text
stringlengths 791
228k
| parts
listlengths 6
567
|
|---|---|
Popularity
----------
The song was one of two Canadian songs (the other being "Do the Bearcat" by [David Wilcox](/wiki/David_Wilcox_%28Canadian_musician%29 "David Wilcox (Canadian musician)")) to appear on the 1998 compilation album *[Frosh](/wiki/Frosh_%28album%29 "Frosh (album)")*, alongside such party anthems as [Iggy Pop](/wiki/Iggy_Pop "Iggy Pop")'s "[Lust for Life](/wiki/Lust_for_Life_%28Iggy_Pop_song%29 "Lust for Life (Iggy Pop song)")", [The Village People](/wiki/Village_People "Village People")'s "[YMCA](/wiki/YMCA_%28song%29 "YMCA (song)")", [Denis Leary](/wiki/Denis_Leary "Denis Leary")'s "[Asshole](/wiki/Asshole_%28song%29 "Asshole (song)")", and [Beastie Boys](/wiki/Beastie_Boys "Beastie Boys")' "[(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party!)](/wiki/%28You_Gotta%29_Fight_for_Your_Right_%28To_Party%21%29 "(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party!)")".
In 1999, the song was named to [CFNY](/wiki/CFNY-FM "CFNY-FM")'s Top 1002 New Rock Songs of All Time, ranking 689th behind [R.E.M.](/wiki/R.E.M._%28band%29 "R.E.M. (band)")'s "Shiny Happy People" and ahead of [Robert Palmer](/wiki/Robert_Palmer_%28singer%29 "Robert Palmer (singer)")'s "Looking for Clues". In 2007, CFNY named it No. 8 on their Top 102 Canadian New Rock Songs of All Time.[Top 102 Canadian New Rock Songs of All Time](http://mog.com/CGonzalez) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726105932/http://mog.com/CGonzalez \|date\=July 26, 2008 }}, reposted at mog.com.
In 2005, "Home for a Rest" was named the 22nd greatest Canadian song of all time in a listener vote on the [CBC Radio One](/wiki/CBC_Radio_One "CBC Radio One") series *[50 Tracks: The Canadian Version](/wiki/50_Tracks:The_Canadian_Version "The Canadian Version")*.
The song is also frequently covered by other Canadian folk rock bands, including [Mudmen](/wiki/Mudmen "Mudmen") and [Enter the Haggis](/wiki/Enter_the_Haggis "Enter the Haggis"). Spirit of the West's original recording has also occasionally been misattributed to [Great Big Sea](/wiki/Great_Big_Sea "Great Big Sea") on YouTube and in online lyrics databases.
A limited edition single was released for the 2014 [Record Store Day](/wiki/Record_Store_Day "Record Store Day").
At a November 2017 fundraising benefit concert for Mann's medical care at Vancouver's [Commodore Ballroom](/wiki/Commodore_Ballroom "Commodore Ballroom"), the participants recorded a tribute version of the song onsite prior to the concert; participants included [Alan Doyle](/wiki/Alan_Doyle "Alan Doyle"), [Jim Cuddy](/wiki/Jim_Cuddy "Jim Cuddy"), [Sarah McLachlan](/wiki/Sarah_McLachlan "Sarah McLachlan"), [Ed Robertson](/wiki/Ed_Robertson "Ed Robertson"), [Barney Bentall](/wiki/Barney_Bentall "Barney Bentall"), [Colin James](/wiki/Colin_James "Colin James"), [Shari Ulrich](/wiki/Shari_Ulrich "Shari Ulrich"), and [Jim Byrnes](/wiki/Jim_Byrnes_%28actor%29 "Jim Byrnes (actor)").["'We got it in the can in the can': Alan Doyle spearheads bathroom recording to benefit John Mann"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/alan-doyle-spirit-of-the-west-1.4484726). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News "CBC News") Newfoundland and Labrador, January 13, 2018\.
From 2005 to 2016, "Home for a Rest" was the fifth best\-selling digitally downloaded 1990s song by a Canadian artist in Canada and the best\-selling digitally downloaded 1990s song by a Canadian band in Canada.{{cite web\|url\=https://bdsradio.com/pd/docs/Nielsen\_Canadian150\_2017\_vs2\.pdf\|title\=NIELSEN MUSIC \& BILLBOARD PRESENT CANADA 150 CHARTS\|website\=bdsradio.com\|page\=30\|accessdate\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102202137/https://bdsradio.com/pd/docs/Nielsen\_Canadian150\_2017\_vs2\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}
In 2022, "Home for a Rest" was voted British Columbia's favourite song by a local artist in a [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter") bracket organised by the [CBC's](/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation "Canadian Broadcasting Corporation") Justin McElroy, narrowly beating out "[Call Me Maybe](/wiki/Call_Me_Maybe "Call Me Maybe")" by [Carly Rae Jepsen](/wiki/Carly_Rae_Jepsen "Carly Rae Jepsen") in the final.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british\-columbia/bc\-song\-bracker\-2021\-1\.6319985\|title\='Home for a Rest' voted British Columbians' favourite song by a local artist, beats 'Call Me Maybe'\|website\=\[\[CBC News]] British Columbia\|accessdate\=January 19, 2022}} Other finalists in the Top 5 were [Nelly Furtado](/wiki/Nelly_Furtado "Nelly Furtado")'s "[I'm Like a Bird](/wiki/I%27m_Like_a_Bird "I'm Like a Bird")", [Raffi](/wiki/Raffi "Raffi")'s "[Baby Beluga](/wiki/Baby_Beluga "Baby Beluga")" and [Sarah McLachlan](/wiki/Sarah_McLachlan "Sarah McLachlan")'s "[I Will Remember You](/wiki/I_Will_Remember_You_%28Sarah_McLachlan_song%29 "I Will Remember You (Sarah McLachlan song)")".
|
[
"Popularity\n----------",
"The song was one of two Canadian songs (the other being \"Do the Bearcat\" by [David Wilcox](/wiki/David_Wilcox_%28Canadian_musician%29 \"David Wilcox (Canadian musician)\")) to appear on the 1998 compilation album *[Frosh](/wiki/Frosh_%28album%29 \"Frosh (album)\")*, alongside such party anthems as [Iggy Pop](/wiki/Iggy_Pop \"Iggy Pop\")'s \"[Lust for Life](/wiki/Lust_for_Life_%28Iggy_Pop_song%29 \"Lust for Life (Iggy Pop song)\")\", [The Village People](/wiki/Village_People \"Village People\")'s \"[YMCA](/wiki/YMCA_%28song%29 \"YMCA (song)\")\", [Denis Leary](/wiki/Denis_Leary \"Denis Leary\")'s \"[Asshole](/wiki/Asshole_%28song%29 \"Asshole (song)\")\", and [Beastie Boys](/wiki/Beastie_Boys \"Beastie Boys\")' \"[(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party!)](/wiki/%28You_Gotta%29_Fight_for_Your_Right_%28To_Party%21%29 \"(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party!)\")\".",
"In 1999, the song was named to [CFNY](/wiki/CFNY-FM \"CFNY-FM\")'s Top 1002 New Rock Songs of All Time, ranking 689th behind [R.E.M.](/wiki/R.E.M._%28band%29 \"R.E.M. (band)\")'s \"Shiny Happy People\" and ahead of [Robert Palmer](/wiki/Robert_Palmer_%28singer%29 \"Robert Palmer (singer)\")'s \"Looking for Clues\". In 2007, CFNY named it No. 8 on their Top 102 Canadian New Rock Songs of All Time.[Top 102 Canadian New Rock Songs of All Time](http://mog.com/CGonzalez) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726105932/http://mog.com/CGonzalez \\|date\\=July 26, 2008 }}, reposted at mog.com.",
"In 2005, \"Home for a Rest\" was named the 22nd greatest Canadian song of all time in a listener vote on the [CBC Radio One](/wiki/CBC_Radio_One \"CBC Radio One\") series *[50 Tracks: The Canadian Version](/wiki/50_Tracks:The_Canadian_Version \"The Canadian Version\")*.",
"The song is also frequently covered by other Canadian folk rock bands, including [Mudmen](/wiki/Mudmen \"Mudmen\") and [Enter the Haggis](/wiki/Enter_the_Haggis \"Enter the Haggis\"). Spirit of the West's original recording has also occasionally been misattributed to [Great Big Sea](/wiki/Great_Big_Sea \"Great Big Sea\") on YouTube and in online lyrics databases.",
"A limited edition single was released for the 2014 [Record Store Day](/wiki/Record_Store_Day \"Record Store Day\").",
"At a November 2017 fundraising benefit concert for Mann's medical care at Vancouver's [Commodore Ballroom](/wiki/Commodore_Ballroom \"Commodore Ballroom\"), the participants recorded a tribute version of the song onsite prior to the concert; participants included [Alan Doyle](/wiki/Alan_Doyle \"Alan Doyle\"), [Jim Cuddy](/wiki/Jim_Cuddy \"Jim Cuddy\"), [Sarah McLachlan](/wiki/Sarah_McLachlan \"Sarah McLachlan\"), [Ed Robertson](/wiki/Ed_Robertson \"Ed Robertson\"), [Barney Bentall](/wiki/Barney_Bentall \"Barney Bentall\"), [Colin James](/wiki/Colin_James \"Colin James\"), [Shari Ulrich](/wiki/Shari_Ulrich \"Shari Ulrich\"), and [Jim Byrnes](/wiki/Jim_Byrnes_%28actor%29 \"Jim Byrnes (actor)\").[\"'We got it in the can in the can': Alan Doyle spearheads bathroom recording to benefit John Mann\"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/alan-doyle-spirit-of-the-west-1.4484726). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News \"CBC News\") Newfoundland and Labrador, January 13, 2018\\.",
"From 2005 to 2016, \"Home for a Rest\" was the fifth best\\-selling digitally downloaded 1990s song by a Canadian artist in Canada and the best\\-selling digitally downloaded 1990s song by a Canadian band in Canada.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://bdsradio.com/pd/docs/Nielsen\\_Canadian150\\_2017\\_vs2\\.pdf\\|title\\=NIELSEN MUSIC \\& BILLBOARD PRESENT CANADA 150 CHARTS\\|website\\=bdsradio.com\\|page\\=30\\|accessdate\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102202137/https://bdsradio.com/pd/docs/Nielsen\\_Canadian150\\_2017\\_vs2\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In 2022, \"Home for a Rest\" was voted British Columbia's favourite song by a local artist in a [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\") bracket organised by the [CBC's](/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation \"Canadian Broadcasting Corporation\") Justin McElroy, narrowly beating out \"[Call Me Maybe](/wiki/Call_Me_Maybe \"Call Me Maybe\")\" by [Carly Rae Jepsen](/wiki/Carly_Rae_Jepsen \"Carly Rae Jepsen\") in the final.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british\\-columbia/bc\\-song\\-bracker\\-2021\\-1\\.6319985\\|title\\='Home for a Rest' voted British Columbians' favourite song by a local artist, beats 'Call Me Maybe'\\|website\\=\\[\\[CBC News]] British Columbia\\|accessdate\\=January 19, 2022}} Other finalists in the Top 5 were [Nelly Furtado](/wiki/Nelly_Furtado \"Nelly Furtado\")'s \"[I'm Like a Bird](/wiki/I%27m_Like_a_Bird \"I'm Like a Bird\")\", [Raffi](/wiki/Raffi \"Raffi\")'s \"[Baby Beluga](/wiki/Baby_Beluga \"Baby Beluga\")\" and [Sarah McLachlan](/wiki/Sarah_McLachlan \"Sarah McLachlan\")'s \"[I Will Remember You](/wiki/I_Will_Remember_You_%28Sarah_McLachlan_song%29 \"I Will Remember You (Sarah McLachlan song)\")\".",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1900\= 260
\|1910\= 252
\|1920\= 225
\|1930\= 272
\|1940\= 273
\|1950\= 285
\|1960\= 294
\|1970\= 257
\|1980\= 283
\|1990\= 233
\|2000\= 271
\|2010\= 299
\|2020\= 334
\|estyear\=2021
\|estimate\=339
\|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\-series/demo/popest/2020s\-total\-cities\-and\-towns.html \|date\=April 18, 2023\|title\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\-2021\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=April 18, 2023}}
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|author\=United States Census Bureau\|author\-link\=United States Census Bureau\|access\-date\=September 11, 2013}}
2020 Census
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2010, there were 299 people, 130 households, and 83 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|808\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 141 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|381\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.3% of the population.
There were 130 households, of which 29\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\.2% were non\-families. 32\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.30 and the average family size was 2\.90\.
The median age in the city was 35\.6 years. 23\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28\.2% were from 25 to 44; 25\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 15\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50\.8% male and 49\.2% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 271 people, 110 households, and 76 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|729\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 122 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|328\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\.68% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.48% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.37% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.48% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.74% of the population.
There were 110 households, out of which 30\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 8\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\.9% were non\-families. 27\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.46 and the average family size was 2\.96\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 25\.5% under the age of 18, 10\.0% from 18 to 24, 20\.7% from 25 to 44, 24\.4% from 45 to 64, and 19\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 100\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100\.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $31,591, and the median income for a family was $35,000\. Males had a median income of $28,472 versus $18,125 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $16,234\. About 2\.9% of families and 3\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including none of those under the age of eighteen and 4\.1% of those 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1900\\= 260\n\\|1910\\= 252\n\\|1920\\= 225\n\\|1930\\= 272\n\\|1940\\= 273\n\\|1950\\= 285\n\\|1960\\= 294\n\\|1970\\= 257\n\\|1980\\= 283\n\\|1990\\= 233\n\\|2000\\= 271\n\\|2010\\= 299\n\\|2020\\= 334\n\\|estyear\\=2021\n\\|estimate\\=339\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\\-series/demo/popest/2020s\\-total\\-cities\\-and\\-towns.html \\|date\\=April 18, 2023\\|title\\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\\-2021\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=April 18, 2023}}\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|author\\=United States Census Bureau\\|author\\-link\\=United States Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2013}} \n2020 Census\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2010, there were 299 people, 130 households, and 83 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|808\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 141 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|381\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.3% of the population.",
"There were 130 households, of which 29\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\\.2% were non\\-families. 32\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.30 and the average family size was 2\\.90\\.",
"The median age in the city was 35\\.6 years. 23\\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\\.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28\\.2% were from 25 to 44; 25\\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 15\\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50\\.8% male and 49\\.2% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 271 people, 110 households, and 76 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|729\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 122 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|328\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.68% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.48% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.37% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.48% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.74% of the population.",
"There were 110 households, out of which 30\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 8\\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\\.9% were non\\-families. 27\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.46 and the average family size was 2\\.96\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 25\\.5% under the age of 18, 10\\.0% from 18 to 24, 20\\.7% from 25 to 44, 24\\.4% from 45 to 64, and 19\\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 100\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100\\.0 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $31,591, and the median income for a family was $35,000\\. Males had a median income of $28,472 versus $18,125 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $16,234\\. About 2\\.9% of families and 3\\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including none of those under the age of eighteen and 4\\.1% of those 65 or over.",
""
] |
Career
------
Swift was initially assigned to the 14th Infantry, and soon transferred to the 5th Cavalry, which he joined in the field during the punitive expedition against the Sioux in July, 1876\. He spent several years at posts in the western United States during the [American Indian Wars](/wiki/American_Indian_Wars "American Indian Wars"), including assignments in Wyoming, Montana, Nebraska, Idaho, and Colorado. From 1887 to 1890, he was aide\-de\-camp to brigadier general [Wesley Merritt](/wiki/Wesley_Merritt "Wesley Merritt"). In his memoirs, he observed: "Civilization approached the American Indians with a Bible in one hand and a paper treaty in the other, a bludgeon in her sleeve, and a barrel of whiskey in her wagon, not to mention the blight that goeth unto the third and fourth generation."
He took part in the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Spanish–American War"), serving in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico") with several volunteer units from Illinois, and advancing from temporary major to temporary colonel and commander of the 4th Illinois Volunteer Infantry by the time he returned to the regular Army in 1899\.
His early 1900s assignments include director of the Army War College and military observer in Manchuria during the [Russo\-Japanese War](/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War "Russo-Japanese War"). He commanded the 2nd Cavalry Division on the U.S.\-Mexico border during the [Pancho Villa Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition "Pancho Villa Expedition").
At the start of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), he was assigned to command of [Camp Gordon](/wiki/Camp_Gordon_%28World_War_I%29 "Camp Gordon (World War I)") and promoted to brigadier general. He was the first commander of the [82nd Division](/wiki/82nd_Airborne_Division "82nd Airborne Division"), which he led from August to November 1917\. Considered too old to deploy to a combat zone, he did not accompany the AEF to France.
Swift later served as head of the U.S. Military Mission and commander of U.S. forces in Italy and was promoted to major general. Swift was awarded the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Commander) for his service in Italy. He reached the statutory retirement age of 64 on May 11, 1918, but continued to serve until September.
In 1919 and 1920, he was recalled to temporary duty as a lecturer on tactics for Reserve Officer Training Corps units at several colleges and universities.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Swift was initially assigned to the 14th Infantry, and soon transferred to the 5th Cavalry, which he joined in the field during the punitive expedition against the Sioux in July, 1876\\. He spent several years at posts in the western United States during the [American Indian Wars](/wiki/American_Indian_Wars \"American Indian Wars\"), including assignments in Wyoming, Montana, Nebraska, Idaho, and Colorado. From 1887 to 1890, he was aide\\-de\\-camp to brigadier general [Wesley Merritt](/wiki/Wesley_Merritt \"Wesley Merritt\"). In his memoirs, he observed: \"Civilization approached the American Indians with a Bible in one hand and a paper treaty in the other, a bludgeon in her sleeve, and a barrel of whiskey in her wagon, not to mention the blight that goeth unto the third and fourth generation.\"",
"He took part in the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\"), serving in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") with several volunteer units from Illinois, and advancing from temporary major to temporary colonel and commander of the 4th Illinois Volunteer Infantry by the time he returned to the regular Army in 1899\\.",
"His early 1900s assignments include director of the Army War College and military observer in Manchuria during the [Russo\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War \"Russo-Japanese War\"). He commanded the 2nd Cavalry Division on the U.S.\\-Mexico border during the [Pancho Villa Expedition](/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition \"Pancho Villa Expedition\").",
"At the start of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), he was assigned to command of [Camp Gordon](/wiki/Camp_Gordon_%28World_War_I%29 \"Camp Gordon (World War I)\") and promoted to brigadier general. He was the first commander of the [82nd Division](/wiki/82nd_Airborne_Division \"82nd Airborne Division\"), which he led from August to November 1917\\. Considered too old to deploy to a combat zone, he did not accompany the AEF to France.",
"Swift later served as head of the U.S. Military Mission and commander of U.S. forces in Italy and was promoted to major general. Swift was awarded the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Commander) for his service in Italy. He reached the statutory retirement age of 64 on May 11, 1918, but continued to serve until September.",
"In 1919 and 1920, he was recalled to temporary duty as a lecturer on tactics for Reserve Officer Training Corps units at several colleges and universities.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Chicago Cubs
Pie started with the [Mesa Cubs](/wiki/Mesa_Cubs "Mesa Cubs"), the Chicago Cubs Rookie affiliate, in {{Baseball year\|2002}}. He played in 55 games and [hit](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)") .321, with 4 home runs and 37 runs batted in. He was called up to [Boise](/wiki/Boise_Hawks "Boise Hawks") where he played in 2 games. He played for the [Lansing Lugnuts](/wiki/Lansing_Lugnuts "Lansing Lugnuts"), the Cubs' Class A affiliate, in {{Baseball year\|2003}}. There, he hit .285 with 4 home runs and 47 runs batted in.
In {{Baseball year\|2004}}, he played for the [Daytona Cubs](/wiki/Daytona_Cubs "Daytona Cubs"). He hit .299 with 8 home runs and 47 runs batted in. In {{Baseball year\|2005}}, he played for the Double\-A [West Tennessee Diamond Jaxx](/wiki/West_Tenn_Diamond_Jaxx "West Tenn Diamond Jaxx"). He hit .304 with 11 home runs and 25 runs batted in. His season was shortened due to a broken ankle suffered during the season. In {{Baseball year\|2006}}, his season began poorly, as he hit .222 in June and [slugged](/wiki/Slugging_percentage "Slugging percentage") only .343, but soon after he broke out of his slump to end with a batting average of .282, on\-base percentage of .341, and [slugging percentage](/wiki/Slugging_percentage "Slugging percentage") of .451\. Pie played 55 games of the 2007 season with the [Iowa Cubs](/wiki/Iowa_Cubs "Iowa Cubs").
Pie was a highly touted young prospect, and put on the fast\-track to reach the big\-league club, although he did not start the {{Baseball year\|2007}} season in the major leagues. Pie's [strikeout](/wiki/Strikeout "Strikeout") rates continued to be much higher than average. Pie was called up from Triple\-A [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa_Cubs "Iowa Cubs") on April 17, {{mlby\|2007}}, and was in the starting lineup, replacing the injured [Alfonso Soriano](/wiki/Alfonso_Soriano "Alfonso Soriano"). At the time of his call\-up, Pie was batting .444 with one [home run](/wiki/Home_run "Home run") and six [RBI](/wiki/Run_batted_in "Run batted in") in 36 [at\-bats](/wiki/At-bat "At-bat"). Before the 2007 season, Pie was ranked as the number one prospect in the Cubs organization.{{cite book\|title\=Baseball America Prospect Handbook\|url\=https://archive.org/details/baseballamerica200edit\_4\|url\-access\=registration\|author\=Jim Callis\|year\=2007\|publisher\=Baseball America, Inc. (USA)\|isbn\=9781932391145}} He was nicknamed "The Cat."
[left\|thumb\|Pie batting for the [Cubs](/wiki/Chicago_Cubs "Chicago Cubs") on June 21, {{Baseball year\|2007}}.](/wiki/File:F%C3%A9lix_Pie.jpg "Félix Pie.jpg")
Pie got his first major league hit on April 17, 2007, a [double](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 "Double (baseball)") off [Greg Maddux](/wiki/Greg_Maddux "Greg Maddux") of the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres "San Diego Padres"). He scored his first [run](/wiki/Run_%28baseball%29 "Run (baseball)") in the same inning on a [Derrek Lee](/wiki/Derrek_Lee "Derrek Lee") [hit](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 "Hit (baseball)"). In the same game, Pie also threw a runner out at [home plate](/wiki/Home_plate "Home plate") from center field which gave the Cubs a chance to win the game. On April 23, Pie changed his number from 17 to 20\. Pie recorded his first major league home run on April 27, 2007, off [Anthony Reyes](/wiki/Anthony_Reyes "Anthony Reyes") of the [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals "St. Louis Cardinals"). Pie was sent back down to the minors, but he was recalled on June 3, 2007, and remained with the club until July 13, when he was sent back down to Triple\-A to get more regular at\-bats.Associated Press, [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2007/baseball/mlb/wires/07/13/2010\.ap.bbn.cubs.move.0082/](http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2007/baseball/mlb/wires/07/13/2010.ap.bbn.cubs.move.0082/){{dead link\|date\=September 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} Cubs recall Soto, option Pie (July 13, 2007\), Sports Illustrated, Retrieved on July 13, 2007\. However, the Cubs recalled Pie from the minors in order to replace an injured Alfonso Soriano and [Ángel Pagán](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Pag%C3%A1n "Ángel Pagán") on August 8, 2007\. On August 9, Pie was brought back up to Chicago.
When the Cubs traded their starting left\-handed [center fielder](/wiki/Center_fielder "Center fielder") [Jacque Jones](/wiki/Jacque_Jones "Jacque Jones") in November 2007, general manager [Jim Hendry](/wiki/Jim_Hendry "Jim Hendry") indicated that the club wasn't necessarily looking outside for a [veteran](/wiki/Veteran "Veteran"), with Pie and [Sam Fuld](/wiki/Sam_Fuld "Sam Fuld") in the mix. Fuld pushed Pie for the center field spot during [spring training](/wiki/Spring_training "Spring training") (Piniella in late February said that Pie was only "a head or nose in front" of Fuld).{{cite news\| url\=http://chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports/baseball/cubs/cs\-21\-cubs\-bits\-chicagofeb21,0,7349544\.story \| work\=Chicago Tribune\| title\=Chicago Sports News, Schedules \& Scores \- Chicago Tribune}}{{cite news\| url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/nl/2007\-11\-29\-nl\-needs\_N.htm \| work\=USA Today \| title\=Winter meetings preview: NL teams check lists twice \| first\=Mel \| last\=Antonen \| date\=December 1, 2007 \| access\-date\=May 2, 2010}}[Daily Herald \| Feeling right at home, Wood stays with Cubs](http://www.dailyherald.com/story/?id=84592&src=152) "He's ready to go out there in spring training lined up next to Pie and compete to play center field", Hendry said of Fuld. Pie fell victim to the spring training {{mlby\|2008}} injury bug that afflicted the Cubs. Originally deemed "a minor surgery on the groin region", Cubs.com reported the injury as "a twisted [testicle](/wiki/Testicle "Testicle")", an injury more commonly known as [testicular torsion](/wiki/Testicular_torsion "Testicular torsion"). The surgery involved sewing the outer layer of the testicle to the [scrotum](/wiki/Scrotum "Scrotum") wall.{{cite news \| url\=http://blogs.chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports\_hardball/2008/03/pie\-out\-3\-5\-day.html \| work\=Chicago Tribune \| title\=Hardball – ChicagoSports – Blog \| date\=March 10, 2008 \| access\-date\=March 11, 2008 \| archive\-date\=March 13, 2008 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313235235/http://blogs.chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports\_hardball/2008/03/pie\-out\-3\-5\-day.html \| url\-status\=dead }} The surgery was deemed successful, and Pie reported back to spring training.{{Cite web \|url\=http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080302\&content\_id\=2400416\&vkey\=spt2008news\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=chc \|title\=The Official Site of The Chicago Cubs: News: Soriano suffers fractured finger \|access\-date\=March 6, 2008 \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304032412/http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080302\&content\_id\=2400416\&vkey\=spt2008news\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=chc \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite news \| url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/chi\-15\-cubs\-chicago\-spring\-trainmar15,1,2097477\.story \| work\=Chicago Tribune \| title\=Five On Five \| date\=March 15, 2008 \| access\-date\=March 15, 2008 \| archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120729100217/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2008\-03\-15/news/0803140423\_1\_brian\-moore\-phil\-thompson\-movie \| archive\-date\=July 29, 2012 \| url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web\| url \= http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080314\&content\_id\=2426522\&vkey\=spt2008news\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=mlb\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080318125453/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080314\&content\_id\=2426522\&vkey\=spt2008news\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=mlb\| archive\-date \= March 18, 2008\| title \= The Official Site of Major League Baseball: News: Fuld's audition for center off\-key}}
Pie won the center field job competition in [spring training](/wiki/Spring_training "Spring training"), and started opening day in center field. However, due to a slow start and the signing of former [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays "Toronto Blue Jays") outfielder [Reed Johnson](/wiki/Reed_Johnson "Reed Johnson"), Pie by May 2008 was utilized mostly in a platoon with Johnson and as a defensive replacement. The Cubs signed [Jim Edmonds](/wiki/Jim_Edmonds "Jim Edmonds") on May 14, 2008, and optioned Pie.{{Cite web \|last\=Gomez \|first\=Eric \|date\=September 24, 2020 \|title\=Mexico's minor leaguers juggle side jobs, concern over futures \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/29947815/amid\-coronavirus\-pandemic\-mexico\-minor\-leaguers\-juggle\-side\-jobs\-concern\-futures \|access\-date\=March 18, 2021 \|website\=ESPN.com}}
### Baltimore Orioles
On January 18, 2009, Pie was traded to the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles "Baltimore Orioles") for [Garrett Olson](/wiki/Garrett_Olson "Garrett Olson") and Single\-A pitcher Henry Williamson.{{Cite web \|url\=http://baltimore.orioles.mlb.com/news/press\_releases/press\_release.jsp?ymd\=20090118\&content\_id\=3748916\&vkey\=pr\_bal\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=bal \|title\=O's acquire outfielder Pie from Cubs \|access\-date\=January 18, 2009 \|archive\-date\=September 28, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928014606/http://baltimore.orioles.mlb.com/news/press\_releases/press\_release.jsp?ymd\=20090118\&content\_id\=3748916\&vkey\=pr\_bal\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=bal \|url\-status\=dead }} In the [2009 season](/wiki/2009_Major_League_Baseball_season "2009 Major League Baseball season"), Pie started in left field for the Orioles for most of April and part of May. However, his struggles at the plate and occasional mental lapses led to the Orioles calling up rookie [Nolan Reimold](/wiki/Nolan_Reimold "Nolan Reimold"), who had been playing well with the Triple\-A [Norfolk Tides](/wiki/Norfolk_Tides "Norfolk Tides") and quickly seized the opportunity to become the Orioles' starting left fielder. While on the bench for most of June and July, Pie worked extensively on improving his swing and pitch recognition with [Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles "Baltimore Orioles")' hitting coach [Terry Crowley](/wiki/Terry_Crowley "Terry Crowley").[http://masnsports.com/2009/09/crow\-on\-pie.html](http://masnsports.com/2009/09/crow-on-pie.html) {{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Injuries to Orioles' center fielder [Adam Jones](/wiki/Adam_Jones_%28baseball%29 "Adam Jones (baseball)") and [Nolan Reimold](/wiki/Nolan_Reimold "Nolan Reimold")'s nagging Achilles problem allowed Pie to play more regularly later in the season, and he showed significant improvement compared to his April performance. On August 14, 2009, Pie took full advantage of a spot in the starting lineup by [hitting for the cycle](/wiki/Hitting_for_the_cycle "Hitting for the cycle"), becoming only the fourth Oriole to ever do so.{{cite web\| url \= http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090814\&content\_id\=6428288\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=mlb\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20090816233450/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090814\&content\_id\=6428288\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=mlb\| archive\-date \= August 16, 2009\| title \= Pie hits triple to complete cycle for O's {{!}} MLB.com: News}} Pie won the starting left field assignment in 2010 after a very strong spring, but landed on the 60\-day disabled list not long into the season, where he remained until July 6, 2010\.
Pie was designated for assignment by Baltimore on August 23, 2011\.{{cite web\|last\=Nicholson\-Smith\|first\=Ben\|title\=Orioles Designate Felix Pie For Assignment\|url\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2011/08/orioles\-designate\-felix\-pie\-for\-assignment.html\|work\=MLBTradeRumors.com\|date\=August 23, 2011 \|access\-date\=August 23, 2011}} After the 2011 season, he elected for free agency.{{cite web\|last\=Axisa\|first\=Mike\|title\=22 Triple\-A Players Elect Free Agency\|url\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2011/10/22\-triple\-a\-players\-elect\-free\-agency.html\|work\=MLBTradeRumors.com\|date\=October 2011 \|access\-date\=October 1, 2011}}
### Cleveland Indians
On December 11, 2011, Pie signed a minor league contract with the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians "Cleveland Indians"). He did not make the major league roster and was released on April 4, 2012\.
### Atlanta Braves
On May 12, 2012, Pie signed a minor league contract{{cite news\|last\=Overbey\|first\=Steve\|title\=Hinske likely to avoid suspension after ejection\|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20120512\&content\_id\=31063820\¬ebook\_id\=31063828\&vkey\=notebook\_atl\&c\_id\=atl\|access\-date\=May 12, 2012}} with the Atlanta Braves and played for the AAA affiliate [Gwinnett](/wiki/Gwinnett_Braves "Gwinnett Braves").
### Pittsburgh Pirates
On November 19, 2012, Pie signed a minor league deal with the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates "Pittsburgh Pirates") with an invitation to Spring training.{{cite web\|last\=Nicholson\-Smith\|first\=Ben\|title\=Minor Moves: Evans, Pie, Carson, Hunter\|url\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2012/11/minor\-moves\-bobby\-korecky.html\|date\=November 20, 2012}}
Pie spent the bulk of the 2013 season with the [Indianapolis Indians](/wiki/Indianapolis_Indians "Indianapolis Indians"), the Triple A affiliate of the Pirates. With the Indians, he batted .250 and collected 40 RBIs and 38 stolen bases. He appeared in 27 games for the Pirates and scored 5 runs while batting .138\.
### Hanwha Eagles
Pie signed with the [Hanwha Eagles](/wiki/Hanwha_Eagles "Hanwha Eagles") of the [Korea Baseball Organization](/wiki/Korea_Baseball_Organization "Korea Baseball Organization") for the 2014 season and he didn't re\-sign with the team after the 2014 KBO League season.
### Uni\-President 7\-Eleven Lions
On January 12, 2016, the [Uni\-President 7\-Eleven Lions](/wiki/Uni-President_7-Eleven_Lions "Uni-President 7-Eleven Lions") of the [Chinese Professional Baseball League](/wiki/Chinese_Professional_Baseball_League "Chinese Professional Baseball League"), a professional baseball team based in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), confirmed that Pie signed with the team and would join the spring training in mid\-February. Pie was the first foreign slugger for Lions after 2009\. The Lions had been weak for the 2014 and 2015 seasons because of poor hitting. Pie was expected to help the team score more easily with his hitting ability. The previous foreign slugger for Lions was [Tilson Brito](/wiki/Tilson_Brito "Tilson Brito"), who played for Lions from 2006 to 2008\.{{Cite web\|title \= 統一獅新外野洋砲確定 Felix Pie2月中報到 {{!}} 即時新聞 {{!}} 20160112 {{!}} 蘋果日報\|url \= http://www.appledaily.com.tw/realtimenews/article/new/20160112/773382/\|website \= 蘋果日報\|access\-date \= February 16, 2016\|language \= zh\-TW}} Following an ankle injury, Pie was released.
### Bravos de León
On March 7, 2018, Pie signed with the [Bravos de León](/wiki/Bravos_de_Le%C3%B3n "Bravos de León") of the [Mexican Baseball League](/wiki/Mexican_Baseball_League "Mexican Baseball League").{{cite web\|title\=Suman Bravos más refuerzos; llegan Bryan Evans y Félix Pie\|url\=https://www.bravosdeleon.com/publicacion?post\=637\|language\=Spanish\|access\-date\=March 11, 2018}}
He collected a .334 batting average with 16 HR and 61 RBI in that year. On March 7, 2019, he renewed contract for the upcoming season in this league. He posted a batting average of .381, but lost the batting title to fellow former MLB player [Chris Carter](/wiki/Chris_Carter_%28infielder%29 "Chris Carter (infielder)"). He became a free agent following the 2019 season.
### Piratas de Campeche
On March 13, 2020, Pie signed with the [Piratas de Campeche](/wiki/Piratas_de_Campeche "Piratas de Campeche") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"). Pie did not play in a game in 2020 due to the cancellation of the Mexican League season because of the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2020/07/mexican\-league\-cancels\-2020\-season.html\|title\=Mexican League Cancels 2020 Season\|date\=July 2020 }} He was released on January 17, 2022\.
### Wild Health Genomes
On April 8, 2022, Pie signed with the [Wild Health Genomes](/wiki/Wild_Health_Genomes "Wild Health Genomes") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball "Atlantic League of Professional Baseball").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.atlanticleague.com/stats/transactions/\|title \= Atlantic League Professional Baseball: Transactions}} He became a free agent after the season. In 97 games he hit .254/.343/.418 with 13 home runs, 48 RBIs and 5 stolen bases.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Chicago Cubs",
"Pie started with the [Mesa Cubs](/wiki/Mesa_Cubs \"Mesa Cubs\"), the Chicago Cubs Rookie affiliate, in {{Baseball year\\|2002}}. He played in 55 games and [hit](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\") .321, with 4 home runs and 37 runs batted in. He was called up to [Boise](/wiki/Boise_Hawks \"Boise Hawks\") where he played in 2 games. He played for the [Lansing Lugnuts](/wiki/Lansing_Lugnuts \"Lansing Lugnuts\"), the Cubs' Class A affiliate, in {{Baseball year\\|2003}}. There, he hit .285 with 4 home runs and 47 runs batted in.",
"In {{Baseball year\\|2004}}, he played for the [Daytona Cubs](/wiki/Daytona_Cubs \"Daytona Cubs\"). He hit .299 with 8 home runs and 47 runs batted in. In {{Baseball year\\|2005}}, he played for the Double\\-A [West Tennessee Diamond Jaxx](/wiki/West_Tenn_Diamond_Jaxx \"West Tenn Diamond Jaxx\"). He hit .304 with 11 home runs and 25 runs batted in. His season was shortened due to a broken ankle suffered during the season. In {{Baseball year\\|2006}}, his season began poorly, as he hit .222 in June and [slugged](/wiki/Slugging_percentage \"Slugging percentage\") only .343, but soon after he broke out of his slump to end with a batting average of .282, on\\-base percentage of .341, and [slugging percentage](/wiki/Slugging_percentage \"Slugging percentage\") of .451\\. Pie played 55 games of the 2007 season with the [Iowa Cubs](/wiki/Iowa_Cubs \"Iowa Cubs\").\nPie was a highly touted young prospect, and put on the fast\\-track to reach the big\\-league club, although he did not start the {{Baseball year\\|2007}} season in the major leagues. Pie's [strikeout](/wiki/Strikeout \"Strikeout\") rates continued to be much higher than average. Pie was called up from Triple\\-A [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa_Cubs \"Iowa Cubs\") on April 17, {{mlby\\|2007}}, and was in the starting lineup, replacing the injured [Alfonso Soriano](/wiki/Alfonso_Soriano \"Alfonso Soriano\"). At the time of his call\\-up, Pie was batting .444 with one [home run](/wiki/Home_run \"Home run\") and six [RBI](/wiki/Run_batted_in \"Run batted in\") in 36 [at\\-bats](/wiki/At-bat \"At-bat\"). Before the 2007 season, Pie was ranked as the number one prospect in the Cubs organization.{{cite book\\|title\\=Baseball America Prospect Handbook\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/baseballamerica200edit\\_4\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|author\\=Jim Callis\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Baseball America, Inc. (USA)\\|isbn\\=9781932391145}} He was nicknamed \"The Cat.\"",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Pie batting for the [Cubs](/wiki/Chicago_Cubs \"Chicago Cubs\") on June 21, {{Baseball year\\|2007}}.](/wiki/File:F%C3%A9lix_Pie.jpg \"Félix Pie.jpg\")\nPie got his first major league hit on April 17, 2007, a [double](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 \"Double (baseball)\") off [Greg Maddux](/wiki/Greg_Maddux \"Greg Maddux\") of the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres \"San Diego Padres\"). He scored his first [run](/wiki/Run_%28baseball%29 \"Run (baseball)\") in the same inning on a [Derrek Lee](/wiki/Derrek_Lee \"Derrek Lee\") [hit](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 \"Hit (baseball)\"). In the same game, Pie also threw a runner out at [home plate](/wiki/Home_plate \"Home plate\") from center field which gave the Cubs a chance to win the game. On April 23, Pie changed his number from 17 to 20\\. Pie recorded his first major league home run on April 27, 2007, off [Anthony Reyes](/wiki/Anthony_Reyes \"Anthony Reyes\") of the [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals \"St. Louis Cardinals\"). Pie was sent back down to the minors, but he was recalled on June 3, 2007, and remained with the club until July 13, when he was sent back down to Triple\\-A to get more regular at\\-bats.Associated Press, [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2007/baseball/mlb/wires/07/13/2010\\.ap.bbn.cubs.move.0082/](http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2007/baseball/mlb/wires/07/13/2010.ap.bbn.cubs.move.0082/){{dead link\\|date\\=September 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}} Cubs recall Soto, option Pie (July 13, 2007\\), Sports Illustrated, Retrieved on July 13, 2007\\. However, the Cubs recalled Pie from the minors in order to replace an injured Alfonso Soriano and [Ángel Pagán](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Pag%C3%A1n \"Ángel Pagán\") on August 8, 2007\\. On August 9, Pie was brought back up to Chicago.",
"When the Cubs traded their starting left\\-handed [center fielder](/wiki/Center_fielder \"Center fielder\") [Jacque Jones](/wiki/Jacque_Jones \"Jacque Jones\") in November 2007, general manager [Jim Hendry](/wiki/Jim_Hendry \"Jim Hendry\") indicated that the club wasn't necessarily looking outside for a [veteran](/wiki/Veteran \"Veteran\"), with Pie and [Sam Fuld](/wiki/Sam_Fuld \"Sam Fuld\") in the mix. Fuld pushed Pie for the center field spot during [spring training](/wiki/Spring_training \"Spring training\") (Piniella in late February said that Pie was only \"a head or nose in front\" of Fuld).{{cite news\\| url\\=http://chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports/baseball/cubs/cs\\-21\\-cubs\\-bits\\-chicagofeb21,0,7349544\\.story \\| work\\=Chicago Tribune\\| title\\=Chicago Sports News, Schedules \\& Scores \\- Chicago Tribune}}{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/nl/2007\\-11\\-29\\-nl\\-needs\\_N.htm \\| work\\=USA Today \\| title\\=Winter meetings preview: NL teams check lists twice \\| first\\=Mel \\| last\\=Antonen \\| date\\=December 1, 2007 \\| access\\-date\\=May 2, 2010}}[Daily Herald \\| Feeling right at home, Wood stays with Cubs](http://www.dailyherald.com/story/?id=84592&src=152) \"He's ready to go out there in spring training lined up next to Pie and compete to play center field\", Hendry said of Fuld. Pie fell victim to the spring training {{mlby\\|2008}} injury bug that afflicted the Cubs. Originally deemed \"a minor surgery on the groin region\", Cubs.com reported the injury as \"a twisted [testicle](/wiki/Testicle \"Testicle\")\", an injury more commonly known as [testicular torsion](/wiki/Testicular_torsion \"Testicular torsion\"). The surgery involved sewing the outer layer of the testicle to the [scrotum](/wiki/Scrotum \"Scrotum\") wall.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://blogs.chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports\\_hardball/2008/03/pie\\-out\\-3\\-5\\-day.html \\| work\\=Chicago Tribune \\| title\\=Hardball – ChicagoSports – Blog \\| date\\=March 10, 2008 \\| access\\-date\\=March 11, 2008 \\| archive\\-date\\=March 13, 2008 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313235235/http://blogs.chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports\\_hardball/2008/03/pie\\-out\\-3\\-5\\-day.html \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} The surgery was deemed successful, and Pie reported back to spring training.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080302\\&content\\_id\\=2400416\\&vkey\\=spt2008news\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=chc \\|title\\=The Official Site of The Chicago Cubs: News: Soriano suffers fractured finger \\|access\\-date\\=March 6, 2008 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304032412/http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080302\\&content\\_id\\=2400416\\&vkey\\=spt2008news\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=chc \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/chi\\-15\\-cubs\\-chicago\\-spring\\-trainmar15,1,2097477\\.story \\| work\\=Chicago Tribune \\| title\\=Five On Five \\| date\\=March 15, 2008 \\| access\\-date\\=March 15, 2008 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120729100217/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2008\\-03\\-15/news/0803140423\\_1\\_brian\\-moore\\-phil\\-thompson\\-movie \\| archive\\-date\\=July 29, 2012 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web\\| url \\= http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080314\\&content\\_id\\=2426522\\&vkey\\=spt2008news\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=mlb\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080318125453/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080314\\&content\\_id\\=2426522\\&vkey\\=spt2008news\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=mlb\\| archive\\-date \\= March 18, 2008\\| title \\= The Official Site of Major League Baseball: News: Fuld's audition for center off\\-key}}",
"Pie won the center field job competition in [spring training](/wiki/Spring_training \"Spring training\"), and started opening day in center field. However, due to a slow start and the signing of former [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays \"Toronto Blue Jays\") outfielder [Reed Johnson](/wiki/Reed_Johnson \"Reed Johnson\"), Pie by May 2008 was utilized mostly in a platoon with Johnson and as a defensive replacement. The Cubs signed [Jim Edmonds](/wiki/Jim_Edmonds \"Jim Edmonds\") on May 14, 2008, and optioned Pie.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gomez \\|first\\=Eric \\|date\\=September 24, 2020 \\|title\\=Mexico's minor leaguers juggle side jobs, concern over futures \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/29947815/amid\\-coronavirus\\-pandemic\\-mexico\\-minor\\-leaguers\\-juggle\\-side\\-jobs\\-concern\\-futures \\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021 \\|website\\=ESPN.com}}",
"### Baltimore Orioles",
"On January 18, 2009, Pie was traded to the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles \"Baltimore Orioles\") for [Garrett Olson](/wiki/Garrett_Olson \"Garrett Olson\") and Single\\-A pitcher Henry Williamson.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://baltimore.orioles.mlb.com/news/press\\_releases/press\\_release.jsp?ymd\\=20090118\\&content\\_id\\=3748916\\&vkey\\=pr\\_bal\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=bal \\|title\\=O's acquire outfielder Pie from Cubs \\|access\\-date\\=January 18, 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 28, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928014606/http://baltimore.orioles.mlb.com/news/press\\_releases/press\\_release.jsp?ymd\\=20090118\\&content\\_id\\=3748916\\&vkey\\=pr\\_bal\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=bal \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In the [2009 season](/wiki/2009_Major_League_Baseball_season \"2009 Major League Baseball season\"), Pie started in left field for the Orioles for most of April and part of May. However, his struggles at the plate and occasional mental lapses led to the Orioles calling up rookie [Nolan Reimold](/wiki/Nolan_Reimold \"Nolan Reimold\"), who had been playing well with the Triple\\-A [Norfolk Tides](/wiki/Norfolk_Tides \"Norfolk Tides\") and quickly seized the opportunity to become the Orioles' starting left fielder. While on the bench for most of June and July, Pie worked extensively on improving his swing and pitch recognition with [Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles \"Baltimore Orioles\")' hitting coach [Terry Crowley](/wiki/Terry_Crowley \"Terry Crowley\").[http://masnsports.com/2009/09/crow\\-on\\-pie.html](http://masnsports.com/2009/09/crow-on-pie.html) {{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Injuries to Orioles' center fielder [Adam Jones](/wiki/Adam_Jones_%28baseball%29 \"Adam Jones (baseball)\") and [Nolan Reimold](/wiki/Nolan_Reimold \"Nolan Reimold\")'s nagging Achilles problem allowed Pie to play more regularly later in the season, and he showed significant improvement compared to his April performance. On August 14, 2009, Pie took full advantage of a spot in the starting lineup by [hitting for the cycle](/wiki/Hitting_for_the_cycle \"Hitting for the cycle\"), becoming only the fourth Oriole to ever do so.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090814\\&content\\_id\\=6428288\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=mlb\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090816233450/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090814\\&content\\_id\\=6428288\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=mlb\\| archive\\-date \\= August 16, 2009\\| title \\= Pie hits triple to complete cycle for O's {{!}} MLB.com: News}} Pie won the starting left field assignment in 2010 after a very strong spring, but landed on the 60\\-day disabled list not long into the season, where he remained until July 6, 2010\\.",
"Pie was designated for assignment by Baltimore on August 23, 2011\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Nicholson\\-Smith\\|first\\=Ben\\|title\\=Orioles Designate Felix Pie For Assignment\\|url\\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2011/08/orioles\\-designate\\-felix\\-pie\\-for\\-assignment.html\\|work\\=MLBTradeRumors.com\\|date\\=August 23, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2011}} After the 2011 season, he elected for free agency.{{cite web\\|last\\=Axisa\\|first\\=Mike\\|title\\=22 Triple\\-A Players Elect Free Agency\\|url\\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2011/10/22\\-triple\\-a\\-players\\-elect\\-free\\-agency.html\\|work\\=MLBTradeRumors.com\\|date\\=October 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=October 1, 2011}}",
"### Cleveland Indians",
"On December 11, 2011, Pie signed a minor league contract with the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians \"Cleveland Indians\"). He did not make the major league roster and was released on April 4, 2012\\.",
"### Atlanta Braves",
"On May 12, 2012, Pie signed a minor league contract{{cite news\\|last\\=Overbey\\|first\\=Steve\\|title\\=Hinske likely to avoid suspension after ejection\\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20120512\\&content\\_id\\=31063820\\¬ebook\\_id\\=31063828\\&vkey\\=notebook\\_atl\\&c\\_id\\=atl\\|access\\-date\\=May 12, 2012}} with the Atlanta Braves and played for the AAA affiliate [Gwinnett](/wiki/Gwinnett_Braves \"Gwinnett Braves\").",
"### Pittsburgh Pirates",
"On November 19, 2012, Pie signed a minor league deal with the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates \"Pittsburgh Pirates\") with an invitation to Spring training.{{cite web\\|last\\=Nicholson\\-Smith\\|first\\=Ben\\|title\\=Minor Moves: Evans, Pie, Carson, Hunter\\|url\\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2012/11/minor\\-moves\\-bobby\\-korecky.html\\|date\\=November 20, 2012}}",
"Pie spent the bulk of the 2013 season with the [Indianapolis Indians](/wiki/Indianapolis_Indians \"Indianapolis Indians\"), the Triple A affiliate of the Pirates. With the Indians, he batted .250 and collected 40 RBIs and 38 stolen bases. He appeared in 27 games for the Pirates and scored 5 runs while batting .138\\.",
"### Hanwha Eagles",
"Pie signed with the [Hanwha Eagles](/wiki/Hanwha_Eagles \"Hanwha Eagles\") of the [Korea Baseball Organization](/wiki/Korea_Baseball_Organization \"Korea Baseball Organization\") for the 2014 season and he didn't re\\-sign with the team after the 2014 KBO League season.",
"### Uni\\-President 7\\-Eleven Lions",
"On January 12, 2016, the [Uni\\-President 7\\-Eleven Lions](/wiki/Uni-President_7-Eleven_Lions \"Uni-President 7-Eleven Lions\") of the [Chinese Professional Baseball League](/wiki/Chinese_Professional_Baseball_League \"Chinese Professional Baseball League\"), a professional baseball team based in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), confirmed that Pie signed with the team and would join the spring training in mid\\-February. Pie was the first foreign slugger for Lions after 2009\\. The Lions had been weak for the 2014 and 2015 seasons because of poor hitting. Pie was expected to help the team score more easily with his hitting ability. The previous foreign slugger for Lions was [Tilson Brito](/wiki/Tilson_Brito \"Tilson Brito\"), who played for Lions from 2006 to 2008\\.{{Cite web\\|title \\= 統一獅新外野洋砲確定 Felix Pie2月中報到 {{!}} 即時新聞 {{!}} 20160112 {{!}} 蘋果日報\\|url \\= http://www.appledaily.com.tw/realtimenews/article/new/20160112/773382/\\|website \\= 蘋果日報\\|access\\-date \\= February 16, 2016\\|language \\= zh\\-TW}} Following an ankle injury, Pie was released.",
"### Bravos de León",
"On March 7, 2018, Pie signed with the [Bravos de León](/wiki/Bravos_de_Le%C3%B3n \"Bravos de León\") of the [Mexican Baseball League](/wiki/Mexican_Baseball_League \"Mexican Baseball League\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Suman Bravos más refuerzos; llegan Bryan Evans y Félix Pie\\|url\\=https://www.bravosdeleon.com/publicacion?post\\=637\\|language\\=Spanish\\|access\\-date\\=March 11, 2018}}\nHe collected a .334 batting average with 16 HR and 61 RBI in that year. On March 7, 2019, he renewed contract for the upcoming season in this league. He posted a batting average of .381, but lost the batting title to fellow former MLB player [Chris Carter](/wiki/Chris_Carter_%28infielder%29 \"Chris Carter (infielder)\"). He became a free agent following the 2019 season.",
"### Piratas de Campeche",
"On March 13, 2020, Pie signed with the [Piratas de Campeche](/wiki/Piratas_de_Campeche \"Piratas de Campeche\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"). Pie did not play in a game in 2020 due to the cancellation of the Mexican League season because of the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2020/07/mexican\\-league\\-cancels\\-2020\\-season.html\\|title\\=Mexican League Cancels 2020 Season\\|date\\=July 2020 }} He was released on January 17, 2022\\.",
"### Wild Health Genomes",
"On April 8, 2022, Pie signed with the [Wild Health Genomes](/wiki/Wild_Health_Genomes \"Wild Health Genomes\") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball \"Atlantic League of Professional Baseball\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.atlanticleague.com/stats/transactions/\\|title \\= Atlantic League Professional Baseball: Transactions}} He became a free agent after the season. In 97 games he hit .254/.343/.418 with 13 home runs, 48 RBIs and 5 stolen bases.",
""
] |
Sinking
-------
The vessel departed San Francisco on 13 April 1899 under Captain Phillip Jones with a cargo of {{convert\|{{\#expr: (743444/12\) round 1}}\|ft3\|m3\|order\=flip}} of [Oregon](/wiki/Douglas-fir "Douglas-fir") [timber](/wiki/Timber "Timber") and 3,638 doors.Rottnest museum display After making a record passage to Western Australia, she approached Rottnest from the north on the afternoon of 12 July 1899 in stormy weather including blinding rain and heavy seas. At that time, [Wadjemup Lighthouse](/wiki/Wadjemup_Lighthouse "Wadjemup Lighthouse") at the centre of the island was the single lighthouse on Rottnest. The ship was seen by the lighthouse keeper at 4:30 pm on a north\-westerly bearing about 29 km (18 mi) off the coast of the island, heading north\-east.
