Samurai from [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and the United States markets after 1995\\.",
"##### Consumers Union lawsuit",
"{{Main\\|Suzuki Motor Corp. v. Consumers Union of the U.S., Inc.}}\nAn unfavorable 1988 review in *[Consumer Reports](/wiki/Consumer_Reports \"Consumer Reports\")* magazine said the Samurai was unsafe and prone to [rollovers](/wiki/Vehicle_rollover \"Vehicle rollover\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/06/03/business/consumer\\-group\\-asks\\-recall\\-of\\-suzuki\\-samurai\\-as\\-unsafe.html\\| first\\=Doron P. \\|last\\=Levine\\| title\\=Consumer Group Asks Recall Of Suzuki Samurai as Unsafe\\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[New York Times]] \\| date\\=3 June 1988}} In 1996, after investigating the CU's claims, Suzuki of North America sued the magazine's publisher, [Consumers Union](/wiki/Consumers_Union \"Consumers Union\") (CU), for libel. The suit resulted in an inconclusive settlement. CU agreed that it \"never intended to imply that the Samurai easily rolls over in routine driving conditions.\"{{Citation \\|url\\= http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/suzuki\\-and\\-consumers\\-union\\-agree\\-on\\-dismissal\\-of\\-lawsuit\\-704/index.htm?resultPageIndex\\=1\\&resultIndex\\=1\\&searchTerm\\=Suzuki%20Samurai \\|title\\= Suzuki lawsuit dismissed \\|website\\= consumerreports.org \\|access\\-date\\=13 August 2006 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312091559/http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/suzuki\\-and\\-consumers\\-union\\-agree\\-on\\-dismissal\\-of\\-lawsuit\\-704/index.htm?resultPageIndex\\=1\\&resultIndex\\=1\\&searchTerm\\=Suzuki%20Samurai \\|archive\\-date\\= 12 March 2007 }} CU and Suzuki made a joint statement, saying, \"CU and Suzuki disagree with respect to the validity\" of CU's tests and that \"Suzuki disputes the validity\" of the tests, while \"CU stands by its test protocol and findings.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/new\\-cars/news/suzuki\\-and\\-consumers\\-union\\-agree\\-on\\-lawsuit\\-dismissal/overview/index.htm \\|title\\=Suzuki and Consumers Union agree on dismissal of lawsuit \\|publisher\\=Consumerreports.org \\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-13}}",
""
] |
Third generation (1998\)
------------------------
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= Third generation
\| image \= {{Photomontage \|photo1a\=Suzuki Jimny JB23 003\.JPG \|photo2a\=1998 Suzuki Jimny 01\.jpg \|size\=250 \|spacing\=2 \|color\=\#FFFFFF \| border\=0 \|text\_background\=\#FFFFFF) \|foot\_montage\=The top Jimny JB23 is compliant with Japan's kei\-car class dimensions, by omitting fender flares and having small bumpers. All other versions feature fender flares and larger bumpers, and are known as "Jimny Wide".}}
\| aka \= Suzuki Jimny Wide
Suzuki Jimny Sierra
Chevrolet Jimny
Mazda AZ\-Offroad
Yomper 225 (UK, pickup){{cite web\|date\=2021\-11\-18\|title\=New Yomper 4x4 Launched In The UK As A Cute Pickup Based On The Previous\-Gen Suzuki Jimny\|url\=https://www.carscoops.com/2021/11/new\-yomper\-4x4\-launched\-in\-the\-uk\-as\-a\-cute\-pickup\-based\-on\-the\-previous\-gen\-suzuki\-jimny/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-18\|website\=Carscoops\|language\=en\-US}}
KAP Landmaster
Dutton Surf
\| production \= 1998–2018 (Japan, Colombia)
1998–2009 (Spain)
1998–2022 (Brazil)
\| assembly \= \[\[Iwata, Shizuoka\|Iwata]], Japan
\[\[Bogotá]], \[\[Colombia]] (\[\[GM Colmotores\|GM Colombia]])
\[\[Linares, Jaén\|Linares]], \[\[Spain]] (\[\[Santana Motor]])
\[\[Anápolis]],{{cite web \|url\=https://www.carscoops.com/2022/08/previous\-gen\-suzuki\-jimny\-finally\-discontinued\-in\-brazil/ \|title\=Previous\-Gen Suzuki Jimny Finally Discontinued In Brazil \|publisher\=Carscoops \|date\= \|accessdate\=2022\-08\-12}} \[\[Brazil]] (MMC Automotores)
\[\[Catalão]], \[\[Brazil]] (MMC Automotores)
\| body\_style \= 2\-door \[\[station wagon\|wagon]]
2\-door \[\[convertible]]
\| engine \= 658 cc ''\[\[List of Suzuki engines\#Straight\-3\|K6A]]'' \[\[Straight\-three engine\|I3]] (JB23\)
1,298 cc ''\[\[Suzuki G13B engine\#G13BB\|G13BB]]'' \[\[Straight\-four engine\|I4]] (JB33\)
1,328 cc ''\[\[Suzuki M engine\#M13A\|M13A]]'' I4 (JB43\)
1,461 cc ''\[\[Renault K\-Type engine\#K9K diesel engine\|K9K]]'' \[\[Turbo\-diesel\|TD]] I4 (JB53\)
\| transmission \= 5\-speed \[\[Manual transmission\|manual]]
4\-speed \[\[Automatic transmission\|automatic]]
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2250\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| length \= Kei class: {{convert\|3395\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
Others: {{convert\|3675\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.globalsuzuki.com/automobile/lineup/jimny/spec/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929001500/http://www.globalsuzuki.com/automobile/lineup/jimny/spec \|archive\-date\=29 September 2013 \|title\=Jimny:Specifications {{!}} Global Suzuki}}
\| width \= Kei class: {{convert\|1475\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
Others: {{convert\|1600\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= {{convert\|1680\|\-\|1705\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| successor \= \[\[Suzuki Hustler\|Mazda Flair Crossover]] (indirect)
\| model\_code \= JB23/JB33/JB43/JB53
}}
{{Multiple image \| align \= left \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 220
\| image1 \= Suzuki Jimny JB23 010 (cropped).JPG
\| caption1 \= Jimny (JB23; rear view)
\| image4 \= Suzuki Jimny Sierra rear.jpg
\| caption4 \= Jimny Sierra (JB43; rear view)
\| image6 \= 2006\-2009 Suzuki Jimny DDiS Canvas Top JB53\.jpg
\| caption6 \= The Jimny Canvas\-Top was built in Spain from 1999 to 2009\.
}}
At the [1997 Tokyo Motor Show](/wiki/Tokyo_Motor_Show%231997 "Tokyo Motor Show#1997"), Suzuki presented the all\-new Jimny with a much more modern design.{{cite book \| title \= World of Cars 2006·2007 \| publisher \= Media Connection Sp. z o.o. \| location \= Warsaw, Poland \| pages \= 188–190, 398–399 \| year \= 2006 }} A [ladder type](/wiki/Body-on-frame "Body-on-frame") [chassis](/wiki/Chassis "Chassis") and a dual\-ratio [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case "Transfer case") were retained, unlike many competing compact 4WDs which lack a low range, and are strictly in the [crossover](/wiki/Crossover_SUV "Crossover SUV") category. Two versions are available in export markets: a standard hard top and the Canvas Top, introduced at the Barcelona Motor Show in May 1999 and was built only by [Santana](/wiki/Santana_Motors "Santana Motors") in Spain between 1999 and 2009\. The Jimny replaced the popular Sierra/Samurai model in most markets (European introduction was in Paris, 1998{{cite book \| title \= World of Cars 2006·2007 \| publisher \= Media Connection Sp. z o.o. \| location \= Warsaw, Poland \| page \= 188 \| year \= 2006 }}), though its predecessor remains in limited production in some places. For the domestic market, a 660 cc K6A\-engined version suited for the Kei Jidosha class is responsible for most Jimny sales.
The larger 1\.3\-litre Jimny was originally equipped with the [G13BB](/wiki/Suzuki_G13B_engine%23G13BB "Suzuki G13B engine#G13BB") engine also used in the **JB32**. The {{cvt\|80\|PS\|kW\|0}} G13BB engine was replaced in Japan with the January 2000 introduction of the newly designed [VVT](/wiki/Variable_valve_timing "Variable valve timing") [16\-valve](/wiki/Multi-valve "Multi-valve") [**M**\-engine](/wiki/Suzuki_M_engine%23M13A "Suzuki M engine#M13A"), but soldiered on in Spanish\-built softtops until 2005\.{{cite book \| title \= Auto Katalog 2005 \| publisher \= \[\[:de:Motor Presse Stuttgart\|Motor Presse International]] \| location \= Stuttgart \| pages \= 171, 256–257 \| year \= 2004 }} For the continental European market, where the diesel cars hold a significant market share, in 2004 the [turbo\-diesel](/wiki/Turbo-diesel "Turbo-diesel") Jimny JB53 was introduced, built by Santana and using a [Renault](/wiki/Renault "Renault")\-built [DDiS](/wiki/Direct_fuel_injection "Direct fuel injection") 1,461 cc [K9K engine](/wiki/Renault_K-Type_engine%23K9K_diesel_engine "Renault K-Type engine#K9K diesel engine"). Power was originally {{cvt\|65\|PS\|kW\|0}} but was increased to {{cvt\|86\|PS\|kW\|0}} in 2005, the same as in gasoline versions. It was discontinued in 2011, and was never available in Britain and Ireland.
The Jimny has a part\-time 4WD system controlled by three dashboard buttons: 2WD, 4WD, and 4WD\-L. The default is 2WD, powering the rear wheels. When 4WD is pressed, the front wheels are also engaged in high gear. The 4WD\-L engages all wheels in a lower gear ratio. Being a part\-time 4WD, there is no centre differential or viscous coupling to allow for speed differences between the front and rear wheels, so only two\-wheel drive mode works well on dry pavement. In Japan, the "Sierra" name was revived in January 2002, when 1\.3\-litre Jimnys began to be sold as the "Jimny Sierra" rather than as the "Jimny Wide".
The Jimny's vacuum\-[locking hubs](/wiki/Locking_hubs "Locking hubs") allow it to be shifted from 2WD to 4WD while travelling at up to 100 km/h (62 mph). Shifting to low range requires the vehicle to be stopped, but no need to exit the vehicle exists. Newer Jimnys have electronic push\-button selectable four\-wheel drive, which requires the vehicle to be stopped with the clutch depressed and transmission in neutral to select low range.
The Jimny has large windows, giving excellent visibility, apart from a rather serious [blind spot](/wiki/Blind_spot_%28automobile%29 "Blind spot (automobile)") caused by the oversized "B" pillar.{{Opinion\|date\=July 2016}} The large amount of glass also magnifies the [greenhouse effect](/wiki/Greenhouse_effect "Greenhouse effect"), and the Jimny comes with [air conditioning](/wiki/Air_conditioning "Air conditioning") standard in some regions.
In Europe, both Hard Top and Canvas Top versions come in JX and JLX specifications. These are fairly standard designations across the Suzuki off\-road range, with the JLX being the fully optioned "luxury" version. In the case of the Jimny, the JLX adds roof rails, power steering, power windows, power\-adjustable exterior mirrors, and several interior comfort improvements. Both models are available with a five\-speed manual or four\-speed [automatic gearbox](/wiki/Automatic_gearbox "Automatic gearbox"). The 2WD option is only available as a five\-speed manual.
In 2009, [Santana Motor](/wiki/Santana_Motor "Santana Motor") of Spain ended its agreement with Suzuki to make the Canvas Top version, which has not been available since then. In 2011, Santana Motor went bankrupt. The Souza Ramos Group of [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), which used to make Mitsubishi cars under license, will start manufacturing the Suzuki Jimny in 2012 in Brazil to compensate for the loss of production capacity from Santana Motor. Whether the Canvas Top version will be manufactured also in Brazil is not known.
As in Japan, Jimnys in Australia have borne the name **Jimny Sierra** since 2007, largely due to the Sierra name having become synonymous with small, capable off\-road vehicles. Since 1999, GM Colmotores have been assembling the 1\.3\-litre, {{cvt\|79\|PS\|kW\|0}} JB33 with the name "Chevrolet Jimny" in [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 "Bogotá"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia").{{cite book \| title \= World of Cars 2006·2007 \| publisher \= Media Connection Sp. z o.o. \| location \= Warsaw, Poland \| page \= 28 \| year \= 2006 }} The Jimny is also available as a [parallel import](/wiki/Parallel_import "Parallel import") in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore").
In 2012, for the 2013 model year, the Jimny received a front facelift, giving it a more angular grille and front bumper, and including a hood scoop. For the Indonesian market, the facelifted Jimny was launched at the [25th Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show](/wiki/Indonesia_International_Auto_Show%232017 "Indonesia International Auto Show#2017") on 10 August 2017, and 88 units were sold exclusively for a limited time only.
Production of third generation Jimny ceased worldwide (except in Brazil) in 2018 after 20 years of production, as Suzuki retooled in preparation of the fourth generation's launch in late 2018\.
In 2021, a British company called Yomper 4×4 started to produce a couple of pickups based on the third generation Jimny, with their Bergan model having a shorter wheelbase than the version known as the Yomper 4×4 Commercial.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.carscoops.com/2021/11/new\-yomper\-4x4\-launched\-in\-the\-uk\-as\-a\-cute\-pickup\-based\-on\-the\-previous\-gen\-suzuki\-jimny/ \|title\=New Yomper 4x4 Launched In The UK As A Cute Pickup Based On The Previous\-Gen Suzuki Jimny \|publisher\=Carscoops \|date\=2021\-11\-18 \|accessdate\=2022\-08\-12}} In 2022, Suzuki Brazil{{cite web\|url\=https://allautoexperts.com/suzuki\-jimnys\-previous\-generation\-has\-been\-phased\-out\-in\-brazil \|title\=Suzuki Jimny's Previous Generation Has Been Phased Out In Brazil \|publisher\=Allautoexperts.com \|date\= \|accessdate\=2022\-08\-12}} stopped production of the third generation Jimny at their Catalao plant, due to new regulations which meant they could not use the car's 1\.3\-litre M13A engine without updating it. At that time Suzuki Brazil's range{{cite web\|url\=https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br \|title\=Suzuki Veц╜culos Brasil \|publisher\=Suzukiveiculos.com.br \|date\= \|accessdate\=2022\-08\-12}} consisted of two Jimny models, with the fourth generation model known as the "Jimny Sierra" and the facelifted third generation on sale in four different versions (all with M13A engine) [https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br/veiculos/jimny\-forest](https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br/veiculos/jimny-forest) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201235534/https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br/veiculos/jimny\-forest \|date\=1 December 2021 }} Jimny{{cite web\|url\=https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br/veiculos/jimny\-4sport \|title\=Suzuki Jimny 4SPORT 2022 \- Carros Novos \| Suzuki Veц╜culos \|publisher\=Suzukiveiculos.com.br \|date\=2022\-07\-31 \|accessdate\=2022\-08\-12}} with the Jimny 4Work being the base model and the Jimny Forest being the top\-of\-the\-range model.
File:Suzuki Jimny JB23 043\.jpg\|Jimny (JB23; first facelift)
File:Suzuki Jimny JB23 011 (cropped).JPG\|Jimny (JB23; second facelift)
File:Suzuki Jimny 1\.3 JLX Sport 2011\.jpg\|Jimny Sierra (JB43; 2005 facelift)
File:Suzuki Jimny 1\.3 Club (2\. Facelift) – Frontansicht, 21\. Dezember 2013, Düsseldorf.jpg\|Jimny Sierra (JB43; 2012 facelift)
File:Suzuki Jimny Sierra JB43W\-Y9 (front).JPG\|Jimny Sierra (JB43; 2012 facelift) with front mesh grille and two\-tone exterior colour
{{clear left}}
### {{anchor\|AZ\|Mazda}} Mazda AZ\-Offroad
[thumb\|left\|Pre\-facelift Mazda AZ\-Offroad](/wiki/File:Mazda_AZ-Offroad_001.JPG "Mazda AZ-Offroad 001.JPG")
The **[Mazda](/wiki/Mazda "Mazda") AZ\-Offroad**, introduced in October 1998, is a rebadged Jimny. The *AZ* in the name refers to [Autozam](/wiki/Autozam "Autozam"), Mazda's ill\-fated small car [marque](/wiki/Marque "Marque"). It is fitted with the [turbocharged](/wiki/Turbocharged "Turbocharged") 658\-cc [DOHC](/wiki/DOHC "DOHC") [Suzuki K6A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 "List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3") engine, which produces {{cvt\|64\|PS\|kW\|0}}.{{cite web \|url\=http://avto\-russia.ru/autos/mazda/mazda\_az\-offroad.html \|title\=Автомобиль Mazda Az\-offroad \|publisher\=Avto\-Russia.ru \|access\-date\=25 June 2013}} Manually operated four\-wheel drive is standard with autolocking front hubs and low range, whilst an [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission") is optional.
{{Clear}}
|
[
"Third generation (1998\\)\n------------------------",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Third generation\n\\| image \\= {{Photomontage \\|photo1a\\=Suzuki Jimny JB23 003\\.JPG \\|photo2a\\=1998 Suzuki Jimny 01\\.jpg \\|size\\=250 \\|spacing\\=2 \\|color\\=\\#FFFFFF \\| border\\=0 \\|text\\_background\\=\\#FFFFFF) \\|foot\\_montage\\=The top Jimny JB23 is compliant with Japan's kei\\-car class dimensions, by omitting fender flares and having small bumpers. All other versions feature fender flares and larger bumpers, and are known as \"Jimny Wide\".}}\n\\| aka \\= Suzuki Jimny Wide \nSuzuki Jimny Sierra \nChevrolet Jimny \nMazda AZ\\-Offroad \nYomper 225 (UK, pickup){{cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-18\\|title\\=New Yomper 4x4 Launched In The UK As A Cute Pickup Based On The Previous\\-Gen Suzuki Jimny\\|url\\=https://www.carscoops.com/2021/11/new\\-yomper\\-4x4\\-launched\\-in\\-the\\-uk\\-as\\-a\\-cute\\-pickup\\-based\\-on\\-the\\-previous\\-gen\\-suzuki\\-jimny/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-18\\|website\\=Carscoops\\|language\\=en\\-US}} \nKAP Landmaster \nDutton Surf",
"\\| production \\= 1998–2018 (Japan, Colombia) \n1998–2009 (Spain) \n1998–2022 (Brazil)\n\\| assembly \\= \\[\\[Iwata, Shizuoka\\|Iwata]], Japan \n\\[\\[Bogotá]], \\[\\[Colombia]] (\\[\\[GM Colmotores\\|GM Colombia]]) \n\\[\\[Linares, Jaén\\|Linares]], \\[\\[Spain]] (\\[\\[Santana Motor]]) \n\\[\\[Anápolis]],{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.carscoops.com/2022/08/previous\\-gen\\-suzuki\\-jimny\\-finally\\-discontinued\\-in\\-brazil/ \\|title\\=Previous\\-Gen Suzuki Jimny Finally Discontinued In Brazil \\|publisher\\=Carscoops \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-08\\-12}} \\[\\[Brazil]] (MMC Automotores) \n\\[\\[Catalão]], \\[\\[Brazil]] (MMC Automotores)\n\\| body\\_style \\= 2\\-door \\[\\[station wagon\\|wagon]] \n2\\-door \\[\\[convertible]]\n\\| engine \\= 658 cc ''\\[\\[List of Suzuki engines\\#Straight\\-3\\|K6A]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-three engine\\|I3]] (JB23\\) \n1,298 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki G13B engine\\#G13BB\\|G13BB]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-four engine\\|I4]] (JB33\\) \n1,328 cc ''\\[\\[Suzuki M engine\\#M13A\\|M13A]]'' I4 (JB43\\) \n1,461 cc ''\\[\\[Renault K\\-Type engine\\#K9K diesel engine\\|K9K]]'' \\[\\[Turbo\\-diesel\\|TD]] I4 (JB53\\)\n\\| transmission \\= 5\\-speed \\[\\[Manual transmission\\|manual]] \n4\\-speed \\[\\[Automatic transmission\\|automatic]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2250\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= Kei class: {{convert\\|3395\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} \nOthers: {{convert\\|3675\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.globalsuzuki.com/automobile/lineup/jimny/spec/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929001500/http://www.globalsuzuki.com/automobile/lineup/jimny/spec \\|archive\\-date\\=29 September 2013 \\|title\\=Jimny:Specifications {{!}} Global Suzuki}}\n\\| width \\= Kei class: {{convert\\|1475\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} \nOthers: {{convert\\|1600\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|1680\\|\\-\\|1705\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| successor \\= \\[\\[Suzuki Hustler\\|Mazda Flair Crossover]] (indirect)\n\\| model\\_code \\= JB23/JB33/JB43/JB53\n}}\n{{Multiple image \\| align \\= left \\| direction \\= vertical \\| width \\= 220\n\\| image1 \\= Suzuki Jimny JB23 010 (cropped).JPG\n\\| caption1 \\= Jimny (JB23; rear view)\n\\| image4 \\= Suzuki Jimny Sierra rear.jpg\n\\| caption4 \\= Jimny Sierra (JB43; rear view)\n\\| image6 \\= 2006\\-2009 Suzuki Jimny DDiS Canvas Top JB53\\.jpg\n\\| caption6 \\= The Jimny Canvas\\-Top was built in Spain from 1999 to 2009\\.\n}}\nAt the [1997 Tokyo Motor Show](/wiki/Tokyo_Motor_Show%231997 \"Tokyo Motor Show#1997\"), Suzuki presented the all\\-new Jimny with a much more modern design.{{cite book \\| title \\= World of Cars 2006·2007 \\| publisher \\= Media Connection Sp. z o.o. \\| location \\= Warsaw, Poland \\| pages \\= 188–190, 398–399 \\| year \\= 2006 }} A [ladder type](/wiki/Body-on-frame \"Body-on-frame\") [chassis](/wiki/Chassis \"Chassis\") and a dual\\-ratio [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case \"Transfer case\") were retained, unlike many competing compact 4WDs which lack a low range, and are strictly in the [crossover](/wiki/Crossover_SUV \"Crossover SUV\") category. Two versions are available in export markets: a standard hard top and the Canvas Top, introduced at the Barcelona Motor Show in May 1999 and was built only by [Santana](/wiki/Santana_Motors \"Santana Motors\") in Spain between 1999 and 2009\\. The Jimny replaced the popular Sierra/Samurai model in most markets (European introduction was in Paris, 1998{{cite book \\| title \\= World of Cars 2006·2007 \\| publisher \\= Media Connection Sp. z o.o. \\| location \\= Warsaw, Poland \\| page \\= 188 \\| year \\= 2006 }}), though its predecessor remains in limited production in some places. For the domestic market, a 660 cc K6A\\-engined version suited for the Kei Jidosha class is responsible for most Jimny sales.",
"The larger 1\\.3\\-litre Jimny was originally equipped with the [G13BB](/wiki/Suzuki_G13B_engine%23G13BB \"Suzuki G13B engine#G13BB\") engine also used in the **JB32**. The {{cvt\\|80\\|PS\\|kW\\|0}} G13BB engine was replaced in Japan with the January 2000 introduction of the newly designed [VVT](/wiki/Variable_valve_timing \"Variable valve timing\") [16\\-valve](/wiki/Multi-valve \"Multi-valve\") [**M**\\-engine](/wiki/Suzuki_M_engine%23M13A \"Suzuki M engine#M13A\"), but soldiered on in Spanish\\-built softtops until 2005\\.{{cite book \\| title \\= Auto Katalog 2005 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[:de:Motor Presse Stuttgart\\|Motor Presse International]] \\| location \\= Stuttgart \\| pages \\= 171, 256–257 \\| year \\= 2004 }} For the continental European market, where the diesel cars hold a significant market share, in 2004 the [turbo\\-diesel](/wiki/Turbo-diesel \"Turbo-diesel\") Jimny JB53 was introduced, built by Santana and using a [Renault](/wiki/Renault \"Renault\")\\-built [DDiS](/wiki/Direct_fuel_injection \"Direct fuel injection\") 1,461 cc [K9K engine](/wiki/Renault_K-Type_engine%23K9K_diesel_engine \"Renault K-Type engine#K9K diesel engine\"). Power was originally {{cvt\\|65\\|PS\\|kW\\|0}} but was increased to {{cvt\\|86\\|PS\\|kW\\|0}} in 2005, the same as in gasoline versions. It was discontinued in 2011, and was never available in Britain and Ireland.",
"The Jimny has a part\\-time 4WD system controlled by three dashboard buttons: 2WD, 4WD, and 4WD\\-L. The default is 2WD, powering the rear wheels. When 4WD is pressed, the front wheels are also engaged in high gear. The 4WD\\-L engages all wheels in a lower gear ratio. Being a part\\-time 4WD, there is no centre differential or viscous coupling to allow for speed differences between the front and rear wheels, so only two\\-wheel drive mode works well on dry pavement. In Japan, the \"Sierra\" name was revived in January 2002, when 1\\.3\\-litre Jimnys began to be sold as the \"Jimny Sierra\" rather than as the \"Jimny Wide\".",
"The Jimny's vacuum\\-[locking hubs](/wiki/Locking_hubs \"Locking hubs\") allow it to be shifted from 2WD to 4WD while travelling at up to 100 km/h (62 mph). Shifting to low range requires the vehicle to be stopped, but no need to exit the vehicle exists. Newer Jimnys have electronic push\\-button selectable four\\-wheel drive, which requires the vehicle to be stopped with the clutch depressed and transmission in neutral to select low range.",
"The Jimny has large windows, giving excellent visibility, apart from a rather serious [blind spot](/wiki/Blind_spot_%28automobile%29 \"Blind spot (automobile)\") caused by the oversized \"B\" pillar.{{Opinion\\|date\\=July 2016}} The large amount of glass also magnifies the [greenhouse effect](/wiki/Greenhouse_effect \"Greenhouse effect\"), and the Jimny comes with [air conditioning](/wiki/Air_conditioning \"Air conditioning\") standard in some regions.",
"In Europe, both Hard Top and Canvas Top versions come in JX and JLX specifications. These are fairly standard designations across the Suzuki off\\-road range, with the JLX being the fully optioned \"luxury\" version. In the case of the Jimny, the JLX adds roof rails, power steering, power windows, power\\-adjustable exterior mirrors, and several interior comfort improvements. Both models are available with a five\\-speed manual or four\\-speed [automatic gearbox](/wiki/Automatic_gearbox \"Automatic gearbox\"). The 2WD option is only available as a five\\-speed manual.",
"In 2009, [Santana Motor](/wiki/Santana_Motor \"Santana Motor\") of Spain ended its agreement with Suzuki to make the Canvas Top version, which has not been available since then. In 2011, Santana Motor went bankrupt. The Souza Ramos Group of [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), which used to make Mitsubishi cars under license, will start manufacturing the Suzuki Jimny in 2012 in Brazil to compensate for the loss of production capacity from Santana Motor. Whether the Canvas Top version will be manufactured also in Brazil is not known.",
"As in Japan, Jimnys in Australia have borne the name **Jimny Sierra** since 2007, largely due to the Sierra name having become synonymous with small, capable off\\-road vehicles. Since 1999, GM Colmotores have been assembling the 1\\.3\\-litre, {{cvt\\|79\\|PS\\|kW\\|0}} JB33 with the name \"Chevrolet Jimny\" in [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 \"Bogotá\"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\").{{cite book \\| title \\= World of Cars 2006·2007 \\| publisher \\= Media Connection Sp. z o.o. \\| location \\= Warsaw, Poland \\| page \\= 28 \\| year \\= 2006 }} The Jimny is also available as a [parallel import](/wiki/Parallel_import \"Parallel import\") in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\").",
"In 2012, for the 2013 model year, the Jimny received a front facelift, giving it a more angular grille and front bumper, and including a hood scoop. For the Indonesian market, the facelifted Jimny was launched at the [25th Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show](/wiki/Indonesia_International_Auto_Show%232017 \"Indonesia International Auto Show#2017\") on 10 August 2017, and 88 units were sold exclusively for a limited time only.",
"Production of third generation Jimny ceased worldwide (except in Brazil) in 2018 after 20 years of production, as Suzuki retooled in preparation of the fourth generation's launch in late 2018\\.",
"In 2021, a British company called Yomper 4×4 started to produce a couple of pickups based on the third generation Jimny, with their Bergan model having a shorter wheelbase than the version known as the Yomper 4×4 Commercial.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.carscoops.com/2021/11/new\\-yomper\\-4x4\\-launched\\-in\\-the\\-uk\\-as\\-a\\-cute\\-pickup\\-based\\-on\\-the\\-previous\\-gen\\-suzuki\\-jimny/ \\|title\\=New Yomper 4x4 Launched In The UK As A Cute Pickup Based On The Previous\\-Gen Suzuki Jimny \\|publisher\\=Carscoops \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-18 \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-08\\-12}} In 2022, Suzuki Brazil{{cite web\\|url\\=https://allautoexperts.com/suzuki\\-jimnys\\-previous\\-generation\\-has\\-been\\-phased\\-out\\-in\\-brazil \\|title\\=Suzuki Jimny's Previous Generation Has Been Phased Out In Brazil \\|publisher\\=Allautoexperts.com \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-08\\-12}} stopped production of the third generation Jimny at their Catalao plant, due to new regulations which meant they could not use the car's 1\\.3\\-litre M13A engine without updating it. At that time Suzuki Brazil's range{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br \\|title\\=Suzuki Veц╜culos Brasil \\|publisher\\=Suzukiveiculos.com.br \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-08\\-12}} consisted of two Jimny models, with the fourth generation model known as the \"Jimny Sierra\" and the facelifted third generation on sale in four different versions (all with M13A engine) [https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br/veiculos/jimny\\-forest](https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br/veiculos/jimny-forest) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201235534/https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br/veiculos/jimny\\-forest \\|date\\=1 December 2021 }} Jimny{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.suzukiveiculos.com.br/veiculos/jimny\\-4sport \\|title\\=Suzuki Jimny 4SPORT 2022 \\- Carros Novos \\| Suzuki Veц╜culos \\|publisher\\=Suzukiveiculos.com.br \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-31 \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-08\\-12}} with the Jimny 4Work being the base model and the Jimny Forest being the top\\-of\\-the\\-range model.",
"",
"File:Suzuki Jimny JB23 043\\.jpg\\|Jimny (JB23; first facelift)\nFile:Suzuki Jimny JB23 011 (cropped).JPG\\|Jimny (JB23; second facelift)\nFile:Suzuki Jimny 1\\.3 JLX Sport 2011\\.jpg\\|Jimny Sierra (JB43; 2005 facelift)\nFile:Suzuki Jimny 1\\.3 Club (2\\. Facelift) – Frontansicht, 21\\. Dezember 2013, Düsseldorf.jpg\\|Jimny Sierra (JB43; 2012 facelift)\nFile:Suzuki Jimny Sierra JB43W\\-Y9 (front).JPG\\|Jimny Sierra (JB43; 2012 facelift) with front mesh grille and two\\-tone exterior colour",
"",
"{{clear left}}",
"### {{anchor\\|AZ\\|Mazda}} Mazda AZ\\-Offroad",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Pre\\-facelift Mazda AZ\\-Offroad](/wiki/File:Mazda_AZ-Offroad_001.JPG \"Mazda AZ-Offroad 001.JPG\")",
"The **[Mazda](/wiki/Mazda \"Mazda\") AZ\\-Offroad**, introduced in October 1998, is a rebadged Jimny. The *AZ* in the name refers to [Autozam](/wiki/Autozam \"Autozam\"), Mazda's ill\\-fated small car [marque](/wiki/Marque \"Marque\"). It is fitted with the [turbocharged](/wiki/Turbocharged \"Turbocharged\") 658\\-cc [DOHC](/wiki/DOHC \"DOHC\") [Suzuki K6A](/wiki/List_of_Suzuki_engines%23Straight-3 \"List of Suzuki engines#Straight-3\") engine, which produces {{cvt\\|64\\|PS\\|kW\\|0}}.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://avto\\-russia.ru/autos/mazda/mazda\\_az\\-offroad.html \\|title\\=Автомобиль Mazda Az\\-offroad \\|publisher\\=Avto\\-Russia.ru \\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2013}} Manually operated four\\-wheel drive is standard with autolocking front hubs and low range, whilst an [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\") is optional.\n{{Clear}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### The periodic table and a natural number for each element
[thumb\|upright\|Russian chemist [Dmitri Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev "Dmitri Mendeleev"), creator of the periodic table.](/wiki/File:DIMendeleevCab.jpg "DIMendeleevCab.jpg")
Loosely speaking, the existence or construction of a [periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table "Periodic table") of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order.
[Dmitri Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev "Dmitri Mendeleev") said that he arranged his first periodic tables (first published on March 6, 1869\) in order of [atomic weight](/wiki/Atomic_weight "Atomic weight") ("Atomgewicht").[The Periodic Table of Elements](https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/periodic.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818200557/https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/periodic.htm \|date\=18 August 2023 }}, American Institute of Physics However, in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed [tellurium](/wiki/Tellurium "Tellurium") (atomic weight 127\.6\) ahead of [iodine](/wiki/Iodine "Iodine") (atomic weight 126\.9\).[The Development of the Periodic Table](http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/pages/history_ii.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120726030605/http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/pages/history\_ii.html \|date\=26 July 2012 }}, Royal Society of Chemistry This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, *Z*, but that number was not known or suspected at the time.
[thumb\|upright\|[Niels Bohr](/wiki/Niels_Bohr "Niels Bohr"), creator of the [Bohr model](/wiki/Bohr_model "Bohr model").](/wiki/File:Niels_Bohr.jpg "Niels Bohr.jpg")
A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory. In addition to the case of iodine and tellurium, several other pairs of elements (such as [argon](/wiki/Argon "Argon") and [potassium](/wiki/Potassium "Potassium"), [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt "Cobalt") and [nickel](/wiki/Nickel "Nickel")) were later shown to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar [lanthanide](/wiki/Lanthanide "Lanthanide") elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from [lutetium](/wiki/Lutetium "Lutetium") (element 71\) onward ([hafnium](/wiki/Hafnium "Hafnium") was not known at this time).
### The Rutherford\-Bohr model and van den Broek
In 1911, [Ernest Rutherford](/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford "Ernest Rutherford") gave a [model](/wiki/Rutherford_model "Rutherford model") of the atom in which a central nucleus held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25% different from the atomic number of gold {{nowrap\|1\=(''Z'' \= 79}}, {{nowrap\|1\=''A'' \= 197}}), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element {{nowrap\|1\=''Z'' \= 79}} on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford's paper appeared, [Antonius van den Broek](/wiki/Antonius_van_den_Broek "Antonius van den Broek") first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom were *exactly* equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized *Z*). This eventually proved to be the case.
### Moseley's 1913 experiment
[thumb\|upright\|[Henry Moseley](/wiki/Henry_Moseley "Henry Moseley") in his lab.](/wiki/File:Henry_Moseley.jpg "Henry Moseley.jpg")
The experimental position improved dramatically after research by [Henry Moseley](/wiki/Henry_Moseley "Henry Moseley") in 1913\.[Ordering the Elements in the Periodic Table](http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/periodictable/pre16/order.doc) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090148/http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/periodictable/pre16/order.doc \|date\=4 March 2016 }}, Royal Chemical Society Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek's hypothesis in his [Bohr model](/wiki/Bohr_model "Bohr model") of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if [spectral lines](/wiki/Spectral_line "Spectral line") emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of *Z*.
To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium") (*Z* \= 13\) to gold (*Z* \= 79\) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an [x\-ray tube](/wiki/X-ray_tube "X-ray tube").{{cite journal \|url\=https://zenodo.org/record/1430926 \|doi\=10\.1080/14786441308635052 \|title\=XCIII.The high\-frequency spectra of the elements \|journal\=Philosophical Magazine \|series\=Series 6 \|volume\=26 \|issue\=156 \|pages\=1024–1034 \|year\=1913 \|last1\=Moseley \|first1\=H.G.J. \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708085927/https://zenodo.org/record/1430926/files/article.pdf \|archive\-date\=8 July 2023 \|df\=dmy \|access\-date\=12 December 2023 }} The square root of the frequency of these photons {{nowrap\|(x\-rays)}} increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion ([Moseley's law](/wiki/Moseley%27s_law "Moseley's law")) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K\-lines, in Moseley's work) to the calculated [electric charge](/wiki/Electric_charge "Electric charge") of the nucleus, i.e. the element number *Z*. Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the [lanthanide](/wiki/Lanthanide "Lanthanide") series (from [lanthanum](/wiki/Lanthanum "Lanthanum") to [lutetium](/wiki/Lutetium "Lutetium") inclusive) must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from known chemistry at that time.
### Missing elements
After Moseley's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (*Z* \= 92\) were examined by his method. There were seven elements (with *Z* \< 92\) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91\.[Eric Scerri](/wiki/Eric_Scerri "Eric Scerri"), *A tale of seven elements,* (Oxford University Press 2013\) {{ISBN\|978\-0\-19\-539131\-2}}, p.47 From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered.Scerri chaps. 3–9 (one chapter per element) By this time, the first four [Transuranium elements](/wiki/Transuranium_element "Transuranium element") had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as [curium](/wiki/Curium "Curium") (*Z* \= 96\).
### The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons
In 1915, the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of *Z*, which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called [Prout's hypothesis](/wiki/Prout%27s_hypothesis "Prout's hypothesis") had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or "protyles") of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr\-Rutherford model had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one. However, as early as 1907, Rutherford and [Thomas Royds](/wiki/Thomas_Royds "Thomas Royds") had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of \+2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times. If Prout's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms.
In 1917, Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a [nuclear reaction](/wiki/Nuclear_reaction "Nuclear reaction") between alpha particles and nitrogen gas,[Ernest Rutherford \| NZHistory.net.nz, New Zealand history online](http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/ernest-rutherford) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201203746/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/ernest\-rutherford \|date\=1 December 2012 }}. Nzhistory.net.nz (19 October 1937\). Retrieved on 2011\-01\-26\. and believed he had proven Prout's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles). It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra [protons](/wiki/Protons "Protons") presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two "nuclear electrons" (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two of the charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of \+79, consistent with its atomic number.
### Discovery of the neutron makes *Z* the proton number
All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with [James Chadwick](/wiki/James_Chadwick "James Chadwick")'s [discovery of the neutron](/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron "Discovery of the neutron") in 1932\. An atom of [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold") now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive nuclear charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons. Since Moseley had previously shown that the atomic number *Z* of an element equals this positive charge, it was now clear that *Z* is identical to the number of protons of its nuclei.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### The periodic table and a natural number for each element",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Russian chemist [Dmitri Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev \"Dmitri Mendeleev\"), creator of the periodic table.](/wiki/File:DIMendeleevCab.jpg \"DIMendeleevCab.jpg\")\nLoosely speaking, the existence or construction of a [periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table \"Periodic table\") of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order.",
"[Dmitri Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev \"Dmitri Mendeleev\") said that he arranged his first periodic tables (first published on March 6, 1869\\) in order of [atomic weight](/wiki/Atomic_weight \"Atomic weight\") (\"Atomgewicht\").[The Periodic Table of Elements](https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/periodic.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818200557/https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/periodic.htm \\|date\\=18 August 2023 }}, American Institute of Physics However, in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed [tellurium](/wiki/Tellurium \"Tellurium\") (atomic weight 127\\.6\\) ahead of [iodine](/wiki/Iodine \"Iodine\") (atomic weight 126\\.9\\).[The Development of the Periodic Table](http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/pages/history_ii.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120726030605/http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/pages/history\\_ii.html \\|date\\=26 July 2012 }}, Royal Society of Chemistry This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, *Z*, but that number was not known or suspected at the time.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Niels Bohr](/wiki/Niels_Bohr \"Niels Bohr\"), creator of the [Bohr model](/wiki/Bohr_model \"Bohr model\").](/wiki/File:Niels_Bohr.jpg \"Niels Bohr.jpg\")\nA simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory. In addition to the case of iodine and tellurium, several other pairs of elements (such as [argon](/wiki/Argon \"Argon\") and [potassium](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\"), [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt \"Cobalt\") and [nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\")) were later shown to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar [lanthanide](/wiki/Lanthanide \"Lanthanide\") elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from [lutetium](/wiki/Lutetium \"Lutetium\") (element 71\\) onward ([hafnium](/wiki/Hafnium \"Hafnium\") was not known at this time).",
"### The Rutherford\\-Bohr model and van den Broek",
"In 1911, [Ernest Rutherford](/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford \"Ernest Rutherford\") gave a [model](/wiki/Rutherford_model \"Rutherford model\") of the atom in which a central nucleus held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25% different from the atomic number of gold {{nowrap\\|1\\=(''Z'' \\= 79}}, {{nowrap\\|1\\=''A'' \\= 197}}), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element {{nowrap\\|1\\=''Z'' \\= 79}} on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford's paper appeared, [Antonius van den Broek](/wiki/Antonius_van_den_Broek \"Antonius van den Broek\") first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom were *exactly* equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized *Z*). This eventually proved to be the case.",
"### Moseley's 1913 experiment",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Henry Moseley](/wiki/Henry_Moseley \"Henry Moseley\") in his lab.](/wiki/File:Henry_Moseley.jpg \"Henry Moseley.jpg\")\nThe experimental position improved dramatically after research by [Henry Moseley](/wiki/Henry_Moseley \"Henry Moseley\") in 1913\\.[Ordering the Elements in the Periodic Table](http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/periodictable/pre16/order.doc) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090148/http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/periodictable/pre16/order.doc \\|date\\=4 March 2016 }}, Royal Chemical Society Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek's hypothesis in his [Bohr model](/wiki/Bohr_model \"Bohr model\") of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if [spectral lines](/wiki/Spectral_line \"Spectral line\") emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of *Z*.",
"To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\") (*Z* \\= 13\\) to gold (*Z* \\= 79\\) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an [x\\-ray tube](/wiki/X-ray_tube \"X-ray tube\").{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://zenodo.org/record/1430926 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/14786441308635052 \\|title\\=XCIII.The high\\-frequency spectra of the elements \\|journal\\=Philosophical Magazine \\|series\\=Series 6 \\|volume\\=26 \\|issue\\=156 \\|pages\\=1024–1034 \\|year\\=1913 \\|last1\\=Moseley \\|first1\\=H.G.J. \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708085927/https://zenodo.org/record/1430926/files/article.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|df\\=dmy \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2023 }} The square root of the frequency of these photons {{nowrap\\|(x\\-rays)}} increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion ([Moseley's law](/wiki/Moseley%27s_law \"Moseley's law\")) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K\\-lines, in Moseley's work) to the calculated [electric charge](/wiki/Electric_charge \"Electric charge\") of the nucleus, i.e. the element number *Z*. Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the [lanthanide](/wiki/Lanthanide \"Lanthanide\") series (from [lanthanum](/wiki/Lanthanum \"Lanthanum\") to [lutetium](/wiki/Lutetium \"Lutetium\") inclusive) must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from known chemistry at that time.",
"### Missing elements",
"After Moseley's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (*Z* \\= 92\\) were examined by his method. There were seven elements (with *Z* \\< 92\\) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91\\.[Eric Scerri](/wiki/Eric_Scerri \"Eric Scerri\"), *A tale of seven elements,* (Oxford University Press 2013\\) {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-19\\-539131\\-2}}, p.47 From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered.Scerri chaps. 3–9 (one chapter per element) By this time, the first four [Transuranium elements](/wiki/Transuranium_element \"Transuranium element\") had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as [curium](/wiki/Curium \"Curium\") (*Z* \\= 96\\).",
"### The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons",
"In 1915, the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of *Z*, which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called [Prout's hypothesis](/wiki/Prout%27s_hypothesis \"Prout's hypothesis\") had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or \"protyles\") of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr\\-Rutherford model had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one. However, as early as 1907, Rutherford and [Thomas Royds](/wiki/Thomas_Royds \"Thomas Royds\") had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of \\+2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times. If Prout's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms.",
"In 1917, Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a [nuclear reaction](/wiki/Nuclear_reaction \"Nuclear reaction\") between alpha particles and nitrogen gas,[Ernest Rutherford \\| NZHistory.net.nz, New Zealand history online](http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/ernest-rutherford) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201203746/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/ernest\\-rutherford \\|date\\=1 December 2012 }}. Nzhistory.net.nz (19 October 1937\\). Retrieved on 2011\\-01\\-26\\. and believed he had proven Prout's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles). It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra [protons](/wiki/Protons \"Protons\") presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two \"nuclear electrons\" (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two of the charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of \\+79, consistent with its atomic number.",
"### Discovery of the neutron makes *Z* the proton number",
"All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with [James Chadwick](/wiki/James_Chadwick \"James Chadwick\")'s [discovery of the neutron](/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron \"Discovery of the neutron\") in 1932\\. An atom of [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\") now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive nuclear charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons. Since Moseley had previously shown that the atomic number *Z* of an element equals this positive charge, it was now clear that *Z* is identical to the number of protons of its nuclei.",
""
] |
Route
-----
The Faslane Branch diverged west from the [LNER's](/wiki/London_and_North_Eastern_Railway "London and North Eastern Railway") [West Highland Railway](/wiki/West_Highland_Railway "West Highland Railway") at "Faslane Junction", beyond which was a group of exchange [sidings](/wiki/Rail_siding "Rail siding") and a locomotive shed. Northwards from here, the [single line](/wiki/Single_track_%28rail%29 "Single track (rail)") crossed a bridge, then was [double track](/wiki/Double_track "Double track") all the way to Faslane Bay. [Faslane Platform](/wiki/Faslane_Platform_railway_station "Faslane Platform railway station") stood near the junction from 1945 to 1949 serving the PoW camps that supplied labour for the Loch Sloy Hydroelectric Scheme at [Inveruglas](/wiki/Inveruglas_railway_station "Inveruglas railway station").
Near the 1 milepost was the [level crossing](/wiki/Level_crossing "Level crossing") at Shandon, where the railway crossed the road leading to [Shandon station](/wiki/Shandon_railway_station "Shandon railway station") on the West Highland Railway. Sprung [catch points](/wiki/Catch_points "Catch points") were installed in the Up (southbound) line just south of the crossing on account of the gradient which fell steeply towards Faslane.
Near the 2 milepost, there was a quarry siding on the east side of the line, and a further set of catch points in both running lines.
A little further north was Belmore Crossing, where the railway crossed the [A814 road](/wiki/A814_road "A814 road"). A [signal box](/wiki/Signal_box "Signal box") stood just north of the crossing, on the east side of the line.
The branch line ended at Faslane Bay, where an extensive layout of sidings was provided. The furthest extremity of the branch terminated alongside a [platform](/wiki/Railway_platform "Railway platform").
|
[
"Route\n-----",
"The Faslane Branch diverged west from the [LNER's](/wiki/London_and_North_Eastern_Railway \"London and North Eastern Railway\") [West Highland Railway](/wiki/West_Highland_Railway \"West Highland Railway\") at \"Faslane Junction\", beyond which was a group of exchange [sidings](/wiki/Rail_siding \"Rail siding\") and a locomotive shed. Northwards from here, the [single line](/wiki/Single_track_%28rail%29 \"Single track (rail)\") crossed a bridge, then was [double track](/wiki/Double_track \"Double track\") all the way to Faslane Bay. [Faslane Platform](/wiki/Faslane_Platform_railway_station \"Faslane Platform railway station\") stood near the junction from 1945 to 1949 serving the PoW camps that supplied labour for the Loch Sloy Hydroelectric Scheme at [Inveruglas](/wiki/Inveruglas_railway_station \"Inveruglas railway station\").",
"Near the 1 milepost was the [level crossing](/wiki/Level_crossing \"Level crossing\") at Shandon, where the railway crossed the road leading to [Shandon station](/wiki/Shandon_railway_station \"Shandon railway station\") on the West Highland Railway. Sprung [catch points](/wiki/Catch_points \"Catch points\") were installed in the Up (southbound) line just south of the crossing on account of the gradient which fell steeply towards Faslane.",
"Near the 2 milepost, there was a quarry siding on the east side of the line, and a further set of catch points in both running lines.",
"A little further north was Belmore Crossing, where the railway crossed the [A814 road](/wiki/A814_road \"A814 road\"). A [signal box](/wiki/Signal_box \"Signal box\") stood just north of the crossing, on the east side of the line.",
"The branch line ended at Faslane Bay, where an extensive layout of sidings was provided. The furthest extremity of the branch terminated alongside a [platform](/wiki/Railway_platform \"Railway platform\").",
""
] |
Career
------
### Detonautas Roque Clube
In 1997, [Tico Santa Cruz](/wiki/Tico_Santa_Cruz "Tico Santa Cruz") appeared in a chatroom asking if anyone could play instrument, and then, Tchello, who was also in the room, answered positively and became known by his nickname.
The singer Tico lived in [Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Copacabana%2C_Rio_de_Janeiro "Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro") and Tchello had a guesthouse in [Ilhéus](/wiki/Ilh%C3%A9us "Ilhéus"), Bahia.
After the meeting of the two precursors in Rio de Janeiro, the band went through several configurations, until more members were recruited through the Internet. The fact of how the band was formed reflected in its name: Detonadores (detonators) \+ Internautas (Internauts) \= Detonautas.
### 11:11
The 11:11 is not a band but a group of musicians and artists of various nationalities who meet, virtually or otherwise, since 2006, to jam sessions to discuss about technology, art and musicality. The show at Grito Rock marks the debut of the collective on stage.
The name 11:11 came after a chat between Tchello and the keyboardist Fabrizio Iório (Ex\-[Som da Rua](/wiki/Som_da_Rua "Som da Rua")) on the number of times that the number appeared daily 11\-11 for Tchello. Fabrizio, then, indicated the book: "11:11 – Abrindo os Portais" (*Opening the Gates*), which influenced the name of the project, which has already signed some soundtracks for short films.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Detonautas Roque Clube",
"In 1997, [Tico Santa Cruz](/wiki/Tico_Santa_Cruz \"Tico Santa Cruz\") appeared in a chatroom asking if anyone could play instrument, and then, Tchello, who was also in the room, answered positively and became known by his nickname.",
"The singer Tico lived in [Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Copacabana%2C_Rio_de_Janeiro \"Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro\") and Tchello had a guesthouse in [Ilhéus](/wiki/Ilh%C3%A9us \"Ilhéus\"), Bahia.",
"After the meeting of the two precursors in Rio de Janeiro, the band went through several configurations, until more members were recruited through the Internet. The fact of how the band was formed reflected in its name: Detonadores (detonators) \\+ Internautas (Internauts) \\= Detonautas.",
"### 11:11",
"The 11:11 is not a band but a group of musicians and artists of various nationalities who meet, virtually or otherwise, since 2006, to jam sessions to discuss about technology, art and musicality. The show at Grito Rock marks the debut of the collective on stage.",
"The name 11:11 came after a chat between Tchello and the keyboardist Fabrizio Iório (Ex\\-[Som da Rua](/wiki/Som_da_Rua \"Som da Rua\")) on the number of times that the number appeared daily 11\\-11 for Tchello. Fabrizio, then, indicated the book: \"11:11 – Abrindo os Portais\" (*Opening the Gates*), which influenced the name of the project, which has already signed some soundtracks for short films.",
""
] |
Career
------
In the 1970s and 1980s, Mitchell used to perform under his own name, doing comedy and playing guitar. His wife suggested he develop a few characters after they visited Los Angeles in 1987 and found many other comedians doing similar things as him. He ended up developing the character Heywood Banks and started performing as him in 1987\.Hughes, Mike (October 19, 1988\). "[Local Comedian Takes a Giant Step Toward National Fame](https://www.newspapers.com/image/204268902/)". *Lansing State Journal* (Lansing, Michigan). p. 1D.
In 1988, he won the Johnnie Walker Comedy Search national finals, which gave him a television appearance on [A\&E](/wiki/A%26E_Networks "A&E Networks")'s *[An Evening at the Improv](/wiki/An_Evening_at_the_Improv "An Evening at the Improv")*, aired on October 19, 1988\.Jackson, Dana (May 6, 1988\). "[It's Showtime in Berkley as Cable Film Date is Set](https://www.newspapers.com/image/99819848/)". *Detroit Free Press*. p. 6C. Later the same year, he won the [Miller Lite](/wiki/Miller_Lite "Miller Lite") Comedy Search regional finals held in [Clinton Township, Michigan](/wiki/Clinton_Township%2C_Macomb_County%2C_Michigan "Clinton Township, Macomb County, Michigan").[Autumn Rock Goes on Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/99749993/)". *Detroit Free Press*. October 13, 1988\. p. 4B.
His songs include "Toast", "Fly's Eyes", "Wiper Blades", "Pancreas", "Big Butter Jesus"{{Cite web \|url\=http://brettlive.com/2006/09/26/big\-butter\-jesus\-lyrics/ \|title\=Brettlive.com \|access\-date\= January 24, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930092804/http://brettlive.com/2006/09/26/big\-butter\-jesus\-lyrics/ \|archive\-date\=September 30, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead}} (a song about the [King of Kings statue](/wiki/King_of_Kings_%28statue%29 "King of Kings (statue)")), "18 Wheels (on a Big Rig)", "The One Eye Love" \& "The Cat Got Dead".Black, Virginia (July 4, 2010\). "['Flying Pigs' at 4\-H Fair?](https://www.newspapers.com/image/512115332/)" *The South Bend Tribune* (South Bend, Indiana). p. B7\.
The story of his song "Toast" goes back to around 1986, when he was browsing at a Salvation Army store for props for his act. He bought an old toaster, thinking maybe he would make toast during his act. Later, his wife said she was looking forward to having toast the next morning, and he started improvising a song about toast while playing a bongo.Hicks, Robert (February 20, 2004\). "[Heybook Banks on Songs for Merriment and Laughs](https://www.newspapers.com/image/244429489/)". *The Tennessean* (Nashville, Tennessee). p. F14\.
Heywood frequently appears on the nationally syndicated [radio](/wiki/Radio "Radio") program *[The Bob and Tom Show](/wiki/The_Bob_and_Tom_Show "The Bob and Tom Show")*. His most popular and widely known song is called "Toast", played on a toaster with a pair of forks. Another recurring song that B\&T occasionally play is "Trauma to the Groin". Heywood's songs have also been played on the [Dr. Demento](/wiki/Dr._Demento "Dr. Demento") Show.
In 1993, he starred in a [pilot](/wiki/Television_pilot "Television pilot") called *The Heywood Banks Show*, which was aired on [WJBK](/wiki/WJBK "WJBK")."['The Heywood Banks Show' Airs Dec. 13 on Channel 2](https://www.newspapers.com/image/455406620/)". *Livingston County Daily Press and Argus* (Howell, Michigan'). p. 3\. He played the manager of a trailer park's convenience store called the Toast Basket. He also played a resident at the trailer park named Hyphen (Dash) Ampersand. He performed his song "Toast" on the pilot.Duffy, Mike (December 13, 1993\). "[Local Comedy Special Makes Fun of Life in a Trailer Park](https://www.newspapers.com/image/97594652/)". *Detroit Free Press*. p. 4E. Comedy writer [B. K. Taylor](/wiki/B._K._Taylor "B. K. Taylor") also appeared on the show.
Banks' "The Revenge Song" (also known as "You Can Be Mean to Me") was performed on *[American Idol](/wiki/American_Idol "American Idol")* on January 16, 2007, by an "urban Amish"{{YouTube\|\-mDM15IT1m0\|Clip}} of [American Idol](/wiki/American_Idol "American Idol") featuring Heywood Banks cover singer called Troy.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In the 1970s and 1980s, Mitchell used to perform under his own name, doing comedy and playing guitar. His wife suggested he develop a few characters after they visited Los Angeles in 1987 and found many other comedians doing similar things as him. He ended up developing the character Heywood Banks and started performing as him in 1987\\.Hughes, Mike (October 19, 1988\\). \"[Local Comedian Takes a Giant Step Toward National Fame](https://www.newspapers.com/image/204268902/)\". *Lansing State Journal* (Lansing, Michigan). p. 1D.",
"In 1988, he won the Johnnie Walker Comedy Search national finals, which gave him a television appearance on [A\\&E](/wiki/A%26E_Networks \"A&E Networks\")'s *[An Evening at the Improv](/wiki/An_Evening_at_the_Improv \"An Evening at the Improv\")*, aired on October 19, 1988\\.Jackson, Dana (May 6, 1988\\). \"[It's Showtime in Berkley as Cable Film Date is Set](https://www.newspapers.com/image/99819848/)\". *Detroit Free Press*. p. 6C. Later the same year, he won the [Miller Lite](/wiki/Miller_Lite \"Miller Lite\") Comedy Search regional finals held in [Clinton Township, Michigan](/wiki/Clinton_Township%2C_Macomb_County%2C_Michigan \"Clinton Township, Macomb County, Michigan\").[Autumn Rock Goes on Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/99749993/)\". *Detroit Free Press*. October 13, 1988\\. p. 4B.",
"His songs include \"Toast\", \"Fly's Eyes\", \"Wiper Blades\", \"Pancreas\", \"Big Butter Jesus\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://brettlive.com/2006/09/26/big\\-butter\\-jesus\\-lyrics/ \\|title\\=Brettlive.com \\|access\\-date\\= January 24, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930092804/http://brettlive.com/2006/09/26/big\\-butter\\-jesus\\-lyrics/ \\|archive\\-date\\=September 30, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} (a song about the [King of Kings statue](/wiki/King_of_Kings_%28statue%29 \"King of Kings (statue)\")), \"18 Wheels (on a Big Rig)\", \"The One Eye Love\" \\& \"The Cat Got Dead\".Black, Virginia (July 4, 2010\\). \"['Flying Pigs' at 4\\-H Fair?](https://www.newspapers.com/image/512115332/)\" *The South Bend Tribune* (South Bend, Indiana). p. B7\\.",
"The story of his song \"Toast\" goes back to around 1986, when he was browsing at a Salvation Army store for props for his act. He bought an old toaster, thinking maybe he would make toast during his act. Later, his wife said she was looking forward to having toast the next morning, and he started improvising a song about toast while playing a bongo.Hicks, Robert (February 20, 2004\\). \"[Heybook Banks on Songs for Merriment and Laughs](https://www.newspapers.com/image/244429489/)\". *The Tennessean* (Nashville, Tennessee). p. F14\\.",
"Heywood frequently appears on the nationally syndicated [radio](/wiki/Radio \"Radio\") program *[The Bob and Tom Show](/wiki/The_Bob_and_Tom_Show \"The Bob and Tom Show\")*. His most popular and widely known song is called \"Toast\", played on a toaster with a pair of forks. Another recurring song that B\\&T occasionally play is \"Trauma to the Groin\". Heywood's songs have also been played on the [Dr. Demento](/wiki/Dr._Demento \"Dr. Demento\") Show.",
"In 1993, he starred in a [pilot](/wiki/Television_pilot \"Television pilot\") called *The Heywood Banks Show*, which was aired on [WJBK](/wiki/WJBK \"WJBK\").\"['The Heywood Banks Show' Airs Dec. 13 on Channel 2](https://www.newspapers.com/image/455406620/)\". *Livingston County Daily Press and Argus* (Howell, Michigan'). p. 3\\. He played the manager of a trailer park's convenience store called the Toast Basket. He also played a resident at the trailer park named Hyphen (Dash) Ampersand. He performed his song \"Toast\" on the pilot.Duffy, Mike (December 13, 1993\\). \"[Local Comedy Special Makes Fun of Life in a Trailer Park](https://www.newspapers.com/image/97594652/)\". *Detroit Free Press*. p. 4E. Comedy writer [B. K. Taylor](/wiki/B._K._Taylor \"B. K. Taylor\") also appeared on the show.",
"Banks' \"The Revenge Song\" (also known as \"You Can Be Mean to Me\") was performed on *[American Idol](/wiki/American_Idol \"American Idol\")* on January 16, 2007, by an \"urban Amish\"{{YouTube\\|\\-mDM15IT1m0\\|Clip}} of [American Idol](/wiki/American_Idol \"American Idol\") featuring Heywood Banks cover singer called Troy.",
""
] |
Career
------
After returning from Berlin, Fuller started working at the [Lawrence Experiment Station](/wiki/Lawrence_Experiment_Station "Lawrence Experiment Station") in [Lawrence, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lawrence%2C_Massachusetts "Lawrence, Massachusetts") while still under the tutelage of William T. Sedgwick. While at LES, he investigated the treatment of sewage using filtration systems. His most important work was the study of filtration for potable water treatment. His early investigations were designed to increase the filtration rate for [slow sand filters](/wiki/Slow_sand_filters "Slow sand filters") so that water treatment facilities could be built on smaller land footprints and, thus, be constructed more economically.“George W. Fuller.” (1935\). *Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers.* 100: 1653\-60\.
### Louisville and Cincinnati filtration studies
During the period 1895 to 1897, Fuller was hired by the City of Louisville, Kentucky to study water filtration processes for the purpose of purifying Ohio River water for human consumption. The focus of his investigations were on "mechanical filtration" treatment systems (also called [rapid sand filtration](/wiki/Rapid_sand_filter "Rapid sand filter")), which used filtration rates that were 60 times higher than those of [slow sand filters](/wiki/Slow_sand_filters "Slow sand filters"). [Aluminum sulfate](/wiki/Aluminum_sulfate "Aluminum sulfate") was added prior to filtration to form larger particles that would be amenable to filtration. The work in Louisville made it clear that except for the clearest upland water supplies, a sedimentation treatment step would have to be added prior to filtration to remove the bulk of the suspended particulate matter.Fuller, George W. (1898\). *Report on the Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio River Water at Louisville Kentucky: Made to the President and Directors of the Louisville Water Company.* New York:Van Nostrand.
Fuller learned from his Louisville work when he designed the investigations at Cincinnati, Ohio for the purification of Ohio River water. From 1897 to 1899, Fuller investigated mechanical filtration using the addition of [aluminum sulfate](/wiki/Aluminum_sulfate "Aluminum sulfate") followed by a sedimentation step before the final filtration process.Fuller, George W. (1899\). *Report on the Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio River Water for the Improved Water Supply of the City of Cincinnati.* Cincinnati:City of Cincinnati.
### Water purification
After completing the Cincinnati filtration report, Fuller opened a single person consulting practice in New York City. One of his first assignments was from the East Jersey Water Company to design a 30 million gallon per day mechanical filtration plant at [Little Falls, New Jersey](/wiki/Little_Falls%2C_New_Jersey "Little Falls, New Jersey"). The plant was a milestone in public health protection because it incorporated all of Fuller's findings from his research over the previous 10 years and it became the model for the design of subsequent drinking water filtration facilities.{{cite journal \|last1\=Fuller \|first1\=George W. \|date\=June 1903 \|title\=The Filtration Works of the East Jersey Water Company, at Little Falls, New Jersey \|url\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=njp.32101049480005;view\=1up;seq\=466 \|journal\=Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers \|volume\=L \|pages\=394–443 \|doi\=10\.1061/TACEAT.0001566 \|id\=Paper No. 954}}
[thumb\|alt\=Graph showing dramatic decrease in typhoid fever death rate after chlorination of water supplies in the U.S.\|Death rates for typhoid fever in the U.S. 1906–1960](/wiki/File:Typhoid_stats.png "Typhoid stats.png")
On June 19, 1908, Fuller was hired by [John L. Leal](/wiki/John_L._Leal "John L. Leal") to design and build a chlorination system for the [Jersey City, New Jersey](/wiki/Jersey_City%2C_New_Jersey "Jersey City, New Jersey") water supply at Boonton Reservoir on the [Rockaway River](/wiki/Rockaway_River "Rockaway River"). Given an impossible deadline as a result of a New Jersey Chancery Court order, Fuller successfully completed the chlorination system in 99 days. John L. Leal developed the basic concept of applying chlorine in the form of a dilute solution of chloride of lime ([calcium hypochlorite](/wiki/Calcium_hypochlorite "Calcium hypochlorite")) at fractions of a ppm.[Baker, Moses N.](/wiki/Moses_N._Baker "Moses N. Baker") (1981\). *The Quest for Pure Water: the History of Water Purification from the Earliest Records to the Twentieth Century.* 2nd Edition. Vol. 1\. Denver: American Water Works Association, 336\. Fuller modeled his chloride of lime feed system on the [aluminum sulfate](/wiki/Aluminum_sulfate "Aluminum sulfate") feed system that he designed for the Little Falls Water Treatment Plant. The chlorination facility fed 0\.2 to 0\.35 ppm of chlorine to an average water flow of 40 million gallons per day from Boonton Reservoir.McGuire, Michael J. (2013\). *The Chlorine Revolution: Water Disinfection and the Fight to Save Lives.* Denver, CO:American Water Works Association.Fuller, George W. (1909\). “Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir.” *Proceedings American Water Works Association.* 110\-34\.
Fuller testified as an expert witness for the defendants, the Jersey City Water Supply Company, in both trials that resulted from a lawsuit filed by Jersey City against the water company.Between the Mayor and Aldermen of Jersey City, Complainant, and Patrick H. Flynn and Jersey City Water Supply Company, Defendants: On Bill, etc. (In Chancery of New Jersey) 12 vols. n.p.:privately printed. 1908\-10, 1\-6987\. The chlorination system that he designed and built was declared a success by the Special Master, [William J. Magie](/wiki/William_J._Magie "William J. Magie"), and was judged capable of supplying Jersey City with water that was "pure and wholesome."Magie, William J. (1910\). In Chancery of New Jersey: Between the Mayor and Aldermen of Jersey City, Complainant, and the Jersey City Water Supply Co., Defendant. Report for Hon. W.J. Magie, special master on cost of sewers, etc., and on efficiency of sterilization plant at Boonton, Press Chronicle Co., Jersey City, New Jersey, (Case Number 27/475\-Z\-45\-314\), 1\-15\. The success of the Boonton chlorination system was due, in no small part, to the engineering excellence of Fuller. Chlorine use exploded after the positive ruling by Justice Magie and typhoid fever and other waterborne diseases were conquered as a direct result of Fuller's reliable engineering of the first chlorination system.
### Sewage treatment
The foundation of Fuller's expertise in sewage treatment was laid at the Lawrence Experiment Station in Massachusetts. He later went on to design and supervise the construction of some of the most important sewage treatment plants in the U.S. Fuller and his partner Rudolph Hering were responsible for the design of the earliest [Imhoff tank](/wiki/Imhoff_tank "Imhoff tank") sewage treatment facilities in the U.S., which were located in Chatham, New Jersey and Atlanta, Georgia.“George W. Fuller: Industry Pioneer.” (2003\). *Water Engineering Management.* 23 (May): 10\-11\. He wrote two books that defined the state\-of\-the\-art of sewage treatment.Fuller, George W. (1912\). *Sewage Disposal.* New York: McGraw\-Hill.Fuller, George W. (1926\). and James R. McClintock. *Solving Sewage Problems.* New York: McGraw\-Hill. At the time of his death, an activated sludge system that he designed was being constructed on [Wards Island](/wiki/Wards_Island "Wards Island") to handle sewage flows from New York City."George Warren Fuller." (1999\). *American National Biography.* John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes eds. Vol.10\. New York:Oxford. 145\-7\.
### Consulting firms
Fuller was a consultant to cities, water agencies and sewer authorities for 34 years.
* Single practice, 1899–1901
* Hering and Fuller, 1901–1911
* Fuller and McClintock, 1911–1934
It is estimated that Fuller acted as a consultant to over 150 municipalities and agencies during his career. Besides the design and construction of the Little Falls Treatment Plant, Fuller worked for the cities of New York, Baltimore, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Kansas City, MO, and many others.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"After returning from Berlin, Fuller started working at the [Lawrence Experiment Station](/wiki/Lawrence_Experiment_Station \"Lawrence Experiment Station\") in [Lawrence, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lawrence%2C_Massachusetts \"Lawrence, Massachusetts\") while still under the tutelage of William T. Sedgwick. While at LES, he investigated the treatment of sewage using filtration systems. His most important work was the study of filtration for potable water treatment. His early investigations were designed to increase the filtration rate for [slow sand filters](/wiki/Slow_sand_filters \"Slow sand filters\") so that water treatment facilities could be built on smaller land footprints and, thus, be constructed more economically.“George W. Fuller.” (1935\\). *Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers.* 100: 1653\\-60\\.",
"### Louisville and Cincinnati filtration studies",
"During the period 1895 to 1897, Fuller was hired by the City of Louisville, Kentucky to study water filtration processes for the purpose of purifying Ohio River water for human consumption. The focus of his investigations were on \"mechanical filtration\" treatment systems (also called [rapid sand filtration](/wiki/Rapid_sand_filter \"Rapid sand filter\")), which used filtration rates that were 60 times higher than those of [slow sand filters](/wiki/Slow_sand_filters \"Slow sand filters\"). [Aluminum sulfate](/wiki/Aluminum_sulfate \"Aluminum sulfate\") was added prior to filtration to form larger particles that would be amenable to filtration. The work in Louisville made it clear that except for the clearest upland water supplies, a sedimentation treatment step would have to be added prior to filtration to remove the bulk of the suspended particulate matter.Fuller, George W. (1898\\). *Report on the Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio River Water at Louisville Kentucky: Made to the President and Directors of the Louisville Water Company.* New York:Van Nostrand.",
"Fuller learned from his Louisville work when he designed the investigations at Cincinnati, Ohio for the purification of Ohio River water. From 1897 to 1899, Fuller investigated mechanical filtration using the addition of [aluminum sulfate](/wiki/Aluminum_sulfate \"Aluminum sulfate\") followed by a sedimentation step before the final filtration process.Fuller, George W. (1899\\). *Report on the Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio River Water for the Improved Water Supply of the City of Cincinnati.* Cincinnati:City of Cincinnati.",
"### Water purification",
"After completing the Cincinnati filtration report, Fuller opened a single person consulting practice in New York City. One of his first assignments was from the East Jersey Water Company to design a 30 million gallon per day mechanical filtration plant at [Little Falls, New Jersey](/wiki/Little_Falls%2C_New_Jersey \"Little Falls, New Jersey\"). The plant was a milestone in public health protection because it incorporated all of Fuller's findings from his research over the previous 10 years and it became the model for the design of subsequent drinking water filtration facilities.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fuller \\|first1\\=George W. \\|date\\=June 1903 \\|title\\=The Filtration Works of the East Jersey Water Company, at Little Falls, New Jersey \\|url\\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=njp.32101049480005;view\\=1up;seq\\=466 \\|journal\\=Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers \\|volume\\=L \\|pages\\=394–443 \\|doi\\=10\\.1061/TACEAT.0001566 \\|id\\=Paper No. 954}}",
"[thumb\\|alt\\=Graph showing dramatic decrease in typhoid fever death rate after chlorination of water supplies in the U.S.\\|Death rates for typhoid fever in the U.S. 1906–1960](/wiki/File:Typhoid_stats.png \"Typhoid stats.png\")\nOn June 19, 1908, Fuller was hired by [John L. Leal](/wiki/John_L._Leal \"John L. Leal\") to design and build a chlorination system for the [Jersey City, New Jersey](/wiki/Jersey_City%2C_New_Jersey \"Jersey City, New Jersey\") water supply at Boonton Reservoir on the [Rockaway River](/wiki/Rockaway_River \"Rockaway River\"). Given an impossible deadline as a result of a New Jersey Chancery Court order, Fuller successfully completed the chlorination system in 99 days. John L. Leal developed the basic concept of applying chlorine in the form of a dilute solution of chloride of lime ([calcium hypochlorite](/wiki/Calcium_hypochlorite \"Calcium hypochlorite\")) at fractions of a ppm.[Baker, Moses N.](/wiki/Moses_N._Baker \"Moses N. Baker\") (1981\\). *The Quest for Pure Water: the History of Water Purification from the Earliest Records to the Twentieth Century.* 2nd Edition. Vol. 1\\. Denver: American Water Works Association, 336\\. Fuller modeled his chloride of lime feed system on the [aluminum sulfate](/wiki/Aluminum_sulfate \"Aluminum sulfate\") feed system that he designed for the Little Falls Water Treatment Plant. The chlorination facility fed 0\\.2 to 0\\.35 ppm of chlorine to an average water flow of 40 million gallons per day from Boonton Reservoir.McGuire, Michael J. (2013\\). *The Chlorine Revolution: Water Disinfection and the Fight to Save Lives.* Denver, CO:American Water Works Association.Fuller, George W. (1909\\). “Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir.” *Proceedings American Water Works Association.* 110\\-34\\.",
"Fuller testified as an expert witness for the defendants, the Jersey City Water Supply Company, in both trials that resulted from a lawsuit filed by Jersey City against the water company.Between the Mayor and Aldermen of Jersey City, Complainant, and Patrick H. Flynn and Jersey City Water Supply Company, Defendants: On Bill, etc. (In Chancery of New Jersey) 12 vols. n.p.:privately printed. 1908\\-10, 1\\-6987\\. The chlorination system that he designed and built was declared a success by the Special Master, [William J. Magie](/wiki/William_J._Magie \"William J. Magie\"), and was judged capable of supplying Jersey City with water that was \"pure and wholesome.\"Magie, William J. (1910\\). In Chancery of New Jersey: Between the Mayor and Aldermen of Jersey City, Complainant, and the Jersey City Water Supply Co., Defendant. Report for Hon. W.J. Magie, special master on cost of sewers, etc., and on efficiency of sterilization plant at Boonton, Press Chronicle Co., Jersey City, New Jersey, (Case Number 27/475\\-Z\\-45\\-314\\), 1\\-15\\. The success of the Boonton chlorination system was due, in no small part, to the engineering excellence of Fuller. Chlorine use exploded after the positive ruling by Justice Magie and typhoid fever and other waterborne diseases were conquered as a direct result of Fuller's reliable engineering of the first chlorination system.",
"### Sewage treatment",
"The foundation of Fuller's expertise in sewage treatment was laid at the Lawrence Experiment Station in Massachusetts. He later went on to design and supervise the construction of some of the most important sewage treatment plants in the U.S. Fuller and his partner Rudolph Hering were responsible for the design of the earliest [Imhoff tank](/wiki/Imhoff_tank \"Imhoff tank\") sewage treatment facilities in the U.S., which were located in Chatham, New Jersey and Atlanta, Georgia.“George W. Fuller: Industry Pioneer.” (2003\\). *Water Engineering Management.* 23 (May): 10\\-11\\. He wrote two books that defined the state\\-of\\-the\\-art of sewage treatment.Fuller, George W. (1912\\). *Sewage Disposal.* New York: McGraw\\-Hill.Fuller, George W. (1926\\). and James R. McClintock. *Solving Sewage Problems.* New York: McGraw\\-Hill. At the time of his death, an activated sludge system that he designed was being constructed on [Wards Island](/wiki/Wards_Island \"Wards Island\") to handle sewage flows from New York City.\"George Warren Fuller.\" (1999\\). *American National Biography.* John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes eds. Vol.10\\. New York:Oxford. 145\\-7\\.",
"### Consulting firms",
"Fuller was a consultant to cities, water agencies and sewer authorities for 34 years.\n* Single practice, 1899–1901\n* Hering and Fuller, 1901–1911\n* Fuller and McClintock, 1911–1934",
"It is estimated that Fuller acted as a consultant to over 150 municipalities and agencies during his career. Besides the design and construction of the Little Falls Treatment Plant, Fuller worked for the cities of New York, Baltimore, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Kansas City, MO, and many others.",
""
] |
History
-------
It is presumed that Oestinghausen was an old Saxon settlement; it was first mentioned in a document in 1189\. After the [Soest Feud](/wiki/Soest_Feud "Soest Feud"), a local conflict which ended with the separation of Soest from the archbishops of Cologne in 1449, Oestinghausen remained under the control of Cologne. The "[Amt](/wiki/Amt_%28subnational_entity%29 "Amt (subnational entity)") Oestinghausen" had its own independent jurisdiction. In 1802, the temporal estates of the archbishops of Cologne were reorganized and Oestinghausen became part of [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse "Hesse").
In 1808, the population of Oestinghausen was 552, and in 1816, Oestinghausen became part of [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia"). Thus Oestinghausen lost its own jurisdiction and became part of the [district of Soest](/wiki/Soest_%28district%29 "Soest (district)"). The "Amt Oestinghausen" consisted of the villages of Bettinghausen, Eickelborn, Heintrop\-Bünninghausen, Hovestadt, Hultrop, Krewinkel\-Wiltrop, Lohe, Niederbauer, Nordwald, Oestinghausen, Ostinghausen and Schoneberg.
In 1898, a narrow\-gauge (1 metre gauge) railway, later known as Pengel Anton (a Westphalian expression for a steam railway), was built to serve the rural area. In Oestinghausen a four\-track switchyard and station were constructed, as the main rail line from Hamm to Soest connects here with the branch line to the village of Hovestadt. The last train ran on 5 October 1952\.
In the local government reorganisation of 1969, the village of Oestinghausen was incorporated into the municipality of [Lippetal](/wiki/Lippetal "Lippetal"). Its population in the 19th and 20th centuries did not alter significantly; today the population is over 2,000, compared to the prewar (1939\) figure of 602\.
### Buildings
[thumb\|150px\|Saint Stefanus parish church](/wiki/Image:St-Stefanus-Oestinghausen.jpg "St-Stefanus-Oestinghausen.jpg")
[thumb\|150px\|Chur Cöllnisches Amtshaus](/wiki/Image:Chur-c%C3%B6llnisches-Amsthaus-Oestinghausen.jpg "Chur-cöllnisches-Amsthaus-Oestinghausen.jpg")
The most important building in Oestinghausen is the [romanesque](/wiki/Romanesque_architecture "Romanesque architecture") church of St Stephanus in the old centre of the village. It has been the parish church for the villages of Oestinghausen, Krewinkel, Wiltrop and Niederbauer.
The church was built c. 1000 as a parish church for the local farm (erzbischöflichen Oberhof). In 1186, [Phillip von Heinzberg](/wiki/Philipp_von_Heinsberg "Philipp von Heinsberg"), [bishop of Cologne](/wiki/Bishop_of_Cologne "Bishop of Cologne"), called it the "Oberhof". The [transept](/wiki/Transept "Transept") and [vaulted](/wiki/Vault_%28architecture%29 "Vault (architecture)") ceiling were added in the thirteenth century and the top of the steeple was erected in 1715]. The altar was built in the [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque "Baroque") style c. 1685 and the side altars built in the late [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo "Rococo") style c. 1775\. The church was restored between 1975 and 1980\.
The church is surrounded by several [half\-timbered houses](/wiki/Timber_framing "Timber framing"). The court clerk worked and lived in the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance")\-style half\-timbered house called the "Chur Cöllnisches Amtshaus".
An important event in Oestinghausen is the annual [Schützenfest](/wiki/Sch%C3%BCtzenfest "Schützenfest").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"It is presumed that Oestinghausen was an old Saxon settlement; it was first mentioned in a document in 1189\\. After the [Soest Feud](/wiki/Soest_Feud \"Soest Feud\"), a local conflict which ended with the separation of Soest from the archbishops of Cologne in 1449, Oestinghausen remained under the control of Cologne. The \"[Amt](/wiki/Amt_%28subnational_entity%29 \"Amt (subnational entity)\") Oestinghausen\" had its own independent jurisdiction. In 1802, the temporal estates of the archbishops of Cologne were reorganized and Oestinghausen became part of [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse \"Hesse\").",
"In 1808, the population of Oestinghausen was 552, and in 1816, Oestinghausen became part of [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\"). Thus Oestinghausen lost its own jurisdiction and became part of the [district of Soest](/wiki/Soest_%28district%29 \"Soest (district)\"). The \"Amt Oestinghausen\" consisted of the villages of Bettinghausen, Eickelborn, Heintrop\\-Bünninghausen, Hovestadt, Hultrop, Krewinkel\\-Wiltrop, Lohe, Niederbauer, Nordwald, Oestinghausen, Ostinghausen and Schoneberg.",
"In 1898, a narrow\\-gauge (1 metre gauge) railway, later known as Pengel Anton (a Westphalian expression for a steam railway), was built to serve the rural area. In Oestinghausen a four\\-track switchyard and station were constructed, as the main rail line from Hamm to Soest connects here with the branch line to the village of Hovestadt. The last train ran on 5 October 1952\\.",
"In the local government reorganisation of 1969, the village of Oestinghausen was incorporated into the municipality of [Lippetal](/wiki/Lippetal \"Lippetal\"). Its population in the 19th and 20th centuries did not alter significantly; today the population is over 2,000, compared to the prewar (1939\\) figure of 602\\.",
"### Buildings",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Saint Stefanus parish church](/wiki/Image:St-Stefanus-Oestinghausen.jpg \"St-Stefanus-Oestinghausen.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Chur Cöllnisches Amtshaus](/wiki/Image:Chur-c%C3%B6llnisches-Amsthaus-Oestinghausen.jpg \"Chur-cöllnisches-Amsthaus-Oestinghausen.jpg\")\nThe most important building in Oestinghausen is the [romanesque](/wiki/Romanesque_architecture \"Romanesque architecture\") church of St Stephanus in the old centre of the village. It has been the parish church for the villages of Oestinghausen, Krewinkel, Wiltrop and Niederbauer.",
"The church was built c. 1000 as a parish church for the local farm (erzbischöflichen Oberhof). In 1186, [Phillip von Heinzberg](/wiki/Philipp_von_Heinsberg \"Philipp von Heinsberg\"), [bishop of Cologne](/wiki/Bishop_of_Cologne \"Bishop of Cologne\"), called it the \"Oberhof\". The [transept](/wiki/Transept \"Transept\") and [vaulted](/wiki/Vault_%28architecture%29 \"Vault (architecture)\") ceiling were added in the thirteenth century and the top of the steeple was erected in 1715]. The altar was built in the [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque \"Baroque\") style c. 1685 and the side altars built in the late [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo \"Rococo\") style c. 1775\\. The church was restored between 1975 and 1980\\.",
"The church is surrounded by several [half\\-timbered houses](/wiki/Timber_framing \"Timber framing\"). The court clerk worked and lived in the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\")\\-style half\\-timbered house called the \"Chur Cöllnisches Amtshaus\".",
"An important event in Oestinghausen is the annual [Schützenfest](/wiki/Sch%C3%BCtzenfest \"Schützenfest\").",
""
] |
1956 \- 1977
------------
The period 1956 to 1977 covers the Rectorships of Five Rectors, all of whom were dogged by the problem of the schools takeover bid, with severe financial constraints consequent to the decision by St. Peter's not to be vested with the State but to function as a 'Non\-Fee Levying Private School'. Nevertheless, and notwithstanding each of the five Rectors of this difficult era made their individual contribution to the progress of St. Peter's never succumbing to problems of the times.
Fr. Arthur Nicholas Fernando, who succeeded Fr. Basil Wiratunge as the Third Rector of St. Peter's from 1956 to 1963, developed Aesthetic Studies and started the first school's Fife and Drum band on 30 June 1956\. A Cultural Centre to promote Music, Drama, Dancing and Art was started in November 1956 with the help of Fathers Mervyn Weerakkody and Marcelline Jayakody. Kandyan Dancing, Oriental Singing and the Western and Oriental Orchestras were set up. Rowing was introduced to St. Peter's in 1959, as also a unit of the St. John's Ambulance Brigade. On 1 December 1960, St. Peter's decided to remain as a private non\-fee\-paying institution. Arthur Nicholas Fernando set up the Welfare Society, a modern canteen, and college boarding.
Fr. Mervyn Weerakkody succeeded Arthur Nicholas Fernando and was the Fourth Rector from 1963 to 1971\. He formed the [Parent Teacher Association](/wiki/Parent_Teacher_Association "Parent Teacher Association"). Boards of Discipline, Studies and Sports were formed. He established the Employees Provident Fund for the Teaching Staff. On 24 July 1971, he left St. Peter's to take up the Rectorship of St. Joseph's.
Fr. Theodore E. Peiris O.M.I., who had been on the Tutorial Staff of St. Peter's in the 1940s, succeeded Weerakkody and was Rector from 1971 to 1975\. He presided at the Golden Jubilee Celebrations of the college on 18 January 1972\.
The Sixth Rector of St. Peter's, Fr. Claver Perera, was the first Peterite rector, from 1975 to 1976\. He decentralised the administration with the appointment of Sectional Heads from Grade 6 to the Advanced Level. He enlarged and renovated the College Chapel for the first time in 50 years.
Fr. Francis Madiwela took over from Fr. Claver Perera, from 1976 to 1977\. He arranged for the Old Boys to have their own president, from 4 December 1977\. He transferred to St. Thomas, Kotte as Principal.
|
[
"1956 \\- 1977\n------------",
"The period 1956 to 1977 covers the Rectorships of Five Rectors, all of whom were dogged by the problem of the schools takeover bid, with severe financial constraints consequent to the decision by St. Peter's not to be vested with the State but to function as a 'Non\\-Fee Levying Private School'. Nevertheless, and notwithstanding each of the five Rectors of this difficult era made their individual contribution to the progress of St. Peter's never succumbing to problems of the times.",
"Fr. Arthur Nicholas Fernando, who succeeded Fr. Basil Wiratunge as the Third Rector of St. Peter's from 1956 to 1963, developed Aesthetic Studies and started the first school's Fife and Drum band on 30 June 1956\\. A Cultural Centre to promote Music, Drama, Dancing and Art was started in November 1956 with the help of Fathers Mervyn Weerakkody and Marcelline Jayakody. Kandyan Dancing, Oriental Singing and the Western and Oriental Orchestras were set up. Rowing was introduced to St. Peter's in 1959, as also a unit of the St. John's Ambulance Brigade. On 1 December 1960, St. Peter's decided to remain as a private non\\-fee\\-paying institution. Arthur Nicholas Fernando set up the Welfare Society, a modern canteen, and college boarding.",
"Fr. Mervyn Weerakkody succeeded Arthur Nicholas Fernando and was the Fourth Rector from 1963 to 1971\\. He formed the [Parent Teacher Association](/wiki/Parent_Teacher_Association \"Parent Teacher Association\"). Boards of Discipline, Studies and Sports were formed. He established the Employees Provident Fund for the Teaching Staff. On 24 July 1971, he left St. Peter's to take up the Rectorship of St. Joseph's.",
"Fr. Theodore E. Peiris O.M.I., who had been on the Tutorial Staff of St. Peter's in the 1940s, succeeded Weerakkody and was Rector from 1971 to 1975\\. He presided at the Golden Jubilee Celebrations of the college on 18 January 1972\\.",
"The Sixth Rector of St. Peter's, Fr. Claver Perera, was the first Peterite rector, from 1975 to 1976\\. He decentralised the administration with the appointment of Sectional Heads from Grade 6 to the Advanced Level. He enlarged and renovated the College Chapel for the first time in 50 years.",
"Fr. Francis Madiwela took over from Fr. Claver Perera, from 1976 to 1977\\. He arranged for the Old Boys to have their own president, from 4 December 1977\\. He transferred to St. Thomas, Kotte as Principal.",
""
] |
Sexual offences
---------------
### Singapore
While he was working in Singapore, Yap, then 26 years old, began his sexual offences from November 2009 till June 2012, three months before Yap was arrested. In total, Yap had committed the offences against 31 pubescent boys aged between 11 and 15, who were not named to protect their identities.
#### Modus operandi
Yap typically, through the Internet, looked for boys who lived or who went to school near his rental apartment in New Upper Changi Road, and later in [Yishun](/wiki/Yishun "Yishun"). He would then befriend his targeted victims online and pretend to be a 18\-year\-old polytechnic student under the aliases Wai Loon or Loon. Sometimes, Yap would also say he was from [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia").{{cite news\|url\=https://tnp.straitstimes.com/news/others/engineer\-sexually\-preyed\-31\-young\-boys\|title\=Engineer sexually preyed on 31 young boys\|website\=The New Paper\|date\=17 January 2015\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}}
During these online interactions with those victims who accepted him as online friends, Yap would present himself as an older brother\-figure or mentor to gain their trust, and they would chat or message together over several weeks or months. Together with his victims, Yap talked about hobbies, movies, sports and computer games. He would also find a way to bring up the topic of sex in midst of these online conversations.
Yap would then set up physical meetings with the victims under the pretext of giving them gifts, playing computer games, or giving tips about bodybuilding. During these physical meetings, which took place in places like his rented Yishun flat, [Woodlands](/wiki/Woodlands%2C_Singapore "Woodlands, Singapore"), [Hougang](/wiki/Hougang "Hougang"), [Aljunied](/wiki/Aljunied "Aljunied") and [Changi](/wiki/Changi "Changi"), a chalet at [Downtown East](/wiki/NTUC_Downtown_East "NTUC Downtown East"), a hotel room in [Geylang](/wiki/Geylang "Geylang"), and even toilet cubicles at public places like swimming pools and malls, Yap would then convince his victims to allow him to perform oral sex or anal sex on them (without a condom), which went on even if the boys refused, saying they were not homosexual, cried, or were reluctant. Except for one 12\-year\-old boy, the remaining 30 victims were sexually assaulted in this way during these meetings.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/guilty\-as\-charged\-sex\-predator\-yap\-weng\-wah\-preyed\-on\-at\-least\-31\-young\-boys\|title\=Guilty As Charged: Sex predator Yap Weng Wah preyed on at least 31 young boys\|website\=The Straits Times\|date\=18 May 2016\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}}
Yap would also use his phone or camera to film himself having sex with the boys.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.wanbao.com.sg/taxonomy/term/46/all/feed/page/8/0?page\=1958\|title\=3年性侵30男生 色魔'哥哥'还录像\|website\=Wanbao\|language\=Chinese\|date\=16 January 2015\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}} When the boys protested, Yap promised he would delete the footage, but saved these videos to his laptop to re\-watch and masturbate to. At the time Yap was captured, the police found a total of 2,218 videos recorded and stored inside Yap's laptop. These videos were also catalogued with the names and ages of the victims, and the year Yap met the victims.
#### Details
On the 23\-page charge sheet filed by the prosecution in relation to the 76 criminal charges made against Yap, 7 charges involved 11\-year\-olds, 13 dealt with 12\-year\-olds and 4 with 15\-year\-olds. The majority of the charges involved boys ages 13 and 14 – 32 and 20 charges respectively. Fifty one charges were related to sexual penetration of a minor below 14 years old, 24 were for minors below 16, and one involved a charge of Yap asking a 12\-year\-old to film himself performing sex and sending the video to Yap; that 12\-year\-old boy was the same boy who was the only victim Yap never had sex with.
A select few of these 76 crimes were publicly released in certain articles covering Yap's crimes. One of these crimes took place on 4 February 2010, where in [Hougang Swimming Complex](/wiki/Hougang_Swimming_Complex "Hougang Swimming Complex"), a 13\-year\-old boy was told to remove his school uniform in a toilet cubicle, where Yap sodomised him and filmed the act. In March 2010, a 15\-year\-old boy met up with Yap in a hotel, where Yap tried to undress and kiss the boy. Despite the victim's protests, Yap performed oral sex on him. On 25 September 2011, a 14\-year\-old boy was told to perform oral sex on Yap in a toilet cubicle in the [Tampines Stadium](/wiki/Tampines_Stadium "Tampines Stadium").
Another case, which took place on an unspecified date, involved another boy whom Yap met and chatted with for a few months on Facebook before their first physical meeting in a mall. After the duo had lunch and played arcade games, he took the boy to his rented room to watch cartoons online while his landlord was in the living room. Yap later removed the boy's clothes and sexually assaulted him, promising it would not happen again. However each time they met, Yap assaulted him again either before or after taking the boy outdoors to watch movies or eat outside.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/guilty\-as\-charged\-sex\-predator\-yap\-weng\-wah\-preyed\-on\-at\-least\-31\-young\-boys\|title\=Guilty As Charged: Sex predator Yap Weng Wah preyed on at least 31 young boys\|website\=The Straits Times\|date\=18 May 2016\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}}
### Malaysia
While he was preying on pre\-teen males in Singapore, Yap had also extended his targets beyond Singapore and into Malaysia. During his yearly visits to Malaysia, Yap would have sex with another 14 boys in Malaysia, all of them also aged below 16\. He also filmed these sexual acts like he did in Singapore to the 31 victims he met there. These offences were also brought to light when police arrested Yap in September 2012\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.asiaone.com/singapore/man\-31\-preyed\-31\-boys\-over\-3\-years\|title\=Man, 31, preyed on 31 boys over 3 years\|website\=AsiaOne\|date\=19 January 2015\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}} However, since the crimes involving these 14 boys were not committed in Singapore, Yap did not face any formal charges related to these 14 boys when he was first arrested and charged.
|
[
"Sexual offences\n---------------",
"### Singapore",
"While he was working in Singapore, Yap, then 26 years old, began his sexual offences from November 2009 till June 2012, three months before Yap was arrested. In total, Yap had committed the offences against 31 pubescent boys aged between 11 and 15, who were not named to protect their identities.",
"#### Modus operandi",
"Yap typically, through the Internet, looked for boys who lived or who went to school near his rental apartment in New Upper Changi Road, and later in [Yishun](/wiki/Yishun \"Yishun\"). He would then befriend his targeted victims online and pretend to be a 18\\-year\\-old polytechnic student under the aliases Wai Loon or Loon. Sometimes, Yap would also say he was from [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://tnp.straitstimes.com/news/others/engineer\\-sexually\\-preyed\\-31\\-young\\-boys\\|title\\=Engineer sexually preyed on 31 young boys\\|website\\=The New Paper\\|date\\=17 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}}",
"During these online interactions with those victims who accepted him as online friends, Yap would present himself as an older brother\\-figure or mentor to gain their trust, and they would chat or message together over several weeks or months. Together with his victims, Yap talked about hobbies, movies, sports and computer games. He would also find a way to bring up the topic of sex in midst of these online conversations.",
"Yap would then set up physical meetings with the victims under the pretext of giving them gifts, playing computer games, or giving tips about bodybuilding. During these physical meetings, which took place in places like his rented Yishun flat, [Woodlands](/wiki/Woodlands%2C_Singapore \"Woodlands, Singapore\"), [Hougang](/wiki/Hougang \"Hougang\"), [Aljunied](/wiki/Aljunied \"Aljunied\") and [Changi](/wiki/Changi \"Changi\"), a chalet at [Downtown East](/wiki/NTUC_Downtown_East \"NTUC Downtown East\"), a hotel room in [Geylang](/wiki/Geylang \"Geylang\"), and even toilet cubicles at public places like swimming pools and malls, Yap would then convince his victims to allow him to perform oral sex or anal sex on them (without a condom), which went on even if the boys refused, saying they were not homosexual, cried, or were reluctant. Except for one 12\\-year\\-old boy, the remaining 30 victims were sexually assaulted in this way during these meetings.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/guilty\\-as\\-charged\\-sex\\-predator\\-yap\\-weng\\-wah\\-preyed\\-on\\-at\\-least\\-31\\-young\\-boys\\|title\\=Guilty As Charged: Sex predator Yap Weng Wah preyed on at least 31 young boys\\|website\\=The Straits Times\\|date\\=18 May 2016\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}}",
"Yap would also use his phone or camera to film himself having sex with the boys.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.wanbao.com.sg/taxonomy/term/46/all/feed/page/8/0?page\\=1958\\|title\\=3年性侵30男生 色魔'哥哥'还录像\\|website\\=Wanbao\\|language\\=Chinese\\|date\\=16 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}} When the boys protested, Yap promised he would delete the footage, but saved these videos to his laptop to re\\-watch and masturbate to. At the time Yap was captured, the police found a total of 2,218 videos recorded and stored inside Yap's laptop. These videos were also catalogued with the names and ages of the victims, and the year Yap met the victims.",
"#### Details",
"On the 23\\-page charge sheet filed by the prosecution in relation to the 76 criminal charges made against Yap, 7 charges involved 11\\-year\\-olds, 13 dealt with 12\\-year\\-olds and 4 with 15\\-year\\-olds. The majority of the charges involved boys ages 13 and 14 – 32 and 20 charges respectively. Fifty one charges were related to sexual penetration of a minor below 14 years old, 24 were for minors below 16, and one involved a charge of Yap asking a 12\\-year\\-old to film himself performing sex and sending the video to Yap; that 12\\-year\\-old boy was the same boy who was the only victim Yap never had sex with.",
"A select few of these 76 crimes were publicly released in certain articles covering Yap's crimes. One of these crimes took place on 4 February 2010, where in [Hougang Swimming Complex](/wiki/Hougang_Swimming_Complex \"Hougang Swimming Complex\"), a 13\\-year\\-old boy was told to remove his school uniform in a toilet cubicle, where Yap sodomised him and filmed the act. In March 2010, a 15\\-year\\-old boy met up with Yap in a hotel, where Yap tried to undress and kiss the boy. Despite the victim's protests, Yap performed oral sex on him. On 25 September 2011, a 14\\-year\\-old boy was told to perform oral sex on Yap in a toilet cubicle in the [Tampines Stadium](/wiki/Tampines_Stadium \"Tampines Stadium\").",
"Another case, which took place on an unspecified date, involved another boy whom Yap met and chatted with for a few months on Facebook before their first physical meeting in a mall. After the duo had lunch and played arcade games, he took the boy to his rented room to watch cartoons online while his landlord was in the living room. Yap later removed the boy's clothes and sexually assaulted him, promising it would not happen again. However each time they met, Yap assaulted him again either before or after taking the boy outdoors to watch movies or eat outside.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/guilty\\-as\\-charged\\-sex\\-predator\\-yap\\-weng\\-wah\\-preyed\\-on\\-at\\-least\\-31\\-young\\-boys\\|title\\=Guilty As Charged: Sex predator Yap Weng Wah preyed on at least 31 young boys\\|website\\=The Straits Times\\|date\\=18 May 2016\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}}",
"### Malaysia",
"While he was preying on pre\\-teen males in Singapore, Yap had also extended his targets beyond Singapore and into Malaysia. During his yearly visits to Malaysia, Yap would have sex with another 14 boys in Malaysia, all of them also aged below 16\\. He also filmed these sexual acts like he did in Singapore to the 31 victims he met there. These offences were also brought to light when police arrested Yap in September 2012\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.asiaone.com/singapore/man\\-31\\-preyed\\-31\\-boys\\-over\\-3\\-years\\|title\\=Man, 31, preyed on 31 boys over 3 years\\|website\\=AsiaOne\\|date\\=19 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}} However, since the crimes involving these 14 boys were not committed in Singapore, Yap did not face any formal charges related to these 14 boys when he was first arrested and charged.",
""
] |
### Singapore
While he was working in Singapore, Yap, then 26 years old, began his sexual offences from November 2009 till June 2012, three months before Yap was arrested. In total, Yap had committed the offences against 31 pubescent boys aged between 11 and 15, who were not named to protect their identities.
#### Modus operandi
Yap typically, through the Internet, looked for boys who lived or who went to school near his rental apartment in New Upper Changi Road, and later in [Yishun](/wiki/Yishun "Yishun"). He would then befriend his targeted victims online and pretend to be a 18\-year\-old polytechnic student under the aliases Wai Loon or Loon. Sometimes, Yap would also say he was from [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia").{{cite news\|url\=https://tnp.straitstimes.com/news/others/engineer\-sexually\-preyed\-31\-young\-boys\|title\=Engineer sexually preyed on 31 young boys\|website\=The New Paper\|date\=17 January 2015\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}}
During these online interactions with those victims who accepted him as online friends, Yap would present himself as an older brother\-figure or mentor to gain their trust, and they would chat or message together over several weeks or months. Together with his victims, Yap talked about hobbies, movies, sports and computer games. He would also find a way to bring up the topic of sex in midst of these online conversations.
Yap would then set up physical meetings with the victims under the pretext of giving them gifts, playing computer games, or giving tips about bodybuilding. During these physical meetings, which took place in places like his rented Yishun flat, [Woodlands](/wiki/Woodlands%2C_Singapore "Woodlands, Singapore"), [Hougang](/wiki/Hougang "Hougang"), [Aljunied](/wiki/Aljunied "Aljunied") and [Changi](/wiki/Changi "Changi"), a chalet at [Downtown East](/wiki/NTUC_Downtown_East "NTUC Downtown East"), a hotel room in [Geylang](/wiki/Geylang "Geylang"), and even toilet cubicles at public places like swimming pools and malls, Yap would then convince his victims to allow him to perform oral sex or anal sex on them (without a condom), which went on even if the boys refused, saying they were not homosexual, cried, or were reluctant. Except for one 12\-year\-old boy, the remaining 30 victims were sexually assaulted in this way during these meetings.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/guilty\-as\-charged\-sex\-predator\-yap\-weng\-wah\-preyed\-on\-at\-least\-31\-young\-boys\|title\=Guilty As Charged: Sex predator Yap Weng Wah preyed on at least 31 young boys\|website\=The Straits Times\|date\=18 May 2016\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}}
Yap would also use his phone or camera to film himself having sex with the boys.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.wanbao.com.sg/taxonomy/term/46/all/feed/page/8/0?page\=1958\|title\=3年性侵30男生 色魔'哥哥'还录像\|website\=Wanbao\|language\=Chinese\|date\=16 January 2015\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}} When the boys protested, Yap promised he would delete the footage, but saved these videos to his laptop to re\-watch and masturbate to. At the time Yap was captured, the police found a total of 2,218 videos recorded and stored inside Yap's laptop. These videos were also catalogued with the names and ages of the victims, and the year Yap met the victims.
#### Details
On the 23\-page charge sheet filed by the prosecution in relation to the 76 criminal charges made against Yap, 7 charges involved 11\-year\-olds, 13 dealt with 12\-year\-olds and 4 with 15\-year\-olds. The majority of the charges involved boys ages 13 and 14 – 32 and 20 charges respectively. Fifty one charges were related to sexual penetration of a minor below 14 years old, 24 were for minors below 16, and one involved a charge of Yap asking a 12\-year\-old to film himself performing sex and sending the video to Yap; that 12\-year\-old boy was the same boy who was the only victim Yap never had sex with.
A select few of these 76 crimes were publicly released in certain articles covering Yap's crimes. One of these crimes took place on 4 February 2010, where in [Hougang Swimming Complex](/wiki/Hougang_Swimming_Complex "Hougang Swimming Complex"), a 13\-year\-old boy was told to remove his school uniform in a toilet cubicle, where Yap sodomised him and filmed the act. In March 2010, a 15\-year\-old boy met up with Yap in a hotel, where Yap tried to undress and kiss the boy. Despite the victim's protests, Yap performed oral sex on him. On 25 September 2011, a 14\-year\-old boy was told to perform oral sex on Yap in a toilet cubicle in the [Tampines Stadium](/wiki/Tampines_Stadium "Tampines Stadium").
Another case, which took place on an unspecified date, involved another boy whom Yap met and chatted with for a few months on Facebook before their first physical meeting in a mall. After the duo had lunch and played arcade games, he took the boy to his rented room to watch cartoons online while his landlord was in the living room. Yap later removed the boy's clothes and sexually assaulted him, promising it would not happen again. However each time they met, Yap assaulted him again either before or after taking the boy outdoors to watch movies or eat outside.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/guilty\-as\-charged\-sex\-predator\-yap\-weng\-wah\-preyed\-on\-at\-least\-31\-young\-boys\|title\=Guilty As Charged: Sex predator Yap Weng Wah preyed on at least 31 young boys\|website\=The Straits Times\|date\=18 May 2016\|access\-date\=24 March 2021}}
|
[
"### Singapore",
"While he was working in Singapore, Yap, then 26 years old, began his sexual offences from November 2009 till June 2012, three months before Yap was arrested. In total, Yap had committed the offences against 31 pubescent boys aged between 11 and 15, who were not named to protect their identities.",
"#### Modus operandi",
"Yap typically, through the Internet, looked for boys who lived or who went to school near his rental apartment in New Upper Changi Road, and later in [Yishun](/wiki/Yishun \"Yishun\"). He would then befriend his targeted victims online and pretend to be a 18\\-year\\-old polytechnic student under the aliases Wai Loon or Loon. Sometimes, Yap would also say he was from [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://tnp.straitstimes.com/news/others/engineer\\-sexually\\-preyed\\-31\\-young\\-boys\\|title\\=Engineer sexually preyed on 31 young boys\\|website\\=The New Paper\\|date\\=17 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}}",
"During these online interactions with those victims who accepted him as online friends, Yap would present himself as an older brother\\-figure or mentor to gain their trust, and they would chat or message together over several weeks or months. Together with his victims, Yap talked about hobbies, movies, sports and computer games. He would also find a way to bring up the topic of sex in midst of these online conversations.",
"Yap would then set up physical meetings with the victims under the pretext of giving them gifts, playing computer games, or giving tips about bodybuilding. During these physical meetings, which took place in places like his rented Yishun flat, [Woodlands](/wiki/Woodlands%2C_Singapore \"Woodlands, Singapore\"), [Hougang](/wiki/Hougang \"Hougang\"), [Aljunied](/wiki/Aljunied \"Aljunied\") and [Changi](/wiki/Changi \"Changi\"), a chalet at [Downtown East](/wiki/NTUC_Downtown_East \"NTUC Downtown East\"), a hotel room in [Geylang](/wiki/Geylang \"Geylang\"), and even toilet cubicles at public places like swimming pools and malls, Yap would then convince his victims to allow him to perform oral sex or anal sex on them (without a condom), which went on even if the boys refused, saying they were not homosexual, cried, or were reluctant. Except for one 12\\-year\\-old boy, the remaining 30 victims were sexually assaulted in this way during these meetings.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/guilty\\-as\\-charged\\-sex\\-predator\\-yap\\-weng\\-wah\\-preyed\\-on\\-at\\-least\\-31\\-young\\-boys\\|title\\=Guilty As Charged: Sex predator Yap Weng Wah preyed on at least 31 young boys\\|website\\=The Straits Times\\|date\\=18 May 2016\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}}",
"Yap would also use his phone or camera to film himself having sex with the boys.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.wanbao.com.sg/taxonomy/term/46/all/feed/page/8/0?page\\=1958\\|title\\=3年性侵30男生 色魔'哥哥'还录像\\|website\\=Wanbao\\|language\\=Chinese\\|date\\=16 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}} When the boys protested, Yap promised he would delete the footage, but saved these videos to his laptop to re\\-watch and masturbate to. At the time Yap was captured, the police found a total of 2,218 videos recorded and stored inside Yap's laptop. These videos were also catalogued with the names and ages of the victims, and the year Yap met the victims.",
"#### Details",
"On the 23\\-page charge sheet filed by the prosecution in relation to the 76 criminal charges made against Yap, 7 charges involved 11\\-year\\-olds, 13 dealt with 12\\-year\\-olds and 4 with 15\\-year\\-olds. The majority of the charges involved boys ages 13 and 14 – 32 and 20 charges respectively. Fifty one charges were related to sexual penetration of a minor below 14 years old, 24 were for minors below 16, and one involved a charge of Yap asking a 12\\-year\\-old to film himself performing sex and sending the video to Yap; that 12\\-year\\-old boy was the same boy who was the only victim Yap never had sex with.",
"A select few of these 76 crimes were publicly released in certain articles covering Yap's crimes. One of these crimes took place on 4 February 2010, where in [Hougang Swimming Complex](/wiki/Hougang_Swimming_Complex \"Hougang Swimming Complex\"), a 13\\-year\\-old boy was told to remove his school uniform in a toilet cubicle, where Yap sodomised him and filmed the act. In March 2010, a 15\\-year\\-old boy met up with Yap in a hotel, where Yap tried to undress and kiss the boy. Despite the victim's protests, Yap performed oral sex on him. On 25 September 2011, a 14\\-year\\-old boy was told to perform oral sex on Yap in a toilet cubicle in the [Tampines Stadium](/wiki/Tampines_Stadium \"Tampines Stadium\").",
"Another case, which took place on an unspecified date, involved another boy whom Yap met and chatted with for a few months on Facebook before their first physical meeting in a mall. After the duo had lunch and played arcade games, he took the boy to his rented room to watch cartoons online while his landlord was in the living room. Yap later removed the boy's clothes and sexually assaulted him, promising it would not happen again. However each time they met, Yap assaulted him again either before or after taking the boy outdoors to watch movies or eat outside.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/guilty\\-as\\-charged\\-sex\\-predator\\-yap\\-weng\\-wah\\-preyed\\-on\\-at\\-least\\-31\\-young\\-boys\\|title\\=Guilty As Charged: Sex predator Yap Weng Wah preyed on at least 31 young boys\\|website\\=The Straits Times\\|date\\=18 May 2016\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021}}",
""
] |
Education
---------
The Town of Yorktown is served by four school districts: [Yorktown Central School District](/wiki/Yorktown_Central_School_District "Yorktown Central School District"), [Lakeland Central School District](/wiki/Lakeland_Central_School_District "Lakeland Central School District"), [Croton\-Harmon Union Free School District](/wiki/Croton-Harmon_Union_Free_School_District "Croton-Harmon Union Free School District"), and [Ossining Union Free School District](/wiki/Ossining_Union_Free_School_District "Ossining Union Free School District").
The Yorktown School District encompasses a large part of the Town of Yorktown and small sections of Cortlandt and New Castle. The district includes two, grade K\-3 elementary schools; one, grade 4\-5 elementary school; one, grade 6\-8 middle school; and one grade 9\-12 high school.
Lakeland is a suburban school district located in the Northwest corner of Westchester County and includes parts of six towns: Yorktown, Cortlandt, and Somers in Westchester County; Carmel, Philipstown, and Putnam Valley in Putnam County. Lakeland includes five grade K\-5 elementary schools, one grade 6\-8 middle school, and two grade 9\-12 high schools, as well as the Lakeland Alternative High School.
The Croton\-Harmon School District encompasses parts of the towns of Cortlandt, Yorktown, and Ossining and includes the village of Croton\-on\-Hudson. The district population is approximately 15,000 with some 1,700 students attending Croton schools this year. The district includes one, grade K\-4 elementary school; one, grade 5\-8 middle school; and one, grade 9\-12 high school.