[thumb\|left\|220px\|Memorial plaque on the shore of the City of York Bay showing (incorrectly) casualties from the shipwreck. 11 men *including* the captain drowned.](/wiki/File:City_of_York_plaque.jpg "City of York plaque.jpg")
The keeper telephoned the news of the sighting to the head [pilot](/wiki/Harbour_pilot "Harbour pilot") who was on duty in the main island settlement at Thomson Bay who readied himself and his pilot boat to go to the assistance of the ship once it signalled for a pilot.
At 6:45 pm, the ship had still not signalled for a pilot and the assistant lighthouse keeper challenged the ship by lighting a [flare](/wiki/Flare_%28pyrotechnic%29 "Flare (pyrotechnic)") at the base of the lighthouse, meaning for the ship to stand off until the pilot had arrived.
The captain however mistook the signal for the international code as being from a pilot boat itself and that the ship should continue towards it (the pilot boat). The ship was now unwittingly sailing straight towards the shallow [reefs](/wiki/Reef "Reef") which surround the island.
Lead was cast three times over 15 minutes to gauge the depth, and readings of {{convert\|15\|,\|9\|and\|5\|fathom\|m\|order\=flip\|lk\=out}} were taken respectively. Shortly after the last cast, breakers were sighted. The captain gave immediate orders to turn the ship but was unsuccessful and she struck remaining high on the reef {{convert\|200\|m}} offshore from what is today the City of York bay, midway along the north side of the island.
### 11 men drown
Captain Jones ordered the 26 crew into the two lifeboats. Six men including First Mate William Pape managed to get in the first lifeboat before its holding rope broke and it drifted free from the stricken vessel. The remaining 20 men managed to get into the remaining lifeboat and stood a short distance off for an hour or so while Captain Jones considered his options. As the ship appeared to be holding steady of the reef, Jones ordered the lifeboat to return to the ship, but while doing so, the small boat was hit by a large wave and overturned, tipping all of the men into the heavy seas.
Eight men managed to re\-board *City of York* and one man was picked up by the first mate's boat. 11 others including Captain Jones were drowned. After several hours battling the seas, the seven men in the remaining lifeboat managed to get to shore and several walked, exhausted, several kilometres through the bush to the lighthouse to raise the alarm. The remaining men onshore were recovered shortly afterwards and the following morning, the master and owner of the steam tug *Dunskey*, Captain William Douglas, rowed his vessel's {{convert\|4\.5\|m\|adj\=on}} dinghy to the wreck from seaward and was able to rescue the remaining eight men on the ship.Unfinished Voyages \- Western Australian Shipwrecks 1881 \- 1900, Cairns \& Henderson, pp.312, 313, {{ISBN\|1\-875560\-24\-6}}, University of Western Australia Press 1995
|
[
"Sinking\n-------",
"The vessel departed San Francisco on 13 April 1899 under Captain Phillip Jones with a cargo of {{convert\\|{{\\#expr: (743444/12\\) round 1}}\\|ft3\\|m3\\|order\\=flip}} of [Oregon](/wiki/Douglas-fir \"Douglas-fir\") [timber](/wiki/Timber \"Timber\") and 3,638 doors.Rottnest museum display After making a record passage to Western Australia, she approached Rottnest from the north on the afternoon of 12 July 1899 in stormy weather including blinding rain and heavy seas. At that time, [Wadjemup Lighthouse](/wiki/Wadjemup_Lighthouse \"Wadjemup Lighthouse\") at the centre of the island was the single lighthouse on Rottnest. The ship was seen by the lighthouse keeper at 4:30 pm on a north\\-westerly bearing about 29 km (18 mi) off the coast of the island, heading north\\-east. \n[thumb\\|left\\|220px\\|Memorial plaque on the shore of the City of York Bay showing (incorrectly) casualties from the shipwreck. 11 men *including* the captain drowned.](/wiki/File:City_of_York_plaque.jpg \"City of York plaque.jpg\")\nThe keeper telephoned the news of the sighting to the head [pilot](/wiki/Harbour_pilot \"Harbour pilot\") who was on duty in the main island settlement at Thomson Bay who readied himself and his pilot boat to go to the assistance of the ship once it signalled for a pilot.",
"At 6:45 pm, the ship had still not signalled for a pilot and the assistant lighthouse keeper challenged the ship by lighting a [flare](/wiki/Flare_%28pyrotechnic%29 \"Flare (pyrotechnic)\") at the base of the lighthouse, meaning for the ship to stand off until the pilot had arrived.",
"The captain however mistook the signal for the international code as being from a pilot boat itself and that the ship should continue towards it (the pilot boat). The ship was now unwittingly sailing straight towards the shallow [reefs](/wiki/Reef \"Reef\") which surround the island.",
"Lead was cast three times over 15 minutes to gauge the depth, and readings of {{convert\\|15\\|,\\|9\\|and\\|5\\|fathom\\|m\\|order\\=flip\\|lk\\=out}} were taken respectively. Shortly after the last cast, breakers were sighted. The captain gave immediate orders to turn the ship but was unsuccessful and she struck remaining high on the reef {{convert\\|200\\|m}} offshore from what is today the City of York bay, midway along the north side of the island.",
"### 11 men drown",
"Captain Jones ordered the 26 crew into the two lifeboats. Six men including First Mate William Pape managed to get in the first lifeboat before its holding rope broke and it drifted free from the stricken vessel. The remaining 20 men managed to get into the remaining lifeboat and stood a short distance off for an hour or so while Captain Jones considered his options. As the ship appeared to be holding steady of the reef, Jones ordered the lifeboat to return to the ship, but while doing so, the small boat was hit by a large wave and overturned, tipping all of the men into the heavy seas.",
"Eight men managed to re\\-board *City of York* and one man was picked up by the first mate's boat. 11 others including Captain Jones were drowned. After several hours battling the seas, the seven men in the remaining lifeboat managed to get to shore and several walked, exhausted, several kilometres through the bush to the lighthouse to raise the alarm. The remaining men onshore were recovered shortly afterwards and the following morning, the master and owner of the steam tug *Dunskey*, Captain William Douglas, rowed his vessel's {{convert\\|4\\.5\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} dinghy to the wreck from seaward and was able to rescue the remaining eight men on the ship.Unfinished Voyages \\- Western Australian Shipwrecks 1881 \\- 1900, Cairns \\& Henderson, pp.312, 313, {{ISBN\\|1\\-875560\\-24\\-6}}, University of Western Australia Press 1995",
""
] |
Aftermath
---------
The kidnapping was condemned by the US, UK, France, and the UN, who all also pledged their support for Libya's transition to democracy.
Following Zeidan's release the Libyan Government released a statement blaming the kidnapping on two groups of ex\-rebels; the Operations Cell of Libyan Revolutionaries and Counter Crime Agency.{{cite news \|title\=Libya Prime Minister Ali Zeidan kidnapped \|url\=http://gulfnews.com/news/region/libya/libya\-prime\-minister\-ali\-zeidan\-kidnapped\-1\.1241551 \|newspaper\=Gulf News \|date\=10 October 2013 \|access\-date\=13 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013003230/http://gulfnews.com/news/region/libya/libya\-prime\-minister\-ali\-zeidan\-kidnapped\-1\.1241551 \|archive\-date\=13 October 2013 \|url\-status\=live }}
Despite having claimed earlier responsibility for the kidnapping, following Zeidan's release the group denied having played any role in the kidnapping, and claimed that any statements to the contrary in the media were untrue.{{cite news \|title\=Libyan PM briefly held by gunmen angry at U.S. al Qaeda capture (1:29\) \|url\=http://in.reuters.com/video/2013/10/10/libyan\-pm\-briefly\-held\-by\-gunmen\-angry\-a?videoId\=274101602\&videoChannel\=117460 \|newspaper\=Reuters \|date\=10 October 2013 \|access\-date\=13 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015062757/http://in.reuters.com/video/2013/10/10/libyan\-pm\-briefly\-held\-by\-gunmen\-angry\-a?videoId\=274101602\&videoChannel\=117460 \|archive\-date\=15 October 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite news \|title\=Premier's brief 'arrest' highlights anarchy in Libya \|author\=Ghaith Shennib and Ulf Laessing \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-libya\-kidnap\-idUSBRE99902M20131010 \|newspaper\=Reuters \|date\=10 October 2013 \|access\-date\=13 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013015830/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/10/us\-libya\-kidnap\-idUSBRE99902M20131010 \|archive\-date\=13 October 2013 \|url\-status\=live }}
At a press conference later the same day GNC President [Nouri Abusahmain](/wiki/Nouri_Abusahmain "Nouri Abusahmain") claimed responsibility for establishing the Libyan Revolutionaries Operations Room in July 2013, claiming he had done so in order to protect Tripoli and various state institutions. Abusahmain denied however that LROR was acting under any orders from him.
A source in the Attorney General's Office revealed to Libya Herald on 10 October that Abdelmonem Al\-Said, the head of the Counter Crime Agency in Tripoli's Fornaj district, was under investigation by the Attorney General for his role in the kidnapping of Zeidan. The source also claimed that the arrest warrant supposedly signed by the Attorney General was a forgery, and that several other security officials were believed to have been aware of the planned kidnapping in the week leading up to it, but had not acted.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Counter Crime Agency commander faces arrest \|url\=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/10/head\-of\-counter\-crime\-agency\-faces\-arrest/\#ixzz2iZNvLk91 \|newspaper\=Libya Herald \|date\=10 October 2013 \|access\-date\=23 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014173710/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/10/head\-of\-counter\-crime\-agency\-faces\-arrest/\#ixzz2iZNvLk91 \|archive\-date\=14 October 2013 \|url\-status\=live }}
### Accusations of guilt
In a TV address to the nation on 11 October, Zeidan called the incident an attempted coup d'état, and blamed it on an unnamed political party in the GNC. Zeidan claimed that the party had previously failed to rally enough votes in the GNC to dismiss Zeidan from his post of Prime Minister by constitutional means, and so had instead resorted to force. Zeidan also vowed a strong response to his kidnappers, and signaled the possibility of an imminent crackdown by the Libyan Government. Zeidan also stated that a crisis committee, including revolutionaries, had been formed, and that previously delayed funds for police and security forces were now being dispensed by the Central Bank of Libya. Zeidan also denied that [Nouri Abusahmain](/wiki/Nouri_Abusahmain "Nouri Abusahmain"), the President of the GNC, had played any role in the kidnapping.{{cite news \|title\=Failed coup a turning point for the better: Zeidan \|author\=Ashraf Abdul Wahab and Ahmed Elumami \|url\=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/11/failed\-coup\-a\-turning\-point\-for\-the\-better\-zeidan/\#axzz2hSqcYbmY \|newspaper\=Libya Herald \|date\=11 October 2013 \|access\-date\=13 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013193536/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/11/failed\-coup\-a\-turning\-point\-for\-the\-better\-zeidan/\#axzz2hSqcYbmY \|archive\-date\=13 October 2013 \|url\-status\=live }}
At a press conference on the afternoon of 20 October, Zeidan named several of those he accused as responsible for his kidnapping. Zeidan claimed that Mustafa Treiki and Mohamed al\-Kilani, both of whom are [Independent](/wiki/Independent_%28politician%29 "Independent (politician)") members of the [General National Congress](/wiki/General_National_Congress "General National Congress") for [Zawiya](/wiki/Zawiya%2C_Libya "Zawiya, Libya"), were the political leadership behind the kidnapping. Kilani in particular is regarded as being a radical Islamist. During the Libyan Civil War both Kilani and Treiki had served in a rebel brigade known as the Zawiya Martyrs Brigade, with Kilani serving as the brigades commander whilst Treiki had been a leading member. The two have been considered close to the [Libyan Islamic Fighting Group](/wiki/Libyan_Islamic_Fighting_Group "Libyan Islamic Fighting Group"), although neither are members. Kilani had also previously been a key figure in the GNC who had pushed for [the storming of Bani Walid](/wiki/Siege_of_Bani_Walid_%282012%29 "Siege of Bani Walid (2012)") in October 2012, and had also served in a military capacity during the siege.{{cite journal \|last\=Lacher \|first\=Wolfram \|date\=May 2013 \|title\=Fault Lines of the Revolution: Political Actors, Camps and Conflicts in the New Libya \|url\=http://www.swp\-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/research\_papers/2013\_RP04\_lac.pdf \|publisher\=German Institute for International and Security Affairs \|pages\=36 \|access\-date\=23 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904052429/https://www.swp\-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/research\_papers/2013\_RP04\_lac.pdf \|archive\-date\=4 September 2018 \|url\-status\=live }}
Others named by Zeidan included Abdul Hakkim Belazi; the official spokesman for the Counter Crime Agency, and a man named Ramadan Zaamit. Zeidan also claimed that whilst he was being detained at the Counter Crime Agency building on Fornaj he was interrogated by Abdelmonem Al\-Said; the local head of the CCA, as well as by Adel Al\-Said and Abdulraouf Al\-Minae.{{cite news \|title\=Zeidan names two Congressmen "behind his abduction" \|author\=Libya Herald Staff \|url\=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/20/zeidan\-names\-two\-congressmen\-behind\-his\-abduction/\#axzz2iYpRaQSy \|newspaper\=Libya Herald \|date\=20 October 2013 \|access\-date\=23 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022014805/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/20/zeidan\-names\-two\-congressmen\-behind\-his\-abduction/\#axzz2iYpRaQSy \|archive\-date\=22 October 2013 \|url\-status\=live }}
Zeidan also claimed that his mobile phone had been taken during his detention, but that his service provider had helped recover it. The phone was eventually found on GNC premises, where it had been taken by one of Zeidan's kidnappers.
### Response by alleged kidnappers
Treiki and Kilani in turn called a press conference for the evening of the 20 October to respond to Zeidan's claims, which they denied, calling Zeidan a "liar." Instead they claimed Zeidan was attempting to blame them in order to distract from his own failures, and claimed Zeidan was trying to emerge from the incident as a hero. Treiki and Kilani did however admit to having previously unsuccessfully attempted to organise a vote of [no confidence](/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence "Motion of no confidence") in the GNC in order to topple Zeidan's Government.
Sharing the platform with Treiki and Kilani at the press conference was Abdelmonem al\-Said (the commander of the CCA Fornaj unit). In contrast to Treiki and Kilani's denials of responsibility, al\-Said claimed he was proud of having arrested Zeidan, and accused Zeidan of involvements in drugs and corruption. Said also claimed that drugs had been found in Zeidan's car some months prior, in June 2013, and that there was no evidence that Zeidan enjoyed any kind of [political immunity](/wiki/Parliamentary_immunity "Parliamentary immunity") from arrest and prosecution.
GNC members are entitled to immunity, meaning that no investigation or prosecution of a GNC member can take place until their immunity has been removed. The GNC can however vote to remove immunity from sitting members, such as in early October 2013 when immunity was removed from several GNC member's accused of defaming members of the Justice \& Construction party.
### Reactions
#### Domestic
[Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party "Justice and Construction Party") \- In a speech responding to the kidnapping, [Mohamed Sowan](/wiki/Mohamed_Sowan "Mohamed Sowan"); the head of the [Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party "Justice and Construction Party"), called for Zeidan's resignation. Sawan accused Zeidan of mismanagement, and claimed that this was the real reason for the kidnapping. Sawan also claimed the GNC was looking to replace Zeidan, although criticized the kidnapping as "irresponsible behavior." Sawan also denied that Zeidan had been referring to the [Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party "Justice and Construction Party") when he referenced to an unnamed political party being behind the attempted coup. Sawan had in September demanded Zeidan's removal by means of a no\-confidence motion, and blamed Zeidan for all of Libya's problems. Sawan had never spoken openly about withdrawing the [Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party "Justice and Construction Party")'s 5 Ministers from the Government. There were reports that the [Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party "Justice and Construction Party") had failed in an attempt to gather the 120 votes needed to dismiss Zeidan from his office, and so had instead offered a truce.{{cite news \|title\=Zeidan should now resign says Sawan \|author\=Hadi Fornaji \|url\=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/12/zeidan\-should\-now\-resign\-says\-sawan/\#axzz2hSqcYbmY \|newspaper\=Libya Herald \|date\=12 October 2013 \|access\-date\=13 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014171841/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/12/zeidan\-should\-now\-resign\-says\-sawan/\#axzz2hSqcYbmY \|archive\-date\=14 October 2013 \|url\-status\=live }}
[Zintan](/wiki/Zintan "Zintan") Local Council \- On 10 October the Council issued a call for all those involved in Prime Minister Zeidan's kidnapping to be arrested and punished. The Council also blamed the GNC and GNC President [Nouri Abusahmain](/wiki/Nouri_Abusahmain "Nouri Abusahmain") for establishing the Libyan Revolutionaries Operations Room.
|
[
"Aftermath\n---------",
"The kidnapping was condemned by the US, UK, France, and the UN, who all also pledged their support for Libya's transition to democracy.",
"Following Zeidan's release the Libyan Government released a statement blaming the kidnapping on two groups of ex\\-rebels; the Operations Cell of Libyan Revolutionaries and Counter Crime Agency.{{cite news \\|title\\=Libya Prime Minister Ali Zeidan kidnapped \\|url\\=http://gulfnews.com/news/region/libya/libya\\-prime\\-minister\\-ali\\-zeidan\\-kidnapped\\-1\\.1241551 \\|newspaper\\=Gulf News \\|date\\=10 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013003230/http://gulfnews.com/news/region/libya/libya\\-prime\\-minister\\-ali\\-zeidan\\-kidnapped\\-1\\.1241551 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Despite having claimed earlier responsibility for the kidnapping, following Zeidan's release the group denied having played any role in the kidnapping, and claimed that any statements to the contrary in the media were untrue.{{cite news \\|title\\=Libyan PM briefly held by gunmen angry at U.S. al Qaeda capture (1:29\\) \\|url\\=http://in.reuters.com/video/2013/10/10/libyan\\-pm\\-briefly\\-held\\-by\\-gunmen\\-angry\\-a?videoId\\=274101602\\&videoChannel\\=117460 \\|newspaper\\=Reuters \\|date\\=10 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015062757/http://in.reuters.com/video/2013/10/10/libyan\\-pm\\-briefly\\-held\\-by\\-gunmen\\-angry\\-a?videoId\\=274101602\\&videoChannel\\=117460 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Premier's brief 'arrest' highlights anarchy in Libya \\|author\\=Ghaith Shennib and Ulf Laessing \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-libya\\-kidnap\\-idUSBRE99902M20131010 \\|newspaper\\=Reuters \\|date\\=10 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013015830/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/10/us\\-libya\\-kidnap\\-idUSBRE99902M20131010 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"At a press conference later the same day GNC President [Nouri Abusahmain](/wiki/Nouri_Abusahmain \"Nouri Abusahmain\") claimed responsibility for establishing the Libyan Revolutionaries Operations Room in July 2013, claiming he had done so in order to protect Tripoli and various state institutions. Abusahmain denied however that LROR was acting under any orders from him.",
"A source in the Attorney General's Office revealed to Libya Herald on 10 October that Abdelmonem Al\\-Said, the head of the Counter Crime Agency in Tripoli's Fornaj district, was under investigation by the Attorney General for his role in the kidnapping of Zeidan. The source also claimed that the arrest warrant supposedly signed by the Attorney General was a forgery, and that several other security officials were believed to have been aware of the planned kidnapping in the week leading up to it, but had not acted.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Counter Crime Agency commander faces arrest \\|url\\=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/10/head\\-of\\-counter\\-crime\\-agency\\-faces\\-arrest/\\#ixzz2iZNvLk91 \\|newspaper\\=Libya Herald \\|date\\=10 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014173710/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/10/head\\-of\\-counter\\-crime\\-agency\\-faces\\-arrest/\\#ixzz2iZNvLk91 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Accusations of guilt",
"In a TV address to the nation on 11 October, Zeidan called the incident an attempted coup d'état, and blamed it on an unnamed political party in the GNC. Zeidan claimed that the party had previously failed to rally enough votes in the GNC to dismiss Zeidan from his post of Prime Minister by constitutional means, and so had instead resorted to force. Zeidan also vowed a strong response to his kidnappers, and signaled the possibility of an imminent crackdown by the Libyan Government. Zeidan also stated that a crisis committee, including revolutionaries, had been formed, and that previously delayed funds for police and security forces were now being dispensed by the Central Bank of Libya. Zeidan also denied that [Nouri Abusahmain](/wiki/Nouri_Abusahmain \"Nouri Abusahmain\"), the President of the GNC, had played any role in the kidnapping.{{cite news \\|title\\=Failed coup a turning point for the better: Zeidan \\|author\\=Ashraf Abdul Wahab and Ahmed Elumami \\|url\\=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/11/failed\\-coup\\-a\\-turning\\-point\\-for\\-the\\-better\\-zeidan/\\#axzz2hSqcYbmY \\|newspaper\\=Libya Herald \\|date\\=11 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013193536/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/11/failed\\-coup\\-a\\-turning\\-point\\-for\\-the\\-better\\-zeidan/\\#axzz2hSqcYbmY \\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"At a press conference on the afternoon of 20 October, Zeidan named several of those he accused as responsible for his kidnapping. Zeidan claimed that Mustafa Treiki and Mohamed al\\-Kilani, both of whom are [Independent](/wiki/Independent_%28politician%29 \"Independent (politician)\") members of the [General National Congress](/wiki/General_National_Congress \"General National Congress\") for [Zawiya](/wiki/Zawiya%2C_Libya \"Zawiya, Libya\"), were the political leadership behind the kidnapping. Kilani in particular is regarded as being a radical Islamist. During the Libyan Civil War both Kilani and Treiki had served in a rebel brigade known as the Zawiya Martyrs Brigade, with Kilani serving as the brigades commander whilst Treiki had been a leading member. The two have been considered close to the [Libyan Islamic Fighting Group](/wiki/Libyan_Islamic_Fighting_Group \"Libyan Islamic Fighting Group\"), although neither are members. Kilani had also previously been a key figure in the GNC who had pushed for [the storming of Bani Walid](/wiki/Siege_of_Bani_Walid_%282012%29 \"Siege of Bani Walid (2012)\") in October 2012, and had also served in a military capacity during the siege.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Lacher \\|first\\=Wolfram \\|date\\=May 2013 \\|title\\=Fault Lines of the Revolution: Political Actors, Camps and Conflicts in the New Libya \\|url\\=http://www.swp\\-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/research\\_papers/2013\\_RP04\\_lac.pdf \\|publisher\\=German Institute for International and Security Affairs \\|pages\\=36 \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904052429/https://www.swp\\-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/research\\_papers/2013\\_RP04\\_lac.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=4 September 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Others named by Zeidan included Abdul Hakkim Belazi; the official spokesman for the Counter Crime Agency, and a man named Ramadan Zaamit. Zeidan also claimed that whilst he was being detained at the Counter Crime Agency building on Fornaj he was interrogated by Abdelmonem Al\\-Said; the local head of the CCA, as well as by Adel Al\\-Said and Abdulraouf Al\\-Minae.{{cite news \\|title\\=Zeidan names two Congressmen \"behind his abduction\" \\|author\\=Libya Herald Staff \\|url\\=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/20/zeidan\\-names\\-two\\-congressmen\\-behind\\-his\\-abduction/\\#axzz2iYpRaQSy \\|newspaper\\=Libya Herald \\|date\\=20 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022014805/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/20/zeidan\\-names\\-two\\-congressmen\\-behind\\-his\\-abduction/\\#axzz2iYpRaQSy \\|archive\\-date\\=22 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Zeidan also claimed that his mobile phone had been taken during his detention, but that his service provider had helped recover it. The phone was eventually found on GNC premises, where it had been taken by one of Zeidan's kidnappers.",
"### Response by alleged kidnappers",
"Treiki and Kilani in turn called a press conference for the evening of the 20 October to respond to Zeidan's claims, which they denied, calling Zeidan a \"liar.\" Instead they claimed Zeidan was attempting to blame them in order to distract from his own failures, and claimed Zeidan was trying to emerge from the incident as a hero. Treiki and Kilani did however admit to having previously unsuccessfully attempted to organise a vote of [no confidence](/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence \"Motion of no confidence\") in the GNC in order to topple Zeidan's Government.",
"Sharing the platform with Treiki and Kilani at the press conference was Abdelmonem al\\-Said (the commander of the CCA Fornaj unit). In contrast to Treiki and Kilani's denials of responsibility, al\\-Said claimed he was proud of having arrested Zeidan, and accused Zeidan of involvements in drugs and corruption. Said also claimed that drugs had been found in Zeidan's car some months prior, in June 2013, and that there was no evidence that Zeidan enjoyed any kind of [political immunity](/wiki/Parliamentary_immunity \"Parliamentary immunity\") from arrest and prosecution.",
"GNC members are entitled to immunity, meaning that no investigation or prosecution of a GNC member can take place until their immunity has been removed. The GNC can however vote to remove immunity from sitting members, such as in early October 2013 when immunity was removed from several GNC member's accused of defaming members of the Justice \\& Construction party.",
"### Reactions",
"#### Domestic",
"[Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party \"Justice and Construction Party\") \\- In a speech responding to the kidnapping, [Mohamed Sowan](/wiki/Mohamed_Sowan \"Mohamed Sowan\"); the head of the [Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party \"Justice and Construction Party\"), called for Zeidan's resignation. Sawan accused Zeidan of mismanagement, and claimed that this was the real reason for the kidnapping. Sawan also claimed the GNC was looking to replace Zeidan, although criticized the kidnapping as \"irresponsible behavior.\" Sawan also denied that Zeidan had been referring to the [Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party \"Justice and Construction Party\") when he referenced to an unnamed political party being behind the attempted coup. Sawan had in September demanded Zeidan's removal by means of a no\\-confidence motion, and blamed Zeidan for all of Libya's problems. Sawan had never spoken openly about withdrawing the [Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party \"Justice and Construction Party\")'s 5 Ministers from the Government. There were reports that the [Justice and Construction Party](/wiki/Justice_and_Construction_Party \"Justice and Construction Party\") had failed in an attempt to gather the 120 votes needed to dismiss Zeidan from his office, and so had instead offered a truce.{{cite news \\|title\\=Zeidan should now resign says Sawan \\|author\\=Hadi Fornaji \\|url\\=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/12/zeidan\\-should\\-now\\-resign\\-says\\-sawan/\\#axzz2hSqcYbmY \\|newspaper\\=Libya Herald \\|date\\=12 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014171841/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/10/12/zeidan\\-should\\-now\\-resign\\-says\\-sawan/\\#axzz2hSqcYbmY \\|archive\\-date\\=14 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[Zintan](/wiki/Zintan \"Zintan\") Local Council \\- On 10 October the Council issued a call for all those involved in Prime Minister Zeidan's kidnapping to be arrested and punished. The Council also blamed the GNC and GNC President [Nouri Abusahmain](/wiki/Nouri_Abusahmain \"Nouri Abusahmain\") for establishing the Libyan Revolutionaries Operations Room.",
""
] |
Reception
---------
### Critical response
{{Video game reviews
\|MC\=57/100{{cite web\|url\=https://www.metacritic.com/game/mario\-party\-island\-tour/critic\-reviews/?platform\=3ds\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour for 3DS Reviews\|website\=\[\[Metacritic]]\|publisher\=\[\[Paramount Streaming\|CBS Interactive]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424042712/https://www.metacritic.com/game/mario\-party\-island\-tour/critic\-reviews/?platform\=3ds\|archive\-date\=April 24, 2024}}
\|Destruct\=4/10{{cite web\|last\=Cooke\|first\=Caitlin\|date\=November 27, 2013\|url\=http://www.destructoid.com/review\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\-266353\.phtml\|title\=Review: Mario Party: Island Tour\|website\=\[\[Destructoid]]\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406135849/http://www.destructoid.com/review\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\-266353\.phtml\|archive\-date\=April 6, 2016}}
\|Fam\=32/40{{cite web\|last\=Romano\|first\=Sal\|date\=March 11, 2014\|url\=https://gematsu.com/2014/03/famitsu\-review\-scores\-issue\-1319\|title\=Famitsu Review Scores: Issue 1319\|website\=Gematsu\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004042945/https://www.gematsu.com/2014/03/famitsu\-review\-scores\-issue\-1319\|archive\-date\=October 4, 2023}}
\|GI\=4/10{{cite magazine\|author\=\[\[Dan Ryckert\|Ryckert, Dan]]\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=https://www.gameinformer.com/games/mario\_party\_island\_tour/b/3ds/archive/2013/11/22/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review.aspx\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\|magazine\=\[\[Game Informer]]\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303145804/https://www.gameinformer.com/games/mario\_party\_island\_tour/b/3ds/archive/2013/11/22/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review.aspx\|archive\-date\=March 3, 2024\|access\-date\=October 6, 2024}}
\|GameRev\=3/5{{cite web\|last\=Schaller\|first\=Kevin\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/mario\-party\-3ds\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\|website\=\[\[GameRevolution]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210182216/http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/mario\-party\-3ds\|archive\-date\=December 10, 2013}}
\|GSpot\=7/10{{cite web\|last\=Kemps\|first\=Heidi\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review/1900\-6415575/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\|website\=\[\[GameSpot]]\|publisher\=\[\[Paramount Streaming\|CBS Interactive]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123061002/http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review/1900\-6415575/\|archive\-date\=November 23, 2013}}
\|GRadar\=3/5{{cite web\|last\=Cooper\|first\=Hollander\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=http://www.gamesradar.com/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour review\|website\=\[\[GamesRadar\+]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213105050/http://www.gamesradar.com/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review/\|archive\-date\=December 13, 2013}}
\|IGN\=5\.5/10{{cite web\|last\=Thompson\|first\=Scott\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/22/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\|website\=\[\[IGN]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618002103/http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/22/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|archive\-date\=June 18, 2018}}
\|NLife\=6/10{{cite web\|last\=Letcavage\|first\=Dave\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/3ds/mario\_party\_island\_tour\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review (3DS)\|website\=\[\[Gamer Network\#Partnered\|Nintendo Life]]\|publisher\=\[\[Gamer Network]]\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602063657/https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/3ds/mario\_party\_island\_tour\|archive\-date\=June 2, 2024}}
\|NWR\=8\.5/10{{cite web\|last\=Keller\|first\=Kimberly\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/review/36044/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-nintendo\-3ds\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour\|website\=Nintendo World Report\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906191656/https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/review/36044/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-nintendo\-3ds\|archive\-date\=September 6, 2024}}
\|ONM\=60%{{cite magazine\|last\=Skrebels\|first\=Joe\|date\=January 18, 2014\|url\=https://www.officialnintendomagazine.co.uk/56735/reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-review/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour review\|magazine\=\[\[Official Nintendo Magazine]]\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031160523/https://www.officialnintendomagazine.co.uk/56735/reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-review/\|archive\-date\=October 31, 2014\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016}}
\|PG\=3/5{{cite web\|last\=Rose\|first\=Mike\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=https://www.pocketgamer.com/mario\-party\-island\-tour/mario\-party\-island\-tour/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour\|website\=\[\[Pocket Gamer]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207001754/https://www.pocketgamer.com/mario\-party\-island\-tour/mario\-party\-island\-tour/\|archive\-date\=December 7, 2021}}
\|Poly\=5/10{{cite web\|last\=Riendeau\|first\=Danielle\|date\=January 7, 2014\|url\=http://www.polygon.com/2014/1/7/5281934/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-slumber\-party\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour review: slumber party\|website\=\[\[Polygon (website)\|Polygon]]\|publisher\=\[\[Vox Media]]\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602113323/http://www.polygon.com/2014/1/7/5281934/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-slumber\-party\|archive\-date\=June 2, 2016}}
\|TG\=3/5{{cite news\|last\=Robertson\|first\=Andy\|date\=January 18, 2014\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/19/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour – review\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903010853/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/19/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|archive\-date\=September 3, 2024\|access\-date\=September 2, 2024}}
2/5{{cite news\|last\=Webber\|first\=Jordan Erica\|date\=February 9, 2014\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/09/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour – review\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903010854/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/09/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|archive\-date\=September 3, 2024\|access\-date\=September 2, 2024}}
\|rev1\=\[\[Common Sense Media]]
\|rev1Score\=4/5{{cite web\|last\=Sapieha\|first\=Chad\|url\=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/game\-reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\|title\=Mario Party Island Tour Game Review\|publisher\=\[\[Common Sense Media]]\|access\-date\=September 6, 2024\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906193824/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/game\-reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\|archive\-date\=September 6, 2024}}
\|rev2\=\[\[Digital Spy]]
\|rev2Score\=2/5{{cite web\|last\=Martin\|first\=Liam\|date\=January 15, 2014\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.com/gaming/nintendo\-3ds/review/a543937/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-3ds\-badly\-designed\-board\-games/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour review (3DS): Badly designed board games\|publisher\=\[\[Digital Spy]]\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806071428/http://www.digitalspy.com/gaming/nintendo\-3ds/review/a543937/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-3ds\-badly\-designed\-board\-games/\|archive\-date\=August 6, 2017}}
\|rev3\=''\[\[Slant Magazine]]''
\|rev3Score\=2\.5/5{{cite magazine\|last\=LeChevallier\|first\=Mike\|date\=November 27, 2013\|url\=https://www.slantmagazine.com/games/mario\-party\-island\-tour/\|title\=Review: Mario Party: Island Tour\|magazine\=\[\[Slant Magazine]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803203719/https://www.slantmagazine.com/games/mario\-party\-island\-tour/\|archive\-date\=August 3, 2024\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016}}
\|rev4\=''\[\[The Oakland Press]]''
\|rev4Score\=2\.5/4{{cite news\|last\=Hoard\|first\=Jeff\|date\=June 17, 2021\|orig\-date\=January 4, 2014\|url\=https://www.theoaklandpress.com/2014/01/04/review\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\-could\-use\-some\-online\-elements/\|title\=Review: 'Mario Party: Island Tour' could use some online elements\|work\=\[\[The Oakland Press]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913022918/https://www.theoaklandpress.com/2014/01/04/review\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\-could\-use\-some\-online\-elements/\|archive\-date\=September 13, 2024\|access\-date\=September 12, 2024}}
}}
*Mario Party: Island Tour* received "mixed or average" reviews from critics, according to the [review aggregation](/wiki/Review_aggregator "Review aggregator") website [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic "Metacritic"). In Japan, four critics from *[Famitsu](/wiki/Famitsu "Famitsu")* gave the game a total score of 32 out of 40\. Writing for *Nintendo World Report*, Kimberly Keller concluded: "*Island Tour* is a fine entry in the series that should bring out the competitive streak in all *Mario Party* fans, old or new." Hollander Cooper of *[GamesRadar\+](/wiki/GamesRadar%2B "GamesRadar+")* added: "*Island Tour* isn't the *Mario Party* you remember, and that's not necessarily a bad thing. That said, there are definitely some missing pieces that keep it from being a memorable entry in the franchise." Writing for *[Shacknews](/wiki/Shacknews "Shacknews")*, Steve Watts stated that the 3DS was "an odd choice", arguing that multiplayer\-oriented party games like those in the *Mario Party* series conflicted with handheld systems being "innately a singular experience".
The variety in the game boards, particularly the differing win conditions, was frequently praised, though a few reviewers noted that most of the boards simply revolved around players attempting to reach the end first. Critics also appreciated the ratings for factors such as luck and skill, as well as the estimated play times, though some questioned the reliability of these statistics. Certain reviewers expressed disappointment with the series's traditional Star and coin system not returning in any of the boards. The short lengths of the boards were noted by several critics, including *[Nintendo Life](/wiki/Gamer_Network%23Partnered "Gamer Network#Partnered")*{{'}}s Dave Letcavage, who felt that this resulted in fewer minigames being experienced during each game. Other reviewers criticized the pacing of the boards, attributing this to having to wait for the other players to complete their turns, including the computer\-controlled characters.
Critical response to the minigame selection was also generally positive, with Letcavage calling it "one of the tightest collections of mini\-games to be featured in the *Mario Party* series, optimized perfectly for pick\-up\-and\-play sessions". [Digital Spy](/wiki/Digital_Spy "Digital Spy")'s Liam Martin agreed that the minigames were "among the best we've played", and *[Polygon](/wiki/Polygon_%28website%29 "Polygon (website)")*{{'}}s Danielle Riendeau lauded the selection as not only the game's "greatest asset", but "possibly the best in the series". Numerous reviewers commended the implementation of a wide range of Nintendo 3DS capabilities. However, *[IGN](/wiki/IGN "IGN")*{{'}}s Scott Thompson was more critical of the minigame selection, stating that the [motion control](/wiki/Motion_controller "Motion controller") made some minigames awkward to play. Thompson also noted an absence of non\-four\-player free\-for\-alls, such as teams of two and three against one, which he referred to as "an odd departure for the series". A handful of reviewers also spoke favorably of the minigame\-focused game modes, especially the free play mode.
Reception toward the game's single\-player campaign, Bowser's Tower, was more mixed; although the boss minigames were found enjoyable, the low and unchangeable difficulty levels of the player's AI opponents elicited criticism. *[GameSpot](/wiki/GameSpot "GameSpot")*{{'}}s Heidi Kemps referred to this mode as "a nice diversion" but "weak" in comparison to *[Mario Party DS](/wiki/Mario_Party_DS "Mario Party DS")*{{'}}s story mode, *Nintendo Life*{{'}}s Dave Letcavage wrote that it was "mostly fluff in its repetitive and lengthy design", and *IGN*{{'}}s Scott Thompson derided it as "laughably bad".
Critics widely panned the game's reliance on luck, especially in its minigames. The absence of an online multiplayer mode was also heavily criticized, though many reviewers also complimented the game's local multiplayer via Download Play, despite a couple of them noting occasional connection issues. Certain critics also complained of a general lack of difficulty from the game's AI, particularly during mingiames.
On the topic of the game's aesthetics, David Letcavage of *Nintendo Life* described the visuals as "satisfactory, getting the job done without doing anything to wow", stating that the [stereoscopic](/wiki/Stereoscopy "Stereoscopy") 3D neither contributed toward nor interfered with any aspects of the game. Kimberly Keller of *Nintendo World Report* added: "The graphics are crisp and utilize 3D well, while the music fits each game and board without becoming monotonous." Keller also mentioned the game's collectibles, writing: "It's a nice touch, but it's nothing more than a mildly interesting bonus." Likewise, Kevin Schaller of *[GameRevolution](/wiki/GameRevolution "GameRevolution")* found the collectible system "pointless" due to it mostly consisting of music tracks and character voice samples that can be heard elsewhere in the game, with Jeff Hoard of *[The Oakland Press](/wiki/The_Oakland_Press "The Oakland Press")* agreeing that it was "nothing spectacular".