The Ossining Union Free School District encompasses parts of the towns of Yorktown, New Castle, Briarcliff Manor, Ossining, and the Village of Ossining. The district includes the Park Early childhood center, which houses three programs: First Steps for Ossining families with children ages 0 to 4, Pre\-Kindergarten for four year\-olds and Kindergarten, one grade 1\-2 elementary school, one, grade 3\-4 elementary school, one grade 5 elementary school, one grade 6\-8 middle school, and one grade 9\-12 high school.
|
[
"Education\n---------",
"The Town of Yorktown is served by four school districts: [Yorktown Central School District](/wiki/Yorktown_Central_School_District \"Yorktown Central School District\"), [Lakeland Central School District](/wiki/Lakeland_Central_School_District \"Lakeland Central School District\"), [Croton\\-Harmon Union Free School District](/wiki/Croton-Harmon_Union_Free_School_District \"Croton-Harmon Union Free School District\"), and [Ossining Union Free School District](/wiki/Ossining_Union_Free_School_District \"Ossining Union Free School District\").",
"The Yorktown School District encompasses a large part of the Town of Yorktown and small sections of Cortlandt and New Castle. The district includes two, grade K\\-3 elementary schools; one, grade 4\\-5 elementary school; one, grade 6\\-8 middle school; and one grade 9\\-12 high school.",
"Lakeland is a suburban school district located in the Northwest corner of Westchester County and includes parts of six towns: Yorktown, Cortlandt, and Somers in Westchester County; Carmel, Philipstown, and Putnam Valley in Putnam County. Lakeland includes five grade K\\-5 elementary schools, one grade 6\\-8 middle school, and two grade 9\\-12 high schools, as well as the Lakeland Alternative High School.",
"The Croton\\-Harmon School District encompasses parts of the towns of Cortlandt, Yorktown, and Ossining and includes the village of Croton\\-on\\-Hudson. The district population is approximately 15,000 with some 1,700 students attending Croton schools this year. The district includes one, grade K\\-4 elementary school; one, grade 5\\-8 middle school; and one, grade 9\\-12 high school.",
"The Ossining Union Free School District encompasses parts of the towns of Yorktown, New Castle, Briarcliff Manor, Ossining, and the Village of Ossining. The district includes the Park Early childhood center, which houses three programs: First Steps for Ossining families with children ages 0 to 4, Pre\\-Kindergarten for four year\\-olds and Kindergarten, one grade 1\\-2 elementary school, one, grade 3\\-4 elementary school, one grade 5 elementary school, one grade 6\\-8 middle school, and one grade 9\\-12 high school.",
""
] |
Approaches
----------
Approaches towards clustering in axis\-parallel or arbitrarily oriented [affine subspaces](/wiki/Affine_subspace "Affine subspace") differ in how they interpret the overall goal, which is finding clusters in data with high dimensionality. An overall different approach is to find clusters based on [pattern](/wiki/Pattern "Pattern") in the data matrix, often referred to as [biclustering](/wiki/Biclustering "Biclustering"), which is a technique frequently utilized in [bioinformatics](/wiki/Bioinformatics "Bioinformatics").
### Subspace clustering
[frame\|right\|Example 2D space with subspace clusters](/wiki/Image:SubspaceClustering.png "SubspaceClustering.png")
Subspace clustering aims to look for clusters in different combinations of dimensions (i.e., subspaces) and unlike many other clustering approaches does not assume that all of the clusters in a dataset are found in the same set of dimensions.{{Cite journal \|last\=Parsons \|first\=Lance \|last2\=Haque \|first2\=Ehtesham \|last3\=Liu \|first3\=Huan \|date\=2004\-06\-01 \|title\=Subspace clustering for high dimensional data: a review \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1145/1007730\.1007731 \|journal\=ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=90–105 \|doi\=10\.1145/1007730\.1007731 \|issn\=1931\-0145}} Subspace clustering can take bottom\-up or top\-down approaches. Bottom\-up methods (such as CLIQUE) heuristically identify relevant dimensions by dividing the data space into a grid structure, selecting dense units, and then iteratively linking them if they are adjacent and dense.
The adjacent image shows a mere two\-dimensional space where a number of clusters can be identified. In the one\-dimensional subspaces, the clusters c\_a (in subspace \\{x\\}) and c\_b, c\_c, c\_d (in subspace \\{y\\}) can be found. c\_c cannot be considered a cluster in a two\-dimensional (sub\-)space, since it is too sparsely distributed in the x axis. In two dimensions, the two clusters c\_{ab} and c\_{ad} can be identified.
The problem of subspace clustering is given by the fact that there are 2^d different subspaces of a space with d dimensions. If the subspaces are not axis\-parallel, an infinite number of subspaces is possible. Hence, subspace clustering algorithms utilize some kind of [heuristic](/wiki/Heuristic "Heuristic") to remain computationally feasible, at the risk of producing inferior results. For example, the *downward\-closure property* (cf. [association rules](/wiki/Association_rule_learning "Association rule learning")) can be used to build higher\-dimensional subspaces only by combining lower\-dimensional ones, as any subspace T containing a cluster, will result in a full space S also to contain that cluster (i.e. S ⊆ T), an approach taken by most of the traditional algorithms such as CLIQUE,{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Agrawal \| first1 \= R. \| last2 \= Gehrke \| first2 \= J. \| last3 \= Gunopulos \| first3 \= D. \| last4 \= Raghavan \| first4 \= P. \| title \= Automatic Subspace Clustering of High Dimensional Data \| doi \= 10\.1007/s10618\-005\-1396\-1 \| journal \= Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery \| volume \= 11 \| pages \= 5–33 \| year \= 2005 \| citeseerx \= 10\.1\.1\.131\.5152 \| s2cid \= 9289572 }} [SUBCLU](/wiki/SUBCLU "SUBCLU").{{Cite conference\| doi \= 10\.1137/1\.9781611972740\.23\| title \= Density\-Connected Subspace Clustering for High\-Dimensional Data\| conference \= Proceedings of the 2004 SIAM International Conference on Data Mining\| pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/proceedingsoffou0000siam/page/246 246]\| year \= 2004\| last1 \= Kailing\| first1 \= K.\| last2 \= Kriegel\| first2 \= H. P.\| author\-link2 \= Hans\-Peter Kriegel\| last3 \= Kröger\| first3 \= P.\| isbn \= 978\-0\-89871\-568\-2\| url\-access \= registration\| url \= https://archive.org/details/proceedingsoffou0000siam/page/246\| doi\-access \= free}} It is also possible to define a subspace using different degrees of relevance for each dimension, an approach taken by {{Proper name\|iMWK\-Means}},{{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.patcog.2011\.08\.012\| title \= Minkowski metric, feature weighting and anomalous cluster initializing in K\-Means clustering\| journal \= Pattern Recognition\| volume \= 45\| issue \= 3\| pages \= 1061\| year \= 2012\| last1 \= De Amorim \| first1 \= R.C. \| last2 \= Mirkin \| first2 \= B. \| bibcode \= 2012PatRe..45\.1061C}} EBK\-Modes{{Cite book\|last1\=Carbonera\|first1\=Joel Luis\|last2\=Abel\|first2\=Mara\|title\=2014 IEEE 26th International Conference on Tools with Artificial Intelligence \|chapter\=An Entropy\-Based Subspace Clustering Algorithm for Categorical Data \|date\=November 2014\|pages\=272–277 \|publisher\=IEEE\|doi\=10\.1109/ictai.2014\.48\|isbn\=9781479965724\|s2cid\=7208538 }} and CBK\-Modes.{{Cite book\|last1\=Carbonera\|first1\=Joel Luis\|last2\=Abel\|first2\=Mara\|title\=Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems \|chapter\=CBK\-Modes: A Correlation\-based Algorithm for Categorical Data Clustering \|date\=2015\|pages\=603–608 \|publisher\=SCITEPRESS \- Science and Technology Publications\|doi\=10\.5220/0005367106030608\|isbn\=9789897580963}}
### Projected clustering
Projected clustering seeks to assign each point to a unique cluster, but clusters may exist in different subspaces. The general approach is to use a special [distance function](/wiki/Distance_function "Distance function") together with a regular [clustering algorithm](/wiki/Cluster_analysis "Cluster analysis").
For example, the PreDeCon algorithm checks which attributes seem to support a clustering for each point, and adjusts the distance function such that dimensions with low [variance](/wiki/Variance "Variance") are amplified in the distance function.{{Cite conference \| doi \= 10\.1109/ICDM.2004\.10087\| title \= Density Connected Clustering with Local Subspace Preferences\| conference \= Fourth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM'04\)\| pages \= 27\| year \= 2004\| last1 \= Böhm \| first1 \= C.\| last2 \= Kailing \| first2 \= K.\| last3 \= Kriegel \| first3 \= H. \-P. \| author\-link3 \= Hans\-Peter Kriegel\| last4 \= Kröger \| first4 \= P.\| isbn \= 0\-7695\-2142\-8\| url \= http://www.dbs.informatik.uni\-muenchen.de/Publikationen/Papers/icdm04\-predecon.pdf}} In the figure above, the cluster c\_c might be found using [DBSCAN](/wiki/DBSCAN "DBSCAN") with a distance function that places less emphasis on the x\-axis and thus exaggerates the low difference in the y\-axis sufficiently enough to group the points into a cluster.
[PROCLUS](/wiki/PROCLUS "PROCLUS") uses a similar approach with a [k\-medoid](/wiki/K-medoid "K-medoid") clustering.{{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1145/304181\.304188\| title \= Fast algorithms for projected clustering\| journal \= ACM SIGMOD Record\| volume \= 28\| issue \= 2\| pages \= 61\| year \= 1999\| last1 \= Aggarwal \| first1 \= C. C. \| last2 \= Wolf \| first2 \= J. L. \| last3 \= Yu \| first3 \= P. S. \| last4 \= Procopiuc \| first4 \= C. \| last5 \= Park \| first5 \= J. S. \| citeseerx \= 10\.1\.1\.681\.7363}} Initial medoids are guessed, and for each medoid the subspace spanned by attributes with low variance is determined. Points are assigned to the medoid closest, considering only the subspace of that medoid in determining the distance. The algorithm then proceeds as the regular [PAM](/wiki/Partitioning_Around_Medoids "Partitioning Around Medoids") algorithm.
If the distance function weights attributes differently, but never with 0 (and hence never drops irrelevant attributes), the algorithm is called a *"soft"\-projected clustering algorithm*.
### Projection\-based clustering
Projection\-based clustering is based on a nonlinear projection of high\-dimensional data into a two\-dimensional space.Thrun, M. C., \& Ultsch, A. : Using Projection based Clustering to Find Distance and Density based Clusters in High\-Dimensional Data, J. Classif., pp. 1\-33, [doi: 10\.1007/s00357\-020\-09373\-2](/wiki/doi:10.1007/s00357-020-09373-2 "10.1007/s00357-020-09373-2"). Typical projection\-methods like [t\-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding](/wiki/T-distributed_stochastic_neighbor_embedding "T-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding") (t\-SNE),Van der Maaten, L., \& Hinton, G.: Visualizing Data using t\-SNE, *Journal of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 9*(11\), pp. 2579\-2605\. 2008\. or neighbor retrieval visualizer (NerV) Venna, J., Peltonen, J., Nybo, K., Aidos, H., \& Kaski, S.: Information retrieval perspective to nonlinear dimensionality reduction for data visualization, *The Journal of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 11*, pp. 451\-490\. 2010\. are used to project data explicitly into two dimensions disregarding the subspaces of higher dimension than two and preserving only relevant neighborhoods in high\-dimensional data. In the next step, the [Delaunay graph](/wiki/Delaunay_triangulation "Delaunay triangulation")Delaunay, B.: Sur la sphere vide, *Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Otdelenie Matematicheskii i Estestvennyka Nauk, Vol. 7*(793\-800\), pp. 1\-2\. 1934\. between the projected points is calculated, and each vertex between two projected points is weighted with the high\-dimensional distance between the corresponding high\-dimensional data points. Thereafter the shortest path between every pair of points is computed using the [Dijkstra algorithm](/wiki/Dijkstra%27s_algorithm "Dijkstra's algorithm").Dijkstra, E. W.: A note on two problems in connexion with graphs, *Numerische mathematik, Vol. 1*(1\), pp. 269\-271\. 1959\. The shortest paths are then used in the clustering process, which involves two choices depending on the structure type in the high\-dimensional data. This Boolean choice can be decided by looking at the topographic map of high\-dimensional structures.Thrun, M. C., \& Ultsch, A.: Uncovering High\-Dimensional Structures of Projections from Dimensionality Reduction Methods, MethodsX, Vol. 7, pp. 101093, [doi: 10\.1016/j.mex.20200\.101093,2020](/wiki/doi:10.1016/j.mex.2020.101093 "10.1016/j.mex.2020.101093"). In a benchmarking of 34 comparable clustering methods, projection\-based clustering was the only algorithm that always was able to find the high\-dimensional distance or density\-based structure of the dataset. Projection\-based clustering is accessible in the open\-source R package "ProjectionBasedClustering" on CRAN.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|title\=CRAN \- Package ProjectionBasedClustering\|url\=https://cran.r\-project.org/web/packages/ProjectionBasedClustering/index.html\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317152038/http://cran.r\-project.org:80/web/packages/ProjectionBasedClustering/index.html \|archive\-date\=2018\-03\-17 \|access\-date\=\|website\=}}
### Bootstrap\-based clustering
Bootstrap aggregation (bagging) can be used to create multiple clusters and aggregate the findings. This is done by taking random subsamples of the data, performing a cluster analysis on each of them and then aggregating the results of the clusterings to generate a dissimilarity measure which can then be used to explore and cluster the original data.Dudoit, S. and Fridlyand, J. (2003\). Bagging to improve the accuracy of a clustering procedure. Bioinformatics, 19/9, 1090–1099\. doi:10\.1093/bioinformatics/btg038\.Strehl, A. \& Ghosh, J. (2002\). Cluster ensembles \- a knowledge reuse framework for combining multiple partitions. Journal of Machine Learning Research. 3\. 583\-617\. 10\.1162/153244303321897735\.
Since high\-dimensional data are likely to have many non\-informative features, weights can be used during the bagging process to increase the impact of the more informative aspects. This produces "ABC dissimilarities" which can then be used to explore and cluster the original data and also to assess which features appear to be more impactful in defining the clusters.
Amaratunga, D., Cabrera, J. \& Kovtun, V.. (2008\). Microarray learning with ABC. Biostatistics. 9\. 128\-36\. 10\.1093/biostatistics/kxm017\.
Amaratunga, D. \& Cabrera, J. \& Lee, Y.S. (2014\). Resampling\-based similarity measures for high\-dimensional data. Journal of Computational Biology. 22\. 10\.1089/cmb.2014\.0195\.
Cherkas, Y., Amaratunga, D., Raghavan, N., Sasaki, J. and McMillian, M. (2016\). ABC gene\-ranking for prediction of drug\-induced cholestasis in rats, Toxicology Reports, 3: 252–261\.
### Hybrid approaches
Not all algorithms try to either find a unique cluster assignment for each point or all clusters in all subspaces; many settle for a result in between, where a number of possibly overlapping, but not necessarily exhaustive set of clusters are found. An example is FIRES, which is from its basic approach a subspace clustering algorithm, but uses a [heuristic](/wiki/Heuristic "Heuristic") too aggressive to credibly produce all subspace clusters.{{Cite conference \| doi \= 10\.1109/ICDM.2005\.5\| title \= A Generic Framework for Efficient Subspace Clustering of High\-Dimensional Data\| conference \= Fifth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM'05\)\| pages \= 250\| year \= 2005\| last1 \= Kriegel \| first1 \= H. \| author\-link \= Hans\-Peter Kriegel\| last2 \= Kröger \| first2 \= P.\| last3 \= Renz \| first3 \= M.\| last4 \= Wurst \| first4 \= S.\| isbn \= 0\-7695\-2278\-5\| url \= http://www.dbs.informatik.uni\-muenchen.de/\~kroegerp/papers/ICDM05\-FIRES.pdf}} Another hybrid approach is to include a human\-into\-the\-algorithmic\-loop: Human domain expertise can help to reduce an exponential search space through heuristic selection of samples. This can be beneficial in the health domain where, e.g., medical doctors are confronted with high\-dimensional descriptions of patient conditions and measurements on the success of certain therapies. An important question in such data is to compare and correlate patient conditions and therapy results along with combinations of dimensions. The number of dimensions is often very large, consequently one needs to map them to a smaller number of relevant dimensions to be more amenable for expert analysis. This is because irrelevant, redundant, and conflicting dimensions can negatively affect effectiveness and efficiency of the whole analytic process.{{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1007/s40708\-016\-0043\-5\| pmid \= 27747817\| pmc \= 5106406\| title \= Visual analytics for concept exploration in subspaces of patient groups: Making sense of complex datasets with the Doctor\-in\-the\-loop\| journal \= Brain Informatics\| volume \= 3\| issue \= 4\| pages \= 233–247\| year \= 2016\| last1 \= Hund \| first1 \= M. \| last2 \= Böhm \| first2 \= D.\| last3 \= Sturm \| first3 \= W.\| last4 \= Sedlmair \| first4 \= M.\| last5 \= Schreck \| first5 \= T.\| last6 \= Keim \| first6 \= D.A.\| last7 \= Majnaric \| first7 \= L.\| last8 \= Holzinger \| first8 \= A.}}
### Correlation clustering
Another type of subspaces is considered in [Correlation clustering (Data Mining)](/wiki/Correlation_clustering "Correlation clustering").
|
[
"Approaches\n----------",
"Approaches towards clustering in axis\\-parallel or arbitrarily oriented [affine subspaces](/wiki/Affine_subspace \"Affine subspace\") differ in how they interpret the overall goal, which is finding clusters in data with high dimensionality. An overall different approach is to find clusters based on [pattern](/wiki/Pattern \"Pattern\") in the data matrix, often referred to as [biclustering](/wiki/Biclustering \"Biclustering\"), which is a technique frequently utilized in [bioinformatics](/wiki/Bioinformatics \"Bioinformatics\").",
"### Subspace clustering",
"[frame\\|right\\|Example 2D space with subspace clusters](/wiki/Image:SubspaceClustering.png \"SubspaceClustering.png\")",
"Subspace clustering aims to look for clusters in different combinations of dimensions (i.e., subspaces) and unlike many other clustering approaches does not assume that all of the clusters in a dataset are found in the same set of dimensions.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Parsons \\|first\\=Lance \\|last2\\=Haque \\|first2\\=Ehtesham \\|last3\\=Liu \\|first3\\=Huan \\|date\\=2004\\-06\\-01 \\|title\\=Subspace clustering for high dimensional data: a review \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1145/1007730\\.1007731 \\|journal\\=ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=90–105 \\|doi\\=10\\.1145/1007730\\.1007731 \\|issn\\=1931\\-0145}} Subspace clustering can take bottom\\-up or top\\-down approaches. Bottom\\-up methods (such as CLIQUE) heuristically identify relevant dimensions by dividing the data space into a grid structure, selecting dense units, and then iteratively linking them if they are adjacent and dense.",
"The adjacent image shows a mere two\\-dimensional space where a number of clusters can be identified. In the one\\-dimensional subspaces, the clusters c\\_a (in subspace \\\\{x\\\\}) and c\\_b, c\\_c, c\\_d (in subspace \\\\{y\\\\}) can be found. c\\_c cannot be considered a cluster in a two\\-dimensional (sub\\-)space, since it is too sparsely distributed in the x axis. In two dimensions, the two clusters c\\_{ab} and c\\_{ad} can be identified.",
"The problem of subspace clustering is given by the fact that there are 2^d different subspaces of a space with d dimensions. If the subspaces are not axis\\-parallel, an infinite number of subspaces is possible. Hence, subspace clustering algorithms utilize some kind of [heuristic](/wiki/Heuristic \"Heuristic\") to remain computationally feasible, at the risk of producing inferior results. For example, the *downward\\-closure property* (cf. [association rules](/wiki/Association_rule_learning \"Association rule learning\")) can be used to build higher\\-dimensional subspaces only by combining lower\\-dimensional ones, as any subspace T containing a cluster, will result in a full space S also to contain that cluster (i.e. S ⊆ T), an approach taken by most of the traditional algorithms such as CLIQUE,{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Agrawal \\| first1 \\= R. \\| last2 \\= Gehrke \\| first2 \\= J. \\| last3 \\= Gunopulos \\| first3 \\= D. \\| last4 \\= Raghavan \\| first4 \\= P. \\| title \\= Automatic Subspace Clustering of High Dimensional Data \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s10618\\-005\\-1396\\-1 \\| journal \\= Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery \\| volume \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 5–33 \\| year \\= 2005 \\| citeseerx \\= 10\\.1\\.1\\.131\\.5152 \\| s2cid \\= 9289572 }} [SUBCLU](/wiki/SUBCLU \"SUBCLU\").{{Cite conference\\| doi \\= 10\\.1137/1\\.9781611972740\\.23\\| title \\= Density\\-Connected Subspace Clustering for High\\-Dimensional Data\\| conference \\= Proceedings of the 2004 SIAM International Conference on Data Mining\\| pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/proceedingsoffou0000siam/page/246 246]\\| year \\= 2004\\| last1 \\= Kailing\\| first1 \\= K.\\| last2 \\= Kriegel\\| first2 \\= H. P.\\| author\\-link2 \\= Hans\\-Peter Kriegel\\| last3 \\= Kröger\\| first3 \\= P.\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-89871\\-568\\-2\\| url\\-access \\= registration\\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/proceedingsoffou0000siam/page/246\\| doi\\-access \\= free}} It is also possible to define a subspace using different degrees of relevance for each dimension, an approach taken by {{Proper name\\|iMWK\\-Means}},{{Cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.patcog.2011\\.08\\.012\\| title \\= Minkowski metric, feature weighting and anomalous cluster initializing in K\\-Means clustering\\| journal \\= Pattern Recognition\\| volume \\= 45\\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 1061\\| year \\= 2012\\| last1 \\= De Amorim \\| first1 \\= R.C. \\| last2 \\= Mirkin \\| first2 \\= B. \\| bibcode \\= 2012PatRe..45\\.1061C}} EBK\\-Modes{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Carbonera\\|first1\\=Joel Luis\\|last2\\=Abel\\|first2\\=Mara\\|title\\=2014 IEEE 26th International Conference on Tools with Artificial Intelligence \\|chapter\\=An Entropy\\-Based Subspace Clustering Algorithm for Categorical Data \\|date\\=November 2014\\|pages\\=272–277 \\|publisher\\=IEEE\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/ictai.2014\\.48\\|isbn\\=9781479965724\\|s2cid\\=7208538 }} and CBK\\-Modes.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Carbonera\\|first1\\=Joel Luis\\|last2\\=Abel\\|first2\\=Mara\\|title\\=Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems \\|chapter\\=CBK\\-Modes: A Correlation\\-based Algorithm for Categorical Data Clustering \\|date\\=2015\\|pages\\=603–608 \\|publisher\\=SCITEPRESS \\- Science and Technology Publications\\|doi\\=10\\.5220/0005367106030608\\|isbn\\=9789897580963}}",
"### Projected clustering",
"Projected clustering seeks to assign each point to a unique cluster, but clusters may exist in different subspaces. The general approach is to use a special [distance function](/wiki/Distance_function \"Distance function\") together with a regular [clustering algorithm](/wiki/Cluster_analysis \"Cluster analysis\").",
"For example, the PreDeCon algorithm checks which attributes seem to support a clustering for each point, and adjusts the distance function such that dimensions with low [variance](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\") are amplified in the distance function.{{Cite conference \\| doi \\= 10\\.1109/ICDM.2004\\.10087\\| title \\= Density Connected Clustering with Local Subspace Preferences\\| conference \\= Fourth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM'04\\)\\| pages \\= 27\\| year \\= 2004\\| last1 \\= Böhm \\| first1 \\= C.\\| last2 \\= Kailing \\| first2 \\= K.\\| last3 \\= Kriegel \\| first3 \\= H. \\-P. \\| author\\-link3 \\= Hans\\-Peter Kriegel\\| last4 \\= Kröger \\| first4 \\= P.\\| isbn \\= 0\\-7695\\-2142\\-8\\| url \\= http://www.dbs.informatik.uni\\-muenchen.de/Publikationen/Papers/icdm04\\-predecon.pdf}} In the figure above, the cluster c\\_c might be found using [DBSCAN](/wiki/DBSCAN \"DBSCAN\") with a distance function that places less emphasis on the x\\-axis and thus exaggerates the low difference in the y\\-axis sufficiently enough to group the points into a cluster.",
"[PROCLUS](/wiki/PROCLUS \"PROCLUS\") uses a similar approach with a [k\\-medoid](/wiki/K-medoid \"K-medoid\") clustering.{{Cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1145/304181\\.304188\\| title \\= Fast algorithms for projected clustering\\| journal \\= ACM SIGMOD Record\\| volume \\= 28\\| issue \\= 2\\| pages \\= 61\\| year \\= 1999\\| last1 \\= Aggarwal \\| first1 \\= C. C. \\| last2 \\= Wolf \\| first2 \\= J. L. \\| last3 \\= Yu \\| first3 \\= P. S. \\| last4 \\= Procopiuc \\| first4 \\= C. \\| last5 \\= Park \\| first5 \\= J. S. \\| citeseerx \\= 10\\.1\\.1\\.681\\.7363}} Initial medoids are guessed, and for each medoid the subspace spanned by attributes with low variance is determined. Points are assigned to the medoid closest, considering only the subspace of that medoid in determining the distance. The algorithm then proceeds as the regular [PAM](/wiki/Partitioning_Around_Medoids \"Partitioning Around Medoids\") algorithm.",
"If the distance function weights attributes differently, but never with 0 (and hence never drops irrelevant attributes), the algorithm is called a *\"soft\"\\-projected clustering algorithm*.",
"### Projection\\-based clustering",
"Projection\\-based clustering is based on a nonlinear projection of high\\-dimensional data into a two\\-dimensional space.Thrun, M. C., \\& Ultsch, A. : Using Projection based Clustering to Find Distance and Density based Clusters in High\\-Dimensional Data, J. Classif., pp. 1\\-33, [doi: 10\\.1007/s00357\\-020\\-09373\\-2](/wiki/doi:10.1007/s00357-020-09373-2 \"10.1007/s00357-020-09373-2\"). Typical projection\\-methods like [t\\-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding](/wiki/T-distributed_stochastic_neighbor_embedding \"T-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding\") (t\\-SNE),Van der Maaten, L., \\& Hinton, G.: Visualizing Data using t\\-SNE, *Journal of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 9*(11\\), pp. 2579\\-2605\\. 2008\\. or neighbor retrieval visualizer (NerV) Venna, J., Peltonen, J., Nybo, K., Aidos, H., \\& Kaski, S.: Information retrieval perspective to nonlinear dimensionality reduction for data visualization, *The Journal of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 11*, pp. 451\\-490\\. 2010\\. are used to project data explicitly into two dimensions disregarding the subspaces of higher dimension than two and preserving only relevant neighborhoods in high\\-dimensional data. In the next step, the [Delaunay graph](/wiki/Delaunay_triangulation \"Delaunay triangulation\")Delaunay, B.: Sur la sphere vide, *Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Otdelenie Matematicheskii i Estestvennyka Nauk, Vol. 7*(793\\-800\\), pp. 1\\-2\\. 1934\\. between the projected points is calculated, and each vertex between two projected points is weighted with the high\\-dimensional distance between the corresponding high\\-dimensional data points. Thereafter the shortest path between every pair of points is computed using the [Dijkstra algorithm](/wiki/Dijkstra%27s_algorithm \"Dijkstra's algorithm\").Dijkstra, E. W.: A note on two problems in connexion with graphs, *Numerische mathematik, Vol. 1*(1\\), pp. 269\\-271\\. 1959\\. The shortest paths are then used in the clustering process, which involves two choices depending on the structure type in the high\\-dimensional data. This Boolean choice can be decided by looking at the topographic map of high\\-dimensional structures.Thrun, M. C., \\& Ultsch, A.: Uncovering High\\-Dimensional Structures of Projections from Dimensionality Reduction Methods, MethodsX, Vol. 7, pp. 101093, [doi: 10\\.1016/j.mex.20200\\.101093,2020](/wiki/doi:10.1016/j.mex.2020.101093 \"10.1016/j.mex.2020.101093\"). In a benchmarking of 34 comparable clustering methods, projection\\-based clustering was the only algorithm that always was able to find the high\\-dimensional distance or density\\-based structure of the dataset. Projection\\-based clustering is accessible in the open\\-source R package \"ProjectionBasedClustering\" on CRAN.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|title\\=CRAN \\- Package ProjectionBasedClustering\\|url\\=https://cran.r\\-project.org/web/packages/ProjectionBasedClustering/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317152038/http://cran.r\\-project.org:80/web/packages/ProjectionBasedClustering/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-17 \\|access\\-date\\=\\|website\\=}}",
"### Bootstrap\\-based clustering",
"Bootstrap aggregation (bagging) can be used to create multiple clusters and aggregate the findings. This is done by taking random subsamples of the data, performing a cluster analysis on each of them and then aggregating the results of the clusterings to generate a dissimilarity measure which can then be used to explore and cluster the original data.Dudoit, S. and Fridlyand, J. (2003\\). Bagging to improve the accuracy of a clustering procedure. Bioinformatics, 19/9, 1090–1099\\. doi:10\\.1093/bioinformatics/btg038\\.Strehl, A. \\& Ghosh, J. (2002\\). Cluster ensembles \\- a knowledge reuse framework for combining multiple partitions. Journal of Machine Learning Research. 3\\. 583\\-617\\. 10\\.1162/153244303321897735\\.\nSince high\\-dimensional data are likely to have many non\\-informative features, weights can be used during the bagging process to increase the impact of the more informative aspects. This produces \"ABC dissimilarities\" which can then be used to explore and cluster the original data and also to assess which features appear to be more impactful in defining the clusters.\nAmaratunga, D., Cabrera, J. \\& Kovtun, V.. (2008\\). Microarray learning with ABC. Biostatistics. 9\\. 128\\-36\\. 10\\.1093/biostatistics/kxm017\\. \nAmaratunga, D. \\& Cabrera, J. \\& Lee, Y.S. (2014\\). Resampling\\-based similarity measures for high\\-dimensional data. Journal of Computational Biology. 22\\. 10\\.1089/cmb.2014\\.0195\\. \nCherkas, Y., Amaratunga, D., Raghavan, N., Sasaki, J. and McMillian, M. (2016\\). ABC gene\\-ranking for prediction of drug\\-induced cholestasis in rats, Toxicology Reports, 3: 252–261\\.",
"### Hybrid approaches",
"Not all algorithms try to either find a unique cluster assignment for each point or all clusters in all subspaces; many settle for a result in between, where a number of possibly overlapping, but not necessarily exhaustive set of clusters are found. An example is FIRES, which is from its basic approach a subspace clustering algorithm, but uses a [heuristic](/wiki/Heuristic \"Heuristic\") too aggressive to credibly produce all subspace clusters.{{Cite conference \\| doi \\= 10\\.1109/ICDM.2005\\.5\\| title \\= A Generic Framework for Efficient Subspace Clustering of High\\-Dimensional Data\\| conference \\= Fifth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM'05\\)\\| pages \\= 250\\| year \\= 2005\\| last1 \\= Kriegel \\| first1 \\= H. \\| author\\-link \\= Hans\\-Peter Kriegel\\| last2 \\= Kröger \\| first2 \\= P.\\| last3 \\= Renz \\| first3 \\= M.\\| last4 \\= Wurst \\| first4 \\= S.\\| isbn \\= 0\\-7695\\-2278\\-5\\| url \\= http://www.dbs.informatik.uni\\-muenchen.de/\\~kroegerp/papers/ICDM05\\-FIRES.pdf}} Another hybrid approach is to include a human\\-into\\-the\\-algorithmic\\-loop: Human domain expertise can help to reduce an exponential search space through heuristic selection of samples. This can be beneficial in the health domain where, e.g., medical doctors are confronted with high\\-dimensional descriptions of patient conditions and measurements on the success of certain therapies. An important question in such data is to compare and correlate patient conditions and therapy results along with combinations of dimensions. The number of dimensions is often very large, consequently one needs to map them to a smaller number of relevant dimensions to be more amenable for expert analysis. This is because irrelevant, redundant, and conflicting dimensions can negatively affect effectiveness and efficiency of the whole analytic process.{{Cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s40708\\-016\\-0043\\-5\\| pmid \\= 27747817\\| pmc \\= 5106406\\| title \\= Visual analytics for concept exploration in subspaces of patient groups: Making sense of complex datasets with the Doctor\\-in\\-the\\-loop\\| journal \\= Brain Informatics\\| volume \\= 3\\| issue \\= 4\\| pages \\= 233–247\\| year \\= 2016\\| last1 \\= Hund \\| first1 \\= M. \\| last2 \\= Böhm \\| first2 \\= D.\\| last3 \\= Sturm \\| first3 \\= W.\\| last4 \\= Sedlmair \\| first4 \\= M.\\| last5 \\= Schreck \\| first5 \\= T.\\| last6 \\= Keim \\| first6 \\= D.A.\\| last7 \\= Majnaric \\| first7 \\= L.\\| last8 \\= Holzinger \\| first8 \\= A.}}",
"### Correlation clustering",
"Another type of subspaces is considered in [Correlation clustering (Data Mining)](/wiki/Correlation_clustering \"Correlation clustering\").",
""
] |
History
-------
The creation of the Philippine Institute of Nutrition as a first attempt to institutionalize a national nutrition program.
In 1958, PIn reorganized into the Food and Nutrition Research Center (FNRC) under the Science and Development Board.
In 1960, the National Coordinating Council on Food and Nutrition (NCCFN), a loose organization of government and nongovernment agencies and organizations involved in nutrition and related projects, was organized.
In 1971, Executive Order No. 285 was promulgated, mandating the National Food and Agriculture Council (NFAC) to coordinate nutrition programs in addition to coordinating national food programs, thus, superseding the NCCFN.
In 1974, Presidential Decree No. 491 (Nutrition Act of the Philippines, June 24, 1974\), which created the National Nutrition Council (NNC) as the highest policy\-making and coordinating body on nutrition, was promulgated.
By 1985, in the [Negros famine](/wiki/Negros_famine "Negros famine"), a survey by the National Nutrition Council estimated that about 350,000 children – 40 percent of Negros Occidental residents under the age of 14 – were suffering from [malnutrition](/wiki/Malnutrition "Malnutrition").{{Cite web \|last\=Caña \|first\=Paul John \|date\=April 2021 \|title\=Sugar Wars: Looking Back at the Negros Famine of the 1980s. \|url\=https://www.esquiremag.ph/long\-reads/features/negros\-famine\-of\-the\-1980s\-a00289\-20210415\-lfrm2 \|website\=Esquire, 15 April 2021\.}}
1985 [infant death](/wiki/Infant_death "Infant death") statistics at [Bacolod](/wiki/Bacolod "Bacolod") Hospital rose 67 percent, and Negros' infant mortality rose to nearly double the national average, with most of the deaths attributed to malnutrition.{{Cite book \|last\=Agencies (1981\-1987\) \|first\=United States Congress House Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Foreign Operations and Related \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_Ibh\_3uJXqUC\&dq\=how\+many\+people\+died\+during\+the\+famine\+in\+Negros\&pg\=PA78 \|title\=Foreign assistance and related programs appropriations for 1988: hearings before a subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, One hundredth Congress, first session \|date\=1987 \|publisher\=U.S. Government Printing Office \|language\=en}}
In 1987, Executive Order No. 234 (Reorganization Act of NNC, July 22, 1987\) was promulgated, reaffirming the need for an intersectoral national policy\-making and coordinating body on nutrition. It expanded the membership of the NNC to include the Departments of [Budget and Management](/wiki/Department_of_Budget_and_Management "Department of Budget and Management") (DBM), [Labor and Employment](/wiki/Department_of_Labor_and_Employment_%28Philippines%29 "Department of Labor and Employment (Philippines)") (DOLE), [Trade and Industry](/wiki/Department_of_Trade_and_Industry_%28Philippines%29 "Department of Trade and Industry (Philippines)") (DTI), and [National Economic and Development Authority](/wiki/National_Economic_and_Development_Authority "National Economic and Development Authority") (NEDA). The [Department of Social Welfare and Development](/wiki/Department_of_Social_Welfare_and_Development "Department of Social Welfare and Development") was named chair of the NNC Governing Board.
In 1988, Administrative Order No. 88 named the [Department of Agriculture](/wiki/Department_of_Agriculture_%28Philippines%29 "Department of Agriculture (Philippines)") as the NNC Chair of the NNC Governing Board.
In 1995, [Republic Act](/wiki/Republic_Acts_of_the_Philippines "Republic Acts of the Philippines") No. 8172, An Act Promoting Salt Iodization Nationwide, designated the NNC together with the [Department of Environment and Natural Resources](/wiki/Department_of_Environment_and_Natural_Resources "Department of Environment and Natural Resources"), and a representative each from the medical profession and the salt industry, as the Salt Iodization Advisory Board (SIAB). The SIAB is the policy\-making body and coordinating body for the salt iodization program.
In 2000, [Republic Act](/wiki/Republic_Acts_of_the_Philippines "Republic Acts of the Philippines") No. 8976, Food Fortification Act of 2000, designated the NNC as advisory body on food fortification. As such, the NNC shall set policies on food fortification, i.e. what foods to be fortified with what micronutrient.
In 2003, NEDA\-Social Development Committee through Resolution No. 1 Series 2003, Expanding the Function and Composition of the Multisectoral Committee on International Human Development Commitments, designated the NNC as lead agency for fighting hunger and [malnutrition](/wiki/Malnutrition "Malnutrition").
In 2005, Executive Order No. 472 named the [Department of Health](/wiki/Department_of_Health_%28Philippines%29 "Department of Health (Philippines)") as the chair of the NNC, with the [DA](/wiki/Department_of_Agriculture_%28Philippines%29 "Department of Agriculture (Philippines)") and [DILG](/wiki/Department_of_the_Interior_and_Local_Government "Department of the Interior and Local Government") as vice\-chairs. It also called the NNC to re\-orient its operations to be more client\-oriented and to prioritize addressing hunger and malnutrition, and authorized NNC to generate and mobilize resources.
On November 29, 2018, Philippine President [Rodrigo Duterte](/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte "Rodrigo Duterte") signed Republic Act 11148 titled "Kalusugan at Nutrisyon ng Mag\-Nanay Act" which focuses on multi\-sectoral programs and interventions focused on the First 1,000 Days of life as the golden window of opportunity. On May 2, 2019, DOH Secretary [Francisco T. Duque III](/wiki/Francisco_Duque_III "Francisco Duque III") signed the Implementing Rules and Regulations of RA 11148 which was crafted through a series of national and sub\-national consultations involving LGU officials, government agencies, key public and private groups, local and international NGO partners, stakeholders, and champions. The IRR states that the Nurturing Care Framework developed by WHO, UNICEF and The World Bank Group will be applied in the implementation of the law.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The creation of the Philippine Institute of Nutrition as a first attempt to institutionalize a national nutrition program.",
"In 1958, PIn reorganized into the Food and Nutrition Research Center (FNRC) under the Science and Development Board.",
"In 1960, the National Coordinating Council on Food and Nutrition (NCCFN), a loose organization of government and nongovernment agencies and organizations involved in nutrition and related projects, was organized.",
"In 1971, Executive Order No. 285 was promulgated, mandating the National Food and Agriculture Council (NFAC) to coordinate nutrition programs in addition to coordinating national food programs, thus, superseding the NCCFN.",
"In 1974, Presidential Decree No. 491 (Nutrition Act of the Philippines, June 24, 1974\\), which created the National Nutrition Council (NNC) as the highest policy\\-making and coordinating body on nutrition, was promulgated.",
"By 1985, in the [Negros famine](/wiki/Negros_famine \"Negros famine\"), a survey by the National Nutrition Council estimated that about 350,000 children – 40 percent of Negros Occidental residents under the age of 14 – were suffering from [malnutrition](/wiki/Malnutrition \"Malnutrition\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Caña \\|first\\=Paul John \\|date\\=April 2021 \\|title\\=Sugar Wars: Looking Back at the Negros Famine of the 1980s. \\|url\\=https://www.esquiremag.ph/long\\-reads/features/negros\\-famine\\-of\\-the\\-1980s\\-a00289\\-20210415\\-lfrm2 \\|website\\=Esquire, 15 April 2021\\.}}",
"1985 [infant death](/wiki/Infant_death \"Infant death\") statistics at [Bacolod](/wiki/Bacolod \"Bacolod\") Hospital rose 67 percent, and Negros' infant mortality rose to nearly double the national average, with most of the deaths attributed to malnutrition.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Agencies (1981\\-1987\\) \\|first\\=United States Congress House Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Foreign Operations and Related \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_Ibh\\_3uJXqUC\\&dq\\=how\\+many\\+people\\+died\\+during\\+the\\+famine\\+in\\+Negros\\&pg\\=PA78 \\|title\\=Foreign assistance and related programs appropriations for 1988: hearings before a subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, One hundredth Congress, first session \\|date\\=1987 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Government Printing Office \\|language\\=en}}",
"In 1987, Executive Order No. 234 (Reorganization Act of NNC, July 22, 1987\\) was promulgated, reaffirming the need for an intersectoral national policy\\-making and coordinating body on nutrition. It expanded the membership of the NNC to include the Departments of [Budget and Management](/wiki/Department_of_Budget_and_Management \"Department of Budget and Management\") (DBM), [Labor and Employment](/wiki/Department_of_Labor_and_Employment_%28Philippines%29 \"Department of Labor and Employment (Philippines)\") (DOLE), [Trade and Industry](/wiki/Department_of_Trade_and_Industry_%28Philippines%29 \"Department of Trade and Industry (Philippines)\") (DTI), and [National Economic and Development Authority](/wiki/National_Economic_and_Development_Authority \"National Economic and Development Authority\") (NEDA). The [Department of Social Welfare and Development](/wiki/Department_of_Social_Welfare_and_Development \"Department of Social Welfare and Development\") was named chair of the NNC Governing Board.",
"In 1988, Administrative Order No. 88 named the [Department of Agriculture](/wiki/Department_of_Agriculture_%28Philippines%29 \"Department of Agriculture (Philippines)\") as the NNC Chair of the NNC Governing Board.",
"In 1995, [Republic Act](/wiki/Republic_Acts_of_the_Philippines \"Republic Acts of the Philippines\") No. 8172, An Act Promoting Salt Iodization Nationwide, designated the NNC together with the [Department of Environment and Natural Resources](/wiki/Department_of_Environment_and_Natural_Resources \"Department of Environment and Natural Resources\"), and a representative each from the medical profession and the salt industry, as the Salt Iodization Advisory Board (SIAB). The SIAB is the policy\\-making body and coordinating body for the salt iodization program.",
"In 2000, [Republic Act](/wiki/Republic_Acts_of_the_Philippines \"Republic Acts of the Philippines\") No. 8976, Food Fortification Act of 2000, designated the NNC as advisory body on food fortification. As such, the NNC shall set policies on food fortification, i.e. what foods to be fortified with what micronutrient.",
"In 2003, NEDA\\-Social Development Committee through Resolution No. 1 Series 2003, Expanding the Function and Composition of the Multisectoral Committee on International Human Development Commitments, designated the NNC as lead agency for fighting hunger and [malnutrition](/wiki/Malnutrition \"Malnutrition\").",
"In 2005, Executive Order No. 472 named the [Department of Health](/wiki/Department_of_Health_%28Philippines%29 \"Department of Health (Philippines)\") as the chair of the NNC, with the [DA](/wiki/Department_of_Agriculture_%28Philippines%29 \"Department of Agriculture (Philippines)\") and [DILG](/wiki/Department_of_the_Interior_and_Local_Government \"Department of the Interior and Local Government\") as vice\\-chairs. It also called the NNC to re\\-orient its operations to be more client\\-oriented and to prioritize addressing hunger and malnutrition, and authorized NNC to generate and mobilize resources.",
"On November 29, 2018, Philippine President [Rodrigo Duterte](/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte \"Rodrigo Duterte\") signed Republic Act 11148 titled \"Kalusugan at Nutrisyon ng Mag\\-Nanay Act\" which focuses on multi\\-sectoral programs and interventions focused on the First 1,000 Days of life as the golden window of opportunity. On May 2, 2019, DOH Secretary [Francisco T. Duque III](/wiki/Francisco_Duque_III \"Francisco Duque III\") signed the Implementing Rules and Regulations of RA 11148 which was crafted through a series of national and sub\\-national consultations involving LGU officials, government agencies, key public and private groups, local and international NGO partners, stakeholders, and champions. The IRR states that the Nurturing Care Framework developed by WHO, UNICEF and The World Bank Group will be applied in the implementation of the law.",
""
] |
Taxonomy
--------
There are many animals in the wild that are considered as mesocarnivores, such as species of [lynx](/wiki/Lynx "Lynx"), [bobcat](/wiki/Bobcat "Bobcat"), [American marten](/wiki/American_marten "American marten"), [fisher](/wiki/Fisher_%28animal%29 "Fisher (animal)"), [river otter](/wiki/North_American_river_otter "North American river otter"), [American mink](/wiki/American_mink "American mink"), [coyote](/wiki/Coyote "Coyote"), [red fox](/wiki/Red_fox "Red fox"), [gray fox](/wiki/Gray_fox "Gray fox"), [raccoon](/wiki/Raccoon "Raccoon"), [striped skunk](/wiki/Striped_skunk "Striped skunk"), [weasels](/wiki/Weasel "Weasel"). Individual species' diets may vary, depending on the season and what food can be sourced. Mesocarnivore mammals have a large role in the ecosystem that impacts ecological community and system in the environment.
### Example species
#### Coyote (*Canis latrans*)
The [coyote](/wiki/Coyote "Coyote") (*Canis latrans*) is a native species to [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"). They can live up to a lifespan of fourteen years, with their size ranging from 81–94 cm (32 to 37 inch) head to body, and weigh 9–23 kg (20–50 pounds).{{Cite web\|title\=Coyote {{!}} National Geographic\|url\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/coyote/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012180947/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/coyote/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=October 12, 2016\|date\=2011\-05\-10\|website\=Animals\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-28}} Coyotes' diet mostly consists of [mammals](/wiki/Mammal "Mammal"), [fruits](/wiki/Fruit "Fruit"), [birds](/wiki/Bird "Bird"), grass and [insects](/wiki/Insect "Insect"). They are also hunters and will eat anything of readily available prey including [rabbits](/wiki/Rabbit "Rabbit"), [fish](/wiki/Fish "Fish"), [lamb](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton "Lamb and mutton"). The coyotes in the wild enjoy intense smells of adventure and prey, as well as having an excellent sense of vision. They are pack animals and hunt prey and food in a pack, especially in the fall and winter.
#### River otter (*Lontra canadensis*)
The [river otter](/wiki/North_American_river_otter "North American river otter") is one of [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America")'s native animals. They have an average lifespan of 8 to 9 years, with a body length ranging from 56–80 cm (22–32 inch) head to body and weigh 5–13 kg (11–30 pounds).{{Cite web\|title\=North American River Otter {{!}} National Geographic\|url\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/n/north\-american\-river\-otter/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222051553/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/n/north\-american\-river\-otter/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=February 22, 2017\|date\=2010\-11\-11\|website\=Animals\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-28}} The river otter's habitat is in water and on land. They create a [burrow](/wiki/Burrow "Burrow") near the water as their [den](/wiki/Maternity_den "Maternity den") and easily adapt to other [aquatic habitats](/wiki/Marine_biology "Marine biology"). They hunt during the night, and find food that is readily available to them. River otters have great swimming abilities and stay active during winter.
#### Raccoon (*Procyon lotor*)
There are several [raccoon](/wiki/Raccoon "Raccoon") species which are also known as ringtail, all originated from the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). Their physical characteristics include short limbs, a pointed snout and small upright ears, with a body length of 75–90 cm (30–35 inch) long.{{Cite web\|title\=Raccoon {{!}} mammal\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/raccoon\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-28}} Raccoons weight varies from 10–20 kg (22–44 pounds) and have a furry coat that resembles black, grey and brown shades. These mesocarnivores catch majority of their food in water, including crayfish, frogs and other marine animals, as well as feeding on rodents and other plant material. Some species of the raccoon include the [Barbados raccoon](/wiki/Barbados_raccoon "Barbados raccoon") (*P. gloveralleni*), [Tres Marías raccoon](/wiki/Tres_Marias_raccoon "Tres Marias raccoon") (*P. insularis*), [Bahaman raccoon](/wiki/Bahamian_raccoon "Bahamian raccoon") (*P. maynardi*), [Guadeloupe raccoon](/wiki/Guadeloupe_raccoon "Guadeloupe raccoon") (*P. minor*) and [Cozumel raccoon](/wiki/Cozumel_raccoon "Cozumel raccoon") (*P. pygmaeus*).
#### Mongoose (Herpestidae)
The [mongoose](/wiki/Mongoose "Mongoose") is a species of mesocarnivores which are mainly located in [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), [southern Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") and [southern Europe](/wiki/Southern_Europe "Southern Europe"). They are known for their predatory attacks on [snakes](/wiki/Snake "Snake"). The [meerkat](/wiki/Meerkat "Meerkat") is known as a part of the mongoose family of mesocarnivores. Mongooses are animals with physical features including short legs, pointed snout, minute ears and a long tail. Their fur colour resembles grey to brown shades and have specks of lighter grey. The mongoose ranges in size from the smallest, [dwarf mongoose](/wiki/Common_dwarf_mongoose "Common dwarf mongoose"), 17–24 cm (7–10 inch) in body length and the largest mongoose of 48–74 cm (19–29 inch) in body length.{{Cite web\|title\=mongoose {{!}} Species \& Facts\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/mongoose\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-29}} Dwarf mongoose have a tail approximately 15–20 cm (6–8 inch) long, and larger mongooses have a longer tail up to 40 cm (19 inch) long.
#### Red fox (*Vulpes vulpes*)
The [red fox](/wiki/Red_fox "Red fox") is a species part of the fox family, which is located in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa") and [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"). Its body length is usually approximately 90–105 cm (35–41 inch) long, 30–40 cm (12–16 inch) of its body length being its tail, and is a height of 40 cm (16 inch).{{Cite web\|title\=red fox {{!}} Diet, Behaviour, \& Adaptations\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/red\-fox\-mammal\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-29}} Many adult red foxes weigh 5–7 kg (11–15 pounds) and can reach up to 14 kg (31 pounds). The physical characteristics of the red fox have a soft thin undercoat and long hairs that consists of orange, red, brown shades. The red fox has black ears and legs, with white on the tip of its tail and on its chest. Red foxes live in a range of habitats which include [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland "Grassland"), [forests](/wiki/Forest "Forest"), [mountains](/wiki/Mountain "Mountain") and [deserts](/wiki/Desert "Desert").
#### Striped skunk (*Mephitis mephitis*)
The striped skunk is a mesocarnivore species that are located in the United States. Their physical characteristics in size range from 20–25 cm (8–10 inch) from head to body, with a 12–38 cm (5–15 inch) tail.{{Cite web\|title\=Striped Skunk {{!}} National Geographic\|url\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/s/striped\-skunk/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228111739/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/s/striped\-skunk/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=February 28, 2017\|date\=2010\-11\-11\|website\=Animals\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-29}} Striped skunks weigh between 200g–6 kg (7 ounces–14 pounds) and have an average lifespan of 3 years. They are easily adaptable animals that live in [forests](/wiki/Forest "Forest"), [woodlands](/wiki/Woodland "Woodland") and [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland "Grassland"). These mesocarnivores can be easily recognized by their black fur with a thin white stripe from their nose to their forehead. There are two thick white stripes that run along the sides of their back and continue to their furry, bushy tail with grey shades. Striped skunks are known for their predatory skunk spray, where oily liquid is released by its glands, resulting in a foul odor to their predators.
#### Marten (*Martes* spp.)
The marten is a mesocarnivore species which are found in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"). There are many different species of the marten. Their physical characteristics include a variation in size and colour from yellow to shades of dark brown, short legs, small, round ears and slender bodies, with thick coats.{{Cite web\|title\=Marten {{!}} mammal\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/marten\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-02}} Their body length ranges from 35–65 cm (14–26 inch), with a long tail of 3–7 cm (9–18 inch), depending on the species and weigh 1–2kg (2–4 pounds). Some species of the marten include [American marten](/wiki/American_marten "American marten"), [pine marten](/wiki/European_pine_marten "European pine marten"), [stone marten](/wiki/Beech_marten "Beech marten"), [yellow\-throated marten](/wiki/Yellow-throated_marten "Yellow-throated marten"), and [nilgiri marten](/wiki/Nilgiri_marten "Nilgiri marten").
File:California Death Valley Coyote.jpg\|Coyote (''Canis latrans'')
File:River Otter (Lontra canadensis).jpg\|River otter (''Lontra canadensis'')
File:Waschbär Procyon lotor Racoon.ogv\|Raccoon (''Procyon lotor'')
File:Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo).jpg\|Mongoose (Herpestidae)
File:Red fox image.jpg\|Red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'')
File:Striped Skunk (cropped).jpg\|Striped skunk (''Mephitis mephitis'')
File:Beech marten(js)01\.jpg\|Stone marten (''Martes foina'')
|
[
"Taxonomy\n--------",
"There are many animals in the wild that are considered as mesocarnivores, such as species of [lynx](/wiki/Lynx \"Lynx\"), [bobcat](/wiki/Bobcat \"Bobcat\"), [American marten](/wiki/American_marten \"American marten\"), [fisher](/wiki/Fisher_%28animal%29 \"Fisher (animal)\"), [river otter](/wiki/North_American_river_otter \"North American river otter\"), [American mink](/wiki/American_mink \"American mink\"), [coyote](/wiki/Coyote \"Coyote\"), [red fox](/wiki/Red_fox \"Red fox\"), [gray fox](/wiki/Gray_fox \"Gray fox\"), [raccoon](/wiki/Raccoon \"Raccoon\"), [striped skunk](/wiki/Striped_skunk \"Striped skunk\"), [weasels](/wiki/Weasel \"Weasel\"). Individual species' diets may vary, depending on the season and what food can be sourced. Mesocarnivore mammals have a large role in the ecosystem that impacts ecological community and system in the environment.",
"### Example species",
"#### Coyote (*Canis latrans*)",
"The [coyote](/wiki/Coyote \"Coyote\") (*Canis latrans*) is a native species to [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"). They can live up to a lifespan of fourteen years, with their size ranging from 81–94 cm (32 to 37 inch) head to body, and weigh 9–23 kg (20–50 pounds).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Coyote {{!}} National Geographic\\|url\\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/coyote/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012180947/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/coyote/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=October 12, 2016\\|date\\=2011\\-05\\-10\\|website\\=Animals\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-28}} Coyotes' diet mostly consists of [mammals](/wiki/Mammal \"Mammal\"), [fruits](/wiki/Fruit \"Fruit\"), [birds](/wiki/Bird \"Bird\"), grass and [insects](/wiki/Insect \"Insect\"). They are also hunters and will eat anything of readily available prey including [rabbits](/wiki/Rabbit \"Rabbit\"), [fish](/wiki/Fish \"Fish\"), [lamb](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton \"Lamb and mutton\"). The coyotes in the wild enjoy intense smells of adventure and prey, as well as having an excellent sense of vision. They are pack animals and hunt prey and food in a pack, especially in the fall and winter.",
"#### River otter (*Lontra canadensis*)",
"The [river otter](/wiki/North_American_river_otter \"North American river otter\") is one of [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\")'s native animals. They have an average lifespan of 8 to 9 years, with a body length ranging from 56–80 cm (22–32 inch) head to body and weigh 5–13 kg (11–30 pounds).{{Cite web\\|title\\=North American River Otter {{!}} National Geographic\\|url\\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/n/north\\-american\\-river\\-otter/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222051553/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/n/north\\-american\\-river\\-otter/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=February 22, 2017\\|date\\=2010\\-11\\-11\\|website\\=Animals\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-28}} The river otter's habitat is in water and on land. They create a [burrow](/wiki/Burrow \"Burrow\") near the water as their [den](/wiki/Maternity_den \"Maternity den\") and easily adapt to other [aquatic habitats](/wiki/Marine_biology \"Marine biology\"). They hunt during the night, and find food that is readily available to them. River otters have great swimming abilities and stay active during winter.",
"#### Raccoon (*Procyon lotor*)",
"There are several [raccoon](/wiki/Raccoon \"Raccoon\") species which are also known as ringtail, all originated from the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). Their physical characteristics include short limbs, a pointed snout and small upright ears, with a body length of 75–90 cm (30–35 inch) long.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Raccoon {{!}} mammal\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/raccoon\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-28}} Raccoons weight varies from 10–20 kg (22–44 pounds) and have a furry coat that resembles black, grey and brown shades. These mesocarnivores catch majority of their food in water, including crayfish, frogs and other marine animals, as well as feeding on rodents and other plant material. Some species of the raccoon include the [Barbados raccoon](/wiki/Barbados_raccoon \"Barbados raccoon\") (*P. gloveralleni*), [Tres Marías raccoon](/wiki/Tres_Marias_raccoon \"Tres Marias raccoon\") (*P. insularis*), [Bahaman raccoon](/wiki/Bahamian_raccoon \"Bahamian raccoon\") (*P. maynardi*), [Guadeloupe raccoon](/wiki/Guadeloupe_raccoon \"Guadeloupe raccoon\") (*P. minor*) and [Cozumel raccoon](/wiki/Cozumel_raccoon \"Cozumel raccoon\") (*P. pygmaeus*).",
"#### Mongoose (Herpestidae)",
"The [mongoose](/wiki/Mongoose \"Mongoose\") is a species of mesocarnivores which are mainly located in [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), [southern Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\") and [southern Europe](/wiki/Southern_Europe \"Southern Europe\"). They are known for their predatory attacks on [snakes](/wiki/Snake \"Snake\"). The [meerkat](/wiki/Meerkat \"Meerkat\") is known as a part of the mongoose family of mesocarnivores. Mongooses are animals with physical features including short legs, pointed snout, minute ears and a long tail. Their fur colour resembles grey to brown shades and have specks of lighter grey. The mongoose ranges in size from the smallest, [dwarf mongoose](/wiki/Common_dwarf_mongoose \"Common dwarf mongoose\"), 17–24 cm (7–10 inch) in body length and the largest mongoose of 48–74 cm (19–29 inch) in body length.{{Cite web\\|title\\=mongoose {{!}} Species \\& Facts\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/mongoose\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-29}} Dwarf mongoose have a tail approximately 15–20 cm (6–8 inch) long, and larger mongooses have a longer tail up to 40 cm (19 inch) long.",
"#### Red fox (*Vulpes vulpes*)",
"The [red fox](/wiki/Red_fox \"Red fox\") is a species part of the fox family, which is located in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\") and [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"). Its body length is usually approximately 90–105 cm (35–41 inch) long, 30–40 cm (12–16 inch) of its body length being its tail, and is a height of 40 cm (16 inch).{{Cite web\\|title\\=red fox {{!}} Diet, Behaviour, \\& Adaptations\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/red\\-fox\\-mammal\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-29}} Many adult red foxes weigh 5–7 kg (11–15 pounds) and can reach up to 14 kg (31 pounds). The physical characteristics of the red fox have a soft thin undercoat and long hairs that consists of orange, red, brown shades. The red fox has black ears and legs, with white on the tip of its tail and on its chest. Red foxes live in a range of habitats which include [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland \"Grassland\"), [forests](/wiki/Forest \"Forest\"), [mountains](/wiki/Mountain \"Mountain\") and [deserts](/wiki/Desert \"Desert\").",
"#### Striped skunk (*Mephitis mephitis*)",
"The striped skunk is a mesocarnivore species that are located in the United States. Their physical characteristics in size range from 20–25 cm (8–10 inch) from head to body, with a 12–38 cm (5–15 inch) tail.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Striped Skunk {{!}} National Geographic\\|url\\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/s/striped\\-skunk/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228111739/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/s/striped\\-skunk/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=February 28, 2017\\|date\\=2010\\-11\\-11\\|website\\=Animals\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-29}} Striped skunks weigh between 200g–6 kg (7 ounces–14 pounds) and have an average lifespan of 3 years. They are easily adaptable animals that live in [forests](/wiki/Forest \"Forest\"), [woodlands](/wiki/Woodland \"Woodland\") and [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland \"Grassland\"). These mesocarnivores can be easily recognized by their black fur with a thin white stripe from their nose to their forehead. There are two thick white stripes that run along the sides of their back and continue to their furry, bushy tail with grey shades. Striped skunks are known for their predatory skunk spray, where oily liquid is released by its glands, resulting in a foul odor to their predators.",
"#### Marten (*Martes* spp.)",
"The marten is a mesocarnivore species which are found in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"). There are many different species of the marten. Their physical characteristics include a variation in size and colour from yellow to shades of dark brown, short legs, small, round ears and slender bodies, with thick coats.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Marten {{!}} mammal\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/marten\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-02}} Their body length ranges from 35–65 cm (14–26 inch), with a long tail of 3–7 cm (9–18 inch), depending on the species and weigh 1–2kg (2–4 pounds). Some species of the marten include [American marten](/wiki/American_marten \"American marten\"), [pine marten](/wiki/European_pine_marten \"European pine marten\"), [stone marten](/wiki/Beech_marten \"Beech marten\"), [yellow\\-throated marten](/wiki/Yellow-throated_marten \"Yellow-throated marten\"), and [nilgiri marten](/wiki/Nilgiri_marten \"Nilgiri marten\").",
"",
"File:California Death Valley Coyote.jpg\\|Coyote (''Canis latrans'')\nFile:River Otter (Lontra canadensis).jpg\\|River otter (''Lontra canadensis'')\nFile:Waschbär Procyon lotor Racoon.ogv\\|Raccoon (''Procyon lotor'')\nFile:Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo).jpg\\|Mongoose (Herpestidae)\nFile:Red fox image.jpg\\|Red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'')\nFile:Striped Skunk (cropped).jpg\\|Striped skunk (''Mephitis mephitis'')\nFile:Beech marten(js)01\\.jpg\\|Stone marten (''Martes foina'')",
"",
""
] |
### Example species
#### Coyote (*Canis latrans*)
The [coyote](/wiki/Coyote "Coyote") (*Canis latrans*) is a native species to [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"). They can live up to a lifespan of fourteen years, with their size ranging from 81–94 cm (32 to 37 inch) head to body, and weigh 9–23 kg (20–50 pounds).{{Cite web\|title\=Coyote {{!}} National Geographic\|url\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/coyote/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012180947/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/coyote/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=October 12, 2016\|date\=2011\-05\-10\|website\=Animals\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-28}} Coyotes' diet mostly consists of [mammals](/wiki/Mammal "Mammal"), [fruits](/wiki/Fruit "Fruit"), [birds](/wiki/Bird "Bird"), grass and [insects](/wiki/Insect "Insect"). They are also hunters and will eat anything of readily available prey including [rabbits](/wiki/Rabbit "Rabbit"), [fish](/wiki/Fish "Fish"), [lamb](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton "Lamb and mutton"). The coyotes in the wild enjoy intense smells of adventure and prey, as well as having an excellent sense of vision. They are pack animals and hunt prey and food in a pack, especially in the fall and winter.
#### River otter (*Lontra canadensis*)
The [river otter](/wiki/North_American_river_otter "North American river otter") is one of [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America")'s native animals. They have an average lifespan of 8 to 9 years, with a body length ranging from 56–80 cm (22–32 inch) head to body and weigh 5–13 kg (11–30 pounds).{{Cite web\|title\=North American River Otter {{!}} National Geographic\|url\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/n/north\-american\-river\-otter/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222051553/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/n/north\-american\-river\-otter/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=February 22, 2017\|date\=2010\-11\-11\|website\=Animals\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-28}} The river otter's habitat is in water and on land. They create a [burrow](/wiki/Burrow "Burrow") near the water as their [den](/wiki/Maternity_den "Maternity den") and easily adapt to other [aquatic habitats](/wiki/Marine_biology "Marine biology"). They hunt during the night, and find food that is readily available to them. River otters have great swimming abilities and stay active during winter.
#### Raccoon (*Procyon lotor*)
There are several [raccoon](/wiki/Raccoon "Raccoon") species which are also known as ringtail, all originated from the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). Their physical characteristics include short limbs, a pointed snout and small upright ears, with a body length of 75–90 cm (30–35 inch) long.{{Cite web\|title\=Raccoon {{!}} mammal\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/raccoon\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-28}} Raccoons weight varies from 10–20 kg (22–44 pounds) and have a furry coat that resembles black, grey and brown shades. These mesocarnivores catch majority of their food in water, including crayfish, frogs and other marine animals, as well as feeding on rodents and other plant material. Some species of the raccoon include the [Barbados raccoon](/wiki/Barbados_raccoon "Barbados raccoon") (*P. gloveralleni*), [Tres Marías raccoon](/wiki/Tres_Marias_raccoon "Tres Marias raccoon") (*P. insularis*), [Bahaman raccoon](/wiki/Bahamian_raccoon "Bahamian raccoon") (*P. maynardi*), [Guadeloupe raccoon](/wiki/Guadeloupe_raccoon "Guadeloupe raccoon") (*P. minor*) and [Cozumel raccoon](/wiki/Cozumel_raccoon "Cozumel raccoon") (*P. pygmaeus*).
#### Mongoose (Herpestidae)
The [mongoose](/wiki/Mongoose "Mongoose") is a species of mesocarnivores which are mainly located in [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), [southern Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") and [southern Europe](/wiki/Southern_Europe "Southern Europe"). They are known for their predatory attacks on [snakes](/wiki/Snake "Snake"). The [meerkat](/wiki/Meerkat "Meerkat") is known as a part of the mongoose family of mesocarnivores. Mongooses are animals with physical features including short legs, pointed snout, minute ears and a long tail. Their fur colour resembles grey to brown shades and have specks of lighter grey. The mongoose ranges in size from the smallest, [dwarf mongoose](/wiki/Common_dwarf_mongoose "Common dwarf mongoose"), 17–24 cm (7–10 inch) in body length and the largest mongoose of 48–74 cm (19–29 inch) in body length.{{Cite web\|title\=mongoose {{!}} Species \& Facts\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/mongoose\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-29}} Dwarf mongoose have a tail approximately 15–20 cm (6–8 inch) long, and larger mongooses have a longer tail up to 40 cm (19 inch) long.
#### Red fox (*Vulpes vulpes*)
The [red fox](/wiki/Red_fox "Red fox") is a species part of the fox family, which is located in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa") and [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"). Its body length is usually approximately 90–105 cm (35–41 inch) long, 30–40 cm (12–16 inch) of its body length being its tail, and is a height of 40 cm (16 inch).{{Cite web\|title\=red fox {{!}} Diet, Behaviour, \& Adaptations\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/red\-fox\-mammal\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-29}} Many adult red foxes weigh 5–7 kg (11–15 pounds) and can reach up to 14 kg (31 pounds). The physical characteristics of the red fox have a soft thin undercoat and long hairs that consists of orange, red, brown shades. The red fox has black ears and legs, with white on the tip of its tail and on its chest. Red foxes live in a range of habitats which include [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland "Grassland"), [forests](/wiki/Forest "Forest"), [mountains](/wiki/Mountain "Mountain") and [deserts](/wiki/Desert "Desert").
#### Striped skunk (*Mephitis mephitis*)
The striped skunk is a mesocarnivore species that are located in the United States. Their physical characteristics in size range from 20–25 cm (8–10 inch) from head to body, with a 12–38 cm (5–15 inch) tail.{{Cite web\|title\=Striped Skunk {{!}} National Geographic\|url\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/s/striped\-skunk/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228111739/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/s/striped\-skunk/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=February 28, 2017\|date\=2010\-11\-11\|website\=Animals\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-29}} Striped skunks weigh between 200g–6 kg (7 ounces–14 pounds) and have an average lifespan of 3 years. They are easily adaptable animals that live in [forests](/wiki/Forest "Forest"), [woodlands](/wiki/Woodland "Woodland") and [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland "Grassland"). These mesocarnivores can be easily recognized by their black fur with a thin white stripe from their nose to their forehead. There are two thick white stripes that run along the sides of their back and continue to their furry, bushy tail with grey shades. Striped skunks are known for their predatory skunk spray, where oily liquid is released by its glands, resulting in a foul odor to their predators.
#### Marten (*Martes* spp.)
The marten is a mesocarnivore species which are found in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"). There are many different species of the marten. Their physical characteristics include a variation in size and colour from yellow to shades of dark brown, short legs, small, round ears and slender bodies, with thick coats.{{Cite web\|title\=Marten {{!}} mammal\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/marten\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-02}} Their body length ranges from 35–65 cm (14–26 inch), with a long tail of 3–7 cm (9–18 inch), depending on the species and weigh 1–2kg (2–4 pounds). Some species of the marten include [American marten](/wiki/American_marten "American marten"), [pine marten](/wiki/European_pine_marten "European pine marten"), [stone marten](/wiki/Beech_marten "Beech marten"), [yellow\-throated marten](/wiki/Yellow-throated_marten "Yellow-throated marten"), and [nilgiri marten](/wiki/Nilgiri_marten "Nilgiri marten").
File:California Death Valley Coyote.jpg\|Coyote (''Canis latrans'')
File:River Otter (Lontra canadensis).jpg\|River otter (''Lontra canadensis'')
File:Waschbär Procyon lotor Racoon.ogv\|Raccoon (''Procyon lotor'')
File:Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo).jpg\|Mongoose (Herpestidae)
File:Red fox image.jpg\|Red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'')
File:Striped Skunk (cropped).jpg\|Striped skunk (''Mephitis mephitis'')
File:Beech marten(js)01\.jpg\|Stone marten (''Martes foina'')
|
[
"### Example species",
"#### Coyote (*Canis latrans*)",
"The [coyote](/wiki/Coyote \"Coyote\") (*Canis latrans*) is a native species to [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"). They can live up to a lifespan of fourteen years, with their size ranging from 81–94 cm (32 to 37 inch) head to body, and weigh 9–23 kg (20–50 pounds).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Coyote {{!}} National Geographic\\|url\\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/coyote/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012180947/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/coyote/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=October 12, 2016\\|date\\=2011\\-05\\-10\\|website\\=Animals\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-28}} Coyotes' diet mostly consists of [mammals](/wiki/Mammal \"Mammal\"), [fruits](/wiki/Fruit \"Fruit\"), [birds](/wiki/Bird \"Bird\"), grass and [insects](/wiki/Insect \"Insect\"). They are also hunters and will eat anything of readily available prey including [rabbits](/wiki/Rabbit \"Rabbit\"), [fish](/wiki/Fish \"Fish\"), [lamb](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton \"Lamb and mutton\"). The coyotes in the wild enjoy intense smells of adventure and prey, as well as having an excellent sense of vision. They are pack animals and hunt prey and food in a pack, especially in the fall and winter.",
"#### River otter (*Lontra canadensis*)",
"The [river otter](/wiki/North_American_river_otter \"North American river otter\") is one of [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\")'s native animals. They have an average lifespan of 8 to 9 years, with a body length ranging from 56–80 cm (22–32 inch) head to body and weigh 5–13 kg (11–30 pounds).{{Cite web\\|title\\=North American River Otter {{!}} National Geographic\\|url\\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/n/north\\-american\\-river\\-otter/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222051553/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/n/north\\-american\\-river\\-otter/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=February 22, 2017\\|date\\=2010\\-11\\-11\\|website\\=Animals\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-28}} The river otter's habitat is in water and on land. They create a [burrow](/wiki/Burrow \"Burrow\") near the water as their [den](/wiki/Maternity_den \"Maternity den\") and easily adapt to other [aquatic habitats](/wiki/Marine_biology \"Marine biology\"). They hunt during the night, and find food that is readily available to them. River otters have great swimming abilities and stay active during winter.",
"#### Raccoon (*Procyon lotor*)",
"There are several [raccoon](/wiki/Raccoon \"Raccoon\") species which are also known as ringtail, all originated from the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). Their physical characteristics include short limbs, a pointed snout and small upright ears, with a body length of 75–90 cm (30–35 inch) long.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Raccoon {{!}} mammal\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/raccoon\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-28}} Raccoons weight varies from 10–20 kg (22–44 pounds) and have a furry coat that resembles black, grey and brown shades. These mesocarnivores catch majority of their food in water, including crayfish, frogs and other marine animals, as well as feeding on rodents and other plant material. Some species of the raccoon include the [Barbados raccoon](/wiki/Barbados_raccoon \"Barbados raccoon\") (*P. gloveralleni*), [Tres Marías raccoon](/wiki/Tres_Marias_raccoon \"Tres Marias raccoon\") (*P. insularis*), [Bahaman raccoon](/wiki/Bahamian_raccoon \"Bahamian raccoon\") (*P. maynardi*), [Guadeloupe raccoon](/wiki/Guadeloupe_raccoon \"Guadeloupe raccoon\") (*P. minor*) and [Cozumel raccoon](/wiki/Cozumel_raccoon \"Cozumel raccoon\") (*P. pygmaeus*).",
"#### Mongoose (Herpestidae)",
"The [mongoose](/wiki/Mongoose \"Mongoose\") is a species of mesocarnivores which are mainly located in [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), [southern Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\") and [southern Europe](/wiki/Southern_Europe \"Southern Europe\"). They are known for their predatory attacks on [snakes](/wiki/Snake \"Snake\"). The [meerkat](/wiki/Meerkat \"Meerkat\") is known as a part of the mongoose family of mesocarnivores. Mongooses are animals with physical features including short legs, pointed snout, minute ears and a long tail. Their fur colour resembles grey to brown shades and have specks of lighter grey. The mongoose ranges in size from the smallest, [dwarf mongoose](/wiki/Common_dwarf_mongoose \"Common dwarf mongoose\"), 17–24 cm (7–10 inch) in body length and the largest mongoose of 48–74 cm (19–29 inch) in body length.{{Cite web\\|title\\=mongoose {{!}} Species \\& Facts\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/mongoose\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-29}} Dwarf mongoose have a tail approximately 15–20 cm (6–8 inch) long, and larger mongooses have a longer tail up to 40 cm (19 inch) long.",
"#### Red fox (*Vulpes vulpes*)",
"The [red fox](/wiki/Red_fox \"Red fox\") is a species part of the fox family, which is located in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\") and [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"). Its body length is usually approximately 90–105 cm (35–41 inch) long, 30–40 cm (12–16 inch) of its body length being its tail, and is a height of 40 cm (16 inch).{{Cite web\\|title\\=red fox {{!}} Diet, Behaviour, \\& Adaptations\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/red\\-fox\\-mammal\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-29}} Many adult red foxes weigh 5–7 kg (11–15 pounds) and can reach up to 14 kg (31 pounds). The physical characteristics of the red fox have a soft thin undercoat and long hairs that consists of orange, red, brown shades. The red fox has black ears and legs, with white on the tip of its tail and on its chest. Red foxes live in a range of habitats which include [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland \"Grassland\"), [forests](/wiki/Forest \"Forest\"), [mountains](/wiki/Mountain \"Mountain\") and [deserts](/wiki/Desert \"Desert\").",
"#### Striped skunk (*Mephitis mephitis*)",
"The striped skunk is a mesocarnivore species that are located in the United States. Their physical characteristics in size range from 20–25 cm (8–10 inch) from head to body, with a 12–38 cm (5–15 inch) tail.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Striped Skunk {{!}} National Geographic\\|url\\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/s/striped\\-skunk/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228111739/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/s/striped\\-skunk/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=February 28, 2017\\|date\\=2010\\-11\\-11\\|website\\=Animals\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-29}} Striped skunks weigh between 200g–6 kg (7 ounces–14 pounds) and have an average lifespan of 3 years. They are easily adaptable animals that live in [forests](/wiki/Forest \"Forest\"), [woodlands](/wiki/Woodland \"Woodland\") and [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland \"Grassland\"). These mesocarnivores can be easily recognized by their black fur with a thin white stripe from their nose to their forehead. There are two thick white stripes that run along the sides of their back and continue to their furry, bushy tail with grey shades. Striped skunks are known for their predatory skunk spray, where oily liquid is released by its glands, resulting in a foul odor to their predators.",
"#### Marten (*Martes* spp.)",
"The marten is a mesocarnivore species which are found in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"). There are many different species of the marten. Their physical characteristics include a variation in size and colour from yellow to shades of dark brown, short legs, small, round ears and slender bodies, with thick coats.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Marten {{!}} mammal\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/animal/marten\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-02}} Their body length ranges from 35–65 cm (14–26 inch), with a long tail of 3–7 cm (9–18 inch), depending on the species and weigh 1–2kg (2–4 pounds). Some species of the marten include [American marten](/wiki/American_marten \"American marten\"), [pine marten](/wiki/European_pine_marten \"European pine marten\"), [stone marten](/wiki/Beech_marten \"Beech marten\"), [yellow\\-throated marten](/wiki/Yellow-throated_marten \"Yellow-throated marten\"), and [nilgiri marten](/wiki/Nilgiri_marten \"Nilgiri marten\").",
"",
"File:California Death Valley Coyote.jpg\\|Coyote (''Canis latrans'')\nFile:River Otter (Lontra canadensis).jpg\\|River otter (''Lontra canadensis'')\nFile:Waschbär Procyon lotor Racoon.ogv\\|Raccoon (''Procyon lotor'')\nFile:Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo).jpg\\|Mongoose (Herpestidae)\nFile:Red fox image.jpg\\|Red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'')\nFile:Striped Skunk (cropped).jpg\\|Striped skunk (''Mephitis mephitis'')\nFile:Beech marten(js)01\\.jpg\\|Stone marten (''Martes foina'')",
"",
""
] |
Storylines
----------
### 1978–1981
In 1978, longsuffering heroine [Victoria Lord](/wiki/Victoria_Lord "Victoria Lord") takes in 16\-year\-old goddaughter Tina Clayton as her ward after the presumed death of Tina's mother, [Irene Manning Clayton](/wiki/Irene_Manning_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Irene Manning (One Life to Live)"), Viki's best friend from her teenage years and college roommate.{{cite web \|title\=''OLTL''{{'s}} Tina Lord: Through the Years \|url\=http://soapnet.go.com/soapnet/gallery/path\-galleryNum\_1667/category\_shows/subcategory\_daytimeemmysredcarpet2008 \|website\=\[\[SOAPnet]] \|access\-date\=October 21, 2008 \|archive\-date\=October 30, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030090422/http://soapnet.go.com/soapnet/gallery/path\-galleryNum\_1667/category\_shows/subcategory\_daytimeemmysredcarpet2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} As Viki adjusts to the responsibility of raising a teenager, [Marco Dane](/wiki/Marco_Dane "Marco Dane") sees the perfect way to get revenge on Viki. In 1979, Marco befriends Tina and opens a modeling agency with a plan to photograph the teen, superimpose her image onto pornographic photos and humiliate Viki by releasing them. Soon Marco grows fond of Tina and changes his plan, but eventually he blackmails Viki with the photos. When Viki stumbles upon Marco's dead body, she takes the photos and flees. She is arrested for his murder, but later is exonerated. Tina becomes involved with [Greg Huddleston](/wiki/Greg_Huddleston "Greg Huddleston"), and by 1980 she is both seducing Mick Gordon (her best friend [Samantha Vernon](/wiki/Samantha_Vernon "Samantha Vernon")'s boyfriend) and pursuing country\-western singer Johnny Drummond.{{cite web \|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1980\-81/1980\.html \|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1980, Part 1\) \|website\=ABC.com\|access\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080423033236/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1980\-81/1980\.html \|archive\-date \= April 23, 2008\|url\-status\=dead}} Tina's apparent father, [Ted Clayton](/wiki/Ted_Clayton_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Ted Clayton (One Life to Live)"), comes to town under the guise of reuniting with his daughter but with an ulterior motive—to somehow con Viki and Tina out of as much money as he can. Ted pits himself against [Clint Buchanan](/wiki/Clint_Buchanan "Clint Buchanan"), who had taken more than a professional interest in widowed Viki. When Ted learns that Clint is about to propose marriage to Viki, he arranges to have Tina kidnapped to distract and get close to Viki, and get his hands on the ransom. Tina is safely returned home, and Ted proposes to Viki. Flustered but touched by his request, Viki opts for time to consider the offer.{{cite web \|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1980\-81/19801\.html \|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1980, Part 2\) \|website\=ABC.com \|access\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423040956/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1980\-81/19801\.html \|archive\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} Clint drops out of the romantic triangle but tries to convince Viki that Ted is deceiving her. When Viki realizes that she is in love with Clint, Ted drugs her.{{cite web \|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1981\-82/19811\.html \|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1981, Part 2\) \|website\=ABC.com \|access\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423040718/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1981\-82/19811\.html \|archive\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} He is arrested as the head of a counterfeiting ring but escapes from jail.{{cite web \|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1981\-82/19812\.html \|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1981, Part 3\) \|website\=ABC.com \|access\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423053442/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1981\-82/19812\.html \|archive\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} When Ted is later killed in 1981, a traumatized Tina leaves town.{{cite web \|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1982\-83/1982\.html \|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1982, Part 1\) \|website\=ABC.com \|access\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423033253/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1982\-83/1982\.html \|archive\-date\=April 23, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }}
### 1984–1989
Tina returns in 1984 after having read in her mother's diary that Ted Clayton had not been her biological father. In 1985, Tina discovers a secret room under the library in Llanfair, in which she finds [Nazi](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism")\-plundered paintings from [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") and a letter written to Viki from her deceased father, [Victor Lord](/wiki/Victor_Lord "Victor Lord").[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 3\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207211354/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985c.html) Retrieved from [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive") on December 7, 2004\. In the letter, Victor admits to a secret marriage with Irene and that Tina is his daughter, which puts Tina and a shocked Viki at odds.{{cite web \|last\=Flynn \|first\=Lauren \|url\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/features/puttingonheirs/ \|title\=''One Life to Live'': Putting on Heirs \|publisher\=SoapOperaDigest.com \|year\=2007 \|access\-date\=August 4, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704210639/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/features/puttingonheirs/ \|archive\-date\=July 4, 2008 }} Viki suffers a relapse of her [multiple personality disorder](/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder "Dissociative identity disorder"), which is subsequently believed to have been originated by a young Viki stumbling upon Victor and Irene in bed.The actual origin of Viki's dissociative identity disorder is established in 1995 when it is revealed that Victor had sexually abused Viki as a child. Viki is further humiliated—and furious with Tina—when Victor's confession becomes public. Tina revels in her newly discovered status as Lord heiress, but is soon manipulated by charismatic schemer [Mitch Laurence](/wiki/Mitch_Laurence "Mitch Laurence"), who seeks her inheritance.[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 4\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041208085029/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985d.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 8, 2004\. Finding out that Victor's estate would revert to Tina if Viki's illness recurred, Mitch convinces a reluctant Tina to assist him in his plan to do just that but, when Tina realizes Mitch actually intends to murder Viki's husband, [Clint Buchanan](/wiki/Clint_Buchanan "Clint Buchanan"), and frame Viki, she tries to stop him. Mitch accidentally kills [Harry O'Neill](/wiki/Harry_O%27Neill_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Harry O'Neill (One Life to Live)") instead and Tina is accused of the crime. She is later exonerated but, uses Viki's mental illness to gain control of the Lord estate. Tina schemes to bed Clint while Viki's alter ego, Niki Smith, poses as a supposedly cured Viki and plots her own escape from Viki's life.[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 5\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041208155512/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985e.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 8, 2004\. Tina blackmails Niki into divorcing Clint just as Clint discovers Niki's charade. In 1986, Clint ultimately lures Niki to witness a staged sexual encounter between him and Tina, which forces a shocked Viki to re\-emerge.[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 1\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041206193803/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986a.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 6, 2004\.
{{For\|the full story of Cord and Tina's relationship\|Cord Roberts}}
With Viki well and Tina engaged to wealthy [Richard Abbott](/wiki/Richard_Abbott_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Richard Abbott (One Life to Live)"), the sisters somewhat reconcile. During a 1986 visit to El Paso, Texas, Tina meets and starts falling in love with good\-natured cowboy [Cord Roberts](/wiki/Cord_Roberts "Cord Roberts").[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 2\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20050905022419/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986b.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on September 5, 2005\. When she discovers Cord is secretly Clint's son, Tina breaks off her engagement to Richard and races to marry Cord before he knows he is a Buchanan heir.[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 3\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207211757/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986c.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 7, 2004\. She succeeds, and Cord's paternity is revealed; he returns a gift of $1 million from his new\-found grandfather, [Asa Buchanan](/wiki/Asa_Buchanan "Asa Buchanan"). Tina blackmails Asa (with the knowledge of his secret marriage to [Pamela Stuart](/wiki/Pamela_Stuart "Pamela Stuart")) into giving her the money. She secretly buys the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") isle of Devil's Claw, but is kidnapped by terrorists when she and Cord vacation there. Tina is saved, and the island destroyed by bombs. Tina's recurring lies and schemes finally result in their divorce in 1987\.
Cord's mother, [Maria](/wiki/Maria_Roberts "Maria Roberts"), brings her old friend, [Max Holden](/wiki/Max_Holden_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Max Holden (One Life to Live)"), to town that year to romance Tina, whom she despises, and keep Tina from reconciling with Cord. Pregnant with Cord's baby and—thanks to Maria's scheming—thinking that Cord knows and does not care, Tina leaves with Max for [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires "Buenos Aires"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"). Learning Tina is pregnant, Cord follows her to Argentina, but Max and Tina are mixed up in a drug ring and a captive Tina plummets over the [Iguazu Falls](/wiki/Iguazu_Falls "Iguazu Falls") in a raft. She and her unborn baby are presumed dead.[*One Life to Live* recaps (1987, Part 1\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207082449/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1987a.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 7, 2004\.{{cite web \|last\=Rabinowitz \|first\=Naomi \|url\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/2003/oltlfalls/index.html \|title\=''One Life to Live'' Timeline: The Fall Guys (And Gals) of Llanview \|publisher\=SoapOperaDigest.com \|access\-date\=August 4, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051201030348/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/2003/oltlfalls/index.html \|archive\-date\=December 1, 2005 }}
Tina later turns up alive in April 1987, having been cared for by the native Palupe Indians. She reappears in Llanview in May 1987 at Cord's wedding to [Kate Sanders](/wiki/Kate_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Kate Sanders (One Life to Live)"), at first passing off Max's infant son with [Gabrielle Medina](/wiki/Gabrielle_Medina "Gabrielle Medina") as her own son with Cord. Tina and Maria fight over a vial of poison that Maria is planning to use to kill Viki and frame Tina, and Maria dies when the poison spills on her. Tina is charged with killing her, and the baby's true parentage is revealed during the trial. Tina is later exonerated, and in 1988 she and Max find her and Cord's real son alive and being cared for in the Argentine jungle as "Milagro." Max's enemies kidnap the baby and place him in an Italian convent; Tina poses as a nun to retrieve him. Tina and Cord name their son [Clinton James Roberts](/wiki/C.J._Roberts "C.J. Roberts") (nicknamed "C.J.") after Clint.
When Tina says, "I take thee, Cord," during her wedding to Max on March 18, 1988,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\-things\-that\-happened\-on\-march\-18\-in\-soap\-history3/\|title\=Five Things That Happened On March 18 In Soap History\|date\=March 18, 2023\|access\-date\=March 20, 2023\|archive\-date\=March 20, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320154858/https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\-things\-that\-happened\-on\-march\-18\-in\-soap\-history3/\|url\-status\=live}} he calls it off. Tina resumes her interest in Cord, who is now involved with [Sarah Gordon](/wiki/Sarah_Gordon_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Sarah Gordon (One Life to Live)"). But Tina is soon pursued by Cord's uncle, [Bo Buchanan](/wiki/Bo_Buchanan "Bo Buchanan"), who recently returned to Llanview. It is soon revealed that Tina's suitor is actually a "faux Bo": Kate Sanders' ex, [Dr. Patrick London](/wiki/Patrick_London "Patrick London"), hired by Asa's enemies to get facial reconstruction and infiltrate the family. Patrick, as Bo, hopes to marry Tina and gain control of her money. He is later found out, and killed by his captive, the real Bo. Pregnant with Patrick's child. Tina is kidnapped by [Ursula Blackwell](/wiki/Ursula_Blackwell "Ursula Blackwell"), who is obsessed with Patrick and plans to raise his baby. Tina and Ursula survive a fall out of a lighthouse window, and Tina loses the baby. His romance with Sarah fizzled, Cord reunites with Tina, and the two remarry in November 1988 in a double ceremony with Asa Buchanan and [Renee Divine](/wiki/Renee_Divine "Renee Divine"). An escaped Ursula rigs the wedding cake to explode, but the blast kills Max's brother [Steve Holden](/wiki/Steve_Holden_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Steve Holden (One Life to Live)") instead.
In January 1989, Tina and Gabrielle fall into a hole and discover the abandoned underground city of Eterna, built by Victor Lord. Viki, Cord, and others also end up trapped in the city, and the storyline culminates with the reveal that Viki had given birth to a daughter in high school but, had been brainwashed by Victor into forgetting it. Throughout the summer of 1989, Tina finds herself in pursuit of the lost Crown Jewels of [Mendorra](/wiki/Mendorra "Mendorra"), not realizing her past enemies [Jamie](/wiki/Jamie_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Jamie Sanders (One Life to Live)") and [Elizabeth Sanders](/wiki/Elizabeth_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Elizabeth Sanders (One Life to Live)") and an escaped Ursula are also after the jewels. Cord and Tina are held prisoner in Atlantic City but evade death at the hands of the Sanders and Ursula, who are arrested.
In 1989, Tina becomes aware that Gabrielle switched Brenda Holden's healthy baby with the deceased baby of Michael and Alicia Grande. Gabrielle ultimately confesses. At the trial, Tina is forced to admit she knew and had not come forward. Both women are sentenced to six months at a halfway house. Tina begins working at the organization Lord Love the Children headed by Serena and Ambrose Wyman, and, after discovering it is actually an illegal adoption ring, Tina teams up with Viki, Cord, and [Roger Gordon](/wiki/Roger_Gordon_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Roger Gordon (One Life to Live)") to stop the Wymans. Meanwhile, Max and Gabrielle's son is kidnapped, to be sold by the Wymans. The Wymans try to kill them all on New Year's Eve 1989 and fail, but kidnap Tina. Clint comes to the rescue and the Wymans are arrested. Cord and Tina's are falling apart over Tina's continued lies.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\-91/19902\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1990, Part 3\)\|date\=April 23, 2008\|website\=ABC.com\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423053815/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\-91/19902\.html \|archive\-date\=2008\-04\-23 }} The final nail in the coffin comes when Tina accuses Cord of having an affair with Gabrielle's sister, [Debra](/wiki/Debra_Medina_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Debra Medina (One Life to Live)"). Cord asks for a divorce, and Tina leaves town for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California "San Diego, California") with baby C.J.
### 1990–1997
In 1990, a pregnant Tina is unsure whether the father of her baby is suave [Johnny Dee Hesser](/wiki/Johnny_Dee_Hesser "Johnny Dee Hesser"), son of [mobster](/wiki/Mobster "Mobster") [Carlo Hesser](/wiki/Carlo_Hesser "Carlo Hesser"), or ex\-husband Cord. Finding out about the baby and Tina's plans to reconcile with Cord, a distraught Johnny bursts into Llanfair, knocking Tina unconscious and attempting to kidnap her. Viki, incapacitated by a stroke and unable to walk or speak, realizes that Tina's life is in danger; her alternate personality Niki Smith emerges. As Niki, Viki is able to stand — and shoots Johnny to death. Initially, both Viki and Tina have no memory of what happened, and Tina becomes the prime suspect in the murder. However, an audio tape recorded in the room later exonerates her, and proves that Viki had acted in self\-defense.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\-91/19904\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605222021/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\-91/19904\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1990, Part 5\) \- ABC.com\|archive\-date\=June 5, 2011}} Tina flees to [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas") as Carlo makes clear his intention to take his grandchild from Tina when it is born. Cord follows with medical proof that the baby is his, and their daughter [Sarah](/wiki/Sarah_Roberts_%28character%29 "Sarah Roberts (character)") is born in a snowstorm in February 1991\. Cord and Tina return to Llanview and remarry, but Cord is presumed dead later that year; he turns up alive around a year and a half later to discover that his supposed widow Tina has taken up with Cain Rogan. Unable to reconcile, Cord and Tina divorce for the final time in 1993\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.geocities.com/oltl\_almanac2/notoriouslyremembered/1968\_1989/tinalord.html \|title\=Notoriously Remembered: Tina Lord \|publisher\=\[\[Internet Archive]] \|access\-date\=May 22, 2008 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080522112056/http://www.geocities.com/oltl\_almanac2/notoriouslyremembered/1968\_1989/tinalord.html \|archive\-date \= May 22, 2008}}, 2008\.
Tina becomes romantically involved with con man **Cain Rogan**, marrying and leaving town with him in 1994, but soon returning alone after Cain goes back to his ne'er\-do\-well pursuits.
As [Dr. Dorian Lord](/wiki/Dorian_Cramer_Lord "Dorian Cramer Lord") is on trial for the 1976 murder of her former husband (and Tina's father) Victor in 1994, a man named [David Vickers](/wiki/David_Vickers "David Vickers") comes forward with the diary of Tina's mother Irene.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\-95/19942\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1994, Part 3\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-10\-08\|archive\-date\=2009\-03\-26\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326044233/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\-95/19942\.html\|url\-status\=live}} The diary exonerates Dorian and reveals the existence of Victor and Irene's second child — a son, who would stand to inherit a fortune hidden for him by Victor himself. David claims to be that son. Tina returns to town, and despite their connection as full brother and sister, David and Tina find themselves attracted to each other.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\-95/19943\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1994, Part 4\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-10\-08\|archive\-date\=2008\-04\-23\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423061037/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\-95/19943\.html\|url\-status\=live}} They sleep together, but David immediately reveals to Tina that he is only pretending to be the missing Lord heir. The couple conspire to take the inheritance, even marrying in 1995 to secure their claim. Eventually town pariah [Todd Manning](/wiki/Todd_Manning "Todd Manning") is revealed to be Victor and Irene's son,{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\-95/19945\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627065449/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\-95/19945\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1994, Part 6\) \- ABC.com\|archive\-date\=June 27, 2004}} and David is arrested. With Viki again under the influence of her dissociative identity disorder, her icy alternate personality Jean Randolph forces David to divorce Tina in exchange for his freedom.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1995\-96/19952\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1995, Part 3\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-10\-08\|archive\-date\=2008\-05\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513014654/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1995\-96/19952\.html\|url\-status\=live}}
On June 12, 1996, Tina moves with C.J. and Sarah to [Baltimore, Maryland](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland "Baltimore, Maryland") to become a professional shopper for Logan's Department Store. She reappears briefly in September 1996, and again on Christmas 1996 and finally from January 21 to January 24, 1997 as Cord leaves town.
### 1997–2007
In 2003, Tina and Cord's daughter Sarah (now calling herself "Flash") returns to Llanview. It is noted that Viki, Cord and the Buchanan family had lost all track of Tina and the children since they had moved to Baltimore and had not heard from them for years. Sarah reveals that during Tina's hiatus from town, she had taken back up with Cain; Sarah claims that Tina and Cain had forbidden her from pursuing her musical dreams, and that Tina's parenting had driven both Sarah and C.J. to run away. Though Sarah had come back to Llanview looking for her missing brother, she discovers that C.J. had joined the [Navy](/wiki/U.S._Navy "U.S. Navy"), deploying into the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean") and out of contact. In 2004, Cord returns to collect an injured Sarah who was attacked and almost killed by the Music Box Killer, and vows to Viki and [Asa Buchanan](/wiki/Asa_Buchanan "Asa Buchanan") to find Tina.
When Sarah returns again in 2007, she notes that her mother is "off doing one of her things" and that Tina rarely corresponds but sends her money from time to time. Sarah says that Viki and Clint would have a hard time finding Tina, adding "she's where I got my run and hide genes." Clint confirms that he and Cord cannot locate Tina.
### 2008
The Crown Jewels of [Mendorra](/wiki/Mendorra "Mendorra") are stolen in May 2008 upon their arrival in Llanview for display,{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080522\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (5/22/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-05\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223316/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080522\.html\|url\-status\=live}} and Tina reappears in town on June 11, 2008, as the Crown Princess of Mendorra.{{cite web \|last\=Murray \|first\=Jesse \|url\=http://soapnet.go.com/soapnet/article/path\-articleNum\_5863/category\_shows \|title\=''One Life to Live'' Next Week \|publisher\=SOAPnet.com \|date\=June 6, 2008 \|access\-date\=December 4, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608084510/http://soapnet.go.com/soapnet/article/path\-articleNum\_5863/category\_shows \|archive\-date\=June 8, 2008 }} She meets with corrupt Llanview [Police Commissioner](/wiki/Police_Commissioner "Police Commissioner") [Lee Ramsey](/wiki/Lee_Ramsey "Lee Ramsey"), who has stolen the jewels at her request, but soon Ramsey is gunned down and Tina is on the run with the jewels from the sinister [U.S. Ambassador](/wiki/Ambassadors_of_the_United_States "Ambassadors of the United States") to Mendorra [Jonas Chamberlain](/wiki/Jonas_Chamberlain "Jonas Chamberlain"), who apparently wants them for himself.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080612\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/12/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-05\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223140/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080612\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080613\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/13/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-05\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223224/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080613\.html\|url\-status\=live}} Tina finds refuge with her estranged daughter Sarah and Sarah's boyfriend [Cristian Vega](/wiki/Cristian_Vega_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Cristian Vega (One Life to Live)");{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080618\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/18/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-05\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223243/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080618\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080625\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/25/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-05\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223250/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080625\.html\|url\-status\=live}} soon Cristian and his brother, Llanview Police Detective [Antonio](/wiki/Antonio_Vega_%28character%29 "Antonio Vega (character)"), discover that Jonas has abducted Sarah and her roommate [Talia Sahid](/wiki/Talia_Sahid "Talia Sahid"), Antonio's lover and fellow police officer.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080627\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223321/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080627\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/27/08\) \- ABC.com\|archive\-date\=June 5, 2011}} Tina and the Vegas agree to accompany Jonas back to Mendorra in order to make an exchange: the women for the Crown Jewels.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080630\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223257/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080630\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/30/08\) \- ABC.com\|archive\-date\=June 5, 2011}}
In Mendorra, Tina gets the royal treatment from her palace staff and is reunited with her husband, Crown Prince Helmut Krakoff — really Cain Rogan in yet another disguise. Meanwhile, the real mastermind behind the kidnappings reveals himself to his daughter Talia: Carlo Hesser.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080703\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605222616/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080703\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/3/08\) \- ABC.com\|archive\-date\=June 5, 2011}} Cain is anxious to keep the jewels they have worked so hard for, but Tina is desperate to exchange them for Sarah. She bemoans her lot in life, saying, "I should have gone back to Cord!"{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080707\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223334/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080707\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/7/08\) \- ABC.com\|archive\-date\=June 5, 2011}} Carlo, bent on revenge for Tina's part in Johnny Dee's death, exposes her and Cain's fraud publicly and reveals *Jonas* as the true heir to the throne;{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080717\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/17/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-05\|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-21\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921061735/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080717\.html\|url\-status\=live}} he adds that, per Mendorran law, Cain and Tina will be beheaded for their treason.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080718\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/18/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-05\|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-18\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918100523/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080718\.html\|url\-status\=live}} Carlo and his minions first drag Tina, Sarah and Cristian to the river above the treacherous Hohenstein Falls. Tina is horrified as Carlo reveals his intent to send Sarah over the Falls to her death, deliberately echoing Tina's own nearly\-fatal plunge over the Iguazu Falls in 1987\. Cristian manages to escape Carlo's guards and swim to Sarah's raft; Tina watches history repeat itself as Sarah and Cristian go over the Falls on July 22, 2008\. Cristian turns up alive but Sarah is presumed dead.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080731\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/31/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-05\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223418/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080731\.html\|url\-status\=live}} Cristian saves Tina and Cain from the executioner's axe, but not before Tina responds to Cain's declaration of love with a thoughtless "I love you too, *Cord!*" — a mistake she had also made in 1988 while at the altar with Max Holden.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1988\-89/1988\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1988, Part 1\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-07\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223556/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1988\-89/1988\.html\|url\-status\=live}} Sarah reappears alive, just in time to join the others in their escape.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080805\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223601/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080805\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (8/5/08\) \- ABC.com\|archive\-date\=June 5, 2011}} A duplicitous Cain later parachutes from the plane with the Crown Jewels — not knowing that Tina has already switched the gems with fakes — and in Llanview, Tina is soon reunited with Viki,{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080806\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (8/6/08\) \- ABC.com\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-07\|archive\-date\=2008\-12\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081213001139/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080806\.html\|url\-status\=live}} and then with Cord.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/4986/Wanted\_Shady\_Contractor\_For\_Hire\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (8/11/08\) \- Soaps.com\|access\-date\=2009\-02\-11\|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912211955/http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/4986/Wanted\_Shady\_Contractor\_For\_Hire\|url\-status\=live}} After Cord hears about the drama in Mendorra, Tina is devastated when he tells her that she has not changed, and they can never be together.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/4994/A\_Love\_of\_a\_Lifetime\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (8/12/08\) \- Soaps.com\|access\-date\=2009\-02\-11\|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912210237/http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/4994/A\_Love\_of\_a\_Lifetime\|url\-status\=live}}
When Viki leaves town to tour Africa as a goodwill ambassador, Tina takes it upon herself to move back into Llanfair and install herself as the *de facto* "lady of the manor." Upon reuniting with Viki's daughters, [Jessica](/wiki/Jessica_Buchanan "Jessica Buchanan") and [Natalie](/wiki/Natalie_Buchanan "Natalie Buchanan"), Tina is eager to play den mother in her sister's absence. She makes fast friends with Natalie, a relative newcomer and former fellow "black sheep of the family," but Tina's once\-loving relationship with Jessica is now fractious and antagonistic. Stunned by Jessica's cold and rude behavior, Tina is unaware that Jessica is actually "Tess," her dangerous alternate personality, who has secretly emerged from Jessica's psyche to take control and seek revenge on Natalie and her lover [Jared Banks](/wiki/Jared_Banks "Jared Banks"), whom Tess blames for the death of [Nash Brennan](/wiki/Nash_Brennan "Nash Brennan"), Jessica's husband and the love of Tess's life. As Tina settles into Llanfair, she takes care to hide the stolen Mendorran Crown Jewels in Viki's wall safe, fearing she will be apprehended by international authorities. Tina grows increasingly suspicious of "Jessica's" strange actions when she discovers her niece has ordered construction to be done in the Llanfair basement. "Jessica" claims the construction work is a surprise for the family, but when Tina and her beloved [shih tzu](/wiki/Shih_tzu "Shih tzu") "David Vickers" go snooping in the basement, they discover the soundproofed secret room Tess has built below the house. Tina reflects on her memories of her father Victor Lord's own secret room, and its significance to Viki and her own alternate personalities, one of whom had imprisoned Dorian Lord below Llanfair. Remembering her own complicated relationship with Viki's alters such as Niki Smith, Tina realizes that Tess has emerged. Before Tina can alert the family, Tess traps her in the secret room.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/5128/Enjoy\_Your\_New\_Digs\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (9/3/08\) \- Soaps.com\|access\-date\=2008\-09\-09\|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909184546/http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/5128/Enjoy\_Your\_New\_Digs\|url\-status\=live}} Tess discovers the jewels in the safe and threatens to not only tell the authorities, but a vengeful Carlo as well. Fearing for herself and especially Sarah, Tina begrudgingly agrees to not only stay quiet, but to help Tess drag a drugged Natalie down into the secret room. A guilty Tina tries to thwart Tess several times, but is always caught; Tina sends Jared down to the basement to find Natalie, but Tess traps him as well. Viki returns to town in time to realize that Tess is on the loose. With a bomb set to go off, Tina leads Viki and Jared's father [Charlie Banks](/wiki/Charlie_Banks_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Charlie Banks (One Life to Live)") down to the secret room in time to save Natalie and Jared. On November 14, 2008, Tina comes clean to a furious Viki, who tells Tina to leave and never return.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/5551/You\_Never\_Know\_Whos\_Around\_The\_Corner\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (11/14/08\) \- Soaps.com\|access\-date\=2009\-01\-07\|archive\-date\=2009\-01\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124223154/http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/5551/You\_Never\_Know\_Whos\_Around\_The\_Corner\|url\-status\=live}} Tina says goodbye to a disappointed Sarah on November 25, 2008, too ashamed to explain why she is leaving town. Tina peers into Jessica's hospital room, sadly watching Viki, Clint and Natalie surrounding Jessica and her daughters — the family Tina may never be a part of again. Finally, Tina goes to the crypt of her father Victor, curses him for the damage he has done to Viki and the rest of the family, and vows to return to Llanview someday.