### Sales
*Mario Party: Island Tour* sold more than 132,000 units within the first week of its release in Japan, making it the best\-selling 3DS title that week.{{cite web\|last\=Weber\|first\=Rachel\|date\=March 27, 2014\|url\=https://www.gamesindustry.biz/japans\-new\-1\-is\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\|title\=Japan's new \#1 is Mario Party: Island Tour\|website\=\[\[Gamer Network\#Owned\|GamesIndustry.biz]]\|publisher\=\[\[Gamer Network]]\|access\-date\=September 10, 2024\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526015538/https://www.gamesindustry.biz/japans\-new\-1\-is\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\|archive\-date\=May 26, 2024}} As of April 9, 2014, the game had remained the best\-selling title in Japan, selling an additional 47,000 copies for a total of 257,000 units.{{cite web\|last\=Whitehead\|first\=Thomas\|date\=April 9, 2014\|url\=https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2014/04/mario\_party\_island\_tour\_stays\_on\_top\_in\_japan\_as\_hardware\_sales\_plummet\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Stays on Top in Japan as Hardware Sales Plummet\|website\=\[\[Gamer Network\#Partnered\|Nintendo Life]]\|publisher\=\[\[Gamer Network]]\|access\-date\=September 10, 2024\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603053616/https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2014/04/mario\_party\_island\_tour\_stays\_on\_top\_in\_japan\_as\_hardware\_sales\_plummet\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2024}} The game became a [Nintendo Selects](/wiki/Nintendo_Selects "Nintendo Selects") title in Europe on October 16, 2015,{{cite web\|last\=Copeland\|first\=Wesley\|date\=September 28, 2015\|url\=https://www.ign.com/articles/2015/09/28/6\-3ds\-games\-join\-the\-nintendo\-select\-range\|title\=6 3DS Games Join the Nintendo Select Range\|website\=\[\[IGN]]\|access\-date\=September 28, 2024\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240411092349/https://www.ign.com/articles/2015/09/28/6\-3ds\-games\-join\-the\-nintendo\-select\-range\|archive\-date\=April 11, 2024}} and in North America on March 11, 2016\.{{cite web\|last\=Whitehead\|first\=Thomas\|date\=February 29, 2016\|url\=https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2016/02/nintendo\_of\_america\_confirms\_new\_wii\_u\_3ds\_and\_wii\_nintendo\_selects\_titles\_for\_11th\_march\|title\=Nintendo of America Confirms New Wii U, 3DS and Wii Nintendo Selects Titles for 11th March\|website\=\[\[Gamer Network\#Partnered\|Nintendo Life]]\|publisher\=\[\[Gamer Network]]\|access\-date\=October 8, 2024\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602103103/https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2016/02/nintendo\_of\_america\_confirms\_new\_wii\_u\_3ds\_and\_wii\_nintendo\_selects\_titles\_for\_11th\_march\|archive\-date\=June 2, 2024}} As of December 31, 2021, *Mario Party: Island Tour* had sold 2\.95 million copies worldwide, making it the [24th\-best\-selling game for the Nintendo 3DS](/wiki/List_of_best-selling_Nintendo_3DS_video_games "List of best-selling Nintendo 3DS video games").{{cite book\|title\=2022CESAゲーム白書 (2022 CESA Games White Papers)\|publisher\=\[\[Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association]]\|year\=2022\|isbn\=978\-4\-902346\-45\-9}}
|
[
"Reception\n---------",
"### Critical response",
"{{Video game reviews\n\\|MC\\=57/100{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.metacritic.com/game/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/critic\\-reviews/?platform\\=3ds\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour for 3DS Reviews\\|website\\=\\[\\[Metacritic]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Paramount Streaming\\|CBS Interactive]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424042712/https://www.metacritic.com/game/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/critic\\-reviews/?platform\\=3ds\\|archive\\-date\\=April 24, 2024}}\n\\|Destruct\\=4/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Cooke\\|first\\=Caitlin\\|date\\=November 27, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.destructoid.com/review\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-266353\\.phtml\\|title\\=Review: Mario Party: Island Tour\\|website\\=\\[\\[Destructoid]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406135849/http://www.destructoid.com/review\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-266353\\.phtml\\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2016}}\n\\|Fam\\=32/40{{cite web\\|last\\=Romano\\|first\\=Sal\\|date\\=March 11, 2014\\|url\\=https://gematsu.com/2014/03/famitsu\\-review\\-scores\\-issue\\-1319\\|title\\=Famitsu Review Scores: Issue 1319\\|website\\=Gematsu\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004042945/https://www.gematsu.com/2014/03/famitsu\\-review\\-scores\\-issue\\-1319\\|archive\\-date\\=October 4, 2023}}\n\\|GI\\=4/10{{cite magazine\\|author\\=\\[\\[Dan Ryckert\\|Ryckert, Dan]]\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.gameinformer.com/games/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour/b/3ds/archive/2013/11/22/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review.aspx\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Game Informer]]\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303145804/https://www.gameinformer.com/games/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour/b/3ds/archive/2013/11/22/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=October 6, 2024}}\n\\|GameRev\\=3/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Schaller\\|first\\=Kevin\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/mario\\-party\\-3ds\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\\|website\\=\\[\\[GameRevolution]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210182216/http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/mario\\-party\\-3ds\\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2013}}\n\\|GSpot\\=7/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Kemps\\|first\\=Heidi\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review/1900\\-6415575/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\\|website\\=\\[\\[GameSpot]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Paramount Streaming\\|CBS Interactive]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123061002/http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review/1900\\-6415575/\\|archive\\-date\\=November 23, 2013}}\n\\|GRadar\\=3/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Cooper\\|first\\=Hollander\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.gamesradar.com/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour review\\|website\\=\\[\\[GamesRadar\\+]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213105050/http://www.gamesradar.com/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2013}}\n\\|IGN\\=5\\.5/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Thompson\\|first\\=Scott\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/22/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\\|website\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618002103/http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/22/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2018}}\n\\|NLife\\=6/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Letcavage\\|first\\=Dave\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/3ds/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review (3DS)\\|website\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network\\#Partnered\\|Nintendo Life]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602063657/https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/3ds/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour\\|archive\\-date\\=June 2, 2024}}\n\\|NWR\\=8\\.5/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Keller\\|first\\=Kimberly\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/review/36044/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-nintendo\\-3ds\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour\\|website\\=Nintendo World Report\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906191656/https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/review/36044/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-nintendo\\-3ds\\|archive\\-date\\=September 6, 2024}} \n\\|ONM\\=60%{{cite magazine\\|last\\=Skrebels\\|first\\=Joe\\|date\\=January 18, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.officialnintendomagazine.co.uk/56735/reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-review/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour review\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Official Nintendo Magazine]]\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031160523/https://www.officialnintendomagazine.co.uk/56735/reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-review/\\|archive\\-date\\=October 31, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016}}\n\\|PG\\=3/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Rose\\|first\\=Mike\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.pocketgamer.com/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour\\|website\\=\\[\\[Pocket Gamer]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207001754/https://www.pocketgamer.com/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 7, 2021}}\n\\|Poly\\=5/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Riendeau\\|first\\=Danielle\\|date\\=January 7, 2014\\|url\\=http://www.polygon.com/2014/1/7/5281934/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-slumber\\-party\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour review: slumber party\\|website\\=\\[\\[Polygon (website)\\|Polygon]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Vox Media]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602113323/http://www.polygon.com/2014/1/7/5281934/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-slumber\\-party\\|archive\\-date\\=June 2, 2016}}\n\\|TG\\=3/5{{cite news\\|last\\=Robertson\\|first\\=Andy\\|date\\=January 18, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/19/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour – review\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903010853/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/19/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|archive\\-date\\=September 3, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=September 2, 2024}} \n2/5{{cite news\\|last\\=Webber\\|first\\=Jordan Erica\\|date\\=February 9, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/09/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour – review\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903010854/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/09/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|archive\\-date\\=September 3, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=September 2, 2024}}\n\\|rev1\\=\\[\\[Common Sense Media]]\n\\|rev1Score\\=4/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Sapieha\\|first\\=Chad\\|url\\=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/game\\-reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\|title\\=Mario Party Island Tour Game Review\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Common Sense Media]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 6, 2024\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906193824/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/game\\-reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\|archive\\-date\\=September 6, 2024}}\n\\|rev2\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\n\\|rev2Score\\=2/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Martin\\|first\\=Liam\\|date\\=January 15, 2014\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.com/gaming/nintendo\\-3ds/review/a543937/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-3ds\\-badly\\-designed\\-board\\-games/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour review (3DS): Badly designed board games\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806071428/http://www.digitalspy.com/gaming/nintendo\\-3ds/review/a543937/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-3ds\\-badly\\-designed\\-board\\-games/\\|archive\\-date\\=August 6, 2017}}\n\\|rev3\\=''\\[\\[Slant Magazine]]''\n\\|rev3Score\\=2\\.5/5{{cite magazine\\|last\\=LeChevallier\\|first\\=Mike\\|date\\=November 27, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.slantmagazine.com/games/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/\\|title\\=Review: Mario Party: Island Tour\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Slant Magazine]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803203719/https://www.slantmagazine.com/games/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/\\|archive\\-date\\=August 3, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016}}\n\\|rev4\\=''\\[\\[The Oakland Press]]''\n\\|rev4Score\\=2\\.5/4{{cite news\\|last\\=Hoard\\|first\\=Jeff\\|date\\=June 17, 2021\\|orig\\-date\\=January 4, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.theoaklandpress.com/2014/01/04/review\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-could\\-use\\-some\\-online\\-elements/\\|title\\=Review: 'Mario Party: Island Tour' could use some online elements\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Oakland Press]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913022918/https://www.theoaklandpress.com/2014/01/04/review\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-could\\-use\\-some\\-online\\-elements/\\|archive\\-date\\=September 13, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=September 12, 2024}}",
"}}\n*Mario Party: Island Tour* received \"mixed or average\" reviews from critics, according to the [review aggregation](/wiki/Review_aggregator \"Review aggregator\") website [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic \"Metacritic\"). In Japan, four critics from *[Famitsu](/wiki/Famitsu \"Famitsu\")* gave the game a total score of 32 out of 40\\. Writing for *Nintendo World Report*, Kimberly Keller concluded: \"*Island Tour* is a fine entry in the series that should bring out the competitive streak in all *Mario Party* fans, old or new.\" Hollander Cooper of *[GamesRadar\\+](/wiki/GamesRadar%2B \"GamesRadar+\")* added: \"*Island Tour* isn't the *Mario Party* you remember, and that's not necessarily a bad thing. That said, there are definitely some missing pieces that keep it from being a memorable entry in the franchise.\" Writing for *[Shacknews](/wiki/Shacknews \"Shacknews\")*, Steve Watts stated that the 3DS was \"an odd choice\", arguing that multiplayer\\-oriented party games like those in the *Mario Party* series conflicted with handheld systems being \"innately a singular experience\".",
"The variety in the game boards, particularly the differing win conditions, was frequently praised, though a few reviewers noted that most of the boards simply revolved around players attempting to reach the end first. Critics also appreciated the ratings for factors such as luck and skill, as well as the estimated play times, though some questioned the reliability of these statistics. Certain reviewers expressed disappointment with the series's traditional Star and coin system not returning in any of the boards. The short lengths of the boards were noted by several critics, including *[Nintendo Life](/wiki/Gamer_Network%23Partnered \"Gamer Network#Partnered\")*{{'}}s Dave Letcavage, who felt that this resulted in fewer minigames being experienced during each game. Other reviewers criticized the pacing of the boards, attributing this to having to wait for the other players to complete their turns, including the computer\\-controlled characters.",
"Critical response to the minigame selection was also generally positive, with Letcavage calling it \"one of the tightest collections of mini\\-games to be featured in the *Mario Party* series, optimized perfectly for pick\\-up\\-and\\-play sessions\". [Digital Spy](/wiki/Digital_Spy \"Digital Spy\")'s Liam Martin agreed that the minigames were \"among the best we've played\", and *[Polygon](/wiki/Polygon_%28website%29 \"Polygon (website)\")*{{'}}s Danielle Riendeau lauded the selection as not only the game's \"greatest asset\", but \"possibly the best in the series\". Numerous reviewers commended the implementation of a wide range of Nintendo 3DS capabilities. However, *[IGN](/wiki/IGN \"IGN\")*{{'}}s Scott Thompson was more critical of the minigame selection, stating that the [motion control](/wiki/Motion_controller \"Motion controller\") made some minigames awkward to play. Thompson also noted an absence of non\\-four\\-player free\\-for\\-alls, such as teams of two and three against one, which he referred to as \"an odd departure for the series\". A handful of reviewers also spoke favorably of the minigame\\-focused game modes, especially the free play mode.",
"Reception toward the game's single\\-player campaign, Bowser's Tower, was more mixed; although the boss minigames were found enjoyable, the low and unchangeable difficulty levels of the player's AI opponents elicited criticism. *[GameSpot](/wiki/GameSpot \"GameSpot\")*{{'}}s Heidi Kemps referred to this mode as \"a nice diversion\" but \"weak\" in comparison to *[Mario Party DS](/wiki/Mario_Party_DS \"Mario Party DS\")*{{'}}s story mode, *Nintendo Life*{{'}}s Dave Letcavage wrote that it was \"mostly fluff in its repetitive and lengthy design\", and *IGN*{{'}}s Scott Thompson derided it as \"laughably bad\".",
"Critics widely panned the game's reliance on luck, especially in its minigames. The absence of an online multiplayer mode was also heavily criticized, though many reviewers also complimented the game's local multiplayer via Download Play, despite a couple of them noting occasional connection issues. Certain critics also complained of a general lack of difficulty from the game's AI, particularly during mingiames.",
"On the topic of the game's aesthetics, David Letcavage of *Nintendo Life* described the visuals as \"satisfactory, getting the job done without doing anything to wow\", stating that the [stereoscopic](/wiki/Stereoscopy \"Stereoscopy\") 3D neither contributed toward nor interfered with any aspects of the game. Kimberly Keller of *Nintendo World Report* added: \"The graphics are crisp and utilize 3D well, while the music fits each game and board without becoming monotonous.\" Keller also mentioned the game's collectibles, writing: \"It's a nice touch, but it's nothing more than a mildly interesting bonus.\" Likewise, Kevin Schaller of *[GameRevolution](/wiki/GameRevolution \"GameRevolution\")* found the collectible system \"pointless\" due to it mostly consisting of music tracks and character voice samples that can be heard elsewhere in the game, with Jeff Hoard of *[The Oakland Press](/wiki/The_Oakland_Press \"The Oakland Press\")* agreeing that it was \"nothing spectacular\".",
"### Sales",
"*Mario Party: Island Tour* sold more than 132,000 units within the first week of its release in Japan, making it the best\\-selling 3DS title that week.{{cite web\\|last\\=Weber\\|first\\=Rachel\\|date\\=March 27, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.gamesindustry.biz/japans\\-new\\-1\\-is\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\|title\\=Japan's new \\#1 is Mario Party: Island Tour\\|website\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network\\#Owned\\|GamesIndustry.biz]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 10, 2024\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526015538/https://www.gamesindustry.biz/japans\\-new\\-1\\-is\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\|archive\\-date\\=May 26, 2024}} As of April 9, 2014, the game had remained the best\\-selling title in Japan, selling an additional 47,000 copies for a total of 257,000 units.{{cite web\\|last\\=Whitehead\\|first\\=Thomas\\|date\\=April 9, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2014/04/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour\\_stays\\_on\\_top\\_in\\_japan\\_as\\_hardware\\_sales\\_plummet\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Stays on Top in Japan as Hardware Sales Plummet\\|website\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network\\#Partnered\\|Nintendo Life]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 10, 2024\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603053616/https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2014/04/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour\\_stays\\_on\\_top\\_in\\_japan\\_as\\_hardware\\_sales\\_plummet\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2024}} The game became a [Nintendo Selects](/wiki/Nintendo_Selects \"Nintendo Selects\") title in Europe on October 16, 2015,{{cite web\\|last\\=Copeland\\|first\\=Wesley\\|date\\=September 28, 2015\\|url\\=https://www.ign.com/articles/2015/09/28/6\\-3ds\\-games\\-join\\-the\\-nintendo\\-select\\-range\\|title\\=6 3DS Games Join the Nintendo Select Range\\|website\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2024\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240411092349/https://www.ign.com/articles/2015/09/28/6\\-3ds\\-games\\-join\\-the\\-nintendo\\-select\\-range\\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2024}} and in North America on March 11, 2016\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Whitehead\\|first\\=Thomas\\|date\\=February 29, 2016\\|url\\=https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2016/02/nintendo\\_of\\_america\\_confirms\\_new\\_wii\\_u\\_3ds\\_and\\_wii\\_nintendo\\_selects\\_titles\\_for\\_11th\\_march\\|title\\=Nintendo of America Confirms New Wii U, 3DS and Wii Nintendo Selects Titles for 11th March\\|website\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network\\#Partnered\\|Nintendo Life]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 8, 2024\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602103103/https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2016/02/nintendo\\_of\\_america\\_confirms\\_new\\_wii\\_u\\_3ds\\_and\\_wii\\_nintendo\\_selects\\_titles\\_for\\_11th\\_march\\|archive\\-date\\=June 2, 2024}} As of December 31, 2021, *Mario Party: Island Tour* had sold 2\\.95 million copies worldwide, making it the [24th\\-best\\-selling game for the Nintendo 3DS](/wiki/List_of_best-selling_Nintendo_3DS_video_games \"List of best-selling Nintendo 3DS video games\").{{cite book\\|title\\=2022CESAゲーム白書 (2022 CESA Games White Papers)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association]]\\|year\\=2022\\|isbn\\=978\\-4\\-902346\\-45\\-9}}",
""
] |
### Critical response
{{Video game reviews
\|MC\=57/100{{cite web\|url\=https://www.metacritic.com/game/mario\-party\-island\-tour/critic\-reviews/?platform\=3ds\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour for 3DS Reviews\|website\=\[\[Metacritic]]\|publisher\=\[\[Paramount Streaming\|CBS Interactive]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424042712/https://www.metacritic.com/game/mario\-party\-island\-tour/critic\-reviews/?platform\=3ds\|archive\-date\=April 24, 2024}}
\|Destruct\=4/10{{cite web\|last\=Cooke\|first\=Caitlin\|date\=November 27, 2013\|url\=http://www.destructoid.com/review\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\-266353\.phtml\|title\=Review: Mario Party: Island Tour\|website\=\[\[Destructoid]]\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406135849/http://www.destructoid.com/review\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\-266353\.phtml\|archive\-date\=April 6, 2016}}
\|Fam\=32/40{{cite web\|last\=Romano\|first\=Sal\|date\=March 11, 2014\|url\=https://gematsu.com/2014/03/famitsu\-review\-scores\-issue\-1319\|title\=Famitsu Review Scores: Issue 1319\|website\=Gematsu\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004042945/https://www.gematsu.com/2014/03/famitsu\-review\-scores\-issue\-1319\|archive\-date\=October 4, 2023}}
\|GI\=4/10{{cite magazine\|author\=\[\[Dan Ryckert\|Ryckert, Dan]]\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=https://www.gameinformer.com/games/mario\_party\_island\_tour/b/3ds/archive/2013/11/22/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review.aspx\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\|magazine\=\[\[Game Informer]]\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303145804/https://www.gameinformer.com/games/mario\_party\_island\_tour/b/3ds/archive/2013/11/22/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review.aspx\|archive\-date\=March 3, 2024\|access\-date\=October 6, 2024}}
\|GameRev\=3/5{{cite web\|last\=Schaller\|first\=Kevin\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/mario\-party\-3ds\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\|website\=\[\[GameRevolution]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210182216/http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/mario\-party\-3ds\|archive\-date\=December 10, 2013}}
\|GSpot\=7/10{{cite web\|last\=Kemps\|first\=Heidi\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review/1900\-6415575/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\|website\=\[\[GameSpot]]\|publisher\=\[\[Paramount Streaming\|CBS Interactive]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123061002/http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review/1900\-6415575/\|archive\-date\=November 23, 2013}}
\|GRadar\=3/5{{cite web\|last\=Cooper\|first\=Hollander\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=http://www.gamesradar.com/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour review\|website\=\[\[GamesRadar\+]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213105050/http://www.gamesradar.com/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review/\|archive\-date\=December 13, 2013}}
\|IGN\=5\.5/10{{cite web\|last\=Thompson\|first\=Scott\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/22/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\|website\=\[\[IGN]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618002103/http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/22/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|archive\-date\=June 18, 2018}}
\|NLife\=6/10{{cite web\|last\=Letcavage\|first\=Dave\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/3ds/mario\_party\_island\_tour\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review (3DS)\|website\=\[\[Gamer Network\#Partnered\|Nintendo Life]]\|publisher\=\[\[Gamer Network]]\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602063657/https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/3ds/mario\_party\_island\_tour\|archive\-date\=June 2, 2024}}
\|NWR\=8\.5/10{{cite web\|last\=Keller\|first\=Kimberly\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/review/36044/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-nintendo\-3ds\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour\|website\=Nintendo World Report\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906191656/https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/review/36044/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-nintendo\-3ds\|archive\-date\=September 6, 2024}}
\|ONM\=60%{{cite magazine\|last\=Skrebels\|first\=Joe\|date\=January 18, 2014\|url\=https://www.officialnintendomagazine.co.uk/56735/reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-review/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour review\|magazine\=\[\[Official Nintendo Magazine]]\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031160523/https://www.officialnintendomagazine.co.uk/56735/reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-review/\|archive\-date\=October 31, 2014\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016}}
\|PG\=3/5{{cite web\|last\=Rose\|first\=Mike\|date\=November 22, 2013\|url\=https://www.pocketgamer.com/mario\-party\-island\-tour/mario\-party\-island\-tour/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour\|website\=\[\[Pocket Gamer]]\|access\-date\=November 22, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207001754/https://www.pocketgamer.com/mario\-party\-island\-tour/mario\-party\-island\-tour/\|archive\-date\=December 7, 2021}}
\|Poly\=5/10{{cite web\|last\=Riendeau\|first\=Danielle\|date\=January 7, 2014\|url\=http://www.polygon.com/2014/1/7/5281934/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-slumber\-party\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour review: slumber party\|website\=\[\[Polygon (website)\|Polygon]]\|publisher\=\[\[Vox Media]]\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602113323/http://www.polygon.com/2014/1/7/5281934/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-slumber\-party\|archive\-date\=June 2, 2016}}
\|TG\=3/5{{cite news\|last\=Robertson\|first\=Andy\|date\=January 18, 2014\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/19/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour – review\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903010853/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/19/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|archive\-date\=September 3, 2024\|access\-date\=September 2, 2024}}
2/5{{cite news\|last\=Webber\|first\=Jordan Erica\|date\=February 9, 2014\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/09/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour – review\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903010854/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/09/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\|archive\-date\=September 3, 2024\|access\-date\=September 2, 2024}}
\|rev1\=\[\[Common Sense Media]]
\|rev1Score\=4/5{{cite web\|last\=Sapieha\|first\=Chad\|url\=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/game\-reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\|title\=Mario Party Island Tour Game Review\|publisher\=\[\[Common Sense Media]]\|access\-date\=September 6, 2024\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906193824/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/game\-reviews/mario\-party\-island\-tour\|archive\-date\=September 6, 2024}}
\|rev2\=\[\[Digital Spy]]
\|rev2Score\=2/5{{cite web\|last\=Martin\|first\=Liam\|date\=January 15, 2014\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.com/gaming/nintendo\-3ds/review/a543937/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-3ds\-badly\-designed\-board\-games/\|title\=Mario Party: Island Tour review (3DS): Badly designed board games\|publisher\=\[\[Digital Spy]]\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806071428/http://www.digitalspy.com/gaming/nintendo\-3ds/review/a543937/mario\-party\-island\-tour\-review\-3ds\-badly\-designed\-board\-games/\|archive\-date\=August 6, 2017}}
\|rev3\=''\[\[Slant Magazine]]''
\|rev3Score\=2\.5/5{{cite magazine\|last\=LeChevallier\|first\=Mike\|date\=November 27, 2013\|url\=https://www.slantmagazine.com/games/mario\-party\-island\-tour/\|title\=Review: Mario Party: Island Tour\|magazine\=\[\[Slant Magazine]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803203719/https://www.slantmagazine.com/games/mario\-party\-island\-tour/\|archive\-date\=August 3, 2024\|access\-date\=May 25, 2016}}
\|rev4\=''\[\[The Oakland Press]]''
\|rev4Score\=2\.5/4{{cite news\|last\=Hoard\|first\=Jeff\|date\=June 17, 2021\|orig\-date\=January 4, 2014\|url\=https://www.theoaklandpress.com/2014/01/04/review\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\-could\-use\-some\-online\-elements/\|title\=Review: 'Mario Party: Island Tour' could use some online elements\|work\=\[\[The Oakland Press]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913022918/https://www.theoaklandpress.com/2014/01/04/review\-mario\-party\-island\-tour\-could\-use\-some\-online\-elements/\|archive\-date\=September 13, 2024\|access\-date\=September 12, 2024}}
}}
*Mario Party: Island Tour* received "mixed or average" reviews from critics, according to the [review aggregation](/wiki/Review_aggregator "Review aggregator") website [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic "Metacritic"). In Japan, four critics from *[Famitsu](/wiki/Famitsu "Famitsu")* gave the game a total score of 32 out of 40\. Writing for *Nintendo World Report*, Kimberly Keller concluded: "*Island Tour* is a fine entry in the series that should bring out the competitive streak in all *Mario Party* fans, old or new." Hollander Cooper of *[GamesRadar\+](/wiki/GamesRadar%2B "GamesRadar+")* added: "*Island Tour* isn't the *Mario Party* you remember, and that's not necessarily a bad thing. That said, there are definitely some missing pieces that keep it from being a memorable entry in the franchise." Writing for *[Shacknews](/wiki/Shacknews "Shacknews")*, Steve Watts stated that the 3DS was "an odd choice", arguing that multiplayer\-oriented party games like those in the *Mario Party* series conflicted with handheld systems being "innately a singular experience".
The variety in the game boards, particularly the differing win conditions, was frequently praised, though a few reviewers noted that most of the boards simply revolved around players attempting to reach the end first. Critics also appreciated the ratings for factors such as luck and skill, as well as the estimated play times, though some questioned the reliability of these statistics. Certain reviewers expressed disappointment with the series's traditional Star and coin system not returning in any of the boards. The short lengths of the boards were noted by several critics, including *[Nintendo Life](/wiki/Gamer_Network%23Partnered "Gamer Network#Partnered")*{{'}}s Dave Letcavage, who felt that this resulted in fewer minigames being experienced during each game. Other reviewers criticized the pacing of the boards, attributing this to having to wait for the other players to complete their turns, including the computer\-controlled characters.
Critical response to the minigame selection was also generally positive, with Letcavage calling it "one of the tightest collections of mini\-games to be featured in the *Mario Party* series, optimized perfectly for pick\-up\-and\-play sessions". [Digital Spy](/wiki/Digital_Spy "Digital Spy")'s Liam Martin agreed that the minigames were "among the best we've played", and *[Polygon](/wiki/Polygon_%28website%29 "Polygon (website)")*{{'}}s Danielle Riendeau lauded the selection as not only the game's "greatest asset", but "possibly the best in the series". Numerous reviewers commended the implementation of a wide range of Nintendo 3DS capabilities. However, *[IGN](/wiki/IGN "IGN")*{{'}}s Scott Thompson was more critical of the minigame selection, stating that the [motion control](/wiki/Motion_controller "Motion controller") made some minigames awkward to play. Thompson also noted an absence of non\-four\-player free\-for\-alls, such as teams of two and three against one, which he referred to as "an odd departure for the series". A handful of reviewers also spoke favorably of the minigame\-focused game modes, especially the free play mode.
Reception toward the game's single\-player campaign, Bowser's Tower, was more mixed; although the boss minigames were found enjoyable, the low and unchangeable difficulty levels of the player's AI opponents elicited criticism. *[GameSpot](/wiki/GameSpot "GameSpot")*{{'}}s Heidi Kemps referred to this mode as "a nice diversion" but "weak" in comparison to *[Mario Party DS](/wiki/Mario_Party_DS "Mario Party DS")*{{'}}s story mode, *Nintendo Life*{{'}}s Dave Letcavage wrote that it was "mostly fluff in its repetitive and lengthy design", and *IGN*{{'}}s Scott Thompson derided it as "laughably bad".
Critics widely panned the game's reliance on luck, especially in its minigames. The absence of an online multiplayer mode was also heavily criticized, though many reviewers also complimented the game's local multiplayer via Download Play, despite a couple of them noting occasional connection issues. Certain critics also complained of a general lack of difficulty from the game's AI, particularly during mingiames.
On the topic of the game's aesthetics, David Letcavage of *Nintendo Life* described the visuals as "satisfactory, getting the job done without doing anything to wow", stating that the [stereoscopic](/wiki/Stereoscopy "Stereoscopy") 3D neither contributed toward nor interfered with any aspects of the game. Kimberly Keller of *Nintendo World Report* added: "The graphics are crisp and utilize 3D well, while the music fits each game and board without becoming monotonous." Keller also mentioned the game's collectibles, writing: "It's a nice touch, but it's nothing more than a mildly interesting bonus." Likewise, Kevin Schaller of *[GameRevolution](/wiki/GameRevolution "GameRevolution")* found the collectible system "pointless" due to it mostly consisting of music tracks and character voice samples that can be heard elsewhere in the game, with Jeff Hoard of *[The Oakland Press](/wiki/The_Oakland_Press "The Oakland Press")* agreeing that it was "nothing spectacular".
|
[
"### Critical response",
"{{Video game reviews\n\\|MC\\=57/100{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.metacritic.com/game/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/critic\\-reviews/?platform\\=3ds\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour for 3DS Reviews\\|website\\=\\[\\[Metacritic]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Paramount Streaming\\|CBS Interactive]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424042712/https://www.metacritic.com/game/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/critic\\-reviews/?platform\\=3ds\\|archive\\-date\\=April 24, 2024}}\n\\|Destruct\\=4/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Cooke\\|first\\=Caitlin\\|date\\=November 27, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.destructoid.com/review\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-266353\\.phtml\\|title\\=Review: Mario Party: Island Tour\\|website\\=\\[\\[Destructoid]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406135849/http://www.destructoid.com/review\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-266353\\.phtml\\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2016}}\n\\|Fam\\=32/40{{cite web\\|last\\=Romano\\|first\\=Sal\\|date\\=March 11, 2014\\|url\\=https://gematsu.com/2014/03/famitsu\\-review\\-scores\\-issue\\-1319\\|title\\=Famitsu Review Scores: Issue 1319\\|website\\=Gematsu\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004042945/https://www.gematsu.com/2014/03/famitsu\\-review\\-scores\\-issue\\-1319\\|archive\\-date\\=October 4, 2023}}\n\\|GI\\=4/10{{cite magazine\\|author\\=\\[\\[Dan Ryckert\\|Ryckert, Dan]]\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.gameinformer.com/games/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour/b/3ds/archive/2013/11/22/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review.aspx\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Game Informer]]\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303145804/https://www.gameinformer.com/games/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour/b/3ds/archive/2013/11/22/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=October 6, 2024}}\n\\|GameRev\\=3/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Schaller\\|first\\=Kevin\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/mario\\-party\\-3ds\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\\|website\\=\\[\\[GameRevolution]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210182216/http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/mario\\-party\\-3ds\\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2013}}\n\\|GSpot\\=7/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Kemps\\|first\\=Heidi\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review/1900\\-6415575/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\\|website\\=\\[\\[GameSpot]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Paramount Streaming\\|CBS Interactive]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123061002/http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review/1900\\-6415575/\\|archive\\-date\\=November 23, 2013}}\n\\|GRadar\\=3/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Cooper\\|first\\=Hollander\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.gamesradar.com/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour review\\|website\\=\\[\\[GamesRadar\\+]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213105050/http://www.gamesradar.com/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2013}}\n\\|IGN\\=5\\.5/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Thompson\\|first\\=Scott\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/22/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review\\|website\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618002103/http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/22/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2018}}\n\\|NLife\\=6/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Letcavage\\|first\\=Dave\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/3ds/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour Review (3DS)\\|website\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network\\#Partnered\\|Nintendo Life]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gamer Network]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602063657/https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/3ds/mario\\_party\\_island\\_tour\\|archive\\-date\\=June 2, 2024}}\n\\|NWR\\=8\\.5/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Keller\\|first\\=Kimberly\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/review/36044/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-nintendo\\-3ds\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour\\|website\\=Nintendo World Report\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906191656/https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/review/36044/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-nintendo\\-3ds\\|archive\\-date\\=September 6, 2024}} \n\\|ONM\\=60%{{cite magazine\\|last\\=Skrebels\\|first\\=Joe\\|date\\=January 18, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.officialnintendomagazine.co.uk/56735/reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-review/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour review\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Official Nintendo Magazine]]\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031160523/https://www.officialnintendomagazine.co.uk/56735/reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-review/\\|archive\\-date\\=October 31, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016}}\n\\|PG\\=3/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Rose\\|first\\=Mike\\|date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.pocketgamer.com/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour\\|website\\=\\[\\[Pocket Gamer]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207001754/https://www.pocketgamer.com/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 7, 2021}}\n\\|Poly\\=5/10{{cite web\\|last\\=Riendeau\\|first\\=Danielle\\|date\\=January 7, 2014\\|url\\=http://www.polygon.com/2014/1/7/5281934/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-slumber\\-party\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour review: slumber party\\|website\\=\\[\\[Polygon (website)\\|Polygon]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Vox Media]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602113323/http://www.polygon.com/2014/1/7/5281934/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-slumber\\-party\\|archive\\-date\\=June 2, 2016}}\n\\|TG\\=3/5{{cite news\\|last\\=Robertson\\|first\\=Andy\\|date\\=January 18, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/19/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour – review\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903010853/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/19/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|archive\\-date\\=September 3, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=September 2, 2024}} \n2/5{{cite news\\|last\\=Webber\\|first\\=Jordan Erica\\|date\\=February 9, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/09/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour – review\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903010854/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/09/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\|archive\\-date\\=September 3, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=September 2, 2024}}\n\\|rev1\\=\\[\\[Common Sense Media]]\n\\|rev1Score\\=4/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Sapieha\\|first\\=Chad\\|url\\=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/game\\-reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\|title\\=Mario Party Island Tour Game Review\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Common Sense Media]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 6, 2024\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906193824/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/game\\-reviews/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\|archive\\-date\\=September 6, 2024}}\n\\|rev2\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\n\\|rev2Score\\=2/5{{cite web\\|last\\=Martin\\|first\\=Liam\\|date\\=January 15, 2014\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.com/gaming/nintendo\\-3ds/review/a543937/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-3ds\\-badly\\-designed\\-board\\-games/\\|title\\=Mario Party: Island Tour review (3DS): Badly designed board games\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806071428/http://www.digitalspy.com/gaming/nintendo\\-3ds/review/a543937/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-review\\-3ds\\-badly\\-designed\\-board\\-games/\\|archive\\-date\\=August 6, 2017}}\n\\|rev3\\=''\\[\\[Slant Magazine]]''\n\\|rev3Score\\=2\\.5/5{{cite magazine\\|last\\=LeChevallier\\|first\\=Mike\\|date\\=November 27, 2013\\|url\\=https://www.slantmagazine.com/games/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/\\|title\\=Review: Mario Party: Island Tour\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Slant Magazine]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803203719/https://www.slantmagazine.com/games/mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour/\\|archive\\-date\\=August 3, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2016}}\n\\|rev4\\=''\\[\\[The Oakland Press]]''\n\\|rev4Score\\=2\\.5/4{{cite news\\|last\\=Hoard\\|first\\=Jeff\\|date\\=June 17, 2021\\|orig\\-date\\=January 4, 2014\\|url\\=https://www.theoaklandpress.com/2014/01/04/review\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-could\\-use\\-some\\-online\\-elements/\\|title\\=Review: 'Mario Party: Island Tour' could use some online elements\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Oakland Press]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913022918/https://www.theoaklandpress.com/2014/01/04/review\\-mario\\-party\\-island\\-tour\\-could\\-use\\-some\\-online\\-elements/\\|archive\\-date\\=September 13, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=September 12, 2024}}",
"}}\n*Mario Party: Island Tour* received \"mixed or average\" reviews from critics, according to the [review aggregation](/wiki/Review_aggregator \"Review aggregator\") website [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic \"Metacritic\"). In Japan, four critics from *[Famitsu](/wiki/Famitsu \"Famitsu\")* gave the game a total score of 32 out of 40\\. Writing for *Nintendo World Report*, Kimberly Keller concluded: \"*Island Tour* is a fine entry in the series that should bring out the competitive streak in all *Mario Party* fans, old or new.\" Hollander Cooper of *[GamesRadar\\+](/wiki/GamesRadar%2B \"GamesRadar+\")* added: \"*Island Tour* isn't the *Mario Party* you remember, and that's not necessarily a bad thing. That said, there are definitely some missing pieces that keep it from being a memorable entry in the franchise.\" Writing for *[Shacknews](/wiki/Shacknews \"Shacknews\")*, Steve Watts stated that the 3DS was \"an odd choice\", arguing that multiplayer\\-oriented party games like those in the *Mario Party* series conflicted with handheld systems being \"innately a singular experience\".",
"The variety in the game boards, particularly the differing win conditions, was frequently praised, though a few reviewers noted that most of the boards simply revolved around players attempting to reach the end first. Critics also appreciated the ratings for factors such as luck and skill, as well as the estimated play times, though some questioned the reliability of these statistics. Certain reviewers expressed disappointment with the series's traditional Star and coin system not returning in any of the boards. The short lengths of the boards were noted by several critics, including *[Nintendo Life](/wiki/Gamer_Network%23Partnered \"Gamer Network#Partnered\")*{{'}}s Dave Letcavage, who felt that this resulted in fewer minigames being experienced during each game. Other reviewers criticized the pacing of the boards, attributing this to having to wait for the other players to complete their turns, including the computer\\-controlled characters.",
"Critical response to the minigame selection was also generally positive, with Letcavage calling it \"one of the tightest collections of mini\\-games to be featured in the *Mario Party* series, optimized perfectly for pick\\-up\\-and\\-play sessions\". [Digital Spy](/wiki/Digital_Spy \"Digital Spy\")'s Liam Martin agreed that the minigames were \"among the best we've played\", and *[Polygon](/wiki/Polygon_%28website%29 \"Polygon (website)\")*{{'}}s Danielle Riendeau lauded the selection as not only the game's \"greatest asset\", but \"possibly the best in the series\". Numerous reviewers commended the implementation of a wide range of Nintendo 3DS capabilities. However, *[IGN](/wiki/IGN \"IGN\")*{{'}}s Scott Thompson was more critical of the minigame selection, stating that the [motion control](/wiki/Motion_controller \"Motion controller\") made some minigames awkward to play. Thompson also noted an absence of non\\-four\\-player free\\-for\\-alls, such as teams of two and three against one, which he referred to as \"an odd departure for the series\". A handful of reviewers also spoke favorably of the minigame\\-focused game modes, especially the free play mode.",
"Reception toward the game's single\\-player campaign, Bowser's Tower, was more mixed; although the boss minigames were found enjoyable, the low and unchangeable difficulty levels of the player's AI opponents elicited criticism. *[GameSpot](/wiki/GameSpot \"GameSpot\")*{{'}}s Heidi Kemps referred to this mode as \"a nice diversion\" but \"weak\" in comparison to *[Mario Party DS](/wiki/Mario_Party_DS \"Mario Party DS\")*{{'}}s story mode, *Nintendo Life*{{'}}s Dave Letcavage wrote that it was \"mostly fluff in its repetitive and lengthy design\", and *IGN*{{'}}s Scott Thompson derided it as \"laughably bad\".",
"Critics widely panned the game's reliance on luck, especially in its minigames. The absence of an online multiplayer mode was also heavily criticized, though many reviewers also complimented the game's local multiplayer via Download Play, despite a couple of them noting occasional connection issues. Certain critics also complained of a general lack of difficulty from the game's AI, particularly during mingiames.",
"On the topic of the game's aesthetics, David Letcavage of *Nintendo Life* described the visuals as \"satisfactory, getting the job done without doing anything to wow\", stating that the [stereoscopic](/wiki/Stereoscopy \"Stereoscopy\") 3D neither contributed toward nor interfered with any aspects of the game. Kimberly Keller of *Nintendo World Report* added: \"The graphics are crisp and utilize 3D well, while the music fits each game and board without becoming monotonous.\" Keller also mentioned the game's collectibles, writing: \"It's a nice touch, but it's nothing more than a mildly interesting bonus.\" Likewise, Kevin Schaller of *[GameRevolution](/wiki/GameRevolution \"GameRevolution\")* found the collectible system \"pointless\" due to it mostly consisting of music tracks and character voice samples that can be heard elsewhere in the game, with Jeff Hoard of *[The Oakland Press](/wiki/The_Oakland_Press \"The Oakland Press\")* agreeing that it was \"nothing spectacular\".",
""
] |
Organization and initiatives
----------------------------
In the UCLG, the Culture 21 is managed by the Committee on culture of the world organization United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG). The Committee on culture is co\-chaired by Buenos Aires and the City of Mexico and vice\-chaired by Angers, Barcelona, Belo Horizonte, Bilbao, Bogotá, Jeju, Paris and Porto Alegre since 2016\.See the [Report 2016](http://www.agenda21culture.net/sites/default/files/files/plan/report_2016_-_eng_def.pdf) (Barcelona, 30 April 2017\) Between 2012 and 2015, the UCLG Committee on Culture was chaired by the Lille\-Métropole and co\-chaired by Buenos Aires, México DF and Montreal, and the cities of Angers, Barcelona and Milan were Vice\-Presidents and three other cities (one from Africa, one from Middle East/Asia and one from Asia/Pacific) to join the Board as Vice\-Presidents.See the report of the 8th meeting of the Committee (Barcelona, September 2012\) in [Circular 62](http://www.agenda21culture.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=65&lang=en) Before 2012, the Committee on culture was chaired by Barcelona city council, and Stockholm, Lille, Buenos Aires and Montreal councils are its vice presidents.
Other organizations promoting Culture 21 include UNESCO and the [Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation](/wiki/Spanish_Agency_for_International_Development_Cooperation "Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation") (AECID).
In 2009–2010, UCLG, with AECID and the Barcelona City Council, created the Fund for Local Cultural Governance, to advance the implementation of the Culture 21 in African, Mediterranean and Latin American cities."[The UCLG Fund for Local Cultural Governance to Finance Projects in 11 Cities](http://www.citiesalliance.org/node/2279)", [Cities Alliance](/wiki/Cities_Alliance "Cities Alliance"), 13 January 2011\.
In 2009–2013 UNESCO and the AECID developed "Culture for Development Indicators" (CDIS), an "advocacy and policy" toll for assessing cultural development in 22 areas within 7 categories.Antonios Vlassis, "Culture in the post\-2015 development agenda: the anatomy of an international mobilization"; *Third World Quarterly* 36(9\), 2015; [DOI: 10\.1080/01436597\.2015\.1052064](/wiki/DOI:10.1080/01436597.2015.1052064 "10.1080/01436597.2015.1052064").
Moreover, the UCLG Committee on Culture has worked to ensure that culture is explicitly integrated into the development programmes of the United Nations which aim to achieve the [Millennium Development Goals](/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals "Millennium Development Goals"). After some [awareness\-raising](/wiki/Consciousness_raising "Consciousness raising") actions during the Millennium Development Goals Summit, the UN General Assembly approved the final document of the Summit that mentions culture as an important dimension of development.
### Campaign for the Sustainable Development Goals
UNESCO and UCLG have advocated for inclusion of culture in the 2015 [Sustainable Development Goals](/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals "Sustainable Development Goals") (SDGs) and have continued to promote this outlook.
Concretely, in the years before the adoption of the SDGs several global networks campaigned for the inclusion of one specific goal devoted to culture, or for the integration of cultural aspects across the SDGs. IFACCA, IFCCD, Culture 21 (UCLG), Culture Action Europe, Arterial Network, IMC \- International Music Council, ICOMOS, IFLA and the Latin American Network of Arts for Social Transformation lead this campaign, which used the banner 'The Future We Want Includes Culture' and was also known as the \#culture2015goal campaign.
Between 2013 and 2015, when the SDGs were adopted, a manifesto, a declaration on the inclusion of culture in the 2030 Agenda, a proposal of possible indicators for measuring the cultural aspects of the SDGs, and an assessment of the final 2030 Agenda, were produced.Documents are downloadable here: [http://www.agenda21culture.net/advocacy/culture\-as\-a\-goal\-in\-post\-2015](http://www.agenda21culture.net/advocacy/culture-as-a-goal-in-post-2015)
### Contribution to the New Urban Agenda
The Committee on culture of UCLG participated in [Habitat III](/wiki/Habitat_III "Habitat III"), the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, whose primary goal and outcome was the adoption of the New Urban Agenda (NUA).{{Cite web \|url\=http://habitat3\.org/wp\-content/uploads/NUA\-English.pdf/ \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=16 July 2019 \|archive\-date\=2 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802211326/http://habitat3\.org/wp\-content/uploads/NUA\-English.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} The conference took place in Quito, Ecuador, from 17 – 20 October 2016, and the New Urban Agenda was endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly on 23 December 2016
Before the conference, the Committee has formulated a set of comments to the issue paper on "Urban Culture and Heritage", which was one of the 22 issue papers published by the UN Task Force in preparation for the conference. The Committee welcomed the publication of this paper and believes that the New Urban Agenda should provide details of a culture\-based approach to local sustainable development.More information on the Committee on culture works here: [http://www.agenda21culture.net/advocacy/habitat\-III](http://www.agenda21culture.net/advocacy/habitat-III)
|
[
"Organization and initiatives\n----------------------------",
"In the UCLG, the Culture 21 is managed by the Committee on culture of the world organization United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG). The Committee on culture is co\\-chaired by Buenos Aires and the City of Mexico and vice\\-chaired by Angers, Barcelona, Belo Horizonte, Bilbao, Bogotá, Jeju, Paris and Porto Alegre since 2016\\.See the [Report 2016](http://www.agenda21culture.net/sites/default/files/files/plan/report_2016_-_eng_def.pdf) (Barcelona, 30 April 2017\\) Between 2012 and 2015, the UCLG Committee on Culture was chaired by the Lille\\-Métropole and co\\-chaired by Buenos Aires, México DF and Montreal, and the cities of Angers, Barcelona and Milan were Vice\\-Presidents and three other cities (one from Africa, one from Middle East/Asia and one from Asia/Pacific) to join the Board as Vice\\-Presidents.See the report of the 8th meeting of the Committee (Barcelona, September 2012\\) in [Circular 62](http://www.agenda21culture.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=65&lang=en) Before 2012, the Committee on culture was chaired by Barcelona city council, and Stockholm, Lille, Buenos Aires and Montreal councils are its vice presidents.",
"Other organizations promoting Culture 21 include UNESCO and the [Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation](/wiki/Spanish_Agency_for_International_Development_Cooperation \"Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation\") (AECID).",
"In 2009–2010, UCLG, with AECID and the Barcelona City Council, created the Fund for Local Cultural Governance, to advance the implementation of the Culture 21 in African, Mediterranean and Latin American cities.\"[The UCLG Fund for Local Cultural Governance to Finance Projects in 11 Cities](http://www.citiesalliance.org/node/2279)\", [Cities Alliance](/wiki/Cities_Alliance \"Cities Alliance\"), 13 January 2011\\.",
"In 2009–2013 UNESCO and the AECID developed \"Culture for Development Indicators\" (CDIS), an \"advocacy and policy\" toll for assessing cultural development in 22 areas within 7 categories.Antonios Vlassis, \"Culture in the post\\-2015 development agenda: the anatomy of an international mobilization\"; *Third World Quarterly* 36(9\\), 2015; [DOI: 10\\.1080/01436597\\.2015\\.1052064](/wiki/DOI:10.1080/01436597.2015.1052064 \"10.1080/01436597.2015.1052064\").",
"Moreover, the UCLG Committee on Culture has worked to ensure that culture is explicitly integrated into the development programmes of the United Nations which aim to achieve the [Millennium Development Goals](/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals \"Millennium Development Goals\"). After some [awareness\\-raising](/wiki/Consciousness_raising \"Consciousness raising\") actions during the Millennium Development Goals Summit, the UN General Assembly approved the final document of the Summit that mentions culture as an important dimension of development.",
"### Campaign for the Sustainable Development Goals",
"UNESCO and UCLG have advocated for inclusion of culture in the 2015 [Sustainable Development Goals](/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals \"Sustainable Development Goals\") (SDGs) and have continued to promote this outlook.",
"Concretely, in the years before the adoption of the SDGs several global networks campaigned for the inclusion of one specific goal devoted to culture, or for the integration of cultural aspects across the SDGs. IFACCA, IFCCD, Culture 21 (UCLG), Culture Action Europe, Arterial Network, IMC \\- International Music Council, ICOMOS, IFLA and the Latin American Network of Arts for Social Transformation lead this campaign, which used the banner 'The Future We Want Includes Culture' and was also known as the \\#culture2015goal campaign.",
"Between 2013 and 2015, when the SDGs were adopted, a manifesto, a declaration on the inclusion of culture in the 2030 Agenda, a proposal of possible indicators for measuring the cultural aspects of the SDGs, and an assessment of the final 2030 Agenda, were produced.Documents are downloadable here: [http://www.agenda21culture.net/advocacy/culture\\-as\\-a\\-goal\\-in\\-post\\-2015](http://www.agenda21culture.net/advocacy/culture-as-a-goal-in-post-2015)",
"### Contribution to the New Urban Agenda",
"The Committee on culture of UCLG participated in [Habitat III](/wiki/Habitat_III \"Habitat III\"), the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, whose primary goal and outcome was the adoption of the New Urban Agenda (NUA).{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://habitat3\\.org/wp\\-content/uploads/NUA\\-English.pdf/ \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802211326/http://habitat3\\.org/wp\\-content/uploads/NUA\\-English.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The conference took place in Quito, Ecuador, from 17 – 20 October 2016, and the New Urban Agenda was endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly on 23 December 2016",
"Before the conference, the Committee has formulated a set of comments to the issue paper on \"Urban Culture and Heritage\", which was one of the 22 issue papers published by the UN Task Force in preparation for the conference. The Committee welcomed the publication of this paper and believes that the New Urban Agenda should provide details of a culture\\-based approach to local sustainable development.More information on the Committee on culture works here: [http://www.agenda21culture.net/advocacy/habitat\\-III](http://www.agenda21culture.net/advocacy/habitat-III)",
""
] |
Career
------
His talent for composition manifested itself at the age of seven, and at nine years old he was an organist at Saint Waltrude, Mons. In 1800 he went to [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and completed his studies at the Conservatory under such masters as [Boïeldieu](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Adrien_Bo%C3%AFeldieu "François-Adrien Boïeldieu"), [Jean\-Baptiste Rey](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Rey "Jean-Baptiste Rey") and [Louis\-Barthélémy Pradher](/wiki/Louis-Barth%C3%A9l%C3%A9my_Pradher "Louis-Barthélémy Pradher").{{EB1911\|inline\=y\|wstitle\=Fétis, François Joseph\|volume\=10\|pages\=294\-295}}
In 1806 he undertook the revision of the Roman [liturgical chants](/wiki/Liturgical_chant "Liturgical chant") in the hope of discovering and establishing their original form. In this year he also began his *Biographie universelle des musiciens*, the most important of his works, which did not appear until 1834\.
In 1821 he was appointed professor at the [Paris Conservatory](/wiki/Paris_Conservatory "Paris Conservatory"). In 1827 he founded the *[Revue musicale](/wiki/Revue_et_gazette_musicale_de_Paris "Revue et gazette musicale de Paris")*, the first serious paper in [France](/wiki/France "France") devoted exclusively to musical matters. Fétis remained in the French capital till 1833, when at the request of [Leopold I](/wiki/Leopold_I_of_Belgium "Leopold I of Belgium"), he became director of the [Royal Conservatory of Brussels](/wiki/Royal_Conservatory_of_Brussels "Royal Conservatory of Brussels") and the king's chapelmaster.{{cite book\|last1\=Damscrhroder\|first1\=David\|title\=Music Theory from Zarlino to Schenker\|date\=1990\|publisher\=Pendragon Press\|location\=Stuyvesant, NY\|isbn\=0\-918728\-99\-1\|pages\=85}} He also was the founder, and, until his death, the conductor of the celebrated concerts attached to the conservatory of Brussels, and he inaugurated a free series of lectures on musical history and philosophy.
Fétis produced a large quantity of original compositions, from the [opera](/wiki/Opera "Opera") and the [oratorio](/wiki/Oratorio "Oratorio") to the simple [chanson](/wiki/Chanson "Chanson"), including several musical [hoaxes](/wiki/Hoax "Hoax"), the most famous of which is the "Lute concerto by Valentin Strobel", premiered with [Fernando Sor](/wiki/Fernando_Sor "Fernando Sor") as soloist. Carcassi, as well as Sor, participated in the performance. The work is attributed NOT to the Alsascian lutenist Valentin Strobel, but to Jean (Johann) Strobach, a member of a prominent Bohemian family of musicians. This Strobach (fl. 1650–1720\) served Leopold I, and there is no evidence that Fetis's score is a hoax. The composition was published in 1698, although no copy is known to have survived, except Fetis' manuscript score, which is in the Royal Conservatory Library in Brussels.{{Citation needed\|date\=December 2016}}
In 1856, he worked closely with [Jean\-Baptiste Vuillaume](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Vuillaume "Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume") in writing a fascinating treatise about [Antonio Stradivari](/wiki/Antonio_Stradivari "Antonio Stradivari") (*Antoine Stradivari, luthier célèbre*). It includes detailed chapters on the history and development of the violin family, old master Italian violin makers (including the Stradivari and [Guarneri](/wiki/Guarneri "Guarneri") families) and an analysis of the bows of [François Tourte](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Tourte "François Tourte"). His interest in instruments can also be gathered from his very substantial collection, which includes the oldest surviving Arab *oud*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://oudmigrations.com/2016/03/02/alexandria\-to\-brussels\-1839/\|title\=Alexandria to Brussels, 1839\|website\=oudmigrations\|date\=2 March 2016\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-26}}
Fetis had the privilege to have Paganini, Schumann and Berlioz as contemporaries and to work with the violin maker and dealer, Jean Baptiste Vuillaume. Fetis's work provides a unique window into the times and as such is a particularly valuable reference for the modern researcher, dealer and player.
More important perhaps than his compositions are his writings on music. They are partly historical, such as the *Curiosités historiques de la musique* (Paris, 1850\), and the *Histoire générale de la musique* (Paris, 1869—1876\); and partly theoretical, such as the *Méthode des méthodes de piano* (Paris, 1840\), written in conjunction with [Moscheles](/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles "Ignaz Moscheles").
While Fétis's critical opinions of contemporary music may seem conservative, his musicological work was ground\-breaking, and unusual for the 19th century in attempting to avoid an ethnocentric and present\-centered viewpoint. Unlike many others at the time, he did not see music history as a continuum of increasing excellence, moving towards a goal, but rather as something which was continually *changing*, neither becoming better nor worse, but continually adapting to new conditions. He believed that all cultures and times created art and music which were appropriate to their times and conditions; and he began a close study of [Renaissance music](/wiki/Renaissance_music "Renaissance music") as well as European folk music and music of non\-European cultures. Thus Fétis built the foundation for what would later be termed [comparative musicology](/wiki/Comparative_musicology "Comparative musicology").
Fétis died in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"). His valuable library was purchased by the Belgian government and presented to the Royal Library. His historical works, despite many inaccuracies, remain of great value for historians.
His pupils included [Luigi Agnesi](/wiki/Luigi_Agnesi "Luigi Agnesi"), [Jean\-Delphin Alard](/wiki/Jean-Delphin_Alard "Jean-Delphin Alard"), [Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga](/wiki/Juan_Cris%C3%B3stomo_Arriaga "Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga"), [Friedrich Berr](/wiki/Friedrich_Berr "Friedrich Berr"), [Louise Bertin](/wiki/Louise_Bertin "Louise Bertin"), [William Cusins](/wiki/William_Cusins "William Cusins"), [Julius Eichberg](/wiki/Julius_Eichberg "Julius Eichberg"), [Ferdinand Hérold](/wiki/Ferdinand_H%C3%A9rold "Ferdinand Hérold"), [Frantz Jehin\-Prume](/wiki/Frantz_Jehin-Prume "Frantz Jehin-Prume"), [Jacques\-Nicolas Lemmens](/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas_Lemmens "Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens"), [Adolphe Samuel](/wiki/Adolphe_Samuel "Adolphe Samuel"), and [Charles\-Marie Widor](/wiki/Charles-Marie_Widor "Charles-Marie Widor"). {{See LMST\|François\-Joseph\|Fétis}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"His talent for composition manifested itself at the age of seven, and at nine years old he was an organist at Saint Waltrude, Mons. In 1800 he went to [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and completed his studies at the Conservatory under such masters as [Boïeldieu](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Adrien_Bo%C3%AFeldieu \"François-Adrien Boïeldieu\"), [Jean\\-Baptiste Rey](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Rey \"Jean-Baptiste Rey\") and [Louis\\-Barthélémy Pradher](/wiki/Louis-Barth%C3%A9l%C3%A9my_Pradher \"Louis-Barthélémy Pradher\").{{EB1911\\|inline\\=y\\|wstitle\\=Fétis, François Joseph\\|volume\\=10\\|pages\\=294\\-295}}",
"In 1806 he undertook the revision of the Roman [liturgical chants](/wiki/Liturgical_chant \"Liturgical chant\") in the hope of discovering and establishing their original form. In this year he also began his *Biographie universelle des musiciens*, the most important of his works, which did not appear until 1834\\.",
"In 1821 he was appointed professor at the [Paris Conservatory](/wiki/Paris_Conservatory \"Paris Conservatory\"). In 1827 he founded the *[Revue musicale](/wiki/Revue_et_gazette_musicale_de_Paris \"Revue et gazette musicale de Paris\")*, the first serious paper in [France](/wiki/France \"France\") devoted exclusively to musical matters. Fétis remained in the French capital till 1833, when at the request of [Leopold I](/wiki/Leopold_I_of_Belgium \"Leopold I of Belgium\"), he became director of the [Royal Conservatory of Brussels](/wiki/Royal_Conservatory_of_Brussels \"Royal Conservatory of Brussels\") and the king's chapelmaster.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Damscrhroder\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=Music Theory from Zarlino to Schenker\\|date\\=1990\\|publisher\\=Pendragon Press\\|location\\=Stuyvesant, NY\\|isbn\\=0\\-918728\\-99\\-1\\|pages\\=85}} He also was the founder, and, until his death, the conductor of the celebrated concerts attached to the conservatory of Brussels, and he inaugurated a free series of lectures on musical history and philosophy.",
"Fétis produced a large quantity of original compositions, from the [opera](/wiki/Opera \"Opera\") and the [oratorio](/wiki/Oratorio \"Oratorio\") to the simple [chanson](/wiki/Chanson \"Chanson\"), including several musical [hoaxes](/wiki/Hoax \"Hoax\"), the most famous of which is the \"Lute concerto by Valentin Strobel\", premiered with [Fernando Sor](/wiki/Fernando_Sor \"Fernando Sor\") as soloist. Carcassi, as well as Sor, participated in the performance. The work is attributed NOT to the Alsascian lutenist Valentin Strobel, but to Jean (Johann) Strobach, a member of a prominent Bohemian family of musicians. This Strobach (fl. 1650–1720\\) served Leopold I, and there is no evidence that Fetis's score is a hoax. The composition was published in 1698, although no copy is known to have survived, except Fetis' manuscript score, which is in the Royal Conservatory Library in Brussels.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=December 2016}}",
"In 1856, he worked closely with [Jean\\-Baptiste Vuillaume](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Vuillaume \"Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume\") in writing a fascinating treatise about [Antonio Stradivari](/wiki/Antonio_Stradivari \"Antonio Stradivari\") (*Antoine Stradivari, luthier célèbre*). It includes detailed chapters on the history and development of the violin family, old master Italian violin makers (including the Stradivari and [Guarneri](/wiki/Guarneri \"Guarneri\") families) and an analysis of the bows of [François Tourte](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Tourte \"François Tourte\"). His interest in instruments can also be gathered from his very substantial collection, which includes the oldest surviving Arab *oud*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://oudmigrations.com/2016/03/02/alexandria\\-to\\-brussels\\-1839/\\|title\\=Alexandria to Brussels, 1839\\|website\\=oudmigrations\\|date\\=2 March 2016\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-26}}",
"Fetis had the privilege to have Paganini, Schumann and Berlioz as contemporaries and to work with the violin maker and dealer, Jean Baptiste Vuillaume. Fetis's work provides a unique window into the times and as such is a particularly valuable reference for the modern researcher, dealer and player.",
"More important perhaps than his compositions are his writings on music. They are partly historical, such as the *Curiosités historiques de la musique* (Paris, 1850\\), and the *Histoire générale de la musique* (Paris, 1869—1876\\); and partly theoretical, such as the *Méthode des méthodes de piano* (Paris, 1840\\), written in conjunction with [Moscheles](/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles \"Ignaz Moscheles\").",
"While Fétis's critical opinions of contemporary music may seem conservative, his musicological work was ground\\-breaking, and unusual for the 19th century in attempting to avoid an ethnocentric and present\\-centered viewpoint. Unlike many others at the time, he did not see music history as a continuum of increasing excellence, moving towards a goal, but rather as something which was continually *changing*, neither becoming better nor worse, but continually adapting to new conditions. He believed that all cultures and times created art and music which were appropriate to their times and conditions; and he began a close study of [Renaissance music](/wiki/Renaissance_music \"Renaissance music\") as well as European folk music and music of non\\-European cultures. Thus Fétis built the foundation for what would later be termed [comparative musicology](/wiki/Comparative_musicology \"Comparative musicology\").",
"Fétis died in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"). His valuable library was purchased by the Belgian government and presented to the Royal Library. His historical works, despite many inaccuracies, remain of great value for historians.",
"His pupils included [Luigi Agnesi](/wiki/Luigi_Agnesi \"Luigi Agnesi\"), [Jean\\-Delphin Alard](/wiki/Jean-Delphin_Alard \"Jean-Delphin Alard\"), [Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga](/wiki/Juan_Cris%C3%B3stomo_Arriaga \"Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga\"), [Friedrich Berr](/wiki/Friedrich_Berr \"Friedrich Berr\"), [Louise Bertin](/wiki/Louise_Bertin \"Louise Bertin\"), [William Cusins](/wiki/William_Cusins \"William Cusins\"), [Julius Eichberg](/wiki/Julius_Eichberg \"Julius Eichberg\"), [Ferdinand Hérold](/wiki/Ferdinand_H%C3%A9rold \"Ferdinand Hérold\"), [Frantz Jehin\\-Prume](/wiki/Frantz_Jehin-Prume \"Frantz Jehin-Prume\"), [Jacques\\-Nicolas Lemmens](/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas_Lemmens \"Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens\"), [Adolphe Samuel](/wiki/Adolphe_Samuel \"Adolphe Samuel\"), and [Charles\\-Marie Widor](/wiki/Charles-Marie_Widor \"Charles-Marie Widor\"). {{See LMST\\|François\\-Joseph\\|Fétis}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
Five years ago, Newton Graceland, a researcher of a world exactly opposite to the world of reality called the Reverse World, built a device to absorb the abilities of the [Pokémon](/wiki/List_of_Pok%C3%A9mon "List of Pokémon") [Giratina](/wiki/Giratina "Giratina"), the ruler of the Reverse World, to travel freely between the two worlds. He canceled the project upon learning that the process would kill Giratina. The blueprints were deleted but Newton's assistant Zero never forgot them.
Later, time and space, two dimensions that should never have been in contact, collided and unraveled. Dialga, the Pokémon which rules over time, and Palkia, which controls space, then fought each other in Alamos Town,{{refn\|group\=lower\-alpha\|As depicted in the 2007 film ''\[\[Pokémon: The Rise of Darkrai]]''.}} both believing the other to have violated their territory. The distortions in time and space have defiled the Reverse World with pollution, angering Giratina.
Giratina captures Dialga and drags it into the Reverse World. [Shaymin](/wiki/Shaymin "Shaymin"), a hedgehog\-like Pokémon which bears flowers, gets caught on [Dialga](/wiki/Dialga "Dialga")’s back when the portal opens. A frightened Shaymin uses its powers to escape through a portal back to the world of reality. Dialga follows Shaymin after it disables Giratina's ability to venture to the world of reality by trapping it in an infinite time loop.
Shaymin runs into the Pokémon trainers [Ash Ketchum](/wiki/Ash_Ketchum "Ash Ketchum"), Dawn, and [Brock](/wiki/Brock_%28Pok%C3%A9mon%29 "Brock (Pokémon)"), who agree to take Shaymin to the Flower Garden in the mountains, so it and others of its kind can migrate and grow a new garden, through a process called flower bearing. A portal to the Reverse World opens and swallows Shaymin, Ash, and Dawn.
In the Reverse World, Ash and Dawn encounter Giratina but are rescued by Newton. Giratina, who wants to use Shaymin's power to come into the world of reality,{{cite AV media \|people\=Director \[\[Kunihiko Yuyama]] \|date\=July 19, 2008 \|title\=Pokémon: Giratina \& the Sky Warrior \|medium\=motion picture \|language\=ja \|translator\-last\=Cathcart \|translator\-first\=James Carter \|translator\-link\=James Carter Cathcart \|translator2\-first\=Z. Pang \|translator2\-last\=America \|minutes\=55 \|location\=Japan \|publisher\=\[\[Toho]] \|quote\='''Shaymin:''' It was about to eat me! '''Newton:''' You're wrong! Giratina wasn't trying to eat you... Giratina only wanted to get you to use Seed Flare, so it could come forth into this world! }} targets Shaymin, prompting Newton to send Shaymin, Ash, and Dawn back to the world of reality. Zero, who is also seeking Shaymin's power, attacks the kids with his army of Magnemite, Magneton and Magnezone, forcing them to escape onto a departing train. On the train, Shaymin makes contact with a Gracidea flower and transforms into its Sky Forme, altering its appearance to a deer\-like state and allowing it to fly. Ash, Dawn, and Brock board a ferry to the Flower Garden, but are sucked into the Reverse World again, followed by Zero and his Pokémon. Giratina attacks the group after Shaymin provokes it. When night falls, Shaymin transforms back to its normal form. Zero captures Shaymin, forcing it to open a portal for Giratina to return to the world of reality, freeing it from the time loop. Shaymin panics, opening a portal which sends Ash and his friends to the Flower Garden in the world of reality.
Giratina returns to the world of reality and is captured by Zero. Zero uses Newton's device to absorb Giratina's abilities with the intention of becoming ruler of the Reverse World. Newton shuts down the device, releasing Giratina. However, Zero has already absorbed all of Giratina's abilities and Giratina collapses from exhaustion. Shaymin heals Giratina. Zero flees to the Reverse World to cause damage to the world of reality, causing the mountain's glacier to start moving towards the Flower Garden. The Pokémon Regigigas is awakened and along with a herd of Mamoswine, slows the glacier down.
In the Reverse World, Shaymin opens a portal, dragging Zero back to the world of reality. Zero's ship crashes into the glacier. Dawn's Buneary and Swinub freeze the ship, causing the Zero to lose all of the data about Giratina's abilities. Giratina restores the damage caused by Zero, and gives Ash a ride back to the world of reality. It then leaves on its own to track down Dialga. Shaymin and the others of its kind perform flower bearing, before migrating. During the end credits, Newton rescues and reconciles with Zero who is then arrested, whilst Ash, Dawn and Brock send bouquets of flowers to their respective families as an expression of gratitude.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Five years ago, Newton Graceland, a researcher of a world exactly opposite to the world of reality called the Reverse World, built a device to absorb the abilities of the [Pokémon](/wiki/List_of_Pok%C3%A9mon \"List of Pokémon\") [Giratina](/wiki/Giratina \"Giratina\"), the ruler of the Reverse World, to travel freely between the two worlds. He canceled the project upon learning that the process would kill Giratina. The blueprints were deleted but Newton's assistant Zero never forgot them.",
"Later, time and space, two dimensions that should never have been in contact, collided and unraveled. Dialga, the Pokémon which rules over time, and Palkia, which controls space, then fought each other in Alamos Town,{{refn\\|group\\=lower\\-alpha\\|As depicted in the 2007 film ''\\[\\[Pokémon: The Rise of Darkrai]]''.}} both believing the other to have violated their territory. The distortions in time and space have defiled the Reverse World with pollution, angering Giratina.",
"Giratina captures Dialga and drags it into the Reverse World. [Shaymin](/wiki/Shaymin \"Shaymin\"), a hedgehog\\-like Pokémon which bears flowers, gets caught on [Dialga](/wiki/Dialga \"Dialga\")’s back when the portal opens. A frightened Shaymin uses its powers to escape through a portal back to the world of reality. Dialga follows Shaymin after it disables Giratina's ability to venture to the world of reality by trapping it in an infinite time loop.",
"Shaymin runs into the Pokémon trainers [Ash Ketchum](/wiki/Ash_Ketchum \"Ash Ketchum\"), Dawn, and [Brock](/wiki/Brock_%28Pok%C3%A9mon%29 \"Brock (Pokémon)\"), who agree to take Shaymin to the Flower Garden in the mountains, so it and others of its kind can migrate and grow a new garden, through a process called flower bearing. A portal to the Reverse World opens and swallows Shaymin, Ash, and Dawn.",
"In the Reverse World, Ash and Dawn encounter Giratina but are rescued by Newton. Giratina, who wants to use Shaymin's power to come into the world of reality,{{cite AV media \\|people\\=Director \\[\\[Kunihiko Yuyama]] \\|date\\=July 19, 2008 \\|title\\=Pokémon: Giratina \\& the Sky Warrior \\|medium\\=motion picture \\|language\\=ja \\|translator\\-last\\=Cathcart \\|translator\\-first\\=James Carter \\|translator\\-link\\=James Carter Cathcart \\|translator2\\-first\\=Z. Pang \\|translator2\\-last\\=America \\|minutes\\=55 \\|location\\=Japan \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Toho]] \\|quote\\='''Shaymin:''' It was about to eat me! '''Newton:''' You're wrong! Giratina wasn't trying to eat you... Giratina only wanted to get you to use Seed Flare, so it could come forth into this world! }} targets Shaymin, prompting Newton to send Shaymin, Ash, and Dawn back to the world of reality. Zero, who is also seeking Shaymin's power, attacks the kids with his army of Magnemite, Magneton and Magnezone, forcing them to escape onto a departing train. On the train, Shaymin makes contact with a Gracidea flower and transforms into its Sky Forme, altering its appearance to a deer\\-like state and allowing it to fly. Ash, Dawn, and Brock board a ferry to the Flower Garden, but are sucked into the Reverse World again, followed by Zero and his Pokémon. Giratina attacks the group after Shaymin provokes it. When night falls, Shaymin transforms back to its normal form. Zero captures Shaymin, forcing it to open a portal for Giratina to return to the world of reality, freeing it from the time loop. Shaymin panics, opening a portal which sends Ash and his friends to the Flower Garden in the world of reality.",
"Giratina returns to the world of reality and is captured by Zero. Zero uses Newton's device to absorb Giratina's abilities with the intention of becoming ruler of the Reverse World. Newton shuts down the device, releasing Giratina. However, Zero has already absorbed all of Giratina's abilities and Giratina collapses from exhaustion. Shaymin heals Giratina. Zero flees to the Reverse World to cause damage to the world of reality, causing the mountain's glacier to start moving towards the Flower Garden. The Pokémon Regigigas is awakened and along with a herd of Mamoswine, slows the glacier down.",
"In the Reverse World, Shaymin opens a portal, dragging Zero back to the world of reality. Zero's ship crashes into the glacier. Dawn's Buneary and Swinub freeze the ship, causing the Zero to lose all of the data about Giratina's abilities. Giratina restores the damage caused by Zero, and gives Ash a ride back to the world of reality. It then leaves on its own to track down Dialga. Shaymin and the others of its kind perform flower bearing, before migrating. During the end credits, Newton rescues and reconciles with Zero who is then arrested, whilst Ash, Dawn and Brock send bouquets of flowers to their respective families as an expression of gratitude.",
""
] |
Theory
------
### Axion coupling
The \\mathbb{Z}\_2 classification of a 3D crystalline topological insulator can be understood in terms of the axion coupling \\theta. A scalar quantity that is determined from the ground state wavefunction{{cite journal \|last1\=Qi \|first1\=Xiao\-Liang \|last2\=Hughes \|first2\=Taylor L. \|last3\=Zhang \|first3\=Shou\-Cheng \|title\=Topological field theory of time\-reversal invariant insulators \|journal\=Physical Review B \|date\=24 November 2008 \|volume\=78 \|issue\=19 \|pages\=195424 \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevB.78\.195424 \|bibcode\=2008PhRvB..78s5424Q \|arxiv\=0802\.3537 \|s2cid\=117659977 }}
\\theta \= \-\\frac{1}{4\\pi}\\int\_{\\rm BZ} d^3k \\, \\epsilon^{\\alpha \\beta \\gamma} \\text{Tr} \\Big\[ \\mathcal{A}\_\\alpha \\partial\_\\beta \\mathcal{A}\_\\gamma \-i\\frac{2}{3} \\mathcal{A}\_\\alpha \\mathcal{A}\_\\beta \\mathcal{A}\_\\gamma \\Big] .
where \\mathcal{A}\_\\alpha is a shorthand notation for the [Berry connection](/wiki/Berry_connection_and_curvature "Berry connection and curvature") matrix
\\mathcal{A}\_j^{nm}(\\mathbf{k}) \= \\langle u\_{n\\mathbf{k}} \| i\\partial\_{k\_j} \| u\_{m\\mathbf{k}} \\rangle,
where \| u\_{m\\mathbf{k}} \\rangle is the cell\-periodic part of the ground state [Bloch wavefunction](/wiki/Bloch%27s_theorem "Bloch's theorem").
The topological nature of the axion coupling is evident if one considers [gauge transformations](/wiki/Gauge_theory "Gauge theory"). In this condensed matter setting a gauge transformation is a [unitary transformation](/wiki/Unitary_transformation "Unitary transformation") between states at the same \\mathbf{k} point
\|\\tilde{\\psi}\_{n\\mathbf{k}}\\rangle \= U\_{mn}(\\mathbf{k})\|\\psi\_{n\\mathbf{k}}\\rangle.
Now a gauge transformation will cause \\theta \\rightarrow \\theta \+2\\pi n , n \\in \\mathbb{N}. Since a gauge choice is arbitrary, this property tells us that \\theta is only well defined in an interval of length 2\\pi e.g. \\theta \\in \[\-\\pi,\\pi].
The final ingredient we need to acquire a \\mathbb{Z}\_2 classification based on the axion coupling comes from observing how crystalline symmetries act on \\theta.
* Fractional lattice translations \\tau\_q, n\-fold rotations C\_n: \\theta \\rightarrow \\theta .
* Time\-reversal T, inversion I: \\theta \\rightarrow \-\\theta .
The consequence is that if time\-reversal or inversion are symmetries of the crystal we need to have \\theta \= \-\\theta
and that can only be true if \\theta \= 0(trivial),\\pi(non\-trivial) (note that \-\\pi and \\pi are identified) giving us a \\mathbb{Z}\_2 classification. Furthermore, we can combine inversion or time\-reversal with other symmetries that do not affect \\theta to acquire new symmetries that quantize \\theta. For example, mirror symmetry can always be expressed as m\=I\*C\_2 giving rise to crystalline topological insulators,{{cite journal \|last1\=Fu \|first1\=Liang \|title\=Topological Crystalline Insulators \|journal\=Physical Review Letters \|date\=8 March 2011 \|volume\=106 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=106802 \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.106\.106802 \|pmid\=21469822 \|bibcode\=2011PhRvL.106j6802F \|arxiv\=1010\.1802 \|s2cid\=14426263 }} while the first intrinsic magnetic topological insulator MnBi\_2Te\_4{{cite journal \|last1\=Gong \|first1\=Yan \|display\-authors\=etal \|title\=Experimental realization of an intrinsic magnetic topological insulator \|journal\=Chinese Physics Letters \|year\=2019 \|volume\=36 \|issue\=7 \|page\=076801 \|doi\=10\.1088/0256\-307X/36/7/076801 \|arxiv\=1809\.07926\|bibcode\=2019ChPhL..36g6801G \|s2cid\=54224157 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Otrokov \|first1\=Mikhail M. \|display\-authors\=etal \|title\=Prediction and observation of the first antiferromagnetic topological insulator \|journal\=Nature \|year\=2019 \|volume\=576 \|issue\=7787 \|pages\=416–422 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41586\-019\-1840\-9 \|pmid\=31853084 \|arxiv\=1809\.07389\|s2cid\=54016736 }} has the quantizing symmetry S\=T\*\\tau\_{1/2}.
### Surface anomalous hall conductivity
So far we have discussed the mathematical properties of the axion coupling. Physically, a non\-trivial axion coupling (\\theta \= \\pi) will result in a half\-quantized surface anomalous Hall conductivity (\\sigma^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}}\=e^2/2h) if the surface states are gapped. To see this, note that in general \\sigma^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} has two contribution. One comes from the axion coupling \\theta , a quantity that is determined from bulk considerations as we have seen, while the other is the [Berry phase](/wiki/Berry_phase "Berry phase") \\phi of the surface states at the [Fermi level](/wiki/Fermi_level "Fermi level") and therefore depends on the surface. In summary for a given surface termination the perpendicular component of the surface anomalous Hall conductivity to the surface will be
\\sigma^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} \= \-\\frac{e^2}{h}\\frac{\\theta\-\\phi}{2\\pi} \\ \\text{mod} \\ e^2/h .
The expression for \\sigma^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} is defined \\text{mod} \\ e^2/h because a surface property (\\sigma^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}}) can be determined from a bulk property (\\theta) up to a quantum. To see this, consider a block of a material with some initial \\theta which we wrap with a 2D quantum anomalous Hall insulator with [Chern index](/wiki/Chern_number "Chern number") C\=1. As long as we do this without closing the surface gap, we are able to increase \\sigma^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} by e^2/h without altering the bulk, and therefore without altering the axion coupling \\theta.
One of the most dramatic effects occurs when \\theta\=\\pi and time\-reversal symmetry is present, i.e. non\-magnetic topological insulator. Since \\boldsymbol{\\sigma}^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} is a [pseudovector](/wiki/Pseudovector "Pseudovector") on the surface of the crystal, it must respect the surface symmetries, and T is one of them, but T\\boldsymbol{\\sigma}^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} \=\- \\boldsymbol{\\sigma}^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} resulting in \\boldsymbol{\\sigma}^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} \= 0. This forces \\phi \= \\pi on *every surface* resulting in a Dirac cone (or more generally an odd number of Dirac cones) on *every surface* and therefore making the boundary of the material conducting.
On the other hand, if time\-reversal symmetry is absent, other symmetries can quantize \\theta\=\\pi and but not force \\boldsymbol{\\sigma}^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} to vanish. The most extreme case is the case of inversion symmetry (I). Inversion is never a surface symmetry and therefore a non\-zero \\boldsymbol{\\sigma}^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} is valid. In the case that a surface is gapped, we have \\phi \= 0 which results in a half\-quantized surface AHC \\sigma^{\\text{surf}}\_{\\text{AHC}} \= \-\\frac{e^2}{2h}.
A half quantized surface Hall conductivity and a related treatment is also valid to understand topological insulators in magnetic field {{Cite journal
\| volume \= 58
\| issue \= 18
\| pages \= 1799–1802
\| last \= Wilczek
\| first \= Frank
\| title \= Two applications of axion electrodynamics
\| journal \= Physical Review Letters
\| date \= 4 May 1987
\| doi \= 10\.1103/PhysRevLett.58\.1799
\| pmid \= 10034541
\| bibcode\=1987PhRvL..58\.1799W
}} giving an effective axion description of the electrodynamics of these materials.{{Cite journal
\| journal \= Physical Review B
\| volume \= 78
\| issue \= 19
\| page \= 195424
\| last1 \= Qi \| first1 \= Xiao\-Liang
\| last2 \= Hughes \| first2 \= Taylor L.
\| last3 \= Zhang \| first3 \= Shou\-Cheng
\| title \= Topological field theory of time\-reversal invariant insulators
\| date \= 24 November 2008
\| doi \= 10\.1103/PhysRevB.78\.195424
\| bibcode \= 2008PhRvB..78s5424Q \|arxiv \= 0802\.3537
\| s2cid \= 117659977
}} This term leads to several interesting predictions including a quantized [magnetoelectric](/wiki/Magnetoelectric_effect "Magnetoelectric effect") effect.{{Cite journal
\| doi \= 10\.1103/Physics.1\.36
\| volume \= 1
\| page \= 36
\| last \= Franz \| first \= Marcel
\| title \= High\-energy physics in a new guise
\| journal \= Physics
\| date \= 24 November 2008
\| bibcode \= 2008PhyOJ...1\...36F
\| doi\-access \= free
}} Evidence for this effect has recently been given in THz spectroscopy experiments performed at the [Johns Hopkins University](/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University "Johns Hopkins University").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Wu\|first1\=Liang\|last2\=Salehi\|first2\=M.\|last3\=Koirala\|first3\=N.\|last4\=Moon\|first4\=J.\|last5\=Oh\|first5\=S.\|last6\=Armitage\|first6\=N. P.\|date\=2 December 2016\|title\=Quantized Faraday and Kerr rotation and axion electrodynamics of a 3D topological insulator\|journal\=Science\|language\=en\|volume\=354\|issue\=6316\|pages\=1124–1127\|doi\=10\.1126/science.aaf5541\|issn\=0036\-8075\|pmid\=27934759\|arxiv\=1603\.04317\|bibcode\=2016Sci...354\.1124W\|s2cid\=25311729}}
|
[
"Theory\n------",
"### Axion coupling",
"The \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_2 classification of a 3D crystalline topological insulator can be understood in terms of the axion coupling \\\\theta. A scalar quantity that is determined from the ground state wavefunction{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Qi \\|first1\\=Xiao\\-Liang \\|last2\\=Hughes \\|first2\\=Taylor L. \\|last3\\=Zhang \\|first3\\=Shou\\-Cheng \\|title\\=Topological field theory of time\\-reversal invariant insulators \\|journal\\=Physical Review B \\|date\\=24 November 2008 \\|volume\\=78 \\|issue\\=19 \\|pages\\=195424 \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevB.78\\.195424 \\|bibcode\\=2008PhRvB..78s5424Q \\|arxiv\\=0802\\.3537 \\|s2cid\\=117659977 }}",
"\\\\theta \\= \\-\\\\frac{1}{4\\\\pi}\\\\int\\_{\\\\rm BZ} d^3k \\\\, \\\\epsilon^{\\\\alpha \\\\beta \\\\gamma} \\\\text{Tr} \\\\Big\\[ \\\\mathcal{A}\\_\\\\alpha \\\\partial\\_\\\\beta \\\\mathcal{A}\\_\\\\gamma \\-i\\\\frac{2}{3} \\\\mathcal{A}\\_\\\\alpha \\\\mathcal{A}\\_\\\\beta \\\\mathcal{A}\\_\\\\gamma \\\\Big] .\nwhere \\\\mathcal{A}\\_\\\\alpha is a shorthand notation for the [Berry connection](/wiki/Berry_connection_and_curvature \"Berry connection and curvature\") matrix\n\\\\mathcal{A}\\_j^{nm}(\\\\mathbf{k}) \\= \\\\langle u\\_{n\\\\mathbf{k}} \\| i\\\\partial\\_{k\\_j} \\| u\\_{m\\\\mathbf{k}} \\\\rangle,",
"where \\| u\\_{m\\\\mathbf{k}} \\\\rangle is the cell\\-periodic part of the ground state [Bloch wavefunction](/wiki/Bloch%27s_theorem \"Bloch's theorem\").",
"The topological nature of the axion coupling is evident if one considers [gauge transformations](/wiki/Gauge_theory \"Gauge theory\"). In this condensed matter setting a gauge transformation is a [unitary transformation](/wiki/Unitary_transformation \"Unitary transformation\") between states at the same \\\\mathbf{k} point\n\\|\\\\tilde{\\\\psi}\\_{n\\\\mathbf{k}}\\\\rangle \\= U\\_{mn}(\\\\mathbf{k})\\|\\\\psi\\_{n\\\\mathbf{k}}\\\\rangle.",
"Now a gauge transformation will cause \\\\theta \\\\rightarrow \\\\theta \\+2\\\\pi n , n \\\\in \\\\mathbb{N}. Since a gauge choice is arbitrary, this property tells us that \\\\theta is only well defined in an interval of length 2\\\\pi e.g. \\\\theta \\\\in \\[\\-\\\\pi,\\\\pi].",
"The final ingredient we need to acquire a \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_2 classification based on the axion coupling comes from observing how crystalline symmetries act on \\\\theta.\n* Fractional lattice translations \\\\tau\\_q, n\\-fold rotations C\\_n: \\\\theta \\\\rightarrow \\\\theta .\n* Time\\-reversal T, inversion I: \\\\theta \\\\rightarrow \\-\\\\theta .\nThe consequence is that if time\\-reversal or inversion are symmetries of the crystal we need to have \\\\theta \\= \\-\\\\theta \nand that can only be true if \\\\theta \\= 0(trivial),\\\\pi(non\\-trivial) (note that \\-\\\\pi and \\\\pi are identified) giving us a \\\\mathbb{Z}\\_2 classification. Furthermore, we can combine inversion or time\\-reversal with other symmetries that do not affect \\\\theta to acquire new symmetries that quantize \\\\theta. For example, mirror symmetry can always be expressed as m\\=I\\*C\\_2 giving rise to crystalline topological insulators,{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fu \\|first1\\=Liang \\|title\\=Topological Crystalline Insulators \\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters \\|date\\=8 March 2011 \\|volume\\=106 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=106802 \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.106\\.106802 \\|pmid\\=21469822 \\|bibcode\\=2011PhRvL.106j6802F \\|arxiv\\=1010\\.1802 \\|s2cid\\=14426263 }} while the first intrinsic magnetic topological insulator MnBi\\_2Te\\_4{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Gong \\|first1\\=Yan \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|title\\=Experimental realization of an intrinsic magnetic topological insulator \\|journal\\=Chinese Physics Letters \\|year\\=2019 \\|volume\\=36 \\|issue\\=7 \\|page\\=076801 \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0256\\-307X/36/7/076801 \\|arxiv\\=1809\\.07926\\|bibcode\\=2019ChPhL..36g6801G \\|s2cid\\=54224157 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Otrokov \\|first1\\=Mikhail M. \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|title\\=Prediction and observation of the first antiferromagnetic topological insulator \\|journal\\=Nature \\|year\\=2019 \\|volume\\=576 \\|issue\\=7787 \\|pages\\=416–422 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41586\\-019\\-1840\\-9 \\|pmid\\=31853084 \\|arxiv\\=1809\\.07389\\|s2cid\\=54016736 }} has the quantizing symmetry S\\=T\\*\\\\tau\\_{1/2}.",
"### Surface anomalous hall conductivity",
"So far we have discussed the mathematical properties of the axion coupling. Physically, a non\\-trivial axion coupling (\\\\theta \\= \\\\pi) will result in a half\\-quantized surface anomalous Hall conductivity (\\\\sigma^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}}\\=e^2/2h) if the surface states are gapped. To see this, note that in general \\\\sigma^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} has two contribution. One comes from the axion coupling \\\\theta , a quantity that is determined from bulk considerations as we have seen, while the other is the [Berry phase](/wiki/Berry_phase \"Berry phase\") \\\\phi of the surface states at the [Fermi level](/wiki/Fermi_level \"Fermi level\") and therefore depends on the surface. In summary for a given surface termination the perpendicular component of the surface anomalous Hall conductivity to the surface will be\n\\\\sigma^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} \\= \\-\\\\frac{e^2}{h}\\\\frac{\\\\theta\\-\\\\phi}{2\\\\pi} \\\\ \\\\text{mod} \\\\ e^2/h .",
"The expression for \\\\sigma^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} is defined \\\\text{mod} \\\\ e^2/h because a surface property (\\\\sigma^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}}) can be determined from a bulk property (\\\\theta) up to a quantum. To see this, consider a block of a material with some initial \\\\theta which we wrap with a 2D quantum anomalous Hall insulator with [Chern index](/wiki/Chern_number \"Chern number\") C\\=1. As long as we do this without closing the surface gap, we are able to increase \\\\sigma^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} by e^2/h without altering the bulk, and therefore without altering the axion coupling \\\\theta.",
"One of the most dramatic effects occurs when \\\\theta\\=\\\\pi and time\\-reversal symmetry is present, i.e. non\\-magnetic topological insulator. Since \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\sigma}^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} is a [pseudovector](/wiki/Pseudovector \"Pseudovector\") on the surface of the crystal, it must respect the surface symmetries, and T is one of them, but T\\\\boldsymbol{\\\\sigma}^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} \\=\\- \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\sigma}^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} resulting in \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\sigma}^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} \\= 0. This forces \\\\phi \\= \\\\pi on *every surface* resulting in a Dirac cone (or more generally an odd number of Dirac cones) on *every surface* and therefore making the boundary of the material conducting.",
"On the other hand, if time\\-reversal symmetry is absent, other symmetries can quantize \\\\theta\\=\\\\pi and but not force \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\sigma}^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} to vanish. The most extreme case is the case of inversion symmetry (I). Inversion is never a surface symmetry and therefore a non\\-zero \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\sigma}^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} is valid. In the case that a surface is gapped, we have \\\\phi \\= 0 which results in a half\\-quantized surface AHC \\\\sigma^{\\\\text{surf}}\\_{\\\\text{AHC}} \\= \\-\\\\frac{e^2}{2h}.",
"A half quantized surface Hall conductivity and a related treatment is also valid to understand topological insulators in magnetic field {{Cite journal\n\\| volume \\= 58\n\\| issue \\= 18\n\\| pages \\= 1799–1802\n\\| last \\= Wilczek\n\\| first \\= Frank\n\\| title \\= Two applications of axion electrodynamics\n\\| journal \\= Physical Review Letters\n\\| date \\= 4 May 1987\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.58\\.1799\n\\| pmid \\= 10034541\n\\| bibcode\\=1987PhRvL..58\\.1799W\n}} giving an effective axion description of the electrodynamics of these materials.{{Cite journal\n\\| journal \\= Physical Review B\n\\| volume \\= 78\n\\| issue \\= 19\n\\| page \\= 195424\n\\| last1 \\= Qi \\| first1 \\= Xiao\\-Liang\n\\| last2 \\= Hughes \\| first2 \\= Taylor L.\n\\| last3 \\= Zhang \\| first3 \\= Shou\\-Cheng\n\\| title \\= Topological field theory of time\\-reversal invariant insulators\n\\| date \\= 24 November 2008\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1103/PhysRevB.78\\.195424\n\\| bibcode \\= 2008PhRvB..78s5424Q \\|arxiv \\= 0802\\.3537\n\\| s2cid \\= 117659977\n}} This term leads to several interesting predictions including a quantized [magnetoelectric](/wiki/Magnetoelectric_effect \"Magnetoelectric effect\") effect.{{Cite journal\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1103/Physics.1\\.36\n\\| volume \\= 1\n\\| page \\= 36\n\\| last \\= Franz \\| first \\= Marcel\n\\| title \\= High\\-energy physics in a new guise\n\\| journal \\= Physics\n\\| date \\= 24 November 2008\n\\| bibcode \\= 2008PhyOJ...1\\...36F\n\\| doi\\-access \\= free\n}} Evidence for this effect has recently been given in THz spectroscopy experiments performed at the [Johns Hopkins University](/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University \"Johns Hopkins University\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wu\\|first1\\=Liang\\|last2\\=Salehi\\|first2\\=M.\\|last3\\=Koirala\\|first3\\=N.\\|last4\\=Moon\\|first4\\=J.\\|last5\\=Oh\\|first5\\=S.\\|last6\\=Armitage\\|first6\\=N. P.\\|date\\=2 December 2016\\|title\\=Quantized Faraday and Kerr rotation and axion electrodynamics of a 3D topological insulator\\|journal\\=Science\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=354\\|issue\\=6316\\|pages\\=1124–1127\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.aaf5541\\|issn\\=0036\\-8075\\|pmid\\=27934759\\|arxiv\\=1603\\.04317\\|bibcode\\=2016Sci...354\\.1124W\\|s2cid\\=25311729}}",
""
] |
*Pre Game Show*
---------------
{{Main article\|NBA Countdown}}
*[NBA Countdown](/wiki/NBA_Countdown "NBA Countdown")*, previously *NBA Shootaround*, is ESPN's main studio program, airing before each game telecast. ESPN's in\-game studio programs originally consisted of [Kevin Frazier](/wiki/Kevin_Frazier "Kevin Frazier") and [Tim Hardaway](/wiki/Tim_Hardaway "Tim Hardaway") on Fridays with [Stuart Scott](/wiki/Stuart_Scott "Stuart Scott") replacing Frazier on Wednesdays. After horrible reviews for Hardaway, ESPN brought in [Greg Anthony](/wiki/Greg_Anthony "Greg Anthony") to replace him on Friday nights. Frazier and Anthony became ESPN's main studio team and worked most of the playoffs. For the 2003 Eastern Conference Finals, ESPN used ABC's halftime team of [Mike Tirico](/wiki/Mike_Tirico "Mike Tirico") and [Sean Elliott](/wiki/Sean_Elliott "Sean Elliott") for all the games.
[2003–04](/wiki/2003-04_NBA_season "2003-04 NBA season") was the first year of the longest\-tenured ESPN studio team. Frazier and Anthony were joined by controversial writer [Stephen A. Smith](/wiki/Stephen_A._Smith "Stephen A. Smith") and NBA legend [Bill Laimbeer](/wiki/Bill_Laimbeer "Bill Laimbeer"). Laimbeer, departing to continue coaching in the [WNBA](/wiki/Women%27s_National_Basketball_Association "Women's National Basketball Association"), was replaced by [Tim Legler](/wiki/Tim_Legler "Tim Legler") during the [2004 NBA Playoffs](/wiki/2004_NBA_Playoffs "2004 NBA Playoffs"). Smith, Legler and Anthony were joined by [John Saunders](/wiki/John_Saunders_%28journalist%29 "John Saunders (journalist)") (replacing Frazier, who left to host *[Entertainment Tonight](/wiki/Entertainment_Tonight "Entertainment Tonight")*) from [late 2004](/wiki/2004-05_NBA_season "2004-05 NBA season") to the end of the [2005–2006 season](/wiki/2005-06_NBA_season "2005-06 NBA season").
ESPN's studio team was generally more criticized[TNT's fun NBA coverage a respite from ESPN's anger](https://web.archive.org/web/20051107051732/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/writers/kelly_dwyer/11/04/announcers/index.html) than praised. After the Pacers–Pistons brawl, ESPN's studio team came under severe criticism, both by the media[NBA: David DuPree](http://cgi1.usatoday.com/mchat/20041123005/tscript.htm) and by ESPN itself[ESPN boss makes right call after announcers blame fans](https://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/martzke/2004-11-23-martzke_x.htm) for their stance regarding the actions of [Indiana Pacer](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers "Indiana Pacers") [Ron Artest](/wiki/Ron_Artest "Ron Artest") (who entered the stands to confront a fan, sparking the melee). Saunders came down hard on Detroit fans, referring to them as "punks," while Anthony and Legler defended Artest.
For the [2006\-07 NBA season](/wiki/2006-07_NBA_season "2006-07 NBA season"), Saunders was replaced by [Fred Hickman](/wiki/Fred_Hickman "Fred Hickman"), with the remaining team left intact.[2006–07 NBA SEASON ON ESPN BEGINS NOV. 1](http://media.espn.com/ESPNToday/2006/Oct_06/NBAcommentators.htm) Previous reports by The Big Lead.com and *[The New York Post](/wiki/The_New_York_Post "The New York Post")* indicated that Anthony, Legler and Smith along with Saunders would be replaced by [Dan Patrick](/wiki/Dan_Patrick_%28sportscaster%29 "Dan Patrick (sportscaster)"), [Michael Wilbon](/wiki/Michael_Wilbon "Michael Wilbon") and [Mark Jackson](/wiki/Mark_Jackson_%28basketball%29 "Mark Jackson (basketball)").[ESPN GETS A RE\-PHIL](http://www.nypost.com/sports/espn_gets_a_re_phil_sports_andrew_marchand.htm) Smith's role was significantly reduced, as he would no longer appear in studio with Hickman, Legler and Anthony, instead appearing during "The A List", a segment during the pregame show.
The program was hosted by either [Hannah Storm](/wiki/Hannah_Storm "Hannah Storm"), [Stuart Scott](/wiki/Stuart_Scott "Stuart Scott") or [Mark Jones](/wiki/Mark_Jones_%28sportscaster%29 "Mark Jones (sportscaster)"), alongside analysts [Chris Mullin](/wiki/Chris_Mullin_%28basketball%29 "Chris Mullin (basketball)"), [Jalen Rose](/wiki/Jalen_Rose "Jalen Rose"), [Jamal Mashburn](/wiki/Jamal_Mashburn "Jamal Mashburn"), [Jon Barry](/wiki/Jon_Barry "Jon Barry") and [Michael Wilbon](/wiki/Michael_Wilbon "Michael Wilbon").
The program was also moved from ABC\-owned studios at [Times Square](/wiki/Times_Square "Times Square") in New York City to ESPN's headquarters in [Bristol, Connecticut](/wiki/Bristol%2C_Connecticut "Bristol, Connecticut").