### 2011
Tina returns to Llanview with her dog David Vickers for the reading of Todd's will on September 27, 2011\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\-things\-that\-happened\-on\-september\-27\-in\-soap\-history4/\|title\=Five Things that Happened on September 27 in Soap History\|website\=\[\[Soap Opera Digest]]\|page\=4\|date\=September 27, 2023\|access\-date\=September 27, 2023}} She is shocked to discover that her mother Irene is alive and well, and that the brother who has just died is not Todd, but his secret twin brother, [Victor Lord, Jr](/wiki/Victor_Lord%2C_Jr. "Victor Lord, Jr."). Victor has left everything to Irene. Tina sees Cord at Llanfair, but he is still angry at her for endangering other members of the family with her schemes during her 2008 visit. Tina's dog goes missing, and the search for him brings Tina and Cord closer. They reminisce about their past together and nearly kiss, but are interrupted by Clint. Tina and Viki talk about their troubled relationship, mostly influenced by Tina's many past mistakes, but the sisters decide to put the past aside. Tina's dog returns. Tina and Cord nearly get intimate with each other again after they babysit Jessica and [Robert Ford](/wiki/Robert_Ford_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Robert Ford (One Life to Live)")'s son [Ryder](/wiki/Ryder_Ford "Ryder Ford"), but Natalie interrupts them. Natalie confronts Tina for being partly responsible for having her locked in the basement by Tess. Tina apologizes to Natalie, and offers to plan Natalie's upcoming wedding with [Brody Lovett](/wiki/Brody_Lovett "Brody Lovett"). Natalie accepts. Viki tells Tina that she is pushing too hard to rekindle things with Cord. Tina and Cord hash out their problems in the stables, but end up having sex. Cord tells Tina that despite this, he does not know if he can trust her again. Tina vows to regain his trust. Her commitment to changing is tested when she inherits all of Victor Jr.'s fortune, Irene's money, and *The Sun* newspaper. Tina is elated to be rich at last, but recalls her intentions to not be fueled by greed and hands over both fortunes and *The Sun* to Todd, the rightful owner. Todd, Viki, and Victor Jr.'s widow [Téa Delgado](/wiki/T%C3%A9a_Delgado "Téa Delgado") are pleasantly surprised. Cord learns of Tina's benevolence, the two declare their love and share a passionate kiss. On November 15, 2011, Tina interrupts Natalie and Brody's wedding with the missing paternity test results proving that Natalie's ex\-boyfriend [John McBain](/wiki/John_McBain_%28character%29 "John McBain (character)"), not Brody, is the father of Natalie's baby [Liam](/wiki/Liam_McBain "Liam McBain"). The wedding is called off. Cord proposes to Tina, who accepts. They marry then and there for the fourth time.
|
[
"Storylines\n----------",
"### 1978–1981",
"In 1978, longsuffering heroine [Victoria Lord](/wiki/Victoria_Lord \"Victoria Lord\") takes in 16\\-year\\-old goddaughter Tina Clayton as her ward after the presumed death of Tina's mother, [Irene Manning Clayton](/wiki/Irene_Manning_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Irene Manning (One Life to Live)\"), Viki's best friend from her teenage years and college roommate.{{cite web \\|title\\=''OLTL''{{'s}} Tina Lord: Through the Years \\|url\\=http://soapnet.go.com/soapnet/gallery/path\\-galleryNum\\_1667/category\\_shows/subcategory\\_daytimeemmysredcarpet2008 \\|website\\=\\[\\[SOAPnet]] \\|access\\-date\\=October 21, 2008 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 30, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030090422/http://soapnet.go.com/soapnet/gallery/path\\-galleryNum\\_1667/category\\_shows/subcategory\\_daytimeemmysredcarpet2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} As Viki adjusts to the responsibility of raising a teenager, [Marco Dane](/wiki/Marco_Dane \"Marco Dane\") sees the perfect way to get revenge on Viki. In 1979, Marco befriends Tina and opens a modeling agency with a plan to photograph the teen, superimpose her image onto pornographic photos and humiliate Viki by releasing them. Soon Marco grows fond of Tina and changes his plan, but eventually he blackmails Viki with the photos. When Viki stumbles upon Marco's dead body, she takes the photos and flees. She is arrested for his murder, but later is exonerated. Tina becomes involved with [Greg Huddleston](/wiki/Greg_Huddleston \"Greg Huddleston\"), and by 1980 she is both seducing Mick Gordon (her best friend [Samantha Vernon](/wiki/Samantha_Vernon \"Samantha Vernon\")'s boyfriend) and pursuing country\\-western singer Johnny Drummond.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1980\\-81/1980\\.html \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1980, Part 1\\) \\|website\\=ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080423033236/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1980\\-81/1980\\.html \\|archive\\-date \\= April 23, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Tina's apparent father, [Ted Clayton](/wiki/Ted_Clayton_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Ted Clayton (One Life to Live)\"), comes to town under the guise of reuniting with his daughter but with an ulterior motive—to somehow con Viki and Tina out of as much money as he can. Ted pits himself against [Clint Buchanan](/wiki/Clint_Buchanan \"Clint Buchanan\"), who had taken more than a professional interest in widowed Viki. When Ted learns that Clint is about to propose marriage to Viki, he arranges to have Tina kidnapped to distract and get close to Viki, and get his hands on the ransom. Tina is safely returned home, and Ted proposes to Viki. Flustered but touched by his request, Viki opts for time to consider the offer.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1980\\-81/19801\\.html \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1980, Part 2\\) \\|website\\=ABC.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423040956/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1980\\-81/19801\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Clint drops out of the romantic triangle but tries to convince Viki that Ted is deceiving her. When Viki realizes that she is in love with Clint, Ted drugs her.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1981\\-82/19811\\.html \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1981, Part 2\\) \\|website\\=ABC.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423040718/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1981\\-82/19811\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} He is arrested as the head of a counterfeiting ring but escapes from jail.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1981\\-82/19812\\.html \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1981, Part 3\\) \\|website\\=ABC.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423053442/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1981\\-82/19812\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} When Ted is later killed in 1981, a traumatized Tina leaves town.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1982\\-83/1982\\.html \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1982, Part 1\\) \\|website\\=ABC.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423033253/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1982\\-83/1982\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### 1984–1989",
"Tina returns in 1984 after having read in her mother's diary that Ted Clayton had not been her biological father. In 1985, Tina discovers a secret room under the library in Llanfair, in which she finds [Nazi](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\")\\-plundered paintings from [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") and a letter written to Viki from her deceased father, [Victor Lord](/wiki/Victor_Lord \"Victor Lord\").[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 3\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207211354/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985c.html) Retrieved from [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive \"Internet Archive\") on December 7, 2004\\. In the letter, Victor admits to a secret marriage with Irene and that Tina is his daughter, which puts Tina and a shocked Viki at odds.{{cite web \\|last\\=Flynn \\|first\\=Lauren \\|url\\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/features/puttingonheirs/ \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'': Putting on Heirs \\|publisher\\=SoapOperaDigest.com \\|year\\=2007 \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704210639/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/features/puttingonheirs/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 4, 2008 }} Viki suffers a relapse of her [multiple personality disorder](/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder \"Dissociative identity disorder\"), which is subsequently believed to have been originated by a young Viki stumbling upon Victor and Irene in bed.The actual origin of Viki's dissociative identity disorder is established in 1995 when it is revealed that Victor had sexually abused Viki as a child. Viki is further humiliated—and furious with Tina—when Victor's confession becomes public. Tina revels in her newly discovered status as Lord heiress, but is soon manipulated by charismatic schemer [Mitch Laurence](/wiki/Mitch_Laurence \"Mitch Laurence\"), who seeks her inheritance.[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 4\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041208085029/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985d.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 8, 2004\\. Finding out that Victor's estate would revert to Tina if Viki's illness recurred, Mitch convinces a reluctant Tina to assist him in his plan to do just that but, when Tina realizes Mitch actually intends to murder Viki's husband, [Clint Buchanan](/wiki/Clint_Buchanan \"Clint Buchanan\"), and frame Viki, she tries to stop him. Mitch accidentally kills [Harry O'Neill](/wiki/Harry_O%27Neill_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Harry O'Neill (One Life to Live)\") instead and Tina is accused of the crime. She is later exonerated but, uses Viki's mental illness to gain control of the Lord estate. Tina schemes to bed Clint while Viki's alter ego, Niki Smith, poses as a supposedly cured Viki and plots her own escape from Viki's life.[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 5\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041208155512/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985e.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 8, 2004\\. Tina blackmails Niki into divorcing Clint just as Clint discovers Niki's charade. In 1986, Clint ultimately lures Niki to witness a staged sexual encounter between him and Tina, which forces a shocked Viki to re\\-emerge.[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 1\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041206193803/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986a.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 6, 2004\\.",
"{{For\\|the full story of Cord and Tina's relationship\\|Cord Roberts}}\nWith Viki well and Tina engaged to wealthy [Richard Abbott](/wiki/Richard_Abbott_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Richard Abbott (One Life to Live)\"), the sisters somewhat reconcile. During a 1986 visit to El Paso, Texas, Tina meets and starts falling in love with good\\-natured cowboy [Cord Roberts](/wiki/Cord_Roberts \"Cord Roberts\").[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 2\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20050905022419/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986b.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on September 5, 2005\\. When she discovers Cord is secretly Clint's son, Tina breaks off her engagement to Richard and races to marry Cord before he knows he is a Buchanan heir.[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 3\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207211757/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986c.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 7, 2004\\. She succeeds, and Cord's paternity is revealed; he returns a gift of $1 million from his new\\-found grandfather, [Asa Buchanan](/wiki/Asa_Buchanan \"Asa Buchanan\"). Tina blackmails Asa (with the knowledge of his secret marriage to [Pamela Stuart](/wiki/Pamela_Stuart \"Pamela Stuart\")) into giving her the money. She secretly buys the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") isle of Devil's Claw, but is kidnapped by terrorists when she and Cord vacation there. Tina is saved, and the island destroyed by bombs. Tina's recurring lies and schemes finally result in their divorce in 1987\\.",
"Cord's mother, [Maria](/wiki/Maria_Roberts \"Maria Roberts\"), brings her old friend, [Max Holden](/wiki/Max_Holden_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Max Holden (One Life to Live)\"), to town that year to romance Tina, whom she despises, and keep Tina from reconciling with Cord. Pregnant with Cord's baby and—thanks to Maria's scheming—thinking that Cord knows and does not care, Tina leaves with Max for [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"). Learning Tina is pregnant, Cord follows her to Argentina, but Max and Tina are mixed up in a drug ring and a captive Tina plummets over the [Iguazu Falls](/wiki/Iguazu_Falls \"Iguazu Falls\") in a raft. She and her unborn baby are presumed dead.[*One Life to Live* recaps (1987, Part 1\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207082449/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1987a.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 7, 2004\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Rabinowitz \\|first\\=Naomi \\|url\\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/2003/oltlfalls/index.html \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' Timeline: The Fall Guys (And Gals) of Llanview \\|publisher\\=SoapOperaDigest.com \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051201030348/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/2003/oltlfalls/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 1, 2005 }}",
"Tina later turns up alive in April 1987, having been cared for by the native Palupe Indians. She reappears in Llanview in May 1987 at Cord's wedding to [Kate Sanders](/wiki/Kate_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Kate Sanders (One Life to Live)\"), at first passing off Max's infant son with [Gabrielle Medina](/wiki/Gabrielle_Medina \"Gabrielle Medina\") as her own son with Cord. Tina and Maria fight over a vial of poison that Maria is planning to use to kill Viki and frame Tina, and Maria dies when the poison spills on her. Tina is charged with killing her, and the baby's true parentage is revealed during the trial. Tina is later exonerated, and in 1988 she and Max find her and Cord's real son alive and being cared for in the Argentine jungle as \"Milagro.\" Max's enemies kidnap the baby and place him in an Italian convent; Tina poses as a nun to retrieve him. Tina and Cord name their son [Clinton James Roberts](/wiki/C.J._Roberts \"C.J. Roberts\") (nicknamed \"C.J.\") after Clint.",
"When Tina says, \"I take thee, Cord,\" during her wedding to Max on March 18, 1988,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\\-things\\-that\\-happened\\-on\\-march\\-18\\-in\\-soap\\-history3/\\|title\\=Five Things That Happened On March 18 In Soap History\\|date\\=March 18, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=March 20, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320154858/https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\\-things\\-that\\-happened\\-on\\-march\\-18\\-in\\-soap\\-history3/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} he calls it off. Tina resumes her interest in Cord, who is now involved with [Sarah Gordon](/wiki/Sarah_Gordon_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Sarah Gordon (One Life to Live)\"). But Tina is soon pursued by Cord's uncle, [Bo Buchanan](/wiki/Bo_Buchanan \"Bo Buchanan\"), who recently returned to Llanview. It is soon revealed that Tina's suitor is actually a \"faux Bo\": Kate Sanders' ex, [Dr. Patrick London](/wiki/Patrick_London \"Patrick London\"), hired by Asa's enemies to get facial reconstruction and infiltrate the family. Patrick, as Bo, hopes to marry Tina and gain control of her money. He is later found out, and killed by his captive, the real Bo. Pregnant with Patrick's child. Tina is kidnapped by [Ursula Blackwell](/wiki/Ursula_Blackwell \"Ursula Blackwell\"), who is obsessed with Patrick and plans to raise his baby. Tina and Ursula survive a fall out of a lighthouse window, and Tina loses the baby. His romance with Sarah fizzled, Cord reunites with Tina, and the two remarry in November 1988 in a double ceremony with Asa Buchanan and [Renee Divine](/wiki/Renee_Divine \"Renee Divine\"). An escaped Ursula rigs the wedding cake to explode, but the blast kills Max's brother [Steve Holden](/wiki/Steve_Holden_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Steve Holden (One Life to Live)\") instead.",
"In January 1989, Tina and Gabrielle fall into a hole and discover the abandoned underground city of Eterna, built by Victor Lord. Viki, Cord, and others also end up trapped in the city, and the storyline culminates with the reveal that Viki had given birth to a daughter in high school but, had been brainwashed by Victor into forgetting it. Throughout the summer of 1989, Tina finds herself in pursuit of the lost Crown Jewels of [Mendorra](/wiki/Mendorra \"Mendorra\"), not realizing her past enemies [Jamie](/wiki/Jamie_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Jamie Sanders (One Life to Live)\") and [Elizabeth Sanders](/wiki/Elizabeth_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Elizabeth Sanders (One Life to Live)\") and an escaped Ursula are also after the jewels. Cord and Tina are held prisoner in Atlantic City but evade death at the hands of the Sanders and Ursula, who are arrested.",
"In 1989, Tina becomes aware that Gabrielle switched Brenda Holden's healthy baby with the deceased baby of Michael and Alicia Grande. Gabrielle ultimately confesses. At the trial, Tina is forced to admit she knew and had not come forward. Both women are sentenced to six months at a halfway house. Tina begins working at the organization Lord Love the Children headed by Serena and Ambrose Wyman, and, after discovering it is actually an illegal adoption ring, Tina teams up with Viki, Cord, and [Roger Gordon](/wiki/Roger_Gordon_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Roger Gordon (One Life to Live)\") to stop the Wymans. Meanwhile, Max and Gabrielle's son is kidnapped, to be sold by the Wymans. The Wymans try to kill them all on New Year's Eve 1989 and fail, but kidnap Tina. Clint comes to the rescue and the Wymans are arrested. Cord and Tina's are falling apart over Tina's continued lies.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\\-91/19902\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1990, Part 3\\)\\|date\\=April 23, 2008\\|website\\=ABC.com\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423053815/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\\-91/19902\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-23 }} The final nail in the coffin comes when Tina accuses Cord of having an affair with Gabrielle's sister, [Debra](/wiki/Debra_Medina_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Debra Medina (One Life to Live)\"). Cord asks for a divorce, and Tina leaves town for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California \"San Diego, California\") with baby C.J.",
"### 1990–1997",
"In 1990, a pregnant Tina is unsure whether the father of her baby is suave [Johnny Dee Hesser](/wiki/Johnny_Dee_Hesser \"Johnny Dee Hesser\"), son of [mobster](/wiki/Mobster \"Mobster\") [Carlo Hesser](/wiki/Carlo_Hesser \"Carlo Hesser\"), or ex\\-husband Cord. Finding out about the baby and Tina's plans to reconcile with Cord, a distraught Johnny bursts into Llanfair, knocking Tina unconscious and attempting to kidnap her. Viki, incapacitated by a stroke and unable to walk or speak, realizes that Tina's life is in danger; her alternate personality Niki Smith emerges. As Niki, Viki is able to stand — and shoots Johnny to death. Initially, both Viki and Tina have no memory of what happened, and Tina becomes the prime suspect in the murder. However, an audio tape recorded in the room later exonerates her, and proves that Viki had acted in self\\-defense.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\\-91/19904\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605222021/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\\-91/19904\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1990, Part 5\\) \\- ABC.com\\|archive\\-date\\=June 5, 2011}} Tina flees to [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\") as Carlo makes clear his intention to take his grandchild from Tina when it is born. Cord follows with medical proof that the baby is his, and their daughter [Sarah](/wiki/Sarah_Roberts_%28character%29 \"Sarah Roberts (character)\") is born in a snowstorm in February 1991\\. Cord and Tina return to Llanview and remarry, but Cord is presumed dead later that year; he turns up alive around a year and a half later to discover that his supposed widow Tina has taken up with Cain Rogan. Unable to reconcile, Cord and Tina divorce for the final time in 1993\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.geocities.com/oltl\\_almanac2/notoriouslyremembered/1968\\_1989/tinalord.html \\|title\\=Notoriously Remembered: Tina Lord \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Internet Archive]] \\|access\\-date\\=May 22, 2008 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080522112056/http://www.geocities.com/oltl\\_almanac2/notoriouslyremembered/1968\\_1989/tinalord.html \\|archive\\-date \\= May 22, 2008}}, 2008\\.",
"Tina becomes romantically involved with con man **Cain Rogan**, marrying and leaving town with him in 1994, but soon returning alone after Cain goes back to his ne'er\\-do\\-well pursuits.",
"As [Dr. Dorian Lord](/wiki/Dorian_Cramer_Lord \"Dorian Cramer Lord\") is on trial for the 1976 murder of her former husband (and Tina's father) Victor in 1994, a man named [David Vickers](/wiki/David_Vickers \"David Vickers\") comes forward with the diary of Tina's mother Irene.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\\-95/19942\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1994, Part 3\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-26\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326044233/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\\-95/19942\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The diary exonerates Dorian and reveals the existence of Victor and Irene's second child — a son, who would stand to inherit a fortune hidden for him by Victor himself. David claims to be that son. Tina returns to town, and despite their connection as full brother and sister, David and Tina find themselves attracted to each other.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\\-95/19943\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1994, Part 4\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-23\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423061037/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\\-95/19943\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} They sleep together, but David immediately reveals to Tina that he is only pretending to be the missing Lord heir. The couple conspire to take the inheritance, even marrying in 1995 to secure their claim. Eventually town pariah [Todd Manning](/wiki/Todd_Manning \"Todd Manning\") is revealed to be Victor and Irene's son,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\\-95/19945\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627065449/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1994\\-95/19945\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1994, Part 6\\) \\- ABC.com\\|archive\\-date\\=June 27, 2004}} and David is arrested. With Viki again under the influence of her dissociative identity disorder, her icy alternate personality Jean Randolph forces David to divorce Tina in exchange for his freedom.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1995\\-96/19952\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1995, Part 3\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513014654/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1995\\-96/19952\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"On June 12, 1996, Tina moves with C.J. and Sarah to [Baltimore, Maryland](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland \"Baltimore, Maryland\") to become a professional shopper for Logan's Department Store. She reappears briefly in September 1996, and again on Christmas 1996 and finally from January 21 to January 24, 1997 as Cord leaves town.",
"### 1997–2007",
"In 2003, Tina and Cord's daughter Sarah (now calling herself \"Flash\") returns to Llanview. It is noted that Viki, Cord and the Buchanan family had lost all track of Tina and the children since they had moved to Baltimore and had not heard from them for years. Sarah reveals that during Tina's hiatus from town, she had taken back up with Cain; Sarah claims that Tina and Cain had forbidden her from pursuing her musical dreams, and that Tina's parenting had driven both Sarah and C.J. to run away. Though Sarah had come back to Llanview looking for her missing brother, she discovers that C.J. had joined the [Navy](/wiki/U.S._Navy \"U.S. Navy\"), deploying into the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\") and out of contact. In 2004, Cord returns to collect an injured Sarah who was attacked and almost killed by the Music Box Killer, and vows to Viki and [Asa Buchanan](/wiki/Asa_Buchanan \"Asa Buchanan\") to find Tina.",
"When Sarah returns again in 2007, she notes that her mother is \"off doing one of her things\" and that Tina rarely corresponds but sends her money from time to time. Sarah says that Viki and Clint would have a hard time finding Tina, adding \"she's where I got my run and hide genes.\" Clint confirms that he and Cord cannot locate Tina.",
"### 2008",
"The Crown Jewels of [Mendorra](/wiki/Mendorra \"Mendorra\") are stolen in May 2008 upon their arrival in Llanview for display,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080522\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (5/22/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223316/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080522\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and Tina reappears in town on June 11, 2008, as the Crown Princess of Mendorra.{{cite web \\|last\\=Murray \\|first\\=Jesse \\|url\\=http://soapnet.go.com/soapnet/article/path\\-articleNum\\_5863/category\\_shows \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' Next Week \\|publisher\\=SOAPnet.com \\|date\\=June 6, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608084510/http://soapnet.go.com/soapnet/article/path\\-articleNum\\_5863/category\\_shows \\|archive\\-date\\=June 8, 2008 }} She meets with corrupt Llanview [Police Commissioner](/wiki/Police_Commissioner \"Police Commissioner\") [Lee Ramsey](/wiki/Lee_Ramsey \"Lee Ramsey\"), who has stolen the jewels at her request, but soon Ramsey is gunned down and Tina is on the run with the jewels from the sinister [U.S. Ambassador](/wiki/Ambassadors_of_the_United_States \"Ambassadors of the United States\") to Mendorra [Jonas Chamberlain](/wiki/Jonas_Chamberlain \"Jonas Chamberlain\"), who apparently wants them for himself.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080612\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/12/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223140/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080612\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080613\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/13/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223224/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080613\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Tina finds refuge with her estranged daughter Sarah and Sarah's boyfriend [Cristian Vega](/wiki/Cristian_Vega_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Cristian Vega (One Life to Live)\");{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080618\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/18/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223243/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080618\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080625\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/25/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223250/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080625\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} soon Cristian and his brother, Llanview Police Detective [Antonio](/wiki/Antonio_Vega_%28character%29 \"Antonio Vega (character)\"), discover that Jonas has abducted Sarah and her roommate [Talia Sahid](/wiki/Talia_Sahid \"Talia Sahid\"), Antonio's lover and fellow police officer.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080627\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223321/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080627\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/27/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|archive\\-date\\=June 5, 2011}} Tina and the Vegas agree to accompany Jonas back to Mendorra in order to make an exchange: the women for the Crown Jewels.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080630\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223257/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080630\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (6/30/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|archive\\-date\\=June 5, 2011}}",
"In Mendorra, Tina gets the royal treatment from her palace staff and is reunited with her husband, Crown Prince Helmut Krakoff — really Cain Rogan in yet another disguise. Meanwhile, the real mastermind behind the kidnappings reveals himself to his daughter Talia: Carlo Hesser.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080703\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605222616/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080703\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/3/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|archive\\-date\\=June 5, 2011}} Cain is anxious to keep the jewels they have worked so hard for, but Tina is desperate to exchange them for Sarah. She bemoans her lot in life, saying, \"I should have gone back to Cord!\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080707\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223334/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080707\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/7/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|archive\\-date\\=June 5, 2011}} Carlo, bent on revenge for Tina's part in Johnny Dee's death, exposes her and Cain's fraud publicly and reveals *Jonas* as the true heir to the throne;{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080717\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/17/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-21\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921061735/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080717\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} he adds that, per Mendorran law, Cain and Tina will be beheaded for their treason.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080718\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/18/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-18\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918100523/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080718\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Carlo and his minions first drag Tina, Sarah and Cristian to the river above the treacherous Hohenstein Falls. Tina is horrified as Carlo reveals his intent to send Sarah over the Falls to her death, deliberately echoing Tina's own nearly\\-fatal plunge over the Iguazu Falls in 1987\\. Cristian manages to escape Carlo's guards and swim to Sarah's raft; Tina watches history repeat itself as Sarah and Cristian go over the Falls on July 22, 2008\\. Cristian turns up alive but Sarah is presumed dead.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080731\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (7/31/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223418/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080731\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Cristian saves Tina and Cain from the executioner's axe, but not before Tina responds to Cain's declaration of love with a thoughtless \"I love you too, *Cord!*\" — a mistake she had also made in 1988 while at the altar with Max Holden.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1988\\-89/1988\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recaps (1988, Part 1\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-07\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223556/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1988\\-89/1988\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Sarah reappears alive, just in time to join the others in their escape.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080805\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223601/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080805\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (8/5/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|archive\\-date\\=June 5, 2011}} A duplicitous Cain later parachutes from the plane with the Crown Jewels — not knowing that Tina has already switched the gems with fakes — and in Llanview, Tina is soon reunited with Viki,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080806\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (8/6/08\\) \\- ABC.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-07\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081213001139/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/2008/20080806\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and then with Cord.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/4986/Wanted\\_Shady\\_Contractor\\_For\\_Hire\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (8/11/08\\) \\- Soaps.com\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-11\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912211955/http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/4986/Wanted\\_Shady\\_Contractor\\_For\\_Hire\\|url\\-status\\=live}} After Cord hears about the drama in Mendorra, Tina is devastated when he tells her that she has not changed, and they can never be together.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/4994/A\\_Love\\_of\\_a\\_Lifetime\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (8/12/08\\) \\- Soaps.com\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-11\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912210237/http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/4994/A\\_Love\\_of\\_a\\_Lifetime\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"When Viki leaves town to tour Africa as a goodwill ambassador, Tina takes it upon herself to move back into Llanfair and install herself as the *de facto* \"lady of the manor.\" Upon reuniting with Viki's daughters, [Jessica](/wiki/Jessica_Buchanan \"Jessica Buchanan\") and [Natalie](/wiki/Natalie_Buchanan \"Natalie Buchanan\"), Tina is eager to play den mother in her sister's absence. She makes fast friends with Natalie, a relative newcomer and former fellow \"black sheep of the family,\" but Tina's once\\-loving relationship with Jessica is now fractious and antagonistic. Stunned by Jessica's cold and rude behavior, Tina is unaware that Jessica is actually \"Tess,\" her dangerous alternate personality, who has secretly emerged from Jessica's psyche to take control and seek revenge on Natalie and her lover [Jared Banks](/wiki/Jared_Banks \"Jared Banks\"), whom Tess blames for the death of [Nash Brennan](/wiki/Nash_Brennan \"Nash Brennan\"), Jessica's husband and the love of Tess's life. As Tina settles into Llanfair, she takes care to hide the stolen Mendorran Crown Jewels in Viki's wall safe, fearing she will be apprehended by international authorities. Tina grows increasingly suspicious of \"Jessica's\" strange actions when she discovers her niece has ordered construction to be done in the Llanfair basement. \"Jessica\" claims the construction work is a surprise for the family, but when Tina and her beloved [shih tzu](/wiki/Shih_tzu \"Shih tzu\") \"David Vickers\" go snooping in the basement, they discover the soundproofed secret room Tess has built below the house. Tina reflects on her memories of her father Victor Lord's own secret room, and its significance to Viki and her own alternate personalities, one of whom had imprisoned Dorian Lord below Llanfair. Remembering her own complicated relationship with Viki's alters such as Niki Smith, Tina realizes that Tess has emerged. Before Tina can alert the family, Tess traps her in the secret room.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/5128/Enjoy\\_Your\\_New\\_Digs\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (9/3/08\\) \\- Soaps.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-09\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909184546/http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/5128/Enjoy\\_Your\\_New\\_Digs\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Tess discovers the jewels in the safe and threatens to not only tell the authorities, but a vengeful Carlo as well. Fearing for herself and especially Sarah, Tina begrudgingly agrees to not only stay quiet, but to help Tess drag a drugged Natalie down into the secret room. A guilty Tina tries to thwart Tess several times, but is always caught; Tina sends Jared down to the basement to find Natalie, but Tess traps him as well. Viki returns to town in time to realize that Tess is on the loose. With a bomb set to go off, Tina leads Viki and Jared's father [Charlie Banks](/wiki/Charlie_Banks_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Charlie Banks (One Life to Live)\") down to the secret room in time to save Natalie and Jared. On November 14, 2008, Tina comes clean to a furious Viki, who tells Tina to leave and never return.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/5551/You\\_Never\\_Know\\_Whos\\_Around\\_The\\_Corner\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (11/14/08\\) \\- Soaps.com\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-07\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124223154/http://www.soaps.com/onelifetolive/update/5551/You\\_Never\\_Know\\_Whos\\_Around\\_The\\_Corner\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Tina says goodbye to a disappointed Sarah on November 25, 2008, too ashamed to explain why she is leaving town. Tina peers into Jessica's hospital room, sadly watching Viki, Clint and Natalie surrounding Jessica and her daughters — the family Tina may never be a part of again. Finally, Tina goes to the crypt of her father Victor, curses him for the damage he has done to Viki and the rest of the family, and vows to return to Llanview someday.",
"### 2011",
"Tina returns to Llanview with her dog David Vickers for the reading of Todd's will on September 27, 2011\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\\-things\\-that\\-happened\\-on\\-september\\-27\\-in\\-soap\\-history4/\\|title\\=Five Things that Happened on September 27 in Soap History\\|website\\=\\[\\[Soap Opera Digest]]\\|page\\=4\\|date\\=September 27, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2023}} She is shocked to discover that her mother Irene is alive and well, and that the brother who has just died is not Todd, but his secret twin brother, [Victor Lord, Jr](/wiki/Victor_Lord%2C_Jr. \"Victor Lord, Jr.\"). Victor has left everything to Irene. Tina sees Cord at Llanfair, but he is still angry at her for endangering other members of the family with her schemes during her 2008 visit. Tina's dog goes missing, and the search for him brings Tina and Cord closer. They reminisce about their past together and nearly kiss, but are interrupted by Clint. Tina and Viki talk about their troubled relationship, mostly influenced by Tina's many past mistakes, but the sisters decide to put the past aside. Tina's dog returns. Tina and Cord nearly get intimate with each other again after they babysit Jessica and [Robert Ford](/wiki/Robert_Ford_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Robert Ford (One Life to Live)\")'s son [Ryder](/wiki/Ryder_Ford \"Ryder Ford\"), but Natalie interrupts them. Natalie confronts Tina for being partly responsible for having her locked in the basement by Tess. Tina apologizes to Natalie, and offers to plan Natalie's upcoming wedding with [Brody Lovett](/wiki/Brody_Lovett \"Brody Lovett\"). Natalie accepts. Viki tells Tina that she is pushing too hard to rekindle things with Cord. Tina and Cord hash out their problems in the stables, but end up having sex. Cord tells Tina that despite this, he does not know if he can trust her again. Tina vows to regain his trust. Her commitment to changing is tested when she inherits all of Victor Jr.'s fortune, Irene's money, and *The Sun* newspaper. Tina is elated to be rich at last, but recalls her intentions to not be fueled by greed and hands over both fortunes and *The Sun* to Todd, the rightful owner. Todd, Viki, and Victor Jr.'s widow [Téa Delgado](/wiki/T%C3%A9a_Delgado \"Téa Delgado\") are pleasantly surprised. Cord learns of Tina's benevolence, the two declare their love and share a passionate kiss. On November 15, 2011, Tina interrupts Natalie and Brody's wedding with the missing paternity test results proving that Natalie's ex\\-boyfriend [John McBain](/wiki/John_McBain_%28character%29 \"John McBain (character)\"), not Brody, is the father of Natalie's baby [Liam](/wiki/Liam_McBain \"Liam McBain\"). The wedding is called off. Cord proposes to Tina, who accepts. They marry then and there for the fourth time.",
""
] |
### 1984–1989
Tina returns in 1984 after having read in her mother's diary that Ted Clayton had not been her biological father. In 1985, Tina discovers a secret room under the library in Llanfair, in which she finds [Nazi](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism")\-plundered paintings from [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") and a letter written to Viki from her deceased father, [Victor Lord](/wiki/Victor_Lord "Victor Lord").[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 3\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207211354/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985c.html) Retrieved from [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive") on December 7, 2004\. In the letter, Victor admits to a secret marriage with Irene and that Tina is his daughter, which puts Tina and a shocked Viki at odds.{{cite web \|last\=Flynn \|first\=Lauren \|url\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/features/puttingonheirs/ \|title\=''One Life to Live'': Putting on Heirs \|publisher\=SoapOperaDigest.com \|year\=2007 \|access\-date\=August 4, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704210639/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/features/puttingonheirs/ \|archive\-date\=July 4, 2008 }} Viki suffers a relapse of her [multiple personality disorder](/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder "Dissociative identity disorder"), which is subsequently believed to have been originated by a young Viki stumbling upon Victor and Irene in bed.The actual origin of Viki's dissociative identity disorder is established in 1995 when it is revealed that Victor had sexually abused Viki as a child. Viki is further humiliated—and furious with Tina—when Victor's confession becomes public. Tina revels in her newly discovered status as Lord heiress, but is soon manipulated by charismatic schemer [Mitch Laurence](/wiki/Mitch_Laurence "Mitch Laurence"), who seeks her inheritance.[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 4\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041208085029/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985d.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 8, 2004\. Finding out that Victor's estate would revert to Tina if Viki's illness recurred, Mitch convinces a reluctant Tina to assist him in his plan to do just that but, when Tina realizes Mitch actually intends to murder Viki's husband, [Clint Buchanan](/wiki/Clint_Buchanan "Clint Buchanan"), and frame Viki, she tries to stop him. Mitch accidentally kills [Harry O'Neill](/wiki/Harry_O%27Neill_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Harry O'Neill (One Life to Live)") instead and Tina is accused of the crime. She is later exonerated but, uses Viki's mental illness to gain control of the Lord estate. Tina schemes to bed Clint while Viki's alter ego, Niki Smith, poses as a supposedly cured Viki and plots her own escape from Viki's life.[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 5\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041208155512/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985e.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 8, 2004\. Tina blackmails Niki into divorcing Clint just as Clint discovers Niki's charade. In 1986, Clint ultimately lures Niki to witness a staged sexual encounter between him and Tina, which forces a shocked Viki to re\-emerge.[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 1\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041206193803/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986a.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 6, 2004\.
{{For\|the full story of Cord and Tina's relationship\|Cord Roberts}}
With Viki well and Tina engaged to wealthy [Richard Abbott](/wiki/Richard_Abbott_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Richard Abbott (One Life to Live)"), the sisters somewhat reconcile. During a 1986 visit to El Paso, Texas, Tina meets and starts falling in love with good\-natured cowboy [Cord Roberts](/wiki/Cord_Roberts "Cord Roberts").[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 2\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20050905022419/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986b.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on September 5, 2005\. When she discovers Cord is secretly Clint's son, Tina breaks off her engagement to Richard and races to marry Cord before he knows he is a Buchanan heir.[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 3\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207211757/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986c.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 7, 2004\. She succeeds, and Cord's paternity is revealed; he returns a gift of $1 million from his new\-found grandfather, [Asa Buchanan](/wiki/Asa_Buchanan "Asa Buchanan"). Tina blackmails Asa (with the knowledge of his secret marriage to [Pamela Stuart](/wiki/Pamela_Stuart "Pamela Stuart")) into giving her the money. She secretly buys the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") isle of Devil's Claw, but is kidnapped by terrorists when she and Cord vacation there. Tina is saved, and the island destroyed by bombs. Tina's recurring lies and schemes finally result in their divorce in 1987\.
Cord's mother, [Maria](/wiki/Maria_Roberts "Maria Roberts"), brings her old friend, [Max Holden](/wiki/Max_Holden_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Max Holden (One Life to Live)"), to town that year to romance Tina, whom she despises, and keep Tina from reconciling with Cord. Pregnant with Cord's baby and—thanks to Maria's scheming—thinking that Cord knows and does not care, Tina leaves with Max for [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires "Buenos Aires"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"). Learning Tina is pregnant, Cord follows her to Argentina, but Max and Tina are mixed up in a drug ring and a captive Tina plummets over the [Iguazu Falls](/wiki/Iguazu_Falls "Iguazu Falls") in a raft. She and her unborn baby are presumed dead.[*One Life to Live* recaps (1987, Part 1\) \- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207082449/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1987a.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 7, 2004\.{{cite web \|last\=Rabinowitz \|first\=Naomi \|url\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/2003/oltlfalls/index.html \|title\=''One Life to Live'' Timeline: The Fall Guys (And Gals) of Llanview \|publisher\=SoapOperaDigest.com \|access\-date\=August 4, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051201030348/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/2003/oltlfalls/index.html \|archive\-date\=December 1, 2005 }}
Tina later turns up alive in April 1987, having been cared for by the native Palupe Indians. She reappears in Llanview in May 1987 at Cord's wedding to [Kate Sanders](/wiki/Kate_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Kate Sanders (One Life to Live)"), at first passing off Max's infant son with [Gabrielle Medina](/wiki/Gabrielle_Medina "Gabrielle Medina") as her own son with Cord. Tina and Maria fight over a vial of poison that Maria is planning to use to kill Viki and frame Tina, and Maria dies when the poison spills on her. Tina is charged with killing her, and the baby's true parentage is revealed during the trial. Tina is later exonerated, and in 1988 she and Max find her and Cord's real son alive and being cared for in the Argentine jungle as "Milagro." Max's enemies kidnap the baby and place him in an Italian convent; Tina poses as a nun to retrieve him. Tina and Cord name their son [Clinton James Roberts](/wiki/C.J._Roberts "C.J. Roberts") (nicknamed "C.J.") after Clint.
When Tina says, "I take thee, Cord," during her wedding to Max on March 18, 1988,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\-things\-that\-happened\-on\-march\-18\-in\-soap\-history3/\|title\=Five Things That Happened On March 18 In Soap History\|date\=March 18, 2023\|access\-date\=March 20, 2023\|archive\-date\=March 20, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320154858/https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\-things\-that\-happened\-on\-march\-18\-in\-soap\-history3/\|url\-status\=live}} he calls it off. Tina resumes her interest in Cord, who is now involved with [Sarah Gordon](/wiki/Sarah_Gordon_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Sarah Gordon (One Life to Live)"). But Tina is soon pursued by Cord's uncle, [Bo Buchanan](/wiki/Bo_Buchanan "Bo Buchanan"), who recently returned to Llanview. It is soon revealed that Tina's suitor is actually a "faux Bo": Kate Sanders' ex, [Dr. Patrick London](/wiki/Patrick_London "Patrick London"), hired by Asa's enemies to get facial reconstruction and infiltrate the family. Patrick, as Bo, hopes to marry Tina and gain control of her money. He is later found out, and killed by his captive, the real Bo. Pregnant with Patrick's child. Tina is kidnapped by [Ursula Blackwell](/wiki/Ursula_Blackwell "Ursula Blackwell"), who is obsessed with Patrick and plans to raise his baby. Tina and Ursula survive a fall out of a lighthouse window, and Tina loses the baby. His romance with Sarah fizzled, Cord reunites with Tina, and the two remarry in November 1988 in a double ceremony with Asa Buchanan and [Renee Divine](/wiki/Renee_Divine "Renee Divine"). An escaped Ursula rigs the wedding cake to explode, but the blast kills Max's brother [Steve Holden](/wiki/Steve_Holden_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Steve Holden (One Life to Live)") instead.
In January 1989, Tina and Gabrielle fall into a hole and discover the abandoned underground city of Eterna, built by Victor Lord. Viki, Cord, and others also end up trapped in the city, and the storyline culminates with the reveal that Viki had given birth to a daughter in high school but, had been brainwashed by Victor into forgetting it. Throughout the summer of 1989, Tina finds herself in pursuit of the lost Crown Jewels of [Mendorra](/wiki/Mendorra "Mendorra"), not realizing her past enemies [Jamie](/wiki/Jamie_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Jamie Sanders (One Life to Live)") and [Elizabeth Sanders](/wiki/Elizabeth_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Elizabeth Sanders (One Life to Live)") and an escaped Ursula are also after the jewels. Cord and Tina are held prisoner in Atlantic City but evade death at the hands of the Sanders and Ursula, who are arrested.
In 1989, Tina becomes aware that Gabrielle switched Brenda Holden's healthy baby with the deceased baby of Michael and Alicia Grande. Gabrielle ultimately confesses. At the trial, Tina is forced to admit she knew and had not come forward. Both women are sentenced to six months at a halfway house. Tina begins working at the organization Lord Love the Children headed by Serena and Ambrose Wyman, and, after discovering it is actually an illegal adoption ring, Tina teams up with Viki, Cord, and [Roger Gordon](/wiki/Roger_Gordon_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Roger Gordon (One Life to Live)") to stop the Wymans. Meanwhile, Max and Gabrielle's son is kidnapped, to be sold by the Wymans. The Wymans try to kill them all on New Year's Eve 1989 and fail, but kidnap Tina. Clint comes to the rescue and the Wymans are arrested. Cord and Tina's are falling apart over Tina's continued lies.{{Cite web\|url\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\-91/19902\.html\|title\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1990, Part 3\)\|date\=April 23, 2008\|website\=ABC.com\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423053815/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\-91/19902\.html \|archive\-date\=2008\-04\-23 }} The final nail in the coffin comes when Tina accuses Cord of having an affair with Gabrielle's sister, [Debra](/wiki/Debra_Medina_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 "Debra Medina (One Life to Live)"). Cord asks for a divorce, and Tina leaves town for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California "San Diego, California") with baby C.J.
|
[
"### 1984–1989",
"Tina returns in 1984 after having read in her mother's diary that Ted Clayton had not been her biological father. In 1985, Tina discovers a secret room under the library in Llanfair, in which she finds [Nazi](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\")\\-plundered paintings from [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") and a letter written to Viki from her deceased father, [Victor Lord](/wiki/Victor_Lord \"Victor Lord\").[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 3\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207211354/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985c.html) Retrieved from [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive \"Internet Archive\") on December 7, 2004\\. In the letter, Victor admits to a secret marriage with Irene and that Tina is his daughter, which puts Tina and a shocked Viki at odds.{{cite web \\|last\\=Flynn \\|first\\=Lauren \\|url\\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/features/puttingonheirs/ \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'': Putting on Heirs \\|publisher\\=SoapOperaDigest.com \\|year\\=2007 \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704210639/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/features/puttingonheirs/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 4, 2008 }} Viki suffers a relapse of her [multiple personality disorder](/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder \"Dissociative identity disorder\"), which is subsequently believed to have been originated by a young Viki stumbling upon Victor and Irene in bed.The actual origin of Viki's dissociative identity disorder is established in 1995 when it is revealed that Victor had sexually abused Viki as a child. Viki is further humiliated—and furious with Tina—when Victor's confession becomes public. Tina revels in her newly discovered status as Lord heiress, but is soon manipulated by charismatic schemer [Mitch Laurence](/wiki/Mitch_Laurence \"Mitch Laurence\"), who seeks her inheritance.[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 4\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041208085029/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985d.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 8, 2004\\. Finding out that Victor's estate would revert to Tina if Viki's illness recurred, Mitch convinces a reluctant Tina to assist him in his plan to do just that but, when Tina realizes Mitch actually intends to murder Viki's husband, [Clint Buchanan](/wiki/Clint_Buchanan \"Clint Buchanan\"), and frame Viki, she tries to stop him. Mitch accidentally kills [Harry O'Neill](/wiki/Harry_O%27Neill_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Harry O'Neill (One Life to Live)\") instead and Tina is accused of the crime. She is later exonerated but, uses Viki's mental illness to gain control of the Lord estate. Tina schemes to bed Clint while Viki's alter ego, Niki Smith, poses as a supposedly cured Viki and plots her own escape from Viki's life.[*One Life to Live* recap (1985, Part 5\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041208155512/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1985e.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 8, 2004\\. Tina blackmails Niki into divorcing Clint just as Clint discovers Niki's charade. In 1986, Clint ultimately lures Niki to witness a staged sexual encounter between him and Tina, which forces a shocked Viki to re\\-emerge.[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 1\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041206193803/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986a.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 6, 2004\\.",
"{{For\\|the full story of Cord and Tina's relationship\\|Cord Roberts}}\nWith Viki well and Tina engaged to wealthy [Richard Abbott](/wiki/Richard_Abbott_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Richard Abbott (One Life to Live)\"), the sisters somewhat reconcile. During a 1986 visit to El Paso, Texas, Tina meets and starts falling in love with good\\-natured cowboy [Cord Roberts](/wiki/Cord_Roberts \"Cord Roberts\").[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 2\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20050905022419/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986b.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on September 5, 2005\\. When she discovers Cord is secretly Clint's son, Tina breaks off her engagement to Richard and races to marry Cord before he knows he is a Buchanan heir.[*One Life to Live* recap (1986, Part 3\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207211757/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1986c.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 7, 2004\\. She succeeds, and Cord's paternity is revealed; he returns a gift of $1 million from his new\\-found grandfather, [Asa Buchanan](/wiki/Asa_Buchanan \"Asa Buchanan\"). Tina blackmails Asa (with the knowledge of his secret marriage to [Pamela Stuart](/wiki/Pamela_Stuart \"Pamela Stuart\")) into giving her the money. She secretly buys the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") isle of Devil's Claw, but is kidnapped by terrorists when she and Cord vacation there. Tina is saved, and the island destroyed by bombs. Tina's recurring lies and schemes finally result in their divorce in 1987\\.",
"Cord's mother, [Maria](/wiki/Maria_Roberts \"Maria Roberts\"), brings her old friend, [Max Holden](/wiki/Max_Holden_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Max Holden (One Life to Live)\"), to town that year to romance Tina, whom she despises, and keep Tina from reconciling with Cord. Pregnant with Cord's baby and—thanks to Maria's scheming—thinking that Cord knows and does not care, Tina leaves with Max for [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"). Learning Tina is pregnant, Cord follows her to Argentina, but Max and Tina are mixed up in a drug ring and a captive Tina plummets over the [Iguazu Falls](/wiki/Iguazu_Falls \"Iguazu Falls\") in a raft. She and her unborn baby are presumed dead.[*One Life to Live* recaps (1987, Part 1\\) \\- ABC.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20041207082449/http://abc.go.com/daytime/soaps/onelifetolive/history/yearly/oltl_1987a.html) Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 7, 2004\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Rabinowitz \\|first\\=Naomi \\|url\\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/2003/oltlfalls/index.html \\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' Timeline: The Fall Guys (And Gals) of Llanview \\|publisher\\=SoapOperaDigest.com \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051201030348/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/features/oltl/2003/oltlfalls/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 1, 2005 }}",
"Tina later turns up alive in April 1987, having been cared for by the native Palupe Indians. She reappears in Llanview in May 1987 at Cord's wedding to [Kate Sanders](/wiki/Kate_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Kate Sanders (One Life to Live)\"), at first passing off Max's infant son with [Gabrielle Medina](/wiki/Gabrielle_Medina \"Gabrielle Medina\") as her own son with Cord. Tina and Maria fight over a vial of poison that Maria is planning to use to kill Viki and frame Tina, and Maria dies when the poison spills on her. Tina is charged with killing her, and the baby's true parentage is revealed during the trial. Tina is later exonerated, and in 1988 she and Max find her and Cord's real son alive and being cared for in the Argentine jungle as \"Milagro.\" Max's enemies kidnap the baby and place him in an Italian convent; Tina poses as a nun to retrieve him. Tina and Cord name their son [Clinton James Roberts](/wiki/C.J._Roberts \"C.J. Roberts\") (nicknamed \"C.J.\") after Clint.",
"When Tina says, \"I take thee, Cord,\" during her wedding to Max on March 18, 1988,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\\-things\\-that\\-happened\\-on\\-march\\-18\\-in\\-soap\\-history3/\\|title\\=Five Things That Happened On March 18 In Soap History\\|date\\=March 18, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=March 20, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320154858/https://www.soapoperadigest.com/photos/five\\-things\\-that\\-happened\\-on\\-march\\-18\\-in\\-soap\\-history3/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} he calls it off. Tina resumes her interest in Cord, who is now involved with [Sarah Gordon](/wiki/Sarah_Gordon_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Sarah Gordon (One Life to Live)\"). But Tina is soon pursued by Cord's uncle, [Bo Buchanan](/wiki/Bo_Buchanan \"Bo Buchanan\"), who recently returned to Llanview. It is soon revealed that Tina's suitor is actually a \"faux Bo\": Kate Sanders' ex, [Dr. Patrick London](/wiki/Patrick_London \"Patrick London\"), hired by Asa's enemies to get facial reconstruction and infiltrate the family. Patrick, as Bo, hopes to marry Tina and gain control of her money. He is later found out, and killed by his captive, the real Bo. Pregnant with Patrick's child. Tina is kidnapped by [Ursula Blackwell](/wiki/Ursula_Blackwell \"Ursula Blackwell\"), who is obsessed with Patrick and plans to raise his baby. Tina and Ursula survive a fall out of a lighthouse window, and Tina loses the baby. His romance with Sarah fizzled, Cord reunites with Tina, and the two remarry in November 1988 in a double ceremony with Asa Buchanan and [Renee Divine](/wiki/Renee_Divine \"Renee Divine\"). An escaped Ursula rigs the wedding cake to explode, but the blast kills Max's brother [Steve Holden](/wiki/Steve_Holden_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Steve Holden (One Life to Live)\") instead.",
"In January 1989, Tina and Gabrielle fall into a hole and discover the abandoned underground city of Eterna, built by Victor Lord. Viki, Cord, and others also end up trapped in the city, and the storyline culminates with the reveal that Viki had given birth to a daughter in high school but, had been brainwashed by Victor into forgetting it. Throughout the summer of 1989, Tina finds herself in pursuit of the lost Crown Jewels of [Mendorra](/wiki/Mendorra \"Mendorra\"), not realizing her past enemies [Jamie](/wiki/Jamie_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Jamie Sanders (One Life to Live)\") and [Elizabeth Sanders](/wiki/Elizabeth_Sanders_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Elizabeth Sanders (One Life to Live)\") and an escaped Ursula are also after the jewels. Cord and Tina are held prisoner in Atlantic City but evade death at the hands of the Sanders and Ursula, who are arrested.",
"In 1989, Tina becomes aware that Gabrielle switched Brenda Holden's healthy baby with the deceased baby of Michael and Alicia Grande. Gabrielle ultimately confesses. At the trial, Tina is forced to admit she knew and had not come forward. Both women are sentenced to six months at a halfway house. Tina begins working at the organization Lord Love the Children headed by Serena and Ambrose Wyman, and, after discovering it is actually an illegal adoption ring, Tina teams up with Viki, Cord, and [Roger Gordon](/wiki/Roger_Gordon_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Roger Gordon (One Life to Live)\") to stop the Wymans. Meanwhile, Max and Gabrielle's son is kidnapped, to be sold by the Wymans. The Wymans try to kill them all on New Year's Eve 1989 and fail, but kidnap Tina. Clint comes to the rescue and the Wymans are arrested. Cord and Tina's are falling apart over Tina's continued lies.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\\-91/19902\\.html\\|title\\=''One Life to Live'' recap (1990, Part 3\\)\\|date\\=April 23, 2008\\|website\\=ABC.com\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423053815/http://abc.go.com/daytime/onelifetolive/episodes/1990\\-91/19902\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-23 }} The final nail in the coffin comes when Tina accuses Cord of having an affair with Gabrielle's sister, [Debra](/wiki/Debra_Medina_%28One_Life_to_Live%29 \"Debra Medina (One Life to Live)\"). Cord asks for a divorce, and Tina leaves town for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California \"San Diego, California\") with baby C.J.",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1912 the [Congress of Argentina](/wiki/Argentine_National_Congress "Argentine National Congress") enacted Law 8,870 to construct a line that would unite the Correo Central ([Central Post Office](/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Central_Post_Office "Buenos Aires Central Post Office")) and the intersection of Triunvirato and Elcano streets, and meet with the tracks of the Buenos Aires Central Railroad ([Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires](/wiki/Ferrocarril_Central_de_Buenos_Aires "Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires") or FCCBA), which belonged to the same business group, through an {{Cvt\|8\.7\|km}} tunnel. The Act provided that the works "would help reduce traffic in the central area of the city".
On 17 December 1927 in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") the financial agreement to build the line was signed between Teófilo Lacroze, the president of [Banco de la Nación](/wiki/Banco_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina "Banco de la Nación Argentina") Dr. Tomás de Estrada, Dr. Louis J. Rocca directory owner of Ferrocarril Terminal de Buenos Aires and bankers [Harris and Forbes](/wiki/Harris%2C_Forbes_%26_Co. "Harris, Forbes & Co."). This agreement granted the concession of the line for passengers, parcels and freight to Lacroze Brothers Company.
[thumb\|150px\|left\| *Terminal Central de Buenos Aires* bronze plaque in [Federico Lacroze railway station](/wiki/Federico_Lacroze_railway_station "Federico Lacroze railway station")](/wiki/Image:Terminal_Central_de_Buenos_Aires.jpg "Terminal Central de Buenos Aires.jpg")
[thumbnail\|Eidan 500 train at [Juan Manuel de Rosas](/wiki/Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Juan Manuel de Rosas (Buenos Aires Underground)") station.](/wiki/File:Eidan_500.jpg "Eidan 500.jpg")
The construction was carried out by the Argentine builder Dwight P. Robinson \& Cía, and the line was called Ferrocarril Terminal Central de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Terminal Railroad). The first section between [Federico Lacroze](/wiki/Federico_Lacroze_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Federico Lacroze (Buenos Aires Underground)") and [Callao](/wiki/Callao_%28Line_B_Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Callao (Line B Buenos Aires Underground)") opened on 17 October 1930 and was {{Cvt\|7\.021\|km}} in length. The Argentine President, [José Félix Uriburu](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_F%C3%A9lix_Uriburu "José Félix Uriburu"), travelled on the maiden journey.
On 22 June 1931, Line B was extended to [Carlos Pellegrini](/wiki/Carlos_Pellegrini_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Carlos Pellegrini (Buenos Aires Underground)") station. The line was finally completed on 1 December 1931 when the subway reached the [Leandro N. Alem](/wiki/Leandro_N._Alem_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Leandro N. Alem (Buenos Aires Underground)") station. These three sections were located below [Corrientes Avenue](/wiki/Corrientes_Avenue "Corrientes Avenue"), including 19 curves and 13 stations.
Depending to the depth of the line, some sections were constructed using an open trench ([cut\-and\-cover method](/wiki/Cut-and-cover%23Cut-and-cover "Cut-and-cover#Cut-and-cover")) or gallery or tunnel. The open trench approach was used in constructing the [Federico Lacroze](/wiki/Federico_Lacroze_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Federico Lacroze (Buenos Aires Underground)"), [Dorrego](/wiki/Dorrego_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Dorrego (Buenos Aires Underground)"), Canning (now [Malabia](/wiki/Malabia_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Malabia (Buenos Aires Underground)")), Río de Janeiro (now [Ángel Gallardo](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Gallardo_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Ángel Gallardo (Buenos Aires Underground)")) and [Medrano](/wiki/Medrano_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Medrano (Buenos Aires Underground)") stations. The tunnel at Maipu Street reached a maximum depth of {{Convert\|17\|m\|}}. Underneath the Rancagua (today Los Andes) park in [Chacarita](/wiki/Chacarita%2C_Buenos_Aires "Chacarita, Buenos Aires"), a workshop and a 10 track garage (with capacity for 110 cars) were built.
Lione B had escalators and turnstiles for the payment of coin\-operated service, initially manufactured in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), formerly controlled by guards. Line B is deeper underground than [Line A](/wiki/Line_A_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 "Line A (Buenos Aires Underground)"), and like it, each station was decorated with friezes of characteristic colours.
An underground link with the [Mercado Central de Abasto](/wiki/Abasto_de_Buenos_Aires "Abasto de Buenos Aires") (a wholesale fruit and vegetable market) was opened on 12 July 1933, through which [goods wagons](/wiki/Goods_wagon "Goods wagon") with freight from the Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Railroad) would arrive, driven by electric locomotives. This service ceased after a fire occurred on the link on 27 November 1952\.
The line always had an automatic light signalling system. In 1980 the mechanical stop\-gear devices were replaced by magnetic induction devices, and in 1998 they were finally replaced by an electronic system with [Automatic Train Protection](/wiki/Automatic_train_protection "Automatic train protection") (ATP). The original tracks were replaced, and a new automatic signal system with automatic train protection was installed and the transformers were changed to ones that did not contain PCBs, a carcinogenic chemical.
The modernisation carried out from 1996 by the private concessionaire Metrovías brought about a radical change in the appearance of the stations, covering the walls of both the platforms and the halls with asphalt\-type material painted black and ochre in most cases, except for Callao and Carlos Gardel which were decorated with white tiles with black veins. As a result, the previous coloured friezes that embellished the stations and gave them their characteristic touch were covered.
On 9 August 9, 2003, two new stations, Tronador \- Villa Ortúzar and De los Incas \- Parque Chas, were inaugurated, allowing the line to transport more than 300,000 passengers per business day.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1912 the [Congress of Argentina](/wiki/Argentine_National_Congress \"Argentine National Congress\") enacted Law 8,870 to construct a line that would unite the Correo Central ([Central Post Office](/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Central_Post_Office \"Buenos Aires Central Post Office\")) and the intersection of Triunvirato and Elcano streets, and meet with the tracks of the Buenos Aires Central Railroad ([Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires](/wiki/Ferrocarril_Central_de_Buenos_Aires \"Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires\") or FCCBA), which belonged to the same business group, through an {{Cvt\\|8\\.7\\|km}} tunnel. The Act provided that the works \"would help reduce traffic in the central area of the city\".",
"On 17 December 1927 in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") the financial agreement to build the line was signed between Teófilo Lacroze, the president of [Banco de la Nación](/wiki/Banco_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina \"Banco de la Nación Argentina\") Dr. Tomás de Estrada, Dr. Louis J. Rocca directory owner of Ferrocarril Terminal de Buenos Aires and bankers [Harris and Forbes](/wiki/Harris%2C_Forbes_%26_Co. \"Harris, Forbes & Co.\"). This agreement granted the concession of the line for passengers, parcels and freight to Lacroze Brothers Company.\n[thumb\\|150px\\|left\\| *Terminal Central de Buenos Aires* bronze plaque in [Federico Lacroze railway station](/wiki/Federico_Lacroze_railway_station \"Federico Lacroze railway station\")](/wiki/Image:Terminal_Central_de_Buenos_Aires.jpg \"Terminal Central de Buenos Aires.jpg\")\n[thumbnail\\|Eidan 500 train at [Juan Manuel de Rosas](/wiki/Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Juan Manuel de Rosas (Buenos Aires Underground)\") station.](/wiki/File:Eidan_500.jpg \"Eidan 500.jpg\")",
"The construction was carried out by the Argentine builder Dwight P. Robinson \\& Cía, and the line was called Ferrocarril Terminal Central de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Terminal Railroad). The first section between [Federico Lacroze](/wiki/Federico_Lacroze_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Federico Lacroze (Buenos Aires Underground)\") and [Callao](/wiki/Callao_%28Line_B_Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Callao (Line B Buenos Aires Underground)\") opened on 17 October 1930 and was {{Cvt\\|7\\.021\\|km}} in length. The Argentine President, [José Félix Uriburu](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_F%C3%A9lix_Uriburu \"José Félix Uriburu\"), travelled on the maiden journey.",
"On 22 June 1931, Line B was extended to [Carlos Pellegrini](/wiki/Carlos_Pellegrini_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Carlos Pellegrini (Buenos Aires Underground)\") station. The line was finally completed on 1 December 1931 when the subway reached the [Leandro N. Alem](/wiki/Leandro_N._Alem_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Leandro N. Alem (Buenos Aires Underground)\") station. These three sections were located below [Corrientes Avenue](/wiki/Corrientes_Avenue \"Corrientes Avenue\"), including 19 curves and 13 stations.",
"Depending to the depth of the line, some sections were constructed using an open trench ([cut\\-and\\-cover method](/wiki/Cut-and-cover%23Cut-and-cover \"Cut-and-cover#Cut-and-cover\")) or gallery or tunnel. The open trench approach was used in constructing the [Federico Lacroze](/wiki/Federico_Lacroze_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Federico Lacroze (Buenos Aires Underground)\"), [Dorrego](/wiki/Dorrego_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Dorrego (Buenos Aires Underground)\"), Canning (now [Malabia](/wiki/Malabia_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Malabia (Buenos Aires Underground)\")), Río de Janeiro (now [Ángel Gallardo](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Gallardo_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Ángel Gallardo (Buenos Aires Underground)\")) and [Medrano](/wiki/Medrano_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Medrano (Buenos Aires Underground)\") stations. The tunnel at Maipu Street reached a maximum depth of {{Convert\\|17\\|m\\|}}. Underneath the Rancagua (today Los Andes) park in [Chacarita](/wiki/Chacarita%2C_Buenos_Aires \"Chacarita, Buenos Aires\"), a workshop and a 10 track garage (with capacity for 110 cars) were built.",
"Lione B had escalators and turnstiles for the payment of coin\\-operated service, initially manufactured in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), formerly controlled by guards. Line B is deeper underground than [Line A](/wiki/Line_A_%28Buenos_Aires_Underground%29 \"Line A (Buenos Aires Underground)\"), and like it, each station was decorated with friezes of characteristic colours.",
"An underground link with the [Mercado Central de Abasto](/wiki/Abasto_de_Buenos_Aires \"Abasto de Buenos Aires\") (a wholesale fruit and vegetable market) was opened on 12 July 1933, through which [goods wagons](/wiki/Goods_wagon \"Goods wagon\") with freight from the Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Railroad) would arrive, driven by electric locomotives. This service ceased after a fire occurred on the link on 27 November 1952\\.",
"The line always had an automatic light signalling system. In 1980 the mechanical stop\\-gear devices were replaced by magnetic induction devices, and in 1998 they were finally replaced by an electronic system with [Automatic Train Protection](/wiki/Automatic_train_protection \"Automatic train protection\") (ATP). The original tracks were replaced, and a new automatic signal system with automatic train protection was installed and the transformers were changed to ones that did not contain PCBs, a carcinogenic chemical.",
"The modernisation carried out from 1996 by the private concessionaire Metrovías brought about a radical change in the appearance of the stations, covering the walls of both the platforms and the halls with asphalt\\-type material painted black and ochre in most cases, except for Callao and Carlos Gardel which were decorated with white tiles with black veins. As a result, the previous coloured friezes that embellished the stations and gave them their characteristic touch were covered.",
"On 9 August 9, 2003, two new stations, Tronador \\- Villa Ortúzar and De los Incas \\- Parque Chas, were inaugurated, allowing the line to transport more than 300,000 passengers per business day.",
""
] |
Design
------
NFC is a set of short\-range wireless technologies, typically requiring a separation of 10 cm or less. NFC operates at 13\.56 [MHz](/wiki/MHz "MHz") on [ISO/IEC 18000\-3](/wiki/ISO/IEC_18000-3 "ISO/IEC 18000-3") air interface and at rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 424 kbit/s. NFC always involves an initiator and a target; the initiator actively generates an [RF](/wiki/Radio_frequency "Radio frequency") field that can power a passive target. This enables NFC targets to take very simple form factors such as unpowered tags, stickers, key fobs, or cards. NFC peer\-to\-peer communication is possible, provided both devices are powered.
NFC tags contain data and are typically read\-only, but may be writable. They can be custom\-encoded by their manufacturers or use NFC Forum specifications. The tags can securely store personal data such as debit and credit card information, loyalty program data, PINs and networking contacts, among other information. The NFC Forum defines five types of tags that provide different communication speeds and capabilities in terms of configurability, memory, security, [data retention](/wiki/Data_retention "Data retention") and write endurance.{{cite web\|website\=nfc\-forum.org\|url\=https://nfc\-forum.org/build/specifications/\|title\=The Building Blocks of Contactless, Core Specifications\|date\=12 February 2024\|access\-date\=12 February 2024}}
As with [proximity card](/wiki/Proximity_card "Proximity card") technology, NFC uses [inductive coupling](/wiki/Inductive_coupling "Inductive coupling") between two nearby [loop antennas](/wiki/Electromagnetic_coil "Electromagnetic coil") effectively forming an air\-core [transformer](/wiki/Transformer "Transformer"). Because the distances involved are tiny compared to the [wavelength](/wiki/Wavelength "Wavelength") of [electromagnetic radiation](/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation "Electromagnetic radiation") (radio waves) of that frequency (about 22 metres), the interaction is described as [near field](/wiki/Near_and_far_field "Near and far field"). An alternating [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field "Magnetic field") is the main coupling factor and almost no power is radiated in the form of [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_wave "Radio wave") (which are electromagnetic waves, also involving an oscillating [electric field](/wiki/Electric_field "Electric field")); that minimises interference between such devices and any radio communications at the same frequency or with other NFC devices much beyond its intended range. NFC operates within the globally available and unlicensed [radio frequency](/wiki/Radio_frequency "Radio frequency") [ISM band](/wiki/ISM_band "ISM band") of 13\.56 MHz. Most of the RF energy is concentrated in the ±7 kHz bandwidth allocated for that band, but the emission's [spectral width](/wiki/Bandwidth_%28signal_processing%29 "Bandwidth (signal processing)") can be as wide as 1\.8 MHz{{cite conference \| author\=Patauner, C. \| author2\=Witschnig, H. \| author3\=Rinner, D. \| author4\=Maire, A. \| author5\=Merlin, E. \| author6\=Leitgeb, E. \| url\=http://www.eurasip.org/Proceedings/Ext/RFID2007/pdf/s1p4\.pdf \| title\=High Speed RFID/NFC at the Frequency of 13\.56 MHz \| conference\=RFID 2007 \| conference\-url\=http://rfid07\.ftw.at/ \| location\=Vienna, Austria \| date\=24 September 2007 \| access\-date\=10 December 2010 \| archive\-date\=1 May 2011 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501030235/http://www.eurasip.org/Proceedings/Ext/RFID2007/pdf/s1p4\.pdf \| url\-status\=live }} in order to support high data rates.
Working distance with compact standard antennas and realistic power levels could be up to about 20 cm (but practically speaking, working distances never exceed 10 cm). Note that because the pickup antenna may be quenched in an [eddy current](/wiki/Eddy_current "Eddy current") by nearby metallic surfaces, the tags may require a minimum separation from such surfaces.{{Cite journal\|title\=Investigation of using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) System for Gear Tooth Crack Detection\|year\=2014\|citeseerx \= 10\.1\.1\.1011\.4228}}
The ISO/IEC 18092 standard supports data rates of 106, 212 or 424 [kbit/s](/wiki/Kbit/s "Kbit/s").
The communication takes place between an active "initiator" device and a target device which may either be:
Passive The initiator device provides a carrier field and the target device, acting as a [transponder](/wiki/Transponder "Transponder"), communicates by modulating the incident field. In this mode, the target device may draw its operating power from the initiator\-provided magnetic field.
Active Both initiator and target device communicate by alternately generating their own fields. A device stops transmitting in order to receive data from the other. This mode requires that both devices include power supplies.
| Speed (kbit/s) | Active device | Passive device |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 424 | Manchester, 10% [ASK](/wiki/Amplitude-shift_keying "Amplitude-shift keying") | Manchester, 10% ASK |
| 212 | Manchester, 10% ASK | Manchester, 10% ASK |
| 106 | Modified Miller, 100% ASK | Manchester, 10% ASK |
NFC employs two different [codings](/wiki/Coding_theory "Coding theory") to transfer data. If an active device transfers data at 106 kbit/s, a modified [Miller coding](/wiki/Miller_coding "Miller coding") with 100 percent [modulation](/wiki/Modulation "Modulation") is used. In all other cases [Manchester coding](/wiki/Manchester_coding "Manchester coding") is used with a modulation ratio of 10 percent.
Every active NFC device can work in one or more of three modes:
NFC card emulation Enables NFC\-enabled devices such as smartphones to act like smart cards, allowing users to perform transactions such as payment or ticketing. See [Host card emulation](/wiki/Host_card_emulation "Host card emulation")
NFC reader/writer Enables NFC\-enabled devices to read information stored on inexpensive NFC tags embedded in labels or smart posters.
NFC peer\-to\-peerEnables two NFC\-enabled devices to communicate with each other to exchange information in an [ad hoc](/wiki/Ad_hoc_network "Ad hoc network") fashion.
NFC tags are passive data stores which can be read, and under some circumstances written to, by an NFC device. They typically contain data ({{As of\|2015\|lc\=y}} between 96 and 8,192 bytes) and are read\-only in normal use, but may be rewritable. Applications include secure personal data storage (e.g. [debit](/wiki/Debit_card "Debit card") or [credit card](/wiki/Credit_card "Credit card") information, [loyalty program](/wiki/Loyalty_program "Loyalty program") data, [personal identification numbers](/wiki/Personal_identification_number "Personal identification number") (PINs), contacts). NFC tags can be custom\-encoded by their manufacturers or use the industry specifications.
|
[
"Design\n------",
"NFC is a set of short\\-range wireless technologies, typically requiring a separation of 10 cm or less. NFC operates at 13\\.56 [MHz](/wiki/MHz \"MHz\") on [ISO/IEC 18000\\-3](/wiki/ISO/IEC_18000-3 \"ISO/IEC 18000-3\") air interface and at rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 424 kbit/s. NFC always involves an initiator and a target; the initiator actively generates an [RF](/wiki/Radio_frequency \"Radio frequency\") field that can power a passive target. This enables NFC targets to take very simple form factors such as unpowered tags, stickers, key fobs, or cards. NFC peer\\-to\\-peer communication is possible, provided both devices are powered.",
"NFC tags contain data and are typically read\\-only, but may be writable. They can be custom\\-encoded by their manufacturers or use NFC Forum specifications. The tags can securely store personal data such as debit and credit card information, loyalty program data, PINs and networking contacts, among other information. The NFC Forum defines five types of tags that provide different communication speeds and capabilities in terms of configurability, memory, security, [data retention](/wiki/Data_retention \"Data retention\") and write endurance.{{cite web\\|website\\=nfc\\-forum.org\\|url\\=https://nfc\\-forum.org/build/specifications/\\|title\\=The Building Blocks of Contactless, Core Specifications\\|date\\=12 February 2024\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2024}}",
"As with [proximity card](/wiki/Proximity_card \"Proximity card\") technology, NFC uses [inductive coupling](/wiki/Inductive_coupling \"Inductive coupling\") between two nearby [loop antennas](/wiki/Electromagnetic_coil \"Electromagnetic coil\") effectively forming an air\\-core [transformer](/wiki/Transformer \"Transformer\"). Because the distances involved are tiny compared to the [wavelength](/wiki/Wavelength \"Wavelength\") of [electromagnetic radiation](/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation \"Electromagnetic radiation\") (radio waves) of that frequency (about 22 metres), the interaction is described as [near field](/wiki/Near_and_far_field \"Near and far field\"). An alternating [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field \"Magnetic field\") is the main coupling factor and almost no power is radiated in the form of [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_wave \"Radio wave\") (which are electromagnetic waves, also involving an oscillating [electric field](/wiki/Electric_field \"Electric field\")); that minimises interference between such devices and any radio communications at the same frequency or with other NFC devices much beyond its intended range. NFC operates within the globally available and unlicensed [radio frequency](/wiki/Radio_frequency \"Radio frequency\") [ISM band](/wiki/ISM_band \"ISM band\") of 13\\.56 MHz. Most of the RF energy is concentrated in the ±7 kHz bandwidth allocated for that band, but the emission's [spectral width](/wiki/Bandwidth_%28signal_processing%29 \"Bandwidth (signal processing)\") can be as wide as 1\\.8 MHz{{cite conference \\| author\\=Patauner, C. \\| author2\\=Witschnig, H. \\| author3\\=Rinner, D. \\| author4\\=Maire, A. \\| author5\\=Merlin, E. \\| author6\\=Leitgeb, E. \\| url\\=http://www.eurasip.org/Proceedings/Ext/RFID2007/pdf/s1p4\\.pdf \\| title\\=High Speed RFID/NFC at the Frequency of 13\\.56 MHz \\| conference\\=RFID 2007 \\| conference\\-url\\=http://rfid07\\.ftw.at/ \\| location\\=Vienna, Austria \\| date\\=24 September 2007 \\| access\\-date\\=10 December 2010 \\| archive\\-date\\=1 May 2011 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501030235/http://www.eurasip.org/Proceedings/Ext/RFID2007/pdf/s1p4\\.pdf \\| url\\-status\\=live }} in order to support high data rates.",
"Working distance with compact standard antennas and realistic power levels could be up to about 20 cm (but practically speaking, working distances never exceed 10 cm). Note that because the pickup antenna may be quenched in an [eddy current](/wiki/Eddy_current \"Eddy current\") by nearby metallic surfaces, the tags may require a minimum separation from such surfaces.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=Investigation of using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) System for Gear Tooth Crack Detection\\|year\\=2014\\|citeseerx \\= 10\\.1\\.1\\.1011\\.4228}}",
"The ISO/IEC 18092 standard supports data rates of 106, 212 or 424 [kbit/s](/wiki/Kbit/s \"Kbit/s\").",
"The communication takes place between an active \"initiator\" device and a target device which may either be:",
"Passive The initiator device provides a carrier field and the target device, acting as a [transponder](/wiki/Transponder \"Transponder\"), communicates by modulating the incident field. In this mode, the target device may draw its operating power from the initiator\\-provided magnetic field.\n Active Both initiator and target device communicate by alternately generating their own fields. A device stops transmitting in order to receive data from the other. This mode requires that both devices include power supplies.",
"| Speed (kbit/s) | Active device | Passive device |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 424 | Manchester, 10% [ASK](/wiki/Amplitude-shift_keying \"Amplitude-shift keying\") | Manchester, 10% ASK |\n| 212 | Manchester, 10% ASK | Manchester, 10% ASK |\n| 106 | Modified Miller, 100% ASK | Manchester, 10% ASK |",
"NFC employs two different [codings](/wiki/Coding_theory \"Coding theory\") to transfer data. If an active device transfers data at 106 kbit/s, a modified [Miller coding](/wiki/Miller_coding \"Miller coding\") with 100 percent [modulation](/wiki/Modulation \"Modulation\") is used. In all other cases [Manchester coding](/wiki/Manchester_coding \"Manchester coding\") is used with a modulation ratio of 10 percent.",
"Every active NFC device can work in one or more of three modes:",
"NFC card emulation Enables NFC\\-enabled devices such as smartphones to act like smart cards, allowing users to perform transactions such as payment or ticketing. See [Host card emulation](/wiki/Host_card_emulation \"Host card emulation\")\n NFC reader/writer Enables NFC\\-enabled devices to read information stored on inexpensive NFC tags embedded in labels or smart posters.\n NFC peer\\-to\\-peerEnables two NFC\\-enabled devices to communicate with each other to exchange information in an [ad hoc](/wiki/Ad_hoc_network \"Ad hoc network\") fashion.\nNFC tags are passive data stores which can be read, and under some circumstances written to, by an NFC device. They typically contain data ({{As of\\|2015\\|lc\\=y}} between 96 and 8,192 bytes) and are read\\-only in normal use, but may be rewritable. Applications include secure personal data storage (e.g. [debit](/wiki/Debit_card \"Debit card\") or [credit card](/wiki/Credit_card \"Credit card\") information, [loyalty program](/wiki/Loyalty_program \"Loyalty program\") data, [personal identification numbers](/wiki/Personal_identification_number \"Personal identification number\") (PINs), contacts). NFC tags can be custom\\-encoded by their manufacturers or use the industry specifications.",
""
] |
Applications
------------
[thumb\|N\-Mark logo for NFC\-enabled devices](/wiki/File:NFC_Forum_N_mark.svg "NFC Forum N mark.svg")
NFC allows one\- and two\-way communication between endpoints, suitable for many applications.
NFC devices can act as electronic [identity documents](/wiki/Identity_document "Identity document") and [keycards](/wiki/Keycard_lock "Keycard lock"). They are used in [contactless payment](/wiki/Contactless_payment "Contactless payment") systems and allow [mobile payment](/wiki/Mobile_payment "Mobile payment") replacing or supplementing systems such as credit cards and [electronic ticket](/wiki/Electronic_ticket "Electronic ticket") smart cards. These are sometimes called *NFC/CTLS* or *CTLS NFC*, with *contactless* abbreviated as *CTLS*. NFC can be used to share small files such as contacts and for bootstrapping fast connections to share larger media such as photos, videos, and other files.{{cite web \|last1\=Pelly \|first1\=Nick \|last2\=Hamilton \|first2\=Jeff \|title\=How to NFC \|work\=Google I/O 2011 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=49L7z3rxz4Q \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/49L7z3rxz4Q\| archive\-date\=2021\-12\-12 \|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=16 April 2014 \|date\=10 May 2011 }}{{cbignore}}
### Commerce
NFC devices can be used in contactless payment systems, similar to those used in credit cards and [electronic ticket](/wiki/Electronic_ticket "Electronic ticket") smart cards, and allow mobile payment to replace/supplement these systems.
In [Android](/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 "Android (operating system)") 4\.4, Google introduced platform support for secure NFC\-based transactions through [Host Card Emulation](/wiki/Host_card_emulation "Host card emulation") (HCE), for payments, loyalty programs, card access, transit passes and other custom services. HCE allows any Android 4\.4 app to emulate an NFC smart card, letting users initiate transactions with their device. Apps can use a new Reader Mode to act as readers for HCE cards and other NFC\-based transactions.
On September 9, 2014, [Apple](/wiki/Apple_Inc. "Apple Inc.") announced support for NFC\-powered transactions as part of [Apple Pay](/wiki/Apple_Pay "Apple Pay").{{cite web\| url\=https://aristeksystems.com/blog/nfc\-what\-it\-and\-what\-you\-need\-know/\| title\=NFC – What it is and what you need to know\| accessdate\=2021\-12\-17\| archive\-date\=2021\-12\-17\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217181248/https://aristeksystems.com/blog/nfc\-what\-it\-and\-what\-you\-need\-know/\| url\-status\=live}} With the introduction of iOS 11, Apple devices allow third\-party developers to read data from NFC tags.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/07/apple\-wwdc\-changes\-announce\-on\-stage\-wired\-keyboards\-facebook\-twitter\-ios\-11\-pencil \|title\=The 10 biggest changes Apple didn't announce on stage at WWDC \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|date\=7 June 2017 \|author\=Alex Hern \|access\-date\=7 June 2017 \|archive\-date\=7 June 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607131904/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/07/apple\-wwdc\-changes\-announce\-on\-stage\-wired\-keyboards\-facebook\-twitter\-ios\-11\-pencil \|url\-status\=live }}
As of 2022, there are five major NFC apps available in the UK: Apple Pay, Google Pay, Samsung Pay, Barclays Contactless Mobile and Fitbit Pay. The UK Finance's UK Payment Markets Summary 2021 looked at Apple Pay, Google Pay and Samsung Pay and found 17\.3 million UK adults had registered for mobile payment (up 75% from the year before) and of those, 84% had made a mobile payment.{{Cite web \|title\=What is NFC and how do mobile payments work? \|url\=https://www.choose.co.uk/money/guide/nfc\-mobile\-payments/ \|website\=Choose \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-13 \|archive\-date\=2023\-01\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117220747/https://www.choose.co.uk/money/guide/nfc\-mobile\-payments/ \|url\-status\=live }}
### Bootstrapping other connections
NFC offers a low\-speed connection with simple setup that can be used to [bootstrap](/wiki/Bootstrapping "Bootstrapping") more capable [wireless connections](/wiki/Wireless_network "Wireless network").{{cite web\|title\=NFC as Technology Enabler \|url\=http://members.nfc\-forum.org/aboutnfc/tech\_enabler/ \|publisher\=NFC Forum \|access\-date\=15 June 2011 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131222014541/http://members.nfc\-forum.org/aboutnfc/tech\_enabler/ \|archive\-date\=22 December 2013 }} For example, [Android Beam](/wiki/Android_Beam "Android Beam") software uses NFC to enable pairing and establish a Bluetooth connection when doing a file transfer and then disabling Bluetooth on both devices upon completion.{{cite web \|title\=Android 4\.1 APIs \|url\=http://developer.android.com/about/versions/android\-4\.1\.html\#Connectivity \|publisher\=Android Developer Network \|access\-date\=19 September 2012 \|archive\-date\=8 August 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808195554/http://developer.android.com/about/versions/android\-4\.1\.html\#Connectivity \|url\-status\=live }} Nokia, Samsung, BlackBerry and Sony{{cite web \|title\=Sony Australia One Touch \|url\=http://www.sony.com.au/microsite/onetouch/ \|publisher\=sony.com.au \|access\-date\=7 June 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105050452/http://www.sony.com.au/microsite/onetouch/ \|archive\-date\=5 November 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }} have used NFC technology to pair Bluetooth headsets, media players and speakers with one tap.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.phonesnews.com/2011/08/\|title\=August 2011\|date\=30 August 2011 \|publisher\=Phonesnews.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-22\|archive\-date\=2019\-04\-22\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422210652/https://www.phonesnews.com/2011/08/\|url\-status\=live}} The same principle can be applied to the configuration of Wi\-Fi networks. [Samsung Galaxy](/wiki/Samsung_Galaxy "Samsung Galaxy") devices have a feature named [S\-Beam](/wiki/S-Beam "S-Beam")—an extension of Android Beam that uses NFC (to share [MAC address](/wiki/MAC_address "MAC address") and [IP addresses](/wiki/IP_addresses "IP addresses")) and then uses [Wi\-Fi Direct](/wiki/Wi-Fi_Direct "Wi-Fi Direct") to share files and documents. The advantage of using Wi\-Fi Direct over Bluetooth is that it permits much faster data transfers, running up to 300 Mbit/s.
### Social networking
NFC can be used for [social networking](/wiki/Social_networking_service "Social networking service"), for sharing contacts, text messages and forums, links to photos, videos or files and entering multiplayer [mobile games](/wiki/Mobile_game "Mobile game").{{cite web \|title\=NFC will catch on 'like wildfire' says Sundance festival game creator \|work\=Near Field Communications World \|date\=20 March 2011 \|url\=http://www.nearfieldcommunicationsworld.com/2011/03/20/36516/nfc\-will\-catch\-on\-like\-wildfire\-says\-sundance\-festival\-game\-creator/ \|access\-date\=7 May 2011 \|archive\-date\=23 May 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523064621/http://www.nearfieldcommunicationsworld.com/2011/03/20/36516/nfc\-will\-catch\-on\-like\-wildfire\-says\-sundance\-festival\-game\-creator/ \|url\-status\=live }}
### Identity and access tokens
NFC\-enabled devices can act as electronic [identity documents](/wiki/Identity_document "Identity document") found in passports and ID cards, and [keycards](/wiki/Keycard_lock "Keycard lock") for the use in [fare cards](/wiki/Fare_card "Fare card"), [transit passes](/wiki/Transit_pass "Transit pass"), [login cards](/wiki/Smart_card%23Computer_security "Smart card#Computer security"), car keys and [access badges](/wiki/Access_badge "Access badge") . NFC's short range and encryption support make it more suitable than less private RFID systems.
### Smartphone automation and NFC tags
NFC\-equipped smartphones can be paired with [NFC Tags](/wiki/NFC_Tag "NFC Tag") or stickers that can be programmed by NFC apps. These programs can allow a change of phone settings, texting, app launching, or command execution.
Such apps do not rely on a company or manufacturer, but can be utilized immediately with an NFC\-equipped smartphone and an NFC tag.{{cite web \|last1\=Wrye \|first1\=Eric \|title\=NFC Tag Ideas and Video Demos \|url\=http://www.andytags.com/nfc\-tag\-use\-\-demos.html \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628051633/http://www.andytags.com/nfc\-tag\-use\-\-demos.html \|archive\-date\=2013\-06\-28 \|url\-status\=dead }}
The NFC Forum published the [Signature Record Type Definition](/wiki/Signature_Record_Type_Definition "Signature Record Type Definition") (RTD) 2\.0 in 2015 to add integrity and authenticity for NFC Tags. This specification allows an NFC device to verify tag data and identify the tag author.{{cite web\|url\=http://nfc\-forum.org/newsroom/nfc\-forum\-brings\-advanced\-security\-to\-nfc\-tags\-with\-signature\-rtd\-2\-0\-technical\-specification\-2/\|title\=NFC Forum Brings Advanced Security to NFC Tags with Signature RTD 2\.0 Technical Specification \- NFC Forum\|date\=16 April 2015\|access\-date\=27 May 2015\|archive\-date\=28 May 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528014132/http://nfc\-forum.org/newsroom/nfc\-forum\-brings\-advanced\-security\-to\-nfc\-tags\-with\-signature\-rtd\-2\-0\-technical\-specification\-2/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Gaming
{{Main\|List of gaming NFC platforms}}
NFC has been used in [video games](/wiki/Video_games "Video games") starting with *[Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure](/wiki/Skylanders:Spyro%27s_Adventure "Spyro's Adventure")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rfidjournal.com/purchase\-access?type\=Article\&id\=10002\&r\=%2Farticles%2Fview%3F10002\|title\=Access This Premium Content\|website\=www.rfidjournal.com\|date\=13 December 2007\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-22\|archive\-date\=2016\-07\-30\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730212954/https://www.rfidjournal.com/purchase\-access?type\=Article\&id\=10002\&r\=%2Farticles%2Fview%3F10002\|url\-status\=dead}} These are customizable figurines which contain personal data with each figure, so no two figures are exactly alike. Nintendo's [Wii U GamePad](/wiki/Wii_U_GamePad "Wii U GamePad") was the first console system to include NFC technology out of the box. It was later included in the [Nintendo 3DS](/wiki/Nintendo_3DS "Nintendo 3DS") range (being built into the New Nintendo 3DS/XL and in a separately sold reader which uses [Infrared](/wiki/Infrared "Infrared") to communicate to older 3DS family consoles) and the [Nintendo Switch](/wiki/Nintendo_Switch "Nintendo Switch") range (being built within the right [Joy\-Con](/wiki/Joy-Con "Joy-Con") controller and directly in the Nintendo Switch Lite). The [amiibo](/wiki/Amiibo "Amiibo") range of accessories utilize NFC technology to unlock features.
### Sports
[Adidas Telstar 18](/wiki/Adidas_Telstar_18 "Adidas Telstar 18") is a soccer ball that contains an NFC chip within.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.footyheadlines.com/2017/11/the\-chip\-inside\-the\-2018\-world\-cup\-ball\-is\-a\-completely\-unnecessary\-gimmick.html\|title\=Revealed: The Chip Inside The 2018 World Cup Ball is a Completely Unnecessary Gimmick\|publisher\=Footy Headlines\|date\=13 November 2017\|access\-date\=15 July 2018\|archive\-date\=12 June 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612184357/https://www.footyheadlines.com/2017/11/the\-chip\-inside\-the\-2018\-world\-cup\-ball\-is\-a\-completely\-unnecessary\-gimmick.html\|url\-status\=live}} The chip enables users to interact with the ball using a smartphone.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/bluebite\-adidas\-nfc\-soccer\-ball\-world\-cup\|title\=NFC tech in official World Cup match ball draws fans even more into the games\|publisher\=Digital Trends\|first\=Rick\|last\=Stella\|date\=11 June 2018\|access\-date\=15 July 2018\|archive\-date\=15 July 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715235915/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/bluebite\-adidas\-nfc\-soccer\-ball\-world\-cup/\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Applications\n------------",
"[thumb\\|N\\-Mark logo for NFC\\-enabled devices](/wiki/File:NFC_Forum_N_mark.svg \"NFC Forum N mark.svg\")",
"NFC allows one\\- and two\\-way communication between endpoints, suitable for many applications.",
"NFC devices can act as electronic [identity documents](/wiki/Identity_document \"Identity document\") and [keycards](/wiki/Keycard_lock \"Keycard lock\"). They are used in [contactless payment](/wiki/Contactless_payment \"Contactless payment\") systems and allow [mobile payment](/wiki/Mobile_payment \"Mobile payment\") replacing or supplementing systems such as credit cards and [electronic ticket](/wiki/Electronic_ticket \"Electronic ticket\") smart cards. These are sometimes called *NFC/CTLS* or *CTLS NFC*, with *contactless* abbreviated as *CTLS*. NFC can be used to share small files such as contacts and for bootstrapping fast connections to share larger media such as photos, videos, and other files.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Pelly \\|first1\\=Nick \\|last2\\=Hamilton \\|first2\\=Jeff \\|title\\=How to NFC \\|work\\=Google I/O 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=49L7z3rxz4Q \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/49L7z3rxz4Q\\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2014 \\|date\\=10 May 2011 }}{{cbignore}}",
"### Commerce",
"NFC devices can be used in contactless payment systems, similar to those used in credit cards and [electronic ticket](/wiki/Electronic_ticket \"Electronic ticket\") smart cards, and allow mobile payment to replace/supplement these systems.",
"In [Android](/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 \"Android (operating system)\") 4\\.4, Google introduced platform support for secure NFC\\-based transactions through [Host Card Emulation](/wiki/Host_card_emulation \"Host card emulation\") (HCE), for payments, loyalty programs, card access, transit passes and other custom services. HCE allows any Android 4\\.4 app to emulate an NFC smart card, letting users initiate transactions with their device. Apps can use a new Reader Mode to act as readers for HCE cards and other NFC\\-based transactions.",
"On September 9, 2014, [Apple](/wiki/Apple_Inc. \"Apple Inc.\") announced support for NFC\\-powered transactions as part of [Apple Pay](/wiki/Apple_Pay \"Apple Pay\").{{cite web\\| url\\=https://aristeksystems.com/blog/nfc\\-what\\-it\\-and\\-what\\-you\\-need\\-know/\\| title\\=NFC – What it is and what you need to know\\| accessdate\\=2021\\-12\\-17\\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-17\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217181248/https://aristeksystems.com/blog/nfc\\-what\\-it\\-and\\-what\\-you\\-need\\-know/\\| url\\-status\\=live}} With the introduction of iOS 11, Apple devices allow third\\-party developers to read data from NFC tags.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/07/apple\\-wwdc\\-changes\\-announce\\-on\\-stage\\-wired\\-keyboards\\-facebook\\-twitter\\-ios\\-11\\-pencil \\|title\\=The 10 biggest changes Apple didn't announce on stage at WWDC \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=7 June 2017 \\|author\\=Alex Hern \\|access\\-date\\=7 June 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607131904/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/07/apple\\-wwdc\\-changes\\-announce\\-on\\-stage\\-wired\\-keyboards\\-facebook\\-twitter\\-ios\\-11\\-pencil \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"As of 2022, there are five major NFC apps available in the UK: Apple Pay, Google Pay, Samsung Pay, Barclays Contactless Mobile and Fitbit Pay. The UK Finance's UK Payment Markets Summary 2021 looked at Apple Pay, Google Pay and Samsung Pay and found 17\\.3 million UK adults had registered for mobile payment (up 75% from the year before) and of those, 84% had made a mobile payment.{{Cite web \\|title\\=What is NFC and how do mobile payments work? \\|url\\=https://www.choose.co.uk/money/guide/nfc\\-mobile\\-payments/ \\|website\\=Choose \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-13 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117220747/https://www.choose.co.uk/money/guide/nfc\\-mobile\\-payments/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Bootstrapping other connections",
"NFC offers a low\\-speed connection with simple setup that can be used to [bootstrap](/wiki/Bootstrapping \"Bootstrapping\") more capable [wireless connections](/wiki/Wireless_network \"Wireless network\").{{cite web\\|title\\=NFC as Technology Enabler \\|url\\=http://members.nfc\\-forum.org/aboutnfc/tech\\_enabler/ \\|publisher\\=NFC Forum \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131222014541/http://members.nfc\\-forum.org/aboutnfc/tech\\_enabler/ \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2013 }} For example, [Android Beam](/wiki/Android_Beam \"Android Beam\") software uses NFC to enable pairing and establish a Bluetooth connection when doing a file transfer and then disabling Bluetooth on both devices upon completion.{{cite web \\|title\\=Android 4\\.1 APIs \\|url\\=http://developer.android.com/about/versions/android\\-4\\.1\\.html\\#Connectivity \\|publisher\\=Android Developer Network \\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 August 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808195554/http://developer.android.com/about/versions/android\\-4\\.1\\.html\\#Connectivity \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Nokia, Samsung, BlackBerry and Sony{{cite web \\|title\\=Sony Australia One Touch \\|url\\=http://www.sony.com.au/microsite/onetouch/ \\|publisher\\=sony.com.au \\|access\\-date\\=7 June 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105050452/http://www.sony.com.au/microsite/onetouch/ \\|archive\\-date\\=5 November 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} have used NFC technology to pair Bluetooth headsets, media players and speakers with one tap.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.phonesnews.com/2011/08/\\|title\\=August 2011\\|date\\=30 August 2011 \\|publisher\\=Phonesnews.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-22\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-22\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422210652/https://www.phonesnews.com/2011/08/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The same principle can be applied to the configuration of Wi\\-Fi networks. [Samsung Galaxy](/wiki/Samsung_Galaxy \"Samsung Galaxy\") devices have a feature named [S\\-Beam](/wiki/S-Beam \"S-Beam\")—an extension of Android Beam that uses NFC (to share [MAC address](/wiki/MAC_address \"MAC address\") and [IP addresses](/wiki/IP_addresses \"IP addresses\")) and then uses [Wi\\-Fi Direct](/wiki/Wi-Fi_Direct \"Wi-Fi Direct\") to share files and documents. The advantage of using Wi\\-Fi Direct over Bluetooth is that it permits much faster data transfers, running up to 300 Mbit/s.",
"### Social networking",
"NFC can be used for [social networking](/wiki/Social_networking_service \"Social networking service\"), for sharing contacts, text messages and forums, links to photos, videos or files and entering multiplayer [mobile games](/wiki/Mobile_game \"Mobile game\").{{cite web \\|title\\=NFC will catch on 'like wildfire' says Sundance festival game creator \\|work\\=Near Field Communications World \\|date\\=20 March 2011 \\|url\\=http://www.nearfieldcommunicationsworld.com/2011/03/20/36516/nfc\\-will\\-catch\\-on\\-like\\-wildfire\\-says\\-sundance\\-festival\\-game\\-creator/ \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 May 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523064621/http://www.nearfieldcommunicationsworld.com/2011/03/20/36516/nfc\\-will\\-catch\\-on\\-like\\-wildfire\\-says\\-sundance\\-festival\\-game\\-creator/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Identity and access tokens",
"NFC\\-enabled devices can act as electronic [identity documents](/wiki/Identity_document \"Identity document\") found in passports and ID cards, and [keycards](/wiki/Keycard_lock \"Keycard lock\") for the use in [fare cards](/wiki/Fare_card \"Fare card\"), [transit passes](/wiki/Transit_pass \"Transit pass\"), [login cards](/wiki/Smart_card%23Computer_security \"Smart card#Computer security\"), car keys and [access badges](/wiki/Access_badge \"Access badge\") . NFC's short range and encryption support make it more suitable than less private RFID systems.",
"### Smartphone automation and NFC tags",
"NFC\\-equipped smartphones can be paired with [NFC Tags](/wiki/NFC_Tag \"NFC Tag\") or stickers that can be programmed by NFC apps. These programs can allow a change of phone settings, texting, app launching, or command execution.",
"Such apps do not rely on a company or manufacturer, but can be utilized immediately with an NFC\\-equipped smartphone and an NFC tag.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Wrye \\|first1\\=Eric \\|title\\=NFC Tag Ideas and Video Demos \\|url\\=http://www.andytags.com/nfc\\-tag\\-use\\-\\-demos.html \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628051633/http://www.andytags.com/nfc\\-tag\\-use\\-\\-demos.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"The NFC Forum published the [Signature Record Type Definition](/wiki/Signature_Record_Type_Definition \"Signature Record Type Definition\") (RTD) 2\\.0 in 2015 to add integrity and authenticity for NFC Tags. This specification allows an NFC device to verify tag data and identify the tag author.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://nfc\\-forum.org/newsroom/nfc\\-forum\\-brings\\-advanced\\-security\\-to\\-nfc\\-tags\\-with\\-signature\\-rtd\\-2\\-0\\-technical\\-specification\\-2/\\|title\\=NFC Forum Brings Advanced Security to NFC Tags with Signature RTD 2\\.0 Technical Specification \\- NFC Forum\\|date\\=16 April 2015\\|access\\-date\\=27 May 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=28 May 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528014132/http://nfc\\-forum.org/newsroom/nfc\\-forum\\-brings\\-advanced\\-security\\-to\\-nfc\\-tags\\-with\\-signature\\-rtd\\-2\\-0\\-technical\\-specification\\-2/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Gaming",
"{{Main\\|List of gaming NFC platforms}}\nNFC has been used in [video games](/wiki/Video_games \"Video games\") starting with *[Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure](/wiki/Skylanders:Spyro%27s_Adventure \"Spyro's Adventure\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rfidjournal.com/purchase\\-access?type\\=Article\\&id\\=10002\\&r\\=%2Farticles%2Fview%3F10002\\|title\\=Access This Premium Content\\|website\\=www.rfidjournal.com\\|date\\=13 December 2007\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-22\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-30\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730212954/https://www.rfidjournal.com/purchase\\-access?type\\=Article\\&id\\=10002\\&r\\=%2Farticles%2Fview%3F10002\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} These are customizable figurines which contain personal data with each figure, so no two figures are exactly alike. Nintendo's [Wii U GamePad](/wiki/Wii_U_GamePad \"Wii U GamePad\") was the first console system to include NFC technology out of the box. It was later included in the [Nintendo 3DS](/wiki/Nintendo_3DS \"Nintendo 3DS\") range (being built into the New Nintendo 3DS/XL and in a separately sold reader which uses [Infrared](/wiki/Infrared \"Infrared\") to communicate to older 3DS family consoles) and the [Nintendo Switch](/wiki/Nintendo_Switch \"Nintendo Switch\") range (being built within the right [Joy\\-Con](/wiki/Joy-Con \"Joy-Con\") controller and directly in the Nintendo Switch Lite). The [amiibo](/wiki/Amiibo \"Amiibo\") range of accessories utilize NFC technology to unlock features.",
"### Sports",
"[Adidas Telstar 18](/wiki/Adidas_Telstar_18 \"Adidas Telstar 18\") is a soccer ball that contains an NFC chip within.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.footyheadlines.com/2017/11/the\\-chip\\-inside\\-the\\-2018\\-world\\-cup\\-ball\\-is\\-a\\-completely\\-unnecessary\\-gimmick.html\\|title\\=Revealed: The Chip Inside The 2018 World Cup Ball is a Completely Unnecessary Gimmick\\|publisher\\=Footy Headlines\\|date\\=13 November 2017\\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612184357/https://www.footyheadlines.com/2017/11/the\\-chip\\-inside\\-the\\-2018\\-world\\-cup\\-ball\\-is\\-a\\-completely\\-unnecessary\\-gimmick.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The chip enables users to interact with the ball using a smartphone.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/bluebite\\-adidas\\-nfc\\-soccer\\-ball\\-world\\-cup\\|title\\=NFC tech in official World Cup match ball draws fans even more into the games\\|publisher\\=Digital Trends\\|first\\=Rick\\|last\\=Stella\\|date\\=11 June 2018\\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=15 July 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715235915/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/bluebite\\-adidas\\-nfc\\-soccer\\-ball\\-world\\-cup/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
As the book begins, Gertie Nevels, a [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky "Kentucky") mountain woman, is struggling to take her sick child down the mountain to see a doctor. She is able to reach the road on the family mule and then to stop a passing car and convince its reluctant occupants to drive her to the doctor's office. Because her son is in imminent danger of death from suffocation, Gertie performs an emergency [tracheotomy](/wiki/Tracheotomy "Tracheotomy"). They go to the doctor's office where the boy recovers.
During the next part of the book, we get a glimpse of Gertie's life in the mountains, where she is close to her husband Clovis, her five children, her parents, and the community. She is very much at home and fulfilled in this environment, surrounded by nature and connected with the people she loves. She is extremely competent in this mountain life. She thoroughly knows the [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible"). Among her many talents is a particular gift for [whittling](/wiki/Whittling "Whittling"), which she uses to make practical items like ax handles and creative work like dolls. She is gradually carving a sculpture out of a large block of cherry wood, although she does not know if the figure that will eventually emerge will be [Christ](/wiki/Jesus "Jesus") or [Judas](/wiki/Judas_Iscariot "Judas Iscariot").
Her dream is to buy the old Tipton place for the family so they will have a better home and can farm for themselves rather than as [sharecroppers](/wiki/Sharecropping "Sharecropping"), but the war is intruding on this peaceful life. Men from the community are fighting overseas, Gertie's brother has just been killed in the war, and Clovis's coal delivery business is suffering. Then Clovis is called into the military induction center. Not [drafted](/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States "Conscription in the United States"), Clovis goes instead to [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit") to do war work in the factories.
Unbeknownst to Clovis, after years of careful saving and with some money inherited from her brother, Gertie buys the Tipton place and begins to move the family into their new home. But word soon reaches her that Clovis is expecting them to join him in Detroit. Under pressure from her mother, Gertie is convinced to give up the Tipton place. She gets her money back and prepares to go with her children to Detroit to join Clovis, who knew nothing about the home purchase. Giving up her dream of the home is a heartbreaking loss for Gertie, but at least she expects life will be better for her children in Detroit.
When they arrive in Detroit, however, they find that life is in many ways worse for them. The wartime housing project apartment is small and the neighborhood industrial. The schools are bad, and the winter is hard, the food poor. Money is short and the family must often borrow to buy necessities. There is not always enough food to feed the family. She begins to waver in her [Christian faith](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"). Clovis's work can be unsteady. Gertie develops some new friends among the other women in the housing project, and she finds that she is able to sell her carvings which helps them get by. Later, Gertie reluctantly lets Clovis convince her to use an electric saw to make the dolls to increase her sales, even though these machine\-made dolls are ugly compared to her beautiful hand\-carved dolls.
Although their new life is in many ways unpleasant, Gertie and Clovis do their best to adapt. They are completely out of place in this setting, though, and the family begins to suffer more and more serious problems. First, her oldest boy runs away to return to the mountains. Then, her beloved daughter Cassie, a sensitive child who simply cannot adapt to the new life, is killed by a train in an accident indirectly caused by Gertie's well\-meaning but misguided efforts to try to help Cassie fit in. Then, her husband is increasingly drawn into union battles—first as a victim, and eventually as a perpetrator of serious strike\-related violence.
At last, Gertie sacrifices the large wooden sculpture she has been working on throughout the book. At a moment of particular financial distress, she cuts up the sculpture for wood to make dolls for sale to help support her family.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"As the book begins, Gertie Nevels, a [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky \"Kentucky\") mountain woman, is struggling to take her sick child down the mountain to see a doctor. She is able to reach the road on the family mule and then to stop a passing car and convince its reluctant occupants to drive her to the doctor's office. Because her son is in imminent danger of death from suffocation, Gertie performs an emergency [tracheotomy](/wiki/Tracheotomy \"Tracheotomy\"). They go to the doctor's office where the boy recovers.",
"During the next part of the book, we get a glimpse of Gertie's life in the mountains, where she is close to her husband Clovis, her five children, her parents, and the community. She is very much at home and fulfilled in this environment, surrounded by nature and connected with the people she loves. She is extremely competent in this mountain life. She thoroughly knows the [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\"). Among her many talents is a particular gift for [whittling](/wiki/Whittling \"Whittling\"), which she uses to make practical items like ax handles and creative work like dolls. She is gradually carving a sculpture out of a large block of cherry wood, although she does not know if the figure that will eventually emerge will be [Christ](/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\") or [Judas](/wiki/Judas_Iscariot \"Judas Iscariot\").",
"Her dream is to buy the old Tipton place for the family so they will have a better home and can farm for themselves rather than as [sharecroppers](/wiki/Sharecropping \"Sharecropping\"), but the war is intruding on this peaceful life. Men from the community are fighting overseas, Gertie's brother has just been killed in the war, and Clovis's coal delivery business is suffering. Then Clovis is called into the military induction center. Not [drafted](/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States \"Conscription in the United States\"), Clovis goes instead to [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\") to do war work in the factories.",
"Unbeknownst to Clovis, after years of careful saving and with some money inherited from her brother, Gertie buys the Tipton place and begins to move the family into their new home. But word soon reaches her that Clovis is expecting them to join him in Detroit. Under pressure from her mother, Gertie is convinced to give up the Tipton place. She gets her money back and prepares to go with her children to Detroit to join Clovis, who knew nothing about the home purchase. Giving up her dream of the home is a heartbreaking loss for Gertie, but at least she expects life will be better for her children in Detroit.",
"When they arrive in Detroit, however, they find that life is in many ways worse for them. The wartime housing project apartment is small and the neighborhood industrial. The schools are bad, and the winter is hard, the food poor. Money is short and the family must often borrow to buy necessities. There is not always enough food to feed the family. She begins to waver in her [Christian faith](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"). Clovis's work can be unsteady. Gertie develops some new friends among the other women in the housing project, and she finds that she is able to sell her carvings which helps them get by. Later, Gertie reluctantly lets Clovis convince her to use an electric saw to make the dolls to increase her sales, even though these machine\\-made dolls are ugly compared to her beautiful hand\\-carved dolls.",
"Although their new life is in many ways unpleasant, Gertie and Clovis do their best to adapt. They are completely out of place in this setting, though, and the family begins to suffer more and more serious problems. First, her oldest boy runs away to return to the mountains. Then, her beloved daughter Cassie, a sensitive child who simply cannot adapt to the new life, is killed by a train in an accident indirectly caused by Gertie's well\\-meaning but misguided efforts to try to help Cassie fit in. Then, her husband is increasingly drawn into union battles—first as a victim, and eventually as a perpetrator of serious strike\\-related violence.",
"At last, Gertie sacrifices the large wooden sculpture she has been working on throughout the book. At a moment of particular financial distress, she cuts up the sculpture for wood to make dolls for sale to help support her family.",
""
] |
The Burckhardts
---------------
Reverend Oliver J. Burckhardt, born in [Howard County, Missouri](/wiki/Howard_County%2C_Missouri "Howard County, Missouri") in 1868, was a local leader for the African American community in [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Nebraska "Lincoln, Nebraska"). Rev. Burckhardt graduated from [Lincoln Institute](/wiki/Lincoln_University_%28Missouri%29 "Lincoln University (Missouri)") in [Jefferson City, Missouri](/wiki/Jefferson_City%2C_Missouri "Jefferson City, Missouri"), a college founded by [African American Civil War veterans](/wiki/African-Americans_in_the_Civil_War "African-Americans in the Civil War"), before moving to Lincoln in 1890\. In 1898, Rev. Burckhardt married Anna Jones (b. 1868, Burlington, Iowa).
The Burckhardts became influential leaders in Lincoln both within the African American community and the city as a whole. Oliver served as a minister and missionary for the [African Methodist Church](/wiki/Methodist_Church "Methodist Church"). He is credited with helping to settle over two hundred African Americans in the [Brownlee](/wiki/Brownlee%2C_Nebraska "Brownlee, Nebraska") area of [Cherry County, Nebraska](/wiki/Cherry_County%2C_Nebraska "Cherry County, Nebraska") between 1910 and 1912 as well as establishing St. James church in the town.
Rev. Burckhardt was also a key figure in the creation of the Lincoln branch of the [National Association for the Advancement of Colored People](/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People") in 1918\. Burckhardt recruited prominent local individuals, including the lieutenant governor and governor of Nebraska, to join the NAACP. Burckhardt, along with J.E. Jeltz and William Woods, successfully prevented *[The Birth of a Nation](/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation "The Birth of a Nation")* from being shown in Lincoln, based on the legal argument that the film was intended to "inflame public opinion against blacks" despite African American contributions to the war effort.
Burckhardt was instrumental in the formation of the Christian Alliance and the [Lincoln Urban League](/wiki/National_Urban_League "National Urban League") in 1932, and was frequently consulted by local government officials for advice on issues regarding the African American community in Lincoln. Burckhardt also served as the Associate Chaplain at the State Penitentiary for twenty years before moving to Omaha following his wife's death in 1945 to become the pastor of the Church of Christ Holiness until his death in 1951\.
Anna Burckhardt was a self\-taught artist of national acclaim, an almost impossible feat for an African American woman in her time. Anna is best known for her oil paintings and china paintings, receiving a bronze medal for her china painting at the 1907 Jamestown Virginia Tercentennial Exposition. Anna was well\-loved in Lincoln, offering private art lessons to children of all races for over 40 years. Anna was also pioneering as one of very few commissioned artists of color, creating works for the People's City Mission\-\-a local homeless advocacy center and shelter\-\-and was even hired by the State of Nebraska to restore several paintings in the [Nebraska State Capitol](/wiki/Nebraska_State_Capitol "Nebraska State Capitol").
|
[
"The Burckhardts\n---------------",
"Reverend Oliver J. Burckhardt, born in [Howard County, Missouri](/wiki/Howard_County%2C_Missouri \"Howard County, Missouri\") in 1868, was a local leader for the African American community in [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Nebraska \"Lincoln, Nebraska\"). Rev. Burckhardt graduated from [Lincoln Institute](/wiki/Lincoln_University_%28Missouri%29 \"Lincoln University (Missouri)\") in [Jefferson City, Missouri](/wiki/Jefferson_City%2C_Missouri \"Jefferson City, Missouri\"), a college founded by [African American Civil War veterans](/wiki/African-Americans_in_the_Civil_War \"African-Americans in the Civil War\"), before moving to Lincoln in 1890\\. In 1898, Rev. Burckhardt married Anna Jones (b. 1868, Burlington, Iowa).",
"The Burckhardts became influential leaders in Lincoln both within the African American community and the city as a whole. Oliver served as a minister and missionary for the [African Methodist Church](/wiki/Methodist_Church \"Methodist Church\"). He is credited with helping to settle over two hundred African Americans in the [Brownlee](/wiki/Brownlee%2C_Nebraska \"Brownlee, Nebraska\") area of [Cherry County, Nebraska](/wiki/Cherry_County%2C_Nebraska \"Cherry County, Nebraska\") between 1910 and 1912 as well as establishing St. James church in the town.",
"Rev. Burckhardt was also a key figure in the creation of the Lincoln branch of the [National Association for the Advancement of Colored People](/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People \"National Association for the Advancement of Colored People\") in 1918\\. Burckhardt recruited prominent local individuals, including the lieutenant governor and governor of Nebraska, to join the NAACP. Burckhardt, along with J.E. Jeltz and William Woods, successfully prevented *[The Birth of a Nation](/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation \"The Birth of a Nation\")* from being shown in Lincoln, based on the legal argument that the film was intended to \"inflame public opinion against blacks\" despite African American contributions to the war effort.",
"Burckhardt was instrumental in the formation of the Christian Alliance and the [Lincoln Urban League](/wiki/National_Urban_League \"National Urban League\") in 1932, and was frequently consulted by local government officials for advice on issues regarding the African American community in Lincoln. Burckhardt also served as the Associate Chaplain at the State Penitentiary for twenty years before moving to Omaha following his wife's death in 1945 to become the pastor of the Church of Christ Holiness until his death in 1951\\.",
"Anna Burckhardt was a self\\-taught artist of national acclaim, an almost impossible feat for an African American woman in her time. Anna is best known for her oil paintings and china paintings, receiving a bronze medal for her china painting at the 1907 Jamestown Virginia Tercentennial Exposition. Anna was well\\-loved in Lincoln, offering private art lessons to children of all races for over 40 years. Anna was also pioneering as one of very few commissioned artists of color, creating works for the People's City Mission\\-\\-a local homeless advocacy center and shelter\\-\\-and was even hired by the State of Nebraska to restore several paintings in the [Nebraska State Capitol](/wiki/Nebraska_State_Capitol \"Nebraska State Capitol\").",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|2020\= 4861
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2016}}
}}
### 2020 census
As of the census of 2020, there were 4,861 people living in the CDP, for a population density of 2,347\.18 people per square mile (906\.14/km2). There were 1,816 housing units. The racial makeup of the CDP was 68\.2% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 19\.4% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 3\.1% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 1\.9% from [some other race](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 6\.9% from two or more races. 3\.4% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") of any race.{{cite web \|title\=Pleasant Run CDP, Ohio \- Census Bureau Profile \|url\=https://data.census.gov/profile/Pleasant\_Run\_CDP,\_Ohio?g\=160XX00US3963604 \|publisher\=United States Census Bureau \|access\-date\=26 November 2023}}
There were 1,764 households, out of which 32\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.5% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 28\.6% had a female householder with no spouse present. 26\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\.6% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.65, and the average family size was 3\.15\.
21\.4% of the CDP's population were under the age of 18, 63\.4% were 18 to 64, and 15\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38\.6\. For every 100 females, there were 75\.3 males.
According to the U.S. Census [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey "American Community Survey"), for the period 2016\-2020 the estimated median annual income for a household in the CDP was $76,250, and the median income for a family was $93,523\. About 4\.1% of the population were living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 7\.8% of those under age 18 and 2\.9% of those age 65 or over. About 64\.2% of the population were employed, and 22\.9% had a bachelor's degree or higher.
### 2000 census
At the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census "2000 United States Census") there were 5,267 people, 1,778 households, and 1,477 families living in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\|2,541\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 1,791 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|864\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232000_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2000 census") of the CDP was 88\.65% White, 7\.69% African American, 0\.40% Native American, 1\.92% Asian, 0\.04% Pacific Islander, 0\.23% from other races, and 1\.08% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1\.16%.
Of the 1,778 households 42\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69\.0% were married couples living together, 10\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16\.9% were non\-families. 15\.1% of households were one person and 4\.2% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.95 and the average family size was 3\.26\.
The age distribution was 29\.3% under the age of 18, 7\.7% from 18 to 24, 32\.0% from 25 to 44, 24\.0% from 45 to 64, and 7\.0% 65 or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 97\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92\.6 males.
The median household income was $57,065 and the median family income was $60,305\. Males had a median income of $37,973 versus $30,432 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $20,307\. About 1\.7% of families and 3\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 2\.5% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|2020\\= 4861\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2016}}\n}}\n### 2020 census",
"As of the census of 2020, there were 4,861 people living in the CDP, for a population density of 2,347\\.18 people per square mile (906\\.14/km2). There were 1,816 housing units. The racial makeup of the CDP was 68\\.2% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 19\\.4% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 3\\.1% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 1\\.9% from [some other race](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 6\\.9% from two or more races. 3\\.4% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of any race.{{cite web \\|title\\=Pleasant Run CDP, Ohio \\- Census Bureau Profile \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/profile/Pleasant\\_Run\\_CDP,\\_Ohio?g\\=160XX00US3963604 \\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau \\|access\\-date\\=26 November 2023}}",
"There were 1,764 households, out of which 32\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.5% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 28\\.6% had a female householder with no spouse present. 26\\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.6% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.65, and the average family size was 3\\.15\\.",
"21\\.4% of the CDP's population were under the age of 18, 63\\.4% were 18 to 64, and 15\\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38\\.6\\. For every 100 females, there were 75\\.3 males.",
"According to the U.S. Census [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\"), for the period 2016\\-2020 the estimated median annual income for a household in the CDP was $76,250, and the median income for a family was $93,523\\. About 4\\.1% of the population were living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 7\\.8% of those under age 18 and 2\\.9% of those age 65 or over. About 64\\.2% of the population were employed, and 22\\.9% had a bachelor's degree or higher.",
"### 2000 census",
"At the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census \"2000 United States Census\") there were 5,267 people, 1,778 households, and 1,477 families living in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\\|2,541\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 1,791 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|864\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232000_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2000 census\") of the CDP was 88\\.65% White, 7\\.69% African American, 0\\.40% Native American, 1\\.92% Asian, 0\\.04% Pacific Islander, 0\\.23% from other races, and 1\\.08% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1\\.16%.",
"Of the 1,778 households 42\\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69\\.0% were married couples living together, 10\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16\\.9% were non\\-families. 15\\.1% of households were one person and 4\\.2% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.95 and the average family size was 3\\.26\\.",
"The age distribution was 29\\.3% under the age of 18, 7\\.7% from 18 to 24, 32\\.0% from 25 to 44, 24\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 7\\.0% 65 or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 97\\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92\\.6 males.",
"The median household income was $57,065 and the median family income was $60,305\\. Males had a median income of $37,973 versus $30,432 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $20,307\\. About 1\\.7% of families and 3\\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 2\\.5% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Applications
------------
In general, the main issue with applications of silicon nitride has not been technical performance, but cost. As the cost has come down, the number of production applications is accelerating.{{cite book
\| publisher \=Oak Ridge National Laboratory
\| chapter \=Ceramic Industry
\| first1 \=David W.
\| last1 \=Richerson
\| first2 \=Douglas W.
\| last2 \=Freita
\| title \=Opportunities for Advanced Ceramics to Meet the Needs of the Industries of the Future
\| oclc \=692247038\| hdl \=2027/coo.31924090750534
}}
### Automotive industry
One of the major applications of sintered silicon nitride is in engine parts. It can be used in [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine"), [glowplugs](/wiki/Glow_plug_%28diesel_engine%29 "Glow plug (diesel engine)") for speed up start\-up times; precombustion chambers (swirl chambers) to reduce emissions, start\-up time and noise; and [turbochargers](/wiki/Turbochargers "Turbochargers") to reduce engine lag and emissions. In [spark\-ignition engines](/wiki/Spark-ignition_engine "Spark-ignition engine"), silicon nitride is used for [rocker arm](/wiki/Rocker_arm "Rocker arm") pads for lower [wear](/wiki/Wear "Wear"), turbocharger turbines for lower inertia and less engine lag, and in [exhaust gas control valves](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine "Internal combustion engine") for increased acceleration. Currently, it is estimated that more than 300,000 sintered silicon nitride turbochargers are made annually.