The format changed for the 2011–2012 season. The show moved from Bristol to ESPN's West Coast headquarters in Los Angeles. Storm, Scott and Jones were dropped from the program and the host role abandoned. Instead, four analysts (Wilbon, Barry, [Magic Johnson](/wiki/Magic_Johnson "Magic Johnson"), and [Chris Broussard](/wiki/Chris_Broussard "Chris Broussard")) discuss scores, games, and other topics in more of a free form style than previously used.
In 2023, as part of major changes to its commentary team, [Malika Andrews](/wiki/Malika_Andrews "Malika Andrews") became the new lead host of *NBA Countdown*.
|
[
"*Pre Game Show*\n---------------",
"{{Main article\\|NBA Countdown}}\n*[NBA Countdown](/wiki/NBA_Countdown \"NBA Countdown\")*, previously *NBA Shootaround*, is ESPN's main studio program, airing before each game telecast. ESPN's in\\-game studio programs originally consisted of [Kevin Frazier](/wiki/Kevin_Frazier \"Kevin Frazier\") and [Tim Hardaway](/wiki/Tim_Hardaway \"Tim Hardaway\") on Fridays with [Stuart Scott](/wiki/Stuart_Scott \"Stuart Scott\") replacing Frazier on Wednesdays. After horrible reviews for Hardaway, ESPN brought in [Greg Anthony](/wiki/Greg_Anthony \"Greg Anthony\") to replace him on Friday nights. Frazier and Anthony became ESPN's main studio team and worked most of the playoffs. For the 2003 Eastern Conference Finals, ESPN used ABC's halftime team of [Mike Tirico](/wiki/Mike_Tirico \"Mike Tirico\") and [Sean Elliott](/wiki/Sean_Elliott \"Sean Elliott\") for all the games.",
"[2003–04](/wiki/2003-04_NBA_season \"2003-04 NBA season\") was the first year of the longest\\-tenured ESPN studio team. Frazier and Anthony were joined by controversial writer [Stephen A. Smith](/wiki/Stephen_A._Smith \"Stephen A. Smith\") and NBA legend [Bill Laimbeer](/wiki/Bill_Laimbeer \"Bill Laimbeer\"). Laimbeer, departing to continue coaching in the [WNBA](/wiki/Women%27s_National_Basketball_Association \"Women's National Basketball Association\"), was replaced by [Tim Legler](/wiki/Tim_Legler \"Tim Legler\") during the [2004 NBA Playoffs](/wiki/2004_NBA_Playoffs \"2004 NBA Playoffs\"). Smith, Legler and Anthony were joined by [John Saunders](/wiki/John_Saunders_%28journalist%29 \"John Saunders (journalist)\") (replacing Frazier, who left to host *[Entertainment Tonight](/wiki/Entertainment_Tonight \"Entertainment Tonight\")*) from [late 2004](/wiki/2004-05_NBA_season \"2004-05 NBA season\") to the end of the [2005–2006 season](/wiki/2005-06_NBA_season \"2005-06 NBA season\").",
"ESPN's studio team was generally more criticized[TNT's fun NBA coverage a respite from ESPN's anger](https://web.archive.org/web/20051107051732/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/writers/kelly_dwyer/11/04/announcers/index.html) than praised. After the Pacers–Pistons brawl, ESPN's studio team came under severe criticism, both by the media[NBA: David DuPree](http://cgi1.usatoday.com/mchat/20041123005/tscript.htm) and by ESPN itself[ESPN boss makes right call after announcers blame fans](https://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/martzke/2004-11-23-martzke_x.htm) for their stance regarding the actions of [Indiana Pacer](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers \"Indiana Pacers\") [Ron Artest](/wiki/Ron_Artest \"Ron Artest\") (who entered the stands to confront a fan, sparking the melee). Saunders came down hard on Detroit fans, referring to them as \"punks,\" while Anthony and Legler defended Artest.",
"For the [2006\\-07 NBA season](/wiki/2006-07_NBA_season \"2006-07 NBA season\"), Saunders was replaced by [Fred Hickman](/wiki/Fred_Hickman \"Fred Hickman\"), with the remaining team left intact.[2006–07 NBA SEASON ON ESPN BEGINS NOV. 1](http://media.espn.com/ESPNToday/2006/Oct_06/NBAcommentators.htm) Previous reports by The Big Lead.com and *[The New York Post](/wiki/The_New_York_Post \"The New York Post\")* indicated that Anthony, Legler and Smith along with Saunders would be replaced by [Dan Patrick](/wiki/Dan_Patrick_%28sportscaster%29 \"Dan Patrick (sportscaster)\"), [Michael Wilbon](/wiki/Michael_Wilbon \"Michael Wilbon\") and [Mark Jackson](/wiki/Mark_Jackson_%28basketball%29 \"Mark Jackson (basketball)\").[ESPN GETS A RE\\-PHIL](http://www.nypost.com/sports/espn_gets_a_re_phil_sports_andrew_marchand.htm) Smith's role was significantly reduced, as he would no longer appear in studio with Hickman, Legler and Anthony, instead appearing during \"The A List\", a segment during the pregame show.",
"The program was hosted by either [Hannah Storm](/wiki/Hannah_Storm \"Hannah Storm\"), [Stuart Scott](/wiki/Stuart_Scott \"Stuart Scott\") or [Mark Jones](/wiki/Mark_Jones_%28sportscaster%29 \"Mark Jones (sportscaster)\"), alongside analysts [Chris Mullin](/wiki/Chris_Mullin_%28basketball%29 \"Chris Mullin (basketball)\"), [Jalen Rose](/wiki/Jalen_Rose \"Jalen Rose\"), [Jamal Mashburn](/wiki/Jamal_Mashburn \"Jamal Mashburn\"), [Jon Barry](/wiki/Jon_Barry \"Jon Barry\") and [Michael Wilbon](/wiki/Michael_Wilbon \"Michael Wilbon\").",
"The program was also moved from ABC\\-owned studios at [Times Square](/wiki/Times_Square \"Times Square\") in New York City to ESPN's headquarters in [Bristol, Connecticut](/wiki/Bristol%2C_Connecticut \"Bristol, Connecticut\").",
"The format changed for the 2011–2012 season. The show moved from Bristol to ESPN's West Coast headquarters in Los Angeles. Storm, Scott and Jones were dropped from the program and the host role abandoned. Instead, four analysts (Wilbon, Barry, [Magic Johnson](/wiki/Magic_Johnson \"Magic Johnson\"), and [Chris Broussard](/wiki/Chris_Broussard \"Chris Broussard\")) discuss scores, games, and other topics in more of a free form style than previously used.",
"In 2023, as part of major changes to its commentary team, [Malika Andrews](/wiki/Malika_Andrews \"Malika Andrews\") became the new lead host of *NBA Countdown*.",
""
] |
ESPN2
-----
ESPN2 aired a handful of NBA regular season games from [2002](/wiki/2002-03_NBA_season "2002-03 NBA season") to [2006](/wiki/2005-06_NBA_season "2005-06 NBA season"), typically in January, when prime time [golf tournaments](/wiki/PGA_Tour_on_ESPN "PGA Tour on ESPN") preempted coverage on ESPN. On several occasions, ESPN2 would air the first game of a doubleheader, while ESPN air the second game. Starting with the [2006–2007 season](/wiki/2006-07_NBA_season "2006-07 NBA season"), regular season games on ESPN2 were discontinued. During the playoffs, ESPN2 airs games that otherwise would not have appeared on any outlet other than [NBA TV](/wiki/NBA_TV "NBA TV"), mostly on Friday nights and only during the first round.
ESPN2 NBA coverage is mostly made up of studio shows, notably *[NBA Coast to Coast](/wiki/NBA_Coast_to_Coast "NBA Coast to Coast")*. *NBA Coast to Coast*, formerly known as *NBA Fastbreak Tuesday* and *NBA Nation*, is a two\-hour long Tuesday night studio show that features live cut\-ins to games throughout the league. In addition to *Coast to Coast*, ESPN2 airs several editions of *[NBA Fastbreak](/wiki/NBA_Fastbreak "NBA Fastbreak")*, ESPN's NBA oriented highlight show.
Despite airing fewer than forty NBA games in its eleven years of existence, ESPN2 did televise NBA legend [Michael Jordan](/wiki/Michael_Jordan "Michael Jordan")'s final game in [Chicago](/wiki/2002-03_Chicago_Bulls_season "2002-03 Chicago Bulls season") in January 2003\.
ESPN2 also aired [Kobe Bryant](/wiki/Kobe_Bryant "Kobe Bryant")'s final game against the [Utah Jazz](/wiki/2015-16_Utah_Jazz_season "2015-16 Utah Jazz season") on April 13, 2016\.
ESPN2 also aired a [LeBron James](/wiki/LeBron_James "LeBron James") potential record breaking game on February 3, 2023{{Cite web \|last\=Gostomelsky \|first\=Adam \|date\=2023\-02\-02 \|title\=News: Brady, YouTube TV, LeBron, and more \|url\=https://www.sportsmediawatch.com/2023/02/tom\-brady\-broadcasting\-fox\-youtube\-tv\-drops\-mlb\-network\-lebron\-scoring\-record/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-05 \|website\=Sports Media Watch \|language\=en\-US}}
ESPN2 is the primary outlet for ESPN [WNBA coverage](/wiki/WNBA_on_ESPN2 "WNBA on ESPN2"), televising regular season games, the [WNBA Finals](/wiki/WNBA_Finals "WNBA Finals") and the [WNBA draft](/wiki/WNBA_draft "WNBA draft"). *WNBA Shootaround*, the WNBA equivalent of ESPN's NBA pregame show, airs sporadically on the network, typically before presentations of *WNBA Tuesday*.
Beginning with the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NBA_season "2022–23 NBA season"), ESPN2 began airing [alternate presentations](/wiki/ESPN_Megacast "ESPN Megacast") of select NBA games in a similar vein to *[Manningcast](/wiki/Manningcast "Manningcast")* and *KayRod Cast* during *[Monday Night Football](/wiki/Monday_Night_Football "Monday Night Football")* and *[Sunday Night Baseball](/wiki/Sunday_Night_Baseball "Sunday Night Baseball")* respectively, with [Stephen A. Smith](/wiki/Stephen_A._Smith "Stephen A. Smith") as host. The series was titled *NBA in Stephen A.'s World*.
|
[
"ESPN2\n-----",
"ESPN2 aired a handful of NBA regular season games from [2002](/wiki/2002-03_NBA_season \"2002-03 NBA season\") to [2006](/wiki/2005-06_NBA_season \"2005-06 NBA season\"), typically in January, when prime time [golf tournaments](/wiki/PGA_Tour_on_ESPN \"PGA Tour on ESPN\") preempted coverage on ESPN. On several occasions, ESPN2 would air the first game of a doubleheader, while ESPN air the second game. Starting with the [2006–2007 season](/wiki/2006-07_NBA_season \"2006-07 NBA season\"), regular season games on ESPN2 were discontinued. During the playoffs, ESPN2 airs games that otherwise would not have appeared on any outlet other than [NBA TV](/wiki/NBA_TV \"NBA TV\"), mostly on Friday nights and only during the first round.",
"ESPN2 NBA coverage is mostly made up of studio shows, notably *[NBA Coast to Coast](/wiki/NBA_Coast_to_Coast \"NBA Coast to Coast\")*. *NBA Coast to Coast*, formerly known as *NBA Fastbreak Tuesday* and *NBA Nation*, is a two\\-hour long Tuesday night studio show that features live cut\\-ins to games throughout the league. In addition to *Coast to Coast*, ESPN2 airs several editions of *[NBA Fastbreak](/wiki/NBA_Fastbreak \"NBA Fastbreak\")*, ESPN's NBA oriented highlight show.",
"Despite airing fewer than forty NBA games in its eleven years of existence, ESPN2 did televise NBA legend [Michael Jordan](/wiki/Michael_Jordan \"Michael Jordan\")'s final game in [Chicago](/wiki/2002-03_Chicago_Bulls_season \"2002-03 Chicago Bulls season\") in January 2003\\.",
"ESPN2 also aired [Kobe Bryant](/wiki/Kobe_Bryant \"Kobe Bryant\")'s final game against the [Utah Jazz](/wiki/2015-16_Utah_Jazz_season \"2015-16 Utah Jazz season\") on April 13, 2016\\.",
"ESPN2 also aired a [LeBron James](/wiki/LeBron_James \"LeBron James\") potential record breaking game on February 3, 2023{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gostomelsky \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=2023\\-02\\-02 \\|title\\=News: Brady, YouTube TV, LeBron, and more \\|url\\=https://www.sportsmediawatch.com/2023/02/tom\\-brady\\-broadcasting\\-fox\\-youtube\\-tv\\-drops\\-mlb\\-network\\-lebron\\-scoring\\-record/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-05 \\|website\\=Sports Media Watch \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"ESPN2 is the primary outlet for ESPN [WNBA coverage](/wiki/WNBA_on_ESPN2 \"WNBA on ESPN2\"), televising regular season games, the [WNBA Finals](/wiki/WNBA_Finals \"WNBA Finals\") and the [WNBA draft](/wiki/WNBA_draft \"WNBA draft\"). *WNBA Shootaround*, the WNBA equivalent of ESPN's NBA pregame show, airs sporadically on the network, typically before presentations of *WNBA Tuesday*.",
"Beginning with the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NBA_season \"2022–23 NBA season\"), ESPN2 began airing [alternate presentations](/wiki/ESPN_Megacast \"ESPN Megacast\") of select NBA games in a similar vein to *[Manningcast](/wiki/Manningcast \"Manningcast\")* and *KayRod Cast* during *[Monday Night Football](/wiki/Monday_Night_Football \"Monday Night Football\")* and *[Sunday Night Baseball](/wiki/Sunday_Night_Baseball \"Sunday Night Baseball\")* respectively, with [Stephen A. Smith](/wiki/Stephen_A._Smith \"Stephen A. Smith\") as host. The series was titled *NBA in Stephen A.'s World*.",
""
] |
Description of the method
-------------------------
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Finding roots −1/2, −1/{{radic\|2}}, and 1/{{radic\|2}} of the cubic 4*x*3\+2*x*2−2*x*−1 showing how negative coefficients and extended segments are handled. Each number shown on a colored line is the negative of its slope and hence a real root of the polynomial.](/wiki/File:LillsMethod.svg "LillsMethod.svg")
To employ the method, a diagram is drawn starting at the origin. A line segment is drawn rightwards by the magnitude of the first coefficient (the coefficient of the highest\-power term) (so that with a negative coefficient, the segment will end left of the origin). From the end of the first segment, another segment is drawn upwards by the magnitude of the second coefficient, then left by the magnitude of the third, and down by the magnitude of the fourth, and so on. The sequence of directions (not turns) is always rightward, upward, leftward, downward, then repeating itself. Thus, each turn is counterclockwise. The process continues for every coefficient of the polynomial, including zeros, with negative coefficients "walking backwards." The final point reached, at the end of the segment corresponding to the equation's constant term, is the terminus.
A line is then launched from the origin at some angle {{mvar\|θ}}, reflected off of each line segment at a right angle (not necessarily the "natural" angle of reflection), and [refracted](/wiki/Refraction "Refraction") at a right angle through the line through each segment (including a line for the zero coefficients) when the angled path does not hit the line segment on that line.{{cite web\|last\=Bradford\|first\=Phillips Verner\|url\=http://www.concentric.net/\~pvb/ALG/rightpaths.html\|title\=Visualizing solutions to n\-th degree algebraic equations using right\-angle geometric paths\|publisher\=www.concentric.net\|accessdate\=3 February 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502013959/http://www.concentric.net/\~pvb/ALG/rightpaths.html\|archivedate\=2 May 2010}} The vertical and horizontal lines are reflected off or refracted through in the following sequence: the line containing the segment corresponding to the coefficient of x^{n\-1}, then of x^{n\-2}, etc. Choosing {{mvar\|θ}} so that the path lands on the terminus, the negative of the tangent of {{mvar\|θ}} is a root of this polynomial. For every real zero of the polynomial there will be one unique initial angle and path that will land on the terminus. A quadratic with two real roots, for example, will have exactly two angles that satisfy the above conditions.
For complex roots, one also needs to find a series of [similar](/wiki/Similarity_%28geometry%29 "Similarity (geometry)") triangles, but with the vertices of the root path displaced from the polynomial path by a distance equal to the imaginary part of the root. In this case the root path will not be rectangular.{{Cite journal\|last\=Tabachnikov\|first\=Serge\|date\=2017\-03\-01\|title\=Polynomials as Polygons\|url\=http://www.personal.psu.edu/sot2/prints/Polynomials.pdf\|journal\=The Mathematical Intelligencer\|language\=en\|volume\=39\|issue\=1\|pages\=41–43\|doi\=10\.1007/s00283\-016\-9681\-y\|s2cid\=126072703\|issn\=1866\-7414}}
### Explanation
The construction in effect evaluates the polynomial according to [Horner's method](/wiki/Horner%27s_method "Horner's method"). For the polynomial a\_n x^n\+a\_{n\-1}x^{n\-1}\+a\_{n\-2}x^{n\-2}\+ \\cdots the values of a\_n x, (a\_n x\+a\_{n\-1})x, ((a\_n x\+a\_{n\-1})x\+a\_{n\-2})x,\\ \\dots are successively generated as distances between the vertices of the polynomial and root paths. For a root of the polynomial the final value is zero, so the last vertex coincides with the polynomial path terminus.
### Additional properties
A solution line giving a root is similar to the Lill's construction for the polynomial with that root removed, because the visual construction is analogous to the [synthetic division](/wiki/Synthetic_division "Synthetic division") of the polynomial by a linear (root) [monic](/wiki/Monic_polynomial "Monic polynomial") ([Ruffini's rule](/wiki/Ruffini%27s_rule "Ruffini's rule")).
From the symmetry of the diagram, it can easily be seen that the roots of the [reversed polynomial](/wiki/Reciprocal_polynomial "Reciprocal polynomial") are the [reciprocals](/wiki/Multiplicative_inverse "Multiplicative inverse") of the original roots.
The construction can also be done using clockwise turns instead of counterclockwise turns. When a path is interpreted using the other convention, it corresponds to the mirrored polynomial (every odd coefficient sign changed) and the roots are negated.
When the right\-angle path is traversed in the other direction but the same direction convention, it corresponds to the reversed mirrored polynomial and the roots are the negative reciprocals of the original roots.
### Finding quadratic roots using Thales's theorem
[thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.5\|Finding roots of 3*x*2\+5*x*−2](/wiki/File:Lill_method_quadratic_example.svg "Lill method quadratic example.svg")
Lill's method can be used with [Thales's theorem](/wiki/Thales%27s_theorem "Thales's theorem") to find the real roots of a quadratic polynomial.
In this example with 3*x*2\+5*x*−2, the polynomial's line segments are first drawn in black, as above. A circle is drawn with the straight line segment joining the start and end points forming a diameter.
According to Thales's theorem, the triangle containing these points and any other point on the circle is a [right triangle](/wiki/Right_triangle "Right triangle"). Intersects of this circle with the middle segment of Lill's method, extended if needed, thus define the two angled paths in Lill's method, coloured blue and red.
The negative of the gradients of their first segments, *m*, yield the real roots 1/3 and −2\.{{Clear\|left}}
### Finding roots using paper folding
[thumb\|250px\|Find roots of 3x3\+2x2−7x\+2](/wiki/File:Lill_method_folding_example.svg "Lill method folding example.svg")
In 1936 [Margherita Piazzola Beloch](/wiki/Margherita_Piazzola_Beloch "Margherita Piazzola Beloch") showed how Lill's method could be adapted to solve cubic equations using [paper folding](/wiki/Paper_folding "Paper folding").{{cite journal \|title\=Solving Cubics With Creases: The Work of Beloch and Lill \|author\=Thomas C. Hull\|url\=http://mars.wne.edu/\~thull/papers/amer.math.monthly.118\.04\.307\-hull.pdf\|journal\=American Mathematical Monthly \|date\=April 2011\|volume\=118\|issue\=4\|pages\=307–315\|doi\=10\.4169/amer.math.monthly.118\.04\.307\|s2cid\=2540978}} If simultaneous folds are allowed then any *n*th degree equation with a real root can be solved using *n*–2 simultaneous folds.{{cite journal \|title\=One\-, Two\-, and Multi\-Fold Origami Axioms\|url\=http://www.math.sjsu.edu/\~alperin/AlperinLang.pdf \|author1\=Roger C. Alperin \|author2\=Robert J. Lang \|journal\=4OSME\|publisher\=A K Peters \|year\=2009}}
In this example with 3x3\+2x2−7x\+2, the polynomial's line segments are first drawn on a sheet of paper (black). Lines passing through reflections of the start and end points in the second and third segments, respectively (faint circle and square), and parallel to them (grey lines) are drawn.
For each root, the paper is folded until the start point (black circle) and end point (black square) are reflected onto these lines. The axis of reflection (dash\-dot line) defines the angled path corresponding to the root (blue, purple and red). The negative of the gradients of their first segments, *m*, yield the real roots 1/3, 1 and −2\.
|
[
"Description of the method\n-------------------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Finding roots −1/2, −1/{{radic\\|2}}, and 1/{{radic\\|2}} of the cubic 4*x*3\\+2*x*2−2*x*−1 showing how negative coefficients and extended segments are handled. Each number shown on a colored line is the negative of its slope and hence a real root of the polynomial.](/wiki/File:LillsMethod.svg \"LillsMethod.svg\")",
"To employ the method, a diagram is drawn starting at the origin. A line segment is drawn rightwards by the magnitude of the first coefficient (the coefficient of the highest\\-power term) (so that with a negative coefficient, the segment will end left of the origin). From the end of the first segment, another segment is drawn upwards by the magnitude of the second coefficient, then left by the magnitude of the third, and down by the magnitude of the fourth, and so on. The sequence of directions (not turns) is always rightward, upward, leftward, downward, then repeating itself. Thus, each turn is counterclockwise. The process continues for every coefficient of the polynomial, including zeros, with negative coefficients \"walking backwards.\" The final point reached, at the end of the segment corresponding to the equation's constant term, is the terminus.",
"A line is then launched from the origin at some angle {{mvar\\|θ}}, reflected off of each line segment at a right angle (not necessarily the \"natural\" angle of reflection), and [refracted](/wiki/Refraction \"Refraction\") at a right angle through the line through each segment (including a line for the zero coefficients) when the angled path does not hit the line segment on that line.{{cite web\\|last\\=Bradford\\|first\\=Phillips Verner\\|url\\=http://www.concentric.net/\\~pvb/ALG/rightpaths.html\\|title\\=Visualizing solutions to n\\-th degree algebraic equations using right\\-angle geometric paths\\|publisher\\=www.concentric.net\\|accessdate\\=3 February 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502013959/http://www.concentric.net/\\~pvb/ALG/rightpaths.html\\|archivedate\\=2 May 2010}} The vertical and horizontal lines are reflected off or refracted through in the following sequence: the line containing the segment corresponding to the coefficient of x^{n\\-1}, then of x^{n\\-2}, etc. Choosing {{mvar\\|θ}} so that the path lands on the terminus, the negative of the tangent of {{mvar\\|θ}} is a root of this polynomial. For every real zero of the polynomial there will be one unique initial angle and path that will land on the terminus. A quadratic with two real roots, for example, will have exactly two angles that satisfy the above conditions.",
"For complex roots, one also needs to find a series of [similar](/wiki/Similarity_%28geometry%29 \"Similarity (geometry)\") triangles, but with the vertices of the root path displaced from the polynomial path by a distance equal to the imaginary part of the root. In this case the root path will not be rectangular.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Tabachnikov\\|first\\=Serge\\|date\\=2017\\-03\\-01\\|title\\=Polynomials as Polygons\\|url\\=http://www.personal.psu.edu/sot2/prints/Polynomials.pdf\\|journal\\=The Mathematical Intelligencer\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=39\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=41–43\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s00283\\-016\\-9681\\-y\\|s2cid\\=126072703\\|issn\\=1866\\-7414}}",
"### Explanation",
"The construction in effect evaluates the polynomial according to [Horner's method](/wiki/Horner%27s_method \"Horner's method\"). For the polynomial a\\_n x^n\\+a\\_{n\\-1}x^{n\\-1}\\+a\\_{n\\-2}x^{n\\-2}\\+ \\\\cdots the values of a\\_n x, (a\\_n x\\+a\\_{n\\-1})x, ((a\\_n x\\+a\\_{n\\-1})x\\+a\\_{n\\-2})x,\\\\ \\\\dots are successively generated as distances between the vertices of the polynomial and root paths. For a root of the polynomial the final value is zero, so the last vertex coincides with the polynomial path terminus.",
"### Additional properties",
"A solution line giving a root is similar to the Lill's construction for the polynomial with that root removed, because the visual construction is analogous to the [synthetic division](/wiki/Synthetic_division \"Synthetic division\") of the polynomial by a linear (root) [monic](/wiki/Monic_polynomial \"Monic polynomial\") ([Ruffini's rule](/wiki/Ruffini%27s_rule \"Ruffini's rule\")).",
"From the symmetry of the diagram, it can easily be seen that the roots of the [reversed polynomial](/wiki/Reciprocal_polynomial \"Reciprocal polynomial\") are the [reciprocals](/wiki/Multiplicative_inverse \"Multiplicative inverse\") of the original roots.",
"The construction can also be done using clockwise turns instead of counterclockwise turns. When a path is interpreted using the other convention, it corresponds to the mirrored polynomial (every odd coefficient sign changed) and the roots are negated.",
"When the right\\-angle path is traversed in the other direction but the same direction convention, it corresponds to the reversed mirrored polynomial and the roots are the negative reciprocals of the original roots.",
"### Finding quadratic roots using Thales's theorem",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\|Finding roots of 3*x*2\\+5*x*−2](/wiki/File:Lill_method_quadratic_example.svg \"Lill method quadratic example.svg\")\nLill's method can be used with [Thales's theorem](/wiki/Thales%27s_theorem \"Thales's theorem\") to find the real roots of a quadratic polynomial.",
"In this example with 3*x*2\\+5*x*−2, the polynomial's line segments are first drawn in black, as above. A circle is drawn with the straight line segment joining the start and end points forming a diameter.",
"According to Thales's theorem, the triangle containing these points and any other point on the circle is a [right triangle](/wiki/Right_triangle \"Right triangle\"). Intersects of this circle with the middle segment of Lill's method, extended if needed, thus define the two angled paths in Lill's method, coloured blue and red.",
"The negative of the gradients of their first segments, *m*, yield the real roots 1/3 and −2\\.{{Clear\\|left}}",
"### Finding roots using paper folding",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Find roots of 3x3\\+2x2−7x\\+2](/wiki/File:Lill_method_folding_example.svg \"Lill method folding example.svg\")\nIn 1936 [Margherita Piazzola Beloch](/wiki/Margherita_Piazzola_Beloch \"Margherita Piazzola Beloch\") showed how Lill's method could be adapted to solve cubic equations using [paper folding](/wiki/Paper_folding \"Paper folding\").{{cite journal \\|title\\=Solving Cubics With Creases: The Work of Beloch and Lill \\|author\\=Thomas C. Hull\\|url\\=http://mars.wne.edu/\\~thull/papers/amer.math.monthly.118\\.04\\.307\\-hull.pdf\\|journal\\=American Mathematical Monthly \\|date\\=April 2011\\|volume\\=118\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=307–315\\|doi\\=10\\.4169/amer.math.monthly.118\\.04\\.307\\|s2cid\\=2540978}} If simultaneous folds are allowed then any *n*th degree equation with a real root can be solved using *n*–2 simultaneous folds.{{cite journal \\|title\\=One\\-, Two\\-, and Multi\\-Fold Origami Axioms\\|url\\=http://www.math.sjsu.edu/\\~alperin/AlperinLang.pdf \\|author1\\=Roger C. Alperin \\|author2\\=Robert J. Lang \\|journal\\=4OSME\\|publisher\\=A K Peters \\|year\\=2009}}",
"In this example with 3x3\\+2x2−7x\\+2, the polynomial's line segments are first drawn on a sheet of paper (black). Lines passing through reflections of the start and end points in the second and third segments, respectively (faint circle and square), and parallel to them (grey lines) are drawn.",
"For each root, the paper is folded until the start point (black circle) and end point (black square) are reflected onto these lines. The axis of reflection (dash\\-dot line) defines the angled path corresponding to the root (blue, purple and red). The negative of the gradients of their first segments, *m*, yield the real roots 1/3, 1 and −2\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{Infobox rail service
\| box\_width \=
\| name \= ''Transalpin (1958—2010\)''
\| logo \=
\| logo\_width \=
\| image \= ÖBB EC 162 in Innsbruck Hbf.jpg
\| image\_width \=
\| caption \= ÖBB EC 162 in \[\[Innsbruck Hauptbahnhof\|Innsbruck Hbf]]
\| type \= Triebwagenschnellzug
(1958–1977\)
Expresszug
(1977–1987\)
\[\[EuroCity]]
(1987–2010\)
ÖBB\-EuroCity
\| status \= Discontinued
\| locale \= \[\[Austria]]
\[\[Switzerland]]
\| predecessor \=
\| first \= {{start date\|1958\|06\|01\|df\=y}}
\| last \= {{end date\|2010\|06\|13\|df\=y}}
\| successor \= \[\[Railjet]]
\| operator \=
\| formeroperator \= \[\[ÖBB]]
\[\[SBB\-CFF\-FFS]]
\| ridership \=
\| start \= \[\[Wien Westbahnhof\|Wien Westbf]]
\| stops \=
\| end \= \[\[Zürich Hauptbahnhof\|Zürich HB]] / \[\[Basel SBB railway station\|Basel SBB]]
\| distance \=
\| journeytime \=
\| frequency \= Daily
\| trainnumber \= TS 11/12
TS 462/463
Ex 462/463
EC 62, 63
EC 162/ÖBB\-EC 162
EC 163/ÖBB\-EC 163
\| line\_used \=
\| class \=
\| access \=
\| seating \=
\| sleeping \=
\| autorack \=
\| catering \=
\| observation \=
\| entertainment \=
\| baggage \=
\| otherfacilities \=
\| stock \=
\| gauge \= {{RailGauge\|sg}}
\| el \= 15 \[\[Volt\|kV]] \[\[Alternating current\|AC]], 16\.7 \[\[Hertz\|Hz]]
\| speed \=
\| owners \=
\| routenumber \=
\| map \= \[\[File:Transalpin.jpg\|250px]]
\| map\_state \= show
}}
[thumb\|left\|A [Class 4010](/wiki/%C3%96BB_Class_4010 "ÖBB Class 4010") with the *Transalpin* at [Basel SBB](/wiki/Basel_SBB_railway_station "Basel SBB railway station"), 1970\.\|alt\=A Class 4010 with the Transalpin at Basel SBB, 1970\.](/wiki/File:BhfBasel_Transalpin_26_3_1970.jpg "BhfBasel Transalpin 26 3 1970.jpg")
The *Transalpin* was first introduced in 1958, it was operated by the [Austrian Federal Railways](/wiki/Austrian_Federal_Railways "Austrian Federal Railways") (ÖBB) and the [Swiss Federal Railways](/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Railways "Swiss Federal Railways") (SBB\-CFF\-FFS). For most of its life, it ran between [Wien Westbf](/wiki/Wien_Westbahnhof "Wien Westbahnhof") in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), Austria, and [Basel SBB](/wiki/Basel_SBB_railway_station "Basel SBB railway station") in Switzerland. In 1987, it was designated a [EuroCity](/wiki/EuroCity "EuroCity") train.*[Thomas Cook Continental Timetable](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_Continental_Timetable "Thomas Cook Continental Timetable")* (May 31 \- June 30, 1987 edition), pp. 472, 475\. UK: Thomas Cook Publishing. In 2008, it was cut back from Basel SBB to [Zürich HB](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich_Hauptbahnhof "Zürich Hauptbahnhof"), Switzerland. It was discontinued in June 2010, and replaced by a [Railjet](/wiki/Railjet "Railjet") service.*[Thomas Cook European Rail Timetable](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_European_Timetable "Thomas Cook European Timetable")* (May 2010 edition), pp. 89, 583\. UK: Thomas Cook Publishing.
From 1 June 1958 until 13 June 2010, the *Transalpin* was a showpiece of the ÖBB and the SBB. Introduced the year after the *[Trans Europ Express](/wiki/Trans_Europ_Express "Trans Europ Express")* (TEE) network was set up in 1957, it had both first\- and second\-class accommodation, and therefore did not meet the "first class only" requirements to be a TEE.
Throughout its history, the *Transalpin* ran daily in both directions. Until the 2000s, it was always one of the fastest railway connections, with the fewest intermediate stops, in its area of operation.
The initial train numbers of the *Transalpin* were TS 11/12, and its original route was Wien Westbf to Zürich HB. In 1959, the route was extended to [Basel (SBB station)](/wiki/Basel_SBB_railway_station "Basel SBB railway station"). When it became a EuroCity train, in 1987, its train numbers became EC 62 westbound and EC 63 eastbound.
To save time and the need for the train to reverse direction during its journey, the *Transalpin* did not stop at [Salzburg Hauptbahnhof](/wiki/Salzburg_Hauptbahnhof "Salzburg Hauptbahnhof") initially, but ran via the curve from [Elixhausen](/wiki/Elixhausen "Elixhausen") to Salzburg\-[Gnigl](/wiki/Gnigl "Gnigl"), and stopped at [Salzburg Aigen](/wiki/Aigen_%28Salzburg_city_district%29 "Aigen (Salzburg city district)"). Even today, this curve, which is now used mainly by goods trains, is known by the name *Transalpin\-Schleife* (*Transalpin* curve).
In 1969, the route was changed. From then onwards, the *Transalpin* ran from the [Western Railway](/wiki/Western_Railway_%28Austria%29 "Western Railway (Austria)") at [Salzburg Hbf](/wiki/Salzburg_Hauptbahnhof "Salzburg Hauptbahnhof") to [Wörgl](/wiki/W%C3%B6rgl_Hauptbahnhof "Wörgl Hauptbahnhof") via the [Deutsche Bundesbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbahn "Deutsche Bundesbahn") (DB)–owned [Rosenheim–Salzburg](/wiki/Rosenheim%E2%80%93Salzburg_railway "Rosenheim–Salzburg railway") and [Rosenheim–Kufstein railways](/wiki/Rosenheim%E2%80%93Kufstein_railway "Rosenheim–Kufstein railway"), instead of along the previous route via [Bischofshofen](/wiki/Bischofshofen "Bischofshofen") and [Zell am See](/wiki/Zell_am_See "Zell am See") ([Gisela railway](/wiki/Salzburg-Tyrol_Railway "Salzburg-Tyrol Railway")).Bufe (2009\), p 44\."Stop Press" (changes taking effect). *[Thomas Cook Continental Timetable](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_Continental_Timetable "Thomas Cook Continental Timetable")* (June 1969 edition), p. 107; also pp. 322, 326–327\. Thomas Cook Publishing. As the *Transalpin* had no scheduled stops in Germany, it was operated there as a so\-called *[Korridorzug](/wiki/Korridorzug "Korridorzug")* or "privilege train", a train in which (in the period before the [Schengen Agreement](/wiki/Schengen_Agreement "Schengen Agreement")) the passport and customs checks that would otherwise be required were not applicable. Until the construction of the "{{Interlanguage link multi\|Rosenheim Curve\|de\|3\=Rosenheimer Schleife}}" in 1982, the train had been reversed at [Rosenheim](/wiki/Rosenheim_station "Rosenheim station").
In 1975, a writer for [Fodor's](/wiki/Fodor%27s "Fodor's") [travel guides](/wiki/Guide_book "Guide book") described the *Transalpin* as "one of the best trains in Europe for mountain scenery".{{cite book \| author\=Tennant, David D. \| editor1\=Eugene Fodor \| editor1\-link\=Eugene Fodor (writer) \| editor2\=Robert C. Fisher \| title\=Fodor's Europe 1975 \| year\=1975 \| chapter\=Planning Your Trip: Rail Travel in Europe \| page\=97 \| series\=\[\[Fodor's\|Fodor's Guides]] \| publisher\=\[\[David McKay Publications\|David McKay Company]] \| location\=New York\|isbn\=}}
In 1980, a trip on the *Transalpin* from Zürich to Vienna was featured in "Changing Trains", the final episode in Series 1 of *[Great Railway Journeys of the World](/wiki/Great_Railway_Journeys_of_the_World "Great Railway Journeys of the World")*, a [BBC TV](/wiki/BBC_Television "BBC Television") [travel documentary](/wiki/Travel_documentary "Travel documentary"). The "Changing Trains" trip, which formed part of a longer journey from Paris to Budapest, was also described in the book published to complement the TV series. In the book, [Eric Robson](/wiki/Eric_Robson "Eric Robson"), the presenter and author of "Changing Trains", commented that the *Transalpin*, as of 1980, was simply the best train that the ÖBB had to offer, "... the star of this single main line to the east."Robson (1981\), p. 180
When the [EuroCity](/wiki/EuroCity "EuroCity") network was launched on 31 May 1987, the *Transalpin* was among the previously existing international express trains to be redesignated as EuroCity trains.
In June 2010, the *Transalpin* was replaced by the "[Railjet](/wiki/Railjet "Railjet") 162" and "Railjet 163", which run to approximately the same timetable.Mauerer (2009\), p 628\. In the timetable period 2013/2014, five pairs of Railjets connect Zürich and Vienna.
### Route (historic)
In 2009/2010 the route of the *Transalpin* was as follows:
* [Wien Westbf](/wiki/Wien_Westbahnhof "Wien Westbahnhof") – [Wien Hütteldorf](/wiki/Wien_H%C3%BCtteldorf_railway_station "Wien Hütteldorf railway station") (ÖBB EC 163 only) – [St. Pölten Hbf](/wiki/St._P%C3%B6lten_Hauptbahnhof "St. Pölten Hauptbahnhof") – [Linz Hbf](/wiki/Linz_Hauptbahnhof "Linz Hauptbahnhof") – [Salzburg Hbf](/wiki/Salzburg_Hauptbahnhof "Salzburg Hauptbahnhof") – [Innsbruck Hbf](/wiki/Innsbruck_Hauptbahnhof "Innsbruck Hauptbahnhof") – [Landeck\-Zams](/wiki/Landeck-Zams_railway_station "Landeck-Zams railway station") – [Bludenz](/wiki/Bludenz_railway_station "Bludenz railway station") – [Feldkirch](/wiki/Feldkirch_railway_station "Feldkirch railway station") – [Buchs](/wiki/Buchs_SG_railway_station "Buchs SG railway station") – [Sargans](/wiki/Sargans "Sargans") – [Zürich HB](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich_Hauptbahnhof "Zürich Hauptbahnhof")
The train reversed its direction at Buchs SG. In the westbound EC 162, the [first\-class cars](/wiki/Travel_class%23Trains "Travel class#Trains") were marshalled at the front of the train from Buchs to Zurich, and in the eastbound ÖBB\-EC 163, they were at the front of the train from Buchs to Vienna. This arrangement meant that at the two termini, both of which were [terminal stations](/wiki/Terminal_station "Terminal station"), the first\-class cars were always closer to the [station concourse](/wiki/Station_concourse "Station concourse").
At times when there were interruptions on the [Arlberg line](/wiki/Arlberg_railway "Arlberg railway") due to railway construction work, or as a consequence of natural disasters – such as avalanches and debris flows, or between August and December 2005 after [storm damage](/wiki/2005_European_floods "2005 European floods") – the *Transalpin* was substantially diverted between Salzburg and Bregenz via [München Hbf](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchen_Hauptbahnhof "München Hauptbahnhof"), the [Munich–Buchloe](/wiki/Munich%E2%80%93Buchloe_railway "Munich–Buchloe railway") and the [Buchloe–Lindau railways](/wiki/Buchloe%E2%80%93Lindau_railway "Buchloe–Lindau railway").
### Train formation (historic)
Initially, the *Transalpin* was operated by a four\-member fleet of four\-car {{Interlanguage link multi\|ÖBB Class 4130{{!}}Class 4130\|de\|3\=ÖBB 4130}} [electric multiple units](/wiki/Electric_multiple_unit "Electric multiple unit"), which had been procured specifically for the purpose. The Class 4130 was a development of the [Class 4030](/wiki/%C3%96BB_Class_4030 "ÖBB Class 4030"), but had a higher capacity and top speed, and its [control car](/wiki/Control_car_%28rail%29 "Control car (rail)") was equipped with a kitchen.
In 1965, the ÖBB replaced the *Transalpin'''s Class 4130s with three six\-car {{Interlanguage link multi\|ÖBB Class 4010{{!}}Class 4010\|de\|3\=ÖBB 4010}} multiple units, which, again, had been procured specifically for the purpose.*
[thumb\|Interior of an SBB\-CFF\-FFS panorama car.\|alt\=Interior of an SBB\-CFF\-FFS panorama car.](/wiki/File:SBB-panorama-interior.jpg "SBB-panorama-interior.jpg")
In May 1977, the Class 4010s were replaced with a locomotive\-hauled train formation ([consist](/wiki/Consist "Consist")).*[Thomas Cook International Timetable](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_European_Timetable "Thomas Cook European Timetable")* (May 22–June 30, 1977 edition), p. 515\. UK: Thomas Cook Publishing.
On the first day of the new arrangement, 21 May, the Transalpin *consisted of an [ÖBB Class 1042](/wiki/%C3%96BB_Class_1042 "ÖBB Class 1042") electric locomotive, five ÖBB Schlieren coaches, one DB WRümh [restaurant car](/wiki/Restaurant_car "Restaurant car") (ex\-*[Rheingold](/wiki/Rheingold_%28train%29 "Rheingold (train)")'') and six additional ÖBB Schlieren coaches.
From the following day, 22 May 1977, the train, now operating as Ex 462/463, was made up of 12 ÖBB Z1 ([Eurofima](/wiki/Eurofima_coach "Eurofima coach")) coaches, one WRümh and three DB RIC coaches.
On the ascending [grades](/wiki/Grade_%28slope%29 "Grade (slope)") of the [Arlberg railway](/wiki/Arlberg_railway "Arlberg railway"), the eastbound locomotive\-hauled train often received assistance from a [pilot](/wiki/Double-heading "Double-heading") or [banking locomotive](/wiki/Bank_engine "Bank engine").
In the 1990s, an SBB\-CFF\-FFS first\-class panorama car was added to the train. In some of the annual schedules, the train received an additional SBB Am or Apm first class coach and the restaurant was an internationally equipped SBB WRm of the EWIV family. Between 1995 and 2009, this train used the SBB WRm with pantograph, for plugging electricity directly on the 15 KV AC low frequency catenaries, during longs stops for change locomotives in Buchs SG and Zürich HBF (not electricity in others coaches during changing locomotives). This is the same operation in others stations, like Innsbruck when OBB conveys others coach, like POST luggage van (POST Gepäckwagen), or Measuring electrotechnical coach (Elektroteknische OBB Messwagen).