Silicon nitride is used in some high\-performance automotive ceramic coatings for protecting paint.
### Bearings
[thumb\|upright\|Si3N4 bearing parts](/wiki/File:Si3N4bearings.jpg "Si3N4bearings.jpg")
Silicon nitride bearings are both full ceramic bearings and [ceramic hybrid bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing%23Ceramic_hybrid_ball_bearings_using_ceramic_balls "Ball bearing#Ceramic hybrid ball bearings using ceramic balls") with balls in ceramics and [races](/wiki/Race_%28bearing%29 "Race (bearing)") in steel. Silicon nitride [ceramics](/wiki/Ceramic "Ceramic") have good [shock](/wiki/Shock_%28mechanics%29 "Shock (mechanics)") resistance compared to other ceramics. Therefore, ball bearings made of silicon nitride ceramic are used in performance [bearings](/wiki/Bearing_%28mechanical%29 "Bearing (mechanical)"). A representative example is use of silicon nitride bearings in the main engines of the NASA's [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle "Space Shuttle").{{cite web\|publisher \=NASA\|url \= http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation15/CeramicBalls.html\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20041024070046/http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation15/CeramicBalls.html\|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-date \= 2004\-10\-24\|title \= Ceramic Balls Increase Shuttle Engine Bearing Life\|access\-date \= 2009\-06\-06}}{{cite web\|publisher \=NASA\|url \=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/ssme.html\|title \=Space Shuttle Main Engine Enhancements\|access\-date \=2009\-06\-06\|archive\-date \=2012\-10\-11\|archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011141911/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/ssme.html\|url\-status \=dead}}
Since silicon nitride ball bearings are harder than metal, this reduces contact with the bearing track. This results in 80% less friction, three to ten times longer lifetime, 80% higher speed, 60% less weight, the ability to operate with lubrication starvation, higher corrosion resistance and higher operation temperature, as compared to traditional metal bearings. Silicon nitride balls weigh 79% less than [tungsten carbide](/wiki/Tungsten_carbide "Tungsten carbide") balls. Silicon nitride ball bearings can be found in high end automotive bearings, industrial bearings, [wind turbines](/wiki/Wind_turbine "Wind turbine"), motorsports, bicycles, rollerblades and [skateboards](/wiki/Skateboard "Skateboard"). Silicon nitride bearings are especially useful in applications where corrosion or electric or magnetic fields prohibit the use of metals, for example, in tidal flow meters, where seawater attack is a problem, or in electric field seekers.
Si3N4 was first demonstrated as a superior bearing in 1972 but did not reach production until nearly 1990 because of challenges associated with reducing the cost.
Since 1990, the cost has been reduced substantially as production volume has increased. Although {{chem\|Si\|3\|N\|4}} bearings are still two to five times more expensive than the best steel bearings, their superior performance and life are justifying rapid adoption. Around 15–20 million {{chem\|Si\|3\|N\|4}} bearing balls were produced in the U.S. in 1996 for machine tools and many other applications. Growth is estimated at 40% per year, but could be even higher if ceramic bearings are selected for consumer applications such as in\-line skates and computer disk drives.
NASA testing says ceramic\-hybrid bearings exhibit much lower fatigue (wear) life than standard all\-steel bearings.{{cite web \|last1\=Zaretsky \|first1\=Erwin V. \|last2\=Vlcek \|first2\=Brian L. \|last3\=Hendricks \|first3\=Robert C. \|title\=Effect of Silicon Nitride Balls and Rollers on Rolling Bearing Life \|url\=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20050175860 \|language\=en \|date\=1 April 2005}}
### High\-temperature material
[thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|Silicon nitride thruster. Left: Mounted in test stand. Right: Being tested with H2/O2 propellants](/wiki/File:Si3N4thruster.jpg "Si3N4thruster.jpg")
Silicon nitride has long been used in high\-temperature applications. In particular, it was identified as one of the few monolithic ceramic materials capable of surviving the severe thermal shock and thermal gradients generated in hydrogen/oxygen rocket engines. To demonstrate this capability in a complex configuration, NASA scientists used advanced rapid prototyping technology to fabricate a one\-inch\-diameter, single\-piece combustion chamber/nozzle (thruster) component. The thruster was hot\-fire tested with hydrogen/oxygen propellant and survived five cycles including a 5\-minute cycle to a 1320 °C material temperature.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5130eckel.html \|title\=Silicon Nitride Rocket Thrusters Test Fired Successfully \|date\=1999 \|author\=Eckel, Andrew J. \|publisher\=NASA \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404161958/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5130eckel.html \|archive\-date\=April 4, 2009 }}
In 2010 silicon nitride was used as the main material in the thrusters of the [JAXA](/wiki/JAXA "JAXA") space probe [Akatsuki](/wiki/Akatsuki_%28spacecraft%29 "Akatsuki (spacecraft)").[Orbit Control Maneuver Result of the Venus Climate Orbiter 'AKATSUKI'](http://global.jaxa.jp/press/2010/07/20100706_akatsuki_e.html). JAXA (2010\-07\-06\)
Silicon nitride was used for the "microshutters" developed for the [Near Infrared Spectrograph](/wiki/Near-infrared_spectroscopy%23Astronomical_spectroscopy "Near-infrared spectroscopy#Astronomical spectroscopy") aboard the [James Webb Space Telescope](/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope "James Webb Space Telescope"). According to NASA: The "operating temperature is cryogenic so the device has to be able to operate at extremely cold temperatures. Another challenge was developing shutters that would be able to: open and close repeatedly without fatigue; open individually; and open wide enough to meet the science requirements of the instrument. Silicon nitride was chosen for use in the microshutters, because of its high strength and resistance to fatigue." This microshutter system allows the instrument to observe and analyze up to 100 celestial objects simultaneously.[James Webb Space Telescope / Goddard Space Flight Center \> Innovations \> Microshutters / Nasa (2020\-06\-25\)](https://jwst.nasa.gov/content/about/innovations/microshutters.html).
### Medical
Silicon nitride has many orthopedic applications.{{cite journal
\| doi \=10\.4161/biom.20710
\| title \=Evaluation of silicon nitride as a wear resistant and resorbable alternative for total hip joint replacement
\| year \=2012
\| last1 \=Olofsson
\| first1 \=Johanna
\| last2 \=Grehk
\| first2 \=T. Mikael
\| last3 \=Berlind
\| first3 \=Torun
\| last4 \=Persson
\| first4 \=Cecilia
\| last5 \=Jacobson
\| first5 \=Staffan
\| last6 \=Engqvist
\| first6 \=Håkan
\| journal \=Biomatter
\| volume \=2
\| issue \=2
\| pages \=94–102
\| pmid \=23507807
\| pmc\=3549862}}{{cite journal
\| pmid \=18347952
\| year \=2008
\| last1 \=Mazzocchi
\| first1 \=M
\| last2 \=Bellosi
\| first2 \=A
\| title \=On the possibility of silicon nitride as a ceramic for structural orthopaedic implants. Part I: Processing, microstructure, mechanical properties, cytotoxicity
\| volume \=19
\| issue \=8
\| pages \=2881–7
\| doi \=10\.1007/s10856\-008\-3417\-2
\| journal \=Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine\| s2cid \=10388233
}} The material is also an alternative to [PEEK](/wiki/PEEK "PEEK") (polyether ether ketone) and [titanium](/wiki/Titanium "Titanium"), which are used for [spinal fusion](/wiki/Spinal_fusion "Spinal fusion") devices (with latter being relatively expensive).{{cite journal
\| doi \=10\.1016/j.actbio.2012\.07\.038
\| title \=Anti\-infective and osteointegration properties of silicon nitride, poly(ether ether ketone), and titanium implants
\| year \=2012
\| last1 \=Webster
\| first1 \=T.J.
\| last2 \=Patel
\| first2 \=A.A.
\| last3 \=Rahaman
\| first3 \=M.N.
\| last4 \=Sonny Bal
\| first4 \=B.
\| journal \=Acta Biomaterialia
\| volume \=8
\| issue \=12
\| pages \=4447–54
\| pmid \=22863905}}{{cite journal
\| pmid \=19437439
\| year \=2010
\| last1 \=Anderson
\| first1 \=MC
\| last2 \=Olsen
\| first2 \=R
\| title \=Bone ingrowth into porous silicon nitride
\| volume \=92
\| issue \=4
\| pages \=1598–605
\| doi \=10\.1002/jbm.a.32498
\| journal \=Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A\| doi\-access \=free
}} It is silicon nitride's [hydrophilic](/wiki/Hydrophilic "Hydrophilic"), [microtextured](/wiki/Microtexture "Microtexture") surface that contributes to the material's strength, durability and reliability compared to PEEK and titanium.{{cite journal
\| doi \=10\.1021/ja0483746
\| title \=Tailor\-Made Functionalization of Silicon Nitride Surfaces
\| year \=2004
\| last1 \=Arafat
\| first1 \=Ahmed
\| last2 \=Schroën
\| first2 \=Karin
\| last3 \=De Smet
\| first3 \=Louis C. P. M.
\| last4 \=Sudhölter
\| first4 \=Ernst J. R.
\| last5 \=Zuilhof
\| first5 \=Han
\| journal \=Journal of the American Chemical Society
\| volume \=126
\| issue \=28
\| pages \=8600–1
\| pmid \=15250682}} Certain compositions of this material exhibit anti\-bacterial,{{Cite journal\|last1\=Pezzotti\|first1\=Giuseppe\|last2\=Marin\|first2\=Elia\|last3\=Adachi\|first3\=Tetsuya\|last4\=Lerussi\|first4\=Federica\|last5\=Rondinella\|first5\=Alfredo\|last6\=Boschetto\|first6\=Francesco\|last7\=Zhu\|first7\=Wenliang\|last8\=Kitajima\|first8\=Takashi\|last9\=Inada\|first9\=Kosuke\|last10\=McEntire\|first10\=Bryan J.\|last11\=Bock\|first11\=Ryan M.\|date\=2018\-04\-24\|title\=Incorporating Si3 N4 into PEEK to Produce Antibacterial, Osteocondutive, and Radiolucent Spinal Implants\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1002/mabi.201800033\|journal\=Macromolecular Bioscience\|volume\=18\|issue\=6\|pages\=1800033\|doi\=10\.1002/mabi.201800033\|pmid\=29687593\|issn\=1616\-5187}} anti\-fungal,McEntire, B., Bock, R., \& Bal, B.S. U.S Application. No. 20200079651\. 2020\. or anti\-viral properties.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Pezzotti\|first1\=Giuseppe\|last2\=Ohgitani\|first2\=Eriko\|last3\=Shin\-Ya\|first3\=Masaharu\|last4\=Adachi\|first4\=Tetsuya\|last5\=Marin\|first5\=Elia\|last6\=Boschetto\|first6\=Francesco\|last7\=Zhu\|first7\=Wenliang\|last8\=Mazda\|first8\=Osam\|date\=2020\-06\-20\|title\=Rapid Inactivation of SARS\-CoV\-2 by Silicon Nitride, Copper, and Aluminum Nitride\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1101/2020\.06\.19\.159970\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-21\|doi\=10\.1101/2020\.06\.19\.159970\|s2cid\=220044677}}
### Metal working and cutting
The first major application of {{chem\|Si\|3\|N\|4}} was abrasive and [cutting tools](/wiki/Cutting_tool_material "Cutting tool material"). Bulk, monolithic silicon nitride is used as a material for [cutting tools](/wiki/Cutting_tool "Cutting tool"), due to its hardness, thermal stability, and resistance to [wear](/wiki/Wear "Wear"). It is especially recommended for high speed [machining](/wiki/Machining "Machining") of [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron"). Hot hardness, fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance mean that sintered silicon nitride can cut cast iron, hard steel and nickel based alloys with surface speeds up to 25 times quicker than those obtained with conventional materials such as tungsten carbide. The use of {{chem\|Si\|3\|N\|4}} cutting tools has had a dramatic effect on manufacturing output. For example, face milling of gray cast iron with silicon nitride inserts doubled the cutting speed, increased tool life from one part to six parts per edge, and reduced the average cost of inserts by 50%, as compared to traditional [tungsten carbide](/wiki/Tungsten_carbide "Tungsten carbide") tools.
### Electronics
[thumb\|Example of [local silicon oxidation](/wiki/LOCOS "LOCOS") through a Si3N4 mask](/wiki/File:Locos_%28microtechnology%29_process.svg "Locos (microtechnology) process.svg")
Silicon nitride is often used as an [insulator](/wiki/Electrical_insulation "Electrical insulation") and chemical barrier in manufacturing [integrated circuits](/wiki/Integrated_circuits "Integrated circuits"), to electrically isolate different structures or as an [etch](/wiki/Etching_%28microfabrication%29 "Etching (microfabrication)") mask in [bulk micromachining](/wiki/Bulk_micromachining "Bulk micromachining"). As a passivation layer for microchips, it is superior to [silicon dioxide](/wiki/Silicon_dioxide "Silicon dioxide"), as it is a significantly better [diffusion barrier](/wiki/Diffusion_barrier "Diffusion barrier") against water molecules and [sodium](/wiki/Sodium "Sodium") ions, two major sources of corrosion and instability in microelectronics. It is also used as a [dielectric](/wiki/Dielectric "Dielectric") between [polysilicon](/wiki/Polysilicon "Polysilicon") layers in [capacitors](/wiki/Capacitor "Capacitor") in analog chips.{{cite book
\| url \=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NF3W6zlN9WsC\&pg\=PA282
\| page \=282
\| title \=Handbook of chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
\| last \=Pierson
\| first \=Hugh O.
\| publisher \=William Andrew
\| year \=1992
\| isbn \=978\-0\-8155\-1300\-1}}
[thumb\|left\|Si3N4 cantilever used in atomic force microscopes](/wiki/File:AFM_%28used%29_cantilever_in_Scanning_Electron_Microscope%2C_magnification_1000x.GIF "AFM (used) cantilever in Scanning Electron Microscope, magnification 1000x.GIF")
Silicon nitride deposited by [LPCVD](/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition "Chemical vapor deposition") contains up to 8% hydrogen. It also experiences strong tensile [stress](/wiki/Stress_%28physics%29 "Stress (physics)"), which may crack films thicker than 200 nm. However, it has higher [resistivity](/wiki/Resistivity "Resistivity") and dielectric strength than most insulators commonly available in microfabrication (1016 [Ω](/wiki/Ohm "Ohm")·cm and 10 MV/cm, respectively).{{cite book
\| url \=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qi98H\-iTgLEC\&pg\=PA325
\| pages \=324–325
\| title \=Handbook of semiconductor manufacturing technology
\| first1 \=Yoshio
\| last1 \=Nishi
\| first2 \=Robert
\| last2 \=Doering
\| publisher \=CRC Press
\| year \=2000
\| isbn \=978\-0\-8247\-8783\-7}}
Not only silicon nitride, but also various ternary compounds of silicon, nitrogen and hydrogen (SiNxHy) are used as insulating layers. They are plasma deposited using the following reactions:
2 {{chem\|SiH\|4}}(g) \+ {{chem\|N\|2}}(g) → 2 SiNH(s) \+ 3 {{chem\|H\|2}}(g)
{{chem\|SiH\|4}}(g) \+ {{chem\|NH\|3}}(g) → SiNH(s) \+ 3 {{chem\|H\|2}}(g)
These SiNH films have much less tensile stress, but worse electrical properties (resistivity 106 to 1015 Ω·cm, and dielectric strength 1 to 5 MV/cm),{{cite book \|last1\=Sze \|first1\=Simon M. \|last2\=Lee \|first2\=Ming\-Kwei \|date\=2012 \|chapter\= \|title\=Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology \|url\= \|edition\=3 \|location\=New York, NY \|publisher\=Wiley \|page\=406 \|isbn\=978\-1\-118\-13983\-7}} and are thermally stable to high temperatures under specific physical conditions. Silicon nitride is also used in the [xerographic process](/wiki/Xerography "Xerography") as one of the layers of the photo drum.{{cite journal \|last1\=Duke \|first1\=Charles B. \|last2\=Noolandi \|first2\=Jaan \|last3\=Thieret \|first3\=Tracy \|date\=2002 \|title\=The surface science of xerography \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299133381 \|format\=PDF \|journal\=Surface Science \|volume\=500 \|issue\=1–3 \|pages\=1005–1023 \|doi\=10\.1016/S0039\-6028(01\)01527\-8\|bibcode\=2002SurSc.500\.1005D }} Silicon nitride is also used as an ignition source for domestic gas appliances.Levinson, L. M. *et al.* (17 April 2001\) "Ignition system for a gas appliance" {{US patent\|6217312}} Because of its good elastic properties, silicon nitride, along with silicon and silicon oxide, is the most popular material for [cantilevers](/wiki/Cantilever "Cantilever") — the sensing elements of [atomic force microscopes](/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope "Atomic force microscope").{{cite book\|page \= 605\|url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=SOt\_yFjV\-xwC\|title \= The materials science of thin films: deposition and structure\|author \= Ohring, M. \|publisher \=Academic Press\|year \= 2002\|isbn \= 978\-0\-12\-524975\-1}}
|
[
"Applications\n------------",
"In general, the main issue with applications of silicon nitride has not been technical performance, but cost. As the cost has come down, the number of production applications is accelerating.{{cite book \n\\| publisher \\=Oak Ridge National Laboratory \n\\| chapter \\=Ceramic Industry \n\\| first1 \\=David W. \n\\| last1 \\=Richerson \n\\| first2 \\=Douglas W. \n\\| last2 \\=Freita \n\\| title \\=Opportunities for Advanced Ceramics to Meet the Needs of the Industries of the Future \n\\| oclc \\=692247038\\| hdl \\=2027/coo.31924090750534 \n}}",
"### Automotive industry",
"One of the major applications of sintered silicon nitride is in engine parts. It can be used in [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\"), [glowplugs](/wiki/Glow_plug_%28diesel_engine%29 \"Glow plug (diesel engine)\") for speed up start\\-up times; precombustion chambers (swirl chambers) to reduce emissions, start\\-up time and noise; and [turbochargers](/wiki/Turbochargers \"Turbochargers\") to reduce engine lag and emissions. In [spark\\-ignition engines](/wiki/Spark-ignition_engine \"Spark-ignition engine\"), silicon nitride is used for [rocker arm](/wiki/Rocker_arm \"Rocker arm\") pads for lower [wear](/wiki/Wear \"Wear\"), turbocharger turbines for lower inertia and less engine lag, and in [exhaust gas control valves](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine \"Internal combustion engine\") for increased acceleration. Currently, it is estimated that more than 300,000 sintered silicon nitride turbochargers are made annually.",
"Silicon nitride is used in some high\\-performance automotive ceramic coatings for protecting paint.",
"### Bearings",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Si3N4 bearing parts](/wiki/File:Si3N4bearings.jpg \"Si3N4bearings.jpg\")\nSilicon nitride bearings are both full ceramic bearings and [ceramic hybrid bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing%23Ceramic_hybrid_ball_bearings_using_ceramic_balls \"Ball bearing#Ceramic hybrid ball bearings using ceramic balls\") with balls in ceramics and [races](/wiki/Race_%28bearing%29 \"Race (bearing)\") in steel. Silicon nitride [ceramics](/wiki/Ceramic \"Ceramic\") have good [shock](/wiki/Shock_%28mechanics%29 \"Shock (mechanics)\") resistance compared to other ceramics. Therefore, ball bearings made of silicon nitride ceramic are used in performance [bearings](/wiki/Bearing_%28mechanical%29 \"Bearing (mechanical)\"). A representative example is use of silicon nitride bearings in the main engines of the NASA's [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle \"Space Shuttle\").{{cite web\\|publisher \\=NASA\\|url \\= http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation15/CeramicBalls.html\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20041024070046/http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation15/CeramicBalls.html\\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-date \\= 2004\\-10\\-24\\|title \\= Ceramic Balls Increase Shuttle Engine Bearing Life\\|access\\-date \\= 2009\\-06\\-06}}{{cite web\\|publisher \\=NASA\\|url \\=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/ssme.html\\|title \\=Space Shuttle Main Engine Enhancements\\|access\\-date \\=2009\\-06\\-06\\|archive\\-date \\=2012\\-10\\-11\\|archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011141911/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/ssme.html\\|url\\-status \\=dead}}",
"Since silicon nitride ball bearings are harder than metal, this reduces contact with the bearing track. This results in 80% less friction, three to ten times longer lifetime, 80% higher speed, 60% less weight, the ability to operate with lubrication starvation, higher corrosion resistance and higher operation temperature, as compared to traditional metal bearings. Silicon nitride balls weigh 79% less than [tungsten carbide](/wiki/Tungsten_carbide \"Tungsten carbide\") balls. Silicon nitride ball bearings can be found in high end automotive bearings, industrial bearings, [wind turbines](/wiki/Wind_turbine \"Wind turbine\"), motorsports, bicycles, rollerblades and [skateboards](/wiki/Skateboard \"Skateboard\"). Silicon nitride bearings are especially useful in applications where corrosion or electric or magnetic fields prohibit the use of metals, for example, in tidal flow meters, where seawater attack is a problem, or in electric field seekers.",
"Si3N4 was first demonstrated as a superior bearing in 1972 but did not reach production until nearly 1990 because of challenges associated with reducing the cost.\nSince 1990, the cost has been reduced substantially as production volume has increased. Although {{chem\\|Si\\|3\\|N\\|4}} bearings are still two to five times more expensive than the best steel bearings, their superior performance and life are justifying rapid adoption. Around 15–20 million {{chem\\|Si\\|3\\|N\\|4}} bearing balls were produced in the U.S. in 1996 for machine tools and many other applications. Growth is estimated at 40% per year, but could be even higher if ceramic bearings are selected for consumer applications such as in\\-line skates and computer disk drives.",
"NASA testing says ceramic\\-hybrid bearings exhibit much lower fatigue (wear) life than standard all\\-steel bearings.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Zaretsky \\|first1\\=Erwin V. \\|last2\\=Vlcek \\|first2\\=Brian L. \\|last3\\=Hendricks \\|first3\\=Robert C. \\|title\\=Effect of Silicon Nitride Balls and Rollers on Rolling Bearing Life \\|url\\=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20050175860 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=1 April 2005}}",
"### High\\-temperature material",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Silicon nitride thruster. Left: Mounted in test stand. Right: Being tested with H2/O2 propellants](/wiki/File:Si3N4thruster.jpg \"Si3N4thruster.jpg\")\nSilicon nitride has long been used in high\\-temperature applications. In particular, it was identified as one of the few monolithic ceramic materials capable of surviving the severe thermal shock and thermal gradients generated in hydrogen/oxygen rocket engines. To demonstrate this capability in a complex configuration, NASA scientists used advanced rapid prototyping technology to fabricate a one\\-inch\\-diameter, single\\-piece combustion chamber/nozzle (thruster) component. The thruster was hot\\-fire tested with hydrogen/oxygen propellant and survived five cycles including a 5\\-minute cycle to a 1320 °C material temperature.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5130eckel.html \\|title\\=Silicon Nitride Rocket Thrusters Test Fired Successfully \\|date\\=1999 \\|author\\=Eckel, Andrew J. \\|publisher\\=NASA \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404161958/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5130eckel.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2009 }}",
"In 2010 silicon nitride was used as the main material in the thrusters of the [JAXA](/wiki/JAXA \"JAXA\") space probe [Akatsuki](/wiki/Akatsuki_%28spacecraft%29 \"Akatsuki (spacecraft)\").[Orbit Control Maneuver Result of the Venus Climate Orbiter 'AKATSUKI'](http://global.jaxa.jp/press/2010/07/20100706_akatsuki_e.html). JAXA (2010\\-07\\-06\\)",
"Silicon nitride was used for the \"microshutters\" developed for the [Near Infrared Spectrograph](/wiki/Near-infrared_spectroscopy%23Astronomical_spectroscopy \"Near-infrared spectroscopy#Astronomical spectroscopy\") aboard the [James Webb Space Telescope](/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope \"James Webb Space Telescope\"). According to NASA: The \"operating temperature is cryogenic so the device has to be able to operate at extremely cold temperatures. Another challenge was developing shutters that would be able to: open and close repeatedly without fatigue; open individually; and open wide enough to meet the science requirements of the instrument. Silicon nitride was chosen for use in the microshutters, because of its high strength and resistance to fatigue.\" This microshutter system allows the instrument to observe and analyze up to 100 celestial objects simultaneously.[James Webb Space Telescope / Goddard Space Flight Center \\> Innovations \\> Microshutters / Nasa (2020\\-06\\-25\\)](https://jwst.nasa.gov/content/about/innovations/microshutters.html).",
"### Medical",
"Silicon nitride has many orthopedic applications.{{cite journal \n\\| doi \\=10\\.4161/biom.20710 \n\\| title \\=Evaluation of silicon nitride as a wear resistant and resorbable alternative for total hip joint replacement \n\\| year \\=2012 \n\\| last1 \\=Olofsson \n\\| first1 \\=Johanna \n\\| last2 \\=Grehk \n\\| first2 \\=T. Mikael \n\\| last3 \\=Berlind \n\\| first3 \\=Torun \n\\| last4 \\=Persson \n\\| first4 \\=Cecilia \n\\| last5 \\=Jacobson \n\\| first5 \\=Staffan \n\\| last6 \\=Engqvist \n\\| first6 \\=Håkan \n\\| journal \\=Biomatter \n\\| volume \\=2 \n\\| issue \\=2 \n\\| pages \\=94–102 \n\\| pmid \\=23507807\n\\| pmc\\=3549862}}{{cite journal \n\\| pmid \\=18347952 \n\\| year \\=2008 \n\\| last1 \\=Mazzocchi \n\\| first1 \\=M \n\\| last2 \\=Bellosi \n\\| first2 \\=A \n\\| title \\=On the possibility of silicon nitride as a ceramic for structural orthopaedic implants. Part I: Processing, microstructure, mechanical properties, cytotoxicity \n\\| volume \\=19 \n\\| issue \\=8 \n\\| pages \\=2881–7 \n\\| doi \\=10\\.1007/s10856\\-008\\-3417\\-2 \n\\| journal \\=Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine\\| s2cid \\=10388233 \n}} The material is also an alternative to [PEEK](/wiki/PEEK \"PEEK\") (polyether ether ketone) and [titanium](/wiki/Titanium \"Titanium\"), which are used for [spinal fusion](/wiki/Spinal_fusion \"Spinal fusion\") devices (with latter being relatively expensive).{{cite journal \n\\| doi \\=10\\.1016/j.actbio.2012\\.07\\.038 \n\\| title \\=Anti\\-infective and osteointegration properties of silicon nitride, poly(ether ether ketone), and titanium implants \n\\| year \\=2012 \n\\| last1 \\=Webster \n\\| first1 \\=T.J. \n\\| last2 \\=Patel \n\\| first2 \\=A.A. \n\\| last3 \\=Rahaman \n\\| first3 \\=M.N. \n\\| last4 \\=Sonny Bal \n\\| first4 \\=B. \n\\| journal \\=Acta Biomaterialia \n\\| volume \\=8 \n\\| issue \\=12 \n\\| pages \\=4447–54 \n\\| pmid \\=22863905}}{{cite journal \n\\| pmid \\=19437439 \n\\| year \\=2010 \n\\| last1 \\=Anderson \n\\| first1 \\=MC \n\\| last2 \\=Olsen \n\\| first2 \\=R \n\\| title \\=Bone ingrowth into porous silicon nitride \n\\| volume \\=92 \n\\| issue \\=4 \n\\| pages \\=1598–605 \n\\| doi \\=10\\.1002/jbm.a.32498 \n\\| journal \\=Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A\\| doi\\-access \\=free \n}} It is silicon nitride's [hydrophilic](/wiki/Hydrophilic \"Hydrophilic\"), [microtextured](/wiki/Microtexture \"Microtexture\") surface that contributes to the material's strength, durability and reliability compared to PEEK and titanium.{{cite journal \n\\| doi \\=10\\.1021/ja0483746 \n\\| title \\=Tailor\\-Made Functionalization of Silicon Nitride Surfaces \n\\| year \\=2004 \n\\| last1 \\=Arafat \n\\| first1 \\=Ahmed \n\\| last2 \\=Schroën \n\\| first2 \\=Karin \n\\| last3 \\=De Smet \n\\| first3 \\=Louis C. P. M. \n\\| last4 \\=Sudhölter \n\\| first4 \\=Ernst J. R. \n\\| last5 \\=Zuilhof \n\\| first5 \\=Han \n\\| journal \\=Journal of the American Chemical Society \n\\| volume \\=126 \n\\| issue \\=28 \n\\| pages \\=8600–1 \n\\| pmid \\=15250682}} Certain compositions of this material exhibit anti\\-bacterial,{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Pezzotti\\|first1\\=Giuseppe\\|last2\\=Marin\\|first2\\=Elia\\|last3\\=Adachi\\|first3\\=Tetsuya\\|last4\\=Lerussi\\|first4\\=Federica\\|last5\\=Rondinella\\|first5\\=Alfredo\\|last6\\=Boschetto\\|first6\\=Francesco\\|last7\\=Zhu\\|first7\\=Wenliang\\|last8\\=Kitajima\\|first8\\=Takashi\\|last9\\=Inada\\|first9\\=Kosuke\\|last10\\=McEntire\\|first10\\=Bryan J.\\|last11\\=Bock\\|first11\\=Ryan M.\\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-24\\|title\\=Incorporating Si3 N4 into PEEK to Produce Antibacterial, Osteocondutive, and Radiolucent Spinal Implants\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1002/mabi.201800033\\|journal\\=Macromolecular Bioscience\\|volume\\=18\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=1800033\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/mabi.201800033\\|pmid\\=29687593\\|issn\\=1616\\-5187}} anti\\-fungal,McEntire, B., Bock, R., \\& Bal, B.S. U.S Application. No. 20200079651\\. 2020\\. or anti\\-viral properties.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Pezzotti\\|first1\\=Giuseppe\\|last2\\=Ohgitani\\|first2\\=Eriko\\|last3\\=Shin\\-Ya\\|first3\\=Masaharu\\|last4\\=Adachi\\|first4\\=Tetsuya\\|last5\\=Marin\\|first5\\=Elia\\|last6\\=Boschetto\\|first6\\=Francesco\\|last7\\=Zhu\\|first7\\=Wenliang\\|last8\\=Mazda\\|first8\\=Osam\\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-20\\|title\\=Rapid Inactivation of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 by Silicon Nitride, Copper, and Aluminum Nitride\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1101/2020\\.06\\.19\\.159970\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-21\\|doi\\=10\\.1101/2020\\.06\\.19\\.159970\\|s2cid\\=220044677}}",
"### Metal working and cutting",
"The first major application of {{chem\\|Si\\|3\\|N\\|4}} was abrasive and [cutting tools](/wiki/Cutting_tool_material \"Cutting tool material\"). Bulk, monolithic silicon nitride is used as a material for [cutting tools](/wiki/Cutting_tool \"Cutting tool\"), due to its hardness, thermal stability, and resistance to [wear](/wiki/Wear \"Wear\"). It is especially recommended for high speed [machining](/wiki/Machining \"Machining\") of [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\"). Hot hardness, fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance mean that sintered silicon nitride can cut cast iron, hard steel and nickel based alloys with surface speeds up to 25 times quicker than those obtained with conventional materials such as tungsten carbide. The use of {{chem\\|Si\\|3\\|N\\|4}} cutting tools has had a dramatic effect on manufacturing output. For example, face milling of gray cast iron with silicon nitride inserts doubled the cutting speed, increased tool life from one part to six parts per edge, and reduced the average cost of inserts by 50%, as compared to traditional [tungsten carbide](/wiki/Tungsten_carbide \"Tungsten carbide\") tools.",
"### Electronics",
"[thumb\\|Example of [local silicon oxidation](/wiki/LOCOS \"LOCOS\") through a Si3N4 mask](/wiki/File:Locos_%28microtechnology%29_process.svg \"Locos (microtechnology) process.svg\")\nSilicon nitride is often used as an [insulator](/wiki/Electrical_insulation \"Electrical insulation\") and chemical barrier in manufacturing [integrated circuits](/wiki/Integrated_circuits \"Integrated circuits\"), to electrically isolate different structures or as an [etch](/wiki/Etching_%28microfabrication%29 \"Etching (microfabrication)\") mask in [bulk micromachining](/wiki/Bulk_micromachining \"Bulk micromachining\"). As a passivation layer for microchips, it is superior to [silicon dioxide](/wiki/Silicon_dioxide \"Silicon dioxide\"), as it is a significantly better [diffusion barrier](/wiki/Diffusion_barrier \"Diffusion barrier\") against water molecules and [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") ions, two major sources of corrosion and instability in microelectronics. It is also used as a [dielectric](/wiki/Dielectric \"Dielectric\") between [polysilicon](/wiki/Polysilicon \"Polysilicon\") layers in [capacitors](/wiki/Capacitor \"Capacitor\") in analog chips.{{cite book\n\\| url \\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NF3W6zlN9WsC\\&pg\\=PA282\n\\| page \\=282\n\\| title \\=Handbook of chemical vapor deposition (CVD)\n\\| last \\=Pierson \n\\| first \\=Hugh O. \n\\| publisher \\=William Andrew\n\\| year \\=1992\n\\| isbn \\=978\\-0\\-8155\\-1300\\-1}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Si3N4 cantilever used in atomic force microscopes](/wiki/File:AFM_%28used%29_cantilever_in_Scanning_Electron_Microscope%2C_magnification_1000x.GIF \"AFM (used) cantilever in Scanning Electron Microscope, magnification 1000x.GIF\")",
"Silicon nitride deposited by [LPCVD](/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition \"Chemical vapor deposition\") contains up to 8% hydrogen. It also experiences strong tensile [stress](/wiki/Stress_%28physics%29 \"Stress (physics)\"), which may crack films thicker than 200 nm. However, it has higher [resistivity](/wiki/Resistivity \"Resistivity\") and dielectric strength than most insulators commonly available in microfabrication (1016 [Ω](/wiki/Ohm \"Ohm\")·cm and 10 MV/cm, respectively).{{cite book\n\\| url \\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qi98H\\-iTgLEC\\&pg\\=PA325\n\\| pages \\=324–325\n\\| title \\=Handbook of semiconductor manufacturing technology\n\\| first1 \\=Yoshio \n\\| last1 \\=Nishi \n\\| first2 \\=Robert \n\\| last2 \\=Doering\n\\| publisher \\=CRC Press\n\\| year \\=2000\n\\| isbn \\=978\\-0\\-8247\\-8783\\-7}}",
"Not only silicon nitride, but also various ternary compounds of silicon, nitrogen and hydrogen (SiNxHy) are used as insulating layers. They are plasma deposited using the following reactions:",
"2 {{chem\\|SiH\\|4}}(g) \\+ {{chem\\|N\\|2}}(g) → 2 SiNH(s) \\+ 3 {{chem\\|H\\|2}}(g)\n{{chem\\|SiH\\|4}}(g) \\+ {{chem\\|NH\\|3}}(g) → SiNH(s) \\+ 3 {{chem\\|H\\|2}}(g)\nThese SiNH films have much less tensile stress, but worse electrical properties (resistivity 106 to 1015 Ω·cm, and dielectric strength 1 to 5 MV/cm),{{cite book \\|last1\\=Sze \\|first1\\=Simon M. \\|last2\\=Lee \\|first2\\=Ming\\-Kwei \\|date\\=2012 \\|chapter\\= \\|title\\=Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology \\|url\\= \\|edition\\=3 \\|location\\=New York, NY \\|publisher\\=Wiley \\|page\\=406 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-118\\-13983\\-7}} and are thermally stable to high temperatures under specific physical conditions. Silicon nitride is also used in the [xerographic process](/wiki/Xerography \"Xerography\") as one of the layers of the photo drum.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Duke \\|first1\\=Charles B. \\|last2\\=Noolandi \\|first2\\=Jaan \\|last3\\=Thieret \\|first3\\=Tracy \\|date\\=2002 \\|title\\=The surface science of xerography \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299133381 \\|format\\=PDF \\|journal\\=Surface Science \\|volume\\=500 \\|issue\\=1–3 \\|pages\\=1005–1023 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0039\\-6028(01\\)01527\\-8\\|bibcode\\=2002SurSc.500\\.1005D }} Silicon nitride is also used as an ignition source for domestic gas appliances.Levinson, L. M. *et al.* (17 April 2001\\) \"Ignition system for a gas appliance\" {{US patent\\|6217312}} Because of its good elastic properties, silicon nitride, along with silicon and silicon oxide, is the most popular material for [cantilevers](/wiki/Cantilever \"Cantilever\") — the sensing elements of [atomic force microscopes](/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope \"Atomic force microscope\").{{cite book\\|page \\= 605\\|url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SOt\\_yFjV\\-xwC\\|title \\= The materials science of thin films: deposition and structure\\|author \\= Ohring, M. \\|publisher \\=Academic Press\\|year \\= 2002\\|isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-12\\-524975\\-1}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Established circa 1830, this village was served by the Honesdale branch of the U.S. Post Office during the 1850s and 1860s."Tanners Falls P.O.," in "[A new mail route has been established](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362437906/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, August 5, 1868, p. 2 (subscription required)."[Honesdale Post \- Office](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362439149/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, March 17, 1859, p. 3 (subscription required)."[The United States Mail](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanners_Falls,_Pennsylvania&action=edit§ion=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, November 28, 1867, p. 3 (subscription required)."[United States Mails](https://www.newspapers.com/image/390465410/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Wilkes\-Barre, Pennsylvania: *The Luzerne Union*, February 29, 1860, p. 4 (subscription required). The village was still largely a rural one during this time."[Strayed or Stolen](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362450082/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, July 11, 1867, p. 3 (subscription required).
A new [tannery](/wiki/Tanning_%28leather%29 "Tanning (leather)") was established at Tanners Falls by Lewis B. Richtmyer during the early 1850s. Finishing its first hides in 1853, the operation quickly expanded its capacity to fifty\-two thousand hides annually, using a manufacturing system of more than one hundred and seventy vats."Lewis B. Richtmyer" (death notice), in "[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362448398/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, August 30, 1900, p. 3 (subscription required). Richtmyer's older brother, Henry Richtmyer, subsequently became the village's first Postmaster when its new post office opened in 1856\."Lewis B. Richtmyer" (death notice), in "Hereabouts and Thereabouts," *The Herald*, August 30, 1900\.
During the 1860s, one of Wayne County's chief industries was the manufacture of shoe leather. As a result, the county was home to several tanneries and shoe and bootmakers."Tanners Falls," in "[State Brevities](https://www.newspapers.com/image/296957072/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Tunkhannock, Pennsylvania: *Tunkhannock Republican*, September 18, 1885, p. 2 (subscription required). Thomas Conroy, an emigrant from Ireland, operated a shoemaking and boot repair business in Tanners Falls during the 1860s and 1870s."[Dearer Than Wealth: The Romance of a Pennsylvania Irishman](https://www.newspapers.com/image/529150287/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, November 15, 1878, p. 2 (subscription required)."[Refusing a Fortune](https://www.newspapers.com/image/390155464/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Wilkes\-Barre, Pennsylvania: *The Times Leader*, November 6, 1878, front page (subscription required).
The tannery, which had been operating in the village during the early 1860s, was purchased in 1863 by Coe F. Young, a native of New York who had previously been associated with various canal and railway operations."[Obituary: Coe F. Young](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362419849/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, March 28, 1889, p. 3 (subscription required)."The tannery at Tanner's Falls," in "[Neighboring Counties](https://www.newspapers.com/image/639231142/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Carbondale, Pennsylvania: *The Carbondale Leader*, September 28, 1886, p. 2 (subscription required).
The Hilltop church was built by members of the Catholic church in 1865 "to accommodate the faithful at Tanners Falls.""[Personal and Pertinent](https://www.newspapers.com/image/533621468/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, August 10, 1939, p. 6 (subscription required).
In May 1870, Wayne County officials initiated the process to begin rebuilding the bridge at Tanners Falls."[Notice to Bridge Builders](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362439891/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, May 19, 1870, front page (subscription required).
In September 1876, Tanners Falls was one of multiple communities facing disaster as wildfires swept across northwestern Pennsylvania."[Terrible Ravages of Fire in Northwestern Pennsylvania](https://www.newspapers.com/image/511703417/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Sunbury, Pennsylvania: *Sunbury Gazette*, September 8, 1876, p. 2 (subscription required).
Lumber industry and tannery operations were active in Tanners Falls during the 1870s and 1880s."[Wayne County](https://www.newspapers.com/image/533231195/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, January 27, 1879, p. 4 (subscription required)."[The Mules Were Tough: A Remarkable Runaway in the Pennsylvania Lumber Region](https://www.newspapers.com/image/270215581/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Altoona, Pennsylvania: *Altoona Times*, December 28, 1886, p. 2 (subscription required)."C. F. Young's tannery," in "[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362564730/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, February 28, 1884, p. e (subscription required)."Coe F. Young's tannery," in "[Personal](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362414727/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, April 7, 1881, p. 3 (subscription required). The tannery owned by Coe F. Young ceased operations during the spring of 1887 because the area's tree bark supply had been exhausted."The tannery at Tanner's Falls," in "Neighboring Counties," *The Carbondale Leader*, September 28, 1886\.
Mary W. Alberty was appointed Postmaster of Tanners Falls in January 1889\."[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362419621/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, January 3, 1889, p. 3 (subscription required). Repairs were made to the Tanners Falls bridge in late 1889 with lumber supplied by Coe F. Young and labor performed by C. P. Bunnell at respective costs to Wayne County of $33\.79 and $10\.00\."[Statement of the Finances of Wayne County for the Year 1889](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362420803/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, February 20, 1890, p. 4 (subscription required).
Oil and coal prospecting ventures were also tried by Coe F. Young and others beginning in the 1880s; they continued off and on into the early 1900s."[Oil Fever in Wayne: Excitement Runs High in the Vicinity of Tanner's Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/76588881/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, August 4, 1900, p. 2 (subscription required).
In 1891, Joseph Taylor entered into a partnership with John Reifler \& Sons in creating and managing a large acid works factory in Tanners Falls."[Joseph Taylor Dead](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362447412/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, April 26, 1900, p. 3 (subscription required)."[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362436386/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, June 25, 1896, p. 3 (subscription required). Reifler, an emigrant from Gomeringen, Germany, had previously been involved in the tanning industry."[Death of John Reifler at Honesdale This Morning](https://www.newspapers.com/image/534644702/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, September 24, 1908, p. 5 (subscription required).
New stone arch and lumber work were completed on the Tanners Fall bridge in 1893 by John Reifler, J. Schilling, and Riefler \& Sons at respective costs to Wayne County of $395, $6, and $344\.47\."[Statement of the Finances of Wayne County for 1893](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362434774/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, February 1, 1894, p. 2 (subscription required).
Telephone service became available for the first time in Tanners Falls in the summer of 1896\."[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362436415/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, August 13, 1896, p. 3 (subscription required).
Additional stone arch work was completed again at the Tanners Fall bridge in 1898 by John D. Irwin at a cost to Wayne County of $738\.62\."[Statement of the Finances of Wayne County for 1898](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362443624/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, February 23, 1899, p. 4 (subscription required).
### 1900s
On April 27, 1900, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania issued a new operating charter to the Spring Brook Creamery in Tanners Falls."[New State Charters](https://www.newspapers.com/image/86429139/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: *Pittsburgh Daily Post*, April 28, 1900, p. 7 (subscription required). In December 1900, the Pennsylvania Bridge Company was awarded an $800 contract by Wayne County to build the middle span of the county's iron bridge at Tanners Falls."[Wayne County](https://www.newspapers.com/image/638782790/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Carbondale, Pennsylvania: *The Carbondale Leader*, December 24, 1900, p. 6 (subscription required).
In May 1911, the Reifler Acid Company's Tanners Falls complex was destroyed during an early morning fire."[Acid Factories at Tanners Falls Burn, Loss $50,000](https://www.newspapers.com/image/565198856/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, May 22, 1911, p. 3 (subscription required). By mid\-October, work was nearly completed on the construction of a new wood alcohol manufacturing facility."[New Acid Factory Almost Completed](https://www.newspapers.com/image/48220947/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, October 14, 1911, p. 15 (subscription required).
[thumb\|By](/wiki/File:Tanners_Falls_Bridge.jpg "Tanners Falls Bridge.jpg") the 1920s, the acid company had become such an integral part of Tanners Falls that it owned the majority of the village's buildings, including many of the houses that were then rented out to employees of the company and the providers of various shops and other community services who had been brought it to provide conveniences for those employees."[The Declining Pennsylvania Chemical Industry](https://www.newspapers.com/image/55438602/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Altoona, Pennsylvania: *Altoona Tribune*, May 16, 1931, p. 6 (subscription required).
That situation changed, however, when the acid company was permanently closed on April 8, 1931\. After its owners made their last shipment and terminated their workforce, the plant was auctioned off during a receiver's sale on May 5 of that year, along with eight thousand two hundred and fifty acres of forest land and thirty\-five of the village's houses that the company had owned."The Declining Pennsylvania Chemical Industry," *Altoona Tribune*, May 16, 1931\. The company had been placed into receivership due to an unpaid bill from 1928 of $4,000 that had accrued additional interest charges, as well as the company's indebtedness of $150,000 for its first mortgage, $160,000 owed by the company on two Series A and Series B debenture bonds, and additional unpaid debts of $75,000 and $25,000\."[Receiver Is Sought by New York Man: E. W. Lee Starts Proceedings Against Concern in Tanner's Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/49780398/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, July 26, 1930, p. 3\."[Judge Names Receivers for Riefler \& Sons, Inc.](https://www.newspapers.com/image/49781627/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Republican*, July 28, 1930, p. 19\.
As concern regarding the negative impact the plant's closure would have on Wayne County and the surrounding region, civic and business leaders investigated possible ways to mitigate the sale's damage and decided upon a plan that would enable the Pennsylvania State Game Commission to purchase seven thousand acres of the land, four thousand of which had been part of the acid factory's plant complex and three thousand that were "situated several miles northeast of the Riefler estate." Contained within the property boundaries were two lakes "regarded as a paradise by anglers," that were known for their stocks of [smallmouth bass](/wiki/Smallmouth_bass "Smallmouth bass"), pickerel and [panfish](/wiki/Panfish "Panfish"). The lands were later opened to the general public as a preserve for fishing and other recreational activities."[7,000 Acres Purchased by State Game Board; Public Is Cheered by Fine News](https://www.newspapers.com/image/565241864/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, April 21, 1938, p. 25 (subscription required)."[Wayne Group Indignant on Story 'Leak': Alleges Outsider Sought Publicity in Preserve Purchase](https://www.newspapers.com/image/529347055/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, April 23, 1938, p. 10 (subscription required). The process was finalized on June 7, 1939 as "State game lands No. 159," becoming "one of the single largest tracts of game land purchased for the sportsmen" of the state. Much of the land included in the preserve was heavily wooded and home to deer, rabbits and [ruffed grouse](/wiki/Ruffed_grouse "Ruffed grouse"), Pennsylvania's state bird, as well as roughly twelve miles of "ideal trout streams," ponds and a marsh. The purchase of the land was funded by the diversion of seventy\-five cents of every annual hunting license sold."[Field Sports](https://www.newspapers.com/image/274649155/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Allentown, Pennsylvania: *The Morning Call*, June 8, 1939, p. 18 (subscription required)."[Game Commission Buys Riefler Tract](https://www.newspapers.com/image/528868567/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, May 6, 1938, p. 3 (subscription required).
The village, which had gradually withered and died after the acid factory's demise, became a [ghost town](/wiki/Ghost_town "Ghost town") by the early 1940s. In an effort to save the town, Robert C. Perkins of Honesdale purchased the entire village from the Tanners Falls Development Company in 1941\."[Plans Farm in Wayne's Ghost Town: Honesdale Buyer of Deserted Village Will Not Set Up Industry](https://www.newspapers.com/image/530090758/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scrantonian*, December 14, 1941, p. 17 (subscription required)."[Deserted Wayne County Village Purchased by Honesdale Man](https://www.newspapers.com/image/530089129/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, December 11, 1941, p. 3 (subscription required). Seven years later, Perkins auctioned off the village, which was described by newspapers that year as a [hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28place%29 "Hamlet (place)"), in a sale that included a "factory, store, houses and stable.""[Tanners Falls for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/532370984/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, August 16, 1948, p. 2 (subscription required)."[Hamlet of Tanners Falls Is Offered for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/367777376/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Hartford, Connecticut: *The Hartford Daily Courant*, August 17, 1948, p. 17 (subscription required)."[Town for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/503788116/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Hazleton, Pennsylvania: *The Plain Speaker*, August 17, 1948, p. 9 (subscription required). Notices of the pending sale were placed in newspapers across the United States and as far away as Canada."[Whole Shebang for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/11647417/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Statesville, North Carolina: *The Landmark*, August 19, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required)."[Complete Pennsylvania Town Put Up for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/160691813/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Seymour Indiana: *The Tribune*, August 16, 1948, p. 5 (subscription required)."[For Sale: A Town In Pennsylvania; Not Big, But Nice](https://www.newspapers.com/image/733705077/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Tacoma, Washington: *The Tacoma News Tribune*, August 17, 1948, p. 3 (subscription required)."[For Sale, Town](https://www.newspapers.com/image/509413800/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada: *Star\-Phoenix*, August 16, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).["Whole Town Goes on Auction Block](https://www.newspapers.com/image/731742550/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Brantford, Ontario, Canada: *The Expositor*, August 16, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).
In 1952, Edwin Patrick Kilroe, a native of Tanners Falls, donated his family's former homestead and land to the Society of Priests of the Sacred Heart for the priests' use in establishing a seminary there."[Personal and Pertinent](https://www.newspapers.com/image/531432353/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, July 14, 1953, p. 6 (subscription required). The Kilroe Seminary of the Congregation of the Priests of the Sacred Heart was dedicated on June 18, 1955 as part of the [Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Scranton "Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton")."[New Seminary Dedicated in Diocese of Scranton](https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=cst19550617-01.2.134&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------)." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: *The Catholic Standard and Times*, Vol. 60, No. 38, June 17, 1955\."[Personal and Pertinent: The Seminary at Tanners Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/531386866/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, June 17, 1955, p. (subscription required).
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Established circa 1830, this village was served by the Honesdale branch of the U.S. Post Office during the 1850s and 1860s.\"Tanners Falls P.O.,\" in \"[A new mail route has been established](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362437906/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, August 5, 1868, p. 2 (subscription required).\"[Honesdale Post \\- Office](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362439149/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, March 17, 1859, p. 3 (subscription required).\"[The United States Mail](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanners_Falls,_Pennsylvania&action=edit§ion=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, November 28, 1867, p. 3 (subscription required).\"[United States Mails](https://www.newspapers.com/image/390465410/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Wilkes\\-Barre, Pennsylvania: *The Luzerne Union*, February 29, 1860, p. 4 (subscription required). The village was still largely a rural one during this time.\"[Strayed or Stolen](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362450082/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, July 11, 1867, p. 3 (subscription required).",
"A new [tannery](/wiki/Tanning_%28leather%29 \"Tanning (leather)\") was established at Tanners Falls by Lewis B. Richtmyer during the early 1850s. Finishing its first hides in 1853, the operation quickly expanded its capacity to fifty\\-two thousand hides annually, using a manufacturing system of more than one hundred and seventy vats.\"Lewis B. Richtmyer\" (death notice), in \"[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362448398/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, August 30, 1900, p. 3 (subscription required). Richtmyer's older brother, Henry Richtmyer, subsequently became the village's first Postmaster when its new post office opened in 1856\\.\"Lewis B. Richtmyer\" (death notice), in \"Hereabouts and Thereabouts,\" *The Herald*, August 30, 1900\\.",
"During the 1860s, one of Wayne County's chief industries was the manufacture of shoe leather. As a result, the county was home to several tanneries and shoe and bootmakers.\"Tanners Falls,\" in \"[State Brevities](https://www.newspapers.com/image/296957072/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Tunkhannock, Pennsylvania: *Tunkhannock Republican*, September 18, 1885, p. 2 (subscription required). Thomas Conroy, an emigrant from Ireland, operated a shoemaking and boot repair business in Tanners Falls during the 1860s and 1870s.\"[Dearer Than Wealth: The Romance of a Pennsylvania Irishman](https://www.newspapers.com/image/529150287/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, November 15, 1878, p. 2 (subscription required).\"[Refusing a Fortune](https://www.newspapers.com/image/390155464/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Wilkes\\-Barre, Pennsylvania: *The Times Leader*, November 6, 1878, front page (subscription required).",
"The tannery, which had been operating in the village during the early 1860s, was purchased in 1863 by Coe F. Young, a native of New York who had previously been associated with various canal and railway operations.\"[Obituary: Coe F. Young](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362419849/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, March 28, 1889, p. 3 (subscription required).\"The tannery at Tanner's Falls,\" in \"[Neighboring Counties](https://www.newspapers.com/image/639231142/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Carbondale, Pennsylvania: *The Carbondale Leader*, September 28, 1886, p. 2 (subscription required).",
"The Hilltop church was built by members of the Catholic church in 1865 \"to accommodate the faithful at Tanners Falls.\"\"[Personal and Pertinent](https://www.newspapers.com/image/533621468/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, August 10, 1939, p. 6 (subscription required).",
"In May 1870, Wayne County officials initiated the process to begin rebuilding the bridge at Tanners Falls.\"[Notice to Bridge Builders](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362439891/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, May 19, 1870, front page (subscription required).",
"In September 1876, Tanners Falls was one of multiple communities facing disaster as wildfires swept across northwestern Pennsylvania.\"[Terrible Ravages of Fire in Northwestern Pennsylvania](https://www.newspapers.com/image/511703417/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Sunbury, Pennsylvania: *Sunbury Gazette*, September 8, 1876, p. 2 (subscription required).",
"Lumber industry and tannery operations were active in Tanners Falls during the 1870s and 1880s.\"[Wayne County](https://www.newspapers.com/image/533231195/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, January 27, 1879, p. 4 (subscription required).\"[The Mules Were Tough: A Remarkable Runaway in the Pennsylvania Lumber Region](https://www.newspapers.com/image/270215581/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Altoona, Pennsylvania: *Altoona Times*, December 28, 1886, p. 2 (subscription required).\"C. F. Young's tannery,\" in \"[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362564730/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, February 28, 1884, p. e (subscription required).\"Coe F. Young's tannery,\" in \"[Personal](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362414727/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, April 7, 1881, p. 3 (subscription required). The tannery owned by Coe F. Young ceased operations during the spring of 1887 because the area's tree bark supply had been exhausted.\"The tannery at Tanner's Falls,\" in \"Neighboring Counties,\" *The Carbondale Leader*, September 28, 1886\\.",
"Mary W. Alberty was appointed Postmaster of Tanners Falls in January 1889\\.\"[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362419621/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, January 3, 1889, p. 3 (subscription required). Repairs were made to the Tanners Falls bridge in late 1889 with lumber supplied by Coe F. Young and labor performed by C. P. Bunnell at respective costs to Wayne County of $33\\.79 and $10\\.00\\.\"[Statement of the Finances of Wayne County for the Year 1889](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362420803/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, February 20, 1890, p. 4 (subscription required).",
"Oil and coal prospecting ventures were also tried by Coe F. Young and others beginning in the 1880s; they continued off and on into the early 1900s.\"[Oil Fever in Wayne: Excitement Runs High in the Vicinity of Tanner's Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/76588881/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, August 4, 1900, p. 2 (subscription required).",
"In 1891, Joseph Taylor entered into a partnership with John Reifler \\& Sons in creating and managing a large acid works factory in Tanners Falls.\"[Joseph Taylor Dead](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362447412/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, April 26, 1900, p. 3 (subscription required).\"[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362436386/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, June 25, 1896, p. 3 (subscription required). Reifler, an emigrant from Gomeringen, Germany, had previously been involved in the tanning industry.\"[Death of John Reifler at Honesdale This Morning](https://www.newspapers.com/image/534644702/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, September 24, 1908, p. 5 (subscription required).",
"New stone arch and lumber work were completed on the Tanners Fall bridge in 1893 by John Reifler, J. Schilling, and Riefler \\& Sons at respective costs to Wayne County of $395, $6, and $344\\.47\\.\"[Statement of the Finances of Wayne County for 1893](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362434774/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, February 1, 1894, p. 2 (subscription required).",
"Telephone service became available for the first time in Tanners Falls in the summer of 1896\\.\"[Hereabouts and Thereabouts](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362436415/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, August 13, 1896, p. 3 (subscription required).",
"Additional stone arch work was completed again at the Tanners Fall bridge in 1898 by John D. Irwin at a cost to Wayne County of $738\\.62\\.\"[Statement of the Finances of Wayne County for 1898](https://www.newspapers.com/image/362443624/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Honesdale, Pennsylvania: *The Herald*, February 23, 1899, p. 4 (subscription required).",
"### 1900s",
"On April 27, 1900, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania issued a new operating charter to the Spring Brook Creamery in Tanners Falls.\"[New State Charters](https://www.newspapers.com/image/86429139/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: *Pittsburgh Daily Post*, April 28, 1900, p. 7 (subscription required). In December 1900, the Pennsylvania Bridge Company was awarded an $800 contract by Wayne County to build the middle span of the county's iron bridge at Tanners Falls.\"[Wayne County](https://www.newspapers.com/image/638782790/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Carbondale, Pennsylvania: *The Carbondale Leader*, December 24, 1900, p. 6 (subscription required).",
"In May 1911, the Reifler Acid Company's Tanners Falls complex was destroyed during an early morning fire.\"[Acid Factories at Tanners Falls Burn, Loss $50,000](https://www.newspapers.com/image/565198856/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, May 22, 1911, p. 3 (subscription required). By mid\\-October, work was nearly completed on the construction of a new wood alcohol manufacturing facility.\"[New Acid Factory Almost Completed](https://www.newspapers.com/image/48220947/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, October 14, 1911, p. 15 (subscription required).",
"[thumb\\|By](/wiki/File:Tanners_Falls_Bridge.jpg \"Tanners Falls Bridge.jpg\") the 1920s, the acid company had become such an integral part of Tanners Falls that it owned the majority of the village's buildings, including many of the houses that were then rented out to employees of the company and the providers of various shops and other community services who had been brought it to provide conveniences for those employees.\"[The Declining Pennsylvania Chemical Industry](https://www.newspapers.com/image/55438602/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Altoona, Pennsylvania: *Altoona Tribune*, May 16, 1931, p. 6 (subscription required).",
"That situation changed, however, when the acid company was permanently closed on April 8, 1931\\. After its owners made their last shipment and terminated their workforce, the plant was auctioned off during a receiver's sale on May 5 of that year, along with eight thousand two hundred and fifty acres of forest land and thirty\\-five of the village's houses that the company had owned.\"The Declining Pennsylvania Chemical Industry,\" *Altoona Tribune*, May 16, 1931\\. The company had been placed into receivership due to an unpaid bill from 1928 of $4,000 that had accrued additional interest charges, as well as the company's indebtedness of $150,000 for its first mortgage, $160,000 owed by the company on two Series A and Series B debenture bonds, and additional unpaid debts of $75,000 and $25,000\\.\"[Receiver Is Sought by New York Man: E. W. Lee Starts Proceedings Against Concern in Tanner's Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/49780398/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, July 26, 1930, p. 3\\.\"[Judge Names Receivers for Riefler \\& Sons, Inc.](https://www.newspapers.com/image/49781627/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Republican*, July 28, 1930, p. 19\\.",
"As concern regarding the negative impact the plant's closure would have on Wayne County and the surrounding region, civic and business leaders investigated possible ways to mitigate the sale's damage and decided upon a plan that would enable the Pennsylvania State Game Commission to purchase seven thousand acres of the land, four thousand of which had been part of the acid factory's plant complex and three thousand that were \"situated several miles northeast of the Riefler estate.\" Contained within the property boundaries were two lakes \"regarded as a paradise by anglers,\" that were known for their stocks of [smallmouth bass](/wiki/Smallmouth_bass \"Smallmouth bass\"), pickerel and [panfish](/wiki/Panfish \"Panfish\"). The lands were later opened to the general public as a preserve for fishing and other recreational activities.\"[7,000 Acres Purchased by State Game Board; Public Is Cheered by Fine News](https://www.newspapers.com/image/565241864/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, April 21, 1938, p. 25 (subscription required).\"[Wayne Group Indignant on Story 'Leak': Alleges Outsider Sought Publicity in Preserve Purchase](https://www.newspapers.com/image/529347055/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, April 23, 1938, p. 10 (subscription required). The process was finalized on June 7, 1939 as \"State game lands No. 159,\" becoming \"one of the single largest tracts of game land purchased for the sportsmen\" of the state. Much of the land included in the preserve was heavily wooded and home to deer, rabbits and [ruffed grouse](/wiki/Ruffed_grouse \"Ruffed grouse\"), Pennsylvania's state bird, as well as roughly twelve miles of \"ideal trout streams,\" ponds and a marsh. The purchase of the land was funded by the diversion of seventy\\-five cents of every annual hunting license sold.\"[Field Sports](https://www.newspapers.com/image/274649155/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Allentown, Pennsylvania: *The Morning Call*, June 8, 1939, p. 18 (subscription required).\"[Game Commission Buys Riefler Tract](https://www.newspapers.com/image/528868567/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, May 6, 1938, p. 3 (subscription required).",
"The village, which had gradually withered and died after the acid factory's demise, became a [ghost town](/wiki/Ghost_town \"Ghost town\") by the early 1940s. In an effort to save the town, Robert C. Perkins of Honesdale purchased the entire village from the Tanners Falls Development Company in 1941\\.\"[Plans Farm in Wayne's Ghost Town: Honesdale Buyer of Deserted Village Will Not Set Up Industry](https://www.newspapers.com/image/530090758/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scrantonian*, December 14, 1941, p. 17 (subscription required).\"[Deserted Wayne County Village Purchased by Honesdale Man](https://www.newspapers.com/image/530089129/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, December 11, 1941, p. 3 (subscription required). Seven years later, Perkins auctioned off the village, which was described by newspapers that year as a [hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28place%29 \"Hamlet (place)\"), in a sale that included a \"factory, store, houses and stable.\"\"[Tanners Falls for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/532370984/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, August 16, 1948, p. 2 (subscription required).\"[Hamlet of Tanners Falls Is Offered for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/367777376/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Hartford, Connecticut: *The Hartford Daily Courant*, August 17, 1948, p. 17 (subscription required).\"[Town for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/503788116/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Hazleton, Pennsylvania: *The Plain Speaker*, August 17, 1948, p. 9 (subscription required). Notices of the pending sale were placed in newspapers across the United States and as far away as Canada.\"[Whole Shebang for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/11647417/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Statesville, North Carolina: *The Landmark*, August 19, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).\"[Complete Pennsylvania Town Put Up for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/160691813/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Seymour Indiana: *The Tribune*, August 16, 1948, p. 5 (subscription required).\"[For Sale: A Town In Pennsylvania; Not Big, But Nice](https://www.newspapers.com/image/733705077/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Tacoma, Washington: *The Tacoma News Tribune*, August 17, 1948, p. 3 (subscription required).\"[For Sale, Town](https://www.newspapers.com/image/509413800/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada: *Star\\-Phoenix*, August 16, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).[\"Whole Town Goes on Auction Block](https://www.newspapers.com/image/731742550/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Brantford, Ontario, Canada: *The Expositor*, August 16, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).",
"In 1952, Edwin Patrick Kilroe, a native of Tanners Falls, donated his family's former homestead and land to the Society of Priests of the Sacred Heart for the priests' use in establishing a seminary there.\"[Personal and Pertinent](https://www.newspapers.com/image/531432353/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, July 14, 1953, p. 6 (subscription required). The Kilroe Seminary of the Congregation of the Priests of the Sacred Heart was dedicated on June 18, 1955 as part of the [Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Scranton \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton\").\"[New Seminary Dedicated in Diocese of Scranton](https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=cst19550617-01.2.134&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------).\" Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: *The Catholic Standard and Times*, Vol. 60, No. 38, June 17, 1955\\.\"[Personal and Pertinent: The Seminary at Tanners Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/531386866/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, June 17, 1955, p. (subscription required).",
""
] |
### 1900s
On April 27, 1900, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania issued a new operating charter to the Spring Brook Creamery in Tanners Falls."[New State Charters](https://www.newspapers.com/image/86429139/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: *Pittsburgh Daily Post*, April 28, 1900, p. 7 (subscription required). In December 1900, the Pennsylvania Bridge Company was awarded an $800 contract by Wayne County to build the middle span of the county's iron bridge at Tanners Falls."[Wayne County](https://www.newspapers.com/image/638782790/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Carbondale, Pennsylvania: *The Carbondale Leader*, December 24, 1900, p. 6 (subscription required).
In May 1911, the Reifler Acid Company's Tanners Falls complex was destroyed during an early morning fire."[Acid Factories at Tanners Falls Burn, Loss $50,000](https://www.newspapers.com/image/565198856/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, May 22, 1911, p. 3 (subscription required). By mid\-October, work was nearly completed on the construction of a new wood alcohol manufacturing facility."[New Acid Factory Almost Completed](https://www.newspapers.com/image/48220947/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, October 14, 1911, p. 15 (subscription required).
[thumb\|By](/wiki/File:Tanners_Falls_Bridge.jpg "Tanners Falls Bridge.jpg") the 1920s, the acid company had become such an integral part of Tanners Falls that it owned the majority of the village's buildings, including many of the houses that were then rented out to employees of the company and the providers of various shops and other community services who had been brought it to provide conveniences for those employees."[The Declining Pennsylvania Chemical Industry](https://www.newspapers.com/image/55438602/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Altoona, Pennsylvania: *Altoona Tribune*, May 16, 1931, p. 6 (subscription required).
That situation changed, however, when the acid company was permanently closed on April 8, 1931\. After its owners made their last shipment and terminated their workforce, the plant was auctioned off during a receiver's sale on May 5 of that year, along with eight thousand two hundred and fifty acres of forest land and thirty\-five of the village's houses that the company had owned."The Declining Pennsylvania Chemical Industry," *Altoona Tribune*, May 16, 1931\. The company had been placed into receivership due to an unpaid bill from 1928 of $4,000 that had accrued additional interest charges, as well as the company's indebtedness of $150,000 for its first mortgage, $160,000 owed by the company on two Series A and Series B debenture bonds, and additional unpaid debts of $75,000 and $25,000\."[Receiver Is Sought by New York Man: E. W. Lee Starts Proceedings Against Concern in Tanner's Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/49780398/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, July 26, 1930, p. 3\."[Judge Names Receivers for Riefler \& Sons, Inc.](https://www.newspapers.com/image/49781627/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Republican*, July 28, 1930, p. 19\.
As concern regarding the negative impact the plant's closure would have on Wayne County and the surrounding region, civic and business leaders investigated possible ways to mitigate the sale's damage and decided upon a plan that would enable the Pennsylvania State Game Commission to purchase seven thousand acres of the land, four thousand of which had been part of the acid factory's plant complex and three thousand that were "situated several miles northeast of the Riefler estate." Contained within the property boundaries were two lakes "regarded as a paradise by anglers," that were known for their stocks of [smallmouth bass](/wiki/Smallmouth_bass "Smallmouth bass"), pickerel and [panfish](/wiki/Panfish "Panfish"). The lands were later opened to the general public as a preserve for fishing and other recreational activities."[7,000 Acres Purchased by State Game Board; Public Is Cheered by Fine News](https://www.newspapers.com/image/565241864/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, April 21, 1938, p. 25 (subscription required)."[Wayne Group Indignant on Story 'Leak': Alleges Outsider Sought Publicity in Preserve Purchase](https://www.newspapers.com/image/529347055/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, April 23, 1938, p. 10 (subscription required). The process was finalized on June 7, 1939 as "State game lands No. 159," becoming "one of the single largest tracts of game land purchased for the sportsmen" of the state. Much of the land included in the preserve was heavily wooded and home to deer, rabbits and [ruffed grouse](/wiki/Ruffed_grouse "Ruffed grouse"), Pennsylvania's state bird, as well as roughly twelve miles of "ideal trout streams," ponds and a marsh. The purchase of the land was funded by the diversion of seventy\-five cents of every annual hunting license sold."[Field Sports](https://www.newspapers.com/image/274649155/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Allentown, Pennsylvania: *The Morning Call*, June 8, 1939, p. 18 (subscription required)."[Game Commission Buys Riefler Tract](https://www.newspapers.com/image/528868567/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, May 6, 1938, p. 3 (subscription required).
The village, which had gradually withered and died after the acid factory's demise, became a [ghost town](/wiki/Ghost_town "Ghost town") by the early 1940s. In an effort to save the town, Robert C. Perkins of Honesdale purchased the entire village from the Tanners Falls Development Company in 1941\."[Plans Farm in Wayne's Ghost Town: Honesdale Buyer of Deserted Village Will Not Set Up Industry](https://www.newspapers.com/image/530090758/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scrantonian*, December 14, 1941, p. 17 (subscription required)."[Deserted Wayne County Village Purchased by Honesdale Man](https://www.newspapers.com/image/530089129/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, December 11, 1941, p. 3 (subscription required). Seven years later, Perkins auctioned off the village, which was described by newspapers that year as a [hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28place%29 "Hamlet (place)"), in a sale that included a "factory, store, houses and stable.""[Tanners Falls for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/532370984/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, August 16, 1948, p. 2 (subscription required)."[Hamlet of Tanners Falls Is Offered for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/367777376/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Hartford, Connecticut: *The Hartford Daily Courant*, August 17, 1948, p. 17 (subscription required)."[Town for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/503788116/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Hazleton, Pennsylvania: *The Plain Speaker*, August 17, 1948, p. 9 (subscription required). Notices of the pending sale were placed in newspapers across the United States and as far away as Canada."[Whole Shebang for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/11647417/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Statesville, North Carolina: *The Landmark*, August 19, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required)."[Complete Pennsylvania Town Put Up for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/160691813/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Seymour Indiana: *The Tribune*, August 16, 1948, p. 5 (subscription required)."[For Sale: A Town In Pennsylvania; Not Big, But Nice](https://www.newspapers.com/image/733705077/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Tacoma, Washington: *The Tacoma News Tribune*, August 17, 1948, p. 3 (subscription required)."[For Sale, Town](https://www.newspapers.com/image/509413800/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada: *Star\-Phoenix*, August 16, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).["Whole Town Goes on Auction Block](https://www.newspapers.com/image/731742550/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Brantford, Ontario, Canada: *The Expositor*, August 16, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).
In 1952, Edwin Patrick Kilroe, a native of Tanners Falls, donated his family's former homestead and land to the Society of Priests of the Sacred Heart for the priests' use in establishing a seminary there."[Personal and Pertinent](https://www.newspapers.com/image/531432353/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, July 14, 1953, p. 6 (subscription required). The Kilroe Seminary of the Congregation of the Priests of the Sacred Heart was dedicated on June 18, 1955 as part of the [Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Scranton "Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton")."[New Seminary Dedicated in Diocese of Scranton](https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=cst19550617-01.2.134&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------)." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: *The Catholic Standard and Times*, Vol. 60, No. 38, June 17, 1955\."[Personal and Pertinent: The Seminary at Tanners Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/531386866/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, June 17, 1955, p. (subscription required).
|
[
"### 1900s",
"On April 27, 1900, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania issued a new operating charter to the Spring Brook Creamery in Tanners Falls.\"[New State Charters](https://www.newspapers.com/image/86429139/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: *Pittsburgh Daily Post*, April 28, 1900, p. 7 (subscription required). In December 1900, the Pennsylvania Bridge Company was awarded an $800 contract by Wayne County to build the middle span of the county's iron bridge at Tanners Falls.\"[Wayne County](https://www.newspapers.com/image/638782790/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Carbondale, Pennsylvania: *The Carbondale Leader*, December 24, 1900, p. 6 (subscription required).",
"In May 1911, the Reifler Acid Company's Tanners Falls complex was destroyed during an early morning fire.\"[Acid Factories at Tanners Falls Burn, Loss $50,000](https://www.newspapers.com/image/565198856/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, May 22, 1911, p. 3 (subscription required). By mid\\-October, work was nearly completed on the construction of a new wood alcohol manufacturing facility.\"[New Acid Factory Almost Completed](https://www.newspapers.com/image/48220947/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, October 14, 1911, p. 15 (subscription required).",
"[thumb\\|By](/wiki/File:Tanners_Falls_Bridge.jpg \"Tanners Falls Bridge.jpg\") the 1920s, the acid company had become such an integral part of Tanners Falls that it owned the majority of the village's buildings, including many of the houses that were then rented out to employees of the company and the providers of various shops and other community services who had been brought it to provide conveniences for those employees.\"[The Declining Pennsylvania Chemical Industry](https://www.newspapers.com/image/55438602/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Altoona, Pennsylvania: *Altoona Tribune*, May 16, 1931, p. 6 (subscription required).",
"That situation changed, however, when the acid company was permanently closed on April 8, 1931\\. After its owners made their last shipment and terminated their workforce, the plant was auctioned off during a receiver's sale on May 5 of that year, along with eight thousand two hundred and fifty acres of forest land and thirty\\-five of the village's houses that the company had owned.\"The Declining Pennsylvania Chemical Industry,\" *Altoona Tribune*, May 16, 1931\\. The company had been placed into receivership due to an unpaid bill from 1928 of $4,000 that had accrued additional interest charges, as well as the company's indebtedness of $150,000 for its first mortgage, $160,000 owed by the company on two Series A and Series B debenture bonds, and additional unpaid debts of $75,000 and $25,000\\.\"[Receiver Is Sought by New York Man: E. W. Lee Starts Proceedings Against Concern in Tanner's Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/49780398/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, July 26, 1930, p. 3\\.\"[Judge Names Receivers for Riefler \\& Sons, Inc.](https://www.newspapers.com/image/49781627/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1)\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Republican*, July 28, 1930, p. 19\\.",
"As concern regarding the negative impact the plant's closure would have on Wayne County and the surrounding region, civic and business leaders investigated possible ways to mitigate the sale's damage and decided upon a plan that would enable the Pennsylvania State Game Commission to purchase seven thousand acres of the land, four thousand of which had been part of the acid factory's plant complex and three thousand that were \"situated several miles northeast of the Riefler estate.\" Contained within the property boundaries were two lakes \"regarded as a paradise by anglers,\" that were known for their stocks of [smallmouth bass](/wiki/Smallmouth_bass \"Smallmouth bass\"), pickerel and [panfish](/wiki/Panfish \"Panfish\"). The lands were later opened to the general public as a preserve for fishing and other recreational activities.\"[7,000 Acres Purchased by State Game Board; Public Is Cheered by Fine News](https://www.newspapers.com/image/565241864/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, April 21, 1938, p. 25 (subscription required).\"[Wayne Group Indignant on Story 'Leak': Alleges Outsider Sought Publicity in Preserve Purchase](https://www.newspapers.com/image/529347055/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, April 23, 1938, p. 10 (subscription required). The process was finalized on June 7, 1939 as \"State game lands No. 159,\" becoming \"one of the single largest tracts of game land purchased for the sportsmen\" of the state. Much of the land included in the preserve was heavily wooded and home to deer, rabbits and [ruffed grouse](/wiki/Ruffed_grouse \"Ruffed grouse\"), Pennsylvania's state bird, as well as roughly twelve miles of \"ideal trout streams,\" ponds and a marsh. The purchase of the land was funded by the diversion of seventy\\-five cents of every annual hunting license sold.\"[Field Sports](https://www.newspapers.com/image/274649155/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Allentown, Pennsylvania: *The Morning Call*, June 8, 1939, p. 18 (subscription required).\"[Game Commission Buys Riefler Tract](https://www.newspapers.com/image/528868567/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, May 6, 1938, p. 3 (subscription required).",
"The village, which had gradually withered and died after the acid factory's demise, became a [ghost town](/wiki/Ghost_town \"Ghost town\") by the early 1940s. In an effort to save the town, Robert C. Perkins of Honesdale purchased the entire village from the Tanners Falls Development Company in 1941\\.\"[Plans Farm in Wayne's Ghost Town: Honesdale Buyer of Deserted Village Will Not Set Up Industry](https://www.newspapers.com/image/530090758/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scrantonian*, December 14, 1941, p. 17 (subscription required).\"[Deserted Wayne County Village Purchased by Honesdale Man](https://www.newspapers.com/image/530089129/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Tribune*, December 11, 1941, p. 3 (subscription required). Seven years later, Perkins auctioned off the village, which was described by newspapers that year as a [hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28place%29 \"Hamlet (place)\"), in a sale that included a \"factory, store, houses and stable.\"\"[Tanners Falls for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/532370984/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, August 16, 1948, p. 2 (subscription required).\"[Hamlet of Tanners Falls Is Offered for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/367777376/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Hartford, Connecticut: *The Hartford Daily Courant*, August 17, 1948, p. 17 (subscription required).\"[Town for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/503788116/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Hazleton, Pennsylvania: *The Plain Speaker*, August 17, 1948, p. 9 (subscription required). Notices of the pending sale were placed in newspapers across the United States and as far away as Canada.\"[Whole Shebang for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/11647417/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Statesville, North Carolina: *The Landmark*, August 19, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).\"[Complete Pennsylvania Town Put Up for Sale](https://www.newspapers.com/image/160691813/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Seymour Indiana: *The Tribune*, August 16, 1948, p. 5 (subscription required).\"[For Sale: A Town In Pennsylvania; Not Big, But Nice](https://www.newspapers.com/image/733705077/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Tacoma, Washington: *The Tacoma News Tribune*, August 17, 1948, p. 3 (subscription required).\"[For Sale, Town](https://www.newspapers.com/image/509413800/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada: *Star\\-Phoenix*, August 16, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).[\"Whole Town Goes on Auction Block](https://www.newspapers.com/image/731742550/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Brantford, Ontario, Canada: *The Expositor*, August 16, 1948, p. 6 (subscription required).",
"In 1952, Edwin Patrick Kilroe, a native of Tanners Falls, donated his family's former homestead and land to the Society of Priests of the Sacred Heart for the priests' use in establishing a seminary there.\"[Personal and Pertinent](https://www.newspapers.com/image/531432353/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, July 14, 1953, p. 6 (subscription required). The Kilroe Seminary of the Congregation of the Priests of the Sacred Heart was dedicated on June 18, 1955 as part of the [Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Scranton \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton\").\"[New Seminary Dedicated in Diocese of Scranton](https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=cst19550617-01.2.134&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------).\" Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: *The Catholic Standard and Times*, Vol. 60, No. 38, June 17, 1955\\.\"[Personal and Pertinent: The Seminary at Tanners Falls](https://www.newspapers.com/image/531386866/?terms=%22Tanners%20Falls%22&match=1).\" Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Times*, June 17, 1955, p. (subscription required).",
""
] |
History
-------
The Foothills\-Rocky View electoral district was located on the western rural edge of [Calgary](/wiki/Calgary "Calgary") in southern [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta"). It was created in the [2003 electoral boundary re\-distribution](/wiki/Alberta_Electoral_Boundary_Re-distribution%2C_2004 "Alberta Electoral Boundary Re-distribution, 2004") from the eastern portion of the electoral district of [Banff\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane "Banff-Cochrane") and the western portion of the old electoral district of [Airdrie\-Rocky View](/wiki/Airdrie-Rocky_View "Airdrie-Rocky View") which comprises the northern portion of the riding.{{cite web\|title\=Proposed Electoral Division Areas, Boundaries, and Names for Alberta. Final Report to the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta \|url\=https://archive.org/details/proposedelectora00albe\_1 \|date\=February 2003 \|access\-date\=May 29, 2020 \|author\=Alberta Electoral Boundaries Commission \|publisher\=\[\[Legislative Assembly of Alberta]]}} The district is named after the Foothills of Southern Alberta and [Rocky View County](/wiki/Rocky_View_County "Rocky View County"). The riding included part of the town of [Cochrane](/wiki/Cochrane%2C_Alberta "Cochrane, Alberta"), [Bragg Creek](/wiki/Bragg_Creek%2C_Alberta "Bragg Creek, Alberta") and the Springbank area.
The Foothills\-Rocky View electoral district was dissolved in the 2010 electoral boundary re\-distribution, and portions of the district would incorporate the [Airdrie](/wiki/Airdrie_%28electoral_district%29 "Airdrie (electoral district)"), [Banff\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane "Banff-Cochrane") and [Chestermere\-Rocky View](/wiki/Chestermere-Rocky_View "Chestermere-Rocky View") electoral districts for the [2012 Alberta general election](/wiki/2012_Alberta_general_election "2012 Alberta general election").{{cite web\|title\=Proposed Electoral Division Areas, Boundaries, and Names for Alberta. Final Report to the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta \|url\=http://www.assembly.ab.ca/lao/library/egovdocs/2017/alch/224424\.pdf \|date\=October 2017 \|isbn\=978\-1\-988620\-04\-6 \|access\-date\=May 29, 2020 \|author\=Alberta Electoral Boundaries Commission \|publisher\=\[\[Legislative Assembly of Alberta]]}}
The district and its antecedents have been favorable to electing Progressive Conservative candidates in recent decades.
### Boundary history
|53 Foothills\-Rocky View 2003 boundaries{{Cite canlaw
\|short title \=Electoral Divisions Act
\|abbr \=S.A.
\|year \=2003
\|chapter \=E\-4\.1
\|section \=
\|subsection \=
\|part \=
\|division \=
\|schedule \=
\|link \=http://canlii.ca/t/53m7s
\|linkloc \=
\|wikilink \=
\|type \=
\|amended1 \=
\|amended2 \=
\|amended3 \=
\|amended4 \=
\|amended5 \=
\|regtitle \=
\|regnumber \=
}}
| |
|Bordering districts
| North | East | West | South |
| [Olds\-Didsbury\-Three Hills](/wiki/Olds-Didsbury-Three_Hills "Olds-Didsbury-Three Hills") | [Airdrie\-Chestermere](/wiki/Airdrie-Chestermere "Airdrie-Chestermere"), [Calgary\-Bow](/wiki/Calgary-Bow "Calgary-Bow"), [Calgary\-Elbow](/wiki/Calgary-Elbow "Calgary-Elbow"), [Calgary\-Glenmore](/wiki/Calgary-Glenmore "Calgary-Glenmore"), [Calgary\-Foothills](/wiki/Calgary-Foothills "Calgary-Foothills"), [Calgary\-Lougheed](/wiki/Calgary-Lougheed "Calgary-Lougheed"), [Calgary\-Mackay](/wiki/Calgary-Mackay "Calgary-Mackay"), [Calgary\-North West](/wiki/Calgary-North_West "Calgary-North West"), [Calgary\-Shaw](/wiki/Calgary-Shaw "Calgary-Shaw"), [Calgary\-West](/wiki/Calgary-West "Calgary-West"), [Highwood](/wiki/Highwood_%28electoral_district%29 "Highwood (electoral district)") | [Banff\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane "Banff-Cochrane") | Highwood |
|*riding map goes here*
[thumb\|150px\|center\|Foothills\-Rocky View in relation to Calgary ridings](/wiki/Image:Foothillsrockyviewinrelationtocalgary.png "Foothillsrockyviewinrelationtocalgary.png") |
[thumb\|150px\|center\|Foothills\-Rocky View in the province of Alberta](/wiki/Image:Whereisfoothillsrockyview.png "Whereisfoothillsrockyview.png") |
|Legal description from the Statutes of Alberta 2003, Electoral Divisions Act.
|Starting at the intersection of the east boundary of Rge. 6 W5 and the north boundary of Twp. 28; then 1\. east along the north boundary to the east boundary of Sec. 3 in Twp. 29, Rge. 2 W5; 2\. north along the east boundary of Secs. 3 and 10 to the north boundary of Sec. 11 in the Twp.; 3\. east along the north boundary of Secs. 11 and 12 in the Twp. and the north boundary of Secs. 7, 8 and 9 in Twp. 29, Rge. 1 W5 to the east boundary of Sec. 16 in the Twp.; 4\. north along the east boundary of Sec. 16 to the north boundary of Sec. 15 in the Twp.; 5\. east along the north boundary of Secs. 15 and 14 in the Twp. to its intersection with the centre line of Highway 2; 6\. south along Highway 2 to the north boundary of Sec. 24 in Twp. 27, Rge. 1 W5; 7\. west along the north boundary of Secs. 24, 23 and 22 to the east boundary of Sec. 21; 8\. south along the east boundary of Secs. 21, 16, 9 and 4 in the Twp. and Secs. 33, 28, 21 and 16 in Twp. 26, Rge. 1 W5 to the north boundary of Sec. 10 in the Twp.; 9\. east along the north boundary of Secs. 10, 11 and 12 (Highway 566\) to the centre line of Highway 2; 10\. south along the centre line of Highway 2 to the north Calgary city boundary; 11\. west, south and east along the Calgary city boundary to the intersection with the centre line of Highway 2; 12\. south along Highway 2 to the intersection with Highway 2A; 13\. south along Highway 2A to the north boundary of Sec. 5 in Twp. 21, Rge. 29 W4; 14\. west along the north boundary of Sec. 5 in Twp. 21, Rge. 29 W4 and the north boundary of Sec. 1 in Twp. 21, Rge. 1 W5 to the east boundary of Sec. 2 in Twp. 21, Rge. 1 W5; 15\. south along the east boundary of Sec. 2 in Twp. 21, Rge. 1 W5 and Secs. 35, 26 and 23 in Twp. 20, Rge. 1 W5 to Highway 7; 16\. west and south along Highway 7 to the north boundary of Sec. 9 in Twp. 20, Rge. 2 W5; 17\. south along the east boundary of Sec. 9 and 4 in the Twp. and Secs. 33 and 28 in Twp. 19 to the north boundary of Sec. 21 in Twp. 19, Rge. 2 W5; 18\. west along Secs. 21, 20 and 19 in the Twp. and Sec. 24 in Twp. 19, Rge. 3 W5 to the east boundary of Sec. 26 in Twp. 19, Rge. 3 W5; 19\. north along the east boundary of Secs. 26 and 35 to the north boundary of Twp. 19, Rge. 3 W5; 20\. west along the north boundary of Twp. 19 to Highway 546; 21\. in a southwesterly direction along Highway 546 to the east boundary of the Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve (at north boundary of Sec. 26, Twp. 19, Rge. 4 W5\); 22\. north along the Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve to the north boundary of Twp. 23, Rge. 6 W5; 23\. north along the east boundary of Rge. 6 to the south boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve No. 42, 143 and 144; 24\. generally in an easterly direction along the boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve to the west boundary of the Town of Cochrane; 25\. in a southeasterly and northerly direction along the Cochrane town boundary to the north Cochrane boundary (at the north boundary of Sec. 1, Twp. 26, Rge. 4 W5\); 26\. north along the east boundary of Sec. 12 to the north boundary of Sec. 12; 27\. west along the north boundary of Secs. 12, 11, 10 and 9 to the east boundary of Sec. 8; 28\. south along the east boundary of Sec. 8 to the north boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve No. 142, 143 and 144; 29\. in a westerly direction along the Stoney Indian Reserve boundary to the east shore of Ghost Lake Reservoir at the north boundary of Sec. 12 in Twp. 26, Rge. 6 W5; 30\. west along the north boundary of Sec. 12 to the northwest shore of the Ghost Lake Reservoir; 31\. in a northerly direction along the west shore of the Ghost Lake Reservoir to the east boundary of Sec. 23; 32\. north along the east boundary of Secs. 23, 26 and 35 in the Twp. and the east boundary of Secs. 2 and 11 in Twp. 27, Rge. 6 W5 to the south boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve 142B; 33\. east along the south boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve 142B to the east boundary of Rge. 6 W5; 34\. north along the east boundary of Rge. 6 to the north boundary of Twp. 28, the starting point.
|**Note:**
|Members of the Legislative Assembly for Foothills\-Rocky View{{cite web\|title\=Members of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta 1905\-2006 \|url\=http://www.assembly.ab.ca/legislaturecentennial/pdf/membersBooklet.pdf \|publisher\=Legislative Assembly of Alberta \|access\-date\=February 27, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024650/http://www.assembly.ab.ca/legislaturecentennial/pdf/membersBooklet.pdf \|archive\-date\=September 30, 2007 }}
| |
| Assembly | Years |Member
Party |
|*See [Banff\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane "Banff-Cochrane") 1979\-2001 and [Airdrie\-Rocky View](/wiki/Airdrie-Rocky_View "Airdrie-Rocky View") 1993\-2001*
| [26th](/wiki/26th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "26th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | 2004–2008 |
[Ted Morton](/wiki/Ted_Morton "Ted Morton")
[Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta "Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta")
| [27th](/wiki/27th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "27th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | 2008–2012 |
|*See [Airdrie](/wiki/Airdrie_%28electoral_district%29 "Airdrie (electoral district)"), [Banff\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane "Banff-Cochrane") and [Chestermere\-Rocky View](/wiki/Chestermere-Rocky_View "Chestermere-Rocky View") 2012\-2019*
### Electoral history
The electoral district was created in the 2004 boundary redistribution. In the election held that year Progressive Conservative candidate [Ted Morton](/wiki/Ted_Morton "Ted Morton") who chose not to run for another term of senator\-in\-waiting in the [2004 Senate nominee election](/wiki/2004_Alberta_Senate_nominee_election "2004 Alberta Senate nominee election") decided to run for seat to the legislature instead.
Morton defeated four other candidates with 60% of the vote to pick up the new district for the Progressive Conservatives. After the election Morton began his race to succeed [Ralph Klein](/wiki/Ralph_Klein "Ralph Klein") in the [2006 Progressive Conservative leadership race](/wiki/2006_Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta_leadership_election "2006 Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta leadership election"). Morton lost but was appointed to cabinet by new Premier [Ed Stelmach](/wiki/Ed_Stelmach "Ed Stelmach") in 2006\.
Morton ran for a second term in the 2008 general election. He slightly increased his popular vote and returned to power with a big majority. In 2010 he was shuffled to the Minister of Finance portfolio.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Foothills\\-Rocky View electoral district was located on the western rural edge of [Calgary](/wiki/Calgary \"Calgary\") in southern [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\"). It was created in the [2003 electoral boundary re\\-distribution](/wiki/Alberta_Electoral_Boundary_Re-distribution%2C_2004 \"Alberta Electoral Boundary Re-distribution, 2004\") from the eastern portion of the electoral district of [Banff\\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane \"Banff-Cochrane\") and the western portion of the old electoral district of [Airdrie\\-Rocky View](/wiki/Airdrie-Rocky_View \"Airdrie-Rocky View\") which comprises the northern portion of the riding.{{cite web\\|title\\=Proposed Electoral Division Areas, Boundaries, and Names for Alberta. Final Report to the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/proposedelectora00albe\\_1 \\|date\\=February 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2020 \\|author\\=Alberta Electoral Boundaries Commission \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Legislative Assembly of Alberta]]}} The district is named after the Foothills of Southern Alberta and [Rocky View County](/wiki/Rocky_View_County \"Rocky View County\"). The riding included part of the town of [Cochrane](/wiki/Cochrane%2C_Alberta \"Cochrane, Alberta\"), [Bragg Creek](/wiki/Bragg_Creek%2C_Alberta \"Bragg Creek, Alberta\") and the Springbank area.",
"The Foothills\\-Rocky View electoral district was dissolved in the 2010 electoral boundary re\\-distribution, and portions of the district would incorporate the [Airdrie](/wiki/Airdrie_%28electoral_district%29 \"Airdrie (electoral district)\"), [Banff\\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane \"Banff-Cochrane\") and [Chestermere\\-Rocky View](/wiki/Chestermere-Rocky_View \"Chestermere-Rocky View\") electoral districts for the [2012 Alberta general election](/wiki/2012_Alberta_general_election \"2012 Alberta general election\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Proposed Electoral Division Areas, Boundaries, and Names for Alberta. Final Report to the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta \\|url\\=http://www.assembly.ab.ca/lao/library/egovdocs/2017/alch/224424\\.pdf \\|date\\=October 2017 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-988620\\-04\\-6 \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2020 \\|author\\=Alberta Electoral Boundaries Commission \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Legislative Assembly of Alberta]]}}",
"The district and its antecedents have been favorable to electing Progressive Conservative candidates in recent decades.",
"### Boundary history",
"",
"|53 Foothills\\-Rocky View 2003 boundaries{{Cite canlaw\n\\|short title \\=Electoral Divisions Act\n\\|abbr \\=S.A.\n\\|year \\=2003\n\\|chapter \\=E\\-4\\.1\n\\|section \\=\n\\|subsection \\=\n\\|part \\=\n\\|division \\=\n\\|schedule \\=\n\\|link \\=http://canlii.ca/t/53m7s\n\\|linkloc \\=\n\\|wikilink \\=\n\\|type \\=\n\\|amended1 \\=\n\\|amended2 \\=\n\\|amended3 \\=\n\\|amended4 \\=\n\\|amended5 \\=\n\\|regtitle \\=\n\\|regnumber \\=\n}}",
"| |\n|Bordering districts",
"| North | East | West | South |\n| [Olds\\-Didsbury\\-Three Hills](/wiki/Olds-Didsbury-Three_Hills \"Olds-Didsbury-Three Hills\") | [Airdrie\\-Chestermere](/wiki/Airdrie-Chestermere \"Airdrie-Chestermere\"), [Calgary\\-Bow](/wiki/Calgary-Bow \"Calgary-Bow\"), [Calgary\\-Elbow](/wiki/Calgary-Elbow \"Calgary-Elbow\"), [Calgary\\-Glenmore](/wiki/Calgary-Glenmore \"Calgary-Glenmore\"), [Calgary\\-Foothills](/wiki/Calgary-Foothills \"Calgary-Foothills\"), [Calgary\\-Lougheed](/wiki/Calgary-Lougheed \"Calgary-Lougheed\"), [Calgary\\-Mackay](/wiki/Calgary-Mackay \"Calgary-Mackay\"), [Calgary\\-North West](/wiki/Calgary-North_West \"Calgary-North West\"), [Calgary\\-Shaw](/wiki/Calgary-Shaw \"Calgary-Shaw\"), [Calgary\\-West](/wiki/Calgary-West \"Calgary-West\"), [Highwood](/wiki/Highwood_%28electoral_district%29 \"Highwood (electoral district)\") | [Banff\\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane \"Banff-Cochrane\") | Highwood |\n|*riding map goes here*",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|center\\|Foothills\\-Rocky View in relation to Calgary ridings](/wiki/Image:Foothillsrockyviewinrelationtocalgary.png \"Foothillsrockyviewinrelationtocalgary.png\") |\n [thumb\\|150px\\|center\\|Foothills\\-Rocky View in the province of Alberta](/wiki/Image:Whereisfoothillsrockyview.png \"Whereisfoothillsrockyview.png\") |\n|Legal description from the Statutes of Alberta 2003, Electoral Divisions Act.",
"|Starting at the intersection of the east boundary of Rge. 6 W5 and the north boundary of Twp. 28; then 1\\. east along the north boundary to the east boundary of Sec. 3 in Twp. 29, Rge. 2 W5; 2\\. north along the east boundary of Secs. 3 and 10 to the north boundary of Sec. 11 in the Twp.; 3\\. east along the north boundary of Secs. 11 and 12 in the Twp. and the north boundary of Secs. 7, 8 and 9 in Twp. 29, Rge. 1 W5 to the east boundary of Sec. 16 in the Twp.; 4\\. north along the east boundary of Sec. 16 to the north boundary of Sec. 15 in the Twp.; 5\\. east along the north boundary of Secs. 15 and 14 in the Twp. to its intersection with the centre line of Highway 2; 6\\. south along Highway 2 to the north boundary of Sec. 24 in Twp. 27, Rge. 1 W5; 7\\. west along the north boundary of Secs. 24, 23 and 22 to the east boundary of Sec. 21; 8\\. south along the east boundary of Secs. 21, 16, 9 and 4 in the Twp. and Secs. 33, 28, 21 and 16 in Twp. 26, Rge. 1 W5 to the north boundary of Sec. 10 in the Twp.; 9\\. east along the north boundary of Secs. 10, 11 and 12 (Highway 566\\) to the centre line of Highway 2; 10\\. south along the centre line of Highway 2 to the north Calgary city boundary; 11\\. west, south and east along the Calgary city boundary to the intersection with the centre line of Highway 2; 12\\. south along Highway 2 to the intersection with Highway 2A; 13\\. south along Highway 2A to the north boundary of Sec. 5 in Twp. 21, Rge. 29 W4; 14\\. west along the north boundary of Sec. 5 in Twp. 21, Rge. 29 W4 and the north boundary of Sec. 1 in Twp. 21, Rge. 1 W5 to the east boundary of Sec. 2 in Twp. 21, Rge. 1 W5; 15\\. south along the east boundary of Sec. 2 in Twp. 21, Rge. 1 W5 and Secs. 35, 26 and 23 in Twp. 20, Rge. 1 W5 to Highway 7; 16\\. west and south along Highway 7 to the north boundary of Sec. 9 in Twp. 20, Rge. 2 W5; 17\\. south along the east boundary of Sec. 9 and 4 in the Twp. and Secs. 33 and 28 in Twp. 19 to the north boundary of Sec. 21 in Twp. 19, Rge. 2 W5; 18\\. west along Secs. 21, 20 and 19 in the Twp. and Sec. 24 in Twp. 19, Rge. 3 W5 to the east boundary of Sec. 26 in Twp. 19, Rge. 3 W5; 19\\. north along the east boundary of Secs. 26 and 35 to the north boundary of Twp. 19, Rge. 3 W5; 20\\. west along the north boundary of Twp. 19 to Highway 546; 21\\. in a southwesterly direction along Highway 546 to the east boundary of the Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve (at north boundary of Sec. 26, Twp. 19, Rge. 4 W5\\); 22\\. north along the Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve to the north boundary of Twp. 23, Rge. 6 W5; 23\\. north along the east boundary of Rge. 6 to the south boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve No. 42, 143 and 144; 24\\. generally in an easterly direction along the boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve to the west boundary of the Town of Cochrane; 25\\. in a southeasterly and northerly direction along the Cochrane town boundary to the north Cochrane boundary (at the north boundary of Sec. 1, Twp. 26, Rge. 4 W5\\); 26\\. north along the east boundary of Sec. 12 to the north boundary of Sec. 12; 27\\. west along the north boundary of Secs. 12, 11, 10 and 9 to the east boundary of Sec. 8; 28\\. south along the east boundary of Sec. 8 to the north boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve No. 142, 143 and 144; 29\\. in a westerly direction along the Stoney Indian Reserve boundary to the east shore of Ghost Lake Reservoir at the north boundary of Sec. 12 in Twp. 26, Rge. 6 W5; 30\\. west along the north boundary of Sec. 12 to the northwest shore of the Ghost Lake Reservoir; 31\\. in a northerly direction along the west shore of the Ghost Lake Reservoir to the east boundary of Sec. 23; 32\\. north along the east boundary of Secs. 23, 26 and 35 in the Twp. and the east boundary of Secs. 2 and 11 in Twp. 27, Rge. 6 W5 to the south boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve 142B; 33\\. east along the south boundary of the Stoney Indian Reserve 142B to the east boundary of Rge. 6 W5; 34\\. north along the east boundary of Rge. 6 to the north boundary of Twp. 28, the starting point.",
"|**Note:**",
"",
"",
"|Members of the Legislative Assembly for Foothills\\-Rocky View{{cite web\\|title\\=Members of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta 1905\\-2006 \\|url\\=http://www.assembly.ab.ca/legislaturecentennial/pdf/membersBooklet.pdf \\|publisher\\=Legislative Assembly of Alberta \\|access\\-date\\=February 27, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024650/http://www.assembly.ab.ca/legislaturecentennial/pdf/membersBooklet.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=September 30, 2007 }}",
"| |\n| Assembly | Years |Member",
"Party |\n|*See [Banff\\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane \"Banff-Cochrane\") 1979\\-2001 and [Airdrie\\-Rocky View](/wiki/Airdrie-Rocky_View \"Airdrie-Rocky View\") 1993\\-2001*",
"| [26th](/wiki/26th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"26th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | 2004–2008 |",
"[Ted Morton](/wiki/Ted_Morton \"Ted Morton\")",
"[Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta \"Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta\")",
"| [27th](/wiki/27th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"27th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | 2008–2012 |\n|*See [Airdrie](/wiki/Airdrie_%28electoral_district%29 \"Airdrie (electoral district)\"), [Banff\\-Cochrane](/wiki/Banff-Cochrane \"Banff-Cochrane\") and [Chestermere\\-Rocky View](/wiki/Chestermere-Rocky_View \"Chestermere-Rocky View\") 2012\\-2019*",
"",
"### Electoral history",
"The electoral district was created in the 2004 boundary redistribution. In the election held that year Progressive Conservative candidate [Ted Morton](/wiki/Ted_Morton \"Ted Morton\") who chose not to run for another term of senator\\-in\\-waiting in the [2004 Senate nominee election](/wiki/2004_Alberta_Senate_nominee_election \"2004 Alberta Senate nominee election\") decided to run for seat to the legislature instead.",
"Morton defeated four other candidates with 60% of the vote to pick up the new district for the Progressive Conservatives. After the election Morton began his race to succeed [Ralph Klein](/wiki/Ralph_Klein \"Ralph Klein\") in the [2006 Progressive Conservative leadership race](/wiki/2006_Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta_leadership_election \"2006 Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta leadership election\"). Morton lost but was appointed to cabinet by new Premier [Ed Stelmach](/wiki/Ed_Stelmach \"Ed Stelmach\") in 2006\\.",
"Morton ran for a second term in the 2008 general election. He slightly increased his popular vote and returned to power with a big majority. In 2010 he was shuffled to the Minister of Finance portfolio.",
""
] |
Crossing the Tugela
-------------------
On the day that the encirclement of Ladysmith was completed, reinforcements headed by [General Sir Redvers Buller](/wiki/Redvers_Buller "Redvers Buller") arrived in [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town "Cape Town") en route to Natal. Buller remained in Cape Town for three weeks before pressing on to [Pietermaritzburg](/wiki/Pietermaritzburg "Pietermaritzburg").
[thumb\|250px\|Piet Joubert, the Boer commander](/wiki/File:Pjjoubert.jpg "Pjjoubert.jpg")
On 15 November a raiding party [ambushed an armoured train](/wiki/Battle_of_Chieveley "Battle of Chieveley") at Chieveley, 11 km south of Colenso taking 70 prisoners including Churchill. After another raiding party was surprised on 23 November at Willow Grange,
{{cite web\|url\=http://www.durbanlightinfantry.co.za/site/awdep.asp?depnum\=2912\|title\=23 November 1899\|author\=Godfrey Symons and Col. Martin\|publisher\=Durban Light Infantry\|access\-date\=2008\-10\-28}}{{dead link\|date\=April 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} 10 km to the south of Estcourt, the Boers withdrew to a position behind the Tugela River.
During these operations Joubert fell from his horse and sustained injuries from which he was to die on 28 March 1900 – four weeks after the relief of Ladysmith. He effectively relinquished control of the Boer forces to [Louis Botha](/wiki/Louis_Botha "Louis Botha"), but remained nominally in command of the forces until his death.
{{cite web\|url\=http://samilitaryhistory.org/99/d99mayne.html \|title\=Newsletter No 290 Natal Branch May 1999 (Report on a video made by Ken Gillings)\|publisher \= The South African Military History Society\|access\-date\=2010\-01\-15}}
### The Battle of Colenso (15 December 1899\)
{{main\|Battle of Colenso}}
{{coord\|28\|44\|3\|S\|29\|49\|21\|E\|type:event\_region:ZA\|display\=inline\|name\=Battle of Colenso}}
By the middle of December, British and Empire troops were pouring into the Colony and Buller, now heading an army of 20,000 men moved his headquarters northwards to Frere.
Buller's first attempt at crossing the river was the [Battle of Colenso](/wiki/Battle_of_Colenso "Battle of Colenso"). From the British point of view, the battle was a fiasco. On the western flank the British forces suffered considerable losses when the Irish Brigade were trapped in a loop in the river 3 km upstream from Colenso. In the centre they lost ten guns while on the eastern flank, Buller ordered his men to retreat even though the Boers had abandoned Hlangwane hill. Six [Victoria Crosses](/wiki/Victoria_Cross "Victoria Cross") were awarded for gallantry during the battle. During this battle, Freddie Roberts, son of Lord Roberts was mortally wounded.
[thumb\|left\|300px\|Map showing the battles in the Relief of Ladysmith](/wiki/File:Churchill_Ladysmith_2.jpg "Churchill Ladysmith 2.jpg")
### The Battle of Spion Kop (20–24 January 1900\)
{{main\|Battle of Spion Kop}}
{{coord\|28\|39\|0\|S\|29\|30\|59\|E\|type:event\|display\=inline\|name\=Battle of Spion Kop}}
Reinforcements continued to pour into Natal and with the arrival of [Sir Charles Warren](/wiki/Sir_Charles_Warren "Sir Charles Warren")'s division, Buller had 30,000 men under his command.
Some 30 km west of Colenso, Spion Kop, a hill that rose 430 m above the plains dominated Trichardt's Drift, one of the Tugela River crossing points. Buller resolved to capture the hill and so ensure an entry to Ladysmith from the west. The main attack was entrusted to Warren and simultaneously a diversionary attack under Major General Edward Woodgate was launched at Potgieter's Drift, 4 km to the east. From their position on the hills, the Boers were able to watch the British force moving upstream on the south bank of the river and built appropriate defences. On 18 January the British built a [pontoon bridge](/wiki/Pontoon_bridge "Pontoon bridge") across the river and started to cross. On the night of 23 January in heavy mist the British launched an attack on what they thought was Spion Kop, but it turned out to be a smaller mound some 500 m from the main peak. The following day there was bloody fighting as the British tried to force their way to the top of the main peak. By nightfall both sides thought that the other had taken the hill, so they abandoned their positions and it was only once a Boer scout realised the situation that the Boers retook the hill and the British withdrew back across the Tugela.
[thumb\|250px\|General Sir Redvers Buller VC, Commander of the British Forces](/wiki/File:VCRedversHenryBuller.jpg "VCRedversHenryBuller.jpg")
### The Battle of Vaal Krantz (5–7 February 1900\)
{{main\|Battle of Vaal Krantz}}
{{Coord\|28\|40\|S\|29\|37\|E\|type:event\_region:ZA \|display\=inline \|name\=Battle of Vaal Krantz}}
Vaal Krantz was a ridge of *kopjes* (small hills) a few kilometres east of Spion Kop. Buller tried to force a bridgehead across the Tugela River. After three days of skirmishing, the British general found that his position was so cramped that there was no room to drag his superior artillery up to support the British infantry attacks. Buller called a council of war and "All his generals agreed that there was nothing for it except to try a new attempt elsewhere."Pakenham, p. 361
### The Battle of the Tugela Heights (14–27 February 1900\)
{{main\|Battle of the Tugela Heights}}
{{Coord\|28\|41\|S\|29\|50\|E\|type:event\_region:ZA \|display\=inline \|name\=Battle of the Tugela Heights}}
Even though the Tugela Heights are located on the north bank of the Tugela River a few kilometres downstream from Colenso, the battle itself covered the taking of a number of hills on both sides of the Tugela.
In the first phase of the engagement, the British took the hills of Monte Cristo, some five kilometres to the west of Colenso on the South Bank thereby outflanking the Boers on Hlangwane hill. The Boers, under heavy bombardment abandoned Hlangwane and withdrew north of the Tugela.