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{Infobox rail service\n\\| box\\_width \\= \n\\| name \\= ''Transalpin (1958—2010\\)''\n\\| logo \\= \n\\| logo\\_width \\= \n\\| image \\= ÖBB EC 162 in Innsbruck Hbf.jpg\n\\| image\\_width \\= \n\\| caption \\= ÖBB EC 162 in \\[\\[Innsbruck Hauptbahnhof\\|Innsbruck Hbf]]\n\\| type \\= Triebwagenschnellzug \n(1958–1977\\) \nExpresszug \n(1977–1987\\) \n\\[\\[EuroCity]] \n(1987–2010\\) \nÖBB\\-EuroCity\n\\| status \\= Discontinued\n\\| locale \\= \\[\\[Austria]] \n\\[\\[Switzerland]]\n\\| predecessor \\= \n\\| first \\= {{start date\\|1958\\|06\\|01\\|df\\=y}}\n\\| last \\= {{end date\\|2010\\|06\\|13\\|df\\=y}}\n\\| successor \\= \\[\\[Railjet]]\n\\| operator \\= \n\\| formeroperator \\= \\[\\[ÖBB]] \n\\[\\[SBB\\-CFF\\-FFS]]\n\\| ridership \\= \n\\| start \\= \\[\\[Wien Westbahnhof\\|Wien Westbf]]\n\\| stops \\= \n\\| end \\= \\[\\[Zürich Hauptbahnhof\\|Zürich HB]] / \\[\\[Basel SBB railway station\\|Basel SBB]]\n\\| distance \\= \n\\| journeytime \\= \n\\| frequency \\= Daily\n\\| trainnumber \\= TS 11/12 \nTS 462/463 \nEx 462/463 \nEC 62, 63 \nEC 162/ÖBB\\-EC 162 \nEC 163/ÖBB\\-EC 163 \n\\| line\\_used \\= \n\\| class \\= \n\\| access \\= \n\\| seating \\= \n\\| sleeping \\= \n\\| autorack \\= \n\\| catering \\= \n\\| observation \\= \n\\| entertainment \\= \n\\| baggage \\= \n\\| otherfacilities \\= \n\\| stock \\= \n\\| gauge \\= {{RailGauge\\|sg}}\n\\| el \\= 15 \\[\\[Volt\\|kV]] \\[\\[Alternating current\\|AC]], 16\\.7 \\[\\[Hertz\\|Hz]]\n\\| speed \\= \n\\| owners \\= \n\\| routenumber \\= \n\\| map \\= \\[\\[File:Transalpin.jpg\\|250px]]\n\\| map\\_state \\= show\n}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|A [Class 4010](/wiki/%C3%96BB_Class_4010 \"ÖBB Class 4010\") with the *Transalpin* at [Basel SBB](/wiki/Basel_SBB_railway_station \"Basel SBB railway station\"), 1970\\.\\|alt\\=A Class 4010 with the Transalpin at Basel SBB, 1970\\.](/wiki/File:BhfBasel_Transalpin_26_3_1970.jpg \"BhfBasel Transalpin 26 3 1970.jpg\")\nThe *Transalpin* was first introduced in 1958, it was operated by the [Austrian Federal Railways](/wiki/Austrian_Federal_Railways \"Austrian Federal Railways\") (ÖBB) and the [Swiss Federal Railways](/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Railways \"Swiss Federal Railways\") (SBB\\-CFF\\-FFS). For most of its life, it ran between [Wien Westbf](/wiki/Wien_Westbahnhof \"Wien Westbahnhof\") in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), Austria, and [Basel SBB](/wiki/Basel_SBB_railway_station \"Basel SBB railway station\") in Switzerland. In 1987, it was designated a [EuroCity](/wiki/EuroCity \"EuroCity\") train.*[Thomas Cook Continental Timetable](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_Continental_Timetable \"Thomas Cook Continental Timetable\")* (May 31 \\- June 30, 1987 edition), pp. 472, 475\\. UK: Thomas Cook Publishing. In 2008, it was cut back from Basel SBB to [Zürich HB](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich_Hauptbahnhof \"Zürich Hauptbahnhof\"), Switzerland. It was discontinued in June 2010, and replaced by a [Railjet](/wiki/Railjet \"Railjet\") service.*[Thomas Cook European Rail Timetable](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_European_Timetable \"Thomas Cook European Timetable\")* (May 2010 edition), pp. 89, 583\\. UK: Thomas Cook Publishing.",
"From 1 June 1958 until 13 June 2010, the *Transalpin* was a showpiece of the ÖBB and the SBB. Introduced the year after the *[Trans Europ Express](/wiki/Trans_Europ_Express \"Trans Europ Express\")* (TEE) network was set up in 1957, it had both first\\- and second\\-class accommodation, and therefore did not meet the \"first class only\" requirements to be a TEE.",
"Throughout its history, the *Transalpin* ran daily in both directions. Until the 2000s, it was always one of the fastest railway connections, with the fewest intermediate stops, in its area of operation.",
"The initial train numbers of the *Transalpin* were TS 11/12, and its original route was Wien Westbf to Zürich HB. In 1959, the route was extended to [Basel (SBB station)](/wiki/Basel_SBB_railway_station \"Basel SBB railway station\"). When it became a EuroCity train, in 1987, its train numbers became EC 62 westbound and EC 63 eastbound.",
"To save time and the need for the train to reverse direction during its journey, the *Transalpin* did not stop at [Salzburg Hauptbahnhof](/wiki/Salzburg_Hauptbahnhof \"Salzburg Hauptbahnhof\") initially, but ran via the curve from [Elixhausen](/wiki/Elixhausen \"Elixhausen\") to Salzburg\\-[Gnigl](/wiki/Gnigl \"Gnigl\"), and stopped at [Salzburg Aigen](/wiki/Aigen_%28Salzburg_city_district%29 \"Aigen (Salzburg city district)\"). Even today, this curve, which is now used mainly by goods trains, is known by the name *Transalpin\\-Schleife* (*Transalpin* curve).",
"In 1969, the route was changed. From then onwards, the *Transalpin* ran from the [Western Railway](/wiki/Western_Railway_%28Austria%29 \"Western Railway (Austria)\") at [Salzburg Hbf](/wiki/Salzburg_Hauptbahnhof \"Salzburg Hauptbahnhof\") to [Wörgl](/wiki/W%C3%B6rgl_Hauptbahnhof \"Wörgl Hauptbahnhof\") via the [Deutsche Bundesbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbahn \"Deutsche Bundesbahn\") (DB)–owned [Rosenheim–Salzburg](/wiki/Rosenheim%E2%80%93Salzburg_railway \"Rosenheim–Salzburg railway\") and [Rosenheim–Kufstein railways](/wiki/Rosenheim%E2%80%93Kufstein_railway \"Rosenheim–Kufstein railway\"), instead of along the previous route via [Bischofshofen](/wiki/Bischofshofen \"Bischofshofen\") and [Zell am See](/wiki/Zell_am_See \"Zell am See\") ([Gisela railway](/wiki/Salzburg-Tyrol_Railway \"Salzburg-Tyrol Railway\")).Bufe (2009\\), p 44\\.\"Stop Press\" (changes taking effect). *[Thomas Cook Continental Timetable](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_Continental_Timetable \"Thomas Cook Continental Timetable\")* (June 1969 edition), p. 107; also pp. 322, 326–327\\. Thomas Cook Publishing. As the *Transalpin* had no scheduled stops in Germany, it was operated there as a so\\-called *[Korridorzug](/wiki/Korridorzug \"Korridorzug\")* or \"privilege train\", a train in which (in the period before the [Schengen Agreement](/wiki/Schengen_Agreement \"Schengen Agreement\")) the passport and customs checks that would otherwise be required were not applicable. Until the construction of the \"{{Interlanguage link multi\\|Rosenheim Curve\\|de\\|3\\=Rosenheimer Schleife}}\" in 1982, the train had been reversed at [Rosenheim](/wiki/Rosenheim_station \"Rosenheim station\").",
"In 1975, a writer for [Fodor's](/wiki/Fodor%27s \"Fodor's\") [travel guides](/wiki/Guide_book \"Guide book\") described the *Transalpin* as \"one of the best trains in Europe for mountain scenery\".{{cite book \\| author\\=Tennant, David D. \\| editor1\\=Eugene Fodor \\| editor1\\-link\\=Eugene Fodor (writer) \\| editor2\\=Robert C. Fisher \\| title\\=Fodor's Europe 1975 \\| year\\=1975 \\| chapter\\=Planning Your Trip: Rail Travel in Europe \\| page\\=97 \\| series\\=\\[\\[Fodor's\\|Fodor's Guides]] \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[David McKay Publications\\|David McKay Company]] \\| location\\=New York\\|isbn\\=}}",
"In 1980, a trip on the *Transalpin* from Zürich to Vienna was featured in \"Changing Trains\", the final episode in Series 1 of *[Great Railway Journeys of the World](/wiki/Great_Railway_Journeys_of_the_World \"Great Railway Journeys of the World\")*, a [BBC TV](/wiki/BBC_Television \"BBC Television\") [travel documentary](/wiki/Travel_documentary \"Travel documentary\"). The \"Changing Trains\" trip, which formed part of a longer journey from Paris to Budapest, was also described in the book published to complement the TV series. In the book, [Eric Robson](/wiki/Eric_Robson \"Eric Robson\"), the presenter and author of \"Changing Trains\", commented that the *Transalpin*, as of 1980, was simply the best train that the ÖBB had to offer, \"... the star of this single main line to the east.\"Robson (1981\\), p. 180",
"When the [EuroCity](/wiki/EuroCity \"EuroCity\") network was launched on 31 May 1987, the *Transalpin* was among the previously existing international express trains to be redesignated as EuroCity trains.",
"In June 2010, the *Transalpin* was replaced by the \"[Railjet](/wiki/Railjet \"Railjet\") 162\" and \"Railjet 163\", which run to approximately the same timetable.Mauerer (2009\\), p 628\\. In the timetable period 2013/2014, five pairs of Railjets connect Zürich and Vienna.",
"### Route (historic)",
"In 2009/2010 the route of the *Transalpin* was as follows:\n* [Wien Westbf](/wiki/Wien_Westbahnhof \"Wien Westbahnhof\") – [Wien Hütteldorf](/wiki/Wien_H%C3%BCtteldorf_railway_station \"Wien Hütteldorf railway station\") (ÖBB EC 163 only) – [St. Pölten Hbf](/wiki/St._P%C3%B6lten_Hauptbahnhof \"St. Pölten Hauptbahnhof\") – [Linz Hbf](/wiki/Linz_Hauptbahnhof \"Linz Hauptbahnhof\") – [Salzburg Hbf](/wiki/Salzburg_Hauptbahnhof \"Salzburg Hauptbahnhof\") – [Innsbruck Hbf](/wiki/Innsbruck_Hauptbahnhof \"Innsbruck Hauptbahnhof\") – [Landeck\\-Zams](/wiki/Landeck-Zams_railway_station \"Landeck-Zams railway station\") – [Bludenz](/wiki/Bludenz_railway_station \"Bludenz railway station\") – [Feldkirch](/wiki/Feldkirch_railway_station \"Feldkirch railway station\") – [Buchs](/wiki/Buchs_SG_railway_station \"Buchs SG railway station\") – [Sargans](/wiki/Sargans \"Sargans\") – [Zürich HB](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich_Hauptbahnhof \"Zürich Hauptbahnhof\")",
"The train reversed its direction at Buchs SG. In the westbound EC 162, the [first\\-class cars](/wiki/Travel_class%23Trains \"Travel class#Trains\") were marshalled at the front of the train from Buchs to Zurich, and in the eastbound ÖBB\\-EC 163, they were at the front of the train from Buchs to Vienna. This arrangement meant that at the two termini, both of which were [terminal stations](/wiki/Terminal_station \"Terminal station\"), the first\\-class cars were always closer to the [station concourse](/wiki/Station_concourse \"Station concourse\").",
"At times when there were interruptions on the [Arlberg line](/wiki/Arlberg_railway \"Arlberg railway\") due to railway construction work, or as a consequence of natural disasters – such as avalanches and debris flows, or between August and December 2005 after [storm damage](/wiki/2005_European_floods \"2005 European floods\") – the *Transalpin* was substantially diverted between Salzburg and Bregenz via [München Hbf](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchen_Hauptbahnhof \"München Hauptbahnhof\"), the [Munich–Buchloe](/wiki/Munich%E2%80%93Buchloe_railway \"Munich–Buchloe railway\") and the [Buchloe–Lindau railways](/wiki/Buchloe%E2%80%93Lindau_railway \"Buchloe–Lindau railway\").",
"### Train formation (historic)",
"Initially, the *Transalpin* was operated by a four\\-member fleet of four\\-car {{Interlanguage link multi\\|ÖBB Class 4130{{!}}Class 4130\\|de\\|3\\=ÖBB 4130}} [electric multiple units](/wiki/Electric_multiple_unit \"Electric multiple unit\"), which had been procured specifically for the purpose. The Class 4130 was a development of the [Class 4030](/wiki/%C3%96BB_Class_4030 \"ÖBB Class 4030\"), but had a higher capacity and top speed, and its [control car](/wiki/Control_car_%28rail%29 \"Control car (rail)\") was equipped with a kitchen.",
"In 1965, the ÖBB replaced the *Transalpin'''s Class 4130s with three six\\-car {{Interlanguage link multi\\|ÖBB Class 4010{{!}}Class 4010\\|de\\|3\\=ÖBB 4010}} multiple units, which, again, had been procured specifically for the purpose.*",
"[thumb\\|Interior of an SBB\\-CFF\\-FFS panorama car.\\|alt\\=Interior of an SBB\\-CFF\\-FFS panorama car.](/wiki/File:SBB-panorama-interior.jpg \"SBB-panorama-interior.jpg\")\nIn May 1977, the Class 4010s were replaced with a locomotive\\-hauled train formation ([consist](/wiki/Consist \"Consist\")).*[Thomas Cook International Timetable](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_European_Timetable \"Thomas Cook European Timetable\")* (May 22–June 30, 1977 edition), p. 515\\. UK: Thomas Cook Publishing.\nOn the first day of the new arrangement, 21 May, the Transalpin *consisted of an [ÖBB Class 1042](/wiki/%C3%96BB_Class_1042 \"ÖBB Class 1042\") electric locomotive, five ÖBB Schlieren coaches, one DB WRümh [restaurant car](/wiki/Restaurant_car \"Restaurant car\") (ex\\-*[Rheingold](/wiki/Rheingold_%28train%29 \"Rheingold (train)\")'') and six additional ÖBB Schlieren coaches.",
"From the following day, 22 May 1977, the train, now operating as Ex 462/463, was made up of 12 ÖBB Z1 ([Eurofima](/wiki/Eurofima_coach \"Eurofima coach\")) coaches, one WRümh and three DB RIC coaches.",
"On the ascending [grades](/wiki/Grade_%28slope%29 \"Grade (slope)\") of the [Arlberg railway](/wiki/Arlberg_railway \"Arlberg railway\"), the eastbound locomotive\\-hauled train often received assistance from a [pilot](/wiki/Double-heading \"Double-heading\") or [banking locomotive](/wiki/Bank_engine \"Bank engine\").",
"In the 1990s, an SBB\\-CFF\\-FFS first\\-class panorama car was added to the train. In some of the annual schedules, the train received an additional SBB Am or Apm first class coach and the restaurant was an internationally equipped SBB WRm of the EWIV family. Between 1995 and 2009, this train used the SBB WRm with pantograph, for plugging electricity directly on the 15 KV AC low frequency catenaries, during longs stops for change locomotives in Buchs SG and Zürich HBF (not electricity in others coaches during changing locomotives). This is the same operation in others stations, like Innsbruck when OBB conveys others coach, like POST luggage van (POST Gepäckwagen), or Measuring electrotechnical coach (Elektroteknische OBB Messwagen).",
""
] |
Background
----------
Basra is a city of more than one million people, located in Southern Iraq. To military and economic planners, it represents a strategic objective because it sits near a port that provides access from inland Iraq to the Persian Gulf. The area around Basra itself produces much of Iraq's oil, which is processed at a local refinery. To the south\-east is [Rumaila oil field](/wiki/Rumaila_oil_field "Rumaila oil field"), which by itself contains billions of barrels worth of crude oil—14% of the world supply.Jonathan Finer, "[Key oil field falls to Marines](http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/03/22/1047749989875.html)", *The Age*, 23 March 2003\. To the north\-east is the [West Qurna Field](/wiki/West_Qurna_Field "West Qurna Field"), the second\-largest oil field in the world.
Britain captured Basra from the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") in 1914\. In 1932, Iraq became nominally independent of Britain and British troops left a few years later. During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the brief [Anglo\-Iraqi War](/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War "Anglo-Iraqi War") broke out during 1941\. British forces, unopposed, seized the city and surrounding area as a base for an advance towards Baghdad although the war came to an end before that occurred.
The city was a major target during the [Iran–Iraq War](/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War "Iran–Iraq War") of the 1980s and was bombed by the US in the 1991 [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War").
Basra was the site of a [1991 uprising](/wiki/1991_uprising_in_Basra "1991 uprising in Basra") to overthrow [Saddam Hussein](/wiki/Saddam_Hussein "Saddam Hussein") after the US had driven the Iraqi Army from Kuwait. Residents became embittered when support promised by the US did not materialize. Basra then suffered from years of sanctions and bombing, as well as bad treatment from Hussein. An Iraqi living in exile said in 2001: "Iraqis think Saddam is America's man. These people are not going to forget what has happened to them. In their eyes, it is genocide. And people do not forget genocide."Chuck Sudetic, "[The Betrayal of Basra](https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2001/11/betrayal-basra)", *Mother Jones*, November/December 2001\.
The population of Basra saw a dramatic increase in birth defects and childhood cancer during the 1990s; these illnesses and others were blamed on US [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium "Depleted uranium") munitions used in 1991\. Sanctions compounded the problem by blocking access to medical equipment and increasing the price of supplies.Robert Hirschfield, " [An Arab\-American Priest, Depleted Uranium, and Iraq](http://www.wrmea.org/wrmea-archives/278-washington-report-archives-2000-2005/november-2005/8364-special-report-an-arab-american-priest-depleted-uranium-and-iraq.html)", *Washington Report on Middle East Affairs*, November 2005\.
The United States bombed Basra routinely throughout the 1990s and leading up to the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War").[Jeremy Scahill](/wiki/Jeremy_Scahill "Jeremy Scahill"), " [Report from Basra: Iraq's Oil Belt Prepares for War](http://www.iraqjournal.org/journals/021103.html)", *Iraq Journal*, 3 November 2002\.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"Basra is a city of more than one million people, located in Southern Iraq. To military and economic planners, it represents a strategic objective because it sits near a port that provides access from inland Iraq to the Persian Gulf. The area around Basra itself produces much of Iraq's oil, which is processed at a local refinery. To the south\\-east is [Rumaila oil field](/wiki/Rumaila_oil_field \"Rumaila oil field\"), which by itself contains billions of barrels worth of crude oil—14% of the world supply.Jonathan Finer, \"[Key oil field falls to Marines](http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/03/22/1047749989875.html)\", *The Age*, 23 March 2003\\. To the north\\-east is the [West Qurna Field](/wiki/West_Qurna_Field \"West Qurna Field\"), the second\\-largest oil field in the world.",
"Britain captured Basra from the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") in 1914\\. In 1932, Iraq became nominally independent of Britain and British troops left a few years later. During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the brief [Anglo\\-Iraqi War](/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War \"Anglo-Iraqi War\") broke out during 1941\\. British forces, unopposed, seized the city and surrounding area as a base for an advance towards Baghdad although the war came to an end before that occurred.",
"The city was a major target during the [Iran–Iraq War](/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War \"Iran–Iraq War\") of the 1980s and was bombed by the US in the 1991 [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\").",
"Basra was the site of a [1991 uprising](/wiki/1991_uprising_in_Basra \"1991 uprising in Basra\") to overthrow [Saddam Hussein](/wiki/Saddam_Hussein \"Saddam Hussein\") after the US had driven the Iraqi Army from Kuwait. Residents became embittered when support promised by the US did not materialize. Basra then suffered from years of sanctions and bombing, as well as bad treatment from Hussein. An Iraqi living in exile said in 2001: \"Iraqis think Saddam is America's man. These people are not going to forget what has happened to them. In their eyes, it is genocide. And people do not forget genocide.\"Chuck Sudetic, \"[The Betrayal of Basra](https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2001/11/betrayal-basra)\", *Mother Jones*, November/December 2001\\.",
"The population of Basra saw a dramatic increase in birth defects and childhood cancer during the 1990s; these illnesses and others were blamed on US [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium \"Depleted uranium\") munitions used in 1991\\. Sanctions compounded the problem by blocking access to medical equipment and increasing the price of supplies.Robert Hirschfield, \" [An Arab\\-American Priest, Depleted Uranium, and Iraq](http://www.wrmea.org/wrmea-archives/278-washington-report-archives-2000-2005/november-2005/8364-special-report-an-arab-american-priest-depleted-uranium-and-iraq.html)\", *Washington Report on Middle East Affairs*, November 2005\\.",
"The United States bombed Basra routinely throughout the 1990s and leading up to the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\").[Jeremy Scahill](/wiki/Jeremy_Scahill \"Jeremy Scahill\"), \" [Report from Basra: Iraq's Oil Belt Prepares for War](http://www.iraqjournal.org/journals/021103.html)\", *Iraq Journal*, 3 November 2002\\.",
""
] |
A New War
---------
{{Further\|Preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq}}
Basrans learned of the planned invasion in late 2002 began to prepare for an attack—forming militias and building fortifications.
Regular bombings of Basra continued during this period." [US warplanes bomb Iraq's Basra airport](http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=15189)", *Press Trust of India*, 27 September 2002\.
### Basra targeted
The US declared Basra as one of its first targets of the war.Paul McGeough , "[In the way of the war](http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/02/28/1046407749738.html)", *Sydney Morning Herald*, 1 March 2003\.
Spokespeople for the [US military](/wiki/US_military "US military") told the media that Basra's [Shi'ite](/wiki/Shi%27ite "Shi'ite") population would welcome the invading forces and rise up against Saddam Hussein. This claim played a role in the [public relations campaign](/wiki/Public_relations_preparations_for_2003_invasion_of_Iraq "Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq") conducted by the US and UK governments to win public support for the war.Kevin Canfield and Tara Weiss, "[Quick Taking of Basra May Also Help War Image](https://www.courant.com/2003/03/19/quick-taking-of-basra-may-also-help-war-image/)", *Hartford Courant*, 19 March 2003\.Brendan O'Neill, "[Military disengagement](http://www.spiked-online.com/articles/00000006DCE2.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115141816/http://www.spiked\-online.com/Articles/00000006DCE2\.htm \|date\=15 November 2011 }}", *Spiked*, 18 March 2003\.
Among Iraqi cities, Basra "would be one that would fall quickly and would yield immediate photogenic results," said US military historian Raymond Callahan.
"Basra is a prime target. It would give a clear message to the regime—we have got your oil and commercial centre," said Colonel Christopher Langton of the [International Institute of Strategic Studies](/wiki/International_Institute_of_Strategic_Studies "International Institute of Strategic Studies").Richard Norton\-Taylor, Ewen MacAskill, Terry Macalister and Rory McCarthy, "[British elite troops push towards Basra](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/21/iraq.ewenmacaskill1)", *The Guardian*, 20 March 2003\.
### Approach
[thumb\|A Challenger 2 crosses into Iraq, 21 March 2003\.](/wiki/File:A_Challenger_2_crosses_into_Iraq._21-03-2003_MOD_45142823.jpg "A Challenger 2 crosses into Iraq. 21-03-2003 MOD 45142823.jpg")
US and UK forces entered Iraq from Kuwait on 19 March (20 March UTC), approaching Basra on the road that had become notorious as the "[Highway of Death](/wiki/Highway_of_Death "Highway of Death")" during the Gulf War."[The battle for Basra](http://www.scotsman.com/news/international/the-battle-for-basra-1-873533)", *Scotsman*, 22 March 2003\. The invading army reportedly moved slowly down the highway, having created a [traffic jam](/wiki/Traffic_jam "Traffic jam") of military vehicles."[Allied forces take Basra airport, bridge](http://www.wistv.com/Global/story.asp?S=1188090) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070255/http://www.wistv.com/Global/story.asp?S\=1188090 \|date\=4 March 2016 }}", *WIST* (AP), 20 March 2003\.
The first fighting of the declared invasion took place on the oilfields and coastline near Basra.Robert Fox, "[The war has started](https://www.standard.co.uk/news/the-war-has-started-7221096.html)", *London Evening Standard*, 19 March 2003\.
Some fires had already been started at the oil fields. Three fires were visible from across the border in Kuwait."[Flames light up sky above Basra](http://www.iol.co.za/news/world/flames-light-up-sky-above-basra-1.103445#.UbJ8hJyNB-o)", *IOL News*, 20 March 2003\. US Defense Secretary [Donald Rumsfeld](/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld "Donald Rumsfeld") blamed Hussein and said: "It is a crime for that regime to be destroying the riches of the Iraqi people."
The immediate objective for the Coalition forces was to control [Basra](/wiki/Basra "Basra") and the nearby [Rumaila oil field](/wiki/Rumaila_oil_field "Rumaila oil field"). By the 22 March, US Marines had gained control of the oil field.Ellen Knickmyer \& Ranjan Roy, "[(b)loomin' battleFIELDS](http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2003-03-23/news/27550923_1_basra-british-troops-iraqi-capital)", *Economic Times*, 23 March 2003\.
Aircraft dropped leaflets on Basra urging Iraqi soldiers to surrender; some did.David Willis, "[Applause as Marines enter Basra](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2875777.stm)", BBC, 22 March 2003\.
On the 23 March, two soldiers of the [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers "Royal Engineers"), 33 Engineer Regiment (Sapper Luke Allsopp and Staff Sergeant Simon Cullingworth) were captured in an ambush by Fedayeen fighters on the outskirts of Basra; both were later murdered.{{cite news \|title\=UK military deaths in Iraq \|work\=BBC News \|date\=21 July 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406015252/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-10637526 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-06 \|url\-status\=live \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-10637526}}
On the 24 March, Lance Corporal Barry Stephen from the 1st Battalion, [Black Watch Regiment](/wiki/Black_Watch_Regiment "Black Watch Regiment") was killed when a rocket\-propelled grenade exploded near his armoured vehicle in an action at Al\-Zubayr, near Basra.[Scotland says goodbye to fallen Black Watch hero](http://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/spl/aberdeen/scotland-says-goodbye-to-fallen-black-watch-hero-perth-at-standstill-for-lance-corporal-1.120599)[Roll Of Honour For UK's Fallen](http://news.sky.com/story/173201/roll-of-honour-for-uks-fallen) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019031044/http://news.sky.com/story/173201/roll\-of\-honour\-for\-uks\-fallen \|date\=19 October 2014 }}
On the 25 March, a [Challenger 2](/wiki/Challenger_2 "Challenger 2") tank was hit by 'friendly fire' from another British tank outside Basra, killing two British soldiers (Corporal Stephen John Allbutt and Trooper Jeffrey Clarke).
On the 27 March 12 Challenger 2 tanks of C squadron, Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, supporting [40 Commandos](/wiki/40_Commando "40 Commando") advance from al\-Faw to Basra, engaged and destroyed 14 Iraqi T\-55 tanks, members of 40 Commando also fought brief firefights with Fedayeen fighters and came under fire from [Iranian border guards](/wiki/Border_Guard_Command_%28Iran%29 "Border Guard Command (Iran)").Rossiter, Mike, *Target Basra* , Corgi, 2009 {{ISBN\|0552157007}} {{ISBN\|978\-0552157001}}, p.253\-55{{cite book\|title\=An Eyewitness Report \- Operation Iraqi Freedom: Victory in Baghdad\|chapter\=Clash of Armor: Challengers vs T\-55s\|first\=Yves\|last\=Debay\|author\-link\=Yves Debay\|publisher\=Concord Publication\|isbn\=978\-962\-361\-067\-4\|date\=2003\|series\=Special Obs 27\|pages\=51–57}}
|
[
"A New War\n---------",
"{{Further\\|Preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq}}",
"Basrans learned of the planned invasion in late 2002 began to prepare for an attack—forming militias and building fortifications.",
"Regular bombings of Basra continued during this period.\" [US warplanes bomb Iraq's Basra airport](http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=15189)\", *Press Trust of India*, 27 September 2002\\.",
"### Basra targeted",
"The US declared Basra as one of its first targets of the war.Paul McGeough , \"[In the way of the war](http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/02/28/1046407749738.html)\", *Sydney Morning Herald*, 1 March 2003\\.",
"Spokespeople for the [US military](/wiki/US_military \"US military\") told the media that Basra's [Shi'ite](/wiki/Shi%27ite \"Shi'ite\") population would welcome the invading forces and rise up against Saddam Hussein. This claim played a role in the [public relations campaign](/wiki/Public_relations_preparations_for_2003_invasion_of_Iraq \"Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq\") conducted by the US and UK governments to win public support for the war.Kevin Canfield and Tara Weiss, \"[Quick Taking of Basra May Also Help War Image](https://www.courant.com/2003/03/19/quick-taking-of-basra-may-also-help-war-image/)\", *Hartford Courant*, 19 March 2003\\.Brendan O'Neill, \"[Military disengagement](http://www.spiked-online.com/articles/00000006DCE2.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115141816/http://www.spiked\\-online.com/Articles/00000006DCE2\\.htm \\|date\\=15 November 2011 }}\", *Spiked*, 18 March 2003\\.",
"Among Iraqi cities, Basra \"would be one that would fall quickly and would yield immediate photogenic results,\" said US military historian Raymond Callahan.",
"\"Basra is a prime target. It would give a clear message to the regime—we have got your oil and commercial centre,\" said Colonel Christopher Langton of the [International Institute of Strategic Studies](/wiki/International_Institute_of_Strategic_Studies \"International Institute of Strategic Studies\").Richard Norton\\-Taylor, Ewen MacAskill, Terry Macalister and Rory McCarthy, \"[British elite troops push towards Basra](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/21/iraq.ewenmacaskill1)\", *The Guardian*, 20 March 2003\\.",
"### Approach",
"[thumb\\|A Challenger 2 crosses into Iraq, 21 March 2003\\.](/wiki/File:A_Challenger_2_crosses_into_Iraq._21-03-2003_MOD_45142823.jpg \"A Challenger 2 crosses into Iraq. 21-03-2003 MOD 45142823.jpg\")\nUS and UK forces entered Iraq from Kuwait on 19 March (20 March UTC), approaching Basra on the road that had become notorious as the \"[Highway of Death](/wiki/Highway_of_Death \"Highway of Death\")\" during the Gulf War.\"[The battle for Basra](http://www.scotsman.com/news/international/the-battle-for-basra-1-873533)\", *Scotsman*, 22 March 2003\\. The invading army reportedly moved slowly down the highway, having created a [traffic jam](/wiki/Traffic_jam \"Traffic jam\") of military vehicles.\"[Allied forces take Basra airport, bridge](http://www.wistv.com/Global/story.asp?S=1188090) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070255/http://www.wistv.com/Global/story.asp?S\\=1188090 \\|date\\=4 March 2016 }}\", *WIST* (AP), 20 March 2003\\.",
"The first fighting of the declared invasion took place on the oilfields and coastline near Basra.Robert Fox, \"[The war has started](https://www.standard.co.uk/news/the-war-has-started-7221096.html)\", *London Evening Standard*, 19 March 2003\\.",
"Some fires had already been started at the oil fields. Three fires were visible from across the border in Kuwait.\"[Flames light up sky above Basra](http://www.iol.co.za/news/world/flames-light-up-sky-above-basra-1.103445#.UbJ8hJyNB-o)\", *IOL News*, 20 March 2003\\. US Defense Secretary [Donald Rumsfeld](/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld \"Donald Rumsfeld\") blamed Hussein and said: \"It is a crime for that regime to be destroying the riches of the Iraqi people.\"",
"The immediate objective for the Coalition forces was to control [Basra](/wiki/Basra \"Basra\") and the nearby [Rumaila oil field](/wiki/Rumaila_oil_field \"Rumaila oil field\"). By the 22 March, US Marines had gained control of the oil field.Ellen Knickmyer \\& Ranjan Roy, \"[(b)loomin' battleFIELDS](http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2003-03-23/news/27550923_1_basra-british-troops-iraqi-capital)\", *Economic Times*, 23 March 2003\\.",
"Aircraft dropped leaflets on Basra urging Iraqi soldiers to surrender; some did.David Willis, \"[Applause as Marines enter Basra](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2875777.stm)\", BBC, 22 March 2003\\.",
"On the 23 March, two soldiers of the [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers \"Royal Engineers\"), 33 Engineer Regiment (Sapper Luke Allsopp and Staff Sergeant Simon Cullingworth) were captured in an ambush by Fedayeen fighters on the outskirts of Basra; both were later murdered.{{cite news \\|title\\=UK military deaths in Iraq \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=21 July 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406015252/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-10637526 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-06 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-10637526}}",
"On the 24 March, Lance Corporal Barry Stephen from the 1st Battalion, [Black Watch Regiment](/wiki/Black_Watch_Regiment \"Black Watch Regiment\") was killed when a rocket\\-propelled grenade exploded near his armoured vehicle in an action at Al\\-Zubayr, near Basra.[Scotland says goodbye to fallen Black Watch hero](http://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/spl/aberdeen/scotland-says-goodbye-to-fallen-black-watch-hero-perth-at-standstill-for-lance-corporal-1.120599)[Roll Of Honour For UK's Fallen](http://news.sky.com/story/173201/roll-of-honour-for-uks-fallen) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019031044/http://news.sky.com/story/173201/roll\\-of\\-honour\\-for\\-uks\\-fallen \\|date\\=19 October 2014 }}",
"On the 25 March, a [Challenger 2](/wiki/Challenger_2 \"Challenger 2\") tank was hit by 'friendly fire' from another British tank outside Basra, killing two British soldiers (Corporal Stephen John Allbutt and Trooper Jeffrey Clarke).",
"On the 27 March 12 Challenger 2 tanks of C squadron, Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, supporting [40 Commandos](/wiki/40_Commando \"40 Commando\") advance from al\\-Faw to Basra, engaged and destroyed 14 Iraqi T\\-55 tanks, members of 40 Commando also fought brief firefights with Fedayeen fighters and came under fire from [Iranian border guards](/wiki/Border_Guard_Command_%28Iran%29 \"Border Guard Command (Iran)\").Rossiter, Mike, *Target Basra* , Corgi, 2009 {{ISBN\\|0552157007}} {{ISBN\\|978\\-0552157001}}, p.253\\-55{{cite book\\|title\\=An Eyewitness Report \\- Operation Iraqi Freedom: Victory in Baghdad\\|chapter\\=Clash of Armor: Challengers vs T\\-55s\\|first\\=Yves\\|last\\=Debay\\|author\\-link\\=Yves Debay\\|publisher\\=Concord Publication\\|isbn\\=978\\-962\\-361\\-067\\-4\\|date\\=2003\\|series\\=Special Obs 27\\|pages\\=51–57}}",
""
] |
Siege
-----
Coalition forces met with unexpected resistance in Basra and environs. After a few days of combat, most of the invading American troops moved northwards, leaving Basra under a multi\-week siege led by the British—considered better suited because of their past experiences in Iraq and [Northern Ireland](/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles").Keith B. Richburg, "[Basra standoff raises concern about Baghdad](http://old.post-gazette.com/World/20030330basraworld5p5.asp) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626223537/http://old.post\-gazette.com/World/20030330basraworld5p5\.asp \|date\=26 June 2019 }}", *Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette*, 30 March 2003\.Richard Sanders, "[The myth of 'shock and awe': why the Iraqi invasion was a disaster](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/9933587/The-myth-of-shock-and-awe-why-the-Iraqi-invasion-was-a-disaster.html)", *The Telegraph* (UK), 19 March 2013\. A few members of D Squadron, British [SAS](/wiki/Special_Air_Service "Special Air Service"), were deployed to southern Iraq to support the coalition advance on Basra, the team infiltrated the city and brought in strikes on the Ba'athist loyalist leadership.{{cite book\|last\=Urban\|first\=Mark\|title\=Task Force Black: The Explosive True Story of the Secret Special Forces War in Iraq\|location\=St. Martin's\|publisher\=Griffin\|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-1250006967\|page\=9}}
### Humanitarian crisis
Water and electricity became scarce after most of Basra's electrical infrastructure was destroyed on 21 March. On the 24 March, the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross "International Committee of the Red Cross") announced that 60% of Basra's population had been cut off from clean water, and warned of a coming “humanitarian crisis”.David Batty, " [Iraqi city suffers water shortage](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/mar/24/iraq.disasterresponse)", *The Guardian*, 24 March 2003\.Karen MacPherson, "[Residents in Basra could die of thirst without relief supplies](http://old.post-gazette.com/World/20030328helpbasraworld4p4.asp) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301074511/http://old.post\-gazette.com/World/20030328helpbasraworld4p4\.asp \|date\=1 March 2019 }}", *Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette*, 28 March 2003\.Shaoni Bhattacharya, "[Catastrophe looms as Basra remains without water](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3545-catastrophe-looms-as-basra-remains-without-water.html)", *New Scientist*, 25 March 2003\. *[Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network "Al Jazeera Media Network")* reported on the 27 March that Anglo\-American forces had blocked the city's supply of drinking water, and were preventing the Red Cross from restoring access.”US, UK shell Nasiriyah homes, obstruct Basra water – Al\-Jazeera”, *BBC Monitoring Newsfile*, 27 March 2003; accessed [via ProQuest](http://search.proquest.com/docview/452488661), 7 June 2013\.
US Deputy Secretary of Defense [Paul Wolfowitz](/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz "Paul Wolfowitz") said on the 31 March:Hisham Melhem, “[Wolfowitz Interview with Al Arabiya](http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO0303/S00472.htm)”, *Al Arabiya*, 31 March 2003; reproduced at *Scoop.co.nz*.
> There seems to be a water problem in Basra but it should be very clear it's not because of anything we did. There's been no bombing of Basra. It seems to be something the regime did. The Red Cross has been in there and we're told that 70 percent of the water supply has been restored. The Kuwaitis are laying a pipe up to the border with water and we're going to pipe it on up to the city.
{{cite web\|last1\=Norland\|first1\=Rod\|title\=Slow progress\|url\=http://www.newsweek.com/slow\-progress\-134241\|website\=newsweek\|date\=2003\-04\-28}}
Many actions were undertaken and the Red cross and British Royal Engineers co\-operated in ensuring supplies were maintained even if they were reduced for a period of time.
A [Center for Economic and Social Rights](/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Rights "Center for Economic and Social Rights") report claimed that the “Anglo\-American blockade deprived one million residents of access to safe drinking water for almost two weeks”. Meanwhile, [UNICEF](/wiki/UNICEF "UNICEF") officials warned that "there are 100,000 children in Basra at risk for severe fever and death because one water treatment plant stopped functioning."[Center for Economic and Social Rights](/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Rights "Center for Economic and Social Rights"), “ [US/UK Military Forces Risk Committing War Crimes by Depriving Civilians of Safe WaterSpecial Report: Water Under Siege in Iraq: US/UK Military Forces Risk Committing War Crimes by Depriving Civilians of Safe Water](http://www.cl-netz.de/foren/cl.politik.frieden/IRAQ-USA:-Water-under-Siege-in-Iraq-10899.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040006/http://www.cl\-netz.de/foren/cl.politik.frieden/IRAQ\-USA%3A\-Water\-under\-Siege\-in\-Iraq\-10899\.pdf \|date\=4 March 2016 }}”, 6 April 2003\.
Spokespeople for the Coalition forces said that humanitarian aid shipments were nearby and available, but it was not yet possible to transport or distribute them to the city.Ewen MacAskill, “ [Crisis in Basra as troops fail to create corridor for aid](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/mar/25/iraq.disasterresponse/print)”, *The Guardian* 25 March 2003\.
British engineers attributed the shortages to plundering and long\-term decay of infrastructure.Andrew Taylor, “'Looting and neglect' cut Basra's power and water”, *Financial Times*, 30 April 2003; accessed [via ProQuest](http://search.proquest.com/docview/249480976), 8 June 2013\.
### Aerial bombing
The invading forces (including the [Royal Australian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force "Royal Australian Air Force")) used bombing and [psychological warfare](/wiki/Psychological_warfare "Psychological warfare") during the siege.James Dao, "[British seek revolution in Basra](http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/03/30/1048962645873.html)", *Sydney Morning Herald*, 31 March 2003\.
On the 5 April, US bombers targeted the residential al\-Tuwaisi area of downtown Basra—reportedly attempting to kill [Ali Hassan al\-Majid](/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid "Ali Hassan al-Majid") (a.k.a. “Chemical Ali”). Al\-Majid was not present, but 17 civilians were killed by one of two 500\-pound laser\-guided bombs dropped by US planes.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), pp. 28–33 .
### Cluster bombs
[Cluster bombs](/wiki/Cluster_bombs "Cluster bombs") are internationally banned because they can leave unexploded “bomblets” which, like landmines, pose an ongoing threat to civilians. The UK did not acknowledge any use of cluster bombs until 3 April, at which time it maintained that these bombs were not used near dense civilian populations. Colonel Chris Vernon stated: "We are not using cluster munitions, for obvious collateral damage reasons, in and around Basra."” [UK forces uses cluster bombs: British forces say cluster bombs have been used in the Iraq conflict but not in built up areas in and around Basra.](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2912105.stm)”, *BBC*, 3 April 2003\.” [UK troops deny using cluster bombs near Basra](http://www.iol.co.za/news/world/uk-troops-deny-using-cluster-bombs-near-basra-1.104198#.UbKmufnD7jE)”, *IOL News*, 3 April 2003\. On 7 April, UK Secretary of Defence [Geoff Hoon](/wiki/Geoff_Hoon "Geoff Hoon") said he was “confident that the right balance \[had] been struck” between avoiding civilian casualties and protecting Coalition troops.Hansard Debate Archive, UK Parliament, [7 April 2003](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmhansrd/vo030407/debtext/30407-08.htm).
On the 28 May, Britain said it had used cluster bombs in Basra. According to Armed Forces Minister [Adam Ingram](/wiki/Adam_Ingram_%28Labour_politician%29 "Adam Ingram (Labour politician)"): "We said they would be targeted on specific military targets. There were troops, there was equipment in and around the built\-up areas, therefore the bombs were used accordingly to take out the threat to our troops." Ingram acknowledged using more 2000 cluster bomb projectiles on Basra.Richard Norton\-Taylor, “[Basra troops used cluster bombs](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/may/30/iraq.richardnortontaylor)”, *The Guardian*, 29 May 2003\. These were mostly L20A1 artillery shells, fired from the ground—each containing 49 smaller explosives.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 82\. About 102,900 individual grenades were therefore fired. According to the UK Ministry of Defense, 2% of these (around 2050\) were “duds” that did not explode immediately.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 104\.
UK cluster bombs caused "dozens" of civilian casualties in Basra during the first few days of battle. Human Rights Watch reported:Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), pp. 90–92 .
> U.K. forces caused dozens of civilian casualties when they used ground\-launched cluster munitions in and around Basra. A trio of neighborhoods in the southern part of the city was particularly hard hit. At noon on March 23, a cluster strike hit Hay al\-Muhandissin al\-Kubra (the engineers’ district) while \`Abbas Kadhim, 13, was throwing out the garbage. He had acute injuries to his bowel and liver, and a fragment that could not be removed lodged near his heart. On May 4, he was still in Basra’s al Jumhuriyya Hospital. Three hours later, submunitions blanketed the neighborhood of al\-Mishraq al Jadid about two\-and\-a\-half kilometers (one\-and\-a\-half miles) northeast. Iyad Jassim Ibrahim, a 26\-year\-old carpenter, was sleeping in the front room of his home when shrapnel injuries caused him to lose consciousness. He later died in surgery. Ten relatives who were sleeping elsewhere in the house suffered shrapnel injuries. Across the street, the cluster strike injured three children.
The attack also left dud grenades scattered through Basra. Some of these injured children who picked them up.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 107\. Others injured UK troops later tasked with cleanup.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 111\.
Children were also injured by “dud” grenades fired by the Iraqi military.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 109\.
British [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers "Royal Engineers") undertook an operation to search for and dispose of any stray grenades over a number of weeks. This proved effective.
### Landmines
The Iraqi military used antipersonnel and anti\-vehicle [landmines](/wiki/Landmines "Landmines") to obstruct the Coalition advance and to fortify urban positions. These mines caused civilian and military casualties.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), pp. 70–72\.
### Depleted uranium
US and UK forces both used [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium "Depleted uranium") munitions in the course of the battle.
Basra officials contested the use of these weapons, saying that depleted uranium used during the 1991 Gulf War was responsible for birth defects and cancer among the city's population. US munitions director Colonel James Naughton explicitly addressed concerns about the poisonous effects of these weapons, saying that Iraq had exaggerated these claims in order to avoid fighting against the weapon:Michael Woods, “[Army stands by depleted uranium use: Weapons penetrate armor](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=P2lPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NQQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5332,2934245&hl=en)”, *Toledo Blade*, 25 March 2003\.
> The Iraqis tell us terrible things happened to our people because you used it last time. Why do they want it to go away? They want it to go away because we kicked the crap out of them—OK?
### "Friendly Fire" incident
{{Main\|190th Fighter Squadron, Blues and Royals friendly fire incident}}
On the 28 March 2003, a US [Fairchild Republic A\-10 Thunderbolt](/wiki/Fairchild_Republic_A-10_Thunderbolt_II "Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II") mistakenly attacked and destroyed two British [Scimitar](/wiki/FV107_Scimitar "FV107 Scimitar") reconnaissance vehicles in a "[friendly fire](/wiki/Friendly_fire "Friendly fire")" incident. One British soldier was killed and several were wounded.”[Wounded British soldiers condemn US 'cowboy' pilot](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/31/iraq5)”, *The Guardian*, 30 March 2003\. This incident provoked controversy in the British media and was later judged to be an "[unlawful killing](/wiki/Unlawful_killing "Unlawful killing")."