On 21 February a pontoon bridge was built which enabled the British to take Railway Hill and Wynnes Hill, but failed to capture Harts Hill and Wynnes Hill. On 25 February the British moved the pontoon bridge downstream to the mouth of the Tugela gorge where they could cross the river unseen and outflank the Boer positions. On 27 February the British took both Pieters Hill and Harts Hill, after which the Boer resistance crumbled.
|
[
"Crossing the Tugela\n-------------------",
"On the day that the encirclement of Ladysmith was completed, reinforcements headed by [General Sir Redvers Buller](/wiki/Redvers_Buller \"Redvers Buller\") arrived in [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town \"Cape Town\") en route to Natal. Buller remained in Cape Town for three weeks before pressing on to [Pietermaritzburg](/wiki/Pietermaritzburg \"Pietermaritzburg\").\n[thumb\\|250px\\|Piet Joubert, the Boer commander](/wiki/File:Pjjoubert.jpg \"Pjjoubert.jpg\")",
"On 15 November a raiding party [ambushed an armoured train](/wiki/Battle_of_Chieveley \"Battle of Chieveley\") at Chieveley, 11 km south of Colenso taking 70 prisoners including Churchill. After another raiding party was surprised on 23 November at Willow Grange,\n{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.durbanlightinfantry.co.za/site/awdep.asp?depnum\\=2912\\|title\\=23 November 1899\\|author\\=Godfrey Symons and Col. Martin\\|publisher\\=Durban Light Infantry\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-28}}{{dead link\\|date\\=April 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} 10 km to the south of Estcourt, the Boers withdrew to a position behind the Tugela River.",
"During these operations Joubert fell from his horse and sustained injuries from which he was to die on 28 March 1900 – four weeks after the relief of Ladysmith. He effectively relinquished control of the Boer forces to [Louis Botha](/wiki/Louis_Botha \"Louis Botha\"), but remained nominally in command of the forces until his death.\n{{cite web\\|url\\=http://samilitaryhistory.org/99/d99mayne.html \\|title\\=Newsletter No 290 Natal Branch May 1999 (Report on a video made by Ken Gillings)\\|publisher \\= The South African Military History Society\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-15}}",
"### The Battle of Colenso (15 December 1899\\)",
"{{main\\|Battle of Colenso}}\n{{coord\\|28\\|44\\|3\\|S\\|29\\|49\\|21\\|E\\|type:event\\_region:ZA\\|display\\=inline\\|name\\=Battle of Colenso}}\nBy the middle of December, British and Empire troops were pouring into the Colony and Buller, now heading an army of 20,000 men moved his headquarters northwards to Frere.",
"Buller's first attempt at crossing the river was the [Battle of Colenso](/wiki/Battle_of_Colenso \"Battle of Colenso\"). From the British point of view, the battle was a fiasco. On the western flank the British forces suffered considerable losses when the Irish Brigade were trapped in a loop in the river 3 km upstream from Colenso. In the centre they lost ten guns while on the eastern flank, Buller ordered his men to retreat even though the Boers had abandoned Hlangwane hill. Six [Victoria Crosses](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\") were awarded for gallantry during the battle. During this battle, Freddie Roberts, son of Lord Roberts was mortally wounded.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Map showing the battles in the Relief of Ladysmith](/wiki/File:Churchill_Ladysmith_2.jpg \"Churchill Ladysmith 2.jpg\")",
"### The Battle of Spion Kop (20–24 January 1900\\)",
"{{main\\|Battle of Spion Kop}}\n{{coord\\|28\\|39\\|0\\|S\\|29\\|30\\|59\\|E\\|type:event\\|display\\=inline\\|name\\=Battle of Spion Kop}}",
"Reinforcements continued to pour into Natal and with the arrival of [Sir Charles Warren](/wiki/Sir_Charles_Warren \"Sir Charles Warren\")'s division, Buller had 30,000 men under his command.",
"Some 30 km west of Colenso, Spion Kop, a hill that rose 430 m above the plains dominated Trichardt's Drift, one of the Tugela River crossing points. Buller resolved to capture the hill and so ensure an entry to Ladysmith from the west. The main attack was entrusted to Warren and simultaneously a diversionary attack under Major General Edward Woodgate was launched at Potgieter's Drift, 4 km to the east. From their position on the hills, the Boers were able to watch the British force moving upstream on the south bank of the river and built appropriate defences. On 18 January the British built a [pontoon bridge](/wiki/Pontoon_bridge \"Pontoon bridge\") across the river and started to cross. On the night of 23 January in heavy mist the British launched an attack on what they thought was Spion Kop, but it turned out to be a smaller mound some 500 m from the main peak. The following day there was bloody fighting as the British tried to force their way to the top of the main peak. By nightfall both sides thought that the other had taken the hill, so they abandoned their positions and it was only once a Boer scout realised the situation that the Boers retook the hill and the British withdrew back across the Tugela.\n[thumb\\|250px\\|General Sir Redvers Buller VC, Commander of the British Forces](/wiki/File:VCRedversHenryBuller.jpg \"VCRedversHenryBuller.jpg\")",
"### The Battle of Vaal Krantz (5–7 February 1900\\)",
"{{main\\|Battle of Vaal Krantz}}\n{{Coord\\|28\\|40\\|S\\|29\\|37\\|E\\|type:event\\_region:ZA \\|display\\=inline \\|name\\=Battle of Vaal Krantz}}",
"Vaal Krantz was a ridge of *kopjes* (small hills) a few kilometres east of Spion Kop. Buller tried to force a bridgehead across the Tugela River. After three days of skirmishing, the British general found that his position was so cramped that there was no room to drag his superior artillery up to support the British infantry attacks. Buller called a council of war and \"All his generals agreed that there was nothing for it except to try a new attempt elsewhere.\"Pakenham, p. 361",
"### The Battle of the Tugela Heights (14–27 February 1900\\)",
"{{main\\|Battle of the Tugela Heights}}\n{{Coord\\|28\\|41\\|S\\|29\\|50\\|E\\|type:event\\_region:ZA \\|display\\=inline \\|name\\=Battle of the Tugela Heights}}",
"Even though the Tugela Heights are located on the north bank of the Tugela River a few kilometres downstream from Colenso, the battle itself covered the taking of a number of hills on both sides of the Tugela.",
"In the first phase of the engagement, the British took the hills of Monte Cristo, some five kilometres to the west of Colenso on the South Bank thereby outflanking the Boers on Hlangwane hill. The Boers, under heavy bombardment abandoned Hlangwane and withdrew north of the Tugela.",
"On 21 February a pontoon bridge was built which enabled the British to take Railway Hill and Wynnes Hill, but failed to capture Harts Hill and Wynnes Hill. On 25 February the British moved the pontoon bridge downstream to the mouth of the Tugela gorge where they could cross the river unseen and outflank the Boer positions. On 27 February the British took both Pieters Hill and Harts Hill, after which the Boer resistance crumbled.",
""
] |
Cases
-----
The organization has played an important role in some major legal cases. In 2003, Økokrim arrested [Mullah Krekar](/wiki/Mullah_Krekar "Mullah Krekar"), alleged leader of the [Kurdish](/wiki/Kurds "Kurds") [Islamist](/wiki/Islamist "Islamist") group, [Ansar al\-Islam](/wiki/Ansar_al-Islam_in_Kurdistan "Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan").
### 2002
After [Jon Lech Johansen](/wiki/Jon_Lech_Johansen "Jon Lech Johansen") released [DeCSS](/wiki/DeCSS "DeCSS"), he was taken to court by Økokrim. The trial opened in the [Oslo District Court](/wiki/Oslo_District_Court "Oslo District Court") on 9 December 2002 with Johansen pleading not guilty and the defense, by [Electronic Frontier Foundation](/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation "Electronic Frontier Foundation") argued that no illegal access was obtained to anyone else's information, since Johansen owned the [DVDs](/wiki/DVD "DVD") himself. They also argued that it is legal under Norwegian law to make copies of such data for personal use. The verdict was announced on 7 January 2003, [acquitting](/wiki/Acquittal "Acquittal") Johansen of all charges.
### 2003
Økokrim filed an appeal on 20 January 2003 to the Johansen verdict and on 28 February that the [Borgarting Court of Appeal](/wiki/Borgarting_Court_of_Appeal "Borgarting Court of Appeal") had agreed to hear the case. Johansen's second DeCSS trial began on 2 December 2003, and resulted in an acquittal on 22 December 2003\.[Retrial of "DVD\-Jon," and a Christmas request](http://archive.arstechnica.com/news/posts/1070300350.html) December 1, 2003 Økokrim did make a further appeal of the case to the Supreme Court.
### 2006
In 2006, Økokrim filed indictments were filed against four members of [The 5 Percent Community](/wiki/T5PC "T5PC") for breach of trust with fraudulent intent.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.okokrim.no/generelt/arsrapporter/aarsrapport\_pdf\_engelsk\_2006\.pdf \|title\=0kokrim 2006 Annual Report \|access\-date\=2007\-12\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726192650/http://www.okokrim.no/generelt/arsrapporter/aarsrapport\_pdf\_engelsk\_2006\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-26 \|url\-status\=dead }} The main individuals responsible, including [Henrik Ellefsen](/wiki/Henrik_Ellefsen "Henrik Ellefsen") and [Jørn Ronnie Tagge](/wiki/J%C3%B8rn_Ronnie_Tagge "Jørn Ronnie Tagge"), were convicted on charges of fraud in December 2007\.[T5PC\-toppene dømt til fengsel, Lov og rett](http://e24.no/lov-og-rett/article2163337.ece)
### 2011
In 2011 the agency investigated 28 cases.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.aftenposten.no/okonomi/Okokrim\-etterforsket\-rekordfa\-saker\-i\-2011\-6765144\.html\|title\=Økokrim etterforsket rekordfå saker i 2011\|author\=Frank Lynum\|work\=Aftenposten}} 28 persons were convicted, and the conviction rate was 86%.
### 2012
The agency's desired conviction rate is 90%.
### 2016
On 8 March 2016, Økokrim seized the Popcorn\-Time.no domain name. [Norwegian Police Seize Popcorn\-Time “Information” Site](https://torrentfreak.com/norwegian-police-seize-popcorn-time-information-site-160308/) TorrentFreak Retrieved March 8, 2016 The site did not host the [Popcorn Time](/wiki/Popcorn_Time "Popcorn Time") application but instead had articles and links to sites that offered the application.
|
[
"Cases\n-----",
"The organization has played an important role in some major legal cases. In 2003, Økokrim arrested [Mullah Krekar](/wiki/Mullah_Krekar \"Mullah Krekar\"), alleged leader of the [Kurdish](/wiki/Kurds \"Kurds\") [Islamist](/wiki/Islamist \"Islamist\") group, [Ansar al\\-Islam](/wiki/Ansar_al-Islam_in_Kurdistan \"Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan\").",
"### 2002",
"After [Jon Lech Johansen](/wiki/Jon_Lech_Johansen \"Jon Lech Johansen\") released [DeCSS](/wiki/DeCSS \"DeCSS\"), he was taken to court by Økokrim. The trial opened in the [Oslo District Court](/wiki/Oslo_District_Court \"Oslo District Court\") on 9 December 2002 with Johansen pleading not guilty and the defense, by [Electronic Frontier Foundation](/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation \"Electronic Frontier Foundation\") argued that no illegal access was obtained to anyone else's information, since Johansen owned the [DVDs](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") himself. They also argued that it is legal under Norwegian law to make copies of such data for personal use. The verdict was announced on 7 January 2003, [acquitting](/wiki/Acquittal \"Acquittal\") Johansen of all charges.",
"### 2003",
"Økokrim filed an appeal on 20 January 2003 to the Johansen verdict and on 28 February that the [Borgarting Court of Appeal](/wiki/Borgarting_Court_of_Appeal \"Borgarting Court of Appeal\") had agreed to hear the case. Johansen's second DeCSS trial began on 2 December 2003, and resulted in an acquittal on 22 December 2003\\.[Retrial of \"DVD\\-Jon,\" and a Christmas request](http://archive.arstechnica.com/news/posts/1070300350.html) December 1, 2003 Økokrim did make a further appeal of the case to the Supreme Court.",
"### 2006",
"In 2006, Økokrim filed indictments were filed against four members of [The 5 Percent Community](/wiki/T5PC \"T5PC\") for breach of trust with fraudulent intent.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.okokrim.no/generelt/arsrapporter/aarsrapport\\_pdf\\_engelsk\\_2006\\.pdf \\|title\\=0kokrim 2006 Annual Report \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-12\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726192650/http://www.okokrim.no/generelt/arsrapporter/aarsrapport\\_pdf\\_engelsk\\_2006\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The main individuals responsible, including [Henrik Ellefsen](/wiki/Henrik_Ellefsen \"Henrik Ellefsen\") and [Jørn Ronnie Tagge](/wiki/J%C3%B8rn_Ronnie_Tagge \"Jørn Ronnie Tagge\"), were convicted on charges of fraud in December 2007\\.[T5PC\\-toppene dømt til fengsel, Lov og rett](http://e24.no/lov-og-rett/article2163337.ece)",
"### 2011",
"In 2011 the agency investigated 28 cases.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aftenposten.no/okonomi/Okokrim\\-etterforsket\\-rekordfa\\-saker\\-i\\-2011\\-6765144\\.html\\|title\\=Økokrim etterforsket rekordfå saker i 2011\\|author\\=Frank Lynum\\|work\\=Aftenposten}} 28 persons were convicted, and the conviction rate was 86%.",
"### 2012",
"The agency's desired conviction rate is 90%.",
"### 2016",
"On 8 March 2016, Økokrim seized the Popcorn\\-Time.no domain name. [Norwegian Police Seize Popcorn\\-Time “Information” Site](https://torrentfreak.com/norwegian-police-seize-popcorn-time-information-site-160308/) TorrentFreak Retrieved March 8, 2016 The site did not host the [Popcorn Time](/wiki/Popcorn_Time \"Popcorn Time\") application but instead had articles and links to sites that offered the application.",
""
] |
Football coach
--------------
### 1908 season
In 1907, [Henry Kendall College](/wiki/Henry_Kendall_College "Henry Kendall College") (which later became the [University of Tulsa](/wiki/University_of_Tulsa "University of Tulsa")) relocated from [Muskogee, Oklahoma](/wiki/Muskogee%2C_Oklahoma "Muskogee, Oklahoma"), to Tulsa. In 1908, McBirney volunteered to take time away from his duties at the bank to coach the school's football team. McBirney's 1908 football team played no intercollegiate games and played four of its five games against local high schools and the fifth game against the [Outrigger Canoe Club](/wiki/Outrigger_canoe "Outrigger canoe") from Hawaii. Though outscoring opponents 80 to 43, the 1908 team won 2 games and lost 3\.
### University of New Mexico
McBirney was hired as the head football coach at the [University of New Mexico](/wiki/University_of_New_Mexico "University of New Mexico") in September 1909\.{{cite news\|title\=Oklahoma Man Will Coach 'Varsity Football Team\|newspaper\=The Albuquerque Morning Journal\|date\=September 30, 1909\|page\=3\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25799658/oklahoma\_man\_will\_coach\_varsity/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} After six weeks in Albuquerque, McBirnie returned to Tulsa. Hamilton H. Conwell and Hugh J. Collins assuming the coaching responsibilities for the final game of the season against [New Mexico A\&M](/wiki/1909_New_Mexico_A%26M_Aggies_football_team "1909 New Mexico A&M Aggies football team").{{cite news\|title\=M'Birnie Leaves for Home\|newspaper\=The Albuquerque Morning Journal\|date\=November 28, 1909\|page\=3\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25799837/mbirnie\_leaves\_for\_home/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
### 1910 season
In 1910, he returned to Kendall and coached the team to a 2–1–1 record.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/882746017/\|title\=Kendall Team is Doing Good Work\|date\=November 9, 1910\|newspaper\=\[\[Tulsa Tribune]]\|access\-date\=July 24, 2023}}
### Tulsa High School
After the 1908 season, McBirney returned to his work at the bank. He developed a love of football and began coaching the [Tulsa High School](/wiki/Central_High_School_%28Tulsa%2C_Oklahoma%29 "Central High School (Tulsa, Oklahoma)") football team. His 1913 Tulsa High School team completed an undefeated season, won a mythical Oklahoma state championship, and defeated Henry Kendall College 27 to 6\.{{cite book\|author\=Brett Perkins\|title\=Frantic Francis: How One Coach's Madness Changed Football\|pages\=23–26}}
### 1914 and 1915 seasons
In 1914, local businessmen urged McBirney to take over as the football coach at Kendall College. At the time, the college had an enrollment of approximately 100 students and had played only one intercollegiate football game between 1900 and 1912 (the bulk of its games were played against high school teams).
McBirney agreed to take over as Kendall's football coach, and over the next three years, he built the Kendall football team into one of the best teams in the country. In 1914, the first season of true intercollegiate football at Tulsa, McBirney scheduled games against the state's top schools, including [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma_Sooners_football "Oklahoma Sooners football") and [Oklahoma A\&M](/wiki/Oklahoma_State_Cowboys_football "Oklahoma State Cowboys football"). The 1914 team finished with a record of 6\-2, outscored opponents 261 to 48, and played respectably against both Oklahoma State (a 13\-6 loss) and Oklahoma (a 26\-7 loss).
In 1915, McBirney's football team improved to 6\-1\-1, played Oklahoma State to a scoreless tie, and lost a close game to Oklahoma by a score of 14\-13\. In its six victories, the 1915 team outscored opponents 244\-19, including one\-sided victories over [Eastern Oklahoma State College](/wiki/Eastern_Oklahoma_State_College "Eastern Oklahoma State College") (62\-0\), [Northeastern State](/wiki/Northeastern_State_University "Northeastern State University") (55\-0\) and [Southwestern Oklahoma State](/wiki/Southwestern_Oklahoma_State_University "Southwestern Oklahoma State University") (45\-7\). McBirney's daughter, Mary McBirney, later recalled her father's devotion to coaching football: "We were always going to football games, sitting in the cold. We always had to sit on the top row so he could see all of the plays."
### 1916 season
In 1916, Kendall College's enrollment increased to 400 students, and McBirney petitioned the school to hire a full\-time physical education teacher and assistant football coach. McBirney recommended that the school hire [Arkansas City, Kansas](/wiki/Arkansas_City%2C_Kansas "Arkansas City, Kansas") high school coach [Francis Schmidt](/wiki/Francis_Schmidt "Francis Schmidt"), who was later inducted into the [College Football Hall of Fame](/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame "College Football Hall of Fame").
With McBirney as head coach and Schmidt as his assistant coach, the 1916 Tulsa team compiled an undefeated 10\-0 record and outscored opponents 566 to 40 to become the highest scoring college football team during the [1916 college football season](/wiki/1916_college_football_season "1916 college football season").{{cite news\|title\=Kendall College Lead in Scoring\|newspaper\=Wisconsin State Journal\|date\=December 12, 1916}} Kendall's 1916 games included high\-scoring wins against [Missouri\-Rolla](/wiki/Missouri_University_of_Science_and_Technology "Missouri University of Science and Technology") (117–0\), [St. Gregory](/wiki/St._Gregory%27s_University "St. Gregory's University") (82–0\), [Ozarks](/wiki/University_of_the_Ozarks "University of the Ozarks") (81–0\), and [Haskell Institute](/wiki/Haskell_Indian_Nations_University "Haskell Indian Nations University") (46–0\). The 1916 team featured John Young, who had played for McBirney at Tulsa High School and who had been recruited by [Fielding H. Yost](/wiki/Fielding_H._Yost "Fielding H. Yost") to play for the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan"), and [Ivan Grove](/wiki/Ivan_Grove "Ivan Grove"), who had played for Schmidt at [Arkansas City High School](/wiki/Arkansas_City_High_School_%28Kansas%29 "Arkansas City High School (Kansas)") and became the top scoring player in college football in 1916 with 196 points.
The 1916 team gained renown for its short passing offense and for the deceptive and unique play calling of McBirney and Schmidt. In one game, Ivan Grove completed 12 consecutive passes on a single scoring drive. In another game, the team successfully executed a play the called the "tower play." Ivan Grove threw a pass to Vergil Jones as he sat on the shoulders of Puny Blevins. The play resulted in a touchdown and was declared illegal the following year. Schmidt's biographer, Brett Perkins, has suggested that the short\-passing game developed by McBirney and Schmidt in 1916 was later absorbed and perfected at [TCU](/wiki/TCU_Horned_Frogs_football "TCU Horned Frogs football") by [Dutch Meyer](/wiki/Dutch_Meyer "Dutch Meyer") and [Sammy Baugh](/wiki/Sammy_Baugh "Sammy Baugh").
In the lowest scoring game of the 1916 season, Kendall College defeated the [Oklahoma Sooners](/wiki/Oklahoma_Sooners "Oklahoma Sooners") by a score of 16 to 0 at the Sooners' home field in [Norman, Oklahoma](/wiki/Norman%2C_Oklahoma "Norman, Oklahoma"). The victory at Norman broke an 18\-game winning streak for Oklahoma,{{cite web\|title\=Oklahoma Yearly Results 1910\-1914\|publisher\=College Football Data Warehouse\|url\=http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div\_ia/big12/oklahoma/yearly\_results.php?year\=1910}}{{cite web\|title\=Oklahoma Yearly Results 1915\-1919\|publisher\=College Football Data Warehouse\|url\=http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div\_ia/big12/oklahoma/yearly\_results.php?year\=1915}} and was the first time that the Sooners were beaten in football by another school from Oklahoma. In the three games preceding the 1916 Oklahoma\-Kendall game, Oklahoma had outscored its opponents 27–0, 107–0, and 140–0\. The 1916 victory over the undefeated Sooners put Tulsa football on the map.
Historian and Tulsa journalist Jenk Jones recalled, "In 1916, there was a lot of agitation here to declare Tulsa the Champion of Mid America."{{cite book\|author\=Chad Bonham\|title\=Golden Hurricane football at the University of Tulsa\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing\|page\=9}}
After the 1916 season, McBirney retired as Kendall's football coach to devote his full\-time to the bank. McBirney had hand\-picked Francis Schmidt as his successor, but Schmidt enlisted in the U.S. Army after the United States entered World War I in April 1917\. After two years of military service, Schmidt led the team to back\-to\-back undefeated seasons in 1919 and 1920 before moving on to a successful coaching career with [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas_Razorbacks_football "Arkansas Razorbacks football"), TCU, and [Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_Buckeyes_football "Ohio State Buckeyes football").
### Inspirational director for Oklahoma Sooners
Although McBirney retired from coaching, he later assisted the [Oklahoma Sooners](/wiki/Oklahoma_Sooners "Oklahoma Sooners")' head football coach [Bennie Owen](/wiki/Bennie_Owen "Bennie Owen") as an "inspirational" director before key games.
|
[
"Football coach\n--------------",
"### 1908 season",
"In 1907, [Henry Kendall College](/wiki/Henry_Kendall_College \"Henry Kendall College\") (which later became the [University of Tulsa](/wiki/University_of_Tulsa \"University of Tulsa\")) relocated from [Muskogee, Oklahoma](/wiki/Muskogee%2C_Oklahoma \"Muskogee, Oklahoma\"), to Tulsa. In 1908, McBirney volunteered to take time away from his duties at the bank to coach the school's football team. McBirney's 1908 football team played no intercollegiate games and played four of its five games against local high schools and the fifth game against the [Outrigger Canoe Club](/wiki/Outrigger_canoe \"Outrigger canoe\") from Hawaii. Though outscoring opponents 80 to 43, the 1908 team won 2 games and lost 3\\.",
"### University of New Mexico",
"McBirney was hired as the head football coach at the [University of New Mexico](/wiki/University_of_New_Mexico \"University of New Mexico\") in September 1909\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Oklahoma Man Will Coach 'Varsity Football Team\\|newspaper\\=The Albuquerque Morning Journal\\|date\\=September 30, 1909\\|page\\=3\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25799658/oklahoma\\_man\\_will\\_coach\\_varsity/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} After six weeks in Albuquerque, McBirnie returned to Tulsa. Hamilton H. Conwell and Hugh J. Collins assuming the coaching responsibilities for the final game of the season against [New Mexico A\\&M](/wiki/1909_New_Mexico_A%26M_Aggies_football_team \"1909 New Mexico A&M Aggies football team\").{{cite news\\|title\\=M'Birnie Leaves for Home\\|newspaper\\=The Albuquerque Morning Journal\\|date\\=November 28, 1909\\|page\\=3\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25799837/mbirnie\\_leaves\\_for\\_home/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"### 1910 season",
"In 1910, he returned to Kendall and coached the team to a 2–1–1 record.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/882746017/\\|title\\=Kendall Team is Doing Good Work\\|date\\=November 9, 1910\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Tulsa Tribune]]\\|access\\-date\\=July 24, 2023}}",
"### Tulsa High School",
"After the 1908 season, McBirney returned to his work at the bank. He developed a love of football and began coaching the [Tulsa High School](/wiki/Central_High_School_%28Tulsa%2C_Oklahoma%29 \"Central High School (Tulsa, Oklahoma)\") football team. His 1913 Tulsa High School team completed an undefeated season, won a mythical Oklahoma state championship, and defeated Henry Kendall College 27 to 6\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=Brett Perkins\\|title\\=Frantic Francis: How One Coach's Madness Changed Football\\|pages\\=23–26}}",
"### 1914 and 1915 seasons",
"In 1914, local businessmen urged McBirney to take over as the football coach at Kendall College. At the time, the college had an enrollment of approximately 100 students and had played only one intercollegiate football game between 1900 and 1912 (the bulk of its games were played against high school teams).",
"McBirney agreed to take over as Kendall's football coach, and over the next three years, he built the Kendall football team into one of the best teams in the country. In 1914, the first season of true intercollegiate football at Tulsa, McBirney scheduled games against the state's top schools, including [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma_Sooners_football \"Oklahoma Sooners football\") and [Oklahoma A\\&M](/wiki/Oklahoma_State_Cowboys_football \"Oklahoma State Cowboys football\"). The 1914 team finished with a record of 6\\-2, outscored opponents 261 to 48, and played respectably against both Oklahoma State (a 13\\-6 loss) and Oklahoma (a 26\\-7 loss).",
"In 1915, McBirney's football team improved to 6\\-1\\-1, played Oklahoma State to a scoreless tie, and lost a close game to Oklahoma by a score of 14\\-13\\. In its six victories, the 1915 team outscored opponents 244\\-19, including one\\-sided victories over [Eastern Oklahoma State College](/wiki/Eastern_Oklahoma_State_College \"Eastern Oklahoma State College\") (62\\-0\\), [Northeastern State](/wiki/Northeastern_State_University \"Northeastern State University\") (55\\-0\\) and [Southwestern Oklahoma State](/wiki/Southwestern_Oklahoma_State_University \"Southwestern Oklahoma State University\") (45\\-7\\). McBirney's daughter, Mary McBirney, later recalled her father's devotion to coaching football: \"We were always going to football games, sitting in the cold. We always had to sit on the top row so he could see all of the plays.\"",
"### 1916 season",
"In 1916, Kendall College's enrollment increased to 400 students, and McBirney petitioned the school to hire a full\\-time physical education teacher and assistant football coach. McBirney recommended that the school hire [Arkansas City, Kansas](/wiki/Arkansas_City%2C_Kansas \"Arkansas City, Kansas\") high school coach [Francis Schmidt](/wiki/Francis_Schmidt \"Francis Schmidt\"), who was later inducted into the [College Football Hall of Fame](/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame \"College Football Hall of Fame\").",
"With McBirney as head coach and Schmidt as his assistant coach, the 1916 Tulsa team compiled an undefeated 10\\-0 record and outscored opponents 566 to 40 to become the highest scoring college football team during the [1916 college football season](/wiki/1916_college_football_season \"1916 college football season\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Kendall College Lead in Scoring\\|newspaper\\=Wisconsin State Journal\\|date\\=December 12, 1916}} Kendall's 1916 games included high\\-scoring wins against [Missouri\\-Rolla](/wiki/Missouri_University_of_Science_and_Technology \"Missouri University of Science and Technology\") (117–0\\), [St. Gregory](/wiki/St._Gregory%27s_University \"St. Gregory's University\") (82–0\\), [Ozarks](/wiki/University_of_the_Ozarks \"University of the Ozarks\") (81–0\\), and [Haskell Institute](/wiki/Haskell_Indian_Nations_University \"Haskell Indian Nations University\") (46–0\\). The 1916 team featured John Young, who had played for McBirney at Tulsa High School and who had been recruited by [Fielding H. Yost](/wiki/Fielding_H._Yost \"Fielding H. Yost\") to play for the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\"), and [Ivan Grove](/wiki/Ivan_Grove \"Ivan Grove\"), who had played for Schmidt at [Arkansas City High School](/wiki/Arkansas_City_High_School_%28Kansas%29 \"Arkansas City High School (Kansas)\") and became the top scoring player in college football in 1916 with 196 points.",
"The 1916 team gained renown for its short passing offense and for the deceptive and unique play calling of McBirney and Schmidt. In one game, Ivan Grove completed 12 consecutive passes on a single scoring drive. In another game, the team successfully executed a play the called the \"tower play.\" Ivan Grove threw a pass to Vergil Jones as he sat on the shoulders of Puny Blevins. The play resulted in a touchdown and was declared illegal the following year. Schmidt's biographer, Brett Perkins, has suggested that the short\\-passing game developed by McBirney and Schmidt in 1916 was later absorbed and perfected at [TCU](/wiki/TCU_Horned_Frogs_football \"TCU Horned Frogs football\") by [Dutch Meyer](/wiki/Dutch_Meyer \"Dutch Meyer\") and [Sammy Baugh](/wiki/Sammy_Baugh \"Sammy Baugh\").",
"In the lowest scoring game of the 1916 season, Kendall College defeated the [Oklahoma Sooners](/wiki/Oklahoma_Sooners \"Oklahoma Sooners\") by a score of 16 to 0 at the Sooners' home field in [Norman, Oklahoma](/wiki/Norman%2C_Oklahoma \"Norman, Oklahoma\"). The victory at Norman broke an 18\\-game winning streak for Oklahoma,{{cite web\\|title\\=Oklahoma Yearly Results 1910\\-1914\\|publisher\\=College Football Data Warehouse\\|url\\=http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div\\_ia/big12/oklahoma/yearly\\_results.php?year\\=1910}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Oklahoma Yearly Results 1915\\-1919\\|publisher\\=College Football Data Warehouse\\|url\\=http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div\\_ia/big12/oklahoma/yearly\\_results.php?year\\=1915}} and was the first time that the Sooners were beaten in football by another school from Oklahoma. In the three games preceding the 1916 Oklahoma\\-Kendall game, Oklahoma had outscored its opponents 27–0, 107–0, and 140–0\\. The 1916 victory over the undefeated Sooners put Tulsa football on the map.",
"Historian and Tulsa journalist Jenk Jones recalled, \"In 1916, there was a lot of agitation here to declare Tulsa the Champion of Mid America.\"{{cite book\\|author\\=Chad Bonham\\|title\\=Golden Hurricane football at the University of Tulsa\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing\\|page\\=9}}",
"After the 1916 season, McBirney retired as Kendall's football coach to devote his full\\-time to the bank. McBirney had hand\\-picked Francis Schmidt as his successor, but Schmidt enlisted in the U.S. Army after the United States entered World War I in April 1917\\. After two years of military service, Schmidt led the team to back\\-to\\-back undefeated seasons in 1919 and 1920 before moving on to a successful coaching career with [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas_Razorbacks_football \"Arkansas Razorbacks football\"), TCU, and [Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_Buckeyes_football \"Ohio State Buckeyes football\").",
"### Inspirational director for Oklahoma Sooners",
"Although McBirney retired from coaching, he later assisted the [Oklahoma Sooners](/wiki/Oklahoma_Sooners \"Oklahoma Sooners\")' head football coach [Bennie Owen](/wiki/Bennie_Owen \"Bennie Owen\") as an \"inspirational\" director before key games.",
""
] |
### 1916 season
In 1916, Kendall College's enrollment increased to 400 students, and McBirney petitioned the school to hire a full\-time physical education teacher and assistant football coach. McBirney recommended that the school hire [Arkansas City, Kansas](/wiki/Arkansas_City%2C_Kansas "Arkansas City, Kansas") high school coach [Francis Schmidt](/wiki/Francis_Schmidt "Francis Schmidt"), who was later inducted into the [College Football Hall of Fame](/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame "College Football Hall of Fame").
With McBirney as head coach and Schmidt as his assistant coach, the 1916 Tulsa team compiled an undefeated 10\-0 record and outscored opponents 566 to 40 to become the highest scoring college football team during the [1916 college football season](/wiki/1916_college_football_season "1916 college football season").{{cite news\|title\=Kendall College Lead in Scoring\|newspaper\=Wisconsin State Journal\|date\=December 12, 1916}} Kendall's 1916 games included high\-scoring wins against [Missouri\-Rolla](/wiki/Missouri_University_of_Science_and_Technology "Missouri University of Science and Technology") (117–0\), [St. Gregory](/wiki/St._Gregory%27s_University "St. Gregory's University") (82–0\), [Ozarks](/wiki/University_of_the_Ozarks "University of the Ozarks") (81–0\), and [Haskell Institute](/wiki/Haskell_Indian_Nations_University "Haskell Indian Nations University") (46–0\). The 1916 team featured John Young, who had played for McBirney at Tulsa High School and who had been recruited by [Fielding H. Yost](/wiki/Fielding_H._Yost "Fielding H. Yost") to play for the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan"), and [Ivan Grove](/wiki/Ivan_Grove "Ivan Grove"), who had played for Schmidt at [Arkansas City High School](/wiki/Arkansas_City_High_School_%28Kansas%29 "Arkansas City High School (Kansas)") and became the top scoring player in college football in 1916 with 196 points.
The 1916 team gained renown for its short passing offense and for the deceptive and unique play calling of McBirney and Schmidt. In one game, Ivan Grove completed 12 consecutive passes on a single scoring drive. In another game, the team successfully executed a play the called the "tower play." Ivan Grove threw a pass to Vergil Jones as he sat on the shoulders of Puny Blevins. The play resulted in a touchdown and was declared illegal the following year. Schmidt's biographer, Brett Perkins, has suggested that the short\-passing game developed by McBirney and Schmidt in 1916 was later absorbed and perfected at [TCU](/wiki/TCU_Horned_Frogs_football "TCU Horned Frogs football") by [Dutch Meyer](/wiki/Dutch_Meyer "Dutch Meyer") and [Sammy Baugh](/wiki/Sammy_Baugh "Sammy Baugh").
In the lowest scoring game of the 1916 season, Kendall College defeated the [Oklahoma Sooners](/wiki/Oklahoma_Sooners "Oklahoma Sooners") by a score of 16 to 0 at the Sooners' home field in [Norman, Oklahoma](/wiki/Norman%2C_Oklahoma "Norman, Oklahoma"). The victory at Norman broke an 18\-game winning streak for Oklahoma,{{cite web\|title\=Oklahoma Yearly Results 1910\-1914\|publisher\=College Football Data Warehouse\|url\=http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div\_ia/big12/oklahoma/yearly\_results.php?year\=1910}}{{cite web\|title\=Oklahoma Yearly Results 1915\-1919\|publisher\=College Football Data Warehouse\|url\=http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div\_ia/big12/oklahoma/yearly\_results.php?year\=1915}} and was the first time that the Sooners were beaten in football by another school from Oklahoma. In the three games preceding the 1916 Oklahoma\-Kendall game, Oklahoma had outscored its opponents 27–0, 107–0, and 140–0\. The 1916 victory over the undefeated Sooners put Tulsa football on the map.
Historian and Tulsa journalist Jenk Jones recalled, "In 1916, there was a lot of agitation here to declare Tulsa the Champion of Mid America."{{cite book\|author\=Chad Bonham\|title\=Golden Hurricane football at the University of Tulsa\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing\|page\=9}}
After the 1916 season, McBirney retired as Kendall's football coach to devote his full\-time to the bank. McBirney had hand\-picked Francis Schmidt as his successor, but Schmidt enlisted in the U.S. Army after the United States entered World War I in April 1917\. After two years of military service, Schmidt led the team to back\-to\-back undefeated seasons in 1919 and 1920 before moving on to a successful coaching career with [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas_Razorbacks_football "Arkansas Razorbacks football"), TCU, and [Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_Buckeyes_football "Ohio State Buckeyes football").
|
[
"### 1916 season",
"In 1916, Kendall College's enrollment increased to 400 students, and McBirney petitioned the school to hire a full\\-time physical education teacher and assistant football coach. McBirney recommended that the school hire [Arkansas City, Kansas](/wiki/Arkansas_City%2C_Kansas \"Arkansas City, Kansas\") high school coach [Francis Schmidt](/wiki/Francis_Schmidt \"Francis Schmidt\"), who was later inducted into the [College Football Hall of Fame](/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame \"College Football Hall of Fame\").",
"With McBirney as head coach and Schmidt as his assistant coach, the 1916 Tulsa team compiled an undefeated 10\\-0 record and outscored opponents 566 to 40 to become the highest scoring college football team during the [1916 college football season](/wiki/1916_college_football_season \"1916 college football season\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Kendall College Lead in Scoring\\|newspaper\\=Wisconsin State Journal\\|date\\=December 12, 1916}} Kendall's 1916 games included high\\-scoring wins against [Missouri\\-Rolla](/wiki/Missouri_University_of_Science_and_Technology \"Missouri University of Science and Technology\") (117–0\\), [St. Gregory](/wiki/St._Gregory%27s_University \"St. Gregory's University\") (82–0\\), [Ozarks](/wiki/University_of_the_Ozarks \"University of the Ozarks\") (81–0\\), and [Haskell Institute](/wiki/Haskell_Indian_Nations_University \"Haskell Indian Nations University\") (46–0\\). The 1916 team featured John Young, who had played for McBirney at Tulsa High School and who had been recruited by [Fielding H. Yost](/wiki/Fielding_H._Yost \"Fielding H. Yost\") to play for the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\"), and [Ivan Grove](/wiki/Ivan_Grove \"Ivan Grove\"), who had played for Schmidt at [Arkansas City High School](/wiki/Arkansas_City_High_School_%28Kansas%29 \"Arkansas City High School (Kansas)\") and became the top scoring player in college football in 1916 with 196 points.",
"The 1916 team gained renown for its short passing offense and for the deceptive and unique play calling of McBirney and Schmidt. In one game, Ivan Grove completed 12 consecutive passes on a single scoring drive. In another game, the team successfully executed a play the called the \"tower play.\" Ivan Grove threw a pass to Vergil Jones as he sat on the shoulders of Puny Blevins. The play resulted in a touchdown and was declared illegal the following year. Schmidt's biographer, Brett Perkins, has suggested that the short\\-passing game developed by McBirney and Schmidt in 1916 was later absorbed and perfected at [TCU](/wiki/TCU_Horned_Frogs_football \"TCU Horned Frogs football\") by [Dutch Meyer](/wiki/Dutch_Meyer \"Dutch Meyer\") and [Sammy Baugh](/wiki/Sammy_Baugh \"Sammy Baugh\").",
"In the lowest scoring game of the 1916 season, Kendall College defeated the [Oklahoma Sooners](/wiki/Oklahoma_Sooners \"Oklahoma Sooners\") by a score of 16 to 0 at the Sooners' home field in [Norman, Oklahoma](/wiki/Norman%2C_Oklahoma \"Norman, Oklahoma\"). The victory at Norman broke an 18\\-game winning streak for Oklahoma,{{cite web\\|title\\=Oklahoma Yearly Results 1910\\-1914\\|publisher\\=College Football Data Warehouse\\|url\\=http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div\\_ia/big12/oklahoma/yearly\\_results.php?year\\=1910}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Oklahoma Yearly Results 1915\\-1919\\|publisher\\=College Football Data Warehouse\\|url\\=http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div\\_ia/big12/oklahoma/yearly\\_results.php?year\\=1915}} and was the first time that the Sooners were beaten in football by another school from Oklahoma. In the three games preceding the 1916 Oklahoma\\-Kendall game, Oklahoma had outscored its opponents 27–0, 107–0, and 140–0\\. The 1916 victory over the undefeated Sooners put Tulsa football on the map.",
"Historian and Tulsa journalist Jenk Jones recalled, \"In 1916, there was a lot of agitation here to declare Tulsa the Champion of Mid America.\"{{cite book\\|author\\=Chad Bonham\\|title\\=Golden Hurricane football at the University of Tulsa\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing\\|page\\=9}}",
"After the 1916 season, McBirney retired as Kendall's football coach to devote his full\\-time to the bank. McBirney had hand\\-picked Francis Schmidt as his successor, but Schmidt enlisted in the U.S. Army after the United States entered World War I in April 1917\\. After two years of military service, Schmidt led the team to back\\-to\\-back undefeated seasons in 1919 and 1920 before moving on to a successful coaching career with [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas_Razorbacks_football \"Arkansas Razorbacks football\"), TCU, and [Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_Buckeyes_football \"Ohio State Buckeyes football\").",
""
] |
Background and course of events
-------------------------------
{{see also\|Sergey Kiriyenko's Cabinet}}
[thumb\|Russian economy since fall of the Soviet Union (2008 international dollars)](/wiki/File:GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg "GDP of Russia since 1989.svg")
[thumb\|300px\|[EUR](/wiki/Euro "Euro")/[Ruble](/wiki/Ruble "Ruble") exchange rate (Rubles per Euro)](/wiki/File:EUR-RUB_exchange_rate.webp "EUR-RUB exchange rate.webp")
[thumb\|300px\|Russian inflation rate 1993\-2022](/wiki/File:Russian_inflation_rate_1993-2022.webp "Russian inflation rate 1993-2022.webp")
The Russian economy had set up a path for improvement after the Soviet Union had split into different countries. Russia was supposed to provide assistance to the former Soviet states and, as a result, imported heavily from them. In Russia, foreign loans financed domestic investments. When it was unable to pay back those foreign borrowings, the ruble devalued. In mid\-1997, Russia had finally found a way out of inflation. The economic supervisors were happy about inflation coming to a standstill. Then the crisis hit, and supervisors had to implement a new policy. Both Russia and the countries that exported to it experienced fiscal deficits. The countries that exported to it used their resources for production but did not get paid for all their production. In essence, their national income could not cover their national expenses (for [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") and [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan")). Russia’s unemployment rate was not sharply impacted since it was only 13 percent. The employment policy in Kazakhstan was checked on November 9, 1998, to give freely chosen employment. The employment in [Tajikistan](/wiki/Tajikistan "Tajikistan") has not improved much since the 1990s, so exactly how the crisis affected employment in 1998 remains a question. The [GDP per capita](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") was one of the lowest after 1996 for Tajikistan. Russia's vast amount of mineral and natural resources allowed it to export those, pay back its debt, and then increase foreign reserves to revalue its currency.{{Cite web\|title\=Russian financial crisis and its consequences for central Asia. \| url\=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2001/wp01169\.pdf}}{{Cite web\|title\= Russia unemployment rate 1991 to 2022\| url\= https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/RUS/russia/unemployment\-rate}}
### Reasons for the crisis
The crisis happened because Russia was not able to pay back its debt. Since Russia had to provide assistance to other countries it had parted from after the dissolution of the USSR, it did so by importing heavily from those countries. It continued to import without any check on whether it had enough revenues to pay for them. In 1995, the [IMF](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund") tried to help Russia stabilize by making an emergency loan, but it was unsuccessful.
### Precipitating factors
Declining productivity, a high [fixed exchange rate](/wiki/Fixed_exchange_rate "Fixed exchange rate") between the ruble and foreign currencies to avoid public turmoil, fatal financial imprudence, and a chronic [fiscal deficit](/wiki/Fiscal_deficit "Fiscal deficit") led to the crisis.{{Cite web \|title\=Global Waves of Debt: Causes and Consequences \|url\=https://www.worldbank.org/en/research/publication/waves\-of\-debt \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-13 \|website\=World Bank \|language\=en}} The economic cost of the [first war](/wiki/First_Chechen_War "First Chechen War") in [Chechnya](/wiki/Chechnya "Chechnya") took a significant toll on the Russian economy. In early 1995, it was estimated that the war was costing Russia close to $30 million per day. Following the cessation of hostilities in 1996, it was estimated that the war in Chechnya cost Russia $5\.5 billion, causing budget deficits close to 10% of their [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product").{{cite news \|last1\=Hockstader \|first1\=Lee \|title\=CHECHNYA DRAINING RUSSIAN ECONOMY \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/01/09/chechnya\-draining\-russian\-economy/675a46a4\-f429\-4497\-b59d\-a93323aff93d/ \|access\-date\=6 August 2021 \|agency\=The Washington Post}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Pain \|first1\=Emil \|title\=From the First Chechen War Towards the Second \|journal\=The Brown Journal of World Affairs \|date\=2001 \|volume\=8 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=7–19 \|jstor\=24590171 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590171 \|access\-date\=6 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=6 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806022755/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590171 \|url\-status\=live }} In the first half of 1997, the Russian economy showed some signs of improvement. However, soon after this, the problems began to gradually intensify. Two external shocks, the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/Asian_financial_crisis "Asian financial crisis") that had begun in 1997 and the following declines in demand for (and thus price of) [crude oil](/wiki/1998_world_oil_market_chronology "1998 world oil market chronology") and [nonferrous metals](/wiki/Nonferrous_metals "Nonferrous metals"), severely impacted Russian [foreign exchange reserves](/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves "Foreign exchange reserves").[Russian Federation: International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity](http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/rus/eng/currus.htm/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301011646/https://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/rus/eng/currus.htm \|date\=1 March 2019 }}, IMF, 25 June 2012
A political crisis came to a head in March when [Russian president](/wiki/Russian_president "Russian president") [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin "Boris Yeltsin") suddenly dismissed Prime Minister [Viktor Chernomyrdin](/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin "Viktor Chernomyrdin") and [his entire cabinet](/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin%27s_Second_Cabinet "Viktor Chernomyrdin's Second Cabinet") on 23 March 1998\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/europe/jan\-june98/russia\_3\-23\.html \|title\=Online NewsHour: Russia Shake Up\- March 23, 1998 \|publisher\=Pbs.org \|access\-date\=3 November 2010\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101109093130/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/europe/jan\-june98/russia\_3\-23\.html\| archive\-date\= 9 November 2010 \| url\-status\= live}} Yeltsin named Energy Minister [Sergei Kiriyenko](/wiki/Sergei_Kiriyenko "Sergei Kiriyenko"), then 35 years old, as acting prime minister.
On 29 May 1998, Yeltsin appointed [Boris Fyodorov](/wiki/Boris_Fyodorov "Boris Fyodorov") as Head of the State Tax Service.
In an effort to prop up the currency and stem the capital flight, in June, Kiriyenko hiked [GKO](/wiki/GKO "GKO") interest rates to 150%.
A $22\.6 billion [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund") and [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank") financial package was approved on 13 July 1998 to support reforms and stabilize the Russian market by swapping out an enormous volume of the quickly maturing [GKO](/wiki/GKO "GKO") short\-term bills into long\-term [Eurobonds](/wiki/Eurobond_%28international%29 "Eurobond (international)"). The Russian government decided to keep the exchange rate of the ruble within a narrow band, although many economists, including [Andrei Illarionov](/wiki/Andrei_Illarionov "Andrei Illarionov"), urged the government to abandon its support of the ruble.
[thumb\|290px\|
{{legend\|\#3c3b6e\|\[\[United States dollar\|USD]] / \[\[Russian ruble\|Russian Ruble]] \[\[exchange rate]]\|outline\=\#b22234}}](/wiki/File:USD_to_Russian_Ruble_exchange_rate.webp "USD to Russian Ruble exchange rate.webp")
On 12 May 1998, coal miners went on strike over unpaid wages, blocking the [Trans\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway "Trans-Siberian Railway"). By 1 August 1998, there was approximately $12\.5 billion in debt owed to Russian workers. On 14 August, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble to the US dollar was still 6\.29\. In June 1998, despite the bailout, monthly interest payments on Russia's debt rose to a figure 40 percent higher than its monthly tax collections.
Additionally, on 15 July 1998, the [State Duma](/wiki/State_Duma "State Duma"), which was at the time dominated by left\-wing parties, refused to adopt most of the government's anti\-crisis plan, so the government was forced to rely on [presidential decrees](/wiki/Decree_of_the_President_of_Russia "Decree of the President of Russia"). On 29 July, Yeltsin interrupted his vacation in [Valdai Hills](/wiki/Valdai_Hills "Valdai Hills") region and flew to Moscow, prompting fears of a Cabinet reshuffle, but he only replaced [Federal Security Service](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service "Federal Security Service") Chief [Nikolay Kovalyov](/wiki/Nikolay_Kovalyov_%28politician%29 "Nikolay Kovalyov (politician)") with [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin").
At the time, Russia employed a "floating peg" policy toward the ruble, meaning that the Central Bank decided that at any given time the ruble\-to\-dollar (or RUB/USD) exchange rate would stay within a particular range. If the ruble threatened to devalue outside of that range (or "band"), the Central Bank would intervene by spending foreign reserves to buy rubles. For instance, during the year before the crisis, the Central Bank aimed to maintain a band of 5\.3 to 7\.1 RUB/USD, meaning that it would buy rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to exceed 7\.1 rubles/dollar. Similarly, it would sell rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to drop below 5\.3\.
The inability of the Russian government to implement a coherent set of economic reforms led to a severe erosion in investor confidence and a chain reaction that can be likened to a run on the Central Bank. Investors fled the market by selling rubles and Russian assets (such as securities), which also put downward pressure on the ruble. This forced the Central Bank to spend its foreign reserves to defend Russia's currency, which in turn further eroded investor confidence and undermined the ruble. It is estimated that between 1 October 1997 and 17 August 1998, the Central Bank expended approximately $27 billion of its U.S. dollar reserves to maintain the floating peg.
It was later revealed that about $5 billion of the international loans provided by the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank") and [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund") were stolen upon the funds' arrival in Russia on the eve of the meltdown.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rferl.org/reports/corruptionwatch/2002/06/25\-270602\.asp \|title\=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty \|publisher\=Rferl.org \|date\=27 June 2002 \|access\-date\=14 May 2011\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080617173807/http://www.rferl.org/reports/corruptionwatch/2002/06/25\-270602\.asp\| archive\-date\=17 June 2008\| url\-status\= live}}{{Harvnb\|Hirschler\|1999}}.
|
[
"Background and course of events\n-------------------------------",
"{{see also\\|Sergey Kiriyenko's Cabinet}}\n[thumb\\|Russian economy since fall of the Soviet Union (2008 international dollars)](/wiki/File:GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg \"GDP of Russia since 1989.svg\")\n[thumb\\|300px\\|[EUR](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\")/[Ruble](/wiki/Ruble \"Ruble\") exchange rate (Rubles per Euro)](/wiki/File:EUR-RUB_exchange_rate.webp \"EUR-RUB exchange rate.webp\")\n[thumb\\|300px\\|Russian inflation rate 1993\\-2022](/wiki/File:Russian_inflation_rate_1993-2022.webp \"Russian inflation rate 1993-2022.webp\")\nThe Russian economy had set up a path for improvement after the Soviet Union had split into different countries. Russia was supposed to provide assistance to the former Soviet states and, as a result, imported heavily from them. In Russia, foreign loans financed domestic investments. When it was unable to pay back those foreign borrowings, the ruble devalued. In mid\\-1997, Russia had finally found a way out of inflation. The economic supervisors were happy about inflation coming to a standstill. Then the crisis hit, and supervisors had to implement a new policy. Both Russia and the countries that exported to it experienced fiscal deficits. The countries that exported to it used their resources for production but did not get paid for all their production. In essence, their national income could not cover their national expenses (for [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") and [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\")). Russia’s unemployment rate was not sharply impacted since it was only 13 percent. The employment policy in Kazakhstan was checked on November 9, 1998, to give freely chosen employment. The employment in [Tajikistan](/wiki/Tajikistan \"Tajikistan\") has not improved much since the 1990s, so exactly how the crisis affected employment in 1998 remains a question. The [GDP per capita](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") was one of the lowest after 1996 for Tajikistan. Russia's vast amount of mineral and natural resources allowed it to export those, pay back its debt, and then increase foreign reserves to revalue its currency.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Russian financial crisis and its consequences for central Asia. \\| url\\=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2001/wp01169\\.pdf}}{{Cite web\\|title\\= Russia unemployment rate 1991 to 2022\\| url\\= https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/RUS/russia/unemployment\\-rate}}",
"### Reasons for the crisis",
"The crisis happened because Russia was not able to pay back its debt. Since Russia had to provide assistance to other countries it had parted from after the dissolution of the USSR, it did so by importing heavily from those countries. It continued to import without any check on whether it had enough revenues to pay for them. In 1995, the [IMF](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund \"International Monetary Fund\") tried to help Russia stabilize by making an emergency loan, but it was unsuccessful.",
"### Precipitating factors",
"Declining productivity, a high [fixed exchange rate](/wiki/Fixed_exchange_rate \"Fixed exchange rate\") between the ruble and foreign currencies to avoid public turmoil, fatal financial imprudence, and a chronic [fiscal deficit](/wiki/Fiscal_deficit \"Fiscal deficit\") led to the crisis.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Global Waves of Debt: Causes and Consequences \\|url\\=https://www.worldbank.org/en/research/publication/waves\\-of\\-debt \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-13 \\|website\\=World Bank \\|language\\=en}} The economic cost of the [first war](/wiki/First_Chechen_War \"First Chechen War\") in [Chechnya](/wiki/Chechnya \"Chechnya\") took a significant toll on the Russian economy. In early 1995, it was estimated that the war was costing Russia close to $30 million per day. Following the cessation of hostilities in 1996, it was estimated that the war in Chechnya cost Russia $5\\.5 billion, causing budget deficits close to 10% of their [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hockstader \\|first1\\=Lee \\|title\\=CHECHNYA DRAINING RUSSIAN ECONOMY \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/01/09/chechnya\\-draining\\-russian\\-economy/675a46a4\\-f429\\-4497\\-b59d\\-a93323aff93d/ \\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2021 \\|agency\\=The Washington Post}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Pain \\|first1\\=Emil \\|title\\=From the First Chechen War Towards the Second \\|journal\\=The Brown Journal of World Affairs \\|date\\=2001 \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=7–19 \\|jstor\\=24590171 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590171 \\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806022755/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590171 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In the first half of 1997, the Russian economy showed some signs of improvement. However, soon after this, the problems began to gradually intensify. Two external shocks, the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/Asian_financial_crisis \"Asian financial crisis\") that had begun in 1997 and the following declines in demand for (and thus price of) [crude oil](/wiki/1998_world_oil_market_chronology \"1998 world oil market chronology\") and [nonferrous metals](/wiki/Nonferrous_metals \"Nonferrous metals\"), severely impacted Russian [foreign exchange reserves](/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves \"Foreign exchange reserves\").[Russian Federation: International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity](http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/rus/eng/currus.htm/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301011646/https://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/rus/eng/currus.htm \\|date\\=1 March 2019 }}, IMF, 25 June 2012\nA political crisis came to a head in March when [Russian president](/wiki/Russian_president \"Russian president\") [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin \"Boris Yeltsin\") suddenly dismissed Prime Minister [Viktor Chernomyrdin](/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin \"Viktor Chernomyrdin\") and [his entire cabinet](/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin%27s_Second_Cabinet \"Viktor Chernomyrdin's Second Cabinet\") on 23 March 1998\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/europe/jan\\-june98/russia\\_3\\-23\\.html \\|title\\=Online NewsHour: Russia Shake Up\\- March 23, 1998 \\|publisher\\=Pbs.org \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2010\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101109093130/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/europe/jan\\-june98/russia\\_3\\-23\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\= 9 November 2010 \\| url\\-status\\= live}} Yeltsin named Energy Minister [Sergei Kiriyenko](/wiki/Sergei_Kiriyenko \"Sergei Kiriyenko\"), then 35 years old, as acting prime minister.",
"On 29 May 1998, Yeltsin appointed [Boris Fyodorov](/wiki/Boris_Fyodorov \"Boris Fyodorov\") as Head of the State Tax Service.",
"In an effort to prop up the currency and stem the capital flight, in June, Kiriyenko hiked [GKO](/wiki/GKO \"GKO\") interest rates to 150%.",
"A $22\\.6 billion [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund \"International Monetary Fund\") and [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\") financial package was approved on 13 July 1998 to support reforms and stabilize the Russian market by swapping out an enormous volume of the quickly maturing [GKO](/wiki/GKO \"GKO\") short\\-term bills into long\\-term [Eurobonds](/wiki/Eurobond_%28international%29 \"Eurobond (international)\"). The Russian government decided to keep the exchange rate of the ruble within a narrow band, although many economists, including [Andrei Illarionov](/wiki/Andrei_Illarionov \"Andrei Illarionov\"), urged the government to abandon its support of the ruble.",
"[thumb\\|290px\\|\n{{legend\\|\\#3c3b6e\\|\\[\\[United States dollar\\|USD]] / \\[\\[Russian ruble\\|Russian Ruble]] \\[\\[exchange rate]]\\|outline\\=\\#b22234}}](/wiki/File:USD_to_Russian_Ruble_exchange_rate.webp \"USD to Russian Ruble exchange rate.webp\")\nOn 12 May 1998, coal miners went on strike over unpaid wages, blocking the [Trans\\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway \"Trans-Siberian Railway\"). By 1 August 1998, there was approximately $12\\.5 billion in debt owed to Russian workers. On 14 August, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble to the US dollar was still 6\\.29\\. In June 1998, despite the bailout, monthly interest payments on Russia's debt rose to a figure 40 percent higher than its monthly tax collections.",
"Additionally, on 15 July 1998, the [State Duma](/wiki/State_Duma \"State Duma\"), which was at the time dominated by left\\-wing parties, refused to adopt most of the government's anti\\-crisis plan, so the government was forced to rely on [presidential decrees](/wiki/Decree_of_the_President_of_Russia \"Decree of the President of Russia\"). On 29 July, Yeltsin interrupted his vacation in [Valdai Hills](/wiki/Valdai_Hills \"Valdai Hills\") region and flew to Moscow, prompting fears of a Cabinet reshuffle, but he only replaced [Federal Security Service](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service \"Federal Security Service\") Chief [Nikolay Kovalyov](/wiki/Nikolay_Kovalyov_%28politician%29 \"Nikolay Kovalyov (politician)\") with [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\").",
"At the time, Russia employed a \"floating peg\" policy toward the ruble, meaning that the Central Bank decided that at any given time the ruble\\-to\\-dollar (or RUB/USD) exchange rate would stay within a particular range. If the ruble threatened to devalue outside of that range (or \"band\"), the Central Bank would intervene by spending foreign reserves to buy rubles. For instance, during the year before the crisis, the Central Bank aimed to maintain a band of 5\\.3 to 7\\.1 RUB/USD, meaning that it would buy rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to exceed 7\\.1 rubles/dollar. Similarly, it would sell rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to drop below 5\\.3\\.",
"The inability of the Russian government to implement a coherent set of economic reforms led to a severe erosion in investor confidence and a chain reaction that can be likened to a run on the Central Bank. Investors fled the market by selling rubles and Russian assets (such as securities), which also put downward pressure on the ruble. This forced the Central Bank to spend its foreign reserves to defend Russia's currency, which in turn further eroded investor confidence and undermined the ruble. It is estimated that between 1 October 1997 and 17 August 1998, the Central Bank expended approximately $27 billion of its U.S. dollar reserves to maintain the floating peg.",
"It was later revealed that about $5 billion of the international loans provided by the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\") and [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund \"International Monetary Fund\") were stolen upon the funds' arrival in Russia on the eve of the meltdown.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rferl.org/reports/corruptionwatch/2002/06/25\\-270602\\.asp \\|title\\=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty \\|publisher\\=Rferl.org \\|date\\=27 June 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2011\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080617173807/http://www.rferl.org/reports/corruptionwatch/2002/06/25\\-270602\\.asp\\| archive\\-date\\=17 June 2008\\| url\\-status\\= live}}{{Harvnb\\|Hirschler\\|1999}}.",
""
] |
### Precipitating factors
Declining productivity, a high [fixed exchange rate](/wiki/Fixed_exchange_rate "Fixed exchange rate") between the ruble and foreign currencies to avoid public turmoil, fatal financial imprudence, and a chronic [fiscal deficit](/wiki/Fiscal_deficit "Fiscal deficit") led to the crisis.{{Cite web \|title\=Global Waves of Debt: Causes and Consequences \|url\=https://www.worldbank.org/en/research/publication/waves\-of\-debt \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-13 \|website\=World Bank \|language\=en}} The economic cost of the [first war](/wiki/First_Chechen_War "First Chechen War") in [Chechnya](/wiki/Chechnya "Chechnya") took a significant toll on the Russian economy. In early 1995, it was estimated that the war was costing Russia close to $30 million per day. Following the cessation of hostilities in 1996, it was estimated that the war in Chechnya cost Russia $5\.5 billion, causing budget deficits close to 10% of their [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product").{{cite news \|last1\=Hockstader \|first1\=Lee \|title\=CHECHNYA DRAINING RUSSIAN ECONOMY \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/01/09/chechnya\-draining\-russian\-economy/675a46a4\-f429\-4497\-b59d\-a93323aff93d/ \|access\-date\=6 August 2021 \|agency\=The Washington Post}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Pain \|first1\=Emil \|title\=From the First Chechen War Towards the Second \|journal\=The Brown Journal of World Affairs \|date\=2001 \|volume\=8 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=7–19 \|jstor\=24590171 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590171 \|access\-date\=6 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=6 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806022755/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590171 \|url\-status\=live }} In the first half of 1997, the Russian economy showed some signs of improvement. However, soon after this, the problems began to gradually intensify. Two external shocks, the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/Asian_financial_crisis "Asian financial crisis") that had begun in 1997 and the following declines in demand for (and thus price of) [crude oil](/wiki/1998_world_oil_market_chronology "1998 world oil market chronology") and [nonferrous metals](/wiki/Nonferrous_metals "Nonferrous metals"), severely impacted Russian [foreign exchange reserves](/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves "Foreign exchange reserves").[Russian Federation: International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity](http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/rus/eng/currus.htm/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301011646/https://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/rus/eng/currus.htm \|date\=1 March 2019 }}, IMF, 25 June 2012
A political crisis came to a head in March when [Russian president](/wiki/Russian_president "Russian president") [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin "Boris Yeltsin") suddenly dismissed Prime Minister [Viktor Chernomyrdin](/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin "Viktor Chernomyrdin") and [his entire cabinet](/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin%27s_Second_Cabinet "Viktor Chernomyrdin's Second Cabinet") on 23 March 1998\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/europe/jan\-june98/russia\_3\-23\.html \|title\=Online NewsHour: Russia Shake Up\- March 23, 1998 \|publisher\=Pbs.org \|access\-date\=3 November 2010\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101109093130/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/europe/jan\-june98/russia\_3\-23\.html\| archive\-date\= 9 November 2010 \| url\-status\= live}} Yeltsin named Energy Minister [Sergei Kiriyenko](/wiki/Sergei_Kiriyenko "Sergei Kiriyenko"), then 35 years old, as acting prime minister.
On 29 May 1998, Yeltsin appointed [Boris Fyodorov](/wiki/Boris_Fyodorov "Boris Fyodorov") as Head of the State Tax Service.
In an effort to prop up the currency and stem the capital flight, in June, Kiriyenko hiked [GKO](/wiki/GKO "GKO") interest rates to 150%.
A $22\.6 billion [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund") and [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank") financial package was approved on 13 July 1998 to support reforms and stabilize the Russian market by swapping out an enormous volume of the quickly maturing [GKO](/wiki/GKO "GKO") short\-term bills into long\-term [Eurobonds](/wiki/Eurobond_%28international%29 "Eurobond (international)"). The Russian government decided to keep the exchange rate of the ruble within a narrow band, although many economists, including [Andrei Illarionov](/wiki/Andrei_Illarionov "Andrei Illarionov"), urged the government to abandon its support of the ruble.
[thumb\|290px\|
{{legend\|\#3c3b6e\|\[\[United States dollar\|USD]] / \[\[Russian ruble\|Russian Ruble]] \[\[exchange rate]]\|outline\=\#b22234}}](/wiki/File:USD_to_Russian_Ruble_exchange_rate.webp "USD to Russian Ruble exchange rate.webp")
On 12 May 1998, coal miners went on strike over unpaid wages, blocking the [Trans\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway "Trans-Siberian Railway"). By 1 August 1998, there was approximately $12\.5 billion in debt owed to Russian workers. On 14 August, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble to the US dollar was still 6\.29\. In June 1998, despite the bailout, monthly interest payments on Russia's debt rose to a figure 40 percent higher than its monthly tax collections.
Additionally, on 15 July 1998, the [State Duma](/wiki/State_Duma "State Duma"), which was at the time dominated by left\-wing parties, refused to adopt most of the government's anti\-crisis plan, so the government was forced to rely on [presidential decrees](/wiki/Decree_of_the_President_of_Russia "Decree of the President of Russia"). On 29 July, Yeltsin interrupted his vacation in [Valdai Hills](/wiki/Valdai_Hills "Valdai Hills") region and flew to Moscow, prompting fears of a Cabinet reshuffle, but he only replaced [Federal Security Service](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service "Federal Security Service") Chief [Nikolay Kovalyov](/wiki/Nikolay_Kovalyov_%28politician%29 "Nikolay Kovalyov (politician)") with [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin").
At the time, Russia employed a "floating peg" policy toward the ruble, meaning that the Central Bank decided that at any given time the ruble\-to\-dollar (or RUB/USD) exchange rate would stay within a particular range. If the ruble threatened to devalue outside of that range (or "band"), the Central Bank would intervene by spending foreign reserves to buy rubles. For instance, during the year before the crisis, the Central Bank aimed to maintain a band of 5\.3 to 7\.1 RUB/USD, meaning that it would buy rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to exceed 7\.1 rubles/dollar. Similarly, it would sell rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to drop below 5\.3\.
The inability of the Russian government to implement a coherent set of economic reforms led to a severe erosion in investor confidence and a chain reaction that can be likened to a run on the Central Bank. Investors fled the market by selling rubles and Russian assets (such as securities), which also put downward pressure on the ruble. This forced the Central Bank to spend its foreign reserves to defend Russia's currency, which in turn further eroded investor confidence and undermined the ruble. It is estimated that between 1 October 1997 and 17 August 1998, the Central Bank expended approximately $27 billion of its U.S. dollar reserves to maintain the floating peg.
It was later revealed that about $5 billion of the international loans provided by the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank") and [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund") were stolen upon the funds' arrival in Russia on the eve of the meltdown.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rferl.org/reports/corruptionwatch/2002/06/25\-270602\.asp \|title\=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty \|publisher\=Rferl.org \|date\=27 June 2002 \|access\-date\=14 May 2011\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080617173807/http://www.rferl.org/reports/corruptionwatch/2002/06/25\-270602\.asp\| archive\-date\=17 June 2008\| url\-status\= live}}{{Harvnb\|Hirschler\|1999}}.
|
[
"### Precipitating factors",
"Declining productivity, a high [fixed exchange rate](/wiki/Fixed_exchange_rate \"Fixed exchange rate\") between the ruble and foreign currencies to avoid public turmoil, fatal financial imprudence, and a chronic [fiscal deficit](/wiki/Fiscal_deficit \"Fiscal deficit\") led to the crisis.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Global Waves of Debt: Causes and Consequences \\|url\\=https://www.worldbank.org/en/research/publication/waves\\-of\\-debt \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-13 \\|website\\=World Bank \\|language\\=en}} The economic cost of the [first war](/wiki/First_Chechen_War \"First Chechen War\") in [Chechnya](/wiki/Chechnya \"Chechnya\") took a significant toll on the Russian economy. In early 1995, it was estimated that the war was costing Russia close to $30 million per day. Following the cessation of hostilities in 1996, it was estimated that the war in Chechnya cost Russia $5\\.5 billion, causing budget deficits close to 10% of their [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hockstader \\|first1\\=Lee \\|title\\=CHECHNYA DRAINING RUSSIAN ECONOMY \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/01/09/chechnya\\-draining\\-russian\\-economy/675a46a4\\-f429\\-4497\\-b59d\\-a93323aff93d/ \\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2021 \\|agency\\=The Washington Post}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Pain \\|first1\\=Emil \\|title\\=From the First Chechen War Towards the Second \\|journal\\=The Brown Journal of World Affairs \\|date\\=2001 \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=7–19 \\|jstor\\=24590171 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590171 \\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806022755/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590171 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In the first half of 1997, the Russian economy showed some signs of improvement. However, soon after this, the problems began to gradually intensify. Two external shocks, the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/Asian_financial_crisis \"Asian financial crisis\") that had begun in 1997 and the following declines in demand for (and thus price of) [crude oil](/wiki/1998_world_oil_market_chronology \"1998 world oil market chronology\") and [nonferrous metals](/wiki/Nonferrous_metals \"Nonferrous metals\"), severely impacted Russian [foreign exchange reserves](/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves \"Foreign exchange reserves\").[Russian Federation: International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity](http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/rus/eng/currus.htm/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301011646/https://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/rus/eng/currus.htm \\|date\\=1 March 2019 }}, IMF, 25 June 2012\nA political crisis came to a head in March when [Russian president](/wiki/Russian_president \"Russian president\") [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin \"Boris Yeltsin\") suddenly dismissed Prime Minister [Viktor Chernomyrdin](/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin \"Viktor Chernomyrdin\") and [his entire cabinet](/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin%27s_Second_Cabinet \"Viktor Chernomyrdin's Second Cabinet\") on 23 March 1998\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/europe/jan\\-june98/russia\\_3\\-23\\.html \\|title\\=Online NewsHour: Russia Shake Up\\- March 23, 1998 \\|publisher\\=Pbs.org \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2010\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101109093130/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/europe/jan\\-june98/russia\\_3\\-23\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\= 9 November 2010 \\| url\\-status\\= live}} Yeltsin named Energy Minister [Sergei Kiriyenko](/wiki/Sergei_Kiriyenko \"Sergei Kiriyenko\"), then 35 years old, as acting prime minister.",
"On 29 May 1998, Yeltsin appointed [Boris Fyodorov](/wiki/Boris_Fyodorov \"Boris Fyodorov\") as Head of the State Tax Service.",
"In an effort to prop up the currency and stem the capital flight, in June, Kiriyenko hiked [GKO](/wiki/GKO \"GKO\") interest rates to 150%.",
"A $22\\.6 billion [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund \"International Monetary Fund\") and [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\") financial package was approved on 13 July 1998 to support reforms and stabilize the Russian market by swapping out an enormous volume of the quickly maturing [GKO](/wiki/GKO \"GKO\") short\\-term bills into long\\-term [Eurobonds](/wiki/Eurobond_%28international%29 \"Eurobond (international)\"). The Russian government decided to keep the exchange rate of the ruble within a narrow band, although many economists, including [Andrei Illarionov](/wiki/Andrei_Illarionov \"Andrei Illarionov\"), urged the government to abandon its support of the ruble.",
"[thumb\\|290px\\|\n{{legend\\|\\#3c3b6e\\|\\[\\[United States dollar\\|USD]] / \\[\\[Russian ruble\\|Russian Ruble]] \\[\\[exchange rate]]\\|outline\\=\\#b22234}}](/wiki/File:USD_to_Russian_Ruble_exchange_rate.webp \"USD to Russian Ruble exchange rate.webp\")\nOn 12 May 1998, coal miners went on strike over unpaid wages, blocking the [Trans\\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway \"Trans-Siberian Railway\"). By 1 August 1998, there was approximately $12\\.5 billion in debt owed to Russian workers. On 14 August, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble to the US dollar was still 6\\.29\\. In June 1998, despite the bailout, monthly interest payments on Russia's debt rose to a figure 40 percent higher than its monthly tax collections.",
"Additionally, on 15 July 1998, the [State Duma](/wiki/State_Duma \"State Duma\"), which was at the time dominated by left\\-wing parties, refused to adopt most of the government's anti\\-crisis plan, so the government was forced to rely on [presidential decrees](/wiki/Decree_of_the_President_of_Russia \"Decree of the President of Russia\"). On 29 July, Yeltsin interrupted his vacation in [Valdai Hills](/wiki/Valdai_Hills \"Valdai Hills\") region and flew to Moscow, prompting fears of a Cabinet reshuffle, but he only replaced [Federal Security Service](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service \"Federal Security Service\") Chief [Nikolay Kovalyov](/wiki/Nikolay_Kovalyov_%28politician%29 \"Nikolay Kovalyov (politician)\") with [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\").",
"At the time, Russia employed a \"floating peg\" policy toward the ruble, meaning that the Central Bank decided that at any given time the ruble\\-to\\-dollar (or RUB/USD) exchange rate would stay within a particular range. If the ruble threatened to devalue outside of that range (or \"band\"), the Central Bank would intervene by spending foreign reserves to buy rubles. For instance, during the year before the crisis, the Central Bank aimed to maintain a band of 5\\.3 to 7\\.1 RUB/USD, meaning that it would buy rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to exceed 7\\.1 rubles/dollar. Similarly, it would sell rubles if the market exchange rate threatened to drop below 5\\.3\\.",
"The inability of the Russian government to implement a coherent set of economic reforms led to a severe erosion in investor confidence and a chain reaction that can be likened to a run on the Central Bank. Investors fled the market by selling rubles and Russian assets (such as securities), which also put downward pressure on the ruble. This forced the Central Bank to spend its foreign reserves to defend Russia's currency, which in turn further eroded investor confidence and undermined the ruble. It is estimated that between 1 October 1997 and 17 August 1998, the Central Bank expended approximately $27 billion of its U.S. dollar reserves to maintain the floating peg.",
"It was later revealed that about $5 billion of the international loans provided by the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\") and [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund \"International Monetary Fund\") were stolen upon the funds' arrival in Russia on the eve of the meltdown.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rferl.org/reports/corruptionwatch/2002/06/25\\-270602\\.asp \\|title\\=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty \\|publisher\\=Rferl.org \\|date\\=27 June 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2011\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080617173807/http://www.rferl.org/reports/corruptionwatch/2002/06/25\\-270602\\.asp\\| archive\\-date\\=17 June 2008\\| url\\-status\\= live}}{{Harvnb\\|Hirschler\\|1999}}.",
""
] |
Crisis and effects
------------------
On 17 August 1998, the Russian government devalued the ruble, defaulted on [domestic debt](/wiki/Domestic_debt "Domestic debt"), and declared a [moratorium](/wiki/Debt_moratorium "Debt moratorium") on repayment of [foreign debt](/wiki/Foreign_debt "Foreign debt").{{Harvnb\|Chiodo\|Owyang\|2002}}. On that day the Russian government and the Central Bank of Russia issued a "Joint Statement" announcing, in essence, that:{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.cbr.ru/eng/press/JOINT.htm \|title\="Joint Statement by the Government of the Russian Federation and the Central Bank of the Russian Federation On the Exchange Rate Policy", 17 August 1998\. \|access\-date\=20 May 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131090423/http://www.cbr.ru/eng/press/JOINT.htm \|archive\-date\=31 January 2015 \|url\-status\=dead }}
1. the ruble/dollar trading band would expand from 5\.3–7\.1 RUB/USD to 6\.0–9\.5 RUB/USD;
2. Russia's ruble\-denominated debt would be restructured in a manner to be announced at a later date; and, to prevent mass Russian bank default,
3. a temporary 90\-day moratorium would be imposed on the payment of some bank obligations, including certain debts and forward currency contracts.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www2\.minfin.ru/off\_inf/69\.htm \|title\=STATEMENT of the Government of the Russian Federation and the Central Bank of the Russian Federation 17 August 1998 \|access\-date\=3 April 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004154207/http://www1\.minfin.ru/off\_inf/69\.htm \|archive\-date\=4 October 2006 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy\-all }}
On 17 August, the government declared that certain state securities, such as GKOs and OFZs, would be transformed into new securities.
At the same time, in addition to widening the currency band, authorities also announced that they intended to allow the RUB/USD rate to move more freely within the wider band.
At the time, the Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange (or "MICEX") set a daily "official" exchange rate through a series of interactive auctions based on written bids submitted by buyers and sellers. When the buy and sell prices matched, this "fixed" or "settled" the official MICEX exchange rate, which would then be published by Reuters. The MICEX rate was (and is) commonly used by banks and currency dealers worldwide as the reference exchange rate for transactions involving the Russian ruble and foreign currencies.
From 17 to 25 August 1998, the ruble steadily depreciated on the MICEX, moving from 6\.43 to 7\.86 RUB/USD. On 26 August 1998, the Central Bank terminated dollar\-ruble trading on the MICEX, and the MICEX did not fix a ruble\-dollar rate that day.
On 2 September 1998, the [Central Bank of the Russian Federation](/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Russian_Federation "Central Bank of the Russian Federation") decided to abandon the "floating peg" policy and float the ruble freely. By 21 September, the exchange rate reached 21 rubles for one US dollar, meaning it lost two\-thirds of its value of less than a month earlier.
On 28 September, [Boris Fyodorov](/wiki/Boris_Fyodorov "Boris Fyodorov") was discharged from the position of the Head of the State Tax Service.
The moratorium imposed by the Joint Statement expired on 15 November 1998, and the Russian government and Central Bank did not renew it.
Following Russia's default in August, [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine") also defaulted one month later, in September 1998\. [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova "Moldova") also defaulted in 1998, but ended its default by the end of the year, whereas Russia and Ukraine remained in default until 2000\.[Greg Gliner, John Wiley \& Sons, Jun 9, 2014, *Global Macro Trading: Profiting in a New World Economy*, p. 185](https://books.google.com/books?id=BBKKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA185)[Martín Uribe, Stephanie Schmitt\-Grohé, Princeton University Press, Apr 4, 2017, *Open Economy Macroeconomics*, pp. 582\-585](https://books.google.com/books?id=kHptDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA582)
### Inflation
Russian inflation in 1998 reached 84 percent and welfare costs grew considerably. Many banks, including [Inkombank](/wiki/Inkombank "Inkombank"), Oneximbank, and Tokobank, closed as a result of the crisis.
### Banking
[Bankers Trust](/wiki/Bankers_Trust "Bankers Trust") suffered major losses in the summer of 1998 due to the bank having a large position in Russian government bonds,{{cite news\| url\=https://www.forbes.com/2007/10/30/merrill\-severance\-compensation\-biz\-wall\-cx\_lm\_1031failure.html\| author\=Liz Moyer\| title\=Super\-Size That Severance\| work\=\[\[Forbes]]\| date\=30 October 2007\| access\-date\=1 January 2012\| archive\-date\=13 July 2018\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713144409/https://www.forbes.com/2007/10/30/merrill\-severance\-compensation\-biz\-wall\-cx\_lm\_1031failure.html\| url\-status\=live}} but avoided financial collapse by being acquired by [Deutsche Bank](/wiki/Deutsche_Bank "Deutsche Bank") for $10 billion in November 1998\.{{cite news\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/01/business/bank\-giant\-the\-overview\-deutsche\-gets\-bankers\-trust\-for\-10\-billion.html?pagewanted\=all\| author\=Edmund L. Andrews\| title\=Bank Giant: The Overview; Deutsche Gets Bankers Trust for $10 Billion\| work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\| date\=1 December 1998\| access\-date\=1 January 2012\| archive\-date\=13 July 2018\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713144215/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/01/business/bank\-giant\-the\-overview\-deutsche\-gets\-bankers\-trust\-for\-10\-billion.html?pagewanted\=all\| url\-status\=live}} This made Deutsche Bank the fourth\-largest money management firm in the world after [UBS](/wiki/UBS "UBS"), [Fidelity Investments](/wiki/Fidelity_Investments "Fidelity Investments"), and the Japanese post office's life insurance fund.
### Agriculture
{{see also\|Agriculture in Russia}}
The main effect of the crisis on Russian agricultural policy has been a dramatic drop in federal subsidies to the sector, about 80 percent in real terms compared with 1997, though subsidies from
regional budgets fell less.[Web Archives: View Archived Page](http://webarchives.cdlib.org/sw15d8pg7m/http://ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/jun1999/ao262c1.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501024401/https://wayback.archive\-it.org/5923/20120311011229/http://ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/jun1999/ao262c1\.pdf \|date\=1 May 2020 }}. Ers.usda.gov. Retrieved on 23 October 2013\.
### Political fallout
{{See also\|Yevgeny Primakov's Cabinet}}
The financial collapse resulted in a political crisis as Yeltsin, with his domestic support evaporating, had to contend with an emboldened opposition in the parliament. A week later, on 23 August 1998, Yeltsin fired Kiriyenko and declared his intention of returning Chernomyrdin to office as the country slipped deeper into economic turmoil.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/september98/russia.html \|title\=Online NewsHour: Russia's Crisis – September 17, 1998 \|publisher\=Pbs.org \|access\-date\=3 November 2010\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101108081314/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/september98/russia.html\| archive\-date\= 8 November 2010 \| url\-status\= live}} Powerful business interests, fearing another round of reforms that might cause leading enterprises to fail, welcomed Kiriyenko's fall, as did the [Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation "Communist Party of the Russian Federation").
Yeltsin, who began to lose his hold on power as his health deteriorated, wanted Chernomyrdin back, but the legislature refused to give its approval. After the Duma rejected Chernomyrdin's candidacy twice, Yeltsin, his power clearly on the wane, backed down. Instead, he nominated [Foreign Minister](/wiki/Foreign_Ministry_%28Russia%29 "Foreign Ministry (Russia)") [Yevgeny Primakov](/wiki/Yevgeny_Primakov "Yevgeny Primakov"), who was approved by the State Duma by an overwhelming majority on 11 September 1998\.
Primakov's appointment restored political stability because he was seen as a compromise candidate able to heal the rifts between Russia's quarreling interest groups. There was popular enthusiasm for Primakov as well. Primakov promised to make payment of wages and pensions his government's first priority and invited members of the leading parliamentary factions into his Cabinet.
Communists and the [Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia](/wiki/Federation_of_Independent_Trade_Unions_of_Russia "Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia") staged a nationwide strike on 7 October 1998 and called on President Yeltsin to resign. On 9 October 1998, Russia, which was also suffering from a poor harvest, appealed for international humanitarian aid, including food.
|
[
"Crisis and effects\n------------------",
"On 17 August 1998, the Russian government devalued the ruble, defaulted on [domestic debt](/wiki/Domestic_debt \"Domestic debt\"), and declared a [moratorium](/wiki/Debt_moratorium \"Debt moratorium\") on repayment of [foreign debt](/wiki/Foreign_debt \"Foreign debt\").{{Harvnb\\|Chiodo\\|Owyang\\|2002}}. On that day the Russian government and the Central Bank of Russia issued a \"Joint Statement\" announcing, in essence, that:{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cbr.ru/eng/press/JOINT.htm \\|title\\=\"Joint Statement by the Government of the Russian Federation and the Central Bank of the Russian Federation On the Exchange Rate Policy\", 17 August 1998\\. \\|access\\-date\\=20 May 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131090423/http://www.cbr.ru/eng/press/JOINT.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=31 January 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n1. the ruble/dollar trading band would expand from 5\\.3–7\\.1 RUB/USD to 6\\.0–9\\.5 RUB/USD;\n2. Russia's ruble\\-denominated debt would be restructured in a manner to be announced at a later date; and, to prevent mass Russian bank default,\n3. a temporary 90\\-day moratorium would be imposed on the payment of some bank obligations, including certain debts and forward currency contracts.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www2\\.minfin.ru/off\\_inf/69\\.htm \\|title\\=STATEMENT of the Government of the Russian Federation and the Central Bank of the Russian Federation 17 August 1998 \\|access\\-date\\=3 April 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004154207/http://www1\\.minfin.ru/off\\_inf/69\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=4 October 2006 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"On 17 August, the government declared that certain state securities, such as GKOs and OFZs, would be transformed into new securities.",
"At the same time, in addition to widening the currency band, authorities also announced that they intended to allow the RUB/USD rate to move more freely within the wider band.",
"At the time, the Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange (or \"MICEX\") set a daily \"official\" exchange rate through a series of interactive auctions based on written bids submitted by buyers and sellers. When the buy and sell prices matched, this \"fixed\" or \"settled\" the official MICEX exchange rate, which would then be published by Reuters. The MICEX rate was (and is) commonly used by banks and currency dealers worldwide as the reference exchange rate for transactions involving the Russian ruble and foreign currencies.",
"From 17 to 25 August 1998, the ruble steadily depreciated on the MICEX, moving from 6\\.43 to 7\\.86 RUB/USD. On 26 August 1998, the Central Bank terminated dollar\\-ruble trading on the MICEX, and the MICEX did not fix a ruble\\-dollar rate that day.",
"On 2 September 1998, the [Central Bank of the Russian Federation](/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Russian_Federation \"Central Bank of the Russian Federation\") decided to abandon the \"floating peg\" policy and float the ruble freely. By 21 September, the exchange rate reached 21 rubles for one US dollar, meaning it lost two\\-thirds of its value of less than a month earlier.",
"On 28 September, [Boris Fyodorov](/wiki/Boris_Fyodorov \"Boris Fyodorov\") was discharged from the position of the Head of the State Tax Service.",
"The moratorium imposed by the Joint Statement expired on 15 November 1998, and the Russian government and Central Bank did not renew it.",
"Following Russia's default in August, [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\") also defaulted one month later, in September 1998\\. [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova \"Moldova\") also defaulted in 1998, but ended its default by the end of the year, whereas Russia and Ukraine remained in default until 2000\\.[Greg Gliner, John Wiley \\& Sons, Jun 9, 2014, *Global Macro Trading: Profiting in a New World Economy*, p. 185](https://books.google.com/books?id=BBKKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA185)[Martín Uribe, Stephanie Schmitt\\-Grohé, Princeton University Press, Apr 4, 2017, *Open Economy Macroeconomics*, pp. 582\\-585](https://books.google.com/books?id=kHptDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA582)",
"### Inflation",
"Russian inflation in 1998 reached 84 percent and welfare costs grew considerably. Many banks, including [Inkombank](/wiki/Inkombank \"Inkombank\"), Oneximbank, and Tokobank, closed as a result of the crisis.",
"### Banking",
"[Bankers Trust](/wiki/Bankers_Trust \"Bankers Trust\") suffered major losses in the summer of 1998 due to the bank having a large position in Russian government bonds,{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.forbes.com/2007/10/30/merrill\\-severance\\-compensation\\-biz\\-wall\\-cx\\_lm\\_1031failure.html\\| author\\=Liz Moyer\\| title\\=Super\\-Size That Severance\\| work\\=\\[\\[Forbes]]\\| date\\=30 October 2007\\| access\\-date\\=1 January 2012\\| archive\\-date\\=13 July 2018\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713144409/https://www.forbes.com/2007/10/30/merrill\\-severance\\-compensation\\-biz\\-wall\\-cx\\_lm\\_1031failure.html\\| url\\-status\\=live}} but avoided financial collapse by being acquired by [Deutsche Bank](/wiki/Deutsche_Bank \"Deutsche Bank\") for $10 billion in November 1998\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/01/business/bank\\-giant\\-the\\-overview\\-deutsche\\-gets\\-bankers\\-trust\\-for\\-10\\-billion.html?pagewanted\\=all\\| author\\=Edmund L. Andrews\\| title\\=Bank Giant: The Overview; Deutsche Gets Bankers Trust for $10 Billion\\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\| date\\=1 December 1998\\| access\\-date\\=1 January 2012\\| archive\\-date\\=13 July 2018\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713144215/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/01/business/bank\\-giant\\-the\\-overview\\-deutsche\\-gets\\-bankers\\-trust\\-for\\-10\\-billion.html?pagewanted\\=all\\| url\\-status\\=live}} This made Deutsche Bank the fourth\\-largest money management firm in the world after [UBS](/wiki/UBS \"UBS\"), [Fidelity Investments](/wiki/Fidelity_Investments \"Fidelity Investments\"), and the Japanese post office's life insurance fund.",
"### Agriculture",
"{{see also\\|Agriculture in Russia}}\nThe main effect of the crisis on Russian agricultural policy has been a dramatic drop in federal subsidies to the sector, about 80 percent in real terms compared with 1997, though subsidies from\nregional budgets fell less.[Web Archives: View Archived Page](http://webarchives.cdlib.org/sw15d8pg7m/http://ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/jun1999/ao262c1.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501024401/https://wayback.archive\\-it.org/5923/20120311011229/http://ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/jun1999/ao262c1\\.pdf \\|date\\=1 May 2020 }}. Ers.usda.gov. Retrieved on 23 October 2013\\.",
"### Political fallout",
"{{See also\\|Yevgeny Primakov's Cabinet}}",
"The financial collapse resulted in a political crisis as Yeltsin, with his domestic support evaporating, had to contend with an emboldened opposition in the parliament. A week later, on 23 August 1998, Yeltsin fired Kiriyenko and declared his intention of returning Chernomyrdin to office as the country slipped deeper into economic turmoil.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/september98/russia.html \\|title\\=Online NewsHour: Russia's Crisis – September 17, 1998 \\|publisher\\=Pbs.org \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2010\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101108081314/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/september98/russia.html\\| archive\\-date\\= 8 November 2010 \\| url\\-status\\= live}} Powerful business interests, fearing another round of reforms that might cause leading enterprises to fail, welcomed Kiriyenko's fall, as did the [Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation \"Communist Party of the Russian Federation\").",
"Yeltsin, who began to lose his hold on power as his health deteriorated, wanted Chernomyrdin back, but the legislature refused to give its approval. After the Duma rejected Chernomyrdin's candidacy twice, Yeltsin, his power clearly on the wane, backed down. Instead, he nominated [Foreign Minister](/wiki/Foreign_Ministry_%28Russia%29 \"Foreign Ministry (Russia)\") [Yevgeny Primakov](/wiki/Yevgeny_Primakov \"Yevgeny Primakov\"), who was approved by the State Duma by an overwhelming majority on 11 September 1998\\.",
"Primakov's appointment restored political stability because he was seen as a compromise candidate able to heal the rifts between Russia's quarreling interest groups. There was popular enthusiasm for Primakov as well. Primakov promised to make payment of wages and pensions his government's first priority and invited members of the leading parliamentary factions into his Cabinet.",
"Communists and the [Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia](/wiki/Federation_of_Independent_Trade_Unions_of_Russia \"Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia\") staged a nationwide strike on 7 October 1998 and called on President Yeltsin to resign. On 9 October 1998, Russia, which was also suffering from a poor harvest, appealed for international humanitarian aid, including food.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Family, youth and education
[thumb\|City of [Aschersleben](/wiki/Aschersleben "Aschersleben").](/wiki/File:ASL.1850.jpg "ASL.1850.jpg")
Franz Körte was born in [Aschersleben](/wiki/Aschersleben "Aschersleben") as the second son of an Evangelical Lutheran preacher. His mother was a niece of the poet [Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim](/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ludwig_Gleim "Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim").Necrolog "[Heinrich Friedrich Franz Körte](https://books.google.com/books?id=TyhAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT176)" in: *Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Landwirthschaft und verwandte Gegenstände*, Vol. 2, 1845\. p. 159 His brother was [William Körte](/wiki/William_K%C3%B6rte "William Körte")Arthur Judge: [Korte, William](https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/ADB:K%C3%B6rte,_Wilhelm). In: [Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie](/wiki/Allgemeine_Deutsche_Biographie "Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie") (ADB). Volume 16, Duncker \& Humblot, Leipzig 1882, p 725 (1776–1846\), a literary historian and [executor](/wiki/Executor "Executor") of [Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim](/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ludwig_Gleim "Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim").
Körte received his education in his parental home and at the high school in his native town. Attracted to nature and its operation, he decided to devote himself to study of [agricultural economics](/wiki/Agricultural_economics "Agricultural economics"). Hereby he was influenced by the intellectual movement, which the first writings and teachings of [Albrecht Thaer](/wiki/Albrecht_Thaer "Albrecht Thaer") had initiated in the circles of the German agriculturists. In 1802 Körte had visited Thaer in Celle, where Thaer had encouraged him to aim for a scientific study, because this higher qualification would better prepare for the agricultural profession.
To learn more about the agriculture practice, Körte became apprentice to a country estate in Almenhausen (now Kashtanovo) in [Kaliningrad Oblast](/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast "Kaliningrad Oblast"). Also briefly he was agricultural official in an estate in the village of Mennewitz near [Aken (Elbe)](/wiki/Aken_%28Elbe%29 "Aken (Elbe)") on the Elbe, where he gained more practical experience into agricultural and management affairs.Hermann Kellenbenz, Jürgen Schneider (1978\) *Auf dem Weg zur Industrialisierung*, p, 192 After solving some financial difficulties with the assistance of [Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim](/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ludwig_Gleim "Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim"), he then moved to the [University of Halle](/wiki/Martin_Luther_University_of_Halle-Wittenberg "Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg"). From 1803 to 1804 he devoted himself to the study of natural sciences, particularly [botany](/wiki/Botany "Botany") and [chemistry](/wiki/Chemistry "Chemistry"), and under guidance of the botanist [Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel](/wiki/Kurt_Polycarp_Joachim_Sprengel "Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel") familiarized himself with other capacities.
### Early career at University of Erlangen
After he finished his studies in Halle in 1804, the circumstances led him to return in the agricultural practice and to accept a position as husbandry conductor on the estates of Baron von Dressler in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria"), but not for long. In 1806 he obtained the position to habilitate as docent at the [University of Erlangen](/wiki/University_of_Erlangen-Nuremberg "University of Erlangen-Nuremberg"), where he turned his scientific research to botany and chemistry.
[thumb\|upright\|Möglinsche Annalen der Landwirthschaft, Vol. 17, 1826](/wiki/File:M%C3%B6glinsche_Annalen_der_Landwirthschaft%2C_title_page_Vol._17%2C_1826.jpg "Möglinsche Annalen der Landwirthschaft, title page Vol. 17, 1826.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Die Strich\-, Zug\- oder Wander\-Heuschrecke, 1828](/wiki/File:Die_Strich-%2C_Zug-_oder_Wander-Heuschrecke%2C_1828.jpg "Die Strich-, Zug- oder Wander-Heuschrecke, 1828.jpg")
His extensive study of the flora of southern Germany in cooperation with [Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber](/wiki/Johann_Christian_Daniel_von_Schreber "Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber") resulted in the publication of the *Flora Erlangensis* in 1811\. In the field of chemistry Körte investigated the sulfur springs [Wipfeld](/wiki/Wipfeld "Wipfeld") in 1812,Maximilian Joseph Schleiß (1829\) *Das Ludwigsbad bey Wipfeld und seine Umgebungen: mit besonderem Hinblick auf Gaibachs Kunstgegenstände u. Gartenanlagen.* p. 5 resulting in the publication *Untersuchungen der Wippfelder Schwefelquellen* (Investigations of Wippfelder sulfur wells).
In the same period Theodor Konrad von Kretschmann, minister of [Francis, Duke of Saxe\-Coburg\-Saalfeld](/wiki/Francis%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld "Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld"), had asked Körte to take on the organisation of an agricultural/economical teaching institute in [Marloffstein](/wiki/Marloffstein "Marloffstein") in association with the local economy professor Michael Alexander Lips (1779–1838\), the Adjunct Director of the Faculty of Philosophy in Erlangen.Johann Gottfried Pahl (1808\) *Chronik der Teutschen: eine politische Zeitung.* p. 213 Under the unfavorable conditions of that time, the company was not able to gain any support and had to be abandoned due to lack of funds. Not discouraged by such failure Körte in 1811 habilitated, and in the same year was appointed lecturer at the [University of Würzburg](/wiki/University_of_W%C3%BCrzburg "University of Würzburg") and technical assistant in currency measurements.
### Professor at the Agricultural Academy Möglin
After in 1814 the professorship of Natural Sciences at the Agricultural Academy in [Möglin](/wiki/M%C3%B6glin "Möglin") had become vacant, by the death of Professor [Georg Ernst Wilhelm Crome](/wiki/Georg_Ernst_Wilhelm_Crome "Georg Ernst Wilhelm Crome"), [Albrecht Daniel Thaer](/wiki/Albrecht_Daniel_Thaer "Albrecht Daniel Thaer") invited Korte to apply. In autumn 1814 Körte first moved to Berlin, where Thaer lectured at the university. He spend the winter semester 1814/15 giving private lecturers in natural science, and started the research that would lead to the 1818 publication *Was ist Humus, wie und auf welche Weise wirkt derselbe als ernährendes Mittel für die Pflanzen?* (What is humus, how and in what way does it work the same as a nurturing agent for plants?). By Easter 1815 Körte was installed at the Agricultural Academy in Möglin in Crome's position,Wilhelm Körte *[Albrecht Thaer: Sein Leben und Wirken](https://books.google.com/books?id=Pjk6AAAAcAAJ)*, 1838, p. 254Johannes Hansen. *Albrecht Thaer: Festrede zum Gedächtnis seines hundertjährigen Todestages gehalten in der Landwirtschaftlichen Hochschule Berlin.* P. Parey, 1929\. p. 10\. awarded with the title of "Royal Prussian Professor". In the same year he married Thaer's daughter Caroline, widow of Georg Ernst Wilhelm Crome.
Körte was a man of excellent educational and organizational skills. In 1818 Thaer made him the director of Mögliner teaching institution, which in 1819 was granted by the Prussian state administration the right to call themselves *Königlich Preußische Akademie des Landbaus* (Royal Prussian Academy of agriculture). In 1824 Körte took over as editor of the magazine *Möglinsche Annalen der Landwirthschaft* (Möglinsche annals of agriculture).*Landwirtschaftliche Jahrbücher.* Vol. 18, 1889\. p. 609\.Theodor Alexander Ludwig Georg Goltz. *Geschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft*, Volume 2, 1963, p. 17 After his death on 26 October 1828, Thaer had left the estate and institute to [Philipp Albrecht Thaer](/wiki/Philipp_Albrecht_Thaer "Philipp Albrecht Thaer") and Franz Körte, who kept running the institute in the same way.August Meitzen, Friedrich Grossma. *Der Boden und die landwirthschaftlichen Verhältnisse des preussischen Staates: and atlas.* Wiegandt \& Hempel, 1871\. p. 509 In 1830 he handed over the management to his brother\-in\-law Philipp Albrecht Thaer.*Annalen der Landwirthschaft in den Königlich Preussischen Staaten*, Volume 43\. 1864\. p. 185 In the same year he took over the management of the Lüdersdorf estate, and continued his teaching at the Academy Mögliner he continued.
From 1836 to 1842 Körte published a new magazine as successor of the *Möglinschen Annalen*, for which he chose the title *Möglin'sche Jahrbücher* (Möglin'sche yearbooks). Of these at irregular intervals published yearbooks at total was published of five volumes. Korte was an honorary member of several agricultural associations.
Körte was honorary member of many economic and agricultural societies with economic associations. The Prussian king awarded him the [Order of the Red Eagle](/wiki/Order_of_the_Red_Eagle "Order of the Red Eagle"). He died on 30 January 1845 in Lüdersdorf near [Wriezen an der Oder](/wiki/Wriezen "Wriezen") and near [Reichenow\-Möglin](/wiki/Reichenow-M%C3%B6glin "Reichenow-Möglin").G. Fischer. *Flora*, Volume 28, 1845\. p. 224\.
{{botanist\|Korte}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Family, youth and education",
"[thumb\\|City of [Aschersleben](/wiki/Aschersleben \"Aschersleben\").](/wiki/File:ASL.1850.jpg \"ASL.1850.jpg\")\nFranz Körte was born in [Aschersleben](/wiki/Aschersleben \"Aschersleben\") as the second son of an Evangelical Lutheran preacher. His mother was a niece of the poet [Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim](/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ludwig_Gleim \"Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim\").Necrolog \"[Heinrich Friedrich Franz Körte](https://books.google.com/books?id=TyhAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT176)\" in: *Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Landwirthschaft und verwandte Gegenstände*, Vol. 2, 1845\\. p. 159 His brother was [William Körte](/wiki/William_K%C3%B6rte \"William Körte\")Arthur Judge: [Korte, William](https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/ADB:K%C3%B6rte,_Wilhelm). In: [Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie](/wiki/Allgemeine_Deutsche_Biographie \"Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie\") (ADB). Volume 16, Duncker \\& Humblot, Leipzig 1882, p 725 (1776–1846\\), a literary historian and [executor](/wiki/Executor \"Executor\") of [Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim](/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ludwig_Gleim \"Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim\").",
"Körte received his education in his parental home and at the high school in his native town. Attracted to nature and its operation, he decided to devote himself to study of [agricultural economics](/wiki/Agricultural_economics \"Agricultural economics\"). Hereby he was influenced by the intellectual movement, which the first writings and teachings of [Albrecht Thaer](/wiki/Albrecht_Thaer \"Albrecht Thaer\") had initiated in the circles of the German agriculturists. In 1802 Körte had visited Thaer in Celle, where Thaer had encouraged him to aim for a scientific study, because this higher qualification would better prepare for the agricultural profession.",
"To learn more about the agriculture practice, Körte became apprentice to a country estate in Almenhausen (now Kashtanovo) in [Kaliningrad Oblast](/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Kaliningrad Oblast\"). Also briefly he was agricultural official in an estate in the village of Mennewitz near [Aken (Elbe)](/wiki/Aken_%28Elbe%29 \"Aken (Elbe)\") on the Elbe, where he gained more practical experience into agricultural and management affairs.Hermann Kellenbenz, Jürgen Schneider (1978\\) *Auf dem Weg zur Industrialisierung*, p, 192 After solving some financial difficulties with the assistance of [Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim](/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ludwig_Gleim \"Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim\"), he then moved to the [University of Halle](/wiki/Martin_Luther_University_of_Halle-Wittenberg \"Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg\"). From 1803 to 1804 he devoted himself to the study of natural sciences, particularly [botany](/wiki/Botany \"Botany\") and [chemistry](/wiki/Chemistry \"Chemistry\"), and under guidance of the botanist [Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel](/wiki/Kurt_Polycarp_Joachim_Sprengel \"Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel\") familiarized himself with other capacities.",
"### Early career at University of Erlangen",
"After he finished his studies in Halle in 1804, the circumstances led him to return in the agricultural practice and to accept a position as husbandry conductor on the estates of Baron von Dressler in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\"), but not for long. In 1806 he obtained the position to habilitate as docent at the [University of Erlangen](/wiki/University_of_Erlangen-Nuremberg \"University of Erlangen-Nuremberg\"), where he turned his scientific research to botany and chemistry. \n[thumb\\|upright\\|Möglinsche Annalen der Landwirthschaft, Vol. 17, 1826](/wiki/File:M%C3%B6glinsche_Annalen_der_Landwirthschaft%2C_title_page_Vol._17%2C_1826.jpg \"Möglinsche Annalen der Landwirthschaft, title page Vol. 17, 1826.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Die Strich\\-, Zug\\- oder Wander\\-Heuschrecke, 1828](/wiki/File:Die_Strich-%2C_Zug-_oder_Wander-Heuschrecke%2C_1828.jpg \"Die Strich-, Zug- oder Wander-Heuschrecke, 1828.jpg\")\nHis extensive study of the flora of southern Germany in cooperation with [Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber](/wiki/Johann_Christian_Daniel_von_Schreber \"Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber\") resulted in the publication of the *Flora Erlangensis* in 1811\\. In the field of chemistry Körte investigated the sulfur springs [Wipfeld](/wiki/Wipfeld \"Wipfeld\") in 1812,Maximilian Joseph Schleiß (1829\\) *Das Ludwigsbad bey Wipfeld und seine Umgebungen: mit besonderem Hinblick auf Gaibachs Kunstgegenstände u. Gartenanlagen.* p. 5 resulting in the publication *Untersuchungen der Wippfelder Schwefelquellen* (Investigations of Wippfelder sulfur wells).",
"In the same period Theodor Konrad von Kretschmann, minister of [Francis, Duke of Saxe\\-Coburg\\-Saalfeld](/wiki/Francis%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld \"Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld\"), had asked Körte to take on the organisation of an agricultural/economical teaching institute in [Marloffstein](/wiki/Marloffstein \"Marloffstein\") in association with the local economy professor Michael Alexander Lips (1779–1838\\), the Adjunct Director of the Faculty of Philosophy in Erlangen.Johann Gottfried Pahl (1808\\) *Chronik der Teutschen: eine politische Zeitung.* p. 213 Under the unfavorable conditions of that time, the company was not able to gain any support and had to be abandoned due to lack of funds. Not discouraged by such failure Körte in 1811 habilitated, and in the same year was appointed lecturer at the [University of Würzburg](/wiki/University_of_W%C3%BCrzburg \"University of Würzburg\") and technical assistant in currency measurements.",
"### Professor at the Agricultural Academy Möglin",
"After in 1814 the professorship of Natural Sciences at the Agricultural Academy in [Möglin](/wiki/M%C3%B6glin \"Möglin\") had become vacant, by the death of Professor [Georg Ernst Wilhelm Crome](/wiki/Georg_Ernst_Wilhelm_Crome \"Georg Ernst Wilhelm Crome\"), [Albrecht Daniel Thaer](/wiki/Albrecht_Daniel_Thaer \"Albrecht Daniel Thaer\") invited Korte to apply. In autumn 1814 Körte first moved to Berlin, where Thaer lectured at the university. He spend the winter semester 1814/15 giving private lecturers in natural science, and started the research that would lead to the 1818 publication *Was ist Humus, wie und auf welche Weise wirkt derselbe als ernährendes Mittel für die Pflanzen?* (What is humus, how and in what way does it work the same as a nurturing agent for plants?). By Easter 1815 Körte was installed at the Agricultural Academy in Möglin in Crome's position,Wilhelm Körte *[Albrecht Thaer: Sein Leben und Wirken](https://books.google.com/books?id=Pjk6AAAAcAAJ)*, 1838, p. 254Johannes Hansen. *Albrecht Thaer: Festrede zum Gedächtnis seines hundertjährigen Todestages gehalten in der Landwirtschaftlichen Hochschule Berlin.* P. Parey, 1929\\. p. 10\\. awarded with the title of \"Royal Prussian Professor\". In the same year he married Thaer's daughter Caroline, widow of Georg Ernst Wilhelm Crome.",
"Körte was a man of excellent educational and organizational skills. In 1818 Thaer made him the director of Mögliner teaching institution, which in 1819 was granted by the Prussian state administration the right to call themselves *Königlich Preußische Akademie des Landbaus* (Royal Prussian Academy of agriculture). In 1824 Körte took over as editor of the magazine *Möglinsche Annalen der Landwirthschaft* (Möglinsche annals of agriculture).*Landwirtschaftliche Jahrbücher.* Vol. 18, 1889\\. p. 609\\.Theodor Alexander Ludwig Georg Goltz. *Geschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft*, Volume 2, 1963, p. 17 After his death on 26 October 1828, Thaer had left the estate and institute to [Philipp Albrecht Thaer](/wiki/Philipp_Albrecht_Thaer \"Philipp Albrecht Thaer\") and Franz Körte, who kept running the institute in the same way.August Meitzen, Friedrich Grossma. *Der Boden und die landwirthschaftlichen Verhältnisse des preussischen Staates: and atlas.* Wiegandt \\& Hempel, 1871\\. p. 509 In 1830 he handed over the management to his brother\\-in\\-law Philipp Albrecht Thaer.*Annalen der Landwirthschaft in den Königlich Preussischen Staaten*, Volume 43\\. 1864\\. p. 185 In the same year he took over the management of the Lüdersdorf estate, and continued his teaching at the Academy Mögliner he continued.",
"From 1836 to 1842 Körte published a new magazine as successor of the *Möglinschen Annalen*, for which he chose the title *Möglin'sche Jahrbücher* (Möglin'sche yearbooks). Of these at irregular intervals published yearbooks at total was published of five volumes. Korte was an honorary member of several agricultural associations.",
"Körte was honorary member of many economic and agricultural societies with economic associations. The Prussian king awarded him the [Order of the Red Eagle](/wiki/Order_of_the_Red_Eagle \"Order of the Red Eagle\"). He died on 30 January 1845 in Lüdersdorf near [Wriezen an der Oder](/wiki/Wriezen \"Wriezen\") and near [Reichenow\\-Möglin](/wiki/Reichenow-M%C3%B6glin \"Reichenow-Möglin\").G. Fischer. *Flora*, Volume 28, 1845\\. p. 224\\.",
"{{botanist\\|Korte}}",
""
] |
Background
----------
Palnadu is a region located in the south\-western area of [Guntur district](/wiki/Guntur_district "Guntur district") and covering some part of [Prakasam district](/wiki/Prakasam_district "Prakasam district"). It is spread over the present\-day areas of [Macherla](/wiki/Macherla "Macherla"), [Karampudi](/wiki/Karempudi "Karempudi") and [Gurazala](/wiki/Gurazala "Gurazala") in the Guntur district and [Markapur](/wiki/Markapur "Markapur") in the [Prakasam district](/wiki/Prakasam_district "Prakasam district") of the state of [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh"), India.
When Anuguraju of the Haihayas migrated to the Andhra area from Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh, he clashed with the Velanati Chodas of Velanadu who ruled from Chandavolu. Velanati Gonkaraju installed Anuguraju as king of Palnadu at Gurajala after giving his daughter Mailama Devi to him in marriage. As Anuguraju was non\-Telugu\-speaking and had migrated to Andhra area only at that time, and unfamiliar with the local people, Gonkaraju appointed Seelam Dodda Naidu of Recherla Gotra as his minister to guide him. Anugu Raju had 2 more wives, Viravidya Devi and Bhoorama Devi. Anuguraju was however childless and adopted the eldest son of his minister Dodda Naidu. Soon after this Mailama Devi gave birth to a son called Nalagamaraju. Disillusioned with the turn of events Dodda Naidu stepped down as minister of Anuguraju and made his younger son [Brahma Naidu](/wiki/Palanati_Brahmanaidu "Palanati Brahmanaidu") as a minister instead. Nalagamaraju became king after Anuguraju.
Nalagamaraju had a step brother called [Malidevaraju](/wiki/Malidevaraju "Malidevaraju") who married a princess from the [Kalachuris of Kalyanadurga](/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Kalyani "Kalachuris of Kalyani") in Karnataka.{{cite book \|last1\=Bommareddi \|first1\=Aruna \|title\=Narrative Traditions of a Telugu Epic: Paln?tiv?rula Katha \|date\=29 October 2019 \|publisher\=Notion Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-64678\-733\-3 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AMW5DwAAQBAJ\&dq\=Malidevaraju\&pg\=PT20 \|language\=en}}{{cite web \|title\=43\. Rayamurari Sovideva \|url\=http://mudiraja.weebly.com/\-43\-rayamurari\-sovideva.html \|website\=Great History Of Mudiraja Caste \|language\=en}}
Brahma Naidu was highly respected in his time and was a warrior, scholar and reformer. Brahmanaidu captured the fort of Shimoga from the Veera Saivaites on the request of the [King of Kalyani](/wiki/Sovideva "Sovideva"). The king in turn gave his daughter Sirimadevi in marriage to Malidevaraju. Brahma Naidu was a staunch Vaishnavaite and founded a new sect called Veera Vaishnavism as against Veera Saivism which was prevalent then and which allowed the Sudras including untouchables. Brahma Naidu allowed equal status to the untouchables. The social reforms like Chapa Koodu (having food sitting side by side on a mat irrespective of class) initiated by Brahma Naidu antagonized the orthodox people of the Palnadu society. Brahma Naidu did not stop with Chapakoodu and in this he was centuries, ahead of the present day social reformers. He had all people including the untouchables in his army. In fact Kannamanedu from the untouchables was treated almost like Brahma Naidu's own son and was made the commander of his army.
The orthodox people found an able leader in one lady named [Nagamma](/wiki/Nayakuralu_Nagamma "Nayakuralu Nagamma") who was known as Nayakuralu. Nagamma joined the court of Nalagamaraju and gained his confidence. Thereafter, she made Nalagamarju displace Brahma Naidu's men from key positions. The differences in the court and the royal family grew which led to the division of the Kingdom.
Nalagamaraju's half brother Malidevaraju moved to Macherla and set up a separate kingdom there. Brahma Naidu moved to Macherla along with Malidevaraju.
Mutual suspicion between the two kingdoms grew and Nagamma under the pretext of Malideva's defeat in a cockfight exiled them for 7 years from Palnadu.{{cite book \|last1\=Bommareddi \|first1\=Aruna \|title\=Narrative Traditions of a Telugu Epic: Paln?tiv?rula Katha \|date\=29 October 2019 \|publisher\=Notion Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-64678\-733\-3 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AMW5DwAAQBAJ\&dq\=Malidevaraju\&pg\=PT20 \|language\=en}} After the exile Brahma Naidu sent Alaraju the brother in law of Malidevaraju to claim Malidevaraju's share. The demand was turned down and Alaraju was poisoned in Cherlagudipadu by the orders of Nagamma. His wife Perindevi committed Sati with Alaraju. This enraged Malidevaraju and Kommaraju who was the father of Alaraju. Brahma Naidu then declared war on Gurajala.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"Palnadu is a region located in the south\\-western area of [Guntur district](/wiki/Guntur_district \"Guntur district\") and covering some part of [Prakasam district](/wiki/Prakasam_district \"Prakasam district\"). It is spread over the present\\-day areas of [Macherla](/wiki/Macherla \"Macherla\"), [Karampudi](/wiki/Karempudi \"Karempudi\") and [Gurazala](/wiki/Gurazala \"Gurazala\") in the Guntur district and [Markapur](/wiki/Markapur \"Markapur\") in the [Prakasam district](/wiki/Prakasam_district \"Prakasam district\") of the state of [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh \"Andhra Pradesh\"), India.",
"When Anuguraju of the Haihayas migrated to the Andhra area from Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh, he clashed with the Velanati Chodas of Velanadu who ruled from Chandavolu. Velanati Gonkaraju installed Anuguraju as king of Palnadu at Gurajala after giving his daughter Mailama Devi to him in marriage. As Anuguraju was non\\-Telugu\\-speaking and had migrated to Andhra area only at that time, and unfamiliar with the local people, Gonkaraju appointed Seelam Dodda Naidu of Recherla Gotra as his minister to guide him. Anugu Raju had 2 more wives, Viravidya Devi and Bhoorama Devi. Anuguraju was however childless and adopted the eldest son of his minister Dodda Naidu. Soon after this Mailama Devi gave birth to a son called Nalagamaraju. Disillusioned with the turn of events Dodda Naidu stepped down as minister of Anuguraju and made his younger son [Brahma Naidu](/wiki/Palanati_Brahmanaidu \"Palanati Brahmanaidu\") as a minister instead. Nalagamaraju became king after Anuguraju.",
"Nalagamaraju had a step brother called [Malidevaraju](/wiki/Malidevaraju \"Malidevaraju\") who married a princess from the [Kalachuris of Kalyanadurga](/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Kalyani \"Kalachuris of Kalyani\") in Karnataka.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bommareddi \\|first1\\=Aruna \\|title\\=Narrative Traditions of a Telugu Epic: Paln?tiv?rula Katha \\|date\\=29 October 2019 \\|publisher\\=Notion Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-64678\\-733\\-3 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AMW5DwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=Malidevaraju\\&pg\\=PT20 \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web \\|title\\=43\\. Rayamurari Sovideva \\|url\\=http://mudiraja.weebly.com/\\-43\\-rayamurari\\-sovideva.html \\|website\\=Great History Of Mudiraja Caste \\|language\\=en}} \nBrahma Naidu was highly respected in his time and was a warrior, scholar and reformer. Brahmanaidu captured the fort of Shimoga from the Veera Saivaites on the request of the [King of Kalyani](/wiki/Sovideva \"Sovideva\"). The king in turn gave his daughter Sirimadevi in marriage to Malidevaraju. Brahma Naidu was a staunch Vaishnavaite and founded a new sect called Veera Vaishnavism as against Veera Saivism which was prevalent then and which allowed the Sudras including untouchables. Brahma Naidu allowed equal status to the untouchables. The social reforms like Chapa Koodu (having food sitting side by side on a mat irrespective of class) initiated by Brahma Naidu antagonized the orthodox people of the Palnadu society. Brahma Naidu did not stop with Chapakoodu and in this he was centuries, ahead of the present day social reformers. He had all people including the untouchables in his army. In fact Kannamanedu from the untouchables was treated almost like Brahma Naidu's own son and was made the commander of his army.",
"The orthodox people found an able leader in one lady named [Nagamma](/wiki/Nayakuralu_Nagamma \"Nayakuralu Nagamma\") who was known as Nayakuralu. Nagamma joined the court of Nalagamaraju and gained his confidence. Thereafter, she made Nalagamarju displace Brahma Naidu's men from key positions. The differences in the court and the royal family grew which led to the division of the Kingdom.",
"Nalagamaraju's half brother Malidevaraju moved to Macherla and set up a separate kingdom there. Brahma Naidu moved to Macherla along with Malidevaraju.",
"Mutual suspicion between the two kingdoms grew and Nagamma under the pretext of Malideva's defeat in a cockfight exiled them for 7 years from Palnadu.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bommareddi \\|first1\\=Aruna \\|title\\=Narrative Traditions of a Telugu Epic: Paln?tiv?rula Katha \\|date\\=29 October 2019 \\|publisher\\=Notion Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-64678\\-733\\-3 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AMW5DwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=Malidevaraju\\&pg\\=PT20 \\|language\\=en}} After the exile Brahma Naidu sent Alaraju the brother in law of Malidevaraju to claim Malidevaraju's share. The demand was turned down and Alaraju was poisoned in Cherlagudipadu by the orders of Nagamma. His wife Perindevi committed Sati with Alaraju. This enraged Malidevaraju and Kommaraju who was the father of Alaraju. Brahma Naidu then declared war on Gurajala.",
""
] |
Characters
----------
### Quinn Patrick O'Connell
Quinn Patrick O'Connell was detached from his parents at the age of one and adopted by the Irish O'Connell family at the age of three. He has lived in a ranch in Colorado and studied in the [University of Colorado at Colorado Springs](/wiki/University_of_Colorado_at_Colorado_Springs "University of Colorado at Colorado Springs"). He went on to become a Colorado state senator, and later Governor of Colorado, [gun control](/wiki/Gun_control "Gun control") being his main platform.
During this time he has had two relationships, with Greer Little and Rita Maldonado. Both women lead him through his election campaign and set him up for the 2008 presidency.
Throughout his life, Quinn wishes to find his birth parents, but is unable to do so as even his adopted parents have no information whatsoever. He is found by his brother, a Jewish policeman, and confronts the nation before the 2008 elections, setting off [Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht")\-like riots throughout the country.
Having served on an elite unit called RAM in the Marine Corps, eventually with the rank of [Marine Gunner](/wiki/Warrant_Officer_%28United_States%29%23Marine_Corps "Warrant Officer (United States)#Marine Corps"), O'Connell is known for his honesty and high moral principles – a trait which goes a long way to help him in his election campaign.
### Thornton Tomtree
Thornton "T3" Tomtree is a technological genius who invents an apparently unhackable computer named "The Bulldog". While good with technology, he is portrayed as an insincere politician, who is mainly in it for power and influence. His political career is led by a childhood friend, Darnell Jefferson, in the novel the first African\-American billionaire.
{{Leon Uris}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:God In Ruins}}
[Category:1999 American novels](/wiki/Category:1999_American_novels "1999 American novels")
[Category:Novels by Leon Uris](/wiki/Category:Novels_by_Leon_Uris "Novels by Leon Uris")
[Category:Novels about elections](/wiki/Category:Novels_about_elections "Novels about elections")
[Category:American political novels](/wiki/Category:American_political_novels "American political novels")
[Category:HarperCollins books](/wiki/Category:HarperCollins_books "HarperCollins books")
{{1990s\-poli\-novel\-stub}}
|
[
"Characters\n----------",
"### Quinn Patrick O'Connell",
"Quinn Patrick O'Connell was detached from his parents at the age of one and adopted by the Irish O'Connell family at the age of three. He has lived in a ranch in Colorado and studied in the [University of Colorado at Colorado Springs](/wiki/University_of_Colorado_at_Colorado_Springs \"University of Colorado at Colorado Springs\"). He went on to become a Colorado state senator, and later Governor of Colorado, [gun control](/wiki/Gun_control \"Gun control\") being his main platform.",
"During this time he has had two relationships, with Greer Little and Rita Maldonado. Both women lead him through his election campaign and set him up for the 2008 presidency.",
"Throughout his life, Quinn wishes to find his birth parents, but is unable to do so as even his adopted parents have no information whatsoever. He is found by his brother, a Jewish policeman, and confronts the nation before the 2008 elections, setting off [Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\")\\-like riots throughout the country.",
"Having served on an elite unit called RAM in the Marine Corps, eventually with the rank of [Marine Gunner](/wiki/Warrant_Officer_%28United_States%29%23Marine_Corps \"Warrant Officer (United States)#Marine Corps\"), O'Connell is known for his honesty and high moral principles – a trait which goes a long way to help him in his election campaign.",
"### Thornton Tomtree",
"Thornton \"T3\" Tomtree is a technological genius who invents an apparently unhackable computer named \"The Bulldog\". While good with technology, he is portrayed as an insincere politician, who is mainly in it for power and influence. His political career is led by a childhood friend, Darnell Jefferson, in the novel the first African\\-American billionaire.",
"{{Leon Uris}}",
"{{DEFAULTSORT:God In Ruins}}\n[Category:1999 American novels](/wiki/Category:1999_American_novels \"1999 American novels\")\n[Category:Novels by Leon Uris](/wiki/Category:Novels_by_Leon_Uris \"Novels by Leon Uris\")\n[Category:Novels about elections](/wiki/Category:Novels_about_elections \"Novels about elections\")\n[Category:American political novels](/wiki/Category:American_political_novels \"American political novels\")\n[Category:HarperCollins books](/wiki/Category:HarperCollins_books \"HarperCollins books\")",
"",
"{{1990s\\-poli\\-novel\\-stub}}",
""
] |
Specifications
--------------
{{multiple image
\| direction \= horizontal
\| align \= right
\| width \= 200
\| header \=
\| image1 \= Maserati 420M Eldorado front\-left Enzo Ferrari Museum.jpg
\| caption1 \=
\| image2 \= Maserati 420M Eldorado rear\-right Enzo Ferrari Museum.jpg
\| caption2 \=
\| footer\_align \=
\| footer \= Maserati 420M/58 "Eldorado" in \[\[Enzo Ferrari Museum]]
}}
### Engine and transmission
The 420M/58 engine was derived from the [Maserati 450S](/wiki/Maserati_450S "Maserati 450S") sports car. The twin cam 90° V8 was modified with a shorter stroke to reduce the displacement to {{convert\|4190\|cc\|L cuin\|1\|abbr\=on}} so it could also meet the Indy 500 technical regulations. The fuel was fed by four twin\-choke [Weber](/wiki/Weber_carburetor "Weber carburetor") carburetors to produce {{convert\|410\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 8,000 rpm with 12:1 compression ratio. The engine was lubricated via [dry sump](/wiki/Dry_sump "Dry sump") system and was equipped with twin spark plugs per cylinder.
The engine produced so much power and torque that only a two\-speed gearbox was used. The first gear was only used to start from the pits. Additionally, the [De Dion](/wiki/De_Dion_axle "De Dion axle") rear axle had no differential at all, as the final drive was solid.
Both the engine and transmission were offset to the left by {{convert\|90\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}, with a better weight distribution in mind, taking into account the high banked corners at Monza.
### Chassis and suspension
The chassis was derived from the final evolution of the highly successful [Maserati 250F](/wiki/Maserati_250F "Maserati 250F") Formula One racer. The tubular steel space frame construction was further reinforced to withstand the high\-speed cornering on the concrete banks at Monza. The car received the chassis number 4203\.
The typical wire wheels were replaced by Halibrand alloys to withstand the high cornering forces. To reduce the weight, the alloy used was magnesium, along with [Firestone](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company "Firestone Tire and Rubber Company") 18\-inch braided tread tires filled with helium to save as much weight as possible.
The front suspension consisted of double wishbones, taken from the [Maserati 450S](/wiki/Maserati_450S "Maserati 450S") race car, and the rear of a [De Dion axle](/wiki/De_Dion_axle "De Dion axle"). The hydraulic drum brakes were identical as those on the 250F. The whole car weighed {{convert\|758\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}}.
|
[
"Specifications\n--------------",
"{{multiple image\n\\| direction \\= horizontal\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| width \\= 200\n\\| header \\= \n\\| image1 \\= Maserati 420M Eldorado front\\-left Enzo Ferrari Museum.jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= \n\\| image2 \\= Maserati 420M Eldorado rear\\-right Enzo Ferrari Museum.jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= \n\\| footer\\_align \\=\n\\| footer \\= Maserati 420M/58 \"Eldorado\" in \\[\\[Enzo Ferrari Museum]]\n}}",
"### Engine and transmission",
"The 420M/58 engine was derived from the [Maserati 450S](/wiki/Maserati_450S \"Maserati 450S\") sports car. The twin cam 90° V8 was modified with a shorter stroke to reduce the displacement to {{convert\\|4190\\|cc\\|L cuin\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} so it could also meet the Indy 500 technical regulations. The fuel was fed by four twin\\-choke [Weber](/wiki/Weber_carburetor \"Weber carburetor\") carburetors to produce {{convert\\|410\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 8,000 rpm with 12:1 compression ratio. The engine was lubricated via [dry sump](/wiki/Dry_sump \"Dry sump\") system and was equipped with twin spark plugs per cylinder.",
"The engine produced so much power and torque that only a two\\-speed gearbox was used. The first gear was only used to start from the pits. Additionally, the [De Dion](/wiki/De_Dion_axle \"De Dion axle\") rear axle had no differential at all, as the final drive was solid.",
"Both the engine and transmission were offset to the left by {{convert\\|90\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}, with a better weight distribution in mind, taking into account the high banked corners at Monza.",
"### Chassis and suspension",
"The chassis was derived from the final evolution of the highly successful [Maserati 250F](/wiki/Maserati_250F \"Maserati 250F\") Formula One racer. The tubular steel space frame construction was further reinforced to withstand the high\\-speed cornering on the concrete banks at Monza. The car received the chassis number 4203\\.",
"The typical wire wheels were replaced by Halibrand alloys to withstand the high cornering forces. To reduce the weight, the alloy used was magnesium, along with [Firestone](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company \"Firestone Tire and Rubber Company\") 18\\-inch braided tread tires filled with helium to save as much weight as possible.",
"The front suspension consisted of double wishbones, taken from the [Maserati 450S](/wiki/Maserati_450S \"Maserati 450S\") race car, and the rear of a [De Dion axle](/wiki/De_Dion_axle \"De Dion axle\"). The hydraulic drum brakes were identical as those on the 250F. The whole car weighed {{convert\\|758\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
Blankenship was born in [Chattanooga, Tennessee](/wiki/Chattanooga%2C_Tennessee "Chattanooga, Tennessee"). He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from [Emory University](/wiki/Emory_University "Emory University") in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta%2C_Georgia "Atlanta, Georgia"), where he majored in theater studies and minored in English literature. He graduated [summa cum laude](/wiki/Summa_cum_laude "Summa cum laude") in 2001, and he is a member of the [Phi Beta Kappa Society](/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa_Society "Phi Beta Kappa Society"). While at Emory, he served as the theatre, film and music critic of the student newspaper, *[The Emory Wheel](/wiki/The_Emory_Wheel "The Emory Wheel")*. He also studied theater at [Oxford University](/wiki/Oxford_University "Oxford University"). Blankenship attended [Yale School of Drama](/wiki/Yale_School_of_Drama "Yale School of Drama") from 2002–2005 and holds a [Master of Fine Arts](/wiki/Master_of_Fine_Arts "Master of Fine Arts") in [Dramaturgy](/wiki/Dramaturgy "Dramaturgy") and Dramatic Criticism.
As an undergraduate at Emory, he was a member—and during his [sophomore year](/wiki/Sophomore_year "Sophomore year"), president—of Rathskellar, the [university](/wiki/University "University")'s comedy [improv](/wiki/Improvisational_theatre "Improvisational theatre") troupe. Blankenship also acted in and was [dramaturge](/wiki/Dramaturge "Dramaturge") for several productions at Theater Emory, an [Equity](/wiki/Actors%27_Equity_Association "Actors' Equity Association") theatre{{cite web\|url\=http://theater.emory.edu/Theater\-Emory \|title\=Theater Emory \|accessdate\=2009\-05\-31 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616042714/http://theater.emory.edu/Theater\-Emory/ \|archivedate\=2009\-06\-16 }}
He was a member of the Emory Scholars, and co\-founded the Scholarship and Service Summer Program, which places students in summer internships with local non\-profits.{{Cite web\|url\=http://college.emory.edu/main/404\.html\|title\=Emory College website\|website\=college.emory.edu}} {{dead link\|date\=May 2023}}
While still a senior at Emory, he was hired as Literary Manager of [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta")'s Horizon Theatre Company,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.horizontheatre.com/ \|title\=Home \|website\=horizontheatre.com}} a position he held from April 2001—August 2002\.
In late 2001, he was cast as the voice of Dooley, the Southern Movie Hound on the short\-lived [Turner South](/wiki/Turner_South "Turner South") series *The Southern Movie Hound*.
While at Yale, Blankenship began writing for [*Variety*](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 "Variety (magazine)"), *[The Village Voice](/wiki/The_Village_Voice "The Village Voice")* (where he was among the inaugural participants in the publication's University Wits series,[http://www.villagevoice.com/2005\-02\-08/theater/university\-wits](http://www.villagevoice.com/2005-02-08/theater/university-wits) {{Dead link\|date\=February 2022}} and *[American Theatre](/wiki/American_Theatre_%28magazine%29 "American Theatre (magazine)")*. He also served as dramaturg for [Yale Repertory Theatre](/wiki/Yale_Repertory_Theatre "Yale Repertory Theatre")'s 2005 production of [August Strindberg](/wiki/August_Strindberg "August Strindberg")'s *[Miss Julie](/wiki/Miss_Julie "Miss Julie")*.[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1\-131606927\.html](http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-131606927.html) {{Dead link\|date\=February 2022}}
Notable classmates from [Yale School of Drama](/wiki/Yale_School_of_Drama "Yale School of Drama") include Sarah Treem (staff writer for [HBO](/wiki/HBO "HBO")'s [*In Treatment*](/wiki/In_Treatment_%28U.S._TV_series%29 "In Treatment (U.S. TV series)")), [Rolin Jones](/wiki/Rolin_Jones "Rolin Jones") ([Pulitzer Prize](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize "Pulitzer Prize")\-nominated playwright for *[The Intelligent Design of Jenny Chow](/wiki/The_Intelligent_Design_of_Jenny_Chow "The Intelligent Design of Jenny Chow")*, staff writer for [Showtime](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 "Showtime (TV network)")'s [*Weeds*](/wiki/Weeds_%28TV_series%29 "Weeds (TV series)"), [Roberto Aguirre\-Sacasa](/wiki/Roberto_Aguirre-Sacasa "Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa") (staff writer for HBO's *[Big Love](/wiki/Big_Love "Big Love")*, author of several comic books for [Marvel](/wiki/Marvel_Comics "Marvel Comics")) and [Maulik Pancholy](/wiki/Maulik_Pancholy "Maulik Pancholy") (co\-star of *[30 Rock](/wiki/30_Rock "30 Rock")* and *Weeds*)
He has lived in [Park Slope](/wiki/Park_Slope "Park Slope"), [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn") since 2005\. His writing credits include numerous pieces for *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, *Variety*, New York [*Daily News*](/wiki/Daily_News_%28New_York%29 "Daily News (New York)"), *The Village Voice*, [*The Advocate*](/wiki/The_Advocate_%28LGBT_magazine%29 "The Advocate (LGBT magazine)"), *[Time Out New York](/wiki/Time_Out_New_York "Time Out New York")*, *[The Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post "The Huffington Post")*, [NPR](/wiki/NPR "NPR") and *American Theatre*. He regularly appears as panelist/expert commentator for [CBC News: Sunday](/wiki/CBC_News:Sunday "Sunday") and [CNN.com](/wiki/CNN.com "CNN.com").
In 2008 Blankenship founded the pop culture blog The Critical Condition{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thecriticalcondition.com/ \|title\=The Critical Condition \- Awesome Reviews of Movies, Music and TV \|accessdate\=2009\-05\-31 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503082544/http://www.thecriticalcondition.com/ \|archivedate\=2009\-05\-03 }} with Art Meets Commerce, a New\-York based new media advertising and marketing firm. The blog sought to engage readers in dialogue about various aspects of pop culture, acknowledges the impact it has on the larger culture and offers insight and analysis of the ways it is shaped by the changing [zeitgeist](/wiki/Zeitgeist "Zeitgeist"). As an entity, it also became part of the increasingly interconnected "conversation" that exists among culture bloggers.[http://beta.sling.com/blog/2770/%22The\-Office%22\-May\-Not\-Be\-as\-Funny\-as\-%22The\-Michael\-Scott\-Paper\-Company%22](http://beta.sling.com/blog/2770/%22The-Office%22-May-Not-Be-as-Funny-as-%22The-Michael-Scott-Paper-Company%22) {{dead link\|date\=June 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} The blog has officially been on hiatus since February 21, 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thecriticalcondition.com/2012/03/26/join\-me\-at\-logo\-tvs\-new\-now\-next/ \|title\=The Critical Condition \- Awesome Reviews of Movies, Music and TV \|accessdate\=2014\-03\-13 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110135516/http://www.thecriticalcondition.com/2012/03/26/join\-me\-at\-logo\-tvs\-new\-now\-next/ \|archivedate\=2014\-01\-10 }}
Mark and [Sarah D. Bunting](/wiki/Sarah_D._Bunting "Sarah D. Bunting") started the *Mark and Sarah Talk About Songs* podcast in March 2016,{{Cite web\|title\=Tomato Nation » Introducing The Mark And Sarah Talk About Songs Podcast!\|url\=https://tomatonation.com/culture\-and\-criticism/introducing\-the\-mark\-and\-sarah\-talk\-about\-songs\-podcast/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-19\|language\=en\-US}} a weekly pop music podcast that contains in\-depth and humorous discussions of individual songs chosen by the hosts or the fans. Starting with episode 50 every tenth episode ranks every song on an album. Ranked episodes include [Indigo Girls](/wiki/Indigo_Girls_%28album%29 "Indigo Girls (album)"), [GHV2](/wiki/GHV2 "GHV2"), [Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band](/wiki/Sgt._Pepper%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band"), [Jagged Little Pill](/wiki/Jagged_Little_Pill "Jagged Little Pill"), and [The Clueless Soundtrack](/wiki/Clueless "Clueless").
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"Blankenship was born in [Chattanooga, Tennessee](/wiki/Chattanooga%2C_Tennessee \"Chattanooga, Tennessee\"). He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from [Emory University](/wiki/Emory_University \"Emory University\") in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta%2C_Georgia \"Atlanta, Georgia\"), where he majored in theater studies and minored in English literature. He graduated [summa cum laude](/wiki/Summa_cum_laude \"Summa cum laude\") in 2001, and he is a member of the [Phi Beta Kappa Society](/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa_Society \"Phi Beta Kappa Society\"). While at Emory, he served as the theatre, film and music critic of the student newspaper, *[The Emory Wheel](/wiki/The_Emory_Wheel \"The Emory Wheel\")*. He also studied theater at [Oxford University](/wiki/Oxford_University \"Oxford University\"). Blankenship attended [Yale School of Drama](/wiki/Yale_School_of_Drama \"Yale School of Drama\") from 2002–2005 and holds a [Master of Fine Arts](/wiki/Master_of_Fine_Arts \"Master of Fine Arts\") in [Dramaturgy](/wiki/Dramaturgy \"Dramaturgy\") and Dramatic Criticism.",
"As an undergraduate at Emory, he was a member—and during his [sophomore year](/wiki/Sophomore_year \"Sophomore year\"), president—of Rathskellar, the [university](/wiki/University \"University\")'s comedy [improv](/wiki/Improvisational_theatre \"Improvisational theatre\") troupe. Blankenship also acted in and was [dramaturge](/wiki/Dramaturge \"Dramaturge\") for several productions at Theater Emory, an [Equity](/wiki/Actors%27_Equity_Association \"Actors' Equity Association\") theatre{{cite web\\|url\\=http://theater.emory.edu/Theater\\-Emory \\|title\\=Theater Emory \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-05\\-31 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616042714/http://theater.emory.edu/Theater\\-Emory/ \\|archivedate\\=2009\\-06\\-16 }}",
"He was a member of the Emory Scholars, and co\\-founded the Scholarship and Service Summer Program, which places students in summer internships with local non\\-profits.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://college.emory.edu/main/404\\.html\\|title\\=Emory College website\\|website\\=college.emory.edu}} {{dead link\\|date\\=May 2023}}",
"While still a senior at Emory, he was hired as Literary Manager of [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\")'s Horizon Theatre Company,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.horizontheatre.com/ \\|title\\=Home \\|website\\=horizontheatre.com}} a position he held from April 2001—August 2002\\.",
"In late 2001, he was cast as the voice of Dooley, the Southern Movie Hound on the short\\-lived [Turner South](/wiki/Turner_South \"Turner South\") series *The Southern Movie Hound*.",
"While at Yale, Blankenship began writing for [*Variety*](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 \"Variety (magazine)\"), *[The Village Voice](/wiki/The_Village_Voice \"The Village Voice\")* (where he was among the inaugural participants in the publication's University Wits series,[http://www.villagevoice.com/2005\\-02\\-08/theater/university\\-wits](http://www.villagevoice.com/2005-02-08/theater/university-wits) {{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2022}} and *[American Theatre](/wiki/American_Theatre_%28magazine%29 \"American Theatre (magazine)\")*. He also served as dramaturg for [Yale Repertory Theatre](/wiki/Yale_Repertory_Theatre \"Yale Repertory Theatre\")'s 2005 production of [August Strindberg](/wiki/August_Strindberg \"August Strindberg\")'s *[Miss Julie](/wiki/Miss_Julie \"Miss Julie\")*.[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1\\-131606927\\.html](http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-131606927.html) {{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2022}}",
"Notable classmates from [Yale School of Drama](/wiki/Yale_School_of_Drama \"Yale School of Drama\") include Sarah Treem (staff writer for [HBO](/wiki/HBO \"HBO\")'s [*In Treatment*](/wiki/In_Treatment_%28U.S._TV_series%29 \"In Treatment (U.S. TV series)\")), [Rolin Jones](/wiki/Rolin_Jones \"Rolin Jones\") ([Pulitzer Prize](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize \"Pulitzer Prize\")\\-nominated playwright for *[The Intelligent Design of Jenny Chow](/wiki/The_Intelligent_Design_of_Jenny_Chow \"The Intelligent Design of Jenny Chow\")*, staff writer for [Showtime](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 \"Showtime (TV network)\")'s [*Weeds*](/wiki/Weeds_%28TV_series%29 \"Weeds (TV series)\"), [Roberto Aguirre\\-Sacasa](/wiki/Roberto_Aguirre-Sacasa \"Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa\") (staff writer for HBO's *[Big Love](/wiki/Big_Love \"Big Love\")*, author of several comic books for [Marvel](/wiki/Marvel_Comics \"Marvel Comics\")) and [Maulik Pancholy](/wiki/Maulik_Pancholy \"Maulik Pancholy\") (co\\-star of *[30 Rock](/wiki/30_Rock \"30 Rock\")* and *Weeds*)",
"He has lived in [Park Slope](/wiki/Park_Slope \"Park Slope\"), [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\") since 2005\\. His writing credits include numerous pieces for *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, *Variety*, New York [*Daily News*](/wiki/Daily_News_%28New_York%29 \"Daily News (New York)\"), *The Village Voice*, [*The Advocate*](/wiki/The_Advocate_%28LGBT_magazine%29 \"The Advocate (LGBT magazine)\"), *[Time Out New York](/wiki/Time_Out_New_York \"Time Out New York\")*, *[The Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post \"The Huffington Post\")*, [NPR](/wiki/NPR \"NPR\") and *American Theatre*. He regularly appears as panelist/expert commentator for [CBC News: Sunday](/wiki/CBC_News:Sunday \"Sunday\") and [CNN.com](/wiki/CNN.com \"CNN.com\").",
"In 2008 Blankenship founded the pop culture blog The Critical Condition{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thecriticalcondition.com/ \\|title\\=The Critical Condition \\- Awesome Reviews of Movies, Music and TV \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-05\\-31 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503082544/http://www.thecriticalcondition.com/ \\|archivedate\\=2009\\-05\\-03 }} with Art Meets Commerce, a New\\-York based new media advertising and marketing firm. The blog sought to engage readers in dialogue about various aspects of pop culture, acknowledges the impact it has on the larger culture and offers insight and analysis of the ways it is shaped by the changing [zeitgeist](/wiki/Zeitgeist \"Zeitgeist\"). As an entity, it also became part of the increasingly interconnected \"conversation\" that exists among culture bloggers.[http://beta.sling.com/blog/2770/%22The\\-Office%22\\-May\\-Not\\-Be\\-as\\-Funny\\-as\\-%22The\\-Michael\\-Scott\\-Paper\\-Company%22](http://beta.sling.com/blog/2770/%22The-Office%22-May-Not-Be-as-Funny-as-%22The-Michael-Scott-Paper-Company%22) {{dead link\\|date\\=June 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} The blog has officially been on hiatus since February 21, 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thecriticalcondition.com/2012/03/26/join\\-me\\-at\\-logo\\-tvs\\-new\\-now\\-next/ \\|title\\=The Critical Condition \\- Awesome Reviews of Movies, Music and TV \\|accessdate\\=2014\\-03\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110135516/http://www.thecriticalcondition.com/2012/03/26/join\\-me\\-at\\-logo\\-tvs\\-new\\-now\\-next/ \\|archivedate\\=2014\\-01\\-10 }}",
"Mark and [Sarah D. Bunting](/wiki/Sarah_D._Bunting \"Sarah D. Bunting\") started the *Mark and Sarah Talk About Songs* podcast in March 2016,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Tomato Nation » Introducing The Mark And Sarah Talk About Songs Podcast!\\|url\\=https://tomatonation.com/culture\\-and\\-criticism/introducing\\-the\\-mark\\-and\\-sarah\\-talk\\-about\\-songs\\-podcast/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-19\\|language\\=en\\-US}} a weekly pop music podcast that contains in\\-depth and humorous discussions of individual songs chosen by the hosts or the fans. Starting with episode 50 every tenth episode ranks every song on an album. Ranked episodes include [Indigo Girls](/wiki/Indigo_Girls_%28album%29 \"Indigo Girls (album)\"), [GHV2](/wiki/GHV2 \"GHV2\"), [Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band](/wiki/Sgt._Pepper%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\"), [Jagged Little Pill](/wiki/Jagged_Little_Pill \"Jagged Little Pill\"), and [The Clueless Soundtrack](/wiki/Clueless \"Clueless\").",
""
] |
Revolution and reorganization (1775–1800\)
------------------------------------------
### American Revolution (1775–1783\)
[thumb\|right\|150px\|[St. John's Episcopal Church](/wiki/St._John%27s_Episcopal_Church_%28Richmond%2C_Virginia%29 "St. John's Episcopal Church (Richmond, Virginia)") is the oldest church in [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia"), and the site of the [Second Virginia Convention](/wiki/Second_Virginia_Convention "Second Virginia Convention") where [Patrick Henry](/wiki/Patrick_Henry "Patrick Henry") delivered his "[Give me liberty or give me death](/wiki/Give_me_liberty_or_give_me_death "Give me liberty or give me death")" speech.](/wiki/File:RichmondVA_StJohnsChurch.jpg "RichmondVA StJohnsChurch.jpg")
Embracing the symbols of the British presence in the American colonies, such as the monarchy, the episcopate, and even the language of the *Book of Common Prayer*, the Church of England almost drove itself to extinction during the upheaval of the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution").James B. Bell. *A War of Religion: Dissenters, Anglicans, and the American Revolution* (2008\) Anglicans leaders realized, in the words of William Smith's 1762 report to the Bishop of London that, "The Church is the firmest Basis of Monarchy and the English Constitution."{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2011}} The danger he saw was that if dissenters of "more Republican ... Principles \[with] little affinity to the established Religion and manners"{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2011}} of England ever gained the upper hand, the colonists might begin to think of "Independency and separate Government".{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2011}} Thus "in a Political as well as religious view",{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2011}} Smith stated emphatically, the church should be strengthened by an American bishop and the appointment of "prudent Governors who are friends of our Establishment".{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2011}} However, [republicanism](/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States "Republicanism in the United States") was rapidly gaining strength and opposition to an Anglican bishop in America was fierce.{{rp\|201}}
More than any other denomination, the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution") divided both clergy and laity of the Church of England in America, and opinions covered a wide spectrum of political views: [Patriots](/wiki/Patriot_%28American_Revolution%29 "Patriot (American Revolution)"), conciliators, and [Loyalists](/wiki/Loyalist_%28American_Revolution%29 "Loyalist (American Revolution)"). On one hand, Patriots saw the Church of England as synonymous with "[Tory](/wiki/Loyalist_%28American_Revolution%29 "Loyalist (American Revolution)")" and "[redcoat](/wiki/Red_coat_%28British_army%29 "Red coat (British army)")". On the other hand, about three\-quarters of the signers of the [Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence "United States Declaration of Independence") were nominally Anglican laymen, including [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson"), [William Paca](/wiki/William_Paca "William Paca"), and [George Wythe](/wiki/George_Wythe "George Wythe"), not to mention commander\-in\-chief [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington").{{cite book \|last\=Hein \|first\=David \|author2\=Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr \|title\=The Episcopalians \|year\=2004 \|publisher\=Church Publishing \|location\=New York \|isbn\=0\-89869\-497\-3}} A large fraction of prominent merchants and royal appointees were Anglicans and loyalists. About 27 percent of Anglican priests nationwide supported independence, especially in Virginia. Almost 40 percent (approaching 90 percent in New York and New England) were Loyalists. Out of 55 Anglican clergy in New York and New England, only three were Patriots, two of those being from Massachusetts. In Maryland, of the 54 clergy in 1775, only 16 remained to take oaths of allegiance to the new government.McConnell 2003
Amongst the clergy, more or less, the northern clergy were Loyalist and the southern clergy were Patriot. Partly, their pocketbook can explain clergy sympathies, as the New England colonies did not establish the Church of England and clergy depended on their SPG stipend rather than their parishioners' gifts, so that when war broke out in 1775, these clergy looked to England for both their paycheck and their direction. Where the Church of England was established, mainly the southern colonies, financial support was local and loyalties were local. Of the approximately three hundred clergy in the Church of England in America between 1776 and 1783, over 80 percent in New England, New York, and New Jersey were Loyalists. This is in contrast to the less than 23 percent Loyalist clergy in the four southern colonies. In two northern colonies, only one priest was a Patriot—[Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost "Samuel Provoost"), who would become a bishop, in New York and Robert Blackwell, who would serve as a chaplain in the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army "Continental Army"), in New Jersey.
Many Church of England clergy remained Loyalists because they took their two [ordination](/wiki/Ordination "Ordination") oaths very seriously. The first oath arises from the Church of England canons of 1604 where Anglican clergy must affirm that the king,
{{blockquote\|within his realms of England Scotland, and Ireland, and all other his dominions and countries, is the highest power under God; to whom all men ... do by God's laws owe most loyalty and obedience, afore and above all other powers and potentates in earth.}}
Thus, all Anglican clergy were obliged to swear publicly allegiance to the king. The second oath arose out of the [Act of Uniformity of 1662](/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1662 "Act of Uniformity 1662") where clergy were bound to use the official liturgy as found in the *Book of Common Prayer* and to read it verbatim. This included prayers for the king and the royal family and for the British Parliament. These two oaths and problems worried the consciences of clergy. Some were clever in their avoidance of these problems. Samuel Tingley, a priest in Delaware and Maryland, rather than praying "O Lord, save the King" opted for evasion and said "O Lord, save those whom thou hast made it our especial Duty to pray for."
[thumb\|left\|125px\|[Charles Inglis](/wiki/Charles_Inglis_%28bishop%29 "Charles Inglis (bishop)"). Rector of [Trinity Church, New York](/wiki/Trinity_Church%2C_New_York "Trinity Church, New York"). Loyalist clergy who preached to George Washington and defied a patriot militia company.](/wiki/File:Charles_Inglis.jpg "Charles Inglis.jpg")
In general, Loyalist clergy stayed by their oaths and prayed for the king or else suspended services. By the end of 1776, Anglican churches were closing. An SPG missionary would report that of the colonies of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut which he had intelligence of, only the Anglican churches in Philadelphia, a couple in rural Pennsylvania, those in British\-controlled New York, and two parishes in Connecticut were open. Anglican priests held services in private homes or [lay readers](/wiki/Lay_reader "Lay reader") who were not bound by the oaths held [Morning](/wiki/Morning_Prayer_%28Anglican%29 "Morning Prayer (Anglican)") and [Evening Prayer](/wiki/Evening_Prayer_%28Anglican%29 "Evening Prayer (Anglican)").
Nevertheless, some Loyalist clergy were defiant. In Connecticut, John Beach conducted worship throughout the war and swore that he would continue praying for the king. In Maryland, Jonathan Boucher took two pistols into the pulpit and even pointed a pistol at the head of a group of Patriots while he preached on loyalism. [Charles Inglis](/wiki/Charles_Inglis_%28bishop%29 "Charles Inglis (bishop)"), rector of Trinity Church in New York, persisted in reading the royal prayers even when George Washington was seated in his congregation and a Patriot militia company stood by observing the service.{{cite book \|last\=Carrington \|first\=Philip \|title\=The Anglican Church in Canada \|year\=1963 \|publisher\=Collins \|location\=Toronto}} The consequences of such bravado were very serious. During 1775 and 1776, the [Continental Congress](/wiki/Continental_Congress "Continental Congress") had issued decrees ordering churches to fast and pray on behalf of the Patriots. Starting July 4, 1776, Congress and several states passed laws making prayers for the king and British Parliament acts of treason.
The Patriot clergy in the south were quick to find reasons to transfer their oaths to the American cause and prayed for the success of the Revolution. One precedent was the transfer of oaths during the [Glorious Revolution](/wiki/Glorious_Revolution "Glorious Revolution") in England. Most of the Patriot clergy in the south were able to keep their churches open and services continued.
By the end of the Revolution, the Anglican Church was disestablished in all states where it had previously been a privileged religion. Thomas Buckley examines the debates in the Virginia legislature and local governments that culminated in the repeal of laws granting government property to the Episcopal Church (during the war Anglicans began using the terms "Episcopal" and "Episcopalian" to identify themselves). The [Baptists](/wiki/Baptists "Baptists") took the lead in disestablishment, with support from Thomas Jefferson and, especially, [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison "James Madison"). Virginia was the only state to seize property belonging to the established Episcopal Church. The fight over the sale of the glebes, or church lands, demonstrated the strength of certain Protestant groups in the political arena when united for a course of action.Thomas E. Buckley, "Evangelicals Triumphant: The Baptists' Assault on the Virginia Glebes, 1786–1801," *William and Mary Quarterly,* January 1988, Vol. 45 Issue 1, pp 33\-70 [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922213)
### Post\-Revolution re\-organization (1783–1789\)
[thumb\|150px\|right\|[Samuel Seabury](/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_%281729%E2%80%931796%29 "Samuel Seabury (1729–1796)").](/wiki/File:Ralph_Earl_-_Samuel_Seabury_-_NPG.84.171_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg "Ralph Earl - Samuel Seabury - NPG.84.171 - National Portrait Gallery.jpg")
When peace returned in 1783, with the ratification of the new [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281783%29 "Treaty of Paris (1783)") by the [Confederation Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation "Congress of the Confederation") meeting in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland "Annapolis, Maryland"), about 80,000 Loyalists (15 percent of the then American population) went into exile. About 50,000 headed for [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), including Charles Inglis, who became the first colonial bishop there. By 1790, in a nation of four million, Anglicans were reduced to about 10 thousand. In [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), out of 107 parishes before the war only 42 survived. In [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"), [Christ Church](/wiki/Christ_Church_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29 "Christ Church (Savannah, Georgia)"), [Savannah](/wiki/Savannah%2C_Georgia "Savannah, Georgia") was the only active parish in 1790\. In Maryland, half of the parishes remained vacant by 1800\. For a period after 1816, [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina") had no clergy when its last priest died. [Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost "Samuel Provoost"), [Bishop of New York](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_New_York "Episcopal Diocese of New York"), one of the first three Episcopal bishops, was so disheartened that he resigned his position in 1801 and retired to the country to study botany having given up on the Episcopal Church, which he was convinced would die out with the old colonial families.
Having lost their connection with the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England "Church of England"), Anglicans were left without organization and an episcopacy.Roozen 2005, p. 189\. They turned to rebuilding and reorganizing, but not everyone was in agreement on how to proceed. In the wake of the Revolution, American Episcopalians faced the task of preserving a hierarchical church structure in a society infused with [republican values](/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States "Republicanism in the United States"). Episcopacy continued to be feared after the Revolution and caused division between the low church, anti\-bishop South and the high church, pro\-bishop New England.{{Cite journal\| last \=Podmore\| first \=Colin\| title \= A Tale of Two Churches: The Ecclesiologies of The Episcopal Church and the Church of England Compared \| journal \= International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church\| volume \=8\| issue \=2\| page \=135\| date \=May 2008\| doi\=10\.1080/14742250801930822\| s2cid \=214652376}} Anglicans in Maryland held a convention in 1780 where the name "Protestant Episcopal Church" was first used. Conventions were organized in other states as well. In 1782, [William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 "William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)") published an outline for organizing a national church that included both clergy and laity in its governance.Edward L. Bond and Joan R. Gundersen (2007\), "The Episcopal Church in Virginia, 1607–2007", *Virginia Magazine of History \& Biography* 115, no. 2: Chapter 2\.
On March 25, 1783, 10 [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut "Connecticut") clergy met in [Woodbury, Connecticut](/wiki/Woodbury%2C_Connecticut "Woodbury, Connecticut") and elected [Samuel Seabury](/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_%28bishop%29 "Samuel Seabury (bishop)") as their prospective bishop. Seabury sought [consecration](/wiki/Consecration "Consecration") in England. The [Oath of Supremacy](/wiki/Oath_of_Supremacy "Oath of Supremacy") prevented Seabury's consecration in England, so he went to Scotland where the [non\-juring](/wiki/Nonjuring_schism "Nonjuring schism") Scottish bishops consecrated him in [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen "Aberdeen") on November 14, 1784\. He became, in the words of scholar Arthur Carl Piepkorn, "the first Anglican bishop appointed to minister outside the British Isles".{{cite book \|last\=Piepkorn \|first\=Arthur Carl \|title\=Profiles in Belief: The Religious Bodies of the United States and Canada \|publisher\=Harper \& Row \|year\=1977 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/profilesinbelief00piep/page/199 199] \|isbn\=0\-06\-066580\-7 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/profilesinbelief00piep/page/199 }} In return, the Scottish bishops requested that the Episcopal Church use the longer Scottish prayer of consecration during the [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist "Eucharist"), instead of the English prayer. Seabury promised that he would endeavor to make it so. Seabury returned to Connecticut in 1785\. At an August 2, 1785, reception at Christ Church on the South Green in [Middletown](/wiki/Middletown%2C_Connecticut "Middletown, Connecticut"), his letters of consecration were requested, read, and accepted. The next day the first ordinations on American soil took place when Henry Van Dyke, Philo Shelton, [Ashbel Baldwin](/wiki/Ashbel_Baldwin "Ashbel Baldwin"), and Colin Ferguson were ordained deacons. On August 7, 1785, Collin Ferguson was advanced to the priesthood, and Thomas Fitch Oliver was admitted to the diaconate.
[right\|thumb\|150px\|[William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 "William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)").](/wiki/File:William_White-Bishop_Episcopal_Church_USA-1795.jpg "William White-Bishop Episcopal Church USA-1795.jpg")
That same year, clerical and lay representatives from seven of the nine states south of Connecticut held the first [General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America](/wiki/General_Convention_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America "General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America"). They drafted a constitution, an American *Book of Common Prayer*, and planned for the consecration of additional bishops. In 1787, two priests—[William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 "William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)") of Pennsylvania and [Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost "Samuel Provoost") of New York—were consecrated as bishops by the [Archbishop of Canterbury](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury "Archbishop of Canterbury"), the [Archbishop of York](/wiki/Archbishop_of_York "Archbishop of York"), and the [Bishop of Bath and Wells](/wiki/Bishop_of_Bath_and_Wells "Bishop of Bath and Wells"), the legal obstacles having been removed by the passage through Parliament of the [Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786](/wiki/Consecration_of_Bishops_Abroad_Act_1786 "Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786"). Thus, there are two branches of [Apostolic succession](/wiki/Historical_episcopate "Historical episcopate") for American bishops:
1. Through the non\-juring bishops of Scotland that consecrated Samuel Seabury.
2. Through the English church that consecrated William White and Samuel Provoost.
All bishops in the Episcopal Church are ordained by at least three bishops; one can trace the succession of each back to Seabury, White and Provoost (see [Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church](/wiki/Succession_of_Bishops_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States "Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church in the United States")). The fourth bishop of the Episcopal Church was [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison_%28Episcopal_bishop%29 "James Madison (Episcopal bishop)"), the first [Bishop of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia "Episcopal Diocese of Virginia"). Madison was consecrated in 1790 under the Archbishop of Canterbury and two other English bishops. This third American bishop consecrated within the English line of succession occurred because of continuing unease within the Church of England over Seabury's nonjuring Scottish orders.
In 1789, representative clergy from [nine original dioceses](/wiki/List_of_Original_Dioceses_of_ECUSA "List of Original Dioceses of ECUSA") met in Philadelphia to ratify the church's initial constitution. The Episcopal Church was formally separated from the Church of England in 1789 so that American clergy would not be required to accept the supremacy of the [British monarch](/wiki/British_monarch "British monarch"). A revised American version of the *[Book of Common Prayer](/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer "Book of Common Prayer")* was produced for the new Church in 1789\.
### Federalist Era (1789–1800\)
American bishops such as [William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 "William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)") (1748–1836\) provided a model of civic involvement.Robert Bruce Mullin, "The Office of Bishop among Episcopalians, 1780–1835," *Lutheran Quarterly,* Spring 1992, Vol. 6 Issue 1, pp 69\-83
|
[
"Revolution and reorganization (1775–1800\\)\n------------------------------------------",
"### American Revolution (1775–1783\\)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|[St. John's Episcopal Church](/wiki/St._John%27s_Episcopal_Church_%28Richmond%2C_Virginia%29 \"St. John's Episcopal Church (Richmond, Virginia)\") is the oldest church in [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\"), and the site of the [Second Virginia Convention](/wiki/Second_Virginia_Convention \"Second Virginia Convention\") where [Patrick Henry](/wiki/Patrick_Henry \"Patrick Henry\") delivered his \"[Give me liberty or give me death](/wiki/Give_me_liberty_or_give_me_death \"Give me liberty or give me death\")\" speech.](/wiki/File:RichmondVA_StJohnsChurch.jpg \"RichmondVA StJohnsChurch.jpg\")",
"Embracing the symbols of the British presence in the American colonies, such as the monarchy, the episcopate, and even the language of the *Book of Common Prayer*, the Church of England almost drove itself to extinction during the upheaval of the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\").James B. Bell. *A War of Religion: Dissenters, Anglicans, and the American Revolution* (2008\\) Anglicans leaders realized, in the words of William Smith's 1762 report to the Bishop of London that, \"The Church is the firmest Basis of Monarchy and the English Constitution.\"{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2011}} The danger he saw was that if dissenters of \"more Republican ... Principles \\[with] little affinity to the established Religion and manners\"{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2011}} of England ever gained the upper hand, the colonists might begin to think of \"Independency and separate Government\".{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2011}} Thus \"in a Political as well as religious view\",{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2011}} Smith stated emphatically, the church should be strengthened by an American bishop and the appointment of \"prudent Governors who are friends of our Establishment\".{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2011}} However, [republicanism](/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States \"Republicanism in the United States\") was rapidly gaining strength and opposition to an Anglican bishop in America was fierce.{{rp\\|201}}",
"More than any other denomination, the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\") divided both clergy and laity of the Church of England in America, and opinions covered a wide spectrum of political views: [Patriots](/wiki/Patriot_%28American_Revolution%29 \"Patriot (American Revolution)\"), conciliators, and [Loyalists](/wiki/Loyalist_%28American_Revolution%29 \"Loyalist (American Revolution)\"). On one hand, Patriots saw the Church of England as synonymous with \"[Tory](/wiki/Loyalist_%28American_Revolution%29 \"Loyalist (American Revolution)\")\" and \"[redcoat](/wiki/Red_coat_%28British_army%29 \"Red coat (British army)\")\". On the other hand, about three\\-quarters of the signers of the [Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence \"United States Declaration of Independence\") were nominally Anglican laymen, including [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\"), [William Paca](/wiki/William_Paca \"William Paca\"), and [George Wythe](/wiki/George_Wythe \"George Wythe\"), not to mention commander\\-in\\-chief [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Hein \\|first\\=David \\|author2\\=Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr \\|title\\=The Episcopalians \\|year\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=Church Publishing \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=0\\-89869\\-497\\-3}} A large fraction of prominent merchants and royal appointees were Anglicans and loyalists. About 27 percent of Anglican priests nationwide supported independence, especially in Virginia. Almost 40 percent (approaching 90 percent in New York and New England) were Loyalists. Out of 55 Anglican clergy in New York and New England, only three were Patriots, two of those being from Massachusetts. In Maryland, of the 54 clergy in 1775, only 16 remained to take oaths of allegiance to the new government.McConnell 2003",
"Amongst the clergy, more or less, the northern clergy were Loyalist and the southern clergy were Patriot. Partly, their pocketbook can explain clergy sympathies, as the New England colonies did not establish the Church of England and clergy depended on their SPG stipend rather than their parishioners' gifts, so that when war broke out in 1775, these clergy looked to England for both their paycheck and their direction. Where the Church of England was established, mainly the southern colonies, financial support was local and loyalties were local. Of the approximately three hundred clergy in the Church of England in America between 1776 and 1783, over 80 percent in New England, New York, and New Jersey were Loyalists. This is in contrast to the less than 23 percent Loyalist clergy in the four southern colonies. In two northern colonies, only one priest was a Patriot—[Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost \"Samuel Provoost\"), who would become a bishop, in New York and Robert Blackwell, who would serve as a chaplain in the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army \"Continental Army\"), in New Jersey.",
"Many Church of England clergy remained Loyalists because they took their two [ordination](/wiki/Ordination \"Ordination\") oaths very seriously. The first oath arises from the Church of England canons of 1604 where Anglican clergy must affirm that the king,",
"{{blockquote\\|within his realms of England Scotland, and Ireland, and all other his dominions and countries, is the highest power under God; to whom all men ... do by God's laws owe most loyalty and obedience, afore and above all other powers and potentates in earth.}}",
"Thus, all Anglican clergy were obliged to swear publicly allegiance to the king. The second oath arose out of the [Act of Uniformity of 1662](/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1662 \"Act of Uniformity 1662\") where clergy were bound to use the official liturgy as found in the *Book of Common Prayer* and to read it verbatim. This included prayers for the king and the royal family and for the British Parliament. These two oaths and problems worried the consciences of clergy. Some were clever in their avoidance of these problems. Samuel Tingley, a priest in Delaware and Maryland, rather than praying \"O Lord, save the King\" opted for evasion and said \"O Lord, save those whom thou hast made it our especial Duty to pray for.\"",
"[thumb\\|left\\|125px\\|[Charles Inglis](/wiki/Charles_Inglis_%28bishop%29 \"Charles Inglis (bishop)\"). Rector of [Trinity Church, New York](/wiki/Trinity_Church%2C_New_York \"Trinity Church, New York\"). Loyalist clergy who preached to George Washington and defied a patriot militia company.](/wiki/File:Charles_Inglis.jpg \"Charles Inglis.jpg\")",
"In general, Loyalist clergy stayed by their oaths and prayed for the king or else suspended services. By the end of 1776, Anglican churches were closing. An SPG missionary would report that of the colonies of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut which he had intelligence of, only the Anglican churches in Philadelphia, a couple in rural Pennsylvania, those in British\\-controlled New York, and two parishes in Connecticut were open. Anglican priests held services in private homes or [lay readers](/wiki/Lay_reader \"Lay reader\") who were not bound by the oaths held [Morning](/wiki/Morning_Prayer_%28Anglican%29 \"Morning Prayer (Anglican)\") and [Evening Prayer](/wiki/Evening_Prayer_%28Anglican%29 \"Evening Prayer (Anglican)\").",
"Nevertheless, some Loyalist clergy were defiant. In Connecticut, John Beach conducted worship throughout the war and swore that he would continue praying for the king. In Maryland, Jonathan Boucher took two pistols into the pulpit and even pointed a pistol at the head of a group of Patriots while he preached on loyalism. [Charles Inglis](/wiki/Charles_Inglis_%28bishop%29 \"Charles Inglis (bishop)\"), rector of Trinity Church in New York, persisted in reading the royal prayers even when George Washington was seated in his congregation and a Patriot militia company stood by observing the service.{{cite book \\|last\\=Carrington \\|first\\=Philip \\|title\\=The Anglican Church in Canada \\|year\\=1963 \\|publisher\\=Collins \\|location\\=Toronto}} The consequences of such bravado were very serious. During 1775 and 1776, the [Continental Congress](/wiki/Continental_Congress \"Continental Congress\") had issued decrees ordering churches to fast and pray on behalf of the Patriots. Starting July 4, 1776, Congress and several states passed laws making prayers for the king and British Parliament acts of treason.",
"The Patriot clergy in the south were quick to find reasons to transfer their oaths to the American cause and prayed for the success of the Revolution. One precedent was the transfer of oaths during the [Glorious Revolution](/wiki/Glorious_Revolution \"Glorious Revolution\") in England. Most of the Patriot clergy in the south were able to keep their churches open and services continued.",
"By the end of the Revolution, the Anglican Church was disestablished in all states where it had previously been a privileged religion. Thomas Buckley examines the debates in the Virginia legislature and local governments that culminated in the repeal of laws granting government property to the Episcopal Church (during the war Anglicans began using the terms \"Episcopal\" and \"Episcopalian\" to identify themselves). The [Baptists](/wiki/Baptists \"Baptists\") took the lead in disestablishment, with support from Thomas Jefferson and, especially, [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison \"James Madison\"). Virginia was the only state to seize property belonging to the established Episcopal Church. The fight over the sale of the glebes, or church lands, demonstrated the strength of certain Protestant groups in the political arena when united for a course of action.Thomas E. Buckley, \"Evangelicals Triumphant: The Baptists' Assault on the Virginia Glebes, 1786–1801,\" *William and Mary Quarterly,* January 1988, Vol. 45 Issue 1, pp 33\\-70 [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922213)",
"### Post\\-Revolution re\\-organization (1783–1789\\)",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|right\\|[Samuel Seabury](/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_%281729%E2%80%931796%29 \"Samuel Seabury (1729–1796)\").](/wiki/File:Ralph_Earl_-_Samuel_Seabury_-_NPG.84.171_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg \"Ralph Earl - Samuel Seabury - NPG.84.171 - National Portrait Gallery.jpg\")",
"When peace returned in 1783, with the ratification of the new [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281783%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1783)\") by the [Confederation Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation \"Congress of the Confederation\") meeting in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland \"Annapolis, Maryland\"), about 80,000 Loyalists (15 percent of the then American population) went into exile. About 50,000 headed for [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), including Charles Inglis, who became the first colonial bishop there. By 1790, in a nation of four million, Anglicans were reduced to about 10 thousand. In [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), out of 107 parishes before the war only 42 survived. In [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"), [Christ Church](/wiki/Christ_Church_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29 \"Christ Church (Savannah, Georgia)\"), [Savannah](/wiki/Savannah%2C_Georgia \"Savannah, Georgia\") was the only active parish in 1790\\. In Maryland, half of the parishes remained vacant by 1800\\. For a period after 1816, [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\") had no clergy when its last priest died. [Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost \"Samuel Provoost\"), [Bishop of New York](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_New_York \"Episcopal Diocese of New York\"), one of the first three Episcopal bishops, was so disheartened that he resigned his position in 1801 and retired to the country to study botany having given up on the Episcopal Church, which he was convinced would die out with the old colonial families.",
"Having lost their connection with the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\"), Anglicans were left without organization and an episcopacy.Roozen 2005, p. 189\\. They turned to rebuilding and reorganizing, but not everyone was in agreement on how to proceed. In the wake of the Revolution, American Episcopalians faced the task of preserving a hierarchical church structure in a society infused with [republican values](/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States \"Republicanism in the United States\"). Episcopacy continued to be feared after the Revolution and caused division between the low church, anti\\-bishop South and the high church, pro\\-bishop New England.{{Cite journal\\| last \\=Podmore\\| first \\=Colin\\| title \\= A Tale of Two Churches: The Ecclesiologies of The Episcopal Church and the Church of England Compared \\| journal \\= International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church\\| volume \\=8\\| issue \\=2\\| page \\=135\\| date \\=May 2008\\| doi\\=10\\.1080/14742250801930822\\| s2cid \\=214652376}} Anglicans in Maryland held a convention in 1780 where the name \"Protestant Episcopal Church\" was first used. Conventions were organized in other states as well. In 1782, [William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 \"William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)\") published an outline for organizing a national church that included both clergy and laity in its governance.Edward L. Bond and Joan R. Gundersen (2007\\), \"The Episcopal Church in Virginia, 1607–2007\", *Virginia Magazine of History \\& Biography* 115, no. 2: Chapter 2\\.",
"On March 25, 1783, 10 [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut \"Connecticut\") clergy met in [Woodbury, Connecticut](/wiki/Woodbury%2C_Connecticut \"Woodbury, Connecticut\") and elected [Samuel Seabury](/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_%28bishop%29 \"Samuel Seabury (bishop)\") as their prospective bishop. Seabury sought [consecration](/wiki/Consecration \"Consecration\") in England. The [Oath of Supremacy](/wiki/Oath_of_Supremacy \"Oath of Supremacy\") prevented Seabury's consecration in England, so he went to Scotland where the [non\\-juring](/wiki/Nonjuring_schism \"Nonjuring schism\") Scottish bishops consecrated him in [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen \"Aberdeen\") on November 14, 1784\\. He became, in the words of scholar Arthur Carl Piepkorn, \"the first Anglican bishop appointed to minister outside the British Isles\".{{cite book \\|last\\=Piepkorn \\|first\\=Arthur Carl \\|title\\=Profiles in Belief: The Religious Bodies of the United States and Canada \\|publisher\\=Harper \\& Row \\|year\\=1977 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/profilesinbelief00piep/page/199 199] \\|isbn\\=0\\-06\\-066580\\-7 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/profilesinbelief00piep/page/199 }} In return, the Scottish bishops requested that the Episcopal Church use the longer Scottish prayer of consecration during the [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist \"Eucharist\"), instead of the English prayer. Seabury promised that he would endeavor to make it so. Seabury returned to Connecticut in 1785\\. At an August 2, 1785, reception at Christ Church on the South Green in [Middletown](/wiki/Middletown%2C_Connecticut \"Middletown, Connecticut\"), his letters of consecration were requested, read, and accepted. The next day the first ordinations on American soil took place when Henry Van Dyke, Philo Shelton, [Ashbel Baldwin](/wiki/Ashbel_Baldwin \"Ashbel Baldwin\"), and Colin Ferguson were ordained deacons. On August 7, 1785, Collin Ferguson was advanced to the priesthood, and Thomas Fitch Oliver was admitted to the diaconate.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|150px\\|[William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 \"William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)\").](/wiki/File:William_White-Bishop_Episcopal_Church_USA-1795.jpg \"William White-Bishop Episcopal Church USA-1795.jpg\")",
"That same year, clerical and lay representatives from seven of the nine states south of Connecticut held the first [General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America](/wiki/General_Convention_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America \"General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America\"). They drafted a constitution, an American *Book of Common Prayer*, and planned for the consecration of additional bishops. In 1787, two priests—[William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 \"William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)\") of Pennsylvania and [Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost \"Samuel Provoost\") of New York—were consecrated as bishops by the [Archbishop of Canterbury](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury \"Archbishop of Canterbury\"), the [Archbishop of York](/wiki/Archbishop_of_York \"Archbishop of York\"), and the [Bishop of Bath and Wells](/wiki/Bishop_of_Bath_and_Wells \"Bishop of Bath and Wells\"), the legal obstacles having been removed by the passage through Parliament of the [Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786](/wiki/Consecration_of_Bishops_Abroad_Act_1786 \"Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786\"). Thus, there are two branches of [Apostolic succession](/wiki/Historical_episcopate \"Historical episcopate\") for American bishops:\n1. Through the non\\-juring bishops of Scotland that consecrated Samuel Seabury.\n2. Through the English church that consecrated William White and Samuel Provoost.\nAll bishops in the Episcopal Church are ordained by at least three bishops; one can trace the succession of each back to Seabury, White and Provoost (see [Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church](/wiki/Succession_of_Bishops_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States \"Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church in the United States\")). The fourth bishop of the Episcopal Church was [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison_%28Episcopal_bishop%29 \"James Madison (Episcopal bishop)\"), the first [Bishop of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia \"Episcopal Diocese of Virginia\"). Madison was consecrated in 1790 under the Archbishop of Canterbury and two other English bishops. This third American bishop consecrated within the English line of succession occurred because of continuing unease within the Church of England over Seabury's nonjuring Scottish orders.",
"In 1789, representative clergy from [nine original dioceses](/wiki/List_of_Original_Dioceses_of_ECUSA \"List of Original Dioceses of ECUSA\") met in Philadelphia to ratify the church's initial constitution. The Episcopal Church was formally separated from the Church of England in 1789 so that American clergy would not be required to accept the supremacy of the [British monarch](/wiki/British_monarch \"British monarch\"). A revised American version of the *[Book of Common Prayer](/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer \"Book of Common Prayer\")* was produced for the new Church in 1789\\.",
"### Federalist Era (1789–1800\\)",
"American bishops such as [William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 \"William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)\") (1748–1836\\) provided a model of civic involvement.Robert Bruce Mullin, \"The Office of Bishop among Episcopalians, 1780–1835,\" *Lutheran Quarterly,* Spring 1992, Vol. 6 Issue 1, pp 69\\-83",
""
] |
### Post\-Revolution re\-organization (1783–1789\)
[thumb\|150px\|right\|[Samuel Seabury](/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_%281729%E2%80%931796%29 "Samuel Seabury (1729–1796)").](/wiki/File:Ralph_Earl_-_Samuel_Seabury_-_NPG.84.171_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg "Ralph Earl - Samuel Seabury - NPG.84.171 - National Portrait Gallery.jpg")
When peace returned in 1783, with the ratification of the new [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281783%29 "Treaty of Paris (1783)") by the [Confederation Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation "Congress of the Confederation") meeting in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland "Annapolis, Maryland"), about 80,000 Loyalists (15 percent of the then American population) went into exile. About 50,000 headed for [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), including Charles Inglis, who became the first colonial bishop there. By 1790, in a nation of four million, Anglicans were reduced to about 10 thousand. In [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), out of 107 parishes before the war only 42 survived. In [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"), [Christ Church](/wiki/Christ_Church_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29 "Christ Church (Savannah, Georgia)"), [Savannah](/wiki/Savannah%2C_Georgia "Savannah, Georgia") was the only active parish in 1790\. In Maryland, half of the parishes remained vacant by 1800\. For a period after 1816, [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina") had no clergy when its last priest died. [Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost "Samuel Provoost"), [Bishop of New York](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_New_York "Episcopal Diocese of New York"), one of the first three Episcopal bishops, was so disheartened that he resigned his position in 1801 and retired to the country to study botany having given up on the Episcopal Church, which he was convinced would die out with the old colonial families.
Having lost their connection with the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England "Church of England"), Anglicans were left without organization and an episcopacy.Roozen 2005, p. 189\. They turned to rebuilding and reorganizing, but not everyone was in agreement on how to proceed. In the wake of the Revolution, American Episcopalians faced the task of preserving a hierarchical church structure in a society infused with [republican values](/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States "Republicanism in the United States"). Episcopacy continued to be feared after the Revolution and caused division between the low church, anti\-bishop South and the high church, pro\-bishop New England.{{Cite journal\| last \=Podmore\| first \=Colin\| title \= A Tale of Two Churches: The Ecclesiologies of The Episcopal Church and the Church of England Compared \| journal \= International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church\| volume \=8\| issue \=2\| page \=135\| date \=May 2008\| doi\=10\.1080/14742250801930822\| s2cid \=214652376}} Anglicans in Maryland held a convention in 1780 where the name "Protestant Episcopal Church" was first used. Conventions were organized in other states as well. In 1782, [William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 "William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)") published an outline for organizing a national church that included both clergy and laity in its governance.Edward L. Bond and Joan R. Gundersen (2007\), "The Episcopal Church in Virginia, 1607–2007", *Virginia Magazine of History \& Biography* 115, no. 2: Chapter 2\.
On March 25, 1783, 10 [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut "Connecticut") clergy met in [Woodbury, Connecticut](/wiki/Woodbury%2C_Connecticut "Woodbury, Connecticut") and elected [Samuel Seabury](/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_%28bishop%29 "Samuel Seabury (bishop)") as their prospective bishop. Seabury sought [consecration](/wiki/Consecration "Consecration") in England. The [Oath of Supremacy](/wiki/Oath_of_Supremacy "Oath of Supremacy") prevented Seabury's consecration in England, so he went to Scotland where the [non\-juring](/wiki/Nonjuring_schism "Nonjuring schism") Scottish bishops consecrated him in [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen "Aberdeen") on November 14, 1784\. He became, in the words of scholar Arthur Carl Piepkorn, "the first Anglican bishop appointed to minister outside the British Isles".{{cite book \|last\=Piepkorn \|first\=Arthur Carl \|title\=Profiles in Belief: The Religious Bodies of the United States and Canada \|publisher\=Harper \& Row \|year\=1977 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/profilesinbelief00piep/page/199 199] \|isbn\=0\-06\-066580\-7 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/profilesinbelief00piep/page/199 }} In return, the Scottish bishops requested that the Episcopal Church use the longer Scottish prayer of consecration during the [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist "Eucharist"), instead of the English prayer. Seabury promised that he would endeavor to make it so. Seabury returned to Connecticut in 1785\. At an August 2, 1785, reception at Christ Church on the South Green in [Middletown](/wiki/Middletown%2C_Connecticut "Middletown, Connecticut"), his letters of consecration were requested, read, and accepted. The next day the first ordinations on American soil took place when Henry Van Dyke, Philo Shelton, [Ashbel Baldwin](/wiki/Ashbel_Baldwin "Ashbel Baldwin"), and Colin Ferguson were ordained deacons. On August 7, 1785, Collin Ferguson was advanced to the priesthood, and Thomas Fitch Oliver was admitted to the diaconate.
[right\|thumb\|150px\|[William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 "William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)").](/wiki/File:William_White-Bishop_Episcopal_Church_USA-1795.jpg "William White-Bishop Episcopal Church USA-1795.jpg")
That same year, clerical and lay representatives from seven of the nine states south of Connecticut held the first [General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America](/wiki/General_Convention_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America "General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America"). They drafted a constitution, an American *Book of Common Prayer*, and planned for the consecration of additional bishops. In 1787, two priests—[William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 "William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)") of Pennsylvania and [Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost "Samuel Provoost") of New York—were consecrated as bishops by the [Archbishop of Canterbury](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury "Archbishop of Canterbury"), the [Archbishop of York](/wiki/Archbishop_of_York "Archbishop of York"), and the [Bishop of Bath and Wells](/wiki/Bishop_of_Bath_and_Wells "Bishop of Bath and Wells"), the legal obstacles having been removed by the passage through Parliament of the [Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786](/wiki/Consecration_of_Bishops_Abroad_Act_1786 "Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786"). Thus, there are two branches of [Apostolic succession](/wiki/Historical_episcopate "Historical episcopate") for American bishops:
1. Through the non\-juring bishops of Scotland that consecrated Samuel Seabury.
2. Through the English church that consecrated William White and Samuel Provoost.
All bishops in the Episcopal Church are ordained by at least three bishops; one can trace the succession of each back to Seabury, White and Provoost (see [Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church](/wiki/Succession_of_Bishops_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States "Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church in the United States")). The fourth bishop of the Episcopal Church was [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison_%28Episcopal_bishop%29 "James Madison (Episcopal bishop)"), the first [Bishop of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia "Episcopal Diocese of Virginia"). Madison was consecrated in 1790 under the Archbishop of Canterbury and two other English bishops. This third American bishop consecrated within the English line of succession occurred because of continuing unease within the Church of England over Seabury's nonjuring Scottish orders.
In 1789, representative clergy from [nine original dioceses](/wiki/List_of_Original_Dioceses_of_ECUSA "List of Original Dioceses of ECUSA") met in Philadelphia to ratify the church's initial constitution. The Episcopal Church was formally separated from the Church of England in 1789 so that American clergy would not be required to accept the supremacy of the [British monarch](/wiki/British_monarch "British monarch"). A revised American version of the *[Book of Common Prayer](/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer "Book of Common Prayer")* was produced for the new Church in 1789\.
|
[
"### Post\\-Revolution re\\-organization (1783–1789\\)",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|right\\|[Samuel Seabury](/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_%281729%E2%80%931796%29 \"Samuel Seabury (1729–1796)\").](/wiki/File:Ralph_Earl_-_Samuel_Seabury_-_NPG.84.171_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg \"Ralph Earl - Samuel Seabury - NPG.84.171 - National Portrait Gallery.jpg\")",
"When peace returned in 1783, with the ratification of the new [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281783%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1783)\") by the [Confederation Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation \"Congress of the Confederation\") meeting in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland \"Annapolis, Maryland\"), about 80,000 Loyalists (15 percent of the then American population) went into exile. About 50,000 headed for [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), including Charles Inglis, who became the first colonial bishop there. By 1790, in a nation of four million, Anglicans were reduced to about 10 thousand. In [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), out of 107 parishes before the war only 42 survived. In [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"), [Christ Church](/wiki/Christ_Church_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29 \"Christ Church (Savannah, Georgia)\"), [Savannah](/wiki/Savannah%2C_Georgia \"Savannah, Georgia\") was the only active parish in 1790\\. In Maryland, half of the parishes remained vacant by 1800\\. For a period after 1816, [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\") had no clergy when its last priest died. [Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost \"Samuel Provoost\"), [Bishop of New York](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_New_York \"Episcopal Diocese of New York\"), one of the first three Episcopal bishops, was so disheartened that he resigned his position in 1801 and retired to the country to study botany having given up on the Episcopal Church, which he was convinced would die out with the old colonial families.",
"Having lost their connection with the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\"), Anglicans were left without organization and an episcopacy.Roozen 2005, p. 189\\. They turned to rebuilding and reorganizing, but not everyone was in agreement on how to proceed. In the wake of the Revolution, American Episcopalians faced the task of preserving a hierarchical church structure in a society infused with [republican values](/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States \"Republicanism in the United States\"). Episcopacy continued to be feared after the Revolution and caused division between the low church, anti\\-bishop South and the high church, pro\\-bishop New England.{{Cite journal\\| last \\=Podmore\\| first \\=Colin\\| title \\= A Tale of Two Churches: The Ecclesiologies of The Episcopal Church and the Church of England Compared \\| journal \\= International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church\\| volume \\=8\\| issue \\=2\\| page \\=135\\| date \\=May 2008\\| doi\\=10\\.1080/14742250801930822\\| s2cid \\=214652376}} Anglicans in Maryland held a convention in 1780 where the name \"Protestant Episcopal Church\" was first used. Conventions were organized in other states as well. In 1782, [William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 \"William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)\") published an outline for organizing a national church that included both clergy and laity in its governance.Edward L. Bond and Joan R. Gundersen (2007\\), \"The Episcopal Church in Virginia, 1607–2007\", *Virginia Magazine of History \\& Biography* 115, no. 2: Chapter 2\\.",
"On March 25, 1783, 10 [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut \"Connecticut\") clergy met in [Woodbury, Connecticut](/wiki/Woodbury%2C_Connecticut \"Woodbury, Connecticut\") and elected [Samuel Seabury](/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_%28bishop%29 \"Samuel Seabury (bishop)\") as their prospective bishop. Seabury sought [consecration](/wiki/Consecration \"Consecration\") in England. The [Oath of Supremacy](/wiki/Oath_of_Supremacy \"Oath of Supremacy\") prevented Seabury's consecration in England, so he went to Scotland where the [non\\-juring](/wiki/Nonjuring_schism \"Nonjuring schism\") Scottish bishops consecrated him in [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen \"Aberdeen\") on November 14, 1784\\. He became, in the words of scholar Arthur Carl Piepkorn, \"the first Anglican bishop appointed to minister outside the British Isles\".{{cite book \\|last\\=Piepkorn \\|first\\=Arthur Carl \\|title\\=Profiles in Belief: The Religious Bodies of the United States and Canada \\|publisher\\=Harper \\& Row \\|year\\=1977 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/profilesinbelief00piep/page/199 199] \\|isbn\\=0\\-06\\-066580\\-7 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/profilesinbelief00piep/page/199 }} In return, the Scottish bishops requested that the Episcopal Church use the longer Scottish prayer of consecration during the [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist \"Eucharist\"), instead of the English prayer. Seabury promised that he would endeavor to make it so. Seabury returned to Connecticut in 1785\\. At an August 2, 1785, reception at Christ Church on the South Green in [Middletown](/wiki/Middletown%2C_Connecticut \"Middletown, Connecticut\"), his letters of consecration were requested, read, and accepted. The next day the first ordinations on American soil took place when Henry Van Dyke, Philo Shelton, [Ashbel Baldwin](/wiki/Ashbel_Baldwin \"Ashbel Baldwin\"), and Colin Ferguson were ordained deacons. On August 7, 1785, Collin Ferguson was advanced to the priesthood, and Thomas Fitch Oliver was admitted to the diaconate.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|150px\\|[William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 \"William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)\").](/wiki/File:William_White-Bishop_Episcopal_Church_USA-1795.jpg \"William White-Bishop Episcopal Church USA-1795.jpg\")",
"That same year, clerical and lay representatives from seven of the nine states south of Connecticut held the first [General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America](/wiki/General_Convention_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America \"General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America\"). They drafted a constitution, an American *Book of Common Prayer*, and planned for the consecration of additional bishops. In 1787, two priests—[William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 \"William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)\") of Pennsylvania and [Samuel Provoost](/wiki/Samuel_Provoost \"Samuel Provoost\") of New York—were consecrated as bishops by the [Archbishop of Canterbury](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury \"Archbishop of Canterbury\"), the [Archbishop of York](/wiki/Archbishop_of_York \"Archbishop of York\"), and the [Bishop of Bath and Wells](/wiki/Bishop_of_Bath_and_Wells \"Bishop of Bath and Wells\"), the legal obstacles having been removed by the passage through Parliament of the [Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786](/wiki/Consecration_of_Bishops_Abroad_Act_1786 \"Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786\"). Thus, there are two branches of [Apostolic succession](/wiki/Historical_episcopate \"Historical episcopate\") for American bishops:\n1. Through the non\\-juring bishops of Scotland that consecrated Samuel Seabury.\n2. Through the English church that consecrated William White and Samuel Provoost.\nAll bishops in the Episcopal Church are ordained by at least three bishops; one can trace the succession of each back to Seabury, White and Provoost (see [Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church](/wiki/Succession_of_Bishops_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States \"Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church in the United States\")). The fourth bishop of the Episcopal Church was [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison_%28Episcopal_bishop%29 \"James Madison (Episcopal bishop)\"), the first [Bishop of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia \"Episcopal Diocese of Virginia\"). Madison was consecrated in 1790 under the Archbishop of Canterbury and two other English bishops. This third American bishop consecrated within the English line of succession occurred because of continuing unease within the Church of England over Seabury's nonjuring Scottish orders.",
"In 1789, representative clergy from [nine original dioceses](/wiki/List_of_Original_Dioceses_of_ECUSA \"List of Original Dioceses of ECUSA\") met in Philadelphia to ratify the church's initial constitution. The Episcopal Church was formally separated from the Church of England in 1789 so that American clergy would not be required to accept the supremacy of the [British monarch](/wiki/British_monarch \"British monarch\"). A revised American version of the *[Book of Common Prayer](/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer \"Book of Common Prayer\")* was produced for the new Church in 1789\\.",
""
] |
19th century
------------
### Antebellum Church (1800–1861\)
[thumb\|180px\|Location of churches in 1850; note strength along Atlantic coast and weakness inland; from U.S. Census](/wiki/File:Episco.jpg "Episco.jpg")
American bishops such as [William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 "William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)") (1748–1836\) continued to provide models of civic involvement, while newly consecrated bishops such as [John Henry Hobart](/wiki/John_Henry_Hobart "John Henry Hobart") (1775–1830\), and [Philander Chase](/wiki/Philander_Chase "Philander Chase") (1775–1852\) began to provide models of pastoral dedication and evangelism, respectively, as well.
During the first four decades of the church's existence, Episcopalians were more interested in organizing and expanding the church within their own states than in establishing centralized structures or attempting to spread their faith in other places. However, in 1821, the General Convention created a [General Seminary](/wiki/General_Seminary "General Seminary") for the whole church and established the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church. In 1835, the General Convention declared that all members of the Episcopal Church were to constitute the membership of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society"Constitution of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society," in *Journal of the Proceedings of the Bishops, Clergy, and Laity of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America in General Convention* (New York: Protestant Episcopal Press, 1835\): 129\. and elected the first domestic missionary bishop, [Jackson Kemper](/wiki/Jackson_Kemper "Jackson Kemper"), for Missouri and Indiana. The first two foreign missionary bishops, [William Boone](/wiki/William_Jones_Boone_%28father%29 "William Jones Boone (father)") for China and [Horatio Southgate](/wiki/Horatio_Southgate "Horatio Southgate") for Constantinople, were elected in 1844\. The church would later establish a presence in Japan and Liberia. On both the domestic and foreign fields, the Episcopal Church's missions could be characterized as "good schools, good hospitals and right ordered worship".Roozen 2005, p. 190\.
The first society for African Americans in the Episcopal Church was founded before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") in 1856 by [James Theodore Holly](/wiki/James_Theodore_Holly "James Theodore Holly"). Named *The Protestant Episcopal Society for Promoting the Extension of the Church Among Colored People*, the society argued that blacks should be allowed to participate in seminaries and diocesan conventions. The group lost its focus when Holly emigrated to Haiti, but other groups followed after the Civil War. The current [Union of Black Episcopalians](/wiki/Union_of_Black_Episcopalians "Union of Black Episcopalians") traces its history to the society.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ube.org/history.html \|title\=UBE History \|publisher\=Ube.org \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013160832/http://ube.org/history.html \|archive\-date\=October 13, 2007 }}
### Civil War era (1861–1865\)
[thumb\|left\|150px\|[Harriet Tubman](/wiki/Harriet_Tubman "Harriet Tubman") is included in the [Episcopal Calendar of Saints](/wiki/Calendar_of_saints_%28Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America%29 "Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)"). Picture is from 1880\.](/wiki/File:Harriet_Tubman.jpg "Harriet Tubman.jpg")
When the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") began in 1861, Episcopalians in the South formed [its own Protestant Episcopal Church](/wiki/Protestant_Episcopal_Church_in_the_Confederate_States_of_America "Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States of America"). However, in the North the separation was never officially recognized. After the war, the Presiding Bishop, [John Henry Hopkins](/wiki/John_Henry_Hopkins "John Henry Hopkins"), Bishop of Vermont, wrote to every Southern bishop to attend the convocation in Philadelphia in October 1865 to pull the church back together again. Only Thomas Atkinson of North Carolina and Henry C. Lay of Arkansas attended from the South. Atkinson, whose opinions represented his own diocese better than it did his fellow Southern bishops, did much nonetheless to represent the South while at the same time paving the way for reunion. A General Council of the Southern Church meeting in Atlanta in November permitted dioceses to withdraw from the church. All withdrew by 16 May 1866, rejoining the national church.Lockert B. Mason, "Separation and Reunion of the Episcopal Church, 1860–1865: The Role of Bishop Thomas Atkinson," *Anglican and Episcopal History,* September 1990, Vol. 59 Issue 3, pp 345\-365
It was also during the American Civil War that James Theodore Holly emigrated to [Haiti](/wiki/Haiti "Haiti"), where he founded the [Anglican Church in Haiti](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Haiti "Episcopal Diocese of Haiti"), which later became the largest diocese of the Episcopal Church.
### Post\-Civil War (1865–1900\)
[right\|200px\|thumb\|[Trinity Episcopal Church](/wiki/Trinity_Episcopal_Church_%28Williamsport%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "Trinity Episcopal Church (Williamsport, Pennsylvania)") in [Williamsport, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Williamsport%2C_Pennsylvania "Williamsport, Pennsylvania") was built in 1875\.](/wiki/File:Trinity_Episcopal_Church_Williamsport_Pennsylvania.JPG "Trinity Episcopal Church Williamsport Pennsylvania.JPG")
Women missionaries, while excluded from ordained ministry, staffed the schools and hospitals. The Woman's Auxiliary was established in 1871 and eventually became the major source of funding and personnel for the church's mission work.Roozen 2005, p. 191\.
James Theodore Holly became the first African\-American bishop on November 8, 1874\. As Bishop of Haiti, Holly was the first African American to attend the [Lambeth Conference](/wiki/Lambeth_Conference "Lambeth Conference").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888\_58502\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|title\=UBE History \|publisher\=Episcopalchurch.org \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080710083139/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888\_58502\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|archive\-date \= 2008\-07\-10}} However, he was consecrated by the American Church Missionary Society, an Evangelical Episcopal branch of the Church. In 1875, the Haitian church became a diocese of the Episcopal Church.
[Samuel David Ferguson](/wiki/Samuel_David_Ferguson "Samuel David Ferguson") was the first black bishop consecrated by the Episcopal Church, the first to practice in the U.S. and the first black person to sit in the [House of Bishops](/wiki/House_of_Bishops "House of Bishops"). Ferguson was consecrated on June 24, 1885, with the then\-Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church acting as a consecrator.
By the middle of the 19th century, evangelical Episcopalians disturbed by [High Church](/wiki/High_Church "High Church") [Tractarianism](/wiki/Tractarianism "Tractarianism"), while continuing to work in interdenominational agencies, formed their own voluntary societies, and eventually, in 1874, a faction objecting to the revival of ritual practices established the [Reformed Episcopal Church](/wiki/Reformed_Episcopal_Church "Reformed Episcopal Church").Diana Hochstedt Butler, *Standing against the Whirlwind: Evangelical Episcopalians in Nineteenth\-Century America* (1995\)
|
[
"19th century\n------------",
"### Antebellum Church (1800–1861\\)",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|Location of churches in 1850; note strength along Atlantic coast and weakness inland; from U.S. Census](/wiki/File:Episco.jpg \"Episco.jpg\")",
"American bishops such as [William White](/wiki/William_White_%28Bishop_of_Pennsylvania%29 \"William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania)\") (1748–1836\\) continued to provide models of civic involvement, while newly consecrated bishops such as [John Henry Hobart](/wiki/John_Henry_Hobart \"John Henry Hobart\") (1775–1830\\), and [Philander Chase](/wiki/Philander_Chase \"Philander Chase\") (1775–1852\\) began to provide models of pastoral dedication and evangelism, respectively, as well.",
"During the first four decades of the church's existence, Episcopalians were more interested in organizing and expanding the church within their own states than in establishing centralized structures or attempting to spread their faith in other places. However, in 1821, the General Convention created a [General Seminary](/wiki/General_Seminary \"General Seminary\") for the whole church and established the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church. In 1835, the General Convention declared that all members of the Episcopal Church were to constitute the membership of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society\"Constitution of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society,\" in *Journal of the Proceedings of the Bishops, Clergy, and Laity of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America in General Convention* (New York: Protestant Episcopal Press, 1835\\): 129\\. and elected the first domestic missionary bishop, [Jackson Kemper](/wiki/Jackson_Kemper \"Jackson Kemper\"), for Missouri and Indiana. The first two foreign missionary bishops, [William Boone](/wiki/William_Jones_Boone_%28father%29 \"William Jones Boone (father)\") for China and [Horatio Southgate](/wiki/Horatio_Southgate \"Horatio Southgate\") for Constantinople, were elected in 1844\\. The church would later establish a presence in Japan and Liberia. On both the domestic and foreign fields, the Episcopal Church's missions could be characterized as \"good schools, good hospitals and right ordered worship\".Roozen 2005, p. 190\\.",
"The first society for African Americans in the Episcopal Church was founded before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") in 1856 by [James Theodore Holly](/wiki/James_Theodore_Holly \"James Theodore Holly\"). Named *The Protestant Episcopal Society for Promoting the Extension of the Church Among Colored People*, the society argued that blacks should be allowed to participate in seminaries and diocesan conventions. The group lost its focus when Holly emigrated to Haiti, but other groups followed after the Civil War. The current [Union of Black Episcopalians](/wiki/Union_of_Black_Episcopalians \"Union of Black Episcopalians\") traces its history to the society.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ube.org/history.html \\|title\\=UBE History \\|publisher\\=Ube.org \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013160832/http://ube.org/history.html \\|archive\\-date\\=October 13, 2007 }}",
"### Civil War era (1861–1865\\)",
"[thumb\\|left\\|150px\\|[Harriet Tubman](/wiki/Harriet_Tubman \"Harriet Tubman\") is included in the [Episcopal Calendar of Saints](/wiki/Calendar_of_saints_%28Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America%29 \"Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)\"). Picture is from 1880\\.](/wiki/File:Harriet_Tubman.jpg \"Harriet Tubman.jpg\")\nWhen the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") began in 1861, Episcopalians in the South formed [its own Protestant Episcopal Church](/wiki/Protestant_Episcopal_Church_in_the_Confederate_States_of_America \"Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States of America\"). However, in the North the separation was never officially recognized. After the war, the Presiding Bishop, [John Henry Hopkins](/wiki/John_Henry_Hopkins \"John Henry Hopkins\"), Bishop of Vermont, wrote to every Southern bishop to attend the convocation in Philadelphia in October 1865 to pull the church back together again. Only Thomas Atkinson of North Carolina and Henry C. Lay of Arkansas attended from the South. Atkinson, whose opinions represented his own diocese better than it did his fellow Southern bishops, did much nonetheless to represent the South while at the same time paving the way for reunion. A General Council of the Southern Church meeting in Atlanta in November permitted dioceses to withdraw from the church. All withdrew by 16 May 1866, rejoining the national church.Lockert B. Mason, \"Separation and Reunion of the Episcopal Church, 1860–1865: The Role of Bishop Thomas Atkinson,\" *Anglican and Episcopal History,* September 1990, Vol. 59 Issue 3, pp 345\\-365",
"It was also during the American Civil War that James Theodore Holly emigrated to [Haiti](/wiki/Haiti \"Haiti\"), where he founded the [Anglican Church in Haiti](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Haiti \"Episcopal Diocese of Haiti\"), which later became the largest diocese of the Episcopal Church.",
"### Post\\-Civil War (1865–1900\\)",
"[right\\|200px\\|thumb\\|[Trinity Episcopal Church](/wiki/Trinity_Episcopal_Church_%28Williamsport%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Trinity Episcopal Church (Williamsport, Pennsylvania)\") in [Williamsport, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Williamsport%2C_Pennsylvania \"Williamsport, Pennsylvania\") was built in 1875\\.](/wiki/File:Trinity_Episcopal_Church_Williamsport_Pennsylvania.JPG \"Trinity Episcopal Church Williamsport Pennsylvania.JPG\")",
"Women missionaries, while excluded from ordained ministry, staffed the schools and hospitals. The Woman's Auxiliary was established in 1871 and eventually became the major source of funding and personnel for the church's mission work.Roozen 2005, p. 191\\.",
"James Theodore Holly became the first African\\-American bishop on November 8, 1874\\. As Bishop of Haiti, Holly was the first African American to attend the [Lambeth Conference](/wiki/Lambeth_Conference \"Lambeth Conference\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888\\_58502\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|title\\=UBE History \\|publisher\\=Episcopalchurch.org \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080710083139/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888\\_58502\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|archive\\-date \\= 2008\\-07\\-10}} However, he was consecrated by the American Church Missionary Society, an Evangelical Episcopal branch of the Church. In 1875, the Haitian church became a diocese of the Episcopal Church.",
"[Samuel David Ferguson](/wiki/Samuel_David_Ferguson \"Samuel David Ferguson\") was the first black bishop consecrated by the Episcopal Church, the first to practice in the U.S. and the first black person to sit in the [House of Bishops](/wiki/House_of_Bishops \"House of Bishops\"). Ferguson was consecrated on June 24, 1885, with the then\\-Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church acting as a consecrator.",
"By the middle of the 19th century, evangelical Episcopalians disturbed by [High Church](/wiki/High_Church \"High Church\") [Tractarianism](/wiki/Tractarianism \"Tractarianism\"), while continuing to work in interdenominational agencies, formed their own voluntary societies, and eventually, in 1874, a faction objecting to the revival of ritual practices established the [Reformed Episcopal Church](/wiki/Reformed_Episcopal_Church \"Reformed Episcopal Church\").Diana Hochstedt Butler, *Standing against the Whirlwind: Evangelical Episcopalians in Nineteenth\\-Century America* (1995\\)",
""
] |
20th century
------------
In 1919, the church's structure underwent greater centralization. Constitutional changes transformed the presiding bishop into an elected executive officer (formerly, the presiding bishop was simply the most senior bishop and only presided over [House of Bishops](/wiki/House_of_Bishops "House of Bishops") meetings) and created a national council to coordinate the church's missionary, educational, and social work.Roozen 2005, pp. 191–192\. It was during this period that the *Book of Common Prayer* was revised, first in 1892 and later in 1928\.
[left\|thumb\|[Cathedral Church of St. Paul (Detroit)](/wiki/Cathedral_Church_of_St._Paul_%28Detroit%29 "Cathedral Church of St. Paul (Detroit)") (Episcopal), by [Ralph Adams Cram](/wiki/Ralph_Adams_Cram "Ralph Adams Cram") (1907\). Location of the funeral of American industrialist [Henry Ford](/wiki/Henry_Ford "Henry Ford") in 1947\.](/wiki/File:Cathedral_Church_of_Saint_Paul.jpg "Cathedral Church of Saint Paul.jpg")
In 1940, the Episcopal Church's coat\-of\-arms was adopted. This is based on the [St George's Cross](/wiki/St_George%27s_Cross "St George's Cross"), a symbol of England (mother of world Anglicanism), with a [saltire](/wiki/Saltire "Saltire") reminiscent of the [Cross of St Andrew](/wiki/Flag_of_Scotland "Flag of Scotland") in the [canton](/wiki/Canton_%28heraldry%29 "Canton (heraldry)"), in reference to the historical origins of the American episcopate in the [Scottish Episcopal Church](/wiki/Scottish_Episcopal_Church "Scottish Episcopal Church").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kingofpeace.org/shield.htm \|title\=Episcopal Shield \|publisher\=Kingofpeace.org \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16}}
After the [Revolution of 1949](/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War "Chinese Civil War") and the expulsion of missionaries from China, the Episcopal Church focused its efforts in Latin America.
### Social issues and sociology
In the early 20th century, the Episcopal Church was shaped by the [Social Gospel](/wiki/Social_Gospel "Social Gospel") movement and a revived sense of being a "national church" in the Anglican tradition. A mostly female labor force formed the backbone of the church's urban outreach providing health care, education, and economic assistance to the disabled and disadvantaged. These activities made the Episcopal Church a leader in the Social Gospel movement. In its missionary work, the church saw as its responsibility to "spread the riches of American society and the richness of Anglican tradition at home and overseas". Spurred by [American imperialism](/wiki/American_imperialism "American imperialism"), the church expanded into Alaska, Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, Haiti, Honolulu, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and the Panama Canal Zone.
Highly prominent laity such as banker [J. P. Morgan](/wiki/J._P._Morgan "J. P. Morgan"), industrialist [Henry Ford](/wiki/Henry_Ford "Henry Ford"), and art collector [Isabella Stewart Gardner](/wiki/Isabella_Stewart_Gardner "Isabella Stewart Gardner") played a central role in shaping a distinctive upper\-class Episcopalian ethos, especially with regard to preserving the arts and history. Moreover, despite the relationship between [Anglo\-Catholicism](/wiki/Anglo-Catholicism "Anglo-Catholicism") and Episcopalian involvement in the arts, most of these laypeople were not inordinately influenced by religious thought. These philanthropists propelled the Episcopal Church into a quasi\-national position of importance while at the same time giving the church a central role in the cultural transformation of the country.Peter W. Williams, "The Gospel of Wealth and the Gospel of Art: Episcopalians and Cultural Philanthropy from the Gilded Age to the Depression", *Anglican and Episcopal History*, June 2006, Vol. 75 Issue 2, pp170–223 Another mark of influence is the fact that more than a quarter of all [presidents of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") have been Episcopalians (*see [List of United States Presidential religious affiliations](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Presidential_religious_affiliations "List of United States Presidential religious affiliations")*).
### Modernization
The modernization of the church has included both controversial and non\-controversial moves related to racism, theology, worship, homosexuality, the ordination of women, the institution of marriage, and the adoption of a new prayer book, which can be dated to the General Convention of 1976\.[The Archbishop of Canterbury's Presidential Address, paragraph 5\.](http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/42/50/acns4259.cfm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820064150/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/42/50/acns4259\.cfm \|date\=August 20, 2007 }}
The first women were admitted as delegates to General Convention in 1970\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/75383\_73867\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|title\=News Coverage from the 75th General Convention of the Episcopal Church \|publisher\=Episcopalchurch.org \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-28 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117063650/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/75383\_73867\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|archive\-date\=2011\-01\-17 }} In 1975, Vaughan Booker, who confessed to the murder of his wife and was sentenced to life in prison, was ordained to the diaconate in Graterford State Prison's chapel in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), after having repented of his sins, becoming a symbol of redemption and atonement.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi\-bin/the\_living\_church/TLCarticle.pl?volume\=210\&issue\=9\&article\_id\=1\|title \= The Living Church: Search Results}}{{cite book\|title\= How We Got Here: The '70s\|last\= Frum\|first\= David\|author\-link\= David Frum\|year\= 2000\|publisher\= Basic Books\|location\= New York, New York\|isbn\= 0\-465\-04195\-7\|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/17 17]\|url\= https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/17}}
Regarding racism the 1976 General Convention passed a resolution calling for an end to [apartheid](/wiki/Apartheid "Apartheid") in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") and in 1985 called for "dioceses, institutions, and agencies" to create [equal employment opportunity](/wiki/Equal_employment_opportunity "Equal employment opportunity") and [affirmative action](/wiki/Affirmative_action "Affirmative action") policies to address any potential "racial inequities" in clergy placement. In 1991 the General Convention declared "the practice of racism is sin"The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#1991 B051, Call for the Removal of Racism from the Life of the Nation](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution-complete.pl?resolution=1991-B051). Retrieved 2008\-10\-31\. and in 2006 a unanimous House of Bishops endorsed Resolution A123 apologizing for complicity in the institution of slavery and silence over "Jim Crow" laws, segregation, and racial discrimination.[Bishops Endorse Apology for Slavery Complicity](http://www.livingchurch.org/publishertlc/viewarticle.asp?ID=2189) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230433/http://www.livingchurch.org/publishertlc/viewarticle.asp?ID\=2189 \|date\=September 27, 2007 }}
#### Liturgical reform
The 1976 General Convention also approved a new prayer book, which was a substantial revision and modernization of the previous 1928 edition. It incorporated many principles of the Roman Catholic Church's [liturgical movement](/wiki/Liturgical_movement "Liturgical movement"), which had been discussed at [Vatican II](/wiki/Vatican%C2%A0II "Vatican II"). This version was adopted as the official prayer book in 1979 after an initial three\-year trial use. A number of conservative parishes, however, continued to use the 1928 version.
#### Women's ordination
Initially, the priesthood in the Episcopal Church was restricted to men only,{{citation needed\|date\=May 2020}} as was true of most other Christian denominations prior to the mid\-20th century and still true for some. Objections to the ordination of women have been different from time to time and place to place. Some believe that it is fundamentally impossible for a woman to be validly ordained, while others believe it is possible but inappropriate. Considerations cited include local social conditions, ecumenical implications, or the symbolic character of the priesthood, an ancient tradition including an all\-male priesthood, as well as certain biblical texts.
Following upon [years of discussion](/wiki/Ordination_of_women%23Anglican "Ordination of women#Anglican") in the Episcopal Church and elsewhere, in 1976, the General Convention amended canon law to permit the [ordination of women](/wiki/Ordination_of_women "Ordination of women") to the priesthood. The first women were canonically ordained to the priesthood in 1977\. (Previously, the "[Philadelphia Eleven](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eleven "Philadelphia Eleven")" were uncanonically ordained on July 29, 1974, in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania").The Philadelphia Eleven, and the consecrating bishops, are listed in the [Philadelphia 11 article on The Episcopal Church website](http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/41685_3311_ENG_HTM.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503214922/http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/41685\_3311\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|date\=2011\-05\-03 }}. Retrieved November 5, 2006\. Another four "irregular" ordinations (the "[Washington Four](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eleven%23Washington_Four "Philadelphia Eleven#Washington Four")") also occurred in 1975 in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") These "irregular" ordinations were also reconciled at the 1976 GC.)The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#1976\-B300, Express Mind of the House of Bishops on Irregularly Ordained Women](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1976-B300). Retrieved 2008\-10\-31\. Many other churches in the [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion "Anglican Communion"), including the Church of England, now ordain women as deacons or priests, but only a few have women serving as bishops.
The first woman to become a bishop, [Barbara Harris](/wiki/Barbara_Harris_%28bishop%29 "Barbara Harris (bishop)"), was consecrated on February 11, 1989\.Harris is also the first African\-American woman to be consecrated as bishop. [Office of Black Ministries, The Episcopal Church](http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888_3916_ENG_HTM.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808162703/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888\_3916\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|date\=2009\-08\-08 }} The General Convention reaffirmed in 1994 that both men and women may enter into the ordination process, but also recognized that there is value to the theological position of those who oppose women's ordination. It was not until 1997 that the GC declared that "the ordination, licensing and deployment of women are mandatory" and that dioceses that have not ordained women by 1997 "shall give status reports on their implementation".The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#1997\-A053, Implement Mandatory Rights of Women Clergy under Canon Law](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1997-A053). Retrieved 2008\-10\-31\.
#### Homosexuality
{{See also\|Homosexuality and Anglicanism}}
The Episcopal Church affirmed at the 1976 General Convention that [homosexuals](/wiki/Homosexuals "Homosexuals") are "children of God" who deserve acceptance and pastoral care from the church. It also called for homosexual persons to have equal protection under the law. This was reaffirmed in 1982\. Despite these affirmations of [gay rights](/wiki/Gay_rights_in_the_US "Gay rights in the US"), the General Convention affirmed in 1991 that "physical sexual expression" is only appropriate within the [monogamous](/wiki/Monogamous "Monogamous"), lifelong "union of husband and wife".The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#1991\-A104, Affirm the Church's Teaching on Sexual Expression, Commission Congregational Dialogue, and Direct Bishops to Prepare a Pastoral Teaching](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1991-A104). Retrieved 2008\-10\-31\. In 1994, the GC determined that church membership would not be determined on "marital status, sex, or sexual orientation".
The first openly gay priest, Robert Williams, was ordained by [John Shelby Spong](/wiki/John_Shelby_Spong "John Shelby Spong") in 1989\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.beliefnet.com/story/130/story\_13022\_3\.html \|title\=''A Bishop Speaks: Homosexual History'' by John Shelby Spong, retrieved November 4, 2006 \|publisher\=Beliefnet.com \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16}} The ordination provoked a furor. The next year Barry Stopfel was ordained a deacon by Spong's assistant, Walter Righter. Because Stopfel was not celibate, this resulted in a trial under [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law "Canon law"). The church court dismissed the charges on May 15, 1996, stating that "no clear doctrine"{{cite web\|url\=http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom\_epis2\.htm \|title\=The Episcopal Church And Homosexuality: Activities during 1996 \|publisher\=Religioustolerance.org \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16}} prohibits ordaining a gay or lesbian person in a committed relationship.[Anglicans Online: The Trial of Bishop Walter Righter](http://anglicansonline.org/archive/news/articles/1997/righter.html).
|
[
"20th century\n------------",
"In 1919, the church's structure underwent greater centralization. Constitutional changes transformed the presiding bishop into an elected executive officer (formerly, the presiding bishop was simply the most senior bishop and only presided over [House of Bishops](/wiki/House_of_Bishops \"House of Bishops\") meetings) and created a national council to coordinate the church's missionary, educational, and social work.Roozen 2005, pp. 191–192\\. It was during this period that the *Book of Common Prayer* was revised, first in 1892 and later in 1928\\.\n[left\\|thumb\\|[Cathedral Church of St. Paul (Detroit)](/wiki/Cathedral_Church_of_St._Paul_%28Detroit%29 \"Cathedral Church of St. Paul (Detroit)\") (Episcopal), by [Ralph Adams Cram](/wiki/Ralph_Adams_Cram \"Ralph Adams Cram\") (1907\\). Location of the funeral of American industrialist [Henry Ford](/wiki/Henry_Ford \"Henry Ford\") in 1947\\.](/wiki/File:Cathedral_Church_of_Saint_Paul.jpg \"Cathedral Church of Saint Paul.jpg\")\nIn 1940, the Episcopal Church's coat\\-of\\-arms was adopted. This is based on the [St George's Cross](/wiki/St_George%27s_Cross \"St George's Cross\"), a symbol of England (mother of world Anglicanism), with a [saltire](/wiki/Saltire \"Saltire\") reminiscent of the [Cross of St Andrew](/wiki/Flag_of_Scotland \"Flag of Scotland\") in the [canton](/wiki/Canton_%28heraldry%29 \"Canton (heraldry)\"), in reference to the historical origins of the American episcopate in the [Scottish Episcopal Church](/wiki/Scottish_Episcopal_Church \"Scottish Episcopal Church\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kingofpeace.org/shield.htm \\|title\\=Episcopal Shield \\|publisher\\=Kingofpeace.org \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16}}",
"After the [Revolution of 1949](/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War \"Chinese Civil War\") and the expulsion of missionaries from China, the Episcopal Church focused its efforts in Latin America.",
"### Social issues and sociology",
"In the early 20th century, the Episcopal Church was shaped by the [Social Gospel](/wiki/Social_Gospel \"Social Gospel\") movement and a revived sense of being a \"national church\" in the Anglican tradition. A mostly female labor force formed the backbone of the church's urban outreach providing health care, education, and economic assistance to the disabled and disadvantaged. These activities made the Episcopal Church a leader in the Social Gospel movement. In its missionary work, the church saw as its responsibility to \"spread the riches of American society and the richness of Anglican tradition at home and overseas\". Spurred by [American imperialism](/wiki/American_imperialism \"American imperialism\"), the church expanded into Alaska, Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, Haiti, Honolulu, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and the Panama Canal Zone.",
"Highly prominent laity such as banker [J. P. Morgan](/wiki/J._P._Morgan \"J. P. Morgan\"), industrialist [Henry Ford](/wiki/Henry_Ford \"Henry Ford\"), and art collector [Isabella Stewart Gardner](/wiki/Isabella_Stewart_Gardner \"Isabella Stewart Gardner\") played a central role in shaping a distinctive upper\\-class Episcopalian ethos, especially with regard to preserving the arts and history. Moreover, despite the relationship between [Anglo\\-Catholicism](/wiki/Anglo-Catholicism \"Anglo-Catholicism\") and Episcopalian involvement in the arts, most of these laypeople were not inordinately influenced by religious thought. These philanthropists propelled the Episcopal Church into a quasi\\-national position of importance while at the same time giving the church a central role in the cultural transformation of the country.Peter W. Williams, \"The Gospel of Wealth and the Gospel of Art: Episcopalians and Cultural Philanthropy from the Gilded Age to the Depression\", *Anglican and Episcopal History*, June 2006, Vol. 75 Issue 2, pp170–223 Another mark of influence is the fact that more than a quarter of all [presidents of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") have been Episcopalians (*see [List of United States Presidential religious affiliations](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Presidential_religious_affiliations \"List of United States Presidential religious affiliations\")*).",
"### Modernization",
"The modernization of the church has included both controversial and non\\-controversial moves related to racism, theology, worship, homosexuality, the ordination of women, the institution of marriage, and the adoption of a new prayer book, which can be dated to the General Convention of 1976\\.[The Archbishop of Canterbury's Presidential Address, paragraph 5\\.](http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/42/50/acns4259.cfm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820064150/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/42/50/acns4259\\.cfm \\|date\\=August 20, 2007 }}",
"The first women were admitted as delegates to General Convention in 1970\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/75383\\_73867\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|title\\=News Coverage from the 75th General Convention of the Episcopal Church \\|publisher\\=Episcopalchurch.org \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117063650/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/75383\\_73867\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-17 }} In 1975, Vaughan Booker, who confessed to the murder of his wife and was sentenced to life in prison, was ordained to the diaconate in Graterford State Prison's chapel in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), after having repented of his sins, becoming a symbol of redemption and atonement.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi\\-bin/the\\_living\\_church/TLCarticle.pl?volume\\=210\\&issue\\=9\\&article\\_id\\=1\\|title \\= The Living Church: Search Results}}{{cite book\\|title\\= How We Got Here: The '70s\\|last\\= Frum\\|first\\= David\\|author\\-link\\= David Frum\\|year\\= 2000\\|publisher\\= Basic Books\\|location\\= New York, New York\\|isbn\\= 0\\-465\\-04195\\-7\\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/17 17]\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/17}}",
"Regarding racism the 1976 General Convention passed a resolution calling for an end to [apartheid](/wiki/Apartheid \"Apartheid\") in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") and in 1985 called for \"dioceses, institutions, and agencies\" to create [equal employment opportunity](/wiki/Equal_employment_opportunity \"Equal employment opportunity\") and [affirmative action](/wiki/Affirmative_action \"Affirmative action\") policies to address any potential \"racial inequities\" in clergy placement. In 1991 the General Convention declared \"the practice of racism is sin\"The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#1991 B051, Call for the Removal of Racism from the Life of the Nation](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution-complete.pl?resolution=1991-B051). Retrieved 2008\\-10\\-31\\. and in 2006 a unanimous House of Bishops endorsed Resolution A123 apologizing for complicity in the institution of slavery and silence over \"Jim Crow\" laws, segregation, and racial discrimination.[Bishops Endorse Apology for Slavery Complicity](http://www.livingchurch.org/publishertlc/viewarticle.asp?ID=2189) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230433/http://www.livingchurch.org/publishertlc/viewarticle.asp?ID\\=2189 \\|date\\=September 27, 2007 }}",
"#### Liturgical reform",
"The 1976 General Convention also approved a new prayer book, which was a substantial revision and modernization of the previous 1928 edition. It incorporated many principles of the Roman Catholic Church's [liturgical movement](/wiki/Liturgical_movement \"Liturgical movement\"), which had been discussed at [Vatican II](/wiki/Vatican%C2%A0II \"Vatican II\"). This version was adopted as the official prayer book in 1979 after an initial three\\-year trial use. A number of conservative parishes, however, continued to use the 1928 version.",
"#### Women's ordination",
"Initially, the priesthood in the Episcopal Church was restricted to men only,{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}} as was true of most other Christian denominations prior to the mid\\-20th century and still true for some. Objections to the ordination of women have been different from time to time and place to place. Some believe that it is fundamentally impossible for a woman to be validly ordained, while others believe it is possible but inappropriate. Considerations cited include local social conditions, ecumenical implications, or the symbolic character of the priesthood, an ancient tradition including an all\\-male priesthood, as well as certain biblical texts.",
"Following upon [years of discussion](/wiki/Ordination_of_women%23Anglican \"Ordination of women#Anglican\") in the Episcopal Church and elsewhere, in 1976, the General Convention amended canon law to permit the [ordination of women](/wiki/Ordination_of_women \"Ordination of women\") to the priesthood. The first women were canonically ordained to the priesthood in 1977\\. (Previously, the \"[Philadelphia Eleven](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eleven \"Philadelphia Eleven\")\" were uncanonically ordained on July 29, 1974, in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania \"Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\").The Philadelphia Eleven, and the consecrating bishops, are listed in the [Philadelphia 11 article on The Episcopal Church website](http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/41685_3311_ENG_HTM.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503214922/http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/41685\\_3311\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-05\\-03 }}. Retrieved November 5, 2006\\. Another four \"irregular\" ordinations (the \"[Washington Four](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eleven%23Washington_Four \"Philadelphia Eleven#Washington Four\")\") also occurred in 1975 in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") These \"irregular\" ordinations were also reconciled at the 1976 GC.)The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#1976\\-B300, Express Mind of the House of Bishops on Irregularly Ordained Women](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1976-B300). Retrieved 2008\\-10\\-31\\. Many other churches in the [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion \"Anglican Communion\"), including the Church of England, now ordain women as deacons or priests, but only a few have women serving as bishops.",
"The first woman to become a bishop, [Barbara Harris](/wiki/Barbara_Harris_%28bishop%29 \"Barbara Harris (bishop)\"), was consecrated on February 11, 1989\\.Harris is also the first African\\-American woman to be consecrated as bishop. [Office of Black Ministries, The Episcopal Church](http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888_3916_ENG_HTM.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808162703/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888\\_3916\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|date\\=2009\\-08\\-08 }} The General Convention reaffirmed in 1994 that both men and women may enter into the ordination process, but also recognized that there is value to the theological position of those who oppose women's ordination. It was not until 1997 that the GC declared that \"the ordination, licensing and deployment of women are mandatory\" and that dioceses that have not ordained women by 1997 \"shall give status reports on their implementation\".The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#1997\\-A053, Implement Mandatory Rights of Women Clergy under Canon Law](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1997-A053). Retrieved 2008\\-10\\-31\\.",
"#### Homosexuality",
"{{See also\\|Homosexuality and Anglicanism}}",
"The Episcopal Church affirmed at the 1976 General Convention that [homosexuals](/wiki/Homosexuals \"Homosexuals\") are \"children of God\" who deserve acceptance and pastoral care from the church. It also called for homosexual persons to have equal protection under the law. This was reaffirmed in 1982\\. Despite these affirmations of [gay rights](/wiki/Gay_rights_in_the_US \"Gay rights in the US\"), the General Convention affirmed in 1991 that \"physical sexual expression\" is only appropriate within the [monogamous](/wiki/Monogamous \"Monogamous\"), lifelong \"union of husband and wife\".The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#1991\\-A104, Affirm the Church's Teaching on Sexual Expression, Commission Congregational Dialogue, and Direct Bishops to Prepare a Pastoral Teaching](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1991-A104). Retrieved 2008\\-10\\-31\\. In 1994, the GC determined that church membership would not be determined on \"marital status, sex, or sexual orientation\".",
"The first openly gay priest, Robert Williams, was ordained by [John Shelby Spong](/wiki/John_Shelby_Spong \"John Shelby Spong\") in 1989\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.beliefnet.com/story/130/story\\_13022\\_3\\.html \\|title\\=''A Bishop Speaks: Homosexual History'' by John Shelby Spong, retrieved November 4, 2006 \\|publisher\\=Beliefnet.com \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16}} The ordination provoked a furor. The next year Barry Stopfel was ordained a deacon by Spong's assistant, Walter Righter. Because Stopfel was not celibate, this resulted in a trial under [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law \"Canon law\"). The church court dismissed the charges on May 15, 1996, stating that \"no clear doctrine\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom\\_epis2\\.htm \\|title\\=The Episcopal Church And Homosexuality: Activities during 1996 \\|publisher\\=Religioustolerance.org \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16}} prohibits ordaining a gay or lesbian person in a committed relationship.[Anglicans Online: The Trial of Bishop Walter Righter](http://anglicansonline.org/archive/news/articles/1997/righter.html).",
""
] |
### Modernization
The modernization of the church has included both controversial and non\-controversial moves related to racism, theology, worship, homosexuality, the ordination of women, the institution of marriage, and the adoption of a new prayer book, which can be dated to the General Convention of 1976\.[The Archbishop of Canterbury's Presidential Address, paragraph 5\.](http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/42/50/acns4259.cfm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820064150/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/42/50/acns4259\.cfm \|date\=August 20, 2007 }}
The first women were admitted as delegates to General Convention in 1970\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/75383\_73867\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|title\=News Coverage from the 75th General Convention of the Episcopal Church \|publisher\=Episcopalchurch.org \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-28 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117063650/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/75383\_73867\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|archive\-date\=2011\-01\-17 }} In 1975, Vaughan Booker, who confessed to the murder of his wife and was sentenced to life in prison, was ordained to the diaconate in Graterford State Prison's chapel in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), after having repented of his sins, becoming a symbol of redemption and atonement.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi\-bin/the\_living\_church/TLCarticle.pl?volume\=210\&issue\=9\&article\_id\=1\|title \= The Living Church: Search Results}}{{cite book\|title\= How We Got Here: The '70s\|last\= Frum\|first\= David\|author\-link\= David Frum\|year\= 2000\|publisher\= Basic Books\|location\= New York, New York\|isbn\= 0\-465\-04195\-7\|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/17 17]\|url\= https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/17}}
Regarding racism the 1976 General Convention passed a resolution calling for an end to [apartheid](/wiki/Apartheid "Apartheid") in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") and in 1985 called for "dioceses, institutions, and agencies" to create [equal employment opportunity](/wiki/Equal_employment_opportunity "Equal employment opportunity") and [affirmative action](/wiki/Affirmative_action "Affirmative action") policies to address any potential "racial inequities" in clergy placement. In 1991 the General Convention declared "the practice of racism is sin"The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#1991 B051, Call for the Removal of Racism from the Life of the Nation](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution-complete.pl?resolution=1991-B051). Retrieved 2008\-10\-31\. and in 2006 a unanimous House of Bishops endorsed Resolution A123 apologizing for complicity in the institution of slavery and silence over "Jim Crow" laws, segregation, and racial discrimination.[Bishops Endorse Apology for Slavery Complicity](http://www.livingchurch.org/publishertlc/viewarticle.asp?ID=2189) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230433/http://www.livingchurch.org/publishertlc/viewarticle.asp?ID\=2189 \|date\=September 27, 2007 }}
#### Liturgical reform
The 1976 General Convention also approved a new prayer book, which was a substantial revision and modernization of the previous 1928 edition. It incorporated many principles of the Roman Catholic Church's [liturgical movement](/wiki/Liturgical_movement "Liturgical movement"), which had been discussed at [Vatican II](/wiki/Vatican%C2%A0II "Vatican II"). This version was adopted as the official prayer book in 1979 after an initial three\-year trial use. A number of conservative parishes, however, continued to use the 1928 version.