### Other events
On the 24 March, there were reports of a major uprising against Ba'athist rule in the city but were suppressed by Republican Guard and Ba'ath Party militia; who were under the command of Ali Hassan al\-Majid (a.k.a. “Chemical Ali”).Rossiter, Mike, *Target Basra* , Corgi, 2009 {{ISBN\|0552157007}} {{ISBN\|978\-0552157001}}, p.260
British paratroopers fought two companies of Iraqi infantry in the Rumaila oil fields, killing or wounding about two\-hundred.”[12 explosions hit western Baghdad](http://www.rte.ie/news/2003/0331/36717-iraq/)”, *RTÉ News*, 31 March 2003\. The Paras called in close air support from RAF Harriers and US A10 “tankbusters” during the battle.
|
[
"Siege\n-----",
"Coalition forces met with unexpected resistance in Basra and environs. After a few days of combat, most of the invading American troops moved northwards, leaving Basra under a multi\\-week siege led by the British—considered better suited because of their past experiences in Iraq and [Northern Ireland](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\").Keith B. Richburg, \"[Basra standoff raises concern about Baghdad](http://old.post-gazette.com/World/20030330basraworld5p5.asp) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626223537/http://old.post\\-gazette.com/World/20030330basraworld5p5\\.asp \\|date\\=26 June 2019 }}\", *Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette*, 30 March 2003\\.Richard Sanders, \"[The myth of 'shock and awe': why the Iraqi invasion was a disaster](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/9933587/The-myth-of-shock-and-awe-why-the-Iraqi-invasion-was-a-disaster.html)\", *The Telegraph* (UK), 19 March 2013\\. A few members of D Squadron, British [SAS](/wiki/Special_Air_Service \"Special Air Service\"), were deployed to southern Iraq to support the coalition advance on Basra, the team infiltrated the city and brought in strikes on the Ba'athist loyalist leadership.{{cite book\\|last\\=Urban\\|first\\=Mark\\|title\\=Task Force Black: The Explosive True Story of the Secret Special Forces War in Iraq\\|location\\=St. Martin's\\|publisher\\=Griffin\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-1250006967\\|page\\=9}}",
"### Humanitarian crisis",
"Water and electricity became scarce after most of Basra's electrical infrastructure was destroyed on 21 March. On the 24 March, the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross \"International Committee of the Red Cross\") announced that 60% of Basra's population had been cut off from clean water, and warned of a coming “humanitarian crisis”.David Batty, \" [Iraqi city suffers water shortage](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/mar/24/iraq.disasterresponse)\", *The Guardian*, 24 March 2003\\.Karen MacPherson, \"[Residents in Basra could die of thirst without relief supplies](http://old.post-gazette.com/World/20030328helpbasraworld4p4.asp) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301074511/http://old.post\\-gazette.com/World/20030328helpbasraworld4p4\\.asp \\|date\\=1 March 2019 }}\", *Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette*, 28 March 2003\\.Shaoni Bhattacharya, \"[Catastrophe looms as Basra remains without water](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3545-catastrophe-looms-as-basra-remains-without-water.html)\", *New Scientist*, 25 March 2003\\. *[Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network \"Al Jazeera Media Network\")* reported on the 27 March that Anglo\\-American forces had blocked the city's supply of drinking water, and were preventing the Red Cross from restoring access.”US, UK shell Nasiriyah homes, obstruct Basra water – Al\\-Jazeera”, *BBC Monitoring Newsfile*, 27 March 2003; accessed [via ProQuest](http://search.proquest.com/docview/452488661), 7 June 2013\\.",
"US Deputy Secretary of Defense [Paul Wolfowitz](/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz \"Paul Wolfowitz\") said on the 31 March:Hisham Melhem, “[Wolfowitz Interview with Al Arabiya](http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO0303/S00472.htm)”, *Al Arabiya*, 31 March 2003; reproduced at *Scoop.co.nz*.",
"",
"> There seems to be a water problem in Basra but it should be very clear it's not because of anything we did. There's been no bombing of Basra. It seems to be something the regime did. The Red Cross has been in there and we're told that 70 percent of the water supply has been restored. The Kuwaitis are laying a pipe up to the border with water and we're going to pipe it on up to the city.",
"{{cite web\\|last1\\=Norland\\|first1\\=Rod\\|title\\=Slow progress\\|url\\=http://www.newsweek.com/slow\\-progress\\-134241\\|website\\=newsweek\\|date\\=2003\\-04\\-28}}\nMany actions were undertaken and the Red cross and British Royal Engineers co\\-operated in ensuring supplies were maintained even if they were reduced for a period of time.",
"A [Center for Economic and Social Rights](/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Rights \"Center for Economic and Social Rights\") report claimed that the “Anglo\\-American blockade deprived one million residents of access to safe drinking water for almost two weeks”. Meanwhile, [UNICEF](/wiki/UNICEF \"UNICEF\") officials warned that \"there are 100,000 children in Basra at risk for severe fever and death because one water treatment plant stopped functioning.\"[Center for Economic and Social Rights](/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Rights \"Center for Economic and Social Rights\"), “ [US/UK Military Forces Risk Committing War Crimes by Depriving Civilians of Safe WaterSpecial Report: Water Under Siege in Iraq: US/UK Military Forces Risk Committing War Crimes by Depriving Civilians of Safe Water](http://www.cl-netz.de/foren/cl.politik.frieden/IRAQ-USA:-Water-under-Siege-in-Iraq-10899.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040006/http://www.cl\\-netz.de/foren/cl.politik.frieden/IRAQ\\-USA%3A\\-Water\\-under\\-Siege\\-in\\-Iraq\\-10899\\.pdf \\|date\\=4 March 2016 }}”, 6 April 2003\\.",
"Spokespeople for the Coalition forces said that humanitarian aid shipments were nearby and available, but it was not yet possible to transport or distribute them to the city.Ewen MacAskill, “ [Crisis in Basra as troops fail to create corridor for aid](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/mar/25/iraq.disasterresponse/print)”, *The Guardian* 25 March 2003\\.",
"British engineers attributed the shortages to plundering and long\\-term decay of infrastructure.Andrew Taylor, “'Looting and neglect' cut Basra's power and water”, *Financial Times*, 30 April 2003; accessed [via ProQuest](http://search.proquest.com/docview/249480976), 8 June 2013\\.",
"### Aerial bombing",
"The invading forces (including the [Royal Australian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force \"Royal Australian Air Force\")) used bombing and [psychological warfare](/wiki/Psychological_warfare \"Psychological warfare\") during the siege.James Dao, \"[British seek revolution in Basra](http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/03/30/1048962645873.html)\", *Sydney Morning Herald*, 31 March 2003\\.",
"On the 5 April, US bombers targeted the residential al\\-Tuwaisi area of downtown Basra—reportedly attempting to kill [Ali Hassan al\\-Majid](/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid \"Ali Hassan al-Majid\") (a.k.a. “Chemical Ali”). Al\\-Majid was not present, but 17 civilians were killed by one of two 500\\-pound laser\\-guided bombs dropped by US planes.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), pp. 28–33 .",
"### Cluster bombs",
"[Cluster bombs](/wiki/Cluster_bombs \"Cluster bombs\") are internationally banned because they can leave unexploded “bomblets” which, like landmines, pose an ongoing threat to civilians. The UK did not acknowledge any use of cluster bombs until 3 April, at which time it maintained that these bombs were not used near dense civilian populations. Colonel Chris Vernon stated: \"We are not using cluster munitions, for obvious collateral damage reasons, in and around Basra.\"” [UK forces uses cluster bombs: British forces say cluster bombs have been used in the Iraq conflict but not in built up areas in and around Basra.](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2912105.stm)”, *BBC*, 3 April 2003\\.” [UK troops deny using cluster bombs near Basra](http://www.iol.co.za/news/world/uk-troops-deny-using-cluster-bombs-near-basra-1.104198#.UbKmufnD7jE)”, *IOL News*, 3 April 2003\\. On 7 April, UK Secretary of Defence [Geoff Hoon](/wiki/Geoff_Hoon \"Geoff Hoon\") said he was “confident that the right balance \\[had] been struck” between avoiding civilian casualties and protecting Coalition troops.Hansard Debate Archive, UK Parliament, [7 April 2003](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmhansrd/vo030407/debtext/30407-08.htm).",
"On the 28 May, Britain said it had used cluster bombs in Basra. According to Armed Forces Minister [Adam Ingram](/wiki/Adam_Ingram_%28Labour_politician%29 \"Adam Ingram (Labour politician)\"): \"We said they would be targeted on specific military targets. There were troops, there was equipment in and around the built\\-up areas, therefore the bombs were used accordingly to take out the threat to our troops.\" Ingram acknowledged using more 2000 cluster bomb projectiles on Basra.Richard Norton\\-Taylor, “[Basra troops used cluster bombs](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/may/30/iraq.richardnortontaylor)”, *The Guardian*, 29 May 2003\\. These were mostly L20A1 artillery shells, fired from the ground—each containing 49 smaller explosives.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 82\\. About 102,900 individual grenades were therefore fired. According to the UK Ministry of Defense, 2% of these (around 2050\\) were “duds” that did not explode immediately.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 104\\.",
"UK cluster bombs caused \"dozens\" of civilian casualties in Basra during the first few days of battle. Human Rights Watch reported:Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), pp. 90–92 .",
"",
"> U.K. forces caused dozens of civilian casualties when they used ground\\-launched cluster munitions in and around Basra. A trio of neighborhoods in the southern part of the city was particularly hard hit. At noon on March 23, a cluster strike hit Hay al\\-Muhandissin al\\-Kubra (the engineers’ district) while \\`Abbas Kadhim, 13, was throwing out the garbage. He had acute injuries to his bowel and liver, and a fragment that could not be removed lodged near his heart. On May 4, he was still in Basra’s al Jumhuriyya Hospital. Three hours later, submunitions blanketed the neighborhood of al\\-Mishraq al Jadid about two\\-and\\-a\\-half kilometers (one\\-and\\-a\\-half miles) northeast. Iyad Jassim Ibrahim, a 26\\-year\\-old carpenter, was sleeping in the front room of his home when shrapnel injuries caused him to lose consciousness. He later died in surgery. Ten relatives who were sleeping elsewhere in the house suffered shrapnel injuries. Across the street, the cluster strike injured three children.",
"The attack also left dud grenades scattered through Basra. Some of these injured children who picked them up.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 107\\. Others injured UK troops later tasked with cleanup.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 111\\.",
"Children were also injured by “dud” grenades fired by the Iraqi military.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 109\\.",
"British [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers \"Royal Engineers\") undertook an operation to search for and dispose of any stray grenades over a number of weeks. This proved effective.",
"### Landmines",
"The Iraqi military used antipersonnel and anti\\-vehicle [landmines](/wiki/Landmines \"Landmines\") to obstruct the Coalition advance and to fortify urban positions. These mines caused civilian and military casualties.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), pp. 70–72\\.",
"### Depleted uranium",
"US and UK forces both used [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium \"Depleted uranium\") munitions in the course of the battle.",
"Basra officials contested the use of these weapons, saying that depleted uranium used during the 1991 Gulf War was responsible for birth defects and cancer among the city's population. US munitions director Colonel James Naughton explicitly addressed concerns about the poisonous effects of these weapons, saying that Iraq had exaggerated these claims in order to avoid fighting against the weapon:Michael Woods, “[Army stands by depleted uranium use: Weapons penetrate armor](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=P2lPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NQQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5332,2934245&hl=en)”, *Toledo Blade*, 25 March 2003\\.",
"",
"> The Iraqis tell us terrible things happened to our people because you used it last time. Why do they want it to go away? They want it to go away because we kicked the crap out of them—OK?",
"### \"Friendly Fire\" incident",
"{{Main\\|190th Fighter Squadron, Blues and Royals friendly fire incident}}\nOn the 28 March 2003, a US [Fairchild Republic A\\-10 Thunderbolt](/wiki/Fairchild_Republic_A-10_Thunderbolt_II \"Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II\") mistakenly attacked and destroyed two British [Scimitar](/wiki/FV107_Scimitar \"FV107 Scimitar\") reconnaissance vehicles in a \"[friendly fire](/wiki/Friendly_fire \"Friendly fire\")\" incident. One British soldier was killed and several were wounded.”[Wounded British soldiers condemn US 'cowboy' pilot](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/31/iraq5)”, *The Guardian*, 30 March 2003\\. This incident provoked controversy in the British media and was later judged to be an \"[unlawful killing](/wiki/Unlawful_killing \"Unlawful killing\").\"",
"### Other events",
"On the 24 March, there were reports of a major uprising against Ba'athist rule in the city but were suppressed by Republican Guard and Ba'ath Party militia; who were under the command of Ali Hassan al\\-Majid (a.k.a. “Chemical Ali”).Rossiter, Mike, *Target Basra* , Corgi, 2009 {{ISBN\\|0552157007}} {{ISBN\\|978\\-0552157001}}, p.260",
"British paratroopers fought two companies of Iraqi infantry in the Rumaila oil fields, killing or wounding about two\\-hundred.”[12 explosions hit western Baghdad](http://www.rte.ie/news/2003/0331/36717-iraq/)”, *RTÉ News*, 31 March 2003\\. The Paras called in close air support from RAF Harriers and US A10 “tankbusters” during the battle.",
""
] |
### Humanitarian crisis
Water and electricity became scarce after most of Basra's electrical infrastructure was destroyed on 21 March. On the 24 March, the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross "International Committee of the Red Cross") announced that 60% of Basra's population had been cut off from clean water, and warned of a coming “humanitarian crisis”.David Batty, " [Iraqi city suffers water shortage](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/mar/24/iraq.disasterresponse)", *The Guardian*, 24 March 2003\.Karen MacPherson, "[Residents in Basra could die of thirst without relief supplies](http://old.post-gazette.com/World/20030328helpbasraworld4p4.asp) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301074511/http://old.post\-gazette.com/World/20030328helpbasraworld4p4\.asp \|date\=1 March 2019 }}", *Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette*, 28 March 2003\.Shaoni Bhattacharya, "[Catastrophe looms as Basra remains without water](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3545-catastrophe-looms-as-basra-remains-without-water.html)", *New Scientist*, 25 March 2003\. *[Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network "Al Jazeera Media Network")* reported on the 27 March that Anglo\-American forces had blocked the city's supply of drinking water, and were preventing the Red Cross from restoring access.”US, UK shell Nasiriyah homes, obstruct Basra water – Al\-Jazeera”, *BBC Monitoring Newsfile*, 27 March 2003; accessed [via ProQuest](http://search.proquest.com/docview/452488661), 7 June 2013\.
US Deputy Secretary of Defense [Paul Wolfowitz](/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz "Paul Wolfowitz") said on the 31 March:Hisham Melhem, “[Wolfowitz Interview with Al Arabiya](http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO0303/S00472.htm)”, *Al Arabiya*, 31 March 2003; reproduced at *Scoop.co.nz*.
> There seems to be a water problem in Basra but it should be very clear it's not because of anything we did. There's been no bombing of Basra. It seems to be something the regime did. The Red Cross has been in there and we're told that 70 percent of the water supply has been restored. The Kuwaitis are laying a pipe up to the border with water and we're going to pipe it on up to the city.
{{cite web\|last1\=Norland\|first1\=Rod\|title\=Slow progress\|url\=http://www.newsweek.com/slow\-progress\-134241\|website\=newsweek\|date\=2003\-04\-28}}
Many actions were undertaken and the Red cross and British Royal Engineers co\-operated in ensuring supplies were maintained even if they were reduced for a period of time.
A [Center for Economic and Social Rights](/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Rights "Center for Economic and Social Rights") report claimed that the “Anglo\-American blockade deprived one million residents of access to safe drinking water for almost two weeks”. Meanwhile, [UNICEF](/wiki/UNICEF "UNICEF") officials warned that "there are 100,000 children in Basra at risk for severe fever and death because one water treatment plant stopped functioning."[Center for Economic and Social Rights](/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Rights "Center for Economic and Social Rights"), “ [US/UK Military Forces Risk Committing War Crimes by Depriving Civilians of Safe WaterSpecial Report: Water Under Siege in Iraq: US/UK Military Forces Risk Committing War Crimes by Depriving Civilians of Safe Water](http://www.cl-netz.de/foren/cl.politik.frieden/IRAQ-USA:-Water-under-Siege-in-Iraq-10899.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040006/http://www.cl\-netz.de/foren/cl.politik.frieden/IRAQ\-USA%3A\-Water\-under\-Siege\-in\-Iraq\-10899\.pdf \|date\=4 March 2016 }}”, 6 April 2003\.
Spokespeople for the Coalition forces said that humanitarian aid shipments were nearby and available, but it was not yet possible to transport or distribute them to the city.Ewen MacAskill, “ [Crisis in Basra as troops fail to create corridor for aid](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/mar/25/iraq.disasterresponse/print)”, *The Guardian* 25 March 2003\.
British engineers attributed the shortages to plundering and long\-term decay of infrastructure.Andrew Taylor, “'Looting and neglect' cut Basra's power and water”, *Financial Times*, 30 April 2003; accessed [via ProQuest](http://search.proquest.com/docview/249480976), 8 June 2013\.
|
[
"### Humanitarian crisis",
"Water and electricity became scarce after most of Basra's electrical infrastructure was destroyed on 21 March. On the 24 March, the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross \"International Committee of the Red Cross\") announced that 60% of Basra's population had been cut off from clean water, and warned of a coming “humanitarian crisis”.David Batty, \" [Iraqi city suffers water shortage](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/mar/24/iraq.disasterresponse)\", *The Guardian*, 24 March 2003\\.Karen MacPherson, \"[Residents in Basra could die of thirst without relief supplies](http://old.post-gazette.com/World/20030328helpbasraworld4p4.asp) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301074511/http://old.post\\-gazette.com/World/20030328helpbasraworld4p4\\.asp \\|date\\=1 March 2019 }}\", *Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette*, 28 March 2003\\.Shaoni Bhattacharya, \"[Catastrophe looms as Basra remains without water](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3545-catastrophe-looms-as-basra-remains-without-water.html)\", *New Scientist*, 25 March 2003\\. *[Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network \"Al Jazeera Media Network\")* reported on the 27 March that Anglo\\-American forces had blocked the city's supply of drinking water, and were preventing the Red Cross from restoring access.”US, UK shell Nasiriyah homes, obstruct Basra water – Al\\-Jazeera”, *BBC Monitoring Newsfile*, 27 March 2003; accessed [via ProQuest](http://search.proquest.com/docview/452488661), 7 June 2013\\.",
"US Deputy Secretary of Defense [Paul Wolfowitz](/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz \"Paul Wolfowitz\") said on the 31 March:Hisham Melhem, “[Wolfowitz Interview with Al Arabiya](http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO0303/S00472.htm)”, *Al Arabiya*, 31 March 2003; reproduced at *Scoop.co.nz*.",
"",
"> There seems to be a water problem in Basra but it should be very clear it's not because of anything we did. There's been no bombing of Basra. It seems to be something the regime did. The Red Cross has been in there and we're told that 70 percent of the water supply has been restored. The Kuwaitis are laying a pipe up to the border with water and we're going to pipe it on up to the city.",
"{{cite web\\|last1\\=Norland\\|first1\\=Rod\\|title\\=Slow progress\\|url\\=http://www.newsweek.com/slow\\-progress\\-134241\\|website\\=newsweek\\|date\\=2003\\-04\\-28}}\nMany actions were undertaken and the Red cross and British Royal Engineers co\\-operated in ensuring supplies were maintained even if they were reduced for a period of time.",
"A [Center for Economic and Social Rights](/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Rights \"Center for Economic and Social Rights\") report claimed that the “Anglo\\-American blockade deprived one million residents of access to safe drinking water for almost two weeks”. Meanwhile, [UNICEF](/wiki/UNICEF \"UNICEF\") officials warned that \"there are 100,000 children in Basra at risk for severe fever and death because one water treatment plant stopped functioning.\"[Center for Economic and Social Rights](/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Rights \"Center for Economic and Social Rights\"), “ [US/UK Military Forces Risk Committing War Crimes by Depriving Civilians of Safe WaterSpecial Report: Water Under Siege in Iraq: US/UK Military Forces Risk Committing War Crimes by Depriving Civilians of Safe Water](http://www.cl-netz.de/foren/cl.politik.frieden/IRAQ-USA:-Water-under-Siege-in-Iraq-10899.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040006/http://www.cl\\-netz.de/foren/cl.politik.frieden/IRAQ\\-USA%3A\\-Water\\-under\\-Siege\\-in\\-Iraq\\-10899\\.pdf \\|date\\=4 March 2016 }}”, 6 April 2003\\.",
"Spokespeople for the Coalition forces said that humanitarian aid shipments were nearby and available, but it was not yet possible to transport or distribute them to the city.Ewen MacAskill, “ [Crisis in Basra as troops fail to create corridor for aid](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/mar/25/iraq.disasterresponse/print)”, *The Guardian* 25 March 2003\\.",
"British engineers attributed the shortages to plundering and long\\-term decay of infrastructure.Andrew Taylor, “'Looting and neglect' cut Basra's power and water”, *Financial Times*, 30 April 2003; accessed [via ProQuest](http://search.proquest.com/docview/249480976), 8 June 2013\\.",
""
] |
### Cluster bombs
[Cluster bombs](/wiki/Cluster_bombs "Cluster bombs") are internationally banned because they can leave unexploded “bomblets” which, like landmines, pose an ongoing threat to civilians. The UK did not acknowledge any use of cluster bombs until 3 April, at which time it maintained that these bombs were not used near dense civilian populations. Colonel Chris Vernon stated: "We are not using cluster munitions, for obvious collateral damage reasons, in and around Basra."” [UK forces uses cluster bombs: British forces say cluster bombs have been used in the Iraq conflict but not in built up areas in and around Basra.](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2912105.stm)”, *BBC*, 3 April 2003\.” [UK troops deny using cluster bombs near Basra](http://www.iol.co.za/news/world/uk-troops-deny-using-cluster-bombs-near-basra-1.104198#.UbKmufnD7jE)”, *IOL News*, 3 April 2003\. On 7 April, UK Secretary of Defence [Geoff Hoon](/wiki/Geoff_Hoon "Geoff Hoon") said he was “confident that the right balance \[had] been struck” between avoiding civilian casualties and protecting Coalition troops.Hansard Debate Archive, UK Parliament, [7 April 2003](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmhansrd/vo030407/debtext/30407-08.htm).
On the 28 May, Britain said it had used cluster bombs in Basra. According to Armed Forces Minister [Adam Ingram](/wiki/Adam_Ingram_%28Labour_politician%29 "Adam Ingram (Labour politician)"): "We said they would be targeted on specific military targets. There were troops, there was equipment in and around the built\-up areas, therefore the bombs were used accordingly to take out the threat to our troops." Ingram acknowledged using more 2000 cluster bomb projectiles on Basra.Richard Norton\-Taylor, “[Basra troops used cluster bombs](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/may/30/iraq.richardnortontaylor)”, *The Guardian*, 29 May 2003\. These were mostly L20A1 artillery shells, fired from the ground—each containing 49 smaller explosives.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 82\. About 102,900 individual grenades were therefore fired. According to the UK Ministry of Defense, 2% of these (around 2050\) were “duds” that did not explode immediately.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 104\.
UK cluster bombs caused "dozens" of civilian casualties in Basra during the first few days of battle. Human Rights Watch reported:Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), pp. 90–92 .
> U.K. forces caused dozens of civilian casualties when they used ground\-launched cluster munitions in and around Basra. A trio of neighborhoods in the southern part of the city was particularly hard hit. At noon on March 23, a cluster strike hit Hay al\-Muhandissin al\-Kubra (the engineers’ district) while \`Abbas Kadhim, 13, was throwing out the garbage. He had acute injuries to his bowel and liver, and a fragment that could not be removed lodged near his heart. On May 4, he was still in Basra’s al Jumhuriyya Hospital. Three hours later, submunitions blanketed the neighborhood of al\-Mishraq al Jadid about two\-and\-a\-half kilometers (one\-and\-a\-half miles) northeast. Iyad Jassim Ibrahim, a 26\-year\-old carpenter, was sleeping in the front room of his home when shrapnel injuries caused him to lose consciousness. He later died in surgery. Ten relatives who were sleeping elsewhere in the house suffered shrapnel injuries. Across the street, the cluster strike injured three children.
The attack also left dud grenades scattered through Basra. Some of these injured children who picked them up.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 107\. Others injured UK troops later tasked with cleanup.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 111\.
Children were also injured by “dud” grenades fired by the Iraqi military.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 109\.
British [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers "Royal Engineers") undertook an operation to search for and dispose of any stray grenades over a number of weeks. This proved effective.
|
[
"### Cluster bombs",
"[Cluster bombs](/wiki/Cluster_bombs \"Cluster bombs\") are internationally banned because they can leave unexploded “bomblets” which, like landmines, pose an ongoing threat to civilians. The UK did not acknowledge any use of cluster bombs until 3 April, at which time it maintained that these bombs were not used near dense civilian populations. Colonel Chris Vernon stated: \"We are not using cluster munitions, for obvious collateral damage reasons, in and around Basra.\"” [UK forces uses cluster bombs: British forces say cluster bombs have been used in the Iraq conflict but not in built up areas in and around Basra.](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2912105.stm)”, *BBC*, 3 April 2003\\.” [UK troops deny using cluster bombs near Basra](http://www.iol.co.za/news/world/uk-troops-deny-using-cluster-bombs-near-basra-1.104198#.UbKmufnD7jE)”, *IOL News*, 3 April 2003\\. On 7 April, UK Secretary of Defence [Geoff Hoon](/wiki/Geoff_Hoon \"Geoff Hoon\") said he was “confident that the right balance \\[had] been struck” between avoiding civilian casualties and protecting Coalition troops.Hansard Debate Archive, UK Parliament, [7 April 2003](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmhansrd/vo030407/debtext/30407-08.htm).",
"On the 28 May, Britain said it had used cluster bombs in Basra. According to Armed Forces Minister [Adam Ingram](/wiki/Adam_Ingram_%28Labour_politician%29 \"Adam Ingram (Labour politician)\"): \"We said they would be targeted on specific military targets. There were troops, there was equipment in and around the built\\-up areas, therefore the bombs were used accordingly to take out the threat to our troops.\" Ingram acknowledged using more 2000 cluster bomb projectiles on Basra.Richard Norton\\-Taylor, “[Basra troops used cluster bombs](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/may/30/iraq.richardnortontaylor)”, *The Guardian*, 29 May 2003\\. These were mostly L20A1 artillery shells, fired from the ground—each containing 49 smaller explosives.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 82\\. About 102,900 individual grenades were therefore fired. According to the UK Ministry of Defense, 2% of these (around 2050\\) were “duds” that did not explode immediately.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 104\\.",
"UK cluster bombs caused \"dozens\" of civilian casualties in Basra during the first few days of battle. Human Rights Watch reported:Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), pp. 90–92 .",
"",
"> U.K. forces caused dozens of civilian casualties when they used ground\\-launched cluster munitions in and around Basra. A trio of neighborhoods in the southern part of the city was particularly hard hit. At noon on March 23, a cluster strike hit Hay al\\-Muhandissin al\\-Kubra (the engineers’ district) while \\`Abbas Kadhim, 13, was throwing out the garbage. He had acute injuries to his bowel and liver, and a fragment that could not be removed lodged near his heart. On May 4, he was still in Basra’s al Jumhuriyya Hospital. Three hours later, submunitions blanketed the neighborhood of al\\-Mishraq al Jadid about two\\-and\\-a\\-half kilometers (one\\-and\\-a\\-half miles) northeast. Iyad Jassim Ibrahim, a 26\\-year\\-old carpenter, was sleeping in the front room of his home when shrapnel injuries caused him to lose consciousness. He later died in surgery. Ten relatives who were sleeping elsewhere in the house suffered shrapnel injuries. Across the street, the cluster strike injured three children.",
"The attack also left dud grenades scattered through Basra. Some of these injured children who picked them up.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 107\\. Others injured UK troops later tasked with cleanup.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 111\\.",
"Children were also injured by “dud” grenades fired by the Iraqi military.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 109\\.",
"British [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers \"Royal Engineers\") undertook an operation to search for and dispose of any stray grenades over a number of weeks. This proved effective.",
""
] |
Aftermath
---------
Itself victimised by bombings, the Red Cross withdrew from Basra in October 2003—exacerbating ongoing health issues.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), p. 122\. On 2 September 2007, the 550 remaining British soldiers in Basra finally withdrew, doing so during the night in order to limit the risk of ambush.{{according to whom?\|date\=October 2024}}
### Unexploded ordnance
The battle left unexploded ordnance and weapons stockpiles throughout Basra and surrounding areas. These endanger children and other people who might trigger or encounter an accidental explosion.Docherty \& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\), pp. 118–120\.
### Health issues
Later investigation has found that coalition bombers used heavy metals, such as lead and mercury. These metals poisoned babies who were born in Basra after 2003, in some cases causing serious [birth defects](/wiki/Birth_defect "Birth defect").Jessica Elgot, “ [Iraqi Birth Defects: Fallujah And Basra Babies Brain Damaged After UK\-US Bombardment, Study Finds](http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/10/15/iraqi-birth-defects-babies-basrah-fallujah_n_1966498.html)”, *Huffington Post UK*, 15 October 2012; updated 5 February 2013\. A 2012 study found that babies born in Basra during 2011 were 17 times more likely to suffer from birth defects than babies born in 1995\. These defects most commonly involved damage to the central nervous system.M. Al\-Sabbak, S. Sadik Ali, O. Savabi, G. Savabi, S. Dastgiri, \& M. Savabieasfahani; [Metal Contamination and the Epidemic of Congenital Birth Defects in Iraqi Cities](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3464374/pdf/128_2012_Article_817.pdf), *Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology* 89, 2012\.Dan Murphy, [Is the detritus of the Iraq war harming the babies of Fallujah?](http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Backchannels/2012/1029/Is-the-detritus-of-the-Iraq-war-harming-the-babies-of-Fallujah), *Christian Science Monitor*, 29 October 2012\.
Childhood leukemia rates have increased substantially.Mozhgan Savabieasfahani, “ [Epidemic of birth defects in Iraq and our duty as public health researchers](http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/03/2013312175857532741.html)”, *Al Jazeera*, 15 March 2013\.Hagopian A, Lafta R, Hassan J, Davis S, Mirick D, Takaro T; “[Trends in childhood leukemia in Basrah, Iraq, 1993\-2007](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20167894)”, *American Journal of Public Health* 100(6\), June 2010\. Cancer rates have also increased overall.Jawad Al\-Ali, “Epidemiological Study at the South of Iraq (Basrah City)”, *[Cancer Trend in Basrah, Iraq](http://www.rauhanpuolustajat.fi/kuvat/seminaariraportti.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602160327/http://www.rauhanpuolustajat.fi/kuvat/seminaariraportti.pdf \|date\=2 June 2013 }}*, 12 September 2006\.
The epidemic of childhood sickness and cancer in southern Iraq has been attributed to coalition use of [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium "Depleted uranium") munitions in 2003 as well as 1991\. The Basrah area reportedly contains the country's densest concentration of sites contaminated by these weapons.Mike Ludwig, “ [Depleted Uranium Contamination is Still Spreading in Iraq](http://truth-out.org/news/item/15168-depleted-uranium-contamination-is-still-spreading-in-iraq)”, *Truthout*, 19 March 2013\. Doctors and environmental workers in Basrah had become aware of possible depleted uranium poisoning in the 1990s and begun remediation efforts; these were suspended when war broke out anew in 2003\.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), p. [28](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=28).
Epidemiological studies have been scarce and uncertainty remains about the causes and solutions to the poor health of the Basra population.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), p. [45](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=45). Doctors and government officials have identified this uncertainty itself as a source of anxiety, fear, and distrust.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), pp. [28](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=28).
Cleanup workers who later found depleted uranium rounds were asked to wear gloves and a mask, to place any rounds in water, seal the containers, and deliver them to a nearby UK military base.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), p. [30](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=30). Contaminated scrap metal also represents a major source for possible exposure.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), pp. [46–48](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=46).
The UK Ministry of Defence later released information on 51 locations in Basrah Province where it used depleted uranium munitions.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), p. [19](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=19).
|
[
"Aftermath\n---------",
"Itself victimised by bombings, the Red Cross withdrew from Basra in October 2003—exacerbating ongoing health issues.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), p. 122\\. On 2 September 2007, the 550 remaining British soldiers in Basra finally withdrew, doing so during the night in order to limit the risk of ambush.{{according to whom?\\|date\\=October 2024}}",
"### Unexploded ordnance",
"The battle left unexploded ordnance and weapons stockpiles throughout Basra and surrounding areas. These endanger children and other people who might trigger or encounter an accidental explosion.Docherty \\& Garlasco, “Off Target” (2003\\), pp. 118–120\\.",
"### Health issues",
"Later investigation has found that coalition bombers used heavy metals, such as lead and mercury. These metals poisoned babies who were born in Basra after 2003, in some cases causing serious [birth defects](/wiki/Birth_defect \"Birth defect\").Jessica Elgot, “ [Iraqi Birth Defects: Fallujah And Basra Babies Brain Damaged After UK\\-US Bombardment, Study Finds](http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/10/15/iraqi-birth-defects-babies-basrah-fallujah_n_1966498.html)”, *Huffington Post UK*, 15 October 2012; updated 5 February 2013\\. A 2012 study found that babies born in Basra during 2011 were 17 times more likely to suffer from birth defects than babies born in 1995\\. These defects most commonly involved damage to the central nervous system.M. Al\\-Sabbak, S. Sadik Ali, O. Savabi, G. Savabi, S. Dastgiri, \\& M. Savabieasfahani; [Metal Contamination and the Epidemic of Congenital Birth Defects in Iraqi Cities](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3464374/pdf/128_2012_Article_817.pdf), *Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology* 89, 2012\\.Dan Murphy, [Is the detritus of the Iraq war harming the babies of Fallujah?](http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Backchannels/2012/1029/Is-the-detritus-of-the-Iraq-war-harming-the-babies-of-Fallujah), *Christian Science Monitor*, 29 October 2012\\.",
"Childhood leukemia rates have increased substantially.Mozhgan Savabieasfahani, “ [Epidemic of birth defects in Iraq and our duty as public health researchers](http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/03/2013312175857532741.html)”, *Al Jazeera*, 15 March 2013\\.Hagopian A, Lafta R, Hassan J, Davis S, Mirick D, Takaro T; “[Trends in childhood leukemia in Basrah, Iraq, 1993\\-2007](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20167894)”, *American Journal of Public Health* 100(6\\), June 2010\\. Cancer rates have also increased overall.Jawad Al\\-Ali, “Epidemiological Study at the South of Iraq (Basrah City)”, *[Cancer Trend in Basrah, Iraq](http://www.rauhanpuolustajat.fi/kuvat/seminaariraportti.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602160327/http://www.rauhanpuolustajat.fi/kuvat/seminaariraportti.pdf \\|date\\=2 June 2013 }}*, 12 September 2006\\.",
"The epidemic of childhood sickness and cancer in southern Iraq has been attributed to coalition use of [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium \"Depleted uranium\") munitions in 2003 as well as 1991\\. The Basrah area reportedly contains the country's densest concentration of sites contaminated by these weapons.Mike Ludwig, “ [Depleted Uranium Contamination is Still Spreading in Iraq](http://truth-out.org/news/item/15168-depleted-uranium-contamination-is-still-spreading-in-iraq)”, *Truthout*, 19 March 2013\\. Doctors and environmental workers in Basrah had become aware of possible depleted uranium poisoning in the 1990s and begun remediation efforts; these were suspended when war broke out anew in 2003\\.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), p. [28](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=28).",
"Epidemiological studies have been scarce and uncertainty remains about the causes and solutions to the poor health of the Basra population.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), p. [45](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=45). Doctors and government officials have identified this uncertainty itself as a source of anxiety, fear, and distrust.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), pp. [28](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=28).",
"Cleanup workers who later found depleted uranium rounds were asked to wear gloves and a mask, to place any rounds in water, seal the containers, and deliver them to a nearby UK military base.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), p. [30](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=30). Contaminated scrap metal also represents a major source for possible exposure.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), pp. [46–48](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=46).",
"The UK Ministry of Defence later released information on 51 locations in Basrah Province where it used depleted uranium munitions.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), p. [19](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=19).",
""
] |
### Health issues
Later investigation has found that coalition bombers used heavy metals, such as lead and mercury. These metals poisoned babies who were born in Basra after 2003, in some cases causing serious [birth defects](/wiki/Birth_defect "Birth defect").Jessica Elgot, “ [Iraqi Birth Defects: Fallujah And Basra Babies Brain Damaged After UK\-US Bombardment, Study Finds](http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/10/15/iraqi-birth-defects-babies-basrah-fallujah_n_1966498.html)”, *Huffington Post UK*, 15 October 2012; updated 5 February 2013\. A 2012 study found that babies born in Basra during 2011 were 17 times more likely to suffer from birth defects than babies born in 1995\. These defects most commonly involved damage to the central nervous system.M. Al\-Sabbak, S. Sadik Ali, O. Savabi, G. Savabi, S. Dastgiri, \& M. Savabieasfahani; [Metal Contamination and the Epidemic of Congenital Birth Defects in Iraqi Cities](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3464374/pdf/128_2012_Article_817.pdf), *Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology* 89, 2012\.Dan Murphy, [Is the detritus of the Iraq war harming the babies of Fallujah?](http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Backchannels/2012/1029/Is-the-detritus-of-the-Iraq-war-harming-the-babies-of-Fallujah), *Christian Science Monitor*, 29 October 2012\.
Childhood leukemia rates have increased substantially.Mozhgan Savabieasfahani, “ [Epidemic of birth defects in Iraq and our duty as public health researchers](http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/03/2013312175857532741.html)”, *Al Jazeera*, 15 March 2013\.Hagopian A, Lafta R, Hassan J, Davis S, Mirick D, Takaro T; “[Trends in childhood leukemia in Basrah, Iraq, 1993\-2007](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20167894)”, *American Journal of Public Health* 100(6\), June 2010\. Cancer rates have also increased overall.Jawad Al\-Ali, “Epidemiological Study at the South of Iraq (Basrah City)”, *[Cancer Trend in Basrah, Iraq](http://www.rauhanpuolustajat.fi/kuvat/seminaariraportti.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602160327/http://www.rauhanpuolustajat.fi/kuvat/seminaariraportti.pdf \|date\=2 June 2013 }}*, 12 September 2006\.
The epidemic of childhood sickness and cancer in southern Iraq has been attributed to coalition use of [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium "Depleted uranium") munitions in 2003 as well as 1991\. The Basrah area reportedly contains the country's densest concentration of sites contaminated by these weapons.Mike Ludwig, “ [Depleted Uranium Contamination is Still Spreading in Iraq](http://truth-out.org/news/item/15168-depleted-uranium-contamination-is-still-spreading-in-iraq)”, *Truthout*, 19 March 2013\. Doctors and environmental workers in Basrah had become aware of possible depleted uranium poisoning in the 1990s and begun remediation efforts; these were suspended when war broke out anew in 2003\.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), p. [28](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=28).
Epidemiological studies have been scarce and uncertainty remains about the causes and solutions to the poor health of the Basra population.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), p. [45](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=45). Doctors and government officials have identified this uncertainty itself as a source of anxiety, fear, and distrust.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), pp. [28](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=28).
Cleanup workers who later found depleted uranium rounds were asked to wear gloves and a mask, to place any rounds in water, seal the containers, and deliver them to a nearby UK military base.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), p. [30](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=30). Contaminated scrap metal also represents a major source for possible exposure.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), pp. [46–48](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=46).
The UK Ministry of Defence later released information on 51 locations in Basrah Province where it used depleted uranium munitions.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\), p. [19](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=19).
|
[
"### Health issues",
"Later investigation has found that coalition bombers used heavy metals, such as lead and mercury. These metals poisoned babies who were born in Basra after 2003, in some cases causing serious [birth defects](/wiki/Birth_defect \"Birth defect\").Jessica Elgot, “ [Iraqi Birth Defects: Fallujah And Basra Babies Brain Damaged After UK\\-US Bombardment, Study Finds](http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/10/15/iraqi-birth-defects-babies-basrah-fallujah_n_1966498.html)”, *Huffington Post UK*, 15 October 2012; updated 5 February 2013\\. A 2012 study found that babies born in Basra during 2011 were 17 times more likely to suffer from birth defects than babies born in 1995\\. These defects most commonly involved damage to the central nervous system.M. Al\\-Sabbak, S. Sadik Ali, O. Savabi, G. Savabi, S. Dastgiri, \\& M. Savabieasfahani; [Metal Contamination and the Epidemic of Congenital Birth Defects in Iraqi Cities](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3464374/pdf/128_2012_Article_817.pdf), *Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology* 89, 2012\\.Dan Murphy, [Is the detritus of the Iraq war harming the babies of Fallujah?](http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Backchannels/2012/1029/Is-the-detritus-of-the-Iraq-war-harming-the-babies-of-Fallujah), *Christian Science Monitor*, 29 October 2012\\.",
"Childhood leukemia rates have increased substantially.Mozhgan Savabieasfahani, “ [Epidemic of birth defects in Iraq and our duty as public health researchers](http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/03/2013312175857532741.html)”, *Al Jazeera*, 15 March 2013\\.Hagopian A, Lafta R, Hassan J, Davis S, Mirick D, Takaro T; “[Trends in childhood leukemia in Basrah, Iraq, 1993\\-2007](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20167894)”, *American Journal of Public Health* 100(6\\), June 2010\\. Cancer rates have also increased overall.Jawad Al\\-Ali, “Epidemiological Study at the South of Iraq (Basrah City)”, *[Cancer Trend in Basrah, Iraq](http://www.rauhanpuolustajat.fi/kuvat/seminaariraportti.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602160327/http://www.rauhanpuolustajat.fi/kuvat/seminaariraportti.pdf \\|date\\=2 June 2013 }}*, 12 September 2006\\.",
"The epidemic of childhood sickness and cancer in southern Iraq has been attributed to coalition use of [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium \"Depleted uranium\") munitions in 2003 as well as 1991\\. The Basrah area reportedly contains the country's densest concentration of sites contaminated by these weapons.Mike Ludwig, “ [Depleted Uranium Contamination is Still Spreading in Iraq](http://truth-out.org/news/item/15168-depleted-uranium-contamination-is-still-spreading-in-iraq)”, *Truthout*, 19 March 2013\\. Doctors and environmental workers in Basrah had become aware of possible depleted uranium poisoning in the 1990s and begun remediation efforts; these were suspended when war broke out anew in 2003\\.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), p. [28](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=28).",
"Epidemiological studies have been scarce and uncertainty remains about the causes and solutions to the poor health of the Basra population.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), p. [45](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=45). Doctors and government officials have identified this uncertainty itself as a source of anxiety, fear, and distrust.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), pp. [28](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=28).",
"Cleanup workers who later found depleted uranium rounds were asked to wear gloves and a mask, to place any rounds in water, seal the containers, and deliver them to a nearby UK military base.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), p. [30](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=30). Contaminated scrap metal also represents a major source for possible exposure.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), pp. [46–48](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=46).",
"The UK Ministry of Defence later released information on 51 locations in Basrah Province where it used depleted uranium munitions.Zwijnenburg, *State of Uncertainty* (2013\\), p. [19](http://www.ikvpaxchristi.nl/media/files/in-a-state-of-uncertainty.pdf#page=19).",
""
] |
Today
-----
Minyip was the filming location for exterior scenes in the 2020 film *[The Dry](/wiki/The_Dry_%28film%29 "The Dry (film)")*, representing the fictional town of Kiewarra, Victoria, as well as the [television series](/wiki/Television_series "Television series") *[The Flying Doctors](/wiki/The_Flying_Doctors "The Flying Doctors")*, representing the fictional [outback](/wiki/Outback "Outback") town of Coopers Crossing. The Flying Doctors' headquarters, Cooper's Crossing Garage, and Majestic Hotel are all located on the main street of the town and still visit\-able. However, they now have alternative uses as the Minyip Senior Citizen's Centre and Guy's Coffee \& Cafe[After Sharlene Baldock's son died in a car crash, she started a cafe in his honour](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-07/road-trauma-cafe-minyip-guy-coffee-sharlene-baldock-safety/102679488), Alexander Darling, [ABC News Online](/wiki/ABC_News_Online "ABC News Online"), 2023\-08\-07 respectively and a Men's Shed.<http://www.minyip.org.au> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819123155/http://www.minyip.org.au/\|date\=2010\-08\-19}} As of 2021, the Club Hotel no longer operates as a hotel.{{Cite web\|title\=Minyip Victoria\|url\=https://www.minyip.com.au/\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-05\|website\=www.minyip.com.au\|language\=en\-gb}}{{Cite web\|title\=Minyip \- What's On?\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story\_fbid\=2849573385261266\&id\=1409538459264773\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-05\|website\=www.facebook.com\|language\=en}} In the Club Hotel, there is a room filled with Flying Doctors' memorabilia including signed scripts and props from the shows.
The town has an [Australian rules football](/wiki/Australian_rules_football "Australian rules football") team, The Minyip/Murtoa Kookaburras, competing in the [Wimmera Football League](/wiki/Wimmera_Football_League "Wimmera Football League").
Main Street currently boasts an IGA supermarket, post office/pharmacy, cafe \& takeaway, butcher, a second hand/op shop, a caravan park, art and craft groups. The Commercial Hotel and the Club Hotel are currently closed.
The children of Minyip attend a local kindergarten and primary school. There is a branch of WWHS on Church Street with a nurse on full\-time. Minyip is also the home of the [Dunmunkle](/wiki/Shire_of_Dunmunkle "Shire of Dunmunkle") Lodge Retirement Village.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.dunmunkle.com.au/\|title\=IIS7\|website\=www.dunmunkle.com.au}}
Golfers play at the course of the Minyip Golf Club on Ubergangs Road each Sunday \& Wednesday.{{Citation \| author\= Golf Select \| title \= Minyip \| url \= http://www.golfselect.com.au/armchair/courseView.aspx?course\_id\=1032 \| accessdate \= 2009\-05\-11}} There is also a bowling green, and an outdoor swimming pool.
The Minyip Lions Club is very active, as is the Historical Society. There are numerous plaques displaying the history of the town, with the biggest concentration being in the town square and outside the Senior Citizen's Centre.
Minyip hosts an annual car and motorcycle show, the Minyip Show and Shine, which has been held in the town since 2018\.{{cite web \| last\=Bate \| first\=Jade \| title\=Minyip Show and Shine 2020 set to thrill classic car, motorbike enthusiasts \| website\=The Wimmera Mail\-Times \| date\=2020\-02\-21 \| url\=https://www.mailtimes.com.au/story/6631430/minyip\-show\-and\-shine\-2020\-set\-to\-thrill/ \| access\-date\=2021\-03\-22}}
|
[
"Today\n-----",
"Minyip was the filming location for exterior scenes in the 2020 film *[The Dry](/wiki/The_Dry_%28film%29 \"The Dry (film)\")*, representing the fictional town of Kiewarra, Victoria, as well as the [television series](/wiki/Television_series \"Television series\") *[The Flying Doctors](/wiki/The_Flying_Doctors \"The Flying Doctors\")*, representing the fictional [outback](/wiki/Outback \"Outback\") town of Coopers Crossing. The Flying Doctors' headquarters, Cooper's Crossing Garage, and Majestic Hotel are all located on the main street of the town and still visit\\-able. However, they now have alternative uses as the Minyip Senior Citizen's Centre and Guy's Coffee \\& Cafe[After Sharlene Baldock's son died in a car crash, she started a cafe in his honour](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-07/road-trauma-cafe-minyip-guy-coffee-sharlene-baldock-safety/102679488), Alexander Darling, [ABC News Online](/wiki/ABC_News_Online \"ABC News Online\"), 2023\\-08\\-07 respectively and a Men's Shed.<http://www.minyip.org.au> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819123155/http://www.minyip.org.au/\\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-19}} As of 2021, the Club Hotel no longer operates as a hotel.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Minyip Victoria\\|url\\=https://www.minyip.com.au/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-05\\|website\\=www.minyip.com.au\\|language\\=en\\-gb}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Minyip \\- What's On?\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story\\_fbid\\=2849573385261266\\&id\\=1409538459264773\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-05\\|website\\=www.facebook.com\\|language\\=en}} In the Club Hotel, there is a room filled with Flying Doctors' memorabilia including signed scripts and props from the shows.",
"The town has an [Australian rules football](/wiki/Australian_rules_football \"Australian rules football\") team, The Minyip/Murtoa Kookaburras, competing in the [Wimmera Football League](/wiki/Wimmera_Football_League \"Wimmera Football League\").",
"Main Street currently boasts an IGA supermarket, post office/pharmacy, cafe \\& takeaway, butcher, a second hand/op shop, a caravan park, art and craft groups. The Commercial Hotel and the Club Hotel are currently closed.",
"The children of Minyip attend a local kindergarten and primary school. There is a branch of WWHS on Church Street with a nurse on full\\-time. Minyip is also the home of the [Dunmunkle](/wiki/Shire_of_Dunmunkle \"Shire of Dunmunkle\") Lodge Retirement Village.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dunmunkle.com.au/\\|title\\=IIS7\\|website\\=www.dunmunkle.com.au}}",
"Golfers play at the course of the Minyip Golf Club on Ubergangs Road each Sunday \\& Wednesday.{{Citation \\| author\\= Golf Select \\| title \\= Minyip \\| url \\= http://www.golfselect.com.au/armchair/courseView.aspx?course\\_id\\=1032 \\| accessdate \\= 2009\\-05\\-11}} There is also a bowling green, and an outdoor swimming pool.",
"The Minyip Lions Club is very active, as is the Historical Society. There are numerous plaques displaying the history of the town, with the biggest concentration being in the town square and outside the Senior Citizen's Centre.",
"Minyip hosts an annual car and motorcycle show, the Minyip Show and Shine, which has been held in the town since 2018\\.{{cite web \\| last\\=Bate \\| first\\=Jade \\| title\\=Minyip Show and Shine 2020 set to thrill classic car, motorbike enthusiasts \\| website\\=The Wimmera Mail\\-Times \\| date\\=2020\\-02\\-21 \\| url\\=https://www.mailtimes.com.au/story/6631430/minyip\\-show\\-and\\-shine\\-2020\\-set\\-to\\-thrill/ \\| access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-22}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Ancient history
The site of Bir Bouregba was occupied by the Punic city of Tanesmat, also known as Tnsmt in the [Phoenician language](/wiki/Phoenician_language "Phoenician language") and Thinissut in [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin"),{{Harvsp\|Lipinski\|1992\|\|p\=451\|pages\=}}{{Harvsp\|Merlin\|1911\|\|p\=837\|pages\=}} which was founded in the 5th century BC. The city was governed by two [shophets](/wiki/Shophet "Shophet"), a well\-established feature in Punic institutions, including those of [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage "Carthage"). There is still a debate about the accurate location of the city, especially since there was another ancient city named Siagu less than two kilometers away. The Roman presence on the site is attested from the early 1st century, although it was a [peregrine](/wiki/Peregrinus_%28Roman%29 "Peregrinus (Roman)") city and the details of municipal life are difficult to ascertain without a precise location.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=\|pages\=103\-104}}{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=116}}[thumb\|Satellite image of Hammamet Gulf.The](/wiki/File:Gulf_of_Hammamet_10.58755E_36.10553N.jpg "Gulf of Hammamet 10.58755E 36.10553N.jpg") Sanctuary of Thinissut is an extra\-urban sanctuary dedicated to [Ba'al Hammon](/wiki/Baal_Hammon "Baal Hammon") and [Tanit](/wiki/Tanit "Tanit").{{Harvsp\|Fantar\|1995\|\|p\=13\|pages\=}}{{Harvsp\|Lancel\|1992\|\|p\=219\|pages\=}} The type of extra\-urban sanctuary marked a boundary.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|2006\|\|p\=186\|pages\=}} Although primarily dated to the early [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"), it is considered by [Serge Lancel](/wiki/Serge_Lancel "Serge Lancel") and [Edward Lipinski](/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_%28orientalist%29 "Edward Lipiński (orientalist)") to be "one of the most representative examples of Punic religion."
It was used for an extended period, as evidenced by the discovery of coins from the 2nd and 4th centuries.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|2006\|\|p\=112\|pages\=}} It underwent expansion and transformation over its long history.{{Harvsp\|Slim\|Fauqué\|2001\|p\=164\|pages\=}} No evidence of a cult before that of Ba'al and Tanit was uncovered during the excavations.
The initial architectural design, comprising a vast courtyard with porticoes and a [shrine](/wiki/Shrine "Shrine"), is believed to have been constructed before the fall of Carthage in 146 BC.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=115\|pages\=}} In the mid\-2nd century BC, a renovation project, commemorated by a notable Punic inscription, resulted in the reduction of the courtyard's area and the construction of two shrines.