#### Women's ordination
Initially, the priesthood in the Episcopal Church was restricted to men only,{{citation needed\|date\=May 2020}} as was true of most other Christian denominations prior to the mid\-20th century and still true for some. Objections to the ordination of women have been different from time to time and place to place. Some believe that it is fundamentally impossible for a woman to be validly ordained, while others believe it is possible but inappropriate. Considerations cited include local social conditions, ecumenical implications, or the symbolic character of the priesthood, an ancient tradition including an all\-male priesthood, as well as certain biblical texts.
Following upon [years of discussion](/wiki/Ordination_of_women%23Anglican "Ordination of women#Anglican") in the Episcopal Church and elsewhere, in 1976, the General Convention amended canon law to permit the [ordination of women](/wiki/Ordination_of_women "Ordination of women") to the priesthood. The first women were canonically ordained to the priesthood in 1977\. (Previously, the "[Philadelphia Eleven](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eleven "Philadelphia Eleven")" were uncanonically ordained on July 29, 1974, in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania").The Philadelphia Eleven, and the consecrating bishops, are listed in the [Philadelphia 11 article on The Episcopal Church website](http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/41685_3311_ENG_HTM.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503214922/http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/41685\_3311\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|date\=2011\-05\-03 }}. Retrieved November 5, 2006\. Another four "irregular" ordinations (the "[Washington Four](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eleven%23Washington_Four "Philadelphia Eleven#Washington Four")") also occurred in 1975 in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") These "irregular" ordinations were also reconciled at the 1976 GC.)The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#1976\-B300, Express Mind of the House of Bishops on Irregularly Ordained Women](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1976-B300). Retrieved 2008\-10\-31\. Many other churches in the [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion "Anglican Communion"), including the Church of England, now ordain women as deacons or priests, but only a few have women serving as bishops.
The first woman to become a bishop, [Barbara Harris](/wiki/Barbara_Harris_%28bishop%29 "Barbara Harris (bishop)"), was consecrated on February 11, 1989\.Harris is also the first African\-American woman to be consecrated as bishop. [Office of Black Ministries, The Episcopal Church](http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888_3916_ENG_HTM.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808162703/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888\_3916\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|date\=2009\-08\-08 }} The General Convention reaffirmed in 1994 that both men and women may enter into the ordination process, but also recognized that there is value to the theological position of those who oppose women's ordination. It was not until 1997 that the GC declared that "the ordination, licensing and deployment of women are mandatory" and that dioceses that have not ordained women by 1997 "shall give status reports on their implementation".The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#1997\-A053, Implement Mandatory Rights of Women Clergy under Canon Law](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1997-A053). Retrieved 2008\-10\-31\.
#### Homosexuality
{{See also\|Homosexuality and Anglicanism}}
The Episcopal Church affirmed at the 1976 General Convention that [homosexuals](/wiki/Homosexuals "Homosexuals") are "children of God" who deserve acceptance and pastoral care from the church. It also called for homosexual persons to have equal protection under the law. This was reaffirmed in 1982\. Despite these affirmations of [gay rights](/wiki/Gay_rights_in_the_US "Gay rights in the US"), the General Convention affirmed in 1991 that "physical sexual expression" is only appropriate within the [monogamous](/wiki/Monogamous "Monogamous"), lifelong "union of husband and wife".The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#1991\-A104, Affirm the Church's Teaching on Sexual Expression, Commission Congregational Dialogue, and Direct Bishops to Prepare a Pastoral Teaching](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1991-A104). Retrieved 2008\-10\-31\. In 1994, the GC determined that church membership would not be determined on "marital status, sex, or sexual orientation".
The first openly gay priest, Robert Williams, was ordained by [John Shelby Spong](/wiki/John_Shelby_Spong "John Shelby Spong") in 1989\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.beliefnet.com/story/130/story\_13022\_3\.html \|title\=''A Bishop Speaks: Homosexual History'' by John Shelby Spong, retrieved November 4, 2006 \|publisher\=Beliefnet.com \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16}} The ordination provoked a furor. The next year Barry Stopfel was ordained a deacon by Spong's assistant, Walter Righter. Because Stopfel was not celibate, this resulted in a trial under [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law "Canon law"). The church court dismissed the charges on May 15, 1996, stating that "no clear doctrine"{{cite web\|url\=http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom\_epis2\.htm \|title\=The Episcopal Church And Homosexuality: Activities during 1996 \|publisher\=Religioustolerance.org \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16}} prohibits ordaining a gay or lesbian person in a committed relationship.[Anglicans Online: The Trial of Bishop Walter Righter](http://anglicansonline.org/archive/news/articles/1997/righter.html).
|
[
"### Modernization",
"The modernization of the church has included both controversial and non\\-controversial moves related to racism, theology, worship, homosexuality, the ordination of women, the institution of marriage, and the adoption of a new prayer book, which can be dated to the General Convention of 1976\\.[The Archbishop of Canterbury's Presidential Address, paragraph 5\\.](http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/42/50/acns4259.cfm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820064150/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/42/50/acns4259\\.cfm \\|date\\=August 20, 2007 }}",
"The first women were admitted as delegates to General Convention in 1970\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/75383\\_73867\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|title\\=News Coverage from the 75th General Convention of the Episcopal Church \\|publisher\\=Episcopalchurch.org \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117063650/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/75383\\_73867\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-17 }} In 1975, Vaughan Booker, who confessed to the murder of his wife and was sentenced to life in prison, was ordained to the diaconate in Graterford State Prison's chapel in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), after having repented of his sins, becoming a symbol of redemption and atonement.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi\\-bin/the\\_living\\_church/TLCarticle.pl?volume\\=210\\&issue\\=9\\&article\\_id\\=1\\|title \\= The Living Church: Search Results}}{{cite book\\|title\\= How We Got Here: The '70s\\|last\\= Frum\\|first\\= David\\|author\\-link\\= David Frum\\|year\\= 2000\\|publisher\\= Basic Books\\|location\\= New York, New York\\|isbn\\= 0\\-465\\-04195\\-7\\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/17 17]\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/17}}",
"Regarding racism the 1976 General Convention passed a resolution calling for an end to [apartheid](/wiki/Apartheid \"Apartheid\") in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") and in 1985 called for \"dioceses, institutions, and agencies\" to create [equal employment opportunity](/wiki/Equal_employment_opportunity \"Equal employment opportunity\") and [affirmative action](/wiki/Affirmative_action \"Affirmative action\") policies to address any potential \"racial inequities\" in clergy placement. In 1991 the General Convention declared \"the practice of racism is sin\"The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#1991 B051, Call for the Removal of Racism from the Life of the Nation](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution-complete.pl?resolution=1991-B051). Retrieved 2008\\-10\\-31\\. and in 2006 a unanimous House of Bishops endorsed Resolution A123 apologizing for complicity in the institution of slavery and silence over \"Jim Crow\" laws, segregation, and racial discrimination.[Bishops Endorse Apology for Slavery Complicity](http://www.livingchurch.org/publishertlc/viewarticle.asp?ID=2189) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230433/http://www.livingchurch.org/publishertlc/viewarticle.asp?ID\\=2189 \\|date\\=September 27, 2007 }}",
"#### Liturgical reform",
"The 1976 General Convention also approved a new prayer book, which was a substantial revision and modernization of the previous 1928 edition. It incorporated many principles of the Roman Catholic Church's [liturgical movement](/wiki/Liturgical_movement \"Liturgical movement\"), which had been discussed at [Vatican II](/wiki/Vatican%C2%A0II \"Vatican II\"). This version was adopted as the official prayer book in 1979 after an initial three\\-year trial use. A number of conservative parishes, however, continued to use the 1928 version.",
"#### Women's ordination",
"Initially, the priesthood in the Episcopal Church was restricted to men only,{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}} as was true of most other Christian denominations prior to the mid\\-20th century and still true for some. Objections to the ordination of women have been different from time to time and place to place. Some believe that it is fundamentally impossible for a woman to be validly ordained, while others believe it is possible but inappropriate. Considerations cited include local social conditions, ecumenical implications, or the symbolic character of the priesthood, an ancient tradition including an all\\-male priesthood, as well as certain biblical texts.",
"Following upon [years of discussion](/wiki/Ordination_of_women%23Anglican \"Ordination of women#Anglican\") in the Episcopal Church and elsewhere, in 1976, the General Convention amended canon law to permit the [ordination of women](/wiki/Ordination_of_women \"Ordination of women\") to the priesthood. The first women were canonically ordained to the priesthood in 1977\\. (Previously, the \"[Philadelphia Eleven](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eleven \"Philadelphia Eleven\")\" were uncanonically ordained on July 29, 1974, in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania \"Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\").The Philadelphia Eleven, and the consecrating bishops, are listed in the [Philadelphia 11 article on The Episcopal Church website](http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/41685_3311_ENG_HTM.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503214922/http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/41685\\_3311\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-05\\-03 }}. Retrieved November 5, 2006\\. Another four \"irregular\" ordinations (the \"[Washington Four](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eleven%23Washington_Four \"Philadelphia Eleven#Washington Four\")\") also occurred in 1975 in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") These \"irregular\" ordinations were also reconciled at the 1976 GC.)The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#1976\\-B300, Express Mind of the House of Bishops on Irregularly Ordained Women](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1976-B300). Retrieved 2008\\-10\\-31\\. Many other churches in the [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion \"Anglican Communion\"), including the Church of England, now ordain women as deacons or priests, but only a few have women serving as bishops.",
"The first woman to become a bishop, [Barbara Harris](/wiki/Barbara_Harris_%28bishop%29 \"Barbara Harris (bishop)\"), was consecrated on February 11, 1989\\.Harris is also the first African\\-American woman to be consecrated as bishop. [Office of Black Ministries, The Episcopal Church](http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888_3916_ENG_HTM.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808162703/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/5888\\_3916\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|date\\=2009\\-08\\-08 }} The General Convention reaffirmed in 1994 that both men and women may enter into the ordination process, but also recognized that there is value to the theological position of those who oppose women's ordination. It was not until 1997 that the GC declared that \"the ordination, licensing and deployment of women are mandatory\" and that dioceses that have not ordained women by 1997 \"shall give status reports on their implementation\".The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#1997\\-A053, Implement Mandatory Rights of Women Clergy under Canon Law](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1997-A053). Retrieved 2008\\-10\\-31\\.",
"#### Homosexuality",
"{{See also\\|Homosexuality and Anglicanism}}",
"The Episcopal Church affirmed at the 1976 General Convention that [homosexuals](/wiki/Homosexuals \"Homosexuals\") are \"children of God\" who deserve acceptance and pastoral care from the church. It also called for homosexual persons to have equal protection under the law. This was reaffirmed in 1982\\. Despite these affirmations of [gay rights](/wiki/Gay_rights_in_the_US \"Gay rights in the US\"), the General Convention affirmed in 1991 that \"physical sexual expression\" is only appropriate within the [monogamous](/wiki/Monogamous \"Monogamous\"), lifelong \"union of husband and wife\".The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#1991\\-A104, Affirm the Church's Teaching on Sexual Expression, Commission Congregational Dialogue, and Direct Bishops to Prepare a Pastoral Teaching](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1991-A104). Retrieved 2008\\-10\\-31\\. In 1994, the GC determined that church membership would not be determined on \"marital status, sex, or sexual orientation\".",
"The first openly gay priest, Robert Williams, was ordained by [John Shelby Spong](/wiki/John_Shelby_Spong \"John Shelby Spong\") in 1989\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.beliefnet.com/story/130/story\\_13022\\_3\\.html \\|title\\=''A Bishop Speaks: Homosexual History'' by John Shelby Spong, retrieved November 4, 2006 \\|publisher\\=Beliefnet.com \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16}} The ordination provoked a furor. The next year Barry Stopfel was ordained a deacon by Spong's assistant, Walter Righter. Because Stopfel was not celibate, this resulted in a trial under [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law \"Canon law\"). The church court dismissed the charges on May 15, 1996, stating that \"no clear doctrine\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom\\_epis2\\.htm \\|title\\=The Episcopal Church And Homosexuality: Activities during 1996 \\|publisher\\=Religioustolerance.org \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16}} prohibits ordaining a gay or lesbian person in a committed relationship.[Anglicans Online: The Trial of Bishop Walter Righter](http://anglicansonline.org/archive/news/articles/1997/righter.html).",
""
] |
21st century Anglican issues
----------------------------
### Gay and lesbian access to marriage and the episcopate
{{See also\|Homosexuality and Anglicanism}}
[180px\|thumb\|left\|[Gene Robinson](/wiki/Gene_Robinson "Gene Robinson"), [Bishop of New Hampshire](/wiki/Bishop_of_New_Hampshire "Bishop of New Hampshire")](/wiki/File:Gene_Robinson.jpg "Gene Robinson.jpg")
The first openly homosexual bishop, [Gene Robinson](/wiki/Gene_Robinson "Gene Robinson"), was elected on June 7, 2003, at St. Paul's Church in [Concord, New Hampshire](/wiki/Concord%2C_New_Hampshire "Concord, New Hampshire"). Thirty\-nine clergy votes and 83 lay votes was the threshold necessary to elect a bishop in the [Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_New_Hampshire "Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire") at that time. The clergy voted 58 votes for Robinson and the laity voted 96 for Robinson on the second ballot. Consent to the election of Robinson was given at the 2003 General Convention. The House of Bishops voted in the affirmative, with 62 in favor, 43 opposed, and 2 abstaining. The House of Deputies, which consists of laypersons and priests, also voted in the affirmative: the laity voted 63 in favor, 32 opposed, and 13 divided; the clergy voted 65 in favor, 31 opposed, and 12 divided.
In response, a [meeting of the Anglican primates](/wiki/Anglican_Communion_Primates%27_Meeting "Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting") (the heads of the Anglican Communion's 38 member churches) was convened in October 2003, which warned that if Robinson's consecration proceeded, it could "tear the fabric of the communion at its deepest level."[Anglican Communion News Service](http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/36/25/acns3633.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930022307/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/36/25/acns3633\.html \|date\=September 30, 2007 }} The primates also appointed a commission to study these issues, which issued the [Windsor Report](/wiki/Windsor_Report "Windsor Report") the following year. At the request of the commission issuing the Windsor Report, the Episcopal Church released *To Set Our Hope on Christ* on June 21, 2005, which explains "how a person living in a same gender union may be considered eligible to lead the flock of Christ."[Theologians offer response to Windsor Report request: Paper cites 40\-year consideration of same\-gender relationships](http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577_63039_ENG_HTM.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913111504/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577\_63039\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|date\=2007\-09\-13 }} from Episcopal News Service.
Robinson was consecrated on November 2, 2003, in the presence of Frank Griswold, the Presiding Bishop, and 47 bishops.{{cite book \|last\=Adams \|first\=Elizabeth \|title\=Going to Heaven: The Life and Election of Bishop Gene Robinson \|year\=2006 \|publisher\=Soft Skull Press \|location\=Brooklyn, NY \|isbn\=1\-933368\-22\-5}}
The General Convention of 2003 also passed a resolution discouraging the use of [conversion therapy](/wiki/Conversion_therapy "Conversion therapy") to attempt to change [homosexuals](/wiki/Homosexuals "Homosexuals") into [heterosexuals](/wiki/Heterosexuals "Heterosexuals").The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \#2003\-C004, Oppose Certain Therapies for Sexual Orientation](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=2003-C004). 2008\-10\-31\.
In 2009, the General Convention responded to societal, political and legal changes in the status of [civil marriage for same\-sex couples](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") by giving bishops an option to provide "generous pastoral support" especially where civil authorities have legalized same\-gender marriage, civil unions, or domestic partnerships. It also charged the Standing Commission on Liturgy and Music to develop theological and liturgical resources for same\-sex blessings and report back to the General Convention in 2012\.[76th General Convention Legislation](http://generalconvention.org/gc/legislation) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208220632/http://generalconvention.org/gc/legislation \|date\=2010\-12\-08 }}, [Resolution C056](http://38.149.19.55/ViewLegislation/view_leg_detail.aspx?id=898&type=Final) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424190216/http://38\.149\.19\.55/ViewLegislation/view\_leg\_detail.aspx?id\=898\&type\=Final \|date\=2012\-04\-24 }}. Retrieved August 18, 2010\.
The same General Convention also voted that "any ordained ministry" is open to gay men and lesbians.Laurie Goodstein,[Episcopal Vote Reopens a Door to Gay Bishops](https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/15episcopal.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times"), July 14, 2009*. Retrieved on July 21, 2009\. *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* said the move was "likely to send shockwaves through the Anglican Communion."{{cite news\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/15episcopal.html \| work\=The New York Times \| title\=Episcopal Vote Reopens a Door to Gay Bishops \| first\=Laurie \| last\=Goodstein \| date\=2009\-07\-15 \| access\-date\=2010\-05\-02}} This vote ended a moratorium on ordaining gay bishops passed in 2006 and passed in spite of Archbishop [Rowan Williams](/wiki/Rowan_Williams "Rowan Williams")'s personal call at the start of the convention that, "I hope and pray that there won't be decisions in the coming days that will push us further apart." A noted [Evangelical](/wiki/Evangelicalism "Evangelicalism") scholar of the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament"), [N. T. Wright](/wiki/N._T._Wright "N. T. Wright"), who is also [Bishop of Durham](/wiki/Bishop_of_Durham "Bishop of Durham") in the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England "Church of England"), wrote in *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")* (London) that the vote "marks a clear break with the rest of the Anglican Communion" and formalizes the Anglican schism.[Tom Wright](/wiki/N._T._Wright "N. T. Wright"), [The Americans know this will end in schism—Support by US Episcopalians for homosexual clergy is contrary to Anglican faith and tradition. They are leaving the family](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801194047/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article6710640.ece), *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")*, July 15, 2009\. Retrieved on July 21, 2009\. However, in another resolution the Convention voted to "reaffirm the continued participation" and "reaffirm the abiding commitment" of the Episcopal Church with Anglican Communion.{{cite web \|url\=http://gc2009\.org/ViewLegislation \|title\=Resolution D025 \|publisher\=Gc2009\.org \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-28 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028174917/http://gc2009\.org/ViewLegislation/ \|archive\-date\=2010\-10\-28 \|url\-status\=dead }}
### A woman as Presiding Bishop
The 2006 election of The Rev. Katharine Jefferts Schori as the Church's 26th presiding bishop was controversial in the wider Anglican Communion because she is a woman and the full Anglican communion does not recognize the ordination of women. She is the only national leader of a church in the Anglican Communion who is a woman. Prior to her election she was [Bishop of Nevada](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Nevada "Episcopal Diocese of Nevada"). She was elected at the 75th General Convention on June 18, 2006, and invested at the [Washington National Cathedral](/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral "Washington National Cathedral") on November 4, 2006\.
Jefferts Schori generated controversy when she voted to confirm openly gay Gene Robinson as a bishop and for allowing [blessings of same\-sex unions](/wiki/Blessing_of_same-sex_unions_in_Christian_churches "Blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches") in her diocese of Nevada.
During her time as Presiding Bishop, ten [primates](/wiki/Primate_%28bishop%29 "Primate (bishop)") of the Anglican communion stated that they did not recognize Jefferts Schori as a primate.{{Citation needed\|date\=December 2009}} In addition, eight American dioceses rejected her authority and asked [Archbishop of Canterbury](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury "Archbishop of Canterbury") [Rowan Williams](/wiki/Rowan_Williams "Rowan Williams") to assign them another national leader.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577\_77919\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|title\=Episcopal Diocese of Quincy seeks alternative oversight \|publisher\=Episcopalchurch.org \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081112061319/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577\_77919\_ENG\_HTM.htm \|archive\-date\=2008\-11\-12 }}
### Conservative reactions to these developments
These innovations have been responded to in various ways. The opposition to Ritualism produced the [Reformed Episcopal Church](/wiki/Reformed_Episcopal_Church "Reformed Episcopal Church") in 1873\. Opposition to the ordination of women priests and to theological revisions incorporated into the Episcopal Church's 1979 Book of Common Prayer led to the formation of the [Continuing Anglican movement](/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement "Continuing Anglican movement") in 1977; and opposition to the consecration of the first ever openly homosexual bishop led to the creation of the [Anglican Church in North America](/wiki/Anglican_Church_in_North_America "Anglican Church in North America"). It officially organized in 2009, forming yet another ecclesiastical structure apart from the Episcopal Church.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/rick.warren.to.address.breakaway.anglicans/23149\.htm\|title\=Rick Warren to address breakaway Anglicans\|date\=23 April 2009 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.united\-anglicans.org/stream/2009/04/assemblyspeakers.html\|title\=Pastor Rick Warren, Metropolitan Jonah, the Rev. Dr. Todd Hunter to Address ACNA Assembly\|access\-date\=2010\-12\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526072437/http://www.united\-anglicans.org/stream/2009/04/assemblyspeakers.html\|archive\-date\=2009\-05\-26\|url\-status\=dead}} This grouping, which reported at its founding that it represented approximately 100,000 Christians through its over 700 parishes, elected former Episcopal priest [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28bishop%29 "Robert Duncan (bishop)") as its primate. The ACNA has not been received as an official member of the [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion "Anglican Communion") by the Church of England, and is not in communion with the see of Canterbury, but many Anglican churches of the [Global South](/wiki/Global_South "Global South"), such as the [Church of Nigeria](/wiki/Church_of_Nigeria "Church of Nigeria") and [Church of Uganda](/wiki/Church_of_Uganda "Church of Uganda"), together representing approximately 1/3 of the worldwide Anglican Communion, have declared themselves to be in full communion with it.
The two main movements in opposition to the developments within the Episcopal Church are generally referred to as the [Continuing Anglican movement](/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement "Continuing Anglican movement") and [Anglican realignment](/wiki/Anglican_realignment "Anglican realignment").
#### Secession and realignment
{{Main\|Anglican realignment}}
In 1977, 1,600 bishops, clergy and lay people met in St. Louis and formed the [Congress of St. Louis](/wiki/Congress_of_St._Louis "Congress of St. Louis") under the leadership of retired Episcopal bishop Albert Chambers.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.anglicancatholic.org/affirmstlouis.html \|title\=News \& Announcements \|publisher\=Anglicancatholic.org \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16 \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-13 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313201126/http://anglicancatholic.org/affirmstlouis.html \|url\-status\=dead }} This began the Continuing Anglican Movement with the adoption of the [Affirmation of St. Louis](/wiki/Affirmation_of_St._Louis "Affirmation of St. Louis"). Many other conservative groups have continued to break away out of frustration over the Church's position on homosexuality, the ordination of openly homosexual priests and bishops, and abortion — or rather, the way the Episcopal Church has viewed the place of Scripture in determining doctrine on those issues. In addition to those which have affiliated with one of the Continuing Anglican churches or the Anglican Church in North America, there are also congregations that have joined one of the Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions, [Old Catholicism](/wiki/Old_Catholic "Old Catholic"), or the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church").
Five diocesan conventions have voted to withdraw from the Episcopal Church: the Diocese of San Joaquin, the Diocese of Fort Worth, the Diocese of Quincy, the Diocese of Pittsburgh, and the Diocese of South Carolina. This does not include individual congregations that have also withdrawn, as in the [Diocese of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia "Episcopal Diocese of Virginia") where members of eight parishes voted to leave the Episcopal Church. Included were the historic [Falls Church](/wiki/The_Falls_Church "The Falls Church") and [Truro Church](/wiki/Truro_Church_%28Fairfax%2C_Virginia%29 "Truro Church (Fairfax, Virginia)"). These congregations then formed the [Anglican District of Virginia](/wiki/Anglican_District_of_Virginia "Anglican District of Virginia"), which became part of the [Convocation of Anglicans in North America](/wiki/Convocation_of_Anglicans_in_North_America "Convocation of Anglicans in North America") (CANA).
The first diocesan convention to vote to break with the Episcopal Church (which has 110 dioceses) was the [Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_San_Joaquin "Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin").{{cite news\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/us/03episcopal.html?ex\=1322802000\&en\=2b7ab526f61329c4\&ei\=5088\&partner\=rssnyt\&emc\=rss \| work\=The New York Times \| title\=Episcopal Diocese Votes to Secede From Church \| first1\=Laurie \| last1\=Goodstein \| first2\=Carolyn \| last2\=Marshall \| date\=2006\-12\-03 \| access\-date\=2010\-05\-02}} On December 8, 2007, the convention of the Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin voted to secede from the Episcopal Church and join the [Anglican Province of the Southern Cone](/wiki/Anglican_Province_of_the_Southern_Cone "Anglican Province of the Southern Cone"), a more conservative and traditional member of the Anglican Communion located in South America.[Role of gays prompts split in Episcopal Church](http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/12/08/episcopalians.secession.ap/index.html), AP/CNN, December 8, 2007 The diocese had 48 parishes. A minority of parishes and individuals reorganized the diocese and remained in the Episcopal Church.["Episcopal Diocese Votes to Secede From Church"](https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/us/03episcopal.html?ex=1322802000&en=2b7ab526f61329c4&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss), an article in *The New York Times* by Laurie Goodstein and Carolyn Marshall, December 3, 2006 On July 21, 2009, the Superior Court of California ruled that the diocese cannot leave the Episcopal Church and that these acts were void, however, not until 2016 was litigation fully resolved and did those who remained in the Episcopal Church gain control of the property.[http://s3\.amazonaws.com/dfc\_attachments/public/documents/356/Order\-MSA.PDF](http://s3.amazonaws.com/dfc_attachments/public/documents/356/Order-MSA.PDF); "California Supreme Court Upholds Ruling in San Joaquin Property Case," [http://episcopaldigitalnetwork.com/ens/2016/07/14/california\-supreme\-court\-upholds\-ruling\-in\-san\-joaquin\-property\-case/](http://episcopaldigitalnetwork.com/ens/2016/07/14/california-supreme-court-upholds-ruling-in-san-joaquin-property-case/) On October 4, 2008, the convention of the [Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Pittsburgh_%28Episcopal_Church%29 "Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh (Episcopal Church)") also voted to leave the Episcopal Church and join the Province of the Southern Cone. This split occurred after the [House of Bishops](/wiki/House_of_Bishops "House of Bishops"), [deposed](/wiki/Deposition_%28politics%29 "Deposition (politics)") Robert Duncan from office in September 2008\. Duncan had led the diocese for 11 years.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008\-10\-06\-episcopal\-divided\_N.htm \|title\=Pittsburgh diocese votes to split from Episcopal Church — USATODAY.com \|publisher\=Usatoday.com \|author\=Joe Mandak, Associated Press \|date\= 2008\-10\-06\|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16}} One third of the parishes and members of the Pittsburgh Diocese remained in the Episcopal Church and had received recognition as the Episcopal Diocese within a week of the convention vote.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/library/article/pittsburgh\-votes\-leave\-episcopal\-church\-align\-southern\-cone\|title \= Homepage}}
The conventions of the [Diocese of Quincy](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Quincy "Episcopal Diocese of Quincy") in Illinois and the [Diocese of Fort Worth](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Fort_Worth_%28Episcopal_Church%29 "Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth (Episcopal Church)") voted in November 2008 to leave the Episcopal Church. On November 15, 2008, the convention of the [Diocese of Fort Worth](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Fort_Worth_%28Episcopal_Church%29 "Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth (Episcopal Church)"), under the leadership of [Jack Leo Iker](/wiki/Jack_Leo_Iker "Jack Leo Iker") and with the vote of 80 percent of the voting clergy and laity, also voted to align with the Province of the Southern Cone.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.star\-telegram.com/804/story/1041377\.html\|newspaper\=Fort Worth Star\-Telegram\|title\=Fort Worth Episcopal Diocese votes to leave mother church\|date\=November 15, 2008\|author\=Terry Lee Goodrich}} As in the earlier cases, the remaining Episcopalians reorganized as a diocese. In response to the departure of Iker and the Fort Worth diocese, Jefferts Schori declared that Iker had "abandoned the communion" and joined with the local diocese in suing Iker and followers, seeking to reclaim church buildings and property.{{cite magazine\|title\=Bishop takes Castle\|url\=http://www.texasmonthly.com/2010\-02\-01/letterfromfortworth\-1\.php\|author\=S.G. Gwynne\|magazine\=\[\[Texas Monthly]]\|date\=1 February 2010\|access\-date\=2 May 2010}} On November 16, 2009, the appellate court issued an order staying the litigation while certain procedural issues were decided by the appellate court.{{Cite court\|litigants\=In re: Franklin Salazar et al.\|vol\=\|reporter\=\|opinion\=\|pinpoint\=\|court\=2nd Court of Appeals, Fort Worth\|date\=16 November 2009\|url\=http://www.fwepiscopal.org/downloads/appellatecourtnov16\.pdf }} On April 27, 2010, the Second Court of Appeals in Fort Worth heard oral argument on issues that may determine whether the litigation will be allowed to proceed at the trial level.{{Cite journal\|title\=Oral argument ''In re: Salazar et al''\|url\=http://www.2ndcoa.courts.state.tx.us/oa/2009/09405CV.mp3\|publisher\=Second Court of Appeals, Fort Worth\|date\=27 April 2010\|access\-date\=2 May 2010}}
Two years later the Episcopal Diocese of South Carolina declared that an earlier vote by their Standing Committee was now in effect and that they had left the Episcopal Church. The Diocese then held a special convention in November 2012 to affirm that action. However, Bishop Lawrence and his followers did not immediately join the Anglican Church of North America and remained a free standing diocese. They almost immediately sued in South Carolina Courts, claiming they were doing so to protect their property. The court ordered those staying in the Episcopal Church to refrain from calling themselves the Diocese of South Carolina. That group then sued in federal court to recover their name. Both the state court case and the federal case remain in litigation."Law Meets Religion as SC Supreme Court Takes on Episcopal Split" [http://www.thestate.com/news/local/article36286839\.html](http://www.thestate.com/news/local/article36286839.html)
Jefferts Schori has criticized these moves and stated that [schism](/wiki/Schism_%28religion%29 "Schism (religion)") is not an "honored tradition within Anglicanism" and claims schism has "frequently been seen as a more egregious error than charges of [heresy](/wiki/Heresy "Heresy")." In Pittsburgh one member of the Standing Committee remained in the Episcopal Church and some members of each of the other governing bodies also remained. Those remaining in the Episcopal Church were recognized immediately by the Presiding Bishop and executive Council of the Episcopal Church as the continuation of the old diocese and began rebuilding without further help from the church.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/frontpage/2008/10/10/Minority\-recognized\-as\-true\-Episcopal\-Diocese/stories/200810100232\|title \= Minority recognized as 'true' Episcopal Diocese}} A lawsuit filed in 2003, settled in 2005, reopened in 2007 and decided 2009 with final appeals in 2010 awarded the name and diocesan property to those who remained in the Episcopal Church in Pittsburgh.Harold Lewis, The Recent Unpleasantness: Calvary Church's Role in the Preservation of the Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Pittsburgh, Eugene OR: Wipf and Stock, 2015\. In the other four dioceses diocese where parishioners have voted to leave, the Presiding Bishop provided interim listeners and presided at an organizing convention. In all four cases, both those who left the Episcopal Church and those who remained claimed that their organizations were the "real" Episcopal Diocese. In 2016 the California Supreme Court refused to review lower court rulings recognizing those who had remained in the Episcopal Church as the legal owners of the property and name. Courts in Illinois ruled against the Episcopalians and awarded the property to the ACNA diocese.
#### Church property litigation
In 1993, the Connecticut Supreme Court concluded that former parishioners of a local Episcopal church could not keep the property held in the name of that parish because it found that a relationship existed between the local and general church such that a legally enforceable trust existed in favor of the general church over the local church's property.Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church 620 A.2d 1280, 1293 (Conn. 1993\) The court stated the local church "had agreed, as a condition to their formation as ecclesiastical organizations affiliated with the Diocese and \[the Episcopal Church], to use and hold their property only for the greater purposes of the church." (Id. at p. 1292\.) Specifically an Episcopal Church law, (which it called the "Dennis Canon"), "adopted in 1979 merely codified in explicit terms a trust relationship that has been implicit in the relationship between local parishes and dioceses since the founding of \[the Episcopal Church] in 1789\." (Ibid.) Accordingly, it found "a legally enforceable trust in favor of the general church in the property claimed by the \[local church]."
On December 19, 2008, a Virginia trial court ruled that eleven congregations of former Episcopalians could keep parish property when the members of these congregations split from the Episcopal church to form the [Anglican District of Virginia](/wiki/Anglican_District_of_Virginia "Anglican District of Virginia") (ADV).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.virtueonline.org/portal/modules/news/article.php?storyid\=9599 \|title\=News — Exclusives — FAIRFAX, Va.: Anglican District of Virginia Wins Church Property Case \|publisher\=VirtueOnline \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-28}} The Episcopal Church claimed that the property belonged to it under the canon law of the Episcopal Church after appeals reached the Virginia Supreme Court, a new trial was ordered which resulted in a decision returning the property to the Episcopal Church.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thediocese.net/News/newsView.asp?NewsId\=40968295\|title \= Press Release}} Subsequent appeals by those who had left the Episcopal Church were unsuccessful including an appeal by one parish to the U.S. Supreme Court in 2014\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thediocese.net/News/newsView.asp?NewsId\=40968342\|title \= Press Release}}
Other rulings in Colorado and California have ordered congregations that have voted to change their associations within the Anglican Communion to return their properties to the Episcopal Church.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.graceandststephens.org/news/Judge%20Schwartz%27s%20Order%20on%20Grace%20Church%20032409\.pdf \|title\=Judge Schwartz Order on Grace Church \|publisher\=Public Record \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-26}}; see also, [http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/revpub/D051120\.PDF](http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/revpub/D051120.PDF) On January 5, 2009, the California Supreme Court ruled that [St. James Anglican Church](/wiki/St._James_Anglican_Church_%28Newport_Beach%29 "St. James Anglican Church (Newport Beach)") in [Newport Beach](/wiki/Newport_Beach%2C_California "Newport Beach, California") could not keep property held in the name of an Episcopal parish. The court concluded that even though the local church's names were on the property deeds for many years, the local churches had agreed to be part of the general church.[In re Episcopal Church Cases, Case No. S155094](http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/documents/S155094.PDF) This decision took numerous arguments into account, including court rulings on similar Episcopal Church cases in other states: "Other Episcopal Church cases reaching similar conclusions include: Bishop and Diocese of Colorado v. Mote (Colo. 1986\) 716 P.2d 85; Episcopal Diocese of Mass. v. Devine (Mass.App.Ct. 2003\) 797 N.E.2d 916 (relying on Canon I.7\.4 and the fact the local church had agreed to accede to the general church's canons); Bennison v. Sharp (Mich.Ct.App. 1983\) 329 N.W.2d 466; Protestant Episc. Church, etc. v. Graves (N.J. 1980\) 417 A.2d 19; The Diocese v. Trinity Epis. Church (App.Div. 1999\) 684 N.Y.S.2d 76, 81 ("\[T]he 'Dennis Canon' amendment expressly codifies a trust relationship which has implicitly existed between the local parishes and their dioceses throughout the history of the Protestant Episcopal Church," citing Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church, supra, 620 A.2d 1280\); Daniel v. Wray (N.C.Ct.App. 2003\) 580 S.E.2d 711 (relying on Canon I.7\.4\); In re Church of St. James the Less (Pa. 2005\) 888 A.2d 795 (relying on Canon I.7\.4 and citing Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church, supra, 620 A.2d 1280\)."
Property litigation in Pittsburgh began before the split when Calvary Episcopal Church filed suit against Duncan in 2003 in order to ensure diocesan property remained in the Episcopal Church. A second parish, St. Stephen's in Wilkinsburg later joined Calvary as a plaintiff. This resulted in a signed stipulation specifying that diocesan property would remain the property of the Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh in the Episcopal Church U.S.A.,<http://deimel.org/commentary/b_pages/stipulation.pdf> {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} In 2009, the Judge of the Court of Common Pleas ruled that the 2005 agreement signed by Duncan to settle the Lawsuit brought by Calvary Church meant that diocesan property belonged to those remaining in the Episcopal Church.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.pitanglican.org/media/courtorder100609\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2014\-11\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012031039/http://www.pitanglican.org/media/courtorder100609\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-12 \|url\-status\=dead }} This was confirmed in January 2010 with a decision including a schedule of property to be returned.{{Cite web \| url\=http://episcopaldiocesefortworth.org/judge\-orders\-property\-returned\-to\-episcopal\-diocese\-of\-pittsburgh/ \|title \= Judge orders property returned to Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh\|date \= 2 February 2010}} The group that left changed its name to the Anglican Diocese of Pittsburgh, but appealed the decision. In 2011, a panel of judges from the appellate court in Pennsylvania affirmed that ruling, and the full appellate court declined to review the ruling. The state supreme court also declined to hear an appeal.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.pitanglican.org/media/PA\_Supreme\_Court\_Appeal\_rejection.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2014\-11\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110111403/http://www.pitanglican.org/media/PA\_Supreme\_Court\_Appeal\_rejection.pdf \|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-10 \|url\-status\=dead }} The Anglican Diocese of Pittsburgh announced that it would not pursue further appeals.
|
[
"21st century Anglican issues\n----------------------------",
"### Gay and lesbian access to marriage and the episcopate",
"{{See also\\|Homosexuality and Anglicanism}}\n[180px\\|thumb\\|left\\|[Gene Robinson](/wiki/Gene_Robinson \"Gene Robinson\"), [Bishop of New Hampshire](/wiki/Bishop_of_New_Hampshire \"Bishop of New Hampshire\")](/wiki/File:Gene_Robinson.jpg \"Gene Robinson.jpg\")",
"The first openly homosexual bishop, [Gene Robinson](/wiki/Gene_Robinson \"Gene Robinson\"), was elected on June 7, 2003, at St. Paul's Church in [Concord, New Hampshire](/wiki/Concord%2C_New_Hampshire \"Concord, New Hampshire\"). Thirty\\-nine clergy votes and 83 lay votes was the threshold necessary to elect a bishop in the [Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_New_Hampshire \"Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire\") at that time. The clergy voted 58 votes for Robinson and the laity voted 96 for Robinson on the second ballot. Consent to the election of Robinson was given at the 2003 General Convention. The House of Bishops voted in the affirmative, with 62 in favor, 43 opposed, and 2 abstaining. The House of Deputies, which consists of laypersons and priests, also voted in the affirmative: the laity voted 63 in favor, 32 opposed, and 13 divided; the clergy voted 65 in favor, 31 opposed, and 12 divided.",
"In response, a [meeting of the Anglican primates](/wiki/Anglican_Communion_Primates%27_Meeting \"Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting\") (the heads of the Anglican Communion's 38 member churches) was convened in October 2003, which warned that if Robinson's consecration proceeded, it could \"tear the fabric of the communion at its deepest level.\"[Anglican Communion News Service](http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/36/25/acns3633.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930022307/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/36/25/acns3633\\.html \\|date\\=September 30, 2007 }} The primates also appointed a commission to study these issues, which issued the [Windsor Report](/wiki/Windsor_Report \"Windsor Report\") the following year. At the request of the commission issuing the Windsor Report, the Episcopal Church released *To Set Our Hope on Christ* on June 21, 2005, which explains \"how a person living in a same gender union may be considered eligible to lead the flock of Christ.\"[Theologians offer response to Windsor Report request: Paper cites 40\\-year consideration of same\\-gender relationships](http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577_63039_ENG_HTM.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913111504/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577\\_63039\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|date\\=2007\\-09\\-13 }} from Episcopal News Service.",
"Robinson was consecrated on November 2, 2003, in the presence of Frank Griswold, the Presiding Bishop, and 47 bishops.{{cite book \\|last\\=Adams \\|first\\=Elizabeth \\|title\\=Going to Heaven: The Life and Election of Bishop Gene Robinson \\|year\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Soft Skull Press \\|location\\=Brooklyn, NY \\|isbn\\=1\\-933368\\-22\\-5}}",
"The General Convention of 2003 also passed a resolution discouraging the use of [conversion therapy](/wiki/Conversion_therapy \"Conversion therapy\") to attempt to change [homosexuals](/wiki/Homosexuals \"Homosexuals\") into [heterosexuals](/wiki/Heterosexuals \"Heterosexuals\").The Archives of the Episcopal Church, [Acts of Convention: Resolution \\#2003\\-C004, Oppose Certain Therapies for Sexual Orientation](http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?resolution=2003-C004). 2008\\-10\\-31\\.",
"In 2009, the General Convention responded to societal, political and legal changes in the status of [civil marriage for same\\-sex couples](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") by giving bishops an option to provide \"generous pastoral support\" especially where civil authorities have legalized same\\-gender marriage, civil unions, or domestic partnerships. It also charged the Standing Commission on Liturgy and Music to develop theological and liturgical resources for same\\-sex blessings and report back to the General Convention in 2012\\.[76th General Convention Legislation](http://generalconvention.org/gc/legislation) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208220632/http://generalconvention.org/gc/legislation \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-08 }}, [Resolution C056](http://38.149.19.55/ViewLegislation/view_leg_detail.aspx?id=898&type=Final) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424190216/http://38\\.149\\.19\\.55/ViewLegislation/view\\_leg\\_detail.aspx?id\\=898\\&type\\=Final \\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-24 }}. Retrieved August 18, 2010\\.",
"The same General Convention also voted that \"any ordained ministry\" is open to gay men and lesbians.Laurie Goodstein,[Episcopal Vote Reopens a Door to Gay Bishops](https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/15episcopal.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\"), July 14, 2009*. Retrieved on July 21, 2009\\. *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* said the move was \"likely to send shockwaves through the Anglican Communion.\"{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/15episcopal.html \\| work\\=The New York Times \\| title\\=Episcopal Vote Reopens a Door to Gay Bishops \\| first\\=Laurie \\| last\\=Goodstein \\| date\\=2009\\-07\\-15 \\| access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-02}} This vote ended a moratorium on ordaining gay bishops passed in 2006 and passed in spite of Archbishop [Rowan Williams](/wiki/Rowan_Williams \"Rowan Williams\")'s personal call at the start of the convention that, \"I hope and pray that there won't be decisions in the coming days that will push us further apart.\" A noted [Evangelical](/wiki/Evangelicalism \"Evangelicalism\") scholar of the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\"), [N. T. Wright](/wiki/N._T._Wright \"N. T. Wright\"), who is also [Bishop of Durham](/wiki/Bishop_of_Durham \"Bishop of Durham\") in the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\"), wrote in *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")* (London) that the vote \"marks a clear break with the rest of the Anglican Communion\" and formalizes the Anglican schism.[Tom Wright](/wiki/N._T._Wright \"N. T. Wright\"), [The Americans know this will end in schism—Support by US Episcopalians for homosexual clergy is contrary to Anglican faith and tradition. They are leaving the family](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801194047/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article6710640.ece), *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")*, July 15, 2009\\. Retrieved on July 21, 2009\\. However, in another resolution the Convention voted to \"reaffirm the continued participation\" and \"reaffirm the abiding commitment\" of the Episcopal Church with Anglican Communion.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://gc2009\\.org/ViewLegislation \\|title\\=Resolution D025 \\|publisher\\=Gc2009\\.org \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-28 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028174917/http://gc2009\\.org/ViewLegislation/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### A woman as Presiding Bishop",
"The 2006 election of The Rev. Katharine Jefferts Schori as the Church's 26th presiding bishop was controversial in the wider Anglican Communion because she is a woman and the full Anglican communion does not recognize the ordination of women. She is the only national leader of a church in the Anglican Communion who is a woman. Prior to her election she was [Bishop of Nevada](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Nevada \"Episcopal Diocese of Nevada\"). She was elected at the 75th General Convention on June 18, 2006, and invested at the [Washington National Cathedral](/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral \"Washington National Cathedral\") on November 4, 2006\\.",
"Jefferts Schori generated controversy when she voted to confirm openly gay Gene Robinson as a bishop and for allowing [blessings of same\\-sex unions](/wiki/Blessing_of_same-sex_unions_in_Christian_churches \"Blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches\") in her diocese of Nevada.",
"During her time as Presiding Bishop, ten [primates](/wiki/Primate_%28bishop%29 \"Primate (bishop)\") of the Anglican communion stated that they did not recognize Jefferts Schori as a primate.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=December 2009}} In addition, eight American dioceses rejected her authority and asked [Archbishop of Canterbury](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury \"Archbishop of Canterbury\") [Rowan Williams](/wiki/Rowan_Williams \"Rowan Williams\") to assign them another national leader.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577\\_77919\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|title\\=Episcopal Diocese of Quincy seeks alternative oversight \\|publisher\\=Episcopalchurch.org \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081112061319/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577\\_77919\\_ENG\\_HTM.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-12 }}",
"### Conservative reactions to these developments",
"These innovations have been responded to in various ways. The opposition to Ritualism produced the [Reformed Episcopal Church](/wiki/Reformed_Episcopal_Church \"Reformed Episcopal Church\") in 1873\\. Opposition to the ordination of women priests and to theological revisions incorporated into the Episcopal Church's 1979 Book of Common Prayer led to the formation of the [Continuing Anglican movement](/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement \"Continuing Anglican movement\") in 1977; and opposition to the consecration of the first ever openly homosexual bishop led to the creation of the [Anglican Church in North America](/wiki/Anglican_Church_in_North_America \"Anglican Church in North America\"). It officially organized in 2009, forming yet another ecclesiastical structure apart from the Episcopal Church.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/rick.warren.to.address.breakaway.anglicans/23149\\.htm\\|title\\=Rick Warren to address breakaway Anglicans\\|date\\=23 April 2009 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.united\\-anglicans.org/stream/2009/04/assemblyspeakers.html\\|title\\=Pastor Rick Warren, Metropolitan Jonah, the Rev. Dr. Todd Hunter to Address ACNA Assembly\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526072437/http://www.united\\-anglicans.org/stream/2009/04/assemblyspeakers.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-05\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} This grouping, which reported at its founding that it represented approximately 100,000 Christians through its over 700 parishes, elected former Episcopal priest [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28bishop%29 \"Robert Duncan (bishop)\") as its primate. The ACNA has not been received as an official member of the [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion \"Anglican Communion\") by the Church of England, and is not in communion with the see of Canterbury, but many Anglican churches of the [Global South](/wiki/Global_South \"Global South\"), such as the [Church of Nigeria](/wiki/Church_of_Nigeria \"Church of Nigeria\") and [Church of Uganda](/wiki/Church_of_Uganda \"Church of Uganda\"), together representing approximately 1/3 of the worldwide Anglican Communion, have declared themselves to be in full communion with it.",
"The two main movements in opposition to the developments within the Episcopal Church are generally referred to as the [Continuing Anglican movement](/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement \"Continuing Anglican movement\") and [Anglican realignment](/wiki/Anglican_realignment \"Anglican realignment\").",
"#### Secession and realignment",
"{{Main\\|Anglican realignment}}\nIn 1977, 1,600 bishops, clergy and lay people met in St. Louis and formed the [Congress of St. Louis](/wiki/Congress_of_St._Louis \"Congress of St. Louis\") under the leadership of retired Episcopal bishop Albert Chambers.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.anglicancatholic.org/affirmstlouis.html \\|title\\=News \\& Announcements \\|publisher\\=Anglicancatholic.org \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-13 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313201126/http://anglicancatholic.org/affirmstlouis.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} This began the Continuing Anglican Movement with the adoption of the [Affirmation of St. Louis](/wiki/Affirmation_of_St._Louis \"Affirmation of St. Louis\"). Many other conservative groups have continued to break away out of frustration over the Church's position on homosexuality, the ordination of openly homosexual priests and bishops, and abortion — or rather, the way the Episcopal Church has viewed the place of Scripture in determining doctrine on those issues. In addition to those which have affiliated with one of the Continuing Anglican churches or the Anglican Church in North America, there are also congregations that have joined one of the Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions, [Old Catholicism](/wiki/Old_Catholic \"Old Catholic\"), or the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\").",
"Five diocesan conventions have voted to withdraw from the Episcopal Church: the Diocese of San Joaquin, the Diocese of Fort Worth, the Diocese of Quincy, the Diocese of Pittsburgh, and the Diocese of South Carolina. This does not include individual congregations that have also withdrawn, as in the [Diocese of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia \"Episcopal Diocese of Virginia\") where members of eight parishes voted to leave the Episcopal Church. Included were the historic [Falls Church](/wiki/The_Falls_Church \"The Falls Church\") and [Truro Church](/wiki/Truro_Church_%28Fairfax%2C_Virginia%29 \"Truro Church (Fairfax, Virginia)\"). These congregations then formed the [Anglican District of Virginia](/wiki/Anglican_District_of_Virginia \"Anglican District of Virginia\"), which became part of the [Convocation of Anglicans in North America](/wiki/Convocation_of_Anglicans_in_North_America \"Convocation of Anglicans in North America\") (CANA).",
"The first diocesan convention to vote to break with the Episcopal Church (which has 110 dioceses) was the [Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_San_Joaquin \"Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin\").{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/us/03episcopal.html?ex\\=1322802000\\&en\\=2b7ab526f61329c4\\&ei\\=5088\\&partner\\=rssnyt\\&emc\\=rss \\| work\\=The New York Times \\| title\\=Episcopal Diocese Votes to Secede From Church \\| first1\\=Laurie \\| last1\\=Goodstein \\| first2\\=Carolyn \\| last2\\=Marshall \\| date\\=2006\\-12\\-03 \\| access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-02}} On December 8, 2007, the convention of the Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin voted to secede from the Episcopal Church and join the [Anglican Province of the Southern Cone](/wiki/Anglican_Province_of_the_Southern_Cone \"Anglican Province of the Southern Cone\"), a more conservative and traditional member of the Anglican Communion located in South America.[Role of gays prompts split in Episcopal Church](http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/12/08/episcopalians.secession.ap/index.html), AP/CNN, December 8, 2007 The diocese had 48 parishes. A minority of parishes and individuals reorganized the diocese and remained in the Episcopal Church.[\"Episcopal Diocese Votes to Secede From Church\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/us/03episcopal.html?ex=1322802000&en=2b7ab526f61329c4&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss), an article in *The New York Times* by Laurie Goodstein and Carolyn Marshall, December 3, 2006 On July 21, 2009, the Superior Court of California ruled that the diocese cannot leave the Episcopal Church and that these acts were void, however, not until 2016 was litigation fully resolved and did those who remained in the Episcopal Church gain control of the property.[http://s3\\.amazonaws.com/dfc\\_attachments/public/documents/356/Order\\-MSA.PDF](http://s3.amazonaws.com/dfc_attachments/public/documents/356/Order-MSA.PDF); \"California Supreme Court Upholds Ruling in San Joaquin Property Case,\" [http://episcopaldigitalnetwork.com/ens/2016/07/14/california\\-supreme\\-court\\-upholds\\-ruling\\-in\\-san\\-joaquin\\-property\\-case/](http://episcopaldigitalnetwork.com/ens/2016/07/14/california-supreme-court-upholds-ruling-in-san-joaquin-property-case/) On October 4, 2008, the convention of the [Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Pittsburgh_%28Episcopal_Church%29 \"Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh (Episcopal Church)\") also voted to leave the Episcopal Church and join the Province of the Southern Cone. This split occurred after the [House of Bishops](/wiki/House_of_Bishops \"House of Bishops\"), [deposed](/wiki/Deposition_%28politics%29 \"Deposition (politics)\") Robert Duncan from office in September 2008\\. Duncan had led the diocese for 11 years.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008\\-10\\-06\\-episcopal\\-divided\\_N.htm \\|title\\=Pittsburgh diocese votes to split from Episcopal Church — USATODAY.com \\|publisher\\=Usatoday.com \\|author\\=Joe Mandak, Associated Press \\|date\\= 2008\\-10\\-06\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16}} One third of the parishes and members of the Pittsburgh Diocese remained in the Episcopal Church and had received recognition as the Episcopal Diocese within a week of the convention vote.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/library/article/pittsburgh\\-votes\\-leave\\-episcopal\\-church\\-align\\-southern\\-cone\\|title \\= Homepage}}",
"The conventions of the [Diocese of Quincy](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Quincy \"Episcopal Diocese of Quincy\") in Illinois and the [Diocese of Fort Worth](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Fort_Worth_%28Episcopal_Church%29 \"Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth (Episcopal Church)\") voted in November 2008 to leave the Episcopal Church. On November 15, 2008, the convention of the [Diocese of Fort Worth](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Fort_Worth_%28Episcopal_Church%29 \"Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth (Episcopal Church)\"), under the leadership of [Jack Leo Iker](/wiki/Jack_Leo_Iker \"Jack Leo Iker\") and with the vote of 80 percent of the voting clergy and laity, also voted to align with the Province of the Southern Cone.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.star\\-telegram.com/804/story/1041377\\.html\\|newspaper\\=Fort Worth Star\\-Telegram\\|title\\=Fort Worth Episcopal Diocese votes to leave mother church\\|date\\=November 15, 2008\\|author\\=Terry Lee Goodrich}} As in the earlier cases, the remaining Episcopalians reorganized as a diocese. In response to the departure of Iker and the Fort Worth diocese, Jefferts Schori declared that Iker had \"abandoned the communion\" and joined with the local diocese in suing Iker and followers, seeking to reclaim church buildings and property.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Bishop takes Castle\\|url\\=http://www.texasmonthly.com/2010\\-02\\-01/letterfromfortworth\\-1\\.php\\|author\\=S.G. Gwynne\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Texas Monthly]]\\|date\\=1 February 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2010}} On November 16, 2009, the appellate court issued an order staying the litigation while certain procedural issues were decided by the appellate court.{{Cite court\\|litigants\\=In re: Franklin Salazar et al.\\|vol\\=\\|reporter\\=\\|opinion\\=\\|pinpoint\\=\\|court\\=2nd Court of Appeals, Fort Worth\\|date\\=16 November 2009\\|url\\=http://www.fwepiscopal.org/downloads/appellatecourtnov16\\.pdf }} On April 27, 2010, the Second Court of Appeals in Fort Worth heard oral argument on issues that may determine whether the litigation will be allowed to proceed at the trial level.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=Oral argument ''In re: Salazar et al''\\|url\\=http://www.2ndcoa.courts.state.tx.us/oa/2009/09405CV.mp3\\|publisher\\=Second Court of Appeals, Fort Worth\\|date\\=27 April 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2010}}",
"Two years later the Episcopal Diocese of South Carolina declared that an earlier vote by their Standing Committee was now in effect and that they had left the Episcopal Church. The Diocese then held a special convention in November 2012 to affirm that action. However, Bishop Lawrence and his followers did not immediately join the Anglican Church of North America and remained a free standing diocese. They almost immediately sued in South Carolina Courts, claiming they were doing so to protect their property. The court ordered those staying in the Episcopal Church to refrain from calling themselves the Diocese of South Carolina. That group then sued in federal court to recover their name. Both the state court case and the federal case remain in litigation.\"Law Meets Religion as SC Supreme Court Takes on Episcopal Split\" [http://www.thestate.com/news/local/article36286839\\.html](http://www.thestate.com/news/local/article36286839.html)",
"Jefferts Schori has criticized these moves and stated that [schism](/wiki/Schism_%28religion%29 \"Schism (religion)\") is not an \"honored tradition within Anglicanism\" and claims schism has \"frequently been seen as a more egregious error than charges of [heresy](/wiki/Heresy \"Heresy\").\" In Pittsburgh one member of the Standing Committee remained in the Episcopal Church and some members of each of the other governing bodies also remained. Those remaining in the Episcopal Church were recognized immediately by the Presiding Bishop and executive Council of the Episcopal Church as the continuation of the old diocese and began rebuilding without further help from the church.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/frontpage/2008/10/10/Minority\\-recognized\\-as\\-true\\-Episcopal\\-Diocese/stories/200810100232\\|title \\= Minority recognized as 'true' Episcopal Diocese}} A lawsuit filed in 2003, settled in 2005, reopened in 2007 and decided 2009 with final appeals in 2010 awarded the name and diocesan property to those who remained in the Episcopal Church in Pittsburgh.Harold Lewis, The Recent Unpleasantness: Calvary Church's Role in the Preservation of the Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Pittsburgh, Eugene OR: Wipf and Stock, 2015\\. In the other four dioceses diocese where parishioners have voted to leave, the Presiding Bishop provided interim listeners and presided at an organizing convention. In all four cases, both those who left the Episcopal Church and those who remained claimed that their organizations were the \"real\" Episcopal Diocese. In 2016 the California Supreme Court refused to review lower court rulings recognizing those who had remained in the Episcopal Church as the legal owners of the property and name. Courts in Illinois ruled against the Episcopalians and awarded the property to the ACNA diocese.",
"#### Church property litigation",
"In 1993, the Connecticut Supreme Court concluded that former parishioners of a local Episcopal church could not keep the property held in the name of that parish because it found that a relationship existed between the local and general church such that a legally enforceable trust existed in favor of the general church over the local church's property.Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church 620 A.2d 1280, 1293 (Conn. 1993\\) The court stated the local church \"had agreed, as a condition to their formation as ecclesiastical organizations affiliated with the Diocese and \\[the Episcopal Church], to use and hold their property only for the greater purposes of the church.\" (Id. at p. 1292\\.) Specifically an Episcopal Church law, (which it called the \"Dennis Canon\"), \"adopted in 1979 merely codified in explicit terms a trust relationship that has been implicit in the relationship between local parishes and dioceses since the founding of \\[the Episcopal Church] in 1789\\.\" (Ibid.) Accordingly, it found \"a legally enforceable trust in favor of the general church in the property claimed by the \\[local church].\"",
"On December 19, 2008, a Virginia trial court ruled that eleven congregations of former Episcopalians could keep parish property when the members of these congregations split from the Episcopal church to form the [Anglican District of Virginia](/wiki/Anglican_District_of_Virginia \"Anglican District of Virginia\") (ADV).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.virtueonline.org/portal/modules/news/article.php?storyid\\=9599 \\|title\\=News — Exclusives — FAIRFAX, Va.: Anglican District of Virginia Wins Church Property Case \\|publisher\\=VirtueOnline \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-28}} The Episcopal Church claimed that the property belonged to it under the canon law of the Episcopal Church after appeals reached the Virginia Supreme Court, a new trial was ordered which resulted in a decision returning the property to the Episcopal Church.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thediocese.net/News/newsView.asp?NewsId\\=40968295\\|title \\= Press Release}} Subsequent appeals by those who had left the Episcopal Church were unsuccessful including an appeal by one parish to the U.S. Supreme Court in 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thediocese.net/News/newsView.asp?NewsId\\=40968342\\|title \\= Press Release}}",
"Other rulings in Colorado and California have ordered congregations that have voted to change their associations within the Anglican Communion to return their properties to the Episcopal Church.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.graceandststephens.org/news/Judge%20Schwartz%27s%20Order%20on%20Grace%20Church%20032409\\.pdf \\|title\\=Judge Schwartz Order on Grace Church \\|publisher\\=Public Record \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-26}}; see also, [http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/revpub/D051120\\.PDF](http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/revpub/D051120.PDF) On January 5, 2009, the California Supreme Court ruled that [St. James Anglican Church](/wiki/St._James_Anglican_Church_%28Newport_Beach%29 \"St. James Anglican Church (Newport Beach)\") in [Newport Beach](/wiki/Newport_Beach%2C_California \"Newport Beach, California\") could not keep property held in the name of an Episcopal parish. The court concluded that even though the local church's names were on the property deeds for many years, the local churches had agreed to be part of the general church.[In re Episcopal Church Cases, Case No. S155094](http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/documents/S155094.PDF) This decision took numerous arguments into account, including court rulings on similar Episcopal Church cases in other states: \"Other Episcopal Church cases reaching similar conclusions include: Bishop and Diocese of Colorado v. Mote (Colo. 1986\\) 716 P.2d 85; Episcopal Diocese of Mass. v. Devine (Mass.App.Ct. 2003\\) 797 N.E.2d 916 (relying on Canon I.7\\.4 and the fact the local church had agreed to accede to the general church's canons); Bennison v. Sharp (Mich.Ct.App. 1983\\) 329 N.W.2d 466; Protestant Episc. Church, etc. v. Graves (N.J. 1980\\) 417 A.2d 19; The Diocese v. Trinity Epis. Church (App.Div. 1999\\) 684 N.Y.S.2d 76, 81 (\"\\[T]he 'Dennis Canon' amendment expressly codifies a trust relationship which has implicitly existed between the local parishes and their dioceses throughout the history of the Protestant Episcopal Church,\" citing Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church, supra, 620 A.2d 1280\\); Daniel v. Wray (N.C.Ct.App. 2003\\) 580 S.E.2d 711 (relying on Canon I.7\\.4\\); In re Church of St. James the Less (Pa. 2005\\) 888 A.2d 795 (relying on Canon I.7\\.4 and citing Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church, supra, 620 A.2d 1280\\).\"",
"Property litigation in Pittsburgh began before the split when Calvary Episcopal Church filed suit against Duncan in 2003 in order to ensure diocesan property remained in the Episcopal Church. A second parish, St. Stephen's in Wilkinsburg later joined Calvary as a plaintiff. This resulted in a signed stipulation specifying that diocesan property would remain the property of the Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh in the Episcopal Church U.S.A.,<http://deimel.org/commentary/b_pages/stipulation.pdf> {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} In 2009, the Judge of the Court of Common Pleas ruled that the 2005 agreement signed by Duncan to settle the Lawsuit brought by Calvary Church meant that diocesan property belonged to those remaining in the Episcopal Church.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.pitanglican.org/media/courtorder100609\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012031039/http://www.pitanglican.org/media/courtorder100609\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} This was confirmed in January 2010 with a decision including a schedule of property to be returned.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://episcopaldiocesefortworth.org/judge\\-orders\\-property\\-returned\\-to\\-episcopal\\-diocese\\-of\\-pittsburgh/ \\|title \\= Judge orders property returned to Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh\\|date \\= 2 February 2010}} The group that left changed its name to the Anglican Diocese of Pittsburgh, but appealed the decision. In 2011, a panel of judges from the appellate court in Pennsylvania affirmed that ruling, and the full appellate court declined to review the ruling. The state supreme court also declined to hear an appeal.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.pitanglican.org/media/PA\\_Supreme\\_Court\\_Appeal\\_rejection.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110111403/http://www.pitanglican.org/media/PA\\_Supreme\\_Court\\_Appeal\\_rejection.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The Anglican Diocese of Pittsburgh announced that it would not pursue further appeals.",
""
] |
### Conservative reactions to these developments
These innovations have been responded to in various ways. The opposition to Ritualism produced the [Reformed Episcopal Church](/wiki/Reformed_Episcopal_Church "Reformed Episcopal Church") in 1873\. Opposition to the ordination of women priests and to theological revisions incorporated into the Episcopal Church's 1979 Book of Common Prayer led to the formation of the [Continuing Anglican movement](/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement "Continuing Anglican movement") in 1977; and opposition to the consecration of the first ever openly homosexual bishop led to the creation of the [Anglican Church in North America](/wiki/Anglican_Church_in_North_America "Anglican Church in North America"). It officially organized in 2009, forming yet another ecclesiastical structure apart from the Episcopal Church.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/rick.warren.to.address.breakaway.anglicans/23149\.htm\|title\=Rick Warren to address breakaway Anglicans\|date\=23 April 2009 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.united\-anglicans.org/stream/2009/04/assemblyspeakers.html\|title\=Pastor Rick Warren, Metropolitan Jonah, the Rev. Dr. Todd Hunter to Address ACNA Assembly\|access\-date\=2010\-12\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526072437/http://www.united\-anglicans.org/stream/2009/04/assemblyspeakers.html\|archive\-date\=2009\-05\-26\|url\-status\=dead}} This grouping, which reported at its founding that it represented approximately 100,000 Christians through its over 700 parishes, elected former Episcopal priest [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28bishop%29 "Robert Duncan (bishop)") as its primate. The ACNA has not been received as an official member of the [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion "Anglican Communion") by the Church of England, and is not in communion with the see of Canterbury, but many Anglican churches of the [Global South](/wiki/Global_South "Global South"), such as the [Church of Nigeria](/wiki/Church_of_Nigeria "Church of Nigeria") and [Church of Uganda](/wiki/Church_of_Uganda "Church of Uganda"), together representing approximately 1/3 of the worldwide Anglican Communion, have declared themselves to be in full communion with it.
The two main movements in opposition to the developments within the Episcopal Church are generally referred to as the [Continuing Anglican movement](/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement "Continuing Anglican movement") and [Anglican realignment](/wiki/Anglican_realignment "Anglican realignment").
#### Secession and realignment
{{Main\|Anglican realignment}}
In 1977, 1,600 bishops, clergy and lay people met in St. Louis and formed the [Congress of St. Louis](/wiki/Congress_of_St._Louis "Congress of St. Louis") under the leadership of retired Episcopal bishop Albert Chambers.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.anglicancatholic.org/affirmstlouis.html \|title\=News \& Announcements \|publisher\=Anglicancatholic.org \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16 \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-13 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313201126/http://anglicancatholic.org/affirmstlouis.html \|url\-status\=dead }} This began the Continuing Anglican Movement with the adoption of the [Affirmation of St. Louis](/wiki/Affirmation_of_St._Louis "Affirmation of St. Louis"). Many other conservative groups have continued to break away out of frustration over the Church's position on homosexuality, the ordination of openly homosexual priests and bishops, and abortion — or rather, the way the Episcopal Church has viewed the place of Scripture in determining doctrine on those issues. In addition to those which have affiliated with one of the Continuing Anglican churches or the Anglican Church in North America, there are also congregations that have joined one of the Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions, [Old Catholicism](/wiki/Old_Catholic "Old Catholic"), or the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church").
Five diocesan conventions have voted to withdraw from the Episcopal Church: the Diocese of San Joaquin, the Diocese of Fort Worth, the Diocese of Quincy, the Diocese of Pittsburgh, and the Diocese of South Carolina. This does not include individual congregations that have also withdrawn, as in the [Diocese of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia "Episcopal Diocese of Virginia") where members of eight parishes voted to leave the Episcopal Church. Included were the historic [Falls Church](/wiki/The_Falls_Church "The Falls Church") and [Truro Church](/wiki/Truro_Church_%28Fairfax%2C_Virginia%29 "Truro Church (Fairfax, Virginia)"). These congregations then formed the [Anglican District of Virginia](/wiki/Anglican_District_of_Virginia "Anglican District of Virginia"), which became part of the [Convocation of Anglicans in North America](/wiki/Convocation_of_Anglicans_in_North_America "Convocation of Anglicans in North America") (CANA).
The first diocesan convention to vote to break with the Episcopal Church (which has 110 dioceses) was the [Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_San_Joaquin "Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin").{{cite news\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/us/03episcopal.html?ex\=1322802000\&en\=2b7ab526f61329c4\&ei\=5088\&partner\=rssnyt\&emc\=rss \| work\=The New York Times \| title\=Episcopal Diocese Votes to Secede From Church \| first1\=Laurie \| last1\=Goodstein \| first2\=Carolyn \| last2\=Marshall \| date\=2006\-12\-03 \| access\-date\=2010\-05\-02}} On December 8, 2007, the convention of the Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin voted to secede from the Episcopal Church and join the [Anglican Province of the Southern Cone](/wiki/Anglican_Province_of_the_Southern_Cone "Anglican Province of the Southern Cone"), a more conservative and traditional member of the Anglican Communion located in South America.[Role of gays prompts split in Episcopal Church](http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/12/08/episcopalians.secession.ap/index.html), AP/CNN, December 8, 2007 The diocese had 48 parishes. A minority of parishes and individuals reorganized the diocese and remained in the Episcopal Church.["Episcopal Diocese Votes to Secede From Church"](https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/us/03episcopal.html?ex=1322802000&en=2b7ab526f61329c4&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss), an article in *The New York Times* by Laurie Goodstein and Carolyn Marshall, December 3, 2006 On July 21, 2009, the Superior Court of California ruled that the diocese cannot leave the Episcopal Church and that these acts were void, however, not until 2016 was litigation fully resolved and did those who remained in the Episcopal Church gain control of the property.[http://s3\.amazonaws.com/dfc\_attachments/public/documents/356/Order\-MSA.PDF](http://s3.amazonaws.com/dfc_attachments/public/documents/356/Order-MSA.PDF); "California Supreme Court Upholds Ruling in San Joaquin Property Case," [http://episcopaldigitalnetwork.com/ens/2016/07/14/california\-supreme\-court\-upholds\-ruling\-in\-san\-joaquin\-property\-case/](http://episcopaldigitalnetwork.com/ens/2016/07/14/california-supreme-court-upholds-ruling-in-san-joaquin-property-case/) On October 4, 2008, the convention of the [Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Pittsburgh_%28Episcopal_Church%29 "Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh (Episcopal Church)") also voted to leave the Episcopal Church and join the Province of the Southern Cone. This split occurred after the [House of Bishops](/wiki/House_of_Bishops "House of Bishops"), [deposed](/wiki/Deposition_%28politics%29 "Deposition (politics)") Robert Duncan from office in September 2008\. Duncan had led the diocese for 11 years.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008\-10\-06\-episcopal\-divided\_N.htm \|title\=Pittsburgh diocese votes to split from Episcopal Church — USATODAY.com \|publisher\=Usatoday.com \|author\=Joe Mandak, Associated Press \|date\= 2008\-10\-06\|access\-date\=2008\-11\-16}} One third of the parishes and members of the Pittsburgh Diocese remained in the Episcopal Church and had received recognition as the Episcopal Diocese within a week of the convention vote.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/library/article/pittsburgh\-votes\-leave\-episcopal\-church\-align\-southern\-cone\|title \= Homepage}}
The conventions of the [Diocese of Quincy](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Quincy "Episcopal Diocese of Quincy") in Illinois and the [Diocese of Fort Worth](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Fort_Worth_%28Episcopal_Church%29 "Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth (Episcopal Church)") voted in November 2008 to leave the Episcopal Church. On November 15, 2008, the convention of the [Diocese of Fort Worth](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Fort_Worth_%28Episcopal_Church%29 "Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth (Episcopal Church)"), under the leadership of [Jack Leo Iker](/wiki/Jack_Leo_Iker "Jack Leo Iker") and with the vote of 80 percent of the voting clergy and laity, also voted to align with the Province of the Southern Cone.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.star\-telegram.com/804/story/1041377\.html\|newspaper\=Fort Worth Star\-Telegram\|title\=Fort Worth Episcopal Diocese votes to leave mother church\|date\=November 15, 2008\|author\=Terry Lee Goodrich}} As in the earlier cases, the remaining Episcopalians reorganized as a diocese. In response to the departure of Iker and the Fort Worth diocese, Jefferts Schori declared that Iker had "abandoned the communion" and joined with the local diocese in suing Iker and followers, seeking to reclaim church buildings and property.{{cite magazine\|title\=Bishop takes Castle\|url\=http://www.texasmonthly.com/2010\-02\-01/letterfromfortworth\-1\.php\|author\=S.G. Gwynne\|magazine\=\[\[Texas Monthly]]\|date\=1 February 2010\|access\-date\=2 May 2010}} On November 16, 2009, the appellate court issued an order staying the litigation while certain procedural issues were decided by the appellate court.{{Cite court\|litigants\=In re: Franklin Salazar et al.\|vol\=\|reporter\=\|opinion\=\|pinpoint\=\|court\=2nd Court of Appeals, Fort Worth\|date\=16 November 2009\|url\=http://www.fwepiscopal.org/downloads/appellatecourtnov16\.pdf }} On April 27, 2010, the Second Court of Appeals in Fort Worth heard oral argument on issues that may determine whether the litigation will be allowed to proceed at the trial level.{{Cite journal\|title\=Oral argument ''In re: Salazar et al''\|url\=http://www.2ndcoa.courts.state.tx.us/oa/2009/09405CV.mp3\|publisher\=Second Court of Appeals, Fort Worth\|date\=27 April 2010\|access\-date\=2 May 2010}}
Two years later the Episcopal Diocese of South Carolina declared that an earlier vote by their Standing Committee was now in effect and that they had left the Episcopal Church. The Diocese then held a special convention in November 2012 to affirm that action. However, Bishop Lawrence and his followers did not immediately join the Anglican Church of North America and remained a free standing diocese. They almost immediately sued in South Carolina Courts, claiming they were doing so to protect their property. The court ordered those staying in the Episcopal Church to refrain from calling themselves the Diocese of South Carolina. That group then sued in federal court to recover their name. Both the state court case and the federal case remain in litigation."Law Meets Religion as SC Supreme Court Takes on Episcopal Split" [http://www.thestate.com/news/local/article36286839\.html](http://www.thestate.com/news/local/article36286839.html)
Jefferts Schori has criticized these moves and stated that [schism](/wiki/Schism_%28religion%29 "Schism (religion)") is not an "honored tradition within Anglicanism" and claims schism has "frequently been seen as a more egregious error than charges of [heresy](/wiki/Heresy "Heresy")." In Pittsburgh one member of the Standing Committee remained in the Episcopal Church and some members of each of the other governing bodies also remained. Those remaining in the Episcopal Church were recognized immediately by the Presiding Bishop and executive Council of the Episcopal Church as the continuation of the old diocese and began rebuilding without further help from the church.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/frontpage/2008/10/10/Minority\-recognized\-as\-true\-Episcopal\-Diocese/stories/200810100232\|title \= Minority recognized as 'true' Episcopal Diocese}} A lawsuit filed in 2003, settled in 2005, reopened in 2007 and decided 2009 with final appeals in 2010 awarded the name and diocesan property to those who remained in the Episcopal Church in Pittsburgh.Harold Lewis, The Recent Unpleasantness: Calvary Church's Role in the Preservation of the Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Pittsburgh, Eugene OR: Wipf and Stock, 2015\. In the other four dioceses diocese where parishioners have voted to leave, the Presiding Bishop provided interim listeners and presided at an organizing convention. In all four cases, both those who left the Episcopal Church and those who remained claimed that their organizations were the "real" Episcopal Diocese. In 2016 the California Supreme Court refused to review lower court rulings recognizing those who had remained in the Episcopal Church as the legal owners of the property and name. Courts in Illinois ruled against the Episcopalians and awarded the property to the ACNA diocese.
#### Church property litigation
In 1993, the Connecticut Supreme Court concluded that former parishioners of a local Episcopal church could not keep the property held in the name of that parish because it found that a relationship existed between the local and general church such that a legally enforceable trust existed in favor of the general church over the local church's property.Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church 620 A.2d 1280, 1293 (Conn. 1993\) The court stated the local church "had agreed, as a condition to their formation as ecclesiastical organizations affiliated with the Diocese and \[the Episcopal Church], to use and hold their property only for the greater purposes of the church." (Id. at p. 1292\.) Specifically an Episcopal Church law, (which it called the "Dennis Canon"), "adopted in 1979 merely codified in explicit terms a trust relationship that has been implicit in the relationship between local parishes and dioceses since the founding of \[the Episcopal Church] in 1789\." (Ibid.) Accordingly, it found "a legally enforceable trust in favor of the general church in the property claimed by the \[local church]."
On December 19, 2008, a Virginia trial court ruled that eleven congregations of former Episcopalians could keep parish property when the members of these congregations split from the Episcopal church to form the [Anglican District of Virginia](/wiki/Anglican_District_of_Virginia "Anglican District of Virginia") (ADV).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.virtueonline.org/portal/modules/news/article.php?storyid\=9599 \|title\=News — Exclusives — FAIRFAX, Va.: Anglican District of Virginia Wins Church Property Case \|publisher\=VirtueOnline \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-28}} The Episcopal Church claimed that the property belonged to it under the canon law of the Episcopal Church after appeals reached the Virginia Supreme Court, a new trial was ordered which resulted in a decision returning the property to the Episcopal Church.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thediocese.net/News/newsView.asp?NewsId\=40968295\|title \= Press Release}} Subsequent appeals by those who had left the Episcopal Church were unsuccessful including an appeal by one parish to the U.S. Supreme Court in 2014\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thediocese.net/News/newsView.asp?NewsId\=40968342\|title \= Press Release}}
Other rulings in Colorado and California have ordered congregations that have voted to change their associations within the Anglican Communion to return their properties to the Episcopal Church.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.graceandststephens.org/news/Judge%20Schwartz%27s%20Order%20on%20Grace%20Church%20032409\.pdf \|title\=Judge Schwartz Order on Grace Church \|publisher\=Public Record \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-26}}; see also, [http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/revpub/D051120\.PDF](http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/revpub/D051120.PDF) On January 5, 2009, the California Supreme Court ruled that [St. James Anglican Church](/wiki/St._James_Anglican_Church_%28Newport_Beach%29 "St. James Anglican Church (Newport Beach)") in [Newport Beach](/wiki/Newport_Beach%2C_California "Newport Beach, California") could not keep property held in the name of an Episcopal parish. The court concluded that even though the local church's names were on the property deeds for many years, the local churches had agreed to be part of the general church.[In re Episcopal Church Cases, Case No. S155094](http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/documents/S155094.PDF) This decision took numerous arguments into account, including court rulings on similar Episcopal Church cases in other states: "Other Episcopal Church cases reaching similar conclusions include: Bishop and Diocese of Colorado v. Mote (Colo. 1986\) 716 P.2d 85; Episcopal Diocese of Mass. v. Devine (Mass.App.Ct. 2003\) 797 N.E.2d 916 (relying on Canon I.7\.4 and the fact the local church had agreed to accede to the general church's canons); Bennison v. Sharp (Mich.Ct.App. 1983\) 329 N.W.2d 466; Protestant Episc. Church, etc. v. Graves (N.J. 1980\) 417 A.2d 19; The Diocese v. Trinity Epis. Church (App.Div. 1999\) 684 N.Y.S.2d 76, 81 ("\[T]he 'Dennis Canon' amendment expressly codifies a trust relationship which has implicitly existed between the local parishes and their dioceses throughout the history of the Protestant Episcopal Church," citing Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church, supra, 620 A.2d 1280\); Daniel v. Wray (N.C.Ct.App. 2003\) 580 S.E.2d 711 (relying on Canon I.7\.4\); In re Church of St. James the Less (Pa. 2005\) 888 A.2d 795 (relying on Canon I.7\.4 and citing Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church, supra, 620 A.2d 1280\)."
Property litigation in Pittsburgh began before the split when Calvary Episcopal Church filed suit against Duncan in 2003 in order to ensure diocesan property remained in the Episcopal Church. A second parish, St. Stephen's in Wilkinsburg later joined Calvary as a plaintiff. This resulted in a signed stipulation specifying that diocesan property would remain the property of the Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh in the Episcopal Church U.S.A.,<http://deimel.org/commentary/b_pages/stipulation.pdf> {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} In 2009, the Judge of the Court of Common Pleas ruled that the 2005 agreement signed by Duncan to settle the Lawsuit brought by Calvary Church meant that diocesan property belonged to those remaining in the Episcopal Church.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.pitanglican.org/media/courtorder100609\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2014\-11\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012031039/http://www.pitanglican.org/media/courtorder100609\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-12 \|url\-status\=dead }} This was confirmed in January 2010 with a decision including a schedule of property to be returned.{{Cite web \| url\=http://episcopaldiocesefortworth.org/judge\-orders\-property\-returned\-to\-episcopal\-diocese\-of\-pittsburgh/ \|title \= Judge orders property returned to Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh\|date \= 2 February 2010}} The group that left changed its name to the Anglican Diocese of Pittsburgh, but appealed the decision. In 2011, a panel of judges from the appellate court in Pennsylvania affirmed that ruling, and the full appellate court declined to review the ruling. The state supreme court also declined to hear an appeal.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.pitanglican.org/media/PA\_Supreme\_Court\_Appeal\_rejection.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2014\-11\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110111403/http://www.pitanglican.org/media/PA\_Supreme\_Court\_Appeal\_rejection.pdf \|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-10 \|url\-status\=dead }} The Anglican Diocese of Pittsburgh announced that it would not pursue further appeals.
|
[
"### Conservative reactions to these developments",
"These innovations have been responded to in various ways. The opposition to Ritualism produced the [Reformed Episcopal Church](/wiki/Reformed_Episcopal_Church \"Reformed Episcopal Church\") in 1873\\. Opposition to the ordination of women priests and to theological revisions incorporated into the Episcopal Church's 1979 Book of Common Prayer led to the formation of the [Continuing Anglican movement](/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement \"Continuing Anglican movement\") in 1977; and opposition to the consecration of the first ever openly homosexual bishop led to the creation of the [Anglican Church in North America](/wiki/Anglican_Church_in_North_America \"Anglican Church in North America\"). It officially organized in 2009, forming yet another ecclesiastical structure apart from the Episcopal Church.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/rick.warren.to.address.breakaway.anglicans/23149\\.htm\\|title\\=Rick Warren to address breakaway Anglicans\\|date\\=23 April 2009 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.united\\-anglicans.org/stream/2009/04/assemblyspeakers.html\\|title\\=Pastor Rick Warren, Metropolitan Jonah, the Rev. Dr. Todd Hunter to Address ACNA Assembly\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526072437/http://www.united\\-anglicans.org/stream/2009/04/assemblyspeakers.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-05\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} This grouping, which reported at its founding that it represented approximately 100,000 Christians through its over 700 parishes, elected former Episcopal priest [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28bishop%29 \"Robert Duncan (bishop)\") as its primate. The ACNA has not been received as an official member of the [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion \"Anglican Communion\") by the Church of England, and is not in communion with the see of Canterbury, but many Anglican churches of the [Global South](/wiki/Global_South \"Global South\"), such as the [Church of Nigeria](/wiki/Church_of_Nigeria \"Church of Nigeria\") and [Church of Uganda](/wiki/Church_of_Uganda \"Church of Uganda\"), together representing approximately 1/3 of the worldwide Anglican Communion, have declared themselves to be in full communion with it.",
"The two main movements in opposition to the developments within the Episcopal Church are generally referred to as the [Continuing Anglican movement](/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement \"Continuing Anglican movement\") and [Anglican realignment](/wiki/Anglican_realignment \"Anglican realignment\").",
"#### Secession and realignment",
"{{Main\\|Anglican realignment}}\nIn 1977, 1,600 bishops, clergy and lay people met in St. Louis and formed the [Congress of St. Louis](/wiki/Congress_of_St._Louis \"Congress of St. Louis\") under the leadership of retired Episcopal bishop Albert Chambers.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.anglicancatholic.org/affirmstlouis.html \\|title\\=News \\& Announcements \\|publisher\\=Anglicancatholic.org \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-13 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313201126/http://anglicancatholic.org/affirmstlouis.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} This began the Continuing Anglican Movement with the adoption of the [Affirmation of St. Louis](/wiki/Affirmation_of_St._Louis \"Affirmation of St. Louis\"). Many other conservative groups have continued to break away out of frustration over the Church's position on homosexuality, the ordination of openly homosexual priests and bishops, and abortion — or rather, the way the Episcopal Church has viewed the place of Scripture in determining doctrine on those issues. In addition to those which have affiliated with one of the Continuing Anglican churches or the Anglican Church in North America, there are also congregations that have joined one of the Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions, [Old Catholicism](/wiki/Old_Catholic \"Old Catholic\"), or the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\").",
"Five diocesan conventions have voted to withdraw from the Episcopal Church: the Diocese of San Joaquin, the Diocese of Fort Worth, the Diocese of Quincy, the Diocese of Pittsburgh, and the Diocese of South Carolina. This does not include individual congregations that have also withdrawn, as in the [Diocese of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia \"Episcopal Diocese of Virginia\") where members of eight parishes voted to leave the Episcopal Church. Included were the historic [Falls Church](/wiki/The_Falls_Church \"The Falls Church\") and [Truro Church](/wiki/Truro_Church_%28Fairfax%2C_Virginia%29 \"Truro Church (Fairfax, Virginia)\"). These congregations then formed the [Anglican District of Virginia](/wiki/Anglican_District_of_Virginia \"Anglican District of Virginia\"), which became part of the [Convocation of Anglicans in North America](/wiki/Convocation_of_Anglicans_in_North_America \"Convocation of Anglicans in North America\") (CANA).",
"The first diocesan convention to vote to break with the Episcopal Church (which has 110 dioceses) was the [Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_San_Joaquin \"Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin\").{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/us/03episcopal.html?ex\\=1322802000\\&en\\=2b7ab526f61329c4\\&ei\\=5088\\&partner\\=rssnyt\\&emc\\=rss \\| work\\=The New York Times \\| title\\=Episcopal Diocese Votes to Secede From Church \\| first1\\=Laurie \\| last1\\=Goodstein \\| first2\\=Carolyn \\| last2\\=Marshall \\| date\\=2006\\-12\\-03 \\| access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-02}} On December 8, 2007, the convention of the Episcopal Diocese of San Joaquin voted to secede from the Episcopal Church and join the [Anglican Province of the Southern Cone](/wiki/Anglican_Province_of_the_Southern_Cone \"Anglican Province of the Southern Cone\"), a more conservative and traditional member of the Anglican Communion located in South America.[Role of gays prompts split in Episcopal Church](http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/12/08/episcopalians.secession.ap/index.html), AP/CNN, December 8, 2007 The diocese had 48 parishes. A minority of parishes and individuals reorganized the diocese and remained in the Episcopal Church.[\"Episcopal Diocese Votes to Secede From Church\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/us/03episcopal.html?ex=1322802000&en=2b7ab526f61329c4&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss), an article in *The New York Times* by Laurie Goodstein and Carolyn Marshall, December 3, 2006 On July 21, 2009, the Superior Court of California ruled that the diocese cannot leave the Episcopal Church and that these acts were void, however, not until 2016 was litigation fully resolved and did those who remained in the Episcopal Church gain control of the property.[http://s3\\.amazonaws.com/dfc\\_attachments/public/documents/356/Order\\-MSA.PDF](http://s3.amazonaws.com/dfc_attachments/public/documents/356/Order-MSA.PDF); \"California Supreme Court Upholds Ruling in San Joaquin Property Case,\" [http://episcopaldigitalnetwork.com/ens/2016/07/14/california\\-supreme\\-court\\-upholds\\-ruling\\-in\\-san\\-joaquin\\-property\\-case/](http://episcopaldigitalnetwork.com/ens/2016/07/14/california-supreme-court-upholds-ruling-in-san-joaquin-property-case/) On October 4, 2008, the convention of the [Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Pittsburgh_%28Episcopal_Church%29 \"Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh (Episcopal Church)\") also voted to leave the Episcopal Church and join the Province of the Southern Cone. This split occurred after the [House of Bishops](/wiki/House_of_Bishops \"House of Bishops\"), [deposed](/wiki/Deposition_%28politics%29 \"Deposition (politics)\") Robert Duncan from office in September 2008\\. Duncan had led the diocese for 11 years.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008\\-10\\-06\\-episcopal\\-divided\\_N.htm \\|title\\=Pittsburgh diocese votes to split from Episcopal Church — USATODAY.com \\|publisher\\=Usatoday.com \\|author\\=Joe Mandak, Associated Press \\|date\\= 2008\\-10\\-06\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-16}} One third of the parishes and members of the Pittsburgh Diocese remained in the Episcopal Church and had received recognition as the Episcopal Diocese within a week of the convention vote.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/library/article/pittsburgh\\-votes\\-leave\\-episcopal\\-church\\-align\\-southern\\-cone\\|title \\= Homepage}}",
"The conventions of the [Diocese of Quincy](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Quincy \"Episcopal Diocese of Quincy\") in Illinois and the [Diocese of Fort Worth](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Fort_Worth_%28Episcopal_Church%29 \"Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth (Episcopal Church)\") voted in November 2008 to leave the Episcopal Church. On November 15, 2008, the convention of the [Diocese of Fort Worth](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Fort_Worth_%28Episcopal_Church%29 \"Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth (Episcopal Church)\"), under the leadership of [Jack Leo Iker](/wiki/Jack_Leo_Iker \"Jack Leo Iker\") and with the vote of 80 percent of the voting clergy and laity, also voted to align with the Province of the Southern Cone.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.star\\-telegram.com/804/story/1041377\\.html\\|newspaper\\=Fort Worth Star\\-Telegram\\|title\\=Fort Worth Episcopal Diocese votes to leave mother church\\|date\\=November 15, 2008\\|author\\=Terry Lee Goodrich}} As in the earlier cases, the remaining Episcopalians reorganized as a diocese. In response to the departure of Iker and the Fort Worth diocese, Jefferts Schori declared that Iker had \"abandoned the communion\" and joined with the local diocese in suing Iker and followers, seeking to reclaim church buildings and property.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Bishop takes Castle\\|url\\=http://www.texasmonthly.com/2010\\-02\\-01/letterfromfortworth\\-1\\.php\\|author\\=S.G. Gwynne\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Texas Monthly]]\\|date\\=1 February 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2010}} On November 16, 2009, the appellate court issued an order staying the litigation while certain procedural issues were decided by the appellate court.{{Cite court\\|litigants\\=In re: Franklin Salazar et al.\\|vol\\=\\|reporter\\=\\|opinion\\=\\|pinpoint\\=\\|court\\=2nd Court of Appeals, Fort Worth\\|date\\=16 November 2009\\|url\\=http://www.fwepiscopal.org/downloads/appellatecourtnov16\\.pdf }} On April 27, 2010, the Second Court of Appeals in Fort Worth heard oral argument on issues that may determine whether the litigation will be allowed to proceed at the trial level.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=Oral argument ''In re: Salazar et al''\\|url\\=http://www.2ndcoa.courts.state.tx.us/oa/2009/09405CV.mp3\\|publisher\\=Second Court of Appeals, Fort Worth\\|date\\=27 April 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2010}}",
"Two years later the Episcopal Diocese of South Carolina declared that an earlier vote by their Standing Committee was now in effect and that they had left the Episcopal Church. The Diocese then held a special convention in November 2012 to affirm that action. However, Bishop Lawrence and his followers did not immediately join the Anglican Church of North America and remained a free standing diocese. They almost immediately sued in South Carolina Courts, claiming they were doing so to protect their property. The court ordered those staying in the Episcopal Church to refrain from calling themselves the Diocese of South Carolina. That group then sued in federal court to recover their name. Both the state court case and the federal case remain in litigation.\"Law Meets Religion as SC Supreme Court Takes on Episcopal Split\" [http://www.thestate.com/news/local/article36286839\\.html](http://www.thestate.com/news/local/article36286839.html)",
"Jefferts Schori has criticized these moves and stated that [schism](/wiki/Schism_%28religion%29 \"Schism (religion)\") is not an \"honored tradition within Anglicanism\" and claims schism has \"frequently been seen as a more egregious error than charges of [heresy](/wiki/Heresy \"Heresy\").\" In Pittsburgh one member of the Standing Committee remained in the Episcopal Church and some members of each of the other governing bodies also remained. Those remaining in the Episcopal Church were recognized immediately by the Presiding Bishop and executive Council of the Episcopal Church as the continuation of the old diocese and began rebuilding without further help from the church.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/frontpage/2008/10/10/Minority\\-recognized\\-as\\-true\\-Episcopal\\-Diocese/stories/200810100232\\|title \\= Minority recognized as 'true' Episcopal Diocese}} A lawsuit filed in 2003, settled in 2005, reopened in 2007 and decided 2009 with final appeals in 2010 awarded the name and diocesan property to those who remained in the Episcopal Church in Pittsburgh.Harold Lewis, The Recent Unpleasantness: Calvary Church's Role in the Preservation of the Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Pittsburgh, Eugene OR: Wipf and Stock, 2015\\. In the other four dioceses diocese where parishioners have voted to leave, the Presiding Bishop provided interim listeners and presided at an organizing convention. In all four cases, both those who left the Episcopal Church and those who remained claimed that their organizations were the \"real\" Episcopal Diocese. In 2016 the California Supreme Court refused to review lower court rulings recognizing those who had remained in the Episcopal Church as the legal owners of the property and name. Courts in Illinois ruled against the Episcopalians and awarded the property to the ACNA diocese.",
"#### Church property litigation",
"In 1993, the Connecticut Supreme Court concluded that former parishioners of a local Episcopal church could not keep the property held in the name of that parish because it found that a relationship existed between the local and general church such that a legally enforceable trust existed in favor of the general church over the local church's property.Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church 620 A.2d 1280, 1293 (Conn. 1993\\) The court stated the local church \"had agreed, as a condition to their formation as ecclesiastical organizations affiliated with the Diocese and \\[the Episcopal Church], to use and hold their property only for the greater purposes of the church.\" (Id. at p. 1292\\.) Specifically an Episcopal Church law, (which it called the \"Dennis Canon\"), \"adopted in 1979 merely codified in explicit terms a trust relationship that has been implicit in the relationship between local parishes and dioceses since the founding of \\[the Episcopal Church] in 1789\\.\" (Ibid.) Accordingly, it found \"a legally enforceable trust in favor of the general church in the property claimed by the \\[local church].\"",
"On December 19, 2008, a Virginia trial court ruled that eleven congregations of former Episcopalians could keep parish property when the members of these congregations split from the Episcopal church to form the [Anglican District of Virginia](/wiki/Anglican_District_of_Virginia \"Anglican District of Virginia\") (ADV).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.virtueonline.org/portal/modules/news/article.php?storyid\\=9599 \\|title\\=News — Exclusives — FAIRFAX, Va.: Anglican District of Virginia Wins Church Property Case \\|publisher\\=VirtueOnline \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-28}} The Episcopal Church claimed that the property belonged to it under the canon law of the Episcopal Church after appeals reached the Virginia Supreme Court, a new trial was ordered which resulted in a decision returning the property to the Episcopal Church.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thediocese.net/News/newsView.asp?NewsId\\=40968295\\|title \\= Press Release}} Subsequent appeals by those who had left the Episcopal Church were unsuccessful including an appeal by one parish to the U.S. Supreme Court in 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thediocese.net/News/newsView.asp?NewsId\\=40968342\\|title \\= Press Release}}",
"Other rulings in Colorado and California have ordered congregations that have voted to change their associations within the Anglican Communion to return their properties to the Episcopal Church.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.graceandststephens.org/news/Judge%20Schwartz%27s%20Order%20on%20Grace%20Church%20032409\\.pdf \\|title\\=Judge Schwartz Order on Grace Church \\|publisher\\=Public Record \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-26}}; see also, [http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/revpub/D051120\\.PDF](http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/revpub/D051120.PDF) On January 5, 2009, the California Supreme Court ruled that [St. James Anglican Church](/wiki/St._James_Anglican_Church_%28Newport_Beach%29 \"St. James Anglican Church (Newport Beach)\") in [Newport Beach](/wiki/Newport_Beach%2C_California \"Newport Beach, California\") could not keep property held in the name of an Episcopal parish. The court concluded that even though the local church's names were on the property deeds for many years, the local churches had agreed to be part of the general church.[In re Episcopal Church Cases, Case No. S155094](http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/opinions/documents/S155094.PDF) This decision took numerous arguments into account, including court rulings on similar Episcopal Church cases in other states: \"Other Episcopal Church cases reaching similar conclusions include: Bishop and Diocese of Colorado v. Mote (Colo. 1986\\) 716 P.2d 85; Episcopal Diocese of Mass. v. Devine (Mass.App.Ct. 2003\\) 797 N.E.2d 916 (relying on Canon I.7\\.4 and the fact the local church had agreed to accede to the general church's canons); Bennison v. Sharp (Mich.Ct.App. 1983\\) 329 N.W.2d 466; Protestant Episc. Church, etc. v. Graves (N.J. 1980\\) 417 A.2d 19; The Diocese v. Trinity Epis. Church (App.Div. 1999\\) 684 N.Y.S.2d 76, 81 (\"\\[T]he 'Dennis Canon' amendment expressly codifies a trust relationship which has implicitly existed between the local parishes and their dioceses throughout the history of the Protestant Episcopal Church,\" citing Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church, supra, 620 A.2d 1280\\); Daniel v. Wray (N.C.Ct.App. 2003\\) 580 S.E.2d 711 (relying on Canon I.7\\.4\\); In re Church of St. James the Less (Pa. 2005\\) 888 A.2d 795 (relying on Canon I.7\\.4 and citing Rector, Wardens v. Episcopal Church, supra, 620 A.2d 1280\\).\"",
"Property litigation in Pittsburgh began before the split when Calvary Episcopal Church filed suit against Duncan in 2003 in order to ensure diocesan property remained in the Episcopal Church. A second parish, St. Stephen's in Wilkinsburg later joined Calvary as a plaintiff. This resulted in a signed stipulation specifying that diocesan property would remain the property of the Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh in the Episcopal Church U.S.A.,<http://deimel.org/commentary/b_pages/stipulation.pdf> {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} In 2009, the Judge of the Court of Common Pleas ruled that the 2005 agreement signed by Duncan to settle the Lawsuit brought by Calvary Church meant that diocesan property belonged to those remaining in the Episcopal Church.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.pitanglican.org/media/courtorder100609\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012031039/http://www.pitanglican.org/media/courtorder100609\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} This was confirmed in January 2010 with a decision including a schedule of property to be returned.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://episcopaldiocesefortworth.org/judge\\-orders\\-property\\-returned\\-to\\-episcopal\\-diocese\\-of\\-pittsburgh/ \\|title \\= Judge orders property returned to Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh\\|date \\= 2 February 2010}} The group that left changed its name to the Anglican Diocese of Pittsburgh, but appealed the decision. In 2011, a panel of judges from the appellate court in Pennsylvania affirmed that ruling, and the full appellate court declined to review the ruling. The state supreme court also declined to hear an appeal.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.pitanglican.org/media/PA\\_Supreme\\_Court\\_Appeal\\_rejection.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110111403/http://www.pitanglican.org/media/PA\\_Supreme\\_Court\\_Appeal\\_rejection.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The Anglican Diocese of Pittsburgh announced that it would not pursue further appeals.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The film opens with Gerry and the Pacemakers stepping off a plane after returning from a trip to America. They are greeted by screaming young fans who chase them down the street as they drive off. Once they are far enough from the crowd, the setting shifts to a scene of the group in the studio recording the song "It's Gonna Be Alright".
The movie then goes back in time to before the band made it big. Gerry gives a monologue about living in Liverpool and meeting the band members overlaid on top of shots of children playing and mingling in the street. The band is shown playing "Why Oh Why?" at the [Cavern Club](/wiki/The_Cavern_Club "The Cavern Club") to a screaming audience. The next day, Aunt Lil tries to wake Gerry up from bed with a cowbell. To her surprise, he is already awake and listening to the radio. After checking the time, Gerry rushes out of bed and gets dressed in a [fast\-motion sequence](/wiki/Time-lapse_photography "Time-lapse photography") before meeting his family for breakfast. After eating, he scooters off to catch the ferry ("All Quiet on the Mersey Front") where the rest of the band is waiting for him. They sing "[Ferry Cross the Mersey](/wiki/Ferry_Cross_the_Mersey "Ferry Cross the Mersey")" to the surrounding passengers. When the boat docks, they all scooter off to the art school. Before the art instructor enters the room and tells everyone to get to work, Dodie (Julie Samuel) reminds Gerry to come up with a good song to play at the beat competition. When the instructor leaves, the Pacemakers sing "Fall in Love". Once class ends, Dodie goes her separate ways as the group goes for lunch at a Chinese restaurant. As they wait for their food, they perform "This Thing Called Love".
In the meantime, Dodie meets with Jack Hanson and convinces him to consider managing the Pacemakers. He is invited to visit the band rehearsing "Think About Love" in a warehouse. After seeing the group along with an enthusiastic crowd that has arrived to watch as well, he offers to manage them. Gerry arrives home to join an orchestral rehearsal with Aunt Lil and company before retiring to his room to play "She's the Only Girl for Me". He later receives a letter saying Dodie had been involved in a car pile\-up; the four men travel to her mansion to check up on her.
Dodie is in good health but tells the group that they've got stiff competition. They play "I'll Wait for You" in her music room. On Saturday, the Pacemakers – donning their new outfits – meet Hanson at a music store to try out new instruments ("Baby You're So Good to Me").
On the day of the competition, they rent a car from a funeral home to carry their gear and travel off to the [Locarno ballroom](/wiki/Mecca_Leisure_Group "Mecca Leisure Group"). [Jimmy Savile](/wiki/Jimmy_Savile "Jimmy Savile") is the MC and opens the show with the [Fourmost](/wiki/The_Fourmost "The Fourmost") playing "I Love You Too"–they receive moderately high applause on the "Audiometer" which uses audience applause to measure who will win. The band is told to get ready after the number, but they discover the instruments they've dropped off have been accidentally taken to the airport. As other bands take the stage, they try to out\-run the police while making sure to get their gear back in time. Back at the ballroom, the Black Knights among others take the stage. Hanson becomes increasingly anxious and asks [Cilla Black](/wiki/Cilla_Black "Cilla Black") to perform early ("Is it Love?").
Gerry and the Pacemakers find the group that had taken their gear and arrive back to the ballroom just as Black's performance ends. They take the stage just in time to play "It's Gonna Be Alright" to the exuberant crowd. The Audiometer puts them over the top and they win. The movie ends with the main characters on the ferry celebrating.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The film opens with Gerry and the Pacemakers stepping off a plane after returning from a trip to America. They are greeted by screaming young fans who chase them down the street as they drive off. Once they are far enough from the crowd, the setting shifts to a scene of the group in the studio recording the song \"It's Gonna Be Alright\".",
"The movie then goes back in time to before the band made it big. Gerry gives a monologue about living in Liverpool and meeting the band members overlaid on top of shots of children playing and mingling in the street. The band is shown playing \"Why Oh Why?\" at the [Cavern Club](/wiki/The_Cavern_Club \"The Cavern Club\") to a screaming audience. The next day, Aunt Lil tries to wake Gerry up from bed with a cowbell. To her surprise, he is already awake and listening to the radio. After checking the time, Gerry rushes out of bed and gets dressed in a [fast\\-motion sequence](/wiki/Time-lapse_photography \"Time-lapse photography\") before meeting his family for breakfast. After eating, he scooters off to catch the ferry (\"All Quiet on the Mersey Front\") where the rest of the band is waiting for him. They sing \"[Ferry Cross the Mersey](/wiki/Ferry_Cross_the_Mersey \"Ferry Cross the Mersey\")\" to the surrounding passengers. When the boat docks, they all scooter off to the art school. Before the art instructor enters the room and tells everyone to get to work, Dodie (Julie Samuel) reminds Gerry to come up with a good song to play at the beat competition. When the instructor leaves, the Pacemakers sing \"Fall in Love\". Once class ends, Dodie goes her separate ways as the group goes for lunch at a Chinese restaurant. As they wait for their food, they perform \"This Thing Called Love\".",
"In the meantime, Dodie meets with Jack Hanson and convinces him to consider managing the Pacemakers. He is invited to visit the band rehearsing \"Think About Love\" in a warehouse. After seeing the group along with an enthusiastic crowd that has arrived to watch as well, he offers to manage them. Gerry arrives home to join an orchestral rehearsal with Aunt Lil and company before retiring to his room to play \"She's the Only Girl for Me\". He later receives a letter saying Dodie had been involved in a car pile\\-up; the four men travel to her mansion to check up on her.",
"Dodie is in good health but tells the group that they've got stiff competition. They play \"I'll Wait for You\" in her music room. On Saturday, the Pacemakers – donning their new outfits – meet Hanson at a music store to try out new instruments (\"Baby You're So Good to Me\").",
"On the day of the competition, they rent a car from a funeral home to carry their gear and travel off to the [Locarno ballroom](/wiki/Mecca_Leisure_Group \"Mecca Leisure Group\"). [Jimmy Savile](/wiki/Jimmy_Savile \"Jimmy Savile\") is the MC and opens the show with the [Fourmost](/wiki/The_Fourmost \"The Fourmost\") playing \"I Love You Too\"–they receive moderately high applause on the \"Audiometer\" which uses audience applause to measure who will win. The band is told to get ready after the number, but they discover the instruments they've dropped off have been accidentally taken to the airport. As other bands take the stage, they try to out\\-run the police while making sure to get their gear back in time. Back at the ballroom, the Black Knights among others take the stage. Hanson becomes increasingly anxious and asks [Cilla Black](/wiki/Cilla_Black \"Cilla Black\") to perform early (\"Is it Love?\").",
"Gerry and the Pacemakers find the group that had taken their gear and arrive back to the ballroom just as Black's performance ends. They take the stage just in time to play \"It's Gonna Be Alright\" to the exuberant crowd. The Audiometer puts them over the top and they win. The movie ends with the main characters on the ferry celebrating.",
""
] |
Later life
----------
In 1628, he took up command of the imperial army again, but only for a short time. In the same year, he was formally admitted to the Bohemian nobility. In 1638, he was promoted to [field marshal](/wiki/Field_marshal "Field marshal") and commander of the Hungarian fortress of [Győr](/wiki/Gy%C5%91r "Győr") and the surrounding area. There were no major battles against the Ottomans and he had time to reinforce the fortress.
His preferred residence was [Rabensburg](/wiki/Rabensburg "Rabensburg") Castle in Lower Austria. He expanded the castle into a [château](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau "Château"). He adorned the main hall with paintings of the battles he had fought, and added modern fortification.
After his brother Charles died in 1627, Maximilian acted as guardian of his nephew [Charles Eusebius](/wiki/Karl_Eusebius%2C_Prince_of_Liechtenstein "Karl Eusebius, Prince of Liechtenstein") until 1632\. During this time, he was responsible for implementing the [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation") in the Liechtenstein dominions. During the ongoing [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War"), the Protestant side took control of the [Duchy of Opava](/wiki/Duchy_of_Opava "Duchy of Opava"). After [Wallenstein](/wiki/Wallenstein "Wallenstein") had reconquered Opava for the Catholic side, Maximilian was tasked with enforcing Catholicism in the duchy.
Maximilian and his wife gave numerous donations to various monasteries. In 1633, they founded a [Minim](/wiki/Minim_%28religious_order%29 "Minim (religious order)") monastery in [Vranov](/wiki/Vranov_%28Brno-Country_District%29 "Vranov (Brno-Country District)"). In this monastery, they created a crypt for the burial of members of the House of Liechtenstein.
Maximilian died in 1645\. Since he had no heir, his possessions were divided between his brother Gundaker and his nephew Charles Eusebius.
|
[
"Later life\n----------",
"In 1628, he took up command of the imperial army again, but only for a short time. In the same year, he was formally admitted to the Bohemian nobility. In 1638, he was promoted to [field marshal](/wiki/Field_marshal \"Field marshal\") and commander of the Hungarian fortress of [Győr](/wiki/Gy%C5%91r \"Győr\") and the surrounding area. There were no major battles against the Ottomans and he had time to reinforce the fortress.",
"His preferred residence was [Rabensburg](/wiki/Rabensburg \"Rabensburg\") Castle in Lower Austria. He expanded the castle into a [château](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau \"Château\"). He adorned the main hall with paintings of the battles he had fought, and added modern fortification.",
"After his brother Charles died in 1627, Maximilian acted as guardian of his nephew [Charles Eusebius](/wiki/Karl_Eusebius%2C_Prince_of_Liechtenstein \"Karl Eusebius, Prince of Liechtenstein\") until 1632\\. During this time, he was responsible for implementing the [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\") in the Liechtenstein dominions. During the ongoing [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\"), the Protestant side took control of the [Duchy of Opava](/wiki/Duchy_of_Opava \"Duchy of Opava\"). After [Wallenstein](/wiki/Wallenstein \"Wallenstein\") had reconquered Opava for the Catholic side, Maximilian was tasked with enforcing Catholicism in the duchy.",
"Maximilian and his wife gave numerous donations to various monasteries. In 1633, they founded a [Minim](/wiki/Minim_%28religious_order%29 \"Minim (religious order)\") monastery in [Vranov](/wiki/Vranov_%28Brno-Country_District%29 \"Vranov (Brno-Country District)\"). In this monastery, they created a crypt for the burial of members of the House of Liechtenstein.",
"Maximilian died in 1645\\. Since he had no heir, his possessions were divided between his brother Gundaker and his nephew Charles Eusebius.",
""
] |
Plot
----
An elderly couple is driving through the [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida") countryside when an old truck [tailgates](/wiki/Tailgating "Tailgating") them before passing. They observe the driver next to an abandoned church placing what appears to be a body wrapped in a blood\-stained sheet into a large pipe sticking out of the ground. After the truck causes them to run off the road, they turn around to investigate the pipe and are horrified by what is inside.
In 2021, [millennial](/wiki/Millennial "Millennial") couple Chase and Laine travel to the *Horror Hound* [festival](/wiki/Festival "Festival") in rural [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"). Chase is a [paranormal](/wiki/Paranormal "Paranormal") fanatic, taking a special interest in the local [urban legend](/wiki/Urban_legend "Urban legend") of "the Creeper", a creature that every 23 years, for 23 days, kills and eats hundreds of people before disappearing. Chase plans to propose marriage to Laine on their trip, and unbeknownst to him, Laine believes she is pregnant. Meanwhile, the Creeper awakens and begins to feed in order to increase its strength. Stopping at a [gift shop](/wiki/Gift_shop "Gift shop"), Laine has a premonition when she touches a mysterious artifact. Owner Lady Manilla gives cryptic messages to the couple. At the hotel, Laine takes a [pregnancy test](/wiki/Pregnancy_test "Pregnancy test") but is interrupted when a [crow](/wiki/Crow "Crow") slams into the window. The couple then depart for the festival.
At *Horror Hound*, Laine picks up a mysterious [shuriken](/wiki/Shuriken "Shuriken") and finds she is abnormally skilled at throwing it. The Creeper arrives and begins hunting; using its truck, it knocks out internet connectivity. The couple enters into a [raffle](/wiki/Raffle "Raffle") hosted by festival organizer Madam Carnage, for a chance to win a night at an abandoned [plantation house](/wiki/Plantation_house "Plantation house") that has been converted into an [escape room](/wiki/Escape_room "Escape room"). Laine begins to have visions of her involvement in a strange ritual within the house. A cameraman and associated crew accompanies them to document the event, along with a local tour guide, Stu.