[left\|thumb\|Sanctuary plan.](/wiki/File:Sanctuaire_de_Thinissut.svg "Sanctuaire de Thinissut.svg")
The Punic sanctuary underwent significant remodeling between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, with the expansion of existing structures and the integration of new deities into the local pantheon.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=114}} The site's elements underwent substantial remodeling, particularly the two shrines, with one intended to house statues and the other, the smaller one, becoming an altar. The addition of two rooms allowed for the isolation of the sacred heart of the Punic sanctuary, the most sacred space, which then contained the *[cellae](/wiki/Cella "Cella")* of the Roman arrangement.
[thumb\|Justinian's [solidus](/wiki/Solidus_%28coin%29 "Solidus (coin)") (illustration), discovered during the excavation of the site, indicates a long period of use.](/wiki/File:Collezione_di_william_currie_17_solido_di_giustino_I%2C_518-527_ca..JPG "Collezione di william currie 17 solido di giustino I, 518-527 ca..JPG")
Worshippers offered the sanctuary [steles](/wiki/Stele "Stele"), altars, or statues according to their social status. The construction was offered by the entire community according to the Neo\-Punic dedication found.{{Harvsp\|Slim\|Fauqué\|2001\|p\=165\|pages\=}} The main center of cult life was the courtyard, which also contained the earliest statues.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=110}} The site's arrangement and the statues' placement during the Punic period, when the two shrines were built, remains uncertain. One hypothesis suggests that the site was globally arranged in one phase, while another proposes that the statues were placed progressively according to the generosity of the worshippers.
A small room was added later, and in the final phase, a [cistern](/wiki/Cistern "Cistern") dedicated to [Saturn](/wiki/Saturn_%28mythology%29 "Saturn (mythology)") was installed on the site in the 2nd century by L. Pompeius Honoratus, inscribed in the Carthaginian [tribe](/wiki/Tribe "Tribe").{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=113}}{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=111}}Inscription [AE](/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique "L'Année épigraphique") [1908, 00161](https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=fr&p_publication=AE+1908%2C+00161&r_sortierung=Belegstelle) \[[archive](https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fdb.edcs.eu%2Fepigr%2Fepi_einzel_fr.php%3Fp_belegstelle%3DAE%2B1908%252C%2B00161%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle)] \= ILAfr 00309 \= ILPBardo 00192 \= D 09291 \= Saturne\-01, p 99 \= LBIRNA 00366 \= AE 1911, \+00084\.
The site continued to be used as a place of worship until the full Christian era, as evidenced by the discovery of a coin of [Justinian](/wiki/Justinian_I "Justinian I") next to the heart of the sanctuary and the presence of Christian [oil lamps](/wiki/Oil_lamp "Oil lamp").
### Rediscovery and excavations
In [1908](/wiki/1908 "1908"), Captain Cassaigne excavated the site after the fortuitous discovery of Roman lamps and [ceramics](/wiki/Ceramic "Ceramic"), which suggested the presence of an ancient site in a mountainous region northeast of Bir Bouregba.{{Harvsp\|Merlin\|1910\|\|p\=5\|pages\=}}
The subsequent excavations uncovered a Neo\-Punic inscription mentioning the institution of [shophets](/wiki/Shophet "Shophet") and [Libyan](/wiki/Libyan "Libyan") elements. Additionally, three Latin inscriptions were uncovered, one from the 2nd century, which pertained to the dedication of a cistern to Saturn. In his report, Captain Cassaigne meticulously recorded the locations of the discovered terracotta statues, a practice that diverged from the more summary approach commonly employed in early 20th\-century excavations.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=\|pages\=101\-102}}
The items were promptly transported to the [Bardo Museum](/wiki/Bardo_National_Museum_%28Tunis%29 "Bardo National Museum (Tunis)"), where they were later exhibited. This museum, in turn, showcased "thirteen of the most intriguing terracotta statues",{{Harvsp\|Merlin\|1909\|p\=230}} as [Alfred Merlin](/wiki/Alfred_Merlin "Alfred Merlin") noted in his [1910](/wiki/1910 "1910") work. The Punic inscription was initially placed in the Bardo Museum but subsequently transferred to the [Nabeul Museum](/wiki/Nabeul_Museum "Nabeul Museum").
No researcher has returned to the site since, with the Director of Antiquities of Tunisia stating as early as [1960](/wiki/1960 "1960") that field research was futile. Attempts to find the remains of the cult complex and the city have failed.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Ancient history",
"The site of Bir Bouregba was occupied by the Punic city of Tanesmat, also known as Tnsmt in the [Phoenician language](/wiki/Phoenician_language \"Phoenician language\") and Thinissut in [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\"),{{Harvsp\\|Lipinski\\|1992\\|\\|p\\=451\\|pages\\=}}{{Harvsp\\|Merlin\\|1911\\|\\|p\\=837\\|pages\\=}} which was founded in the 5th century BC. The city was governed by two [shophets](/wiki/Shophet \"Shophet\"), a well\\-established feature in Punic institutions, including those of [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage \"Carthage\"). There is still a debate about the accurate location of the city, especially since there was another ancient city named Siagu less than two kilometers away. The Roman presence on the site is attested from the early 1st century, although it was a [peregrine](/wiki/Peregrinus_%28Roman%29 \"Peregrinus (Roman)\") city and the details of municipal life are difficult to ascertain without a precise location.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=\\|pages\\=103\\-104}}{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=116}}[thumb\\|Satellite image of Hammamet Gulf.The](/wiki/File:Gulf_of_Hammamet_10.58755E_36.10553N.jpg \"Gulf of Hammamet 10.58755E 36.10553N.jpg\") Sanctuary of Thinissut is an extra\\-urban sanctuary dedicated to [Ba'al Hammon](/wiki/Baal_Hammon \"Baal Hammon\") and [Tanit](/wiki/Tanit \"Tanit\").{{Harvsp\\|Fantar\\|1995\\|\\|p\\=13\\|pages\\=}}{{Harvsp\\|Lancel\\|1992\\|\\|p\\=219\\|pages\\=}} The type of extra\\-urban sanctuary marked a boundary.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|2006\\|\\|p\\=186\\|pages\\=}} Although primarily dated to the early [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"), it is considered by [Serge Lancel](/wiki/Serge_Lancel \"Serge Lancel\") and [Edward Lipinski](/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_%28orientalist%29 \"Edward Lipiński (orientalist)\") to be \"one of the most representative examples of Punic religion.\"",
"It was used for an extended period, as evidenced by the discovery of coins from the 2nd and 4th centuries.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|2006\\|\\|p\\=112\\|pages\\=}} It underwent expansion and transformation over its long history.{{Harvsp\\|Slim\\|Fauqué\\|2001\\|p\\=164\\|pages\\=}} No evidence of a cult before that of Ba'al and Tanit was uncovered during the excavations.",
"The initial architectural design, comprising a vast courtyard with porticoes and a [shrine](/wiki/Shrine \"Shrine\"), is believed to have been constructed before the fall of Carthage in 146 BC.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=115\\|pages\\=}} In the mid\\-2nd century BC, a renovation project, commemorated by a notable Punic inscription, resulted in the reduction of the courtyard's area and the construction of two shrines.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Sanctuary plan.](/wiki/File:Sanctuaire_de_Thinissut.svg \"Sanctuaire de Thinissut.svg\")\nThe Punic sanctuary underwent significant remodeling between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, with the expansion of existing structures and the integration of new deities into the local pantheon.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=114}} The site's elements underwent substantial remodeling, particularly the two shrines, with one intended to house statues and the other, the smaller one, becoming an altar. The addition of two rooms allowed for the isolation of the sacred heart of the Punic sanctuary, the most sacred space, which then contained the *[cellae](/wiki/Cella \"Cella\")* of the Roman arrangement.\n[thumb\\|Justinian's [solidus](/wiki/Solidus_%28coin%29 \"Solidus (coin)\") (illustration), discovered during the excavation of the site, indicates a long period of use.](/wiki/File:Collezione_di_william_currie_17_solido_di_giustino_I%2C_518-527_ca..JPG \"Collezione di william currie 17 solido di giustino I, 518-527 ca..JPG\")\nWorshippers offered the sanctuary [steles](/wiki/Stele \"Stele\"), altars, or statues according to their social status. The construction was offered by the entire community according to the Neo\\-Punic dedication found.{{Harvsp\\|Slim\\|Fauqué\\|2001\\|p\\=165\\|pages\\=}} The main center of cult life was the courtyard, which also contained the earliest statues.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=110}} The site's arrangement and the statues' placement during the Punic period, when the two shrines were built, remains uncertain. One hypothesis suggests that the site was globally arranged in one phase, while another proposes that the statues were placed progressively according to the generosity of the worshippers.",
"A small room was added later, and in the final phase, a [cistern](/wiki/Cistern \"Cistern\") dedicated to [Saturn](/wiki/Saturn_%28mythology%29 \"Saturn (mythology)\") was installed on the site in the 2nd century by L. Pompeius Honoratus, inscribed in the Carthaginian [tribe](/wiki/Tribe \"Tribe\").{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=113}}{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=111}}Inscription [AE](/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique \"L'Année épigraphique\") [1908, 00161](https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=fr&p_publication=AE+1908%2C+00161&r_sortierung=Belegstelle) \\[[archive](https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fdb.edcs.eu%2Fepigr%2Fepi_einzel_fr.php%3Fp_belegstelle%3DAE%2B1908%252C%2B00161%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle)] \\= ILAfr 00309 \\= ILPBardo 00192 \\= D 09291 \\= Saturne\\-01, p 99 \\= LBIRNA 00366 \\= AE 1911, \\+00084\\.",
"The site continued to be used as a place of worship until the full Christian era, as evidenced by the discovery of a coin of [Justinian](/wiki/Justinian_I \"Justinian I\") next to the heart of the sanctuary and the presence of Christian [oil lamps](/wiki/Oil_lamp \"Oil lamp\").",
"### Rediscovery and excavations",
"In [1908](/wiki/1908 \"1908\"), Captain Cassaigne excavated the site after the fortuitous discovery of Roman lamps and [ceramics](/wiki/Ceramic \"Ceramic\"), which suggested the presence of an ancient site in a mountainous region northeast of Bir Bouregba.{{Harvsp\\|Merlin\\|1910\\|\\|p\\=5\\|pages\\=}}",
"The subsequent excavations uncovered a Neo\\-Punic inscription mentioning the institution of [shophets](/wiki/Shophet \"Shophet\") and [Libyan](/wiki/Libyan \"Libyan\") elements. Additionally, three Latin inscriptions were uncovered, one from the 2nd century, which pertained to the dedication of a cistern to Saturn. In his report, Captain Cassaigne meticulously recorded the locations of the discovered terracotta statues, a practice that diverged from the more summary approach commonly employed in early 20th\\-century excavations.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=\\|pages\\=101\\-102}}",
"The items were promptly transported to the [Bardo Museum](/wiki/Bardo_National_Museum_%28Tunis%29 \"Bardo National Museum (Tunis)\"), where they were later exhibited. This museum, in turn, showcased \"thirteen of the most intriguing terracotta statues\",{{Harvsp\\|Merlin\\|1909\\|p\\=230}} as [Alfred Merlin](/wiki/Alfred_Merlin \"Alfred Merlin\") noted in his [1910](/wiki/1910 \"1910\") work. The Punic inscription was initially placed in the Bardo Museum but subsequently transferred to the [Nabeul Museum](/wiki/Nabeul_Museum \"Nabeul Museum\").",
"No researcher has returned to the site since, with the Director of Antiquities of Tunisia stating as early as [1960](/wiki/1960 \"1960\") that field research was futile. Attempts to find the remains of the cult complex and the city have failed.",
""
] |
Description of the sanctuary
----------------------------
### Spaces excavated by the archaeologist
[thumb\|Early plan of the sanctuary, surveyed during excavations in the early 20th century.](/wiki/File:Sanctuaire_Thinissut.png "Sanctuaire Thinissut.png")
The sanctuary's layout is derived from the field notes taken by Captain Cassaigne, who identified seven spaces in the last state of the site and utilized a numbering system for convenience, as cited in the most recent works and due to the lack of new excavations.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=107\|pages\=}}
The first area contained three rooms in a row. The first oneThe numbering of the rooms follows the publication by {{Harvsp\|Merlin\|1910}}. had a white [mosaic](/wiki/Mosaic "Mosaic") floor with a scale pattern and was preceded by a terrace with a leontocéphale statue on a [pedestal](/wiki/Pedestal "Pedestal"). Other fragmented statues were uncovered, including a female statue standing on a [lion](/wiki/Lion "Lion") with a Latin inscription. The room decor was dated to the end of the 1st century BC.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=108\|pages\=}} The second room had a pavement of brick [concrete](/wiki/Concrete "Concrete") and yielded two [sphinxes](/wiki/Sphinx "Sphinx"). [Alexandre Lézine](/wiki/Alexandre_L%C3%A9zine "Alexandre Lézine") considered the first two rooms would be the "last phase of the building's construction". The third room is considered to be of a later date by Merlin and yielded materials for a closed space, including a two\-spouted lamp and a suspension element, along with Punic coins.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=106\|pages\=}}
Space No. 4 on the floor plan, the "core of the sanctuary", was a large courtyard paved with brick and equipped with a portico, possibly vaulted in the Roman period. It had a compartment with [sacrificial](/wiki/Sacrifice "Sacrifice") remains in its northwest corner. Two shrines of unequal preservation were noted. The first had [steps](/wiki/Stairs "Stairs"), Roman oil lamps, and fragmented leontocéphale statues discovered nearby. The second, larger shrine was divided into two unequal spaces. The larger space contained the statue of Ba'al Hammon on his throne, a female statue wearing a *[polos](/wiki/Polos "Polos")*, a larger sphinx, and an inscription naming a certain L. Pompeius Honoratus. According to [Hédi Dridi](/wiki/H%C3%A9di_Dridi "Hédi Dridi") and Meriem Sebaï, the second space of this aedicula was dedicated to statuettes and cult objects. Outside, low walls were subsequently constructed, where a [nursing](/wiki/Breastfeeding "Breastfeeding") female statue was discovered. This statue, dated by Lorenza Bullo to the late [3rd century BC](/wiki/3rd_century_BC "3rd century BC"), suggests continued cult use during the Roman period, as evidenced by the presence of Roman oil lamps discovered nearby. A very fragmentary standing [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena") was found on a pedestal, as well as a significant Punic inscription.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=\|pages\=106\-107}} A fragmented seated female statue was found south of this shrine. The same courtyard yielded the remains of at least two other leontocéphale female statues. Sacrifices and associated rites took place in this space, including the deposition of animal bones, the use of lamps on the altar, and the use of water from a nearby cistern.
A later cistern, as identified by Merlin, was situated to the south of this extensive courtyard (No. 6 on his floor plan). During the process of clearing the collapsed vault, he discovered Roman ceramics, Christian\-themed oil lamps, and inscription fragments. The high\-quality construction, as observed by Dridi and Sebaï, suggests a late build.
Similarly, Courtyard No. 5 also had porticos, although the remains of these are less impressive. A ruined shrine occupied the middle of the courtyard, the portico gallery was approximately two meters wide, and the pillars were placed three meters apart. The space was initially united with Courtyard No. 4\. The entrance corridor on the southern part of the courtyard yielded votive stelae. The materials found were sparse, although a coin dated to the reign of Justinian provides some dating elements. No statues were found here. The space was utilized as a depository for stelae during the Roman period.
Enclosure No. 7, measuring approximately 14 meters by 8\.20 meters, yielded the base of a statue placed in an outdoor setting. Additionally, the enclosure contained approximately thirty votive stelae with inscriptions in Punic, Neo\-Punic, and Latin, which were dated by [paleographers](/wiki/Palaeography "Palaeography") to a period between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. It is believed that this space was added to the cult complex no later than the end of the 1st century BC. Lipinski and Lancel consider this space to be a "field of sacrificial urns", a view shared by Cecilia Rossignoli, who believes it was used to bury sacrificial remains. However, Dridi and Sebaï challenge this interpretation, proposing that it was instead a *favissa* or a room dedicated to a cult. A statue base was discovered in this place.
Additionally, various objects, including fragments of stelae and ceramics, were found outside the *stricto sensu* sanctuary. A deposit of sacrificial urns was discovered in Room No. 1\. These urns, aligned in a row, contained the ashes of small animals.
### Confusion due to prolonged use
[thumb\|Votive altars discovered at Thinissut and preserved in the Nabeul Museum.](/wiki/File:Autels_votifs_colonne_Neapolis.JPG "Autels votifs colonne Neapolis.JPG")
The sanctuary's confusing layout is the result of changes made "over several centuries."
The sanctuary consisted of a series of courtyards, with a main sanctuary at the center of the largest courtyard. To the west of the main sanctuary, three courtyards were situated in succession. The eastern section of the main sanctuary was defined by a courtyard with porticos. The southeastern section was occupied by a closed courtyard serving as an urnfield.
The Punic inscription indicates that the initial construction included two chapels dedicated to Ba'al and Tanit, equipped with necessary liturgical elements, [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") vases, and an external coating. These initial constructions were the two shrines of courtyard No. 4, with the coating recognized by the archaeologist.For the full text of the inscription, see {{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=111}} The shrines were later modified. The benches served to store cult objects. Merlin's proposed evolution of the sanctuary is at odds with archaeological evidence. Lézine subsequently revised this evolution, proposing that the primitive porticoed courtyard was later reduced and saw additions. In [1998](/wiki/1998 "1998"), Rossignoli proposed an original sanctuary with a three\-portico courtyard, with two chapels at the rear and access from the south. The inscription recalls the construction of the chapels that are after her analysis. Dridi and Sebaï adopted a similar configuration, though they offered critiques of Rossignoli's analysis regarding the later renovation of the chapels. These elements were constructed as highlighted by the preserved text.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=\|pages\=111\-112}}
According to Dridi and Sebaï, the first sanctuary comprised a porticoed courtyard uniting Nos. 4 and 5, with a shrine containing the cult statues. The inscription would recall the relocation of the statues to two better\-built shrines. The original large Punic building would have been replaced by a smaller sanctuary with new chapels. The abandoned part would have served as storage, as indicated by the presence of stelae.
The internal functioning of the sanctuary in the Roman period is more challenging to comprehend, given the redeployment and complexity of cults. The dating of the construction of spaces Nos. 1 to 3 is a significant challenge. However, the presence of vault tubes used from the early [3rd century](/wiki/3rd_century "3rd century") invites dating significant works to this period. Dridi and Sebaï propose the 1st century for the construction of space No. 1\.
|
[
"Description of the sanctuary\n----------------------------",
"### Spaces excavated by the archaeologist",
"[thumb\\|Early plan of the sanctuary, surveyed during excavations in the early 20th century.](/wiki/File:Sanctuaire_Thinissut.png \"Sanctuaire Thinissut.png\")\nThe sanctuary's layout is derived from the field notes taken by Captain Cassaigne, who identified seven spaces in the last state of the site and utilized a numbering system for convenience, as cited in the most recent works and due to the lack of new excavations.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=107\\|pages\\=}}",
"The first area contained three rooms in a row. The first oneThe numbering of the rooms follows the publication by {{Harvsp\\|Merlin\\|1910}}. had a white [mosaic](/wiki/Mosaic \"Mosaic\") floor with a scale pattern and was preceded by a terrace with a leontocéphale statue on a [pedestal](/wiki/Pedestal \"Pedestal\"). Other fragmented statues were uncovered, including a female statue standing on a [lion](/wiki/Lion \"Lion\") with a Latin inscription. The room decor was dated to the end of the 1st century BC.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=108\\|pages\\=}} The second room had a pavement of brick [concrete](/wiki/Concrete \"Concrete\") and yielded two [sphinxes](/wiki/Sphinx \"Sphinx\"). [Alexandre Lézine](/wiki/Alexandre_L%C3%A9zine \"Alexandre Lézine\") considered the first two rooms would be the \"last phase of the building's construction\". The third room is considered to be of a later date by Merlin and yielded materials for a closed space, including a two\\-spouted lamp and a suspension element, along with Punic coins.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=106\\|pages\\=}}",
"Space No. 4 on the floor plan, the \"core of the sanctuary\", was a large courtyard paved with brick and equipped with a portico, possibly vaulted in the Roman period. It had a compartment with [sacrificial](/wiki/Sacrifice \"Sacrifice\") remains in its northwest corner. Two shrines of unequal preservation were noted. The first had [steps](/wiki/Stairs \"Stairs\"), Roman oil lamps, and fragmented leontocéphale statues discovered nearby. The second, larger shrine was divided into two unequal spaces. The larger space contained the statue of Ba'al Hammon on his throne, a female statue wearing a *[polos](/wiki/Polos \"Polos\")*, a larger sphinx, and an inscription naming a certain L. Pompeius Honoratus. According to [Hédi Dridi](/wiki/H%C3%A9di_Dridi \"Hédi Dridi\") and Meriem Sebaï, the second space of this aedicula was dedicated to statuettes and cult objects. Outside, low walls were subsequently constructed, where a [nursing](/wiki/Breastfeeding \"Breastfeeding\") female statue was discovered. This statue, dated by Lorenza Bullo to the late [3rd century BC](/wiki/3rd_century_BC \"3rd century BC\"), suggests continued cult use during the Roman period, as evidenced by the presence of Roman oil lamps discovered nearby. A very fragmentary standing [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\") was found on a pedestal, as well as a significant Punic inscription.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=\\|pages\\=106\\-107}} A fragmented seated female statue was found south of this shrine. The same courtyard yielded the remains of at least two other leontocéphale female statues. Sacrifices and associated rites took place in this space, including the deposition of animal bones, the use of lamps on the altar, and the use of water from a nearby cistern.",
"A later cistern, as identified by Merlin, was situated to the south of this extensive courtyard (No. 6 on his floor plan). During the process of clearing the collapsed vault, he discovered Roman ceramics, Christian\\-themed oil lamps, and inscription fragments. The high\\-quality construction, as observed by Dridi and Sebaï, suggests a late build.",
"Similarly, Courtyard No. 5 also had porticos, although the remains of these are less impressive. A ruined shrine occupied the middle of the courtyard, the portico gallery was approximately two meters wide, and the pillars were placed three meters apart. The space was initially united with Courtyard No. 4\\. The entrance corridor on the southern part of the courtyard yielded votive stelae. The materials found were sparse, although a coin dated to the reign of Justinian provides some dating elements. No statues were found here. The space was utilized as a depository for stelae during the Roman period.",
"Enclosure No. 7, measuring approximately 14 meters by 8\\.20 meters, yielded the base of a statue placed in an outdoor setting. Additionally, the enclosure contained approximately thirty votive stelae with inscriptions in Punic, Neo\\-Punic, and Latin, which were dated by [paleographers](/wiki/Palaeography \"Palaeography\") to a period between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. It is believed that this space was added to the cult complex no later than the end of the 1st century BC. Lipinski and Lancel consider this space to be a \"field of sacrificial urns\", a view shared by Cecilia Rossignoli, who believes it was used to bury sacrificial remains. However, Dridi and Sebaï challenge this interpretation, proposing that it was instead a *favissa* or a room dedicated to a cult. A statue base was discovered in this place.",
"Additionally, various objects, including fragments of stelae and ceramics, were found outside the *stricto sensu* sanctuary. A deposit of sacrificial urns was discovered in Room No. 1\\. These urns, aligned in a row, contained the ashes of small animals.",
"### Confusion due to prolonged use",
"[thumb\\|Votive altars discovered at Thinissut and preserved in the Nabeul Museum.](/wiki/File:Autels_votifs_colonne_Neapolis.JPG \"Autels votifs colonne Neapolis.JPG\")\nThe sanctuary's confusing layout is the result of changes made \"over several centuries.\"",
"The sanctuary consisted of a series of courtyards, with a main sanctuary at the center of the largest courtyard. To the west of the main sanctuary, three courtyards were situated in succession. The eastern section of the main sanctuary was defined by a courtyard with porticos. The southeastern section was occupied by a closed courtyard serving as an urnfield.",
"The Punic inscription indicates that the initial construction included two chapels dedicated to Ba'al and Tanit, equipped with necessary liturgical elements, [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") vases, and an external coating. These initial constructions were the two shrines of courtyard No. 4, with the coating recognized by the archaeologist.For the full text of the inscription, see {{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=111}} The shrines were later modified. The benches served to store cult objects. Merlin's proposed evolution of the sanctuary is at odds with archaeological evidence. Lézine subsequently revised this evolution, proposing that the primitive porticoed courtyard was later reduced and saw additions. In [1998](/wiki/1998 \"1998\"), Rossignoli proposed an original sanctuary with a three\\-portico courtyard, with two chapels at the rear and access from the south. The inscription recalls the construction of the chapels that are after her analysis. Dridi and Sebaï adopted a similar configuration, though they offered critiques of Rossignoli's analysis regarding the later renovation of the chapels. These elements were constructed as highlighted by the preserved text.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=\\|pages\\=111\\-112}}",
"According to Dridi and Sebaï, the first sanctuary comprised a porticoed courtyard uniting Nos. 4 and 5, with a shrine containing the cult statues. The inscription would recall the relocation of the statues to two better\\-built shrines. The original large Punic building would have been replaced by a smaller sanctuary with new chapels. The abandoned part would have served as storage, as indicated by the presence of stelae.",
"The internal functioning of the sanctuary in the Roman period is more challenging to comprehend, given the redeployment and complexity of cults. The dating of the construction of spaces Nos. 1 to 3 is a significant challenge. However, the presence of vault tubes used from the early [3rd century](/wiki/3rd_century \"3rd century\") invites dating significant works to this period. Dridi and Sebaï propose the 1st century for the construction of space No. 1\\.",
""
] |
### Spaces excavated by the archaeologist
[thumb\|Early plan of the sanctuary, surveyed during excavations in the early 20th century.](/wiki/File:Sanctuaire_Thinissut.png "Sanctuaire Thinissut.png")
The sanctuary's layout is derived from the field notes taken by Captain Cassaigne, who identified seven spaces in the last state of the site and utilized a numbering system for convenience, as cited in the most recent works and due to the lack of new excavations.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=107\|pages\=}}
The first area contained three rooms in a row. The first oneThe numbering of the rooms follows the publication by {{Harvsp\|Merlin\|1910}}. had a white [mosaic](/wiki/Mosaic "Mosaic") floor with a scale pattern and was preceded by a terrace with a leontocéphale statue on a [pedestal](/wiki/Pedestal "Pedestal"). Other fragmented statues were uncovered, including a female statue standing on a [lion](/wiki/Lion "Lion") with a Latin inscription. The room decor was dated to the end of the 1st century BC.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=108\|pages\=}} The second room had a pavement of brick [concrete](/wiki/Concrete "Concrete") and yielded two [sphinxes](/wiki/Sphinx "Sphinx"). [Alexandre Lézine](/wiki/Alexandre_L%C3%A9zine "Alexandre Lézine") considered the first two rooms would be the "last phase of the building's construction". The third room is considered to be of a later date by Merlin and yielded materials for a closed space, including a two\-spouted lamp and a suspension element, along with Punic coins.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=106\|pages\=}}
Space No. 4 on the floor plan, the "core of the sanctuary", was a large courtyard paved with brick and equipped with a portico, possibly vaulted in the Roman period. It had a compartment with [sacrificial](/wiki/Sacrifice "Sacrifice") remains in its northwest corner. Two shrines of unequal preservation were noted. The first had [steps](/wiki/Stairs "Stairs"), Roman oil lamps, and fragmented leontocéphale statues discovered nearby. The second, larger shrine was divided into two unequal spaces. The larger space contained the statue of Ba'al Hammon on his throne, a female statue wearing a *[polos](/wiki/Polos "Polos")*, a larger sphinx, and an inscription naming a certain L. Pompeius Honoratus. According to [Hédi Dridi](/wiki/H%C3%A9di_Dridi "Hédi Dridi") and Meriem Sebaï, the second space of this aedicula was dedicated to statuettes and cult objects. Outside, low walls were subsequently constructed, where a [nursing](/wiki/Breastfeeding "Breastfeeding") female statue was discovered. This statue, dated by Lorenza Bullo to the late [3rd century BC](/wiki/3rd_century_BC "3rd century BC"), suggests continued cult use during the Roman period, as evidenced by the presence of Roman oil lamps discovered nearby. A very fragmentary standing [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena") was found on a pedestal, as well as a significant Punic inscription.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=\|pages\=106\-107}} A fragmented seated female statue was found south of this shrine. The same courtyard yielded the remains of at least two other leontocéphale female statues. Sacrifices and associated rites took place in this space, including the deposition of animal bones, the use of lamps on the altar, and the use of water from a nearby cistern.
A later cistern, as identified by Merlin, was situated to the south of this extensive courtyard (No. 6 on his floor plan). During the process of clearing the collapsed vault, he discovered Roman ceramics, Christian\-themed oil lamps, and inscription fragments. The high\-quality construction, as observed by Dridi and Sebaï, suggests a late build.
Similarly, Courtyard No. 5 also had porticos, although the remains of these are less impressive. A ruined shrine occupied the middle of the courtyard, the portico gallery was approximately two meters wide, and the pillars were placed three meters apart. The space was initially united with Courtyard No. 4\. The entrance corridor on the southern part of the courtyard yielded votive stelae. The materials found were sparse, although a coin dated to the reign of Justinian provides some dating elements. No statues were found here. The space was utilized as a depository for stelae during the Roman period.
Enclosure No. 7, measuring approximately 14 meters by 8\.20 meters, yielded the base of a statue placed in an outdoor setting. Additionally, the enclosure contained approximately thirty votive stelae with inscriptions in Punic, Neo\-Punic, and Latin, which were dated by [paleographers](/wiki/Palaeography "Palaeography") to a period between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. It is believed that this space was added to the cult complex no later than the end of the 1st century BC. Lipinski and Lancel consider this space to be a "field of sacrificial urns", a view shared by Cecilia Rossignoli, who believes it was used to bury sacrificial remains. However, Dridi and Sebaï challenge this interpretation, proposing that it was instead a *favissa* or a room dedicated to a cult. A statue base was discovered in this place.
Additionally, various objects, including fragments of stelae and ceramics, were found outside the *stricto sensu* sanctuary. A deposit of sacrificial urns was discovered in Room No. 1\. These urns, aligned in a row, contained the ashes of small animals.
|
[
"### Spaces excavated by the archaeologist",
"[thumb\\|Early plan of the sanctuary, surveyed during excavations in the early 20th century.](/wiki/File:Sanctuaire_Thinissut.png \"Sanctuaire Thinissut.png\")\nThe sanctuary's layout is derived from the field notes taken by Captain Cassaigne, who identified seven spaces in the last state of the site and utilized a numbering system for convenience, as cited in the most recent works and due to the lack of new excavations.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=107\\|pages\\=}}",
"The first area contained three rooms in a row. The first oneThe numbering of the rooms follows the publication by {{Harvsp\\|Merlin\\|1910}}. had a white [mosaic](/wiki/Mosaic \"Mosaic\") floor with a scale pattern and was preceded by a terrace with a leontocéphale statue on a [pedestal](/wiki/Pedestal \"Pedestal\"). Other fragmented statues were uncovered, including a female statue standing on a [lion](/wiki/Lion \"Lion\") with a Latin inscription. The room decor was dated to the end of the 1st century BC.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=108\\|pages\\=}} The second room had a pavement of brick [concrete](/wiki/Concrete \"Concrete\") and yielded two [sphinxes](/wiki/Sphinx \"Sphinx\"). [Alexandre Lézine](/wiki/Alexandre_L%C3%A9zine \"Alexandre Lézine\") considered the first two rooms would be the \"last phase of the building's construction\". The third room is considered to be of a later date by Merlin and yielded materials for a closed space, including a two\\-spouted lamp and a suspension element, along with Punic coins.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=106\\|pages\\=}}",
"Space No. 4 on the floor plan, the \"core of the sanctuary\", was a large courtyard paved with brick and equipped with a portico, possibly vaulted in the Roman period. It had a compartment with [sacrificial](/wiki/Sacrifice \"Sacrifice\") remains in its northwest corner. Two shrines of unequal preservation were noted. The first had [steps](/wiki/Stairs \"Stairs\"), Roman oil lamps, and fragmented leontocéphale statues discovered nearby. The second, larger shrine was divided into two unequal spaces. The larger space contained the statue of Ba'al Hammon on his throne, a female statue wearing a *[polos](/wiki/Polos \"Polos\")*, a larger sphinx, and an inscription naming a certain L. Pompeius Honoratus. According to [Hédi Dridi](/wiki/H%C3%A9di_Dridi \"Hédi Dridi\") and Meriem Sebaï, the second space of this aedicula was dedicated to statuettes and cult objects. Outside, low walls were subsequently constructed, where a [nursing](/wiki/Breastfeeding \"Breastfeeding\") female statue was discovered. This statue, dated by Lorenza Bullo to the late [3rd century BC](/wiki/3rd_century_BC \"3rd century BC\"), suggests continued cult use during the Roman period, as evidenced by the presence of Roman oil lamps discovered nearby. A very fragmentary standing [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\") was found on a pedestal, as well as a significant Punic inscription.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=\\|pages\\=106\\-107}} A fragmented seated female statue was found south of this shrine. The same courtyard yielded the remains of at least two other leontocéphale female statues. Sacrifices and associated rites took place in this space, including the deposition of animal bones, the use of lamps on the altar, and the use of water from a nearby cistern.",
"A later cistern, as identified by Merlin, was situated to the south of this extensive courtyard (No. 6 on his floor plan). During the process of clearing the collapsed vault, he discovered Roman ceramics, Christian\\-themed oil lamps, and inscription fragments. The high\\-quality construction, as observed by Dridi and Sebaï, suggests a late build.",
"Similarly, Courtyard No. 5 also had porticos, although the remains of these are less impressive. A ruined shrine occupied the middle of the courtyard, the portico gallery was approximately two meters wide, and the pillars were placed three meters apart. The space was initially united with Courtyard No. 4\\. The entrance corridor on the southern part of the courtyard yielded votive stelae. The materials found were sparse, although a coin dated to the reign of Justinian provides some dating elements. No statues were found here. The space was utilized as a depository for stelae during the Roman period.",
"Enclosure No. 7, measuring approximately 14 meters by 8\\.20 meters, yielded the base of a statue placed in an outdoor setting. Additionally, the enclosure contained approximately thirty votive stelae with inscriptions in Punic, Neo\\-Punic, and Latin, which were dated by [paleographers](/wiki/Palaeography \"Palaeography\") to a period between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. It is believed that this space was added to the cult complex no later than the end of the 1st century BC. Lipinski and Lancel consider this space to be a \"field of sacrificial urns\", a view shared by Cecilia Rossignoli, who believes it was used to bury sacrificial remains. However, Dridi and Sebaï challenge this interpretation, proposing that it was instead a *favissa* or a room dedicated to a cult. A statue base was discovered in this place.",
"Additionally, various objects, including fragments of stelae and ceramics, were found outside the *stricto sensu* sanctuary. A deposit of sacrificial urns was discovered in Room No. 1\\. These urns, aligned in a row, contained the ashes of small animals.",
""
] |
Interpretation
--------------
[thumb\|Detail of *Ba'al Hammon seated on a throne*, one of the iconic pieces in the Bardo National Museum.](/wiki/File:Bardo_Baal_Thinissut.jpg "Bardo Baal Thinissut.jpg")
The site is notable for its potential to facilitate the study of Punic religious continuities and to address the controversial topic of African temples of Semitic tradition. According to Slim, the Thinissut sanctuary is "a holy place between the Tophet \[...] and the proper African temple."
The first topic has been the focus of researchers' attention since the early 20th century.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=102\|pages\=}} The site demonstrates the absence of a break in cult activities between the Punic and Roman periods.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=\|pages\=113\-114}} The male deity seated on a throne continued to be worshipped under the Roman Empire, and the heart of the Punic sanctuary maintained the same role during the Roman era. The "cultic and ritual activity was significant throughout the Roman period without any real break with the Punic sphere." In addition to the continuity of the sanctuary's use, there was also a "concern to protect probably ancient cult statues."
However, there were modifications to the existing structures, an expansion of the pantheon, and the relocation of cult statues within the complex. The widespread dispersion of statues indicates a desire for staging, which can be described as a true "scenography" with an east\-west circulation. This is evidenced by a guardian statue at each threshold of the spaces dedicated to different deities and a "progression towards the holy of holies."
[thumb\|Head discovered by Dr. [Louis Carton](/wiki/Louis_Carton "Louis Carton") in a place of worship known as the "Carton Chapel" and preserved in the [Carthage National Museum](/wiki/Carthage_National_Museum "Carthage National Museum").](/wiki/File:Incense_burner_depicting_Baal-Hammon_AvL.JPG "Incense burner depicting Baal-Hammon AvL.JPG")
The technique of terracotta statues testifies to the considerable artistic talent of the [coroplasts](/wiki/Coroplast_%28artisan%29 "Coroplast (artisan)").{{Harvsp\|Slim\|Fauqué\|2001\|p\=\|pages\=218\-219}} This exceptional technique has been considered for economic reasons, but the richness of the [clay](/wiki/Clay "Clay") deposits in the region and the material virtues have also been highlighted.
The terracotta statues attest to the religious vitality and openness to external influences of the period, and they are a testament to the beginning of [Romanization](/wiki/Romanization_%28cultural%29 "Romanization (cultural)"). As posited by Lancel and Lipinski, the juxtaposition of different deities in these statues suggests "the persistence of pre\-Roman religious traditions in rural areas." The "composite" forms of these statues, in turn, reveal local influences as well as those from [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), the [Orient](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East "Ancient Near East"), and [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece").
The representation of the leontocéphale goddess is the result of "a complex [syncretism](/wiki/Syncretism "Syncretism")." While Bullo dates the work to the 3rd century BC, Dridi and Sebaï propose the second half of the 1st century BC based on their study of the sanctuary's arrangement. The female statues found on the site resemble models that were widespread in the [western Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin "Mediterranean Basin") from the [4th century BC](/wiki/4th_century_BC "4th century BC").
The representation of Ba'al Hammon aligns with the pantheon significance in [Roman Africa](/wiki/Roman_Africans "Roman Africans"), particularly the preeminence of Saturn{{Harvsp\|Beschaouch\|2001\|\|p\=81\|pages\=}} and Tanit\-Cælestis. Inscriptions identify Saturn, while Cælestis or Ceres is also present. The female deities are relevant, even if not identified by epigraphy.{{Harvsp\|Dridi\|Sebaï\|2008\|p\=\|pages\=115\-116}}
Dridi and Sebaï posit that the ancient statues’ discovery is an "act of piety intended to safeguard the ancestral deities of Tanesmat." The inhabitants of Thinissut adapted their tutelary deities to the *interpretatio romana* and arranged the sanctuary while respecting the Punic\-era sanctuary to integrate into a broader sphere, as evidenced by the adoption of Hellenistic\-style cult statues.
As early as 1910, Merlin identified the "considerable value for the religious history of ancient Africa." He included the Thinissut sanctuary among the sanctuaries of oriental tradition, while [Alexandre Lézine](/wiki/Alexandre_L%C3%A9zine "Alexandre Lézine") viewed it as a type of Syro\-Oriental sanctuary imported before the fall of Carthage at the end of the [Third Punic War](/wiki/Third_Punic_War "Third Punic War"). Nevertheless, Dridi and Sebaï contend that the pursuit of such a model based on an "ideological postulate" is futile.
|
[
"Interpretation\n--------------",
"[thumb\\|Detail of *Ba'al Hammon seated on a throne*, one of the iconic pieces in the Bardo National Museum.](/wiki/File:Bardo_Baal_Thinissut.jpg \"Bardo Baal Thinissut.jpg\")\nThe site is notable for its potential to facilitate the study of Punic religious continuities and to address the controversial topic of African temples of Semitic tradition. According to Slim, the Thinissut sanctuary is \"a holy place between the Tophet \\[...] and the proper African temple.\"",
"The first topic has been the focus of researchers' attention since the early 20th century.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=102\\|pages\\=}} The site demonstrates the absence of a break in cult activities between the Punic and Roman periods.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=\\|pages\\=113\\-114}} The male deity seated on a throne continued to be worshipped under the Roman Empire, and the heart of the Punic sanctuary maintained the same role during the Roman era. The \"cultic and ritual activity was significant throughout the Roman period without any real break with the Punic sphere.\" In addition to the continuity of the sanctuary's use, there was also a \"concern to protect probably ancient cult statues.\"",
"However, there were modifications to the existing structures, an expansion of the pantheon, and the relocation of cult statues within the complex. The widespread dispersion of statues indicates a desire for staging, which can be described as a true \"scenography\" with an east\\-west circulation. This is evidenced by a guardian statue at each threshold of the spaces dedicated to different deities and a \"progression towards the holy of holies.\"\n[thumb\\|Head discovered by Dr. [Louis Carton](/wiki/Louis_Carton \"Louis Carton\") in a place of worship known as the \"Carton Chapel\" and preserved in the [Carthage National Museum](/wiki/Carthage_National_Museum \"Carthage National Museum\").](/wiki/File:Incense_burner_depicting_Baal-Hammon_AvL.JPG \"Incense burner depicting Baal-Hammon AvL.JPG\")\nThe technique of terracotta statues testifies to the considerable artistic talent of the [coroplasts](/wiki/Coroplast_%28artisan%29 \"Coroplast (artisan)\").{{Harvsp\\|Slim\\|Fauqué\\|2001\\|p\\=\\|pages\\=218\\-219}} This exceptional technique has been considered for economic reasons, but the richness of the [clay](/wiki/Clay \"Clay\") deposits in the region and the material virtues have also been highlighted.",
"The terracotta statues attest to the religious vitality and openness to external influences of the period, and they are a testament to the beginning of [Romanization](/wiki/Romanization_%28cultural%29 \"Romanization (cultural)\"). As posited by Lancel and Lipinski, the juxtaposition of different deities in these statues suggests \"the persistence of pre\\-Roman religious traditions in rural areas.\" The \"composite\" forms of these statues, in turn, reveal local influences as well as those from [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"), the [Orient](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East \"Ancient Near East\"), and [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\").",
"The representation of the leontocéphale goddess is the result of \"a complex [syncretism](/wiki/Syncretism \"Syncretism\").\" While Bullo dates the work to the 3rd century BC, Dridi and Sebaï propose the second half of the 1st century BC based on their study of the sanctuary's arrangement. The female statues found on the site resemble models that were widespread in the [western Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin \"Mediterranean Basin\") from the [4th century BC](/wiki/4th_century_BC \"4th century BC\").",
"The representation of Ba'al Hammon aligns with the pantheon significance in [Roman Africa](/wiki/Roman_Africans \"Roman Africans\"), particularly the preeminence of Saturn{{Harvsp\\|Beschaouch\\|2001\\|\\|p\\=81\\|pages\\=}} and Tanit\\-Cælestis. Inscriptions identify Saturn, while Cælestis or Ceres is also present. The female deities are relevant, even if not identified by epigraphy.{{Harvsp\\|Dridi\\|Sebaï\\|2008\\|p\\=\\|pages\\=115\\-116}}",
"Dridi and Sebaï posit that the ancient statues’ discovery is an \"act of piety intended to safeguard the ancestral deities of Tanesmat.\" The inhabitants of Thinissut adapted their tutelary deities to the *interpretatio romana* and arranged the sanctuary while respecting the Punic\\-era sanctuary to integrate into a broader sphere, as evidenced by the adoption of Hellenistic\\-style cult statues.",
"As early as 1910, Merlin identified the \"considerable value for the religious history of ancient Africa.\" He included the Thinissut sanctuary among the sanctuaries of oriental tradition, while [Alexandre Lézine](/wiki/Alexandre_L%C3%A9zine \"Alexandre Lézine\") viewed it as a type of Syro\\-Oriental sanctuary imported before the fall of Carthage at the end of the [Third Punic War](/wiki/Third_Punic_War \"Third Punic War\"). Nevertheless, Dridi and Sebaï contend that the pursuit of such a model based on an \"ideological postulate\" is futile.",
""
] |
Boom years
----------
Word of Kelly's find spread and soon thousands of immigrants arrived through the veld, some pushing their wheelbarrows for more than 1,400 km through the untamed African veld from Cape Town, Ottoshoop then proceeded to play host to the biggest claim\-staking race in South Africa's mining history. Legends differ, but some have it that more than 100,000 men lined up in the flat, arid scrubland that characterizes this part of the North West province, each clutching a sharpened plank with a number painted on it with which to stake his personal little el Dorado, or claim.
Such was the gold fever at the time and so many were the punters hoping to strike it rich that Ottoshoop had seven flourishing honky\-tonk hotels on Commissioner, its main street. To house all the miners, shopkeepers and their families, magistrate Otto commissioned surveyor Gilfallen to plan a proper town. They chose as street names for the centre of town Commissioner\-, Myn\-, Pretorius\-, Market\- and Church street, with Commissioner street being the route to Johannesburg. All the plots were sold within a few months.
Then irony struck: in this dry, arid scrub\-land that borders the Kalahari desert, Otto's hope literally drowned in water. As the original seTswana name hinted, the town sat on top of what some old\-timers describe as an underground river that is 25 kilometres wide in parts. During the summer rain season, the water level rose to fill every the mine shaft and pit with water faster than it could be pumped with the biggest pumps money could buy – then and now.
**Otto's hope lives on as Johannesburg**
President Kruger's whimsey to name a town after magistrate Otto still lives on in the vibrant city of Johannesburg. When news reached the flooded community of gold diggers in Ottoshoop that prospectors were literally hacking gold nuggets out of the rocks on newly found gold reefs in [Barberton](/wiki/Barberton%2C_Mpumalanga "Barberton, Mpumalanga")'s [Sheba Mine](/wiki/Sheba_Mine "Sheba Mine") and on the Witwatersrand, Ottoshoop emptied almost overnight as the miners strapped their corrugated hotels and tent\-dwellings onto ox\-wagons and trekked down Commissioner Street to start Johannesburg and expand Barberton.
As more and more prospectors arrived, a vast tented city burgeoned along the main reef of the Witwatersrand. Rising levels of crime and disease called for a town to be built quickly, and the pragmatic government decided to dust off Gilfallen's plans for Ottoshoop's to use as the blueprint for Johannesburg. They decreed only one small change to the plans: with no love lost between the taciturn President Kruger's government and the immigrants, the President instructed that the town's blocks must be made shorter in order to create more street\-corner shops, which could be taxed, as recorded by [T. V. Bulpin](/wiki/T._V._Bulpin "T. V. Bulpin") in *Storm Over The Transvaal* (1955\).
|
[
"Boom years\n----------",
"Word of Kelly's find spread and soon thousands of immigrants arrived through the veld, some pushing their wheelbarrows for more than 1,400 km through the untamed African veld from Cape Town, Ottoshoop then proceeded to play host to the biggest claim\\-staking race in South Africa's mining history. Legends differ, but some have it that more than 100,000 men lined up in the flat, arid scrubland that characterizes this part of the North West province, each clutching a sharpened plank with a number painted on it with which to stake his personal little el Dorado, or claim.",
"Such was the gold fever at the time and so many were the punters hoping to strike it rich that Ottoshoop had seven flourishing honky\\-tonk hotels on Commissioner, its main street. To house all the miners, shopkeepers and their families, magistrate Otto commissioned surveyor Gilfallen to plan a proper town. They chose as street names for the centre of town Commissioner\\-, Myn\\-, Pretorius\\-, Market\\- and Church street, with Commissioner street being the route to Johannesburg. All the plots were sold within a few months.",
"Then irony struck: in this dry, arid scrub\\-land that borders the Kalahari desert, Otto's hope literally drowned in water. As the original seTswana name hinted, the town sat on top of what some old\\-timers describe as an underground river that is 25 kilometres