As the group approaches the house, they travel through an 18th\-century graveyard where the Creeper kills the cameraman and abducts Laine as Chase proposes to her. Laine awakens bound to a table where the Creeper pierces her abdomen with a knife. The group enters the house and feuds over their situation; Stu fires his [pistol](/wiki/Pistol "Pistol") into the air attracting the Creeper's attention. The Creeper leaves Laine and hunts the group throughout the house, eventually killing all of them save for Stu and Chase.
Laine frees herself and joins them; she reveals to Chase that she is pregnant and that the Creeper has specifically targeted her as a result. They discover that Madam Carnage, Lady Manilla, and others have been worshiping the Creeper and luring victims to the house for its consumption. They enact a plan for Laine to lure the Creeper outside so Chase and Stu can push the [weathervane](/wiki/Weathervane "Weathervane") onto it. Laine blinds the Creeper with its shuriken, and the falling weathervane impales it. A murder of crows consume the Creeper, while also pushing Stu off the roof killing him, and fly into the night. The group departs, while elsewhere the Creeper regenerates and unleashes a devilish roar.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"An elderly couple is driving through the [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\") countryside when an old truck [tailgates](/wiki/Tailgating \"Tailgating\") them before passing. They observe the driver next to an abandoned church placing what appears to be a body wrapped in a blood\\-stained sheet into a large pipe sticking out of the ground. After the truck causes them to run off the road, they turn around to investigate the pipe and are horrified by what is inside.",
"In 2021, [millennial](/wiki/Millennial \"Millennial\") couple Chase and Laine travel to the *Horror Hound* [festival](/wiki/Festival \"Festival\") in rural [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"). Chase is a [paranormal](/wiki/Paranormal \"Paranormal\") fanatic, taking a special interest in the local [urban legend](/wiki/Urban_legend \"Urban legend\") of \"the Creeper\", a creature that every 23 years, for 23 days, kills and eats hundreds of people before disappearing. Chase plans to propose marriage to Laine on their trip, and unbeknownst to him, Laine believes she is pregnant. Meanwhile, the Creeper awakens and begins to feed in order to increase its strength. Stopping at a [gift shop](/wiki/Gift_shop \"Gift shop\"), Laine has a premonition when she touches a mysterious artifact. Owner Lady Manilla gives cryptic messages to the couple. At the hotel, Laine takes a [pregnancy test](/wiki/Pregnancy_test \"Pregnancy test\") but is interrupted when a [crow](/wiki/Crow \"Crow\") slams into the window. The couple then depart for the festival.",
"At *Horror Hound*, Laine picks up a mysterious [shuriken](/wiki/Shuriken \"Shuriken\") and finds she is abnormally skilled at throwing it. The Creeper arrives and begins hunting; using its truck, it knocks out internet connectivity. The couple enters into a [raffle](/wiki/Raffle \"Raffle\") hosted by festival organizer Madam Carnage, for a chance to win a night at an abandoned [plantation house](/wiki/Plantation_house \"Plantation house\") that has been converted into an [escape room](/wiki/Escape_room \"Escape room\"). Laine begins to have visions of her involvement in a strange ritual within the house. A cameraman and associated crew accompanies them to document the event, along with a local tour guide, Stu.",
"As the group approaches the house, they travel through an 18th\\-century graveyard where the Creeper kills the cameraman and abducts Laine as Chase proposes to her. Laine awakens bound to a table where the Creeper pierces her abdomen with a knife. The group enters the house and feuds over their situation; Stu fires his [pistol](/wiki/Pistol \"Pistol\") into the air attracting the Creeper's attention. The Creeper leaves Laine and hunts the group throughout the house, eventually killing all of them save for Stu and Chase.",
"Laine frees herself and joins them; she reveals to Chase that she is pregnant and that the Creeper has specifically targeted her as a result. They discover that Madam Carnage, Lady Manilla, and others have been worshiping the Creeper and luring victims to the house for its consumption. They enact a plan for Laine to lure the Creeper outside so Chase and Stu can push the [weathervane](/wiki/Weathervane \"Weathervane\") onto it. Laine blinds the Creeper with its shuriken, and the falling weathervane impales it. A murder of crows consume the Creeper, while also pushing Stu off the roof killing him, and fly into the night. The group departs, while elsewhere the Creeper regenerates and unleashes a devilish roar.",
""
] |
Auditions
---------
### Pre\-auditions
The pre\-auditions for the sixth season took place in key cities in the Philippines. Pre\-auditions were held in Manila, Baguio, Lucena, Batangas, and Cebu. The pre\-auditions were judged by *Pilipinas Got Talent* staff; those who passed will proceed to the live auditions.
| Date of Pre\-Audition | Pre\-Audition Venue | City | Ref. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| July 1–2, 2017 | [Baguio City National High School](/wiki/Baguio_City_National_High_School "Baguio City National High School") | [Baguio](/wiki/Baguio "Baguio"), [Benguet](/wiki/Benguet "Benguet") | {{cite web\|url\=http://philnewsph.com/2017/06/11/pilipinas\-got\-talent\-pgt\-season\-6\-audition\-dates\-and\-venues\-2017/\|title\=Pilipinas Got Talent (PGT) Season 6: Audition Dates and Venues 2017\|last\=JBM\|date\=June 11, 2017\|website\=Philippine Latest News\|access\-date\=June 11, 2017}} |
| July 8–9, 2017 | Benedicto College | [Mandaue City](/wiki/Mandaue_City "Mandaue City"), [Cebu](/wiki/Cebu "Cebu") |
| July 15–16, 2017 | [ABS\-CBN Broadcasting Center](/wiki/ABS-CBN_Broadcasting_Center "ABS-CBN Broadcasting Center") | [Quezon City](/wiki/Quezon_City "Quezon City"), [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila "Metro Manila") |
| July 10, 2017 – 2017 | Online Auditions | | |
| August 13, 2017 | [University of Batangas](/wiki/University_of_Batangas "University of Batangas") | [Batangas City](/wiki/Batangas_City "Batangas City") | |
| August 19, 2017 | ABS\-CBN Center Road | [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila "Metro Manila") | |
| October 28, 2017 | |
| August 20, 2017 | Pacific Mall Lucena | [Lucena City](/wiki/Lucena%2C_Philippines "Lucena, Philippines") | |
| October 28, 2017 | Shopwise | [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City") | |
| Robinsons Place | [Iloilo City](/wiki/Iloilo_City "Iloilo City") | |
| October 29, 2017 | Robinsons Place | [Tacloban City](/wiki/Tacloban_City "Tacloban City") | |
| Robinsons Place | [Bacolod](/wiki/Bacolod "Bacolod") | |
| December 15, 2017 | Alfonso Covered Court | [Alfonso](/wiki/Alfonso%2C_Cavite "Alfonso, Cavite"), [Cavite](/wiki/Cavite "Cavite") | {{cite web \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/Tourismalfonso/posts/230720444132111 \|title\=Alfonso Tourism Office \|website\=Facebook \|language\=en \|access\-date\=January 6, 2018}} |
| December 28, 2017 | Mena G. Valencia Gymnasium | [Naujan](/wiki/Naujan%2C_Oriental_Mindoro "Naujan, Oriental Mindoro"), [Oriental Mindoro](/wiki/Oriental_Mindoro "Oriental Mindoro") | {{cite web \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/bbnaujanofficialpage/posts/1658759167595901 \|title\=Binibining Naujan \|website\=Facebook \|language\=en \|access\-date\=January 6, 2018}} |
### Live auditions
The first live auditions in front of the four judges were taped on November 20–22, 2017 at the [SM Seaside City Cebu](/wiki/SM_Seaside_City "SM Seaside City") in [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City"). The Manila leg of live auditions will be taped on January 10–12 at Tanghalang Pasigueño in [Pasig](/wiki/Pasig "Pasig"), [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila "Metro Manila").
| Date of Live Audition | Live Audition Venue | City | Ref. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| November 20–21, 2017 | [SM Seaside City](/wiki/SM_Seaside_City_Cebu "SM Seaside City Cebu") | [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City") | {{Cite news \|url\=http://cebudailynews.inquirer.net/155159/will\-pgt\-season\-6s\-grand\-champion\-come\-cebu \|title\=Will PGT season 6’s grand champion come from Cebu? \|last\=Padayhag \|first\=Michelle Joy L. \|date\=November 22, 2018 \|work\=Cebu Daily News \|access\-date\=January 6, 2018 \|publisher\=\[\[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] \|language\=en\-US}} |
| November 22, 2017 | SM Seaside Block 5 Open Area |
| January 10–12, 2018 | Tanghalang Pasigueño | [Pasig](/wiki/Pasig "Pasig"), [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila "Metro Manila") | {{Citation \|last\=Pilipinas Got Talent \|title\=Pilipinas Got Talent Season 6: Live Auditions in Manila \|date\=January 5, 2018 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=hmA0Zg1SkHM \|accessdate\=January 6, 2018}} |
Like the previous season, voting works on a majority\-of\-three basis. If an act receives three or more "yes" votes from the judges, they advance to the judges' cull.
The live auditions once again feature the Golden Buzzer. Each judge would have one chance to use the Golden Buzzer throughout the auditions. New for this season, apart from the judges, the hosts (as one) get an opportunity to press the Golden Buzzer, bringing the total number of Golden Acts to five. The so\-called Golden Acts, those on whom the Golden Buzzer is used, would automatically advance to the semifinals. Garcia was the first to press his golden buzzer for the pull up bars exhibition group, Bardilleranz.{{Citation \|last\=Pilipinas Got Talent \|title\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: Bardilleranz \- Pull Up Bars Exhibition \|date\=January 6, 2018 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=3Zir5m6VQg4 \|accessdate\=January 6, 2018}} Locsin was next to press the golden buzzer for the wheelchair dance duo, Julius Obrero \& Rhea Marquez.{{Citation \|last\=Pilipinas Got Talent \|title\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: Julius and Rhea\- Wheelchair Dance \|date\=January 21, 2018 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=CpANRM6wKNM \|accessdate\=May 11, 2018}} Padilla used his golden buzzer for hip\-hop dance group, Nocturnal Dance Company.{{Citation \|last\=Pilipinas Got Talent \|title\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: Nocturnal Dance Company \- Dance \|date\=February 3, 2018 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Tr03Jm6GiZE \|accessdate\=May 11, 2018}} Viceral was the last judge to use the golden buzzer and gave it to spiral pole dancer, Kristel de Catalina.{{Citation \|last\=Pilipinas Got Talent \|title\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: Kristel De Catalina \- Spiral Pole Dancing \|date\=February 25, 2018 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ZHhePoJhs8g \|accessdate\=May 11, 2018}} Crawford and Gonzaga was the last to use the golden buzzer and gave it to the acrobatic duo, DWC Aeon Flex.{{Citation \|last\=Pilipinas Got Talent \|title\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: DWC Aeon Flex \- Acrobatic Exhibition \|date\=March 18, 2018 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=v0RwQi\_Xfcw \|accessdate\=May 11, 2018}} Garcia, Locsin, and Padilla used their golden buzzers in the Cebu auditions while Viceral and the hosts, Crawford and Gonzaga, used their golden buzzers in the Manila auditions.
Below are the acts who are confirmed within the show to have received at least three Yes votes and thus had successfully passed their auditions, as well as the Golden Acts. The list does not cover everyone who had passed. Due to time constraints, some acts, named or otherwise, are seen with their fates partially known (only one or two known Yes vote) or edited out completely from broadcast and are thus not listed.
| Successful auditionees of *Pilipinas Got Talent* (season 6\) | |
| --- | --- |
| **Auditionees from Luzon** **Mama's Boyz**, [Sta. Mesa, Manila](/wiki/Santa_Mesa "Santa Mesa") – *Towel Dance* **Bardilleranz**, [Baguio](/wiki/Baguio "Baguio") – *Pull\-up Bars Exhibition* [15x15px](/wiki/File:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg "Yellow ffff00 pog.svg") **Jiwan Kim**, 20, [Muntinlupa](/wiki/Muntinlupa "Muntinlupa") – *Magic Trick* **Johnny Villanueva**, 26, [Quezon City](/wiki/Quezon_City "Quezon City") – *Pole Dancing* **Jonacris Bandillo**, 33, [Laguna](/wiki/Laguna_%28province%29 "Laguna (province)") – *Billiard Tricks* **Sinag Dance Community**, 13\-35, San Jose Del Monte, Bulacan – *Dance* **Kimberly Collado**, 26, Cagayan – *Harp and sing* **Karl Luigi Villareal (Karl Matrix)**, 30, Cavite – *Illusion TV magic* **John Mark Bayot**, 21, Cavite – *Vape smoke tricks* **Orville Tonido**, 32, Quezon City – *Lipsync with dahon act* **Julius Obrero \& Rhea Marquez**, 33 \& 24, Pasig \& Cebu – *Wheelchair dance* [15x15px](/wiki/File:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg "Yellow ffff00 pog.svg") | **Auditionees from Visayas** **Shadow Arts Theater Organization (SATO)**, [Palo, Leyte](/wiki/Palo%2C_Leyte "Palo, Leyte") – *Shadow Play* **Angelisa del Rosario**, 67, [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City") – *Zumba* **Type 1 Dance Company**, [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City") – *Dance* **Janah Jade Lavador**, 13, [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City") – *Arnis Exhibition* **CEBECO II Blue Knights**, [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City") – *Pole Balancing* **Maka Girls**, 20\-22, [Mandaue City](/wiki/Mandaue "Mandaue") – *Sing* **Mary Grace Decafe**, 29, [Iloilo](/wiki/Iloilo_City "Iloilo City") – *Comedy Act* **Tribu Burulakaw**, [Iloilo City](/wiki/Iloilo_City "Iloilo City") – *Fire Dance* **Michael Aco**, 27, [Cebu](/wiki/Cebu "Cebu") – *Sing and Act* **Yan\-Yan and Dad Dance Duo**, 10 \& 38, [Bacolod City](/wiki/Bacolod "Bacolod") – *Dance* |
| **Auditionees from Mindanao** |
| **Auditionees from the overseas** |
| ***NOTE:*** *Please be guided that this list contains the aired auditions only.* | |
|
[
"Auditions\n---------",
"### Pre\\-auditions",
"The pre\\-auditions for the sixth season took place in key cities in the Philippines. Pre\\-auditions were held in Manila, Baguio, Lucena, Batangas, and Cebu. The pre\\-auditions were judged by *Pilipinas Got Talent* staff; those who passed will proceed to the live auditions.",
"",
"| Date of Pre\\-Audition | Pre\\-Audition Venue | City | Ref. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| July 1–2, 2017 | [Baguio City National High School](/wiki/Baguio_City_National_High_School \"Baguio City National High School\") | [Baguio](/wiki/Baguio \"Baguio\"), [Benguet](/wiki/Benguet \"Benguet\") | {{cite web\\|url\\=http://philnewsph.com/2017/06/11/pilipinas\\-got\\-talent\\-pgt\\-season\\-6\\-audition\\-dates\\-and\\-venues\\-2017/\\|title\\=Pilipinas Got Talent (PGT) Season 6: Audition Dates and Venues 2017\\|last\\=JBM\\|date\\=June 11, 2017\\|website\\=Philippine Latest News\\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2017}} |\n| July 8–9, 2017 | Benedicto College | [Mandaue City](/wiki/Mandaue_City \"Mandaue City\"), [Cebu](/wiki/Cebu \"Cebu\") |\n| July 15–16, 2017 | [ABS\\-CBN Broadcasting Center](/wiki/ABS-CBN_Broadcasting_Center \"ABS-CBN Broadcasting Center\") | [Quezon City](/wiki/Quezon_City \"Quezon City\"), [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila \"Metro Manila\") |\n| July 10, 2017 – 2017 | Online Auditions | | |\n| August 13, 2017 | [University of Batangas](/wiki/University_of_Batangas \"University of Batangas\") | [Batangas City](/wiki/Batangas_City \"Batangas City\") | |\n| August 19, 2017 | ABS\\-CBN Center Road | [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila \"Metro Manila\") | |\n| October 28, 2017 | |\n| August 20, 2017 | Pacific Mall Lucena | [Lucena City](/wiki/Lucena%2C_Philippines \"Lucena, Philippines\") | |\n| October 28, 2017 | Shopwise | [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\") | |\n| Robinsons Place | [Iloilo City](/wiki/Iloilo_City \"Iloilo City\") | |\n| October 29, 2017 | Robinsons Place | [Tacloban City](/wiki/Tacloban_City \"Tacloban City\") | |\n| Robinsons Place | [Bacolod](/wiki/Bacolod \"Bacolod\") | |\n| December 15, 2017 | Alfonso Covered Court | [Alfonso](/wiki/Alfonso%2C_Cavite \"Alfonso, Cavite\"), [Cavite](/wiki/Cavite \"Cavite\") | {{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/Tourismalfonso/posts/230720444132111 \\|title\\=Alfonso Tourism Office \\|website\\=Facebook \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2018}} |\n| December 28, 2017 | Mena G. Valencia Gymnasium | [Naujan](/wiki/Naujan%2C_Oriental_Mindoro \"Naujan, Oriental Mindoro\"), [Oriental Mindoro](/wiki/Oriental_Mindoro \"Oriental Mindoro\") | {{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/bbnaujanofficialpage/posts/1658759167595901 \\|title\\=Binibining Naujan \\|website\\=Facebook \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2018}} |",
"### Live auditions",
"The first live auditions in front of the four judges were taped on November 20–22, 2017 at the [SM Seaside City Cebu](/wiki/SM_Seaside_City \"SM Seaside City\") in [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\"). The Manila leg of live auditions will be taped on January 10–12 at Tanghalang Pasigueño in [Pasig](/wiki/Pasig \"Pasig\"), [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila \"Metro Manila\").",
"",
"| Date of Live Audition | Live Audition Venue | City | Ref. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| November 20–21, 2017 | [SM Seaside City](/wiki/SM_Seaside_City_Cebu \"SM Seaside City Cebu\") | [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\") | {{Cite news \\|url\\=http://cebudailynews.inquirer.net/155159/will\\-pgt\\-season\\-6s\\-grand\\-champion\\-come\\-cebu \\|title\\=Will PGT season 6’s grand champion come from Cebu? \\|last\\=Padayhag \\|first\\=Michelle Joy L. \\|date\\=November 22, 2018 \\|work\\=Cebu Daily News \\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2018 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] \\|language\\=en\\-US}} |\n| November 22, 2017 | SM Seaside Block 5 Open Area |\n| January 10–12, 2018 | Tanghalang Pasigueño | [Pasig](/wiki/Pasig \"Pasig\"), [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila \"Metro Manila\") | {{Citation \\|last\\=Pilipinas Got Talent \\|title\\=Pilipinas Got Talent Season 6: Live Auditions in Manila \\|date\\=January 5, 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=hmA0Zg1SkHM \\|accessdate\\=January 6, 2018}} |",
"Like the previous season, voting works on a majority\\-of\\-three basis. If an act receives three or more \"yes\" votes from the judges, they advance to the judges' cull.",
"The live auditions once again feature the Golden Buzzer. Each judge would have one chance to use the Golden Buzzer throughout the auditions. New for this season, apart from the judges, the hosts (as one) get an opportunity to press the Golden Buzzer, bringing the total number of Golden Acts to five. The so\\-called Golden Acts, those on whom the Golden Buzzer is used, would automatically advance to the semifinals. Garcia was the first to press his golden buzzer for the pull up bars exhibition group, Bardilleranz.{{Citation \\|last\\=Pilipinas Got Talent \\|title\\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: Bardilleranz \\- Pull Up Bars Exhibition \\|date\\=January 6, 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=3Zir5m6VQg4 \\|accessdate\\=January 6, 2018}} Locsin was next to press the golden buzzer for the wheelchair dance duo, Julius Obrero \\& Rhea Marquez.{{Citation \\|last\\=Pilipinas Got Talent \\|title\\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: Julius and Rhea\\- Wheelchair Dance \\|date\\=January 21, 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=CpANRM6wKNM \\|accessdate\\=May 11, 2018}} Padilla used his golden buzzer for hip\\-hop dance group, Nocturnal Dance Company.{{Citation \\|last\\=Pilipinas Got Talent \\|title\\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: Nocturnal Dance Company \\- Dance \\|date\\=February 3, 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Tr03Jm6GiZE \\|accessdate\\=May 11, 2018}} Viceral was the last judge to use the golden buzzer and gave it to spiral pole dancer, Kristel de Catalina.{{Citation \\|last\\=Pilipinas Got Talent \\|title\\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: Kristel De Catalina \\- Spiral Pole Dancing \\|date\\=February 25, 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ZHhePoJhs8g \\|accessdate\\=May 11, 2018}} Crawford and Gonzaga was the last to use the golden buzzer and gave it to the acrobatic duo, DWC Aeon Flex.{{Citation \\|last\\=Pilipinas Got Talent \\|title\\=Pilipinas Got Talent 2018 Auditions: DWC Aeon Flex \\- Acrobatic Exhibition \\|date\\=March 18, 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=v0RwQi\\_Xfcw \\|accessdate\\=May 11, 2018}} Garcia, Locsin, and Padilla used their golden buzzers in the Cebu auditions while Viceral and the hosts, Crawford and Gonzaga, used their golden buzzers in the Manila auditions.",
"Below are the acts who are confirmed within the show to have received at least three Yes votes and thus had successfully passed their auditions, as well as the Golden Acts. The list does not cover everyone who had passed. Due to time constraints, some acts, named or otherwise, are seen with their fates partially known (only one or two known Yes vote) or edited out completely from broadcast and are thus not listed.",
"| Successful auditionees of *Pilipinas Got Talent* (season 6\\) | |\n| --- | --- |\n| **Auditionees from Luzon** **Mama's Boyz**, [Sta. Mesa, Manila](/wiki/Santa_Mesa \"Santa Mesa\") – *Towel Dance* **Bardilleranz**, [Baguio](/wiki/Baguio \"Baguio\") – *Pull\\-up Bars Exhibition* [15x15px](/wiki/File:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg \"Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\") **Jiwan Kim**, 20, [Muntinlupa](/wiki/Muntinlupa \"Muntinlupa\") – *Magic Trick* **Johnny Villanueva**, 26, [Quezon City](/wiki/Quezon_City \"Quezon City\") – *Pole Dancing* **Jonacris Bandillo**, 33, [Laguna](/wiki/Laguna_%28province%29 \"Laguna (province)\") – *Billiard Tricks* **Sinag Dance Community**, 13\\-35, San Jose Del Monte, Bulacan – *Dance* **Kimberly Collado**, 26, Cagayan – *Harp and sing* **Karl Luigi Villareal (Karl Matrix)**, 30, Cavite – *Illusion TV magic* **John Mark Bayot**, 21, Cavite – *Vape smoke tricks* **Orville Tonido**, 32, Quezon City – *Lipsync with dahon act* **Julius Obrero \\& Rhea Marquez**, 33 \\& 24, Pasig \\& Cebu – *Wheelchair dance* [15x15px](/wiki/File:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg \"Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\") | **Auditionees from Visayas** **Shadow Arts Theater Organization (SATO)**, [Palo, Leyte](/wiki/Palo%2C_Leyte \"Palo, Leyte\") – *Shadow Play* **Angelisa del Rosario**, 67, [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\") – *Zumba* **Type 1 Dance Company**, [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\") – *Dance* **Janah Jade Lavador**, 13, [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\") – *Arnis Exhibition* **CEBECO II Blue Knights**, [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\") – *Pole Balancing* **Maka Girls**, 20\\-22, [Mandaue City](/wiki/Mandaue \"Mandaue\") – *Sing* **Mary Grace Decafe**, 29, [Iloilo](/wiki/Iloilo_City \"Iloilo City\") – *Comedy Act* **Tribu Burulakaw**, [Iloilo City](/wiki/Iloilo_City \"Iloilo City\") – *Fire Dance* **Michael Aco**, 27, [Cebu](/wiki/Cebu \"Cebu\") – *Sing and Act* **Yan\\-Yan and Dad Dance Duo**, 10 \\& 38, [Bacolod City](/wiki/Bacolod \"Bacolod\") – *Dance* |\n| **Auditionees from Mindanao** |\n| **Auditionees from the overseas** |\n| ***NOTE:*** *Please be guided that this list contains the aired auditions only.* | |",
"",
""
] |
Semifinals
----------
The Semifinals began on March 24, 2018, in Newport Performing Arts Theater, Resorts World Manila in [Pasay](/wiki/Pasay "Pasay"), [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila "Metro Manila"). Each week (except week 2\), performances from four out of six acts took place on Saturday nights, while during Sunday nights, the two remaining acts performed and the results are announced on the same night.
Garcia missed the five semifinal rounds due to the death of his spouse. Due to his absence, his buzzer was removed from the stage, while Robin and Angel switched places.
Starting this round, the show airs at 7:30 pm during Saturdays.
Voting for the acts starts after all the acts for the week have performed. There are two ways to vote.
* **SMS voting**. Texting the name of the act to 2366\.
* **Online voting via [Google](/wiki/Google "Google")**. By typing the keyword **PGT Vote** in the search box, clickable photos of the contestants that had performed for that week will show up in the search results page; one Google account is entitled to one vote only.
### Semifinals summary
{{col\-begin}}
{{col\-2}}
* + - {{plainlist\|
\* {{Color box\|gold\|border\=darkgray}} Won the public vote
\* {{Color box\|silver\|border\=darkgray}} Won the judges' vote
\* {{Color box\|\#CC9933\|border\=darkgray}} Lost the judges' vote
}}
{{col\-2}}
- {{plainlist\|
\* \[\[Image:Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\|20px]] Golden Buzzer Act
\* \[\[Image:Crystal Clear action button cancel.svg\|20px]] Buzzed out
\* \[\[Image:Crystal Clear app clean.png\|20px]] Judge's vote
}}
{{col\-end}}
#### Week 1 (March 24 \& 25\)
* Guest performer: *PGT* [season 5](/wiki/Pilipinas_Got_Talent_%28season_5%29 "Pilipinas Got Talent (season 5)") winner [Power Duo](/wiki/Power_Duo "Power Duo")
| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Robin | Angel | Vice |
| Johnny Villanueva | 1 | Pole dance | | | | 6\.56% | Eliminated |
| Maka Girls | 2 | Singing trio | | | | 2\.53% | Eliminated |
| Salimpokaw Ko Masa Dance Troupe | 3 | Cultural dance | | | | 5\.85% | Eliminated |
| Orville Tonido | 4 | Lip\-sync | | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | 19\.80% | Advanced |
| Nocturnal Dance Company [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg "Yellow ffff00 pog.svg") | 5 | Hip\-hop dance | | | | 44\.55% | Advanced |
| JM Bayot | 6 | Vape smoke tricks | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | | | 20\.70% | Eliminated |
#### Week 2 (April 1\)
Only 4 acts performed this week due to the Holy Week special programming until Black Saturday.
For this week, the three acts who did not win the public votes proceed to the judges' votes. In case the three acts received one vote each, the results return to the public vote.
* Guest performers: Eumee Lyn Capile, [Elha Nympha](/wiki/Elha_Nympha "Elha Nympha"), [AC Bonifacio](/wiki/AC_Bonifacio "AC Bonifacio"), Sam Shoaf, [Nyoy Volante](/wiki/Nyoy_Volante "Nyoy Volante"), and *PGT* season 5 finalist Mastermind
| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Robin | Angel | Vice |
| Xtreme Dancers | 1 | Hip\-hop dance | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | 6\.52% | Advanced |
| Jeptah Callitong | 2 | Magic | | | | 11\.55% | Eliminated |
| Bu\-aywa Folkloric Dance Troupe | 3 | Folk dance | | | | 2\.97% | Eliminated |
| Kristel de Catalina [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg "Yellow ffff00 pog.svg") | 4 | Spiral pole dance | | | | 78\.96% | Advanced |
#### Week 3 (April 7 \& 8\)
Joven Olvido, Rico the Magician, and Antonio Bathan Jr. were previously announced to perform in this round, but due to circumstances so far unknown to viewers, their performances were rescheduled to the later rounds. Junior FMD Extreme, DWC Aeon Flex, Prinsipe Makata took their places.
* Guest performers: [Jed Madela](/wiki/Jed_Madela "Jed Madela"), [BoybandPH](/wiki/BoybandPH "BoybandPH"), and [TNT Boys](/wiki/Tawag_ng_Tanghalan "Tawag ng Tanghalan")
| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Robin | Angel | Vice |
| Junior FMD Extreme | 1 | Hip\-hop dance | | | | 3\.89% | Eliminated |
| DWC Aeon Flex [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg "Yellow ffff00 pog.svg") | 2 | Acrobatic exhibition | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | | 12\.59% | Advanced |
| Prinsipe Makata | 3 | Poetry | | | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | 29\.81% | Eliminated |
| Mad Queens | 4 | Dance | | | | 1\.68% | Eliminated |
| Pedro Lachica | 5 | Pop and lock | | | | 12\.07% | Eliminated |
| Bardilleranz [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg "Yellow ffff00 pog.svg") | 6 | Pull\-up bars exhibition | | | | 39\.97% | Advanced |
#### Week 4 (April 14 \& 15\)
[Billy Crawford](/wiki/Billy_Crawford "Billy Crawford") was absent in the Saturday show, and the show was solely hosted by Gonzaga due to Crawford being a guest in [Sarah Geronimo](/wiki/Sarah_Geronimo "Sarah Geronimo")'s *This 15 Me* concert.
* Guest performers: [Angeline Quinto](/wiki/Angeline_Quinto "Angeline Quinto"), [Erik Santos](/wiki/Erik_Santos "Erik Santos"), [Jason Dy](/wiki/Jason_Dy "Jason Dy"), [Noven Belleza](/wiki/Noven_Belleza "Noven Belleza"), and *PGT* [season 1](/wiki/Pilipinas_Got_Talent_season_1 "Pilipinas Got Talent season 1") winner [Jovit Baldivino](/wiki/Jovit_Baldivino "Jovit Baldivino")
| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Robin | Angel | Vice |
| Aloha Philippines | 1 | Poi dance | | | | 2\.81% | Eliminated |
| Dauntless Republic | 2 | Hip\-hop dance | | | | 0\.69% | Eliminated |
| Karl Matrix | 3 | Illusion | | | | 0\.57% | Eliminated |
| Joven Olvido | 4 | Comedy | | | | 55\.71% | Advanced |
| Miggy Hizon | 5 | Yo\-yo tricks | | | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | 7\.45% | Eliminated |
| Julius Obrero \& Rhea Marquez [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg "Yellow ffff00 pog.svg") | 6 | Wheelchair dance | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | | 32\.77% | Advanced |
#### Week 5 (April 21 \& 22\)
This particular semifinal week was held outdoors at the MX Messiah Fairgrounds in [Taytay](/wiki/Taytay%2C_Rizal "Taytay, Rizal"), [Rizal](/wiki/Rizal_%28province%29 "Rizal (province)") due to the size of stage required for the pool tables Jonacris Bandillo used and the dangerous nature of the fire acts of the Dancing Fire Warriors and Angel Fire New Gen. Due to safety concerns, CEBECO II Blue Knights held their semifinals performance in advance under broad daylight at an open field in [Bogo, Cebu](/wiki/Bogo%2C_Cebu "Bogo, Cebu"); several members were present in Taytay to personally hear the judges' comments.
Again, Gonzaga hosted the show without Crawford due to latter's wedding held a day before the semifinals.
* Guest performers: *PGT* [season 5](/wiki/Pilipinas_Got_Talent_season_5 "Pilipinas Got Talent season 5") runner\-up The Amazing Pyra and *[YFSF: Kids](/wiki/Your_Face_Sounds_Familiar_Kids_%28Philippine_TV_series%29 "Your Face Sounds Familiar Kids (Philippine TV series)")* [season 1](/wiki/Your_Face_Sounds_Familiar_Kids_%28Philippine_TV_series%29_season_1 "Your Face Sounds Familiar Kids (Philippine TV series) season 1") winner [Awra Briguela](/wiki/Awra_Briguela "Awra Briguela"), with XB Gensan
| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Robin | Angel | Vice |
| Dancing Fire Warriors | 1 | Fire dance | | | | 2\.85% | Eliminated |
| Rico the Magician | 2 | Magic | | | | 6\.02% | Eliminated |
| Antonio Bathan Jr. | 3 | Spoken word poetry | | | | 12\.88% | Eliminated |
| Angel Fire New Gen | 4 | Belly dancing | | | | 8\.58% | Eliminated |
| Jonacris Bandillo | 5 | Billiard tricks | | | | 35\.37% | Advanced |
| CEBECO II Blue Knights | 6 | Utility pole balancing | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png "Crystal Clear app clean.png") | 34\.29% | Advanced |
|
[
"Semifinals\n----------",
"The Semifinals began on March 24, 2018, in Newport Performing Arts Theater, Resorts World Manila in [Pasay](/wiki/Pasay \"Pasay\"), [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila \"Metro Manila\"). Each week (except week 2\\), performances from four out of six acts took place on Saturday nights, while during Sunday nights, the two remaining acts performed and the results are announced on the same night.",
"Garcia missed the five semifinal rounds due to the death of his spouse. Due to his absence, his buzzer was removed from the stage, while Robin and Angel switched places.",
"Starting this round, the show airs at 7:30 pm during Saturdays.",
"Voting for the acts starts after all the acts for the week have performed. There are two ways to vote. \n* **SMS voting**. Texting the name of the act to 2366\\.\n* **Online voting via [Google](/wiki/Google \"Google\")**. By typing the keyword **PGT Vote** in the search box, clickable photos of the contestants that had performed for that week will show up in the search results page; one Google account is entitled to one vote only.",
"### Semifinals summary",
"{{col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-2}}\n* + - {{plainlist\\|\n\t\t\\* {{Color box\\|gold\\|border\\=darkgray}} Won the public vote\n\t\t\\* {{Color box\\|silver\\|border\\=darkgray}} Won the judges' vote\n\t\t\\* {{Color box\\|\\#CC9933\\|border\\=darkgray}} Lost the judges' vote\n\t\t}}\n\t\t{{col\\-2}}\n\t\t- {{plainlist\\|\n\t\t\\* \\[\\[Image:Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\\|20px]] Golden Buzzer Act\n\t\t\\* \\[\\[Image:Crystal Clear action button cancel.svg\\|20px]] Buzzed out\n\t\t\\* \\[\\[Image:Crystal Clear app clean.png\\|20px]] Judge's vote\n\t\t}}\n\t\t{{col\\-end}}",
"#### Week 1 (March 24 \\& 25\\)",
"* Guest performer: *PGT* [season 5](/wiki/Pilipinas_Got_Talent_%28season_5%29 \"Pilipinas Got Talent (season 5)\") winner [Power Duo](/wiki/Power_Duo \"Power Duo\")",
"",
"| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Robin | Angel | Vice |\n| Johnny Villanueva | 1 | Pole dance | | | | 6\\.56% | Eliminated |\n| Maka Girls | 2 | Singing trio | | | | 2\\.53% | Eliminated |\n| Salimpokaw Ko Masa Dance Troupe | 3 | Cultural dance | | | | 5\\.85% | Eliminated |\n| Orville Tonido | 4 | Lip\\-sync | | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | 19\\.80% | Advanced |\n| Nocturnal Dance Company [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg \"Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\") | 5 | Hip\\-hop dance | | | | 44\\.55% | Advanced |\n| JM Bayot | 6 | Vape smoke tricks | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | | | 20\\.70% | Eliminated |",
"#### Week 2 (April 1\\)",
"Only 4 acts performed this week due to the Holy Week special programming until Black Saturday.",
"For this week, the three acts who did not win the public votes proceed to the judges' votes. In case the three acts received one vote each, the results return to the public vote.",
"* Guest performers: Eumee Lyn Capile, [Elha Nympha](/wiki/Elha_Nympha \"Elha Nympha\"), [AC Bonifacio](/wiki/AC_Bonifacio \"AC Bonifacio\"), Sam Shoaf, [Nyoy Volante](/wiki/Nyoy_Volante \"Nyoy Volante\"), and *PGT* season 5 finalist Mastermind",
"",
"| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Robin | Angel | Vice |\n| Xtreme Dancers | 1 | Hip\\-hop dance | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | 6\\.52% | Advanced |\n| Jeptah Callitong | 2 | Magic | | | | 11\\.55% | Eliminated |\n| Bu\\-aywa Folkloric Dance Troupe | 3 | Folk dance | | | | 2\\.97% | Eliminated |\n| Kristel de Catalina [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg \"Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\") | 4 | Spiral pole dance | | | | 78\\.96% | Advanced |",
"#### Week 3 (April 7 \\& 8\\)",
"Joven Olvido, Rico the Magician, and Antonio Bathan Jr. were previously announced to perform in this round, but due to circumstances so far unknown to viewers, their performances were rescheduled to the later rounds. Junior FMD Extreme, DWC Aeon Flex, Prinsipe Makata took their places.",
"* Guest performers: [Jed Madela](/wiki/Jed_Madela \"Jed Madela\"), [BoybandPH](/wiki/BoybandPH \"BoybandPH\"), and [TNT Boys](/wiki/Tawag_ng_Tanghalan \"Tawag ng Tanghalan\")",
"",
"| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Robin | Angel | Vice |\n| Junior FMD Extreme | 1 | Hip\\-hop dance | | | | 3\\.89% | Eliminated |\n| DWC Aeon Flex [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg \"Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\") | 2 | Acrobatic exhibition | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | | 12\\.59% | Advanced |\n| Prinsipe Makata | 3 | Poetry | | | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | 29\\.81% | Eliminated |\n| Mad Queens | 4 | Dance | | | | 1\\.68% | Eliminated |\n| Pedro Lachica | 5 | Pop and lock | | | | 12\\.07% | Eliminated |\n| Bardilleranz [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg \"Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\") | 6 | Pull\\-up bars exhibition | | | | 39\\.97% | Advanced |",
"#### Week 4 (April 14 \\& 15\\)",
"[Billy Crawford](/wiki/Billy_Crawford \"Billy Crawford\") was absent in the Saturday show, and the show was solely hosted by Gonzaga due to Crawford being a guest in [Sarah Geronimo](/wiki/Sarah_Geronimo \"Sarah Geronimo\")'s *This 15 Me* concert.",
"* Guest performers: [Angeline Quinto](/wiki/Angeline_Quinto \"Angeline Quinto\"), [Erik Santos](/wiki/Erik_Santos \"Erik Santos\"), [Jason Dy](/wiki/Jason_Dy \"Jason Dy\"), [Noven Belleza](/wiki/Noven_Belleza \"Noven Belleza\"), and *PGT* [season 1](/wiki/Pilipinas_Got_Talent_season_1 \"Pilipinas Got Talent season 1\") winner [Jovit Baldivino](/wiki/Jovit_Baldivino \"Jovit Baldivino\")",
"",
"| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Robin | Angel | Vice |\n| Aloha Philippines | 1 | Poi dance | | | | 2\\.81% | Eliminated |\n| Dauntless Republic | 2 | Hip\\-hop dance | | | | 0\\.69% | Eliminated |\n| Karl Matrix | 3 | Illusion | | | | 0\\.57% | Eliminated |\n| Joven Olvido | 4 | Comedy | | | | 55\\.71% | Advanced |\n| Miggy Hizon | 5 | Yo\\-yo tricks | | | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | 7\\.45% | Eliminated |\n| Julius Obrero \\& Rhea Marquez [15px](/wiki/Image:Yellow_ffff00_pog.svg \"Yellow ffff00 pog.svg\") | 6 | Wheelchair dance | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | | 32\\.77% | Advanced |",
"#### Week 5 (April 21 \\& 22\\)",
"This particular semifinal week was held outdoors at the MX Messiah Fairgrounds in [Taytay](/wiki/Taytay%2C_Rizal \"Taytay, Rizal\"), [Rizal](/wiki/Rizal_%28province%29 \"Rizal (province)\") due to the size of stage required for the pool tables Jonacris Bandillo used and the dangerous nature of the fire acts of the Dancing Fire Warriors and Angel Fire New Gen. Due to safety concerns, CEBECO II Blue Knights held their semifinals performance in advance under broad daylight at an open field in [Bogo, Cebu](/wiki/Bogo%2C_Cebu \"Bogo, Cebu\"); several members were present in Taytay to personally hear the judges' comments.",
"Again, Gonzaga hosted the show without Crawford due to latter's wedding held a day before the semifinals.",
"* Guest performers: *PGT* [season 5](/wiki/Pilipinas_Got_Talent_season_5 \"Pilipinas Got Talent season 5\") runner\\-up The Amazing Pyra and *[YFSF: Kids](/wiki/Your_Face_Sounds_Familiar_Kids_%28Philippine_TV_series%29 \"Your Face Sounds Familiar Kids (Philippine TV series)\")* [season 1](/wiki/Your_Face_Sounds_Familiar_Kids_%28Philippine_TV_series%29_season_1 \"Your Face Sounds Familiar Kids (Philippine TV series) season 1\") winner [Awra Briguela](/wiki/Awra_Briguela \"Awra Briguela\"), with XB Gensan",
"",
"| Contestant | Order | Act | Buzzes and judges' votes | | | Percentage | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Robin | Angel | Vice |\n| Dancing Fire Warriors | 1 | Fire dance | | | | 2\\.85% | Eliminated |\n| Rico the Magician | 2 | Magic | | | | 6\\.02% | Eliminated |\n| Antonio Bathan Jr. | 3 | Spoken word poetry | | | | 12\\.88% | Eliminated |\n| Angel Fire New Gen | 4 | Belly dancing | | | | 8\\.58% | Eliminated |\n| Jonacris Bandillo | 5 | Billiard tricks | | | | 35\\.37% | Advanced |\n| CEBECO II Blue Knights | 6 | Utility pole balancing | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | [20px](/wiki/Image:Crystal_Clear_app_clean.png \"Crystal Clear app clean.png\") | 34\\.29% | Advanced |",
""
] |
Career
------
*Anacreon* entered *[Lloyd's Register](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Register "Lloyd's Register")* in 1800 with Massingale, master, Davidson, owner, and trade London–Minorca.[*Lloyd's Register* (1800\), "A" supple. pages.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015065522479?urlappend=%3Bseq=43) This information continued unchanged until 1805 in the *Register of Shipping* and 1806 in *Lloyd's Register*. However, the information in the registers was only as accurate as owners chose to keep it and both registers often carried stale data for some years. For *Anacreon*, the data was incorrect from late 1803 to late 1805\.
Following the resumption of [war with France](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars") in early 1803, concern developed in Britain about [Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Napoleon%27s_planned_invasion_of_the_United_Kingdom "Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom"). The British government's response took many forms including the reactivation of [Fencible](/wiki/Fencible "Fencible") regiments and the [Sea Fencibles](/wiki/Sea_Fencibles "Sea Fencibles"), a program of the construction of [Martello Towers](/wiki/Martello_Towers "Martello Towers") along the coasts of Britain and Ireland, and the commissioning of a number of armed defense ships.
The British [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company") in November voted to underwrite 10,000 tons (bm) of armed transports to protect Great Britain's coasts. The vessels were existing, but not EIC, merchantmen that would receive an upgrade in armament and in some cases a naval officer as captain. The vessels were: *Albion*, *Anacreon*, {{ship\|\|Atlas\|1801 ship\|2}}, *Aurora*, {{ship\|\|Chapman\|1777 ship\|2}}, {{ship\|\|Diadem\|1800 ship\|2}}, {{ship\|\|Duckenfield\|1792 ship\|2}}, *Helder*, {{ship\|\|Indefatigable\|1799 ship\|2}}, {{ship\|\|Lord Forbes\|1803 ship\|2}}, *Lord Nelson*, {{ship\|\|Norfolk\|1800 ship\|2}}, {{ship\|\|Paragon\|1800 Whitby ship\|2}}, {{ship\|\|Perseus\|1799 ship\|2}}, {{ship\|\|Robert\|1800 ship\|2}}, *Sir Alexander Mitchell*, {{ship\|\|Suffolk\|1795 ship\|2}}, and *Triton*.
On 21 November 1803 *Anacreon*, of 443 tons (bm) and 16 guns, was ready but yet to be allocated to her station.[*Naval Database*.](http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/18-1900/A/00245a.html) On 28 December at Deal a boat from *Anacreon* capsized will coming to shore; two men drowned and a third died later."Ship News". *Morning Post* (London, England), 31 December 1804; Issue 11307\.
In August 1804 she was at Sheerness undergoing fitting.{{sfn\|Winfield\|2008\|p\=272}} Commander James John Charles Agassiz was appointed to her circa 6 September 1804\.{{harvnb\|O'Byrne\|1849\|p\=6}} He commissioned her and by later that month she was on the Leith Station.{{sfn\|Winfield\|2008\|p\=272}}
On 31 December 1805 the armed ships *Helder*, *Anacreon*, *Triton*, and *Paragon* were at Portsmouth, having come down from [The Downs](/wiki/The_Downs_%28ship_anchorage%29 "The Downs (ship anchorage)").[*Lloyd's List* №4179\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.c2735022?urlappend=%3Bseq=9)
The Royal Navy returned the armed defense ships to their owners in the second half of 1805\. *Anacreon* was deleted from the lists in July 1805\.{{sfn\|Winfield\|2008\|p\=272}} Commander Agassiz moved to take command on 22 January 1806 of {{HMS\|Rattler\|1795\|6}}.
The 1806 volume of the *Register of Shipping* showed *Anacreon*{{'}}s master as W. Young, her owner as Davison, and her trade as London transport.[*Register of Shipping* (1806\), Seq.№A599\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015021233542?urlappend=%3Bseq=44)
Next, *Anacreon* was one of the transport vessels that were part of the expedition under General Sir [David Baird](/wiki/Sir_David_Baird%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet") and Admiral Sir [Home Riggs Popham](/wiki/Home_Riggs_Popham "Home Riggs Popham") that would in 1806 capture the [Dutch Cape Colony](/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony "Dutch Cape Colony").
{{see also\|Transport vessels for the British invasion of the Dutch Cape Colony (1805\-1806\)}}
On 21 March 1806 she sailed with 16 other transports in a convoy to Great Britain with invalids and Dutch prisoners. The newly\-captured and commissioned [HMS *Volontaire*](/wiki/French_frigate_Volontaire_%281796%29 "French frigate Volontaire (1796)") provided their escort.
The information in the table below comes from either *Lloyd's Register* (LR) or the *Register of Shipping* (RS).
| Year | Master | Owner | Trade | Source and notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1810 | W. Young | Davison \& Co. | London transport | RS; Good repair in 1809 |
| 1815 | W. Young | Davison \& Co. | London transport | RS; Good repair in 1809 |
| 1820 | W. Rodgers | Nicholson | [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool")–[Riga](/wiki/Riga "Riga")Liverpool–[New Brunswick](/wiki/New_Brunswick "New Brunswick") | LR; Good repair 1817 |
| 1824 | T. Blackett | Captain | Liverpool to [Miramichi, New Brunswick](/wiki/Miramichi%2C_New_Brunswick "Miramichi, New Brunswick") | LR; Damages repaired 1823[*Lloyd's Register* (1824\), Seq.№A700\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015005686582?urlappend=%3Bseq=41) |
|
|
[
"Career\n------",
"*Anacreon* entered *[Lloyd's Register](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Register \"Lloyd's Register\")* in 1800 with Massingale, master, Davidson, owner, and trade London–Minorca.[*Lloyd's Register* (1800\\), \"A\" supple. pages.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015065522479?urlappend=%3Bseq=43) This information continued unchanged until 1805 in the *Register of Shipping* and 1806 in *Lloyd's Register*. However, the information in the registers was only as accurate as owners chose to keep it and both registers often carried stale data for some years. For *Anacreon*, the data was incorrect from late 1803 to late 1805\\.",
"Following the resumption of [war with France](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\") in early 1803, concern developed in Britain about [Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Napoleon%27s_planned_invasion_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom\"). The British government's response took many forms including the reactivation of [Fencible](/wiki/Fencible \"Fencible\") regiments and the [Sea Fencibles](/wiki/Sea_Fencibles \"Sea Fencibles\"), a program of the construction of [Martello Towers](/wiki/Martello_Towers \"Martello Towers\") along the coasts of Britain and Ireland, and the commissioning of a number of armed defense ships.",
"The British [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\") in November voted to underwrite 10,000 tons (bm) of armed transports to protect Great Britain's coasts. The vessels were existing, but not EIC, merchantmen that would receive an upgrade in armament and in some cases a naval officer as captain. The vessels were: *Albion*, *Anacreon*, {{ship\\|\\|Atlas\\|1801 ship\\|2}}, *Aurora*, {{ship\\|\\|Chapman\\|1777 ship\\|2}}, {{ship\\|\\|Diadem\\|1800 ship\\|2}}, {{ship\\|\\|Duckenfield\\|1792 ship\\|2}}, *Helder*, {{ship\\|\\|Indefatigable\\|1799 ship\\|2}}, {{ship\\|\\|Lord Forbes\\|1803 ship\\|2}}, *Lord Nelson*, {{ship\\|\\|Norfolk\\|1800 ship\\|2}}, {{ship\\|\\|Paragon\\|1800 Whitby ship\\|2}}, {{ship\\|\\|Perseus\\|1799 ship\\|2}}, {{ship\\|\\|Robert\\|1800 ship\\|2}}, *Sir Alexander Mitchell*, {{ship\\|\\|Suffolk\\|1795 ship\\|2}}, and *Triton*.",
"On 21 November 1803 *Anacreon*, of 443 tons (bm) and 16 guns, was ready but yet to be allocated to her station.[*Naval Database*.](http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/18-1900/A/00245a.html) On 28 December at Deal a boat from *Anacreon* capsized will coming to shore; two men drowned and a third died later.\"Ship News\". *Morning Post* (London, England), 31 December 1804; Issue 11307\\.",
"In August 1804 she was at Sheerness undergoing fitting.{{sfn\\|Winfield\\|2008\\|p\\=272}} Commander James John Charles Agassiz was appointed to her circa 6 September 1804\\.{{harvnb\\|O'Byrne\\|1849\\|p\\=6}} He commissioned her and by later that month she was on the Leith Station.{{sfn\\|Winfield\\|2008\\|p\\=272}}",
"On 31 December 1805 the armed ships *Helder*, *Anacreon*, *Triton*, and *Paragon* were at Portsmouth, having come down from [The Downs](/wiki/The_Downs_%28ship_anchorage%29 \"The Downs (ship anchorage)\").[*Lloyd's List* №4179\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.c2735022?urlappend=%3Bseq=9)",
"The Royal Navy returned the armed defense ships to their owners in the second half of 1805\\. *Anacreon* was deleted from the lists in July 1805\\.{{sfn\\|Winfield\\|2008\\|p\\=272}} Commander Agassiz moved to take command on 22 January 1806 of {{HMS\\|Rattler\\|1795\\|6}}.",
"The 1806 volume of the *Register of Shipping* showed *Anacreon*{{'}}s master as W. Young, her owner as Davison, and her trade as London transport.[*Register of Shipping* (1806\\), Seq.№A599\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015021233542?urlappend=%3Bseq=44)",
"Next, *Anacreon* was one of the transport vessels that were part of the expedition under General Sir [David Baird](/wiki/Sir_David_Baird%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet\") and Admiral Sir [Home Riggs Popham](/wiki/Home_Riggs_Popham \"Home Riggs Popham\") that would in 1806 capture the [Dutch Cape Colony](/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony \"Dutch Cape Colony\").",
"{{see also\\|Transport vessels for the British invasion of the Dutch Cape Colony (1805\\-1806\\)}}",
"On 21 March 1806 she sailed with 16 other transports in a convoy to Great Britain with invalids and Dutch prisoners. The newly\\-captured and commissioned [HMS *Volontaire*](/wiki/French_frigate_Volontaire_%281796%29 \"French frigate Volontaire (1796)\") provided their escort.",
"The information in the table below comes from either *Lloyd's Register* (LR) or the *Register of Shipping* (RS).",
"| Year | Master | Owner | Trade | Source and notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1810 | W. Young | Davison \\& Co. | London transport | RS; Good repair in 1809 |\n| 1815 | W. Young | Davison \\& Co. | London transport | RS; Good repair in 1809 |\n| 1820 | W. Rodgers | Nicholson | [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\")–[Riga](/wiki/Riga \"Riga\")Liverpool–[New Brunswick](/wiki/New_Brunswick \"New Brunswick\") | LR; Good repair 1817 |\n| 1824 | T. Blackett | Captain | Liverpool to [Miramichi, New Brunswick](/wiki/Miramichi%2C_New_Brunswick \"Miramichi, New Brunswick\") | LR; Damages repaired 1823[*Lloyd's Register* (1824\\), Seq.№A700\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015005686582?urlappend=%3Bseq=41) |\n|",
"",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
[thumb\|right\|[Spasskaya Tower](/wiki/Spasskaya_Tower "Spasskaya Tower") (1491\) in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), where Vassiliev was born](/wiki/File:0_4707b_6549aa91_spasskaya.jpg "0 4707b 6549aa91 spasskaya.jpg")
Alexander Vassiliev was born in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic") on May 1, 1962\.
Vassiliev joined the [Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Communist Party of the Soviet Union") in 1983 while he was a student at [Moscow State University](/wiki/Moscow_State_University "Moscow State University") (MGU).Alexander Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks, Discover Alger Hiss, and Lose to His Lawyer," in John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr, and Alexander Vassiliev, *Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009; pg. xxx. He graduated from MGU with a degree in [journalism](/wiki/Journalism "Journalism") in 1984\.
Vassiliev worked in the international department of *[Komsomolskaya Pravda](/wiki/Komsomolskaya_Pravda "Komsomolskaya Pravda")* (Young Communists' Truth) from 1984 to 1985\. In 1985, he became a student in the [Andropov Red Banner Institute](/wiki/Academy_of_Foreign_Intelligence "Academy of Foreign Intelligence") of the [KGB](/wiki/KGB "KGB") of the USSR, completing his studies there in 1987\.
### Soviet intelligence
[thumb\|right\|[KGB](/wiki/KGB "KGB") symbol](/wiki/File:KGB_Symbol.png "KGB Symbol.png")
Vassiliev worked as an operative of the First (American) Department of the [First Chief Directorate](/wiki/First_Chief_Directorate "First Chief Directorate") of the KGB from 1987 to 1990\.
In February 1990, Vassiliev resigned from the KGB for political and moral reasons. He resigned from the Communist Party in that same year. He returned to the editorial staff of *Komsomolskaya Pravda,* where he worked as a reporter and then columnist, writing mostly about international issues and espionage from 1990 to 1996\. He also worked as an author and presenter of several political shows on the {{ill\|Ostankino Channel One\|ru\|1\-й канал Останкино}} from 1991 to 1993\.
In the summer of 1993, Vassiliev received a telephone call from Iurii Kobaladze, press officer of the [Foreign Intelligence Service](/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Service_%28Russia%29 "Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)") (SVR) of the [Russian Federation](/wiki/Russian_Federation "Russian Federation"), requesting a meeting.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xxvii. Kobaladze asked Vassiliev to participate in a book project with [Crown Publishers](/wiki/Crown_Publishers "Crown Publishers"), a division of [Random House](/wiki/Random_House "Random House"), which had arranged for a five book series based upon KGB archival documents, each edited by one Russian and one American editor. The SVR (successor to the KGB), was in the midst of a budgetary crisis and sought to improve its image as an effective service and had agreed to the proposal.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pp. xxvii\-xxviii. Although having misgivings, Vassiliev finally agreed to work on a book dealing with Soviet Espionage in America in the 1930s and 1940s as part of the project.
In the fall of 1993, Vassiliev signed a book contract and met the American chosen by Crown to work with him, historian Allen Weinstein, a specialist in the [Alger Hiss](/wiki/Alger_Hiss "Alger Hiss") spy case.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xxviii. Vassiliev quit his television job and in early 1994 began to work on the book project in earnest, working with archival documents provided at the press bureau of the SVR.
Documents housed in SVR archives were carried to Vassiliev at the SVR press office; he was allowed to make copious notes both summarizing and transcribing their content in the presence of two SVR officers.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pp. xxxiv. Although locked up in a safe each night with the archival material, no one checked what he was writing and Vassiliev was allowed to take notebooks home as he filled one and brought in another. A total of eight notebooks were kept, along with a number of unbound pages.These documents are available in full to scholars via the internet from the Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. See External links below. Vassiliev later recalled that he attempted to transcribe as many documents as possible verbatim and painstakingly noted archival file and document numbers for each.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xxxvii.
The writing of draft chapters for Vassiliev's first book, *The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America — The Stalin Era,* began in 1995, with each vetted by the SVD Declassification Commission, the head of the archives department, and Kobaladze. Vassiliev was unable to name Americans who assisted Soviet intelligence in his draft chapters owing to SVR regulations which forbid the "[outing](/wiki/Outing "Outing")" of agents and sources, so [cover names](/wiki/Cover_name "Cover name") were used in Vassiliev's draft.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xl. Many cover names were already well known in the United States, however, and American author Weinstein had little difficulty understanding who was who and retained control over the final draft.
Beginning in 1995, the political environment began to change in Russia, Vassiliev later recalled, with the popularity of [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin "Boris Yeltsin") plummeting and an anxious mood sweeping the country.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xli. A conservative [nationalistic](/wiki/Nationalism "Nationalism") restoration seemed to be in the offing, headed by Russian Presidential candidate [Gennady Ziuganov](/wiki/Gennady_Ziuganov "Gennady Ziuganov").Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xlii. Adding to the difficulty, Crown Publishing found it necessary to cancel the five volume book deal for financial reasons, throwing the entire project into doubt. In January 1996, Vassiliev was informed that he would be receiving no new files from the archives.
### Emigration
[thumb\|right\|Satellite view of inner [London](/wiki/London "London"), whither Vassiliev emigrated](/wiki/File:London%2C_United_Kingdom.JPG "London, United Kingdom.JPG")
Feeling a communist\-nationalist restoration somewhat likely and their own safety tenuous, Alexander Vassiliev and his wife Elena decided to emigrate to [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") in 1996, leaving his precious notebooks with trusted friends for safekeeping rather than risking losing them to inquisitive officials at the airport.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pp. xlii\-xliii. Copies of his draft chapters for *The Haunted Wood* were transferred to computer disks and some key documents were transcribed prior to their leaving.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xliii. The resulting book based upon these materials was published in the United States by Random House in 1999\.
The years 2001 to 2003 were filled with two legal actions related to *The Haunted Wood.* After losing his cases in June 2003, Vassiliev took some time away from the bitter subject which had taken the last ten years of his life.
### Wikipedia and new research
[thumb\|right\|[Alger Hiss](/wiki/Alger_Hiss "Alger Hiss") circa 1948](/wiki/File:Alger_Hiss_%281950%29.jpg "Alger Hiss (1950).jpg")
Then in 2005 he became interested in [Wikipedia](/wiki/Wikipedia "Wikipedia") and decided to check the article for [Alger Hiss](/wiki/Alger_Hiss "Alger Hiss") to see how accurate it was.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. liii. At the end of the article was an [external link](/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links "External links") to the [website](/wiki/Website "Website") of historian [John Earl Haynes](/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes "John Earl Haynes"), on which Vassiliev found a document in his own handwriting which he had introduced at his London trial, along with some comments questioning the accuracy of the document. Vassiliev wrote a letter to Haynes attempting to set the matter straight — and a book collaboration project was born.
Vassiliev managed to recover his original notebooks with transcriptions and summaries of secret Soviet foreign intelligence archival documents, and these served as the core of a second publication. In May 2009, [Yale University Press](/wiki/Yale_University_Press "Yale University Press") published *Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America,* co\-authored by Haynes, Vassiliev, and [Harvey Klehr](/wiki/Harvey_Klehr "Harvey Klehr") of [Emory University](/wiki/Emory_University "Emory University"), another widely recognized scholar in the field of American communist history.
Upon completion of the project, Vassiliev donated his original notebooks to the U.S. [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress").
{{cite book
\| title \= Alexander Vassiliev papers, 1895\-2011
\| publisher \=
\| place \=
\| url \= https://lccn.loc.gov/mm2009085460
\| pages \=
\| date \= 2009
\| accessdate \= 19 March 2017}} The contents of these were scanned in original film, transcribed into Russian, and translated into English, and are now available online in all three forms through the [Cold War International History Project](/wiki/Cold_War_International_History_Project "Cold War International History Project") at the [Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars "Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars").
### BBC and publishing
Vassiliev worked in the [BBC Russian Service](/wiki/BBC_Russian_Service "BBC Russian Service") as an online producer from 2000 to 2009\. He served as a co\-publisher, editor, and designer of *The Hyde Park,* a Russian magazine in London, from 2004 to 2006\.
In 2009, Vassiliev published his first novel, an espionage thriller called *Russian Sector* in both Russian\-language and English\-language editions. In 2014, he published *Oblik* ("*Look*") in Russian only. He continues to work in publishing as designer, editor, producer, and publisher.
{{cite web
\| title \= Alexander Vassiliev
\| publisher \= Portfolio.org
\| url \= http://portfolio.vassiliev.org/
\| date \=
\| accessdate \= 19 March 2017}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Spasskaya Tower](/wiki/Spasskaya_Tower \"Spasskaya Tower\") (1491\\) in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), where Vassiliev was born](/wiki/File:0_4707b_6549aa91_spasskaya.jpg \"0 4707b 6549aa91 spasskaya.jpg\")",
"Alexander Vassiliev was born in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic \"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic\") on May 1, 1962\\.",
"Vassiliev joined the [Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Communist Party of the Soviet Union\") in 1983 while he was a student at [Moscow State University](/wiki/Moscow_State_University \"Moscow State University\") (MGU).Alexander Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks, Discover Alger Hiss, and Lose to His Lawyer,\" in John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr, and Alexander Vassiliev, *Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009; pg. xxx. He graduated from MGU with a degree in [journalism](/wiki/Journalism \"Journalism\") in 1984\\.",
"Vassiliev worked in the international department of *[Komsomolskaya Pravda](/wiki/Komsomolskaya_Pravda \"Komsomolskaya Pravda\")* (Young Communists' Truth) from 1984 to 1985\\. In 1985, he became a student in the [Andropov Red Banner Institute](/wiki/Academy_of_Foreign_Intelligence \"Academy of Foreign Intelligence\") of the [KGB](/wiki/KGB \"KGB\") of the USSR, completing his studies there in 1987\\.",
"### Soviet intelligence",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[KGB](/wiki/KGB \"KGB\") symbol](/wiki/File:KGB_Symbol.png \"KGB Symbol.png\")",
"Vassiliev worked as an operative of the First (American) Department of the [First Chief Directorate](/wiki/First_Chief_Directorate \"First Chief Directorate\") of the KGB from 1987 to 1990\\.",
"In February 1990, Vassiliev resigned from the KGB for political and moral reasons. He resigned from the Communist Party in that same year. He returned to the editorial staff of *Komsomolskaya Pravda,* where he worked as a reporter and then columnist, writing mostly about international issues and espionage from 1990 to 1996\\. He also worked as an author and presenter of several political shows on the {{ill\\|Ostankino Channel One\\|ru\\|1\\-й канал Останкино}} from 1991 to 1993\\.",
"In the summer of 1993, Vassiliev received a telephone call from Iurii Kobaladze, press officer of the [Foreign Intelligence Service](/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Service_%28Russia%29 \"Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)\") (SVR) of the [Russian Federation](/wiki/Russian_Federation \"Russian Federation\"), requesting a meeting.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xxvii. Kobaladze asked Vassiliev to participate in a book project with [Crown Publishers](/wiki/Crown_Publishers \"Crown Publishers\"), a division of [Random House](/wiki/Random_House \"Random House\"), which had arranged for a five book series based upon KGB archival documents, each edited by one Russian and one American editor. The SVR (successor to the KGB), was in the midst of a budgetary crisis and sought to improve its image as an effective service and had agreed to the proposal.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pp. xxvii\\-xxviii. Although having misgivings, Vassiliev finally agreed to work on a book dealing with Soviet Espionage in America in the 1930s and 1940s as part of the project.",
"In the fall of 1993, Vassiliev signed a book contract and met the American chosen by Crown to work with him, historian Allen Weinstein, a specialist in the [Alger Hiss](/wiki/Alger_Hiss \"Alger Hiss\") spy case.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xxviii. Vassiliev quit his television job and in early 1994 began to work on the book project in earnest, working with archival documents provided at the press bureau of the SVR.",
"Documents housed in SVR archives were carried to Vassiliev at the SVR press office; he was allowed to make copious notes both summarizing and transcribing their content in the presence of two SVR officers.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pp. xxxiv. Although locked up in a safe each night with the archival material, no one checked what he was writing and Vassiliev was allowed to take notebooks home as he filled one and brought in another. A total of eight notebooks were kept, along with a number of unbound pages.These documents are available in full to scholars via the internet from the Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. See External links below. Vassiliev later recalled that he attempted to transcribe as many documents as possible verbatim and painstakingly noted archival file and document numbers for each.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xxxvii.",
"The writing of draft chapters for Vassiliev's first book, *The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America — The Stalin Era,* began in 1995, with each vetted by the SVD Declassification Commission, the head of the archives department, and Kobaladze. Vassiliev was unable to name Americans who assisted Soviet intelligence in his draft chapters owing to SVR regulations which forbid the \"[outing](/wiki/Outing \"Outing\")\" of agents and sources, so [cover names](/wiki/Cover_name \"Cover name\") were used in Vassiliev's draft.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xl. Many cover names were already well known in the United States, however, and American author Weinstein had little difficulty understanding who was who and retained control over the final draft.",
"Beginning in 1995, the political environment began to change in Russia, Vassiliev later recalled, with the popularity of [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin \"Boris Yeltsin\") plummeting and an anxious mood sweeping the country.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xli. A conservative [nationalistic](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") restoration seemed to be in the offing, headed by Russian Presidential candidate [Gennady Ziuganov](/wiki/Gennady_Ziuganov \"Gennady Ziuganov\").Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xlii. Adding to the difficulty, Crown Publishing found it necessary to cancel the five volume book deal for financial reasons, throwing the entire project into doubt. In January 1996, Vassiliev was informed that he would be receiving no new files from the archives.",
"### Emigration",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Satellite view of inner [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), whither Vassiliev emigrated](/wiki/File:London%2C_United_Kingdom.JPG \"London, United Kingdom.JPG\")",
"Feeling a communist\\-nationalist restoration somewhat likely and their own safety tenuous, Alexander Vassiliev and his wife Elena decided to emigrate to [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\") in 1996, leaving his precious notebooks with trusted friends for safekeeping rather than risking losing them to inquisitive officials at the airport.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pp. xlii\\-xliii. Copies of his draft chapters for *The Haunted Wood* were transferred to computer disks and some key documents were transcribed prior to their leaving.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xliii. The resulting book based upon these materials was published in the United States by Random House in 1999\\.",
"The years 2001 to 2003 were filled with two legal actions related to *The Haunted Wood.* After losing his cases in June 2003, Vassiliev took some time away from the bitter subject which had taken the last ten years of his life.",
"### Wikipedia and new research",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Alger Hiss](/wiki/Alger_Hiss \"Alger Hiss\") circa 1948](/wiki/File:Alger_Hiss_%281950%29.jpg \"Alger Hiss (1950).jpg\")",
"Then in 2005 he became interested in [Wikipedia](/wiki/Wikipedia \"Wikipedia\") and decided to check the article for [Alger Hiss](/wiki/Alger_Hiss \"Alger Hiss\") to see how accurate it was.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. liii. At the end of the article was an [external link](/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links \"External links\") to the [website](/wiki/Website \"Website\") of historian [John Earl Haynes](/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes \"John Earl Haynes\"), on which Vassiliev found a document in his own handwriting which he had introduced at his London trial, along with some comments questioning the accuracy of the document. Vassiliev wrote a letter to Haynes attempting to set the matter straight — and a book collaboration project was born.",
"Vassiliev managed to recover his original notebooks with transcriptions and summaries of secret Soviet foreign intelligence archival documents, and these served as the core of a second publication. In May 2009, [Yale University Press](/wiki/Yale_University_Press \"Yale University Press\") published *Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America,* co\\-authored by Haynes, Vassiliev, and [Harvey Klehr](/wiki/Harvey_Klehr \"Harvey Klehr\") of [Emory University](/wiki/Emory_University \"Emory University\"), another widely recognized scholar in the field of American communist history.",
"Upon completion of the project, Vassiliev donated his original notebooks to the U.S. [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\").\n{{cite book\n\\| title \\= Alexander Vassiliev papers, 1895\\-2011\n\\| publisher \\= \n\\| place \\= \n\\| url \\= https://lccn.loc.gov/mm2009085460\n\\| pages \\= \n\\| date \\= 2009\n\\| accessdate \\= 19 March 2017}} The contents of these were scanned in original film, transcribed into Russian, and translated into English, and are now available online in all three forms through the [Cold War International History Project](/wiki/Cold_War_International_History_Project \"Cold War International History Project\") at the [Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars \"Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars\").",
"### BBC and publishing",
"Vassiliev worked in the [BBC Russian Service](/wiki/BBC_Russian_Service \"BBC Russian Service\") as an online producer from 2000 to 2009\\. He served as a co\\-publisher, editor, and designer of *The Hyde Park,* a Russian magazine in London, from 2004 to 2006\\.",
"In 2009, Vassiliev published his first novel, an espionage thriller called *Russian Sector* in both Russian\\-language and English\\-language editions. In 2014, he published *Oblik* (\"*Look*\") in Russian only. He continues to work in publishing as designer, editor, producer, and publisher.\n{{cite web\n\\| title \\= Alexander Vassiliev\n\\| publisher \\= Portfolio.org\n\\| url \\= http://portfolio.vassiliev.org/\n\\| date \\=\n\\| accessdate \\= 19 March 2017}}",
""
] |
### Soviet intelligence
[thumb\|right\|[KGB](/wiki/KGB "KGB") symbol](/wiki/File:KGB_Symbol.png "KGB Symbol.png")
Vassiliev worked as an operative of the First (American) Department of the [First Chief Directorate](/wiki/First_Chief_Directorate "First Chief Directorate") of the KGB from 1987 to 1990\.
In February 1990, Vassiliev resigned from the KGB for political and moral reasons. He resigned from the Communist Party in that same year. He returned to the editorial staff of *Komsomolskaya Pravda,* where he worked as a reporter and then columnist, writing mostly about international issues and espionage from 1990 to 1996\. He also worked as an author and presenter of several political shows on the {{ill\|Ostankino Channel One\|ru\|1\-й канал Останкино}} from 1991 to 1993\.
In the summer of 1993, Vassiliev received a telephone call from Iurii Kobaladze, press officer of the [Foreign Intelligence Service](/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Service_%28Russia%29 "Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)") (SVR) of the [Russian Federation](/wiki/Russian_Federation "Russian Federation"), requesting a meeting.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xxvii. Kobaladze asked Vassiliev to participate in a book project with [Crown Publishers](/wiki/Crown_Publishers "Crown Publishers"), a division of [Random House](/wiki/Random_House "Random House"), which had arranged for a five book series based upon KGB archival documents, each edited by one Russian and one American editor. The SVR (successor to the KGB), was in the midst of a budgetary crisis and sought to improve its image as an effective service and had agreed to the proposal.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pp. xxvii\-xxviii. Although having misgivings, Vassiliev finally agreed to work on a book dealing with Soviet Espionage in America in the 1930s and 1940s as part of the project.
In the fall of 1993, Vassiliev signed a book contract and met the American chosen by Crown to work with him, historian Allen Weinstein, a specialist in the [Alger Hiss](/wiki/Alger_Hiss "Alger Hiss") spy case.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xxviii. Vassiliev quit his television job and in early 1994 began to work on the book project in earnest, working with archival documents provided at the press bureau of the SVR.
Documents housed in SVR archives were carried to Vassiliev at the SVR press office; he was allowed to make copious notes both summarizing and transcribing their content in the presence of two SVR officers.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pp. xxxiv. Although locked up in a safe each night with the archival material, no one checked what he was writing and Vassiliev was allowed to take notebooks home as he filled one and brought in another. A total of eight notebooks were kept, along with a number of unbound pages.These documents are available in full to scholars via the internet from the Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. See External links below. Vassiliev later recalled that he attempted to transcribe as many documents as possible verbatim and painstakingly noted archival file and document numbers for each.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xxxvii.
The writing of draft chapters for Vassiliev's first book, *The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America — The Stalin Era,* began in 1995, with each vetted by the SVD Declassification Commission, the head of the archives department, and Kobaladze. Vassiliev was unable to name Americans who assisted Soviet intelligence in his draft chapters owing to SVR regulations which forbid the "[outing](/wiki/Outing "Outing")" of agents and sources, so [cover names](/wiki/Cover_name "Cover name") were used in Vassiliev's draft.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xl. Many cover names were already well known in the United States, however, and American author Weinstein had little difficulty understanding who was who and retained control over the final draft.
Beginning in 1995, the political environment began to change in Russia, Vassiliev later recalled, with the popularity of [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin "Boris Yeltsin") plummeting and an anxious mood sweeping the country.Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xli. A conservative [nationalistic](/wiki/Nationalism "Nationalism") restoration seemed to be in the offing, headed by Russian Presidential candidate [Gennady Ziuganov](/wiki/Gennady_Ziuganov "Gennady Ziuganov").Vassiliev, "How I Came to Write My Notebooks..." pg. xlii. Adding to the difficulty, Crown Publishing found it necessary to cancel the five volume book deal for financial reasons, throwing the entire project into doubt. In January 1996, Vassiliev was informed that he would be receiving no new files from the archives.
|
[
"### Soviet intelligence",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[KGB](/wiki/KGB \"KGB\") symbol](/wiki/File:KGB_Symbol.png \"KGB Symbol.png\")",
"Vassiliev worked as an operative of the First (American) Department of the [First Chief Directorate](/wiki/First_Chief_Directorate \"First Chief Directorate\") of the KGB from 1987 to 1990\\.",
"In February 1990, Vassiliev resigned from the KGB for political and moral reasons. He resigned from the Communist Party in that same year. He returned to the editorial staff of *Komsomolskaya Pravda,* where he worked as a reporter and then columnist, writing mostly about international issues and espionage from 1990 to 1996\\. He also worked as an author and presenter of several political shows on the {{ill\\|Ostankino Channel One\\|ru\\|1\\-й канал Останкино}} from 1991 to 1993\\.",
"In the summer of 1993, Vassiliev received a telephone call from Iurii Kobaladze, press officer of the [Foreign Intelligence Service](/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Service_%28Russia%29 \"Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)\") (SVR) of the [Russian Federation](/wiki/Russian_Federation \"Russian Federation\"), requesting a meeting.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xxvii. Kobaladze asked Vassiliev to participate in a book project with [Crown Publishers](/wiki/Crown_Publishers \"Crown Publishers\"), a division of [Random House](/wiki/Random_House \"Random House\"), which had arranged for a five book series based upon KGB archival documents, each edited by one Russian and one American editor. The SVR (successor to the KGB), was in the midst of a budgetary crisis and sought to improve its image as an effective service and had agreed to the proposal.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pp. xxvii\\-xxviii. Although having misgivings, Vassiliev finally agreed to work on a book dealing with Soviet Espionage in America in the 1930s and 1940s as part of the project.",
"In the fall of 1993, Vassiliev signed a book contract and met the American chosen by Crown to work with him, historian Allen Weinstein, a specialist in the [Alger Hiss](/wiki/Alger_Hiss \"Alger Hiss\") spy case.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xxviii. Vassiliev quit his television job and in early 1994 began to work on the book project in earnest, working with archival documents provided at the press bureau of the SVR.",
"Documents housed in SVR archives were carried to Vassiliev at the SVR press office; he was allowed to make copious notes both summarizing and transcribing their content in the presence of two SVR officers.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pp. xxxiv. Although locked up in a safe each night with the archival material, no one checked what he was writing and Vassiliev was allowed to take notebooks home as he filled one and brought in another. A total of eight notebooks were kept, along with a number of unbound pages.These documents are available in full to scholars via the internet from the Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. See External links below. Vassiliev later recalled that he attempted to transcribe as many documents as possible verbatim and painstakingly noted archival file and document numbers for each.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xxxvii.",
"The writing of draft chapters for Vassiliev's first book, *The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America — The Stalin Era,* began in 1995, with each vetted by the SVD Declassification Commission, the head of the archives department, and Kobaladze. Vassiliev was unable to name Americans who assisted Soviet intelligence in his draft chapters owing to SVR regulations which forbid the \"[outing](/wiki/Outing \"Outing\")\" of agents and sources, so [cover names](/wiki/Cover_name \"Cover name\") were used in Vassiliev's draft.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xl. Many cover names were already well known in the United States, however, and American author Weinstein had little difficulty understanding who was who and retained control over the final draft.",
"Beginning in 1995, the political environment began to change in Russia, Vassiliev later recalled, with the popularity of [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin \"Boris Yeltsin\") plummeting and an anxious mood sweeping the country.Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xli. A conservative [nationalistic](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") restoration seemed to be in the offing, headed by Russian Presidential candidate [Gennady Ziuganov](/wiki/Gennady_Ziuganov \"Gennady Ziuganov\").Vassiliev, \"How I Came to Write My Notebooks...\" pg. xlii. Adding to the difficulty, Crown Publishing found it necessary to cancel the five volume book deal for financial reasons, throwing the entire project into doubt. In January 1996, Vassiliev was informed that he would be receiving no new files from the archives.",
""
] |
Out of office, resurgence, and final defeat
-------------------------------------------
In the [1929 municipal election](/wiki/1929_Edmonton_municipal_election "1929 Edmonton municipal election"), rather than running for re\-election as alderman, East challenged his former federal rival James Douglas for the mayoralty. He was defeated handily, finishing second in a four\-person race. He tried to return to aldermanic office in [1930](/wiki/1930_Edmonton_municipal_election "1930 Edmonton municipal election") but finished sixth out of twelve candidates, missing the five available seats. Labour's rival, the Civic Government Association party, swept all seats but one (won by Labour's [Lionel Gibbs](/wiki/Lionel_Gibbs "Lionel Gibbs")).
East sat out the [1931 election](/wiki/1931_Edmonton_municipal_election "1931 Edmonton municipal election"), but made a successful run for alderman in [1932](/wiki/1932_Edmonton_municipal_election "1932 Edmonton municipal election"), when he finished fourth. In the [1934 election](/wiki/1934_Edmonton_municipal_election "1934 Edmonton municipal election"), there were six seats available due to [Rice Sheppard](/wiki/Rice_Sheppard "Rice Sheppard")'s resignation to run for mayor halfway through his term, and East finished sixth to become Labour's only elected alderman that election. He received only three votes more than James Ponton, the CGA's lowest\-ranking candidate.
In 1935, municipal politics in Edmonton began to re\-align. Labour continued to run candidates, but for the first time they were up against [Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta "Social Credit Party of Alberta") candidates, many of whom had links to the political left and to Labour. Labour candidate [Margaret Crang](/wiki/Margaret_Crang "Margaret Crang") and three SC candidates were elected in this election (source: Monto, Tom. Protest and Progress. Three Labour Radicals in Early Edmonton (Rice Sheppard, Harry Ainlay and Margaret Crang). Edmonton : Crang Publishing/Alhambra Books, 2011\).
Among these successful Social Credit candidates was East's brother [Elisha](/wiki/Elisha_East "Elisha East"), who was elected in the [1935 election](/wiki/1935_Edmonton_municipal_election "1935 Edmonton municipal election") \- making the pair the only brothers to serve on the Edmonton City Council at the same time.
For his [1936 re\-election attempt](/wiki/1936_Edmonton_municipal_election "1936 Edmonton municipal election"), East joined the newly formed United People's League. This proved a mistake;. He finished first among the UPL candidates, but fell far short of re\-election, finishing eleventh in an election swept by the CGA\-successor Citizens' Committee.
James East, by then in his sixties, made no further attempt to return to elected office.
|
[
"Out of office, resurgence, and final defeat\n-------------------------------------------",
"In the [1929 municipal election](/wiki/1929_Edmonton_municipal_election \"1929 Edmonton municipal election\"), rather than running for re\\-election as alderman, East challenged his former federal rival James Douglas for the mayoralty. He was defeated handily, finishing second in a four\\-person race. He tried to return to aldermanic office in [1930](/wiki/1930_Edmonton_municipal_election \"1930 Edmonton municipal election\") but finished sixth out of twelve candidates, missing the five available seats. Labour's rival, the Civic Government Association party, swept all seats but one (won by Labour's [Lionel Gibbs](/wiki/Lionel_Gibbs \"Lionel Gibbs\")).",
"East sat out the [1931 election](/wiki/1931_Edmonton_municipal_election \"1931 Edmonton municipal election\"), but made a successful run for alderman in [1932](/wiki/1932_Edmonton_municipal_election \"1932 Edmonton municipal election\"), when he finished fourth. In the [1934 election](/wiki/1934_Edmonton_municipal_election \"1934 Edmonton municipal election\"), there were six seats available due to [Rice Sheppard](/wiki/Rice_Sheppard \"Rice Sheppard\")'s resignation to run for mayor halfway through his term, and East finished sixth to become Labour's only elected alderman that election. He received only three votes more than James Ponton, the CGA's lowest\\-ranking candidate.",
"In 1935, municipal politics in Edmonton began to re\\-align. Labour continued to run candidates, but for the first time they were up against [Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta \"Social Credit Party of Alberta\") candidates, many of whom had links to the political left and to Labour. Labour candidate [Margaret Crang](/wiki/Margaret_Crang \"Margaret Crang\") and three SC candidates were elected in this election (source: Monto, Tom. Protest and Progress. Three Labour Radicals in Early Edmonton (Rice Sheppard, Harry Ainlay and Margaret Crang). Edmonton : Crang Publishing/Alhambra Books, 2011\\).",
"Among these successful Social Credit candidates was East's brother [Elisha](/wiki/Elisha_East \"Elisha East\"), who was elected in the [1935 election](/wiki/1935_Edmonton_municipal_election \"1935 Edmonton municipal election\") \\- making the pair the only brothers to serve on the Edmonton City Council at the same time.",
"For his [1936 re\\-election attempt](/wiki/1936_Edmonton_municipal_election \"1936 Edmonton municipal election\"), East joined the newly formed United People's League. This proved a mistake;. He finished first among the UPL candidates, but fell far short of re\\-election, finishing eleventh in an election swept by the CGA\\-successor Citizens' Committee.",
"James East, by then in his sixties, made no further attempt to return to elected office.",
""
] |
History
-------
A third division above the regional leagues was first created in Italy in 1926, when fascist authorities decided to reform the major championships on a national basis, increasing the number of teams participating by promoting many regional teams from the Third Division (Terza Divisione) to the Second Division (Seconda Divisione).
A new league running this Second Division, the *Direttorio Divisioni Inferiori Nord* (Northern Directory of Lower Divisions) was set up in [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa"), while football activity in the southern part of the country was run by the *Direttorio Divisioni Inferiori Sud* which later became the *Direttorio Meridionale* (Southern Directory). These leagues did not last long; after another reform they were disbanded between 1930 and 1931\. Some bigger clubs who owned large pitches with dimensions of 100x60 metres were promoted to the First Division (Prima Divisione); a league defined and structured as the "National Championship".
The Second Division had no relegations to regional leagues as most teams were reelected at the beginning of each new season. Once a critical threshold was reached the Italian federation decided to close the two leagues and move all teams to the "Direttori Regionali" (Regional Committees) so that the labour\-intensive job of organisation was delegated to more efficient and organised regional staff.
The most successful teams coming from the Second Divisions in 5 years (from 1926–27 to 1930–31\) composed 6 ever\-growing sections of the First Division (Prima Divisione) which at the beginning had just a few teams in just one section from southern Italy.
This championship was organized by the same league governing [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A "Serie A") and [Serie B](/wiki/Serie_B "Serie B") (the "Direttorio Divisioni Superiori"), even if, as opposed to the two higher divisions, it was structured in local groups with geographical criteria. The number of clubs belonging to the Prima Divisione continued to increase every year, until FIGC decided to rename it *Serie C* (at the beginning of the 1935–36 season) while a subsequent large reduction in 1948 led to the creation of a sole national division in 1952–53\.
The reform that created the actual league was decided by Bruno Zauli in 1959 as he built on the incomplete work started by the former president Ottorino Barassi to make professional football fully recognised and organised. While [Lega Calcio](/wiki/Lega_Nazionale_Professionisti "Lega Nazionale Professionisti") had a stated mission of organising professional and national divisions, the new *Lega Nazionale Semiprofessionisti* based in [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence") had to regulate the two semiprofessional and subnational divisions: *Serie C* and *Serie D*, with the first one adopting a format of three groups of 20 teams each. In 1978 the semiprofessional sector was abolished; Serie D became an amateur section while Serie C was divided into two professional divisions (*Serie C1* and *Serie C2*), and the league changed its name to *Lega Professionisti Serie C*. On 20 June 2008, the league was restructured and took its current name *Lega Italiana Calcio Professionistico*.
After the league reform of 2014, the two previous divisions of [Lega Pro Prima Divisione](/wiki/Lega_Pro_Prima_Divisione "Lega Pro Prima Divisione") and [Lega Pro Seconda Divisione](/wiki/Lega_Pro_Seconda_Divisione "Lega Pro Seconda Divisione") were ultimately merged into a new league; the *Lega Pro Divisione Unica* or more informally addressed as just *Lega Pro*. This is the league structure currently in operation; comprising 60 teams that are divided geographically in three groups of 20 each. At the end of each season, four teams are promoted to [Serie B](/wiki/Serie_B "Serie B") (three group winners, plus one coming from a promotion playoff involving the three group runners\-up). Meanwhile, nine teams are relegated to [Serie D](/wiki/Serie_D "Serie D"): the last\-placed team from each group go down directly, whereas teams between 16th and 19th from each group place play a relegation playoff (officially referred to as *play\-out*), with the two losing teams from each group also relegated.
In May 2017, the Lega Pro assembly unanimously approved the return to the original name Serie C. The [2017–18 Serie C](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Serie_C "2017–18 Serie C") season includes 19 teams in each of the three divisions after adjustments were made for excluded clubs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tuttosport.com/news/calcio/lega\-pro\-serie\-d/lega\-pro/2017/08/11\-29095908/serie\_c\_rende\_ripescato\_girone\_con\_19\_squadre/?cookieAccept\|date\=11 August 2017\|access\-date\=12 August 2017\|publisher\=FIGC\|language\=Italian\|title\=Serie C, Rende ripescato: girone con 19 squadre}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"A third division above the regional leagues was first created in Italy in 1926, when fascist authorities decided to reform the major championships on a national basis, increasing the number of teams participating by promoting many regional teams from the Third Division (Terza Divisione) to the Second Division (Seconda Divisione).",
"A new league running this Second Division, the *Direttorio Divisioni Inferiori Nord* (Northern Directory of Lower Divisions) was set up in [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\"), while football activity in the southern part of the country was run by the *Direttorio Divisioni Inferiori Sud* which later became the *Direttorio Meridionale* (Southern Directory). These leagues did not last long; after another reform they were disbanded between 1930 and 1931\\. Some bigger clubs who owned large pitches with dimensions of 100x60 metres were promoted to the First Division (Prima Divisione); a league defined and structured as the \"National Championship\".",
"The Second Division had no relegations to regional leagues as most teams were reelected at the beginning of each new season. Once a critical threshold was reached the Italian federation decided to close the two leagues and move all teams to the \"Direttori Regionali\" (Regional Committees) so that the labour\\-intensive job of organisation was delegated to more efficient and organised regional staff.",
"The most successful teams coming from the Second Divisions in 5 years (from 1926–27 to 1930–31\\) composed 6 ever\\-growing sections of the First Division (Prima Divisione) which at the beginning had just a few teams in just one section from southern Italy.",
"This championship was organized by the same league governing [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A \"Serie A\") and [Serie B](/wiki/Serie_B \"Serie B\") (the \"Direttorio Divisioni Superiori\"), even if, as opposed to the two higher divisions, it was structured in local groups with geographical criteria. The number of clubs belonging to the Prima Divisione continued to increase every year, until FIGC decided to rename it *Serie C* (at the beginning of the 1935–36 season) while a subsequent large reduction in 1948 led to the creation of a sole national division in 1952–53\\.",
"The reform that created the actual league was decided by Bruno Zauli in 1959 as he built on the incomplete work started by the former president Ottorino Barassi to make professional football fully recognised and organised. While [Lega Calcio](/wiki/Lega_Nazionale_Professionisti \"Lega Nazionale Professionisti\") had a stated mission of organising professional and national divisions, the new *Lega Nazionale Semiprofessionisti* based in [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") had to regulate the two semiprofessional and subnational divisions: *Serie C* and *Serie D*, with the first one adopting a format of three groups of 20 teams each. In 1978 the semiprofessional sector was abolished; Serie D became an amateur section while Serie C was divided into two professional divisions (*Serie C1* and *Serie C2*), and the league changed its name to *Lega Professionisti Serie C*. On 20 June 2008, the league was restructured and took its current name *Lega Italiana Calcio Professionistico*.",
"After the league reform of 2014, the two previous divisions of [Lega Pro Prima Divisione](/wiki/Lega_Pro_Prima_Divisione \"Lega Pro Prima Divisione\") and [Lega Pro Seconda Divisione](/wiki/Lega_Pro_Seconda_Divisione \"Lega Pro Seconda Divisione\") were ultimately merged into a new league; the *Lega Pro Divisione Unica* or more informally addressed as just *Lega Pro*. This is the league structure currently in operation; comprising 60 teams that are divided geographically in three groups of 20 each. At the end of each season, four teams are promoted to [Serie B](/wiki/Serie_B \"Serie B\") (three group winners, plus one coming from a promotion playoff involving the three group runners\\-up). Meanwhile, nine teams are relegated to [Serie D](/wiki/Serie_D \"Serie D\"): the last\\-placed team from each group go down directly, whereas teams between 16th and 19th from each group place play a relegation playoff (officially referred to as *play\\-out*), with the two losing teams from each group also relegated.",
"In May 2017, the Lega Pro assembly unanimously approved the return to the original name Serie C. The [2017–18 Serie C](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Serie_C \"2017–18 Serie C\") season includes 19 teams in each of the three divisions after adjustments were made for excluded clubs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tuttosport.com/news/calcio/lega\\-pro\\-serie\\-d/lega\\-pro/2017/08/11\\-29095908/serie\\_c\\_rende\\_ripescato\\_girone\\_con\\_19\\_squadre/?cookieAccept\\|date\\=11 August 2017\\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2017\\|publisher\\=FIGC\\|language\\=Italian\\|title\\=Serie C, Rende ripescato: girone con 19 squadre}}",
""
] |
History
-------
In the 1980s, Brazil needed its own satellites to exempt foreigners. As a result of this effort, the Brazilian company [Embratel](/wiki/Embratel "Embratel") contracted in August 1982 the Canadian [Spar Aerospace, Ltd.](/wiki/Spar_Aerospace "Spar Aerospace"), in partnership with American [Hughes](/wiki/Hughes_Communications "Hughes Communications"), to build its series of "Brasilsat A" satellites, the series consisted of two satellites, the [Brasilsat\-A1](/wiki/Brasilsat-A1 "Brasilsat-A1") and the Brasilsat A2\. Built by Spar Aerospace, which received [US$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar") 125 million to build under license from [Hughes](/wiki/Hughes_Communications "Hughes Communications"), the two Brazilian satellites model **HS\-376**.
The satellites initially received the name of Brasilsat 1 and 2 and formed the beginning of the **Brazilian Telecommunications Satellite System** \- **SBTS**. Subsequently, with the launch of the second generation of satellites, they were renamed Brasilsat\-A1 and A2, and were replaced by the satellites [Brasilsat B1](/wiki/Brasilsat_B1 "Brasilsat B1") and [Brasilsat B2](/wiki/Brasilsat_B2 "Brasilsat B2").
The Brasilsat A2 satellite was the second Brazilian satellite owned by the former state\-owned Embratel, which was privatized on March 28, 1986, by a 2/3 [Ariane rocket](/wiki/Ariane_rocket "Ariane rocket") at Kourou's launch base in [French Guiana](/wiki/French_Guiana "French Guiana"). This satellite was equal to Brasilsat A1\. It had a mass at the launch of 1,243 kg, Perigee of 35,778 km, Apogee of 35,794 km and a slope of 0\.0 degrees. During its commercial life, it was parked at 70 degrees west.
Its contractual life span was 8 years, but the satellite continued to be controlled until the end of 2004, with almost 18 years of life. Brasilsat A2 was operated directly by Embratel until the end of 2000, when [Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 "Star One (satellite operator)") was created a subsidiary of [Embratel](/wiki/Embratel "Embratel"), which was used to manage Embratel's former fleet of satellites. After the satellite was launched in March 1986, it was placed in the orbital position of 70 degrees west [longitude](/wiki/Longitude "Longitude"). In 1994 it was transferred to 65 degrees west, where it remained until the month of June 1995, it was moved in August 1995 to 92 degrees west, where it remained until January 2001, it was transferred in March 2001 to 63 degrees west in sloping orbit, the Brasilsat A2 remained in this position until February 2004 when it left service and was sent to the [graveyard orbit](/wiki/Graveyard_orbit "Graveyard orbit").
Its replacement in the orbital position of 70 degrees west to continue with the telecommunications transmissions, was the satellite Brasilsat B1, that was released in 1994\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In the 1980s, Brazil needed its own satellites to exempt foreigners. As a result of this effort, the Brazilian company [Embratel](/wiki/Embratel \"Embratel\") contracted in August 1982 the Canadian [Spar Aerospace, Ltd.](/wiki/Spar_Aerospace \"Spar Aerospace\"), in partnership with American [Hughes](/wiki/Hughes_Communications \"Hughes Communications\"), to build its series of \"Brasilsat A\" satellites, the series consisted of two satellites, the [Brasilsat\\-A1](/wiki/Brasilsat-A1 \"Brasilsat-A1\") and the Brasilsat A2\\. Built by Spar Aerospace, which received [US$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\") 125 million to build under license from [Hughes](/wiki/Hughes_Communications \"Hughes Communications\"), the two Brazilian satellites model **HS\\-376**.",
"The satellites initially received the name of Brasilsat 1 and 2 and formed the beginning of the **Brazilian Telecommunications Satellite System** \\- **SBTS**. Subsequently, with the launch of the second generation of satellites, they were renamed Brasilsat\\-A1 and A2, and were replaced by the satellites [Brasilsat B1](/wiki/Brasilsat_B1 \"Brasilsat B1\") and [Brasilsat B2](/wiki/Brasilsat_B2 \"Brasilsat B2\").",
"The Brasilsat A2 satellite was the second Brazilian satellite owned by the former state\\-owned Embratel, which was privatized on March 28, 1986, by a 2/3 [Ariane rocket](/wiki/Ariane_rocket \"Ariane rocket\") at Kourou's launch base in [French Guiana](/wiki/French_Guiana \"French Guiana\"). This satellite was equal to Brasilsat A1\\. It had a mass at the launch of 1,243 kg, Perigee of 35,778 km, Apogee of 35,794 km and a slope of 0\\.0 degrees. During its commercial life, it was parked at 70 degrees west.",
"Its contractual life span was 8 years, but the satellite continued to be controlled until the end of 2004, with almost 18 years of life. Brasilsat A2 was operated directly by Embratel until the end of 2000, when [Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\") was created a subsidiary of [Embratel](/wiki/Embratel \"Embratel\"), which was used to manage Embratel's former fleet of satellites. After the satellite was launched in March 1986, it was placed in the orbital position of 70 degrees west [longitude](/wiki/Longitude \"Longitude\"). In 1994 it was transferred to 65 degrees west, where it remained until the month of June 1995, it was moved in August 1995 to 92 degrees west, where it remained until January 2001, it was transferred in March 2001 to 63 degrees west in sloping orbit, the Brasilsat A2 remained in this position until February 2004 when it left service and was sent to the [graveyard orbit](/wiki/Graveyard_orbit \"Graveyard orbit\").",
"Its replacement in the orbital position of 70 degrees west to continue with the telecommunications transmissions, was the satellite Brasilsat B1, that was released in 1994\\.",
""
] |
Transmission
------------
[right\|thumb\|300px\|The APT transmission format](/wiki/Image:NOAA_APT_Frame_Format.gif "NOAA APT Frame Format.gif")
### Structure
The broadcast transmission is composed of two image channels, [telemetry](/wiki/Telemetry "Telemetry") information, and synchronization data, with the image channels typically referred to as Video A and Video B. All this data is transmitted as a horizontal scan line. A complete line is 2080 [pixels](/wiki/Pixels "Pixels") long, with each image using 909 pixels and the remainder going to the telemetry and synchronization. Lines are transmitted at 2 per second, which equates to a 4160 words per second, or 4160 [baud](/wiki/Baud "Baud").
### Images
[left\|thumb\|An APT image of western North America in visible and infrared bandsOn](/wiki/Image:NOAA_19_APT_Image.jpg "NOAA 19 APT Image.jpg") NOAA [POES](/wiki/Polar_Operational_Environmental_Satellites "Polar Operational Environmental Satellites") system satellites, the two images are 4 km / pixel smoothed 8\-bit images derived from two channels of the [advanced very\-high\-resolution radiometer](/wiki/Advanced_very-high-resolution_radiometer "Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer") (AVHRR) sensor. The images are corrected for nearly constant geometric resolution prior to being broadcast; as such, the images are free of distortion caused by the curvature of the Earth.
Of the two images, one is typically long\-wave [infrared](/wiki/Infrared "Infrared") (10\.8 [micrometers](/wiki/Micrometers "Micrometers")) with the second switching between near\-visible (0\.86 micrometers) and mid\-wave infrared (3\.75 micrometers) depending on whether the ground is illuminated by sunlight. However, NOAA can configure the satellite to transmit any two of the AVHRR's image channels.
### Synchronization and telemetry
Included in the transmission are a series of [synchronization](/wiki/Synchronization_in_telecommunications "Synchronization in telecommunications") pulses, minute markers, and telemetry information.
The synchronization information, transmitted at the start of each video channel, allows the receiving software to align its sampling with the baud rate of the signal, which can vary slightly over time. The minute markers are four lines of alternating black then white lines which repeat every 60 seconds (120 lines).
The telemetry section is composed of sixteen blocks, each 8 lines long, which are used as reference values to decode the image channels. The first eight blocks, called "wedges," begin at 1/8 max intensity and successively increase by 1/8 to full intensity in the eighth wedge, with the ninth being zero intensity. Blocks ten through fifteen each encode a calibration value for the sensor. The sixteenth block identifies which sensor channel was used for the preceding image channel by matching the intensity of one of the wedges one through six. Video channel A typically matches either wedge two or three, channel B matches wedge four.
The first fourteen blocks should be identical for both channels. The sixteen telemetry blocks repeat every 128 lines, and these 128 lines are referred to as a frame.
### Broadcast signal
The signal itself is a 256\-level [amplitude modulated](/wiki/Amplitude_modulated "Amplitude modulated") 2400[Hz](/wiki/Hertz "Hertz") [subcarrier](/wiki/Subcarrier "Subcarrier"), which is then [frequency modulated](/wiki/Frequency_modulated "Frequency modulated") onto the 137 MHz\-band [RF carrier](/wiki/Carrier_wave "Carrier wave"). Maximum subcarrier modulation is 87% (±5%), and overall [RF](/wiki/RF "RF") [bandwidth](/wiki/Bandwidth_%28signal_processing%29 "Bandwidth (signal processing)") is 34 kHz. On NOAA POES vehicles, the signal is broadcast at approximately 37[dBm](/wiki/DBm "DBm") (5 watts){{cite web \|url\=http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/pod\-guide/ncdc/docs/klm/html/c4/sec4\-2\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706174801/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/pod\-guide/ncdc/docs/klm/html/c4/sec4\-2\.htm \|archive\-date\=2008\-07\-06 \|title\=NOAA KLM USER'S GUIDE Section 4\.2}} [effective radiated power](/wiki/Effective_radiated_power "Effective radiated power").
|
[
"Transmission\n------------",
"[right\\|thumb\\|300px\\|The APT transmission format](/wiki/Image:NOAA_APT_Frame_Format.gif \"NOAA APT Frame Format.gif\")",
"### Structure",
"The broadcast transmission is composed of two image channels, [telemetry](/wiki/Telemetry \"Telemetry\") information, and synchronization data, with the image channels typically referred to as Video A and Video B. All this data is transmitted as a horizontal scan line. A complete line is 2080 [pixels](/wiki/Pixels \"Pixels\") long, with each image using 909 pixels and the remainder going to the telemetry and synchronization. Lines are transmitted at 2 per second, which equates to a 4160 words per second, or 4160 [baud](/wiki/Baud \"Baud\").",
"### Images",
"[left\\|thumb\\|An APT image of western North America in visible and infrared bandsOn](/wiki/Image:NOAA_19_APT_Image.jpg \"NOAA 19 APT Image.jpg\") NOAA [POES](/wiki/Polar_Operational_Environmental_Satellites \"Polar Operational Environmental Satellites\") system satellites, the two images are 4 km / pixel smoothed 8\\-bit images derived from two channels of the [advanced very\\-high\\-resolution radiometer](/wiki/Advanced_very-high-resolution_radiometer \"Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer\") (AVHRR) sensor. The images are corrected for nearly constant geometric resolution prior to being broadcast; as such, the images are free of distortion caused by the curvature of the Earth.",
"Of the two images, one is typically long\\-wave [infrared](/wiki/Infrared \"Infrared\") (10\\.8 [micrometers](/wiki/Micrometers \"Micrometers\")) with the second switching between near\\-visible (0\\.86 micrometers) and mid\\-wave infrared (3\\.75 micrometers) depending on whether the ground is illuminated by sunlight. However, NOAA can configure the satellite to transmit any two of the AVHRR's image channels.",
"### Synchronization and telemetry",
"Included in the transmission are a series of [synchronization](/wiki/Synchronization_in_telecommunications \"Synchronization in telecommunications\") pulses, minute markers, and telemetry information.",
"The synchronization information, transmitted at the start of each video channel, allows the receiving software to align its sampling with the baud rate of the signal, which can vary slightly over time. The minute markers are four lines of alternating black then white lines which repeat every 60 seconds (120 lines).",
"The telemetry section is composed of sixteen blocks, each 8 lines long, which are used as reference values to decode the image channels. The first eight blocks, called \"wedges,\" begin at 1/8 max intensity and successively increase by 1/8 to full intensity in the eighth wedge, with the ninth being zero intensity. Blocks ten through fifteen each encode a calibration value for the sensor. The sixteenth block identifies which sensor channel was used for the preceding image channel by matching the intensity of one of the wedges one through six. Video channel A typically matches either wedge two or three, channel B matches wedge four.",
"The first fourteen blocks should be identical for both channels. The sixteen telemetry blocks repeat every 128 lines, and these 128 lines are referred to as a frame.",
"### Broadcast signal",
"The signal itself is a 256\\-level [amplitude modulated](/wiki/Amplitude_modulated \"Amplitude modulated\") 2400[Hz](/wiki/Hertz \"Hertz\") [subcarrier](/wiki/Subcarrier \"Subcarrier\"), which is then [frequency modulated](/wiki/Frequency_modulated \"Frequency modulated\") onto the 137 MHz\\-band [RF carrier](/wiki/Carrier_wave \"Carrier wave\"). Maximum subcarrier modulation is 87% (±5%), and overall [RF](/wiki/RF \"RF\") [bandwidth](/wiki/Bandwidth_%28signal_processing%29 \"Bandwidth (signal processing)\") is 34 kHz. On NOAA POES vehicles, the signal is broadcast at approximately 37[dBm](/wiki/DBm \"DBm\") (5 watts){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/pod\\-guide/ncdc/docs/klm/html/c4/sec4\\-2\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706174801/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/pod\\-guide/ncdc/docs/klm/html/c4/sec4\\-2\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-07\\-06 \\|title\\=NOAA KLM USER'S GUIDE Section 4\\.2}} [effective radiated power](/wiki/Effective_radiated_power \"Effective radiated power\").",
""
] |
Receiving images
----------------
An APT signal is continuously broadcast, with reception beginning at the start of the next line when the receiver is within radio range. Images can be received in real\-time by relatively unsophisticated, inexpensive receivers during the time the satellite is within radio range, which typically lasts 8 to 15 minutes.
{{As of\|2004}} there were almost 5,000 APT receiving stations registered with the [World Meteorological Organization](/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization "World Meteorological Organization") (WMO). It is unclear what percent of the total user\-base this represents, since registration is not a requirement, and was only available after 1996\.
### Radio receiver
The bandwidth required to receive APT transmissions is approximately 34 kHz. Most older scanners (police and fire type receivers) are the standard 15 kHz bandwidth which were designed to support voice transmissions. Newer VHF general coverage receivers are equipped with multiple IF bandpasses; some are, but not limited to: 6 kHz, 15 kHz 50 kHz \& 230 kHz(broadcast FM). Use of a receiver with too narrow a bandwidth will produce pictures that are saturated in the blacks and whites, as well as possible inversion. Too wide, and the noise floor of the receiver will be too high to acquire a good picture. For the amateur enthusiast, a computer controller receiver is the best option to allow the software to automatically tune and set the required modes for proper reception. There are also dedicated APT receivers made specifically for computer control and APT reception. Specifically, [ICOM](/wiki/Icom_Incorporated "Icom Incorporated") PCR1000, PCR1500 \& PCR2500 will produce excellent results. Searching on the web for "NOAA APT (RECEPTION or RECEIVER)" will produce a wealth of information on receivers, software, and antennas.
### Antenna
APT images from weather satellites can be received with a right\-hand [circular polarized](/wiki/Circular_polarization "Circular polarization"), 137 MHz antenna. Normally, there is no need to have the antenna follow the satellite and a fixed position antenna will provide good results.
The two most frequently recommended antennas are the [crossed dipole](/wiki/Turnstile_antenna "Turnstile antenna") and the [quadrifilar helix antenna](/wiki/Helical_antenna "Helical antenna") (QHA or QFH).
### Displaying the images
Years ago,{{when\|date\=January 2015}} to receive APT images, a specialized decoder was required in addition to the receiver to display or print images, much like HF [WEFAX](/wiki/WEFAX "WEFAX") (serving the maritime community). Often both receiver and decoder were combined into one unit.
Nowadays, with the advent of personal computers, all that is required is dedicated software such as WXtoIMG (many of which offer "free" versions [http://www.geo\-web.org.uk/soft.php](http://www.geo-web.org.uk/soft.php)) and a sound card. The sound card acquires and digitizes the [slow scan](/wiki/Slow-scan_television "Slow-scan television") video (in the audible range) coming from the speaker, phones, or line\-out of the receiver, and then the software will process the various visible and infrared channels of the AVHRR sensor. Most software will automatically save every image and publish processed image onto the website of choice, putting up a new image on every pass of an APT satellite.
#### Enhanced images
Since each channel of the AVHRR sensor is sensitive to only one [wavelength](/wiki/Wavelength "Wavelength") of light, each of the two images is [luminance](/wiki/Luminance "Luminance") only, also known as [grayscale](/wiki/Grayscale "Grayscale"). However, different materials tend to emit or reflect with a consistent relative intensity. This has enabled the development of software that can apply a color palette to the images which simulates visible light coloring. If the decoding software knows exactly where the satellite was, it can also overlay outlines and boundaries to help in utilizing the resulting images.
|
[
"Receiving images\n----------------",
"An APT signal is continuously broadcast, with reception beginning at the start of the next line when the receiver is within radio range. Images can be received in real\\-time by relatively unsophisticated, inexpensive receivers during the time the satellite is within radio range, which typically lasts 8 to 15 minutes.",
"{{As of\\|2004}} there were almost 5,000 APT receiving stations registered with the [World Meteorological Organization](/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization \"World Meteorological Organization\") (WMO). It is unclear what percent of the total user\\-base this represents, since registration is not a requirement, and was only available after 1996\\.",
"### Radio receiver",
"The bandwidth required to receive APT transmissions is approximately 34 kHz. Most older scanners (police and fire type receivers) are the standard 15 kHz bandwidth which were designed to support voice transmissions. Newer VHF general coverage receivers are equipped with multiple IF bandpasses; some are, but not limited to: 6 kHz, 15 kHz 50 kHz \\& 230 kHz(broadcast FM). Use of a receiver with too narrow a bandwidth will produce pictures that are saturated in the blacks and whites, as well as possible inversion. Too wide, and the noise floor of the receiver will be too high to acquire a good picture. For the amateur enthusiast, a computer controller receiver is the best option to allow the software to automatically tune and set the required modes for proper reception. There are also dedicated APT receivers made specifically for computer control and APT reception. Specifically, [ICOM](/wiki/Icom_Incorporated \"Icom Incorporated\") PCR1000, PCR1500 \\& PCR2500 will produce excellent results. Searching on the web for \"NOAA APT (RECEPTION or RECEIVER)\" will produce a wealth of information on receivers, software, and antennas.",
"### Antenna",
"APT images from weather satellites can be received with a right\\-hand [circular polarized](/wiki/Circular_polarization \"Circular polarization\"), 137 MHz antenna. Normally, there is no need to have the antenna follow the satellite and a fixed position antenna will provide good results.",
"The two most frequently recommended antennas are the [crossed dipole](/wiki/Turnstile_antenna \"Turnstile antenna\") and the [quadrifilar helix antenna](/wiki/Helical_antenna \"Helical antenna\") (QHA or QFH).",
"### Displaying the images",
"Years ago,{{when\\|date\\=January 2015}} to receive APT images, a specialized decoder was required in addition to the receiver to display or print images, much like HF [WEFAX](/wiki/WEFAX \"WEFAX\") (serving the maritime community). Often both receiver and decoder were combined into one unit.",
"Nowadays, with the advent of personal computers, all that is required is dedicated software such as WXtoIMG (many of which offer \"free\" versions [http://www.geo\\-web.org.uk/soft.php](http://www.geo-web.org.uk/soft.php)) and a sound card. The sound card acquires and digitizes the [slow scan](/wiki/Slow-scan_television \"Slow-scan television\") video (in the audible range) coming from the speaker, phones, or line\\-out of the receiver, and then the software will process the various visible and infrared channels of the AVHRR sensor. Most software will automatically save every image and publish processed image onto the website of choice, putting up a new image on every pass of an APT satellite.",
"#### Enhanced images",
"Since each channel of the AVHRR sensor is sensitive to only one [wavelength](/wiki/Wavelength \"Wavelength\") of light, each of the two images is [luminance](/wiki/Luminance \"Luminance\") only, also known as [grayscale](/wiki/Grayscale \"Grayscale\"). However, different materials tend to emit or reflect with a consistent relative intensity. This has enabled the development of software that can apply a color palette to the images which simulates visible light coloring. If the decoding software knows exactly where the satellite was, it can also overlay outlines and boundaries to help in utilizing the resulting images.",
""
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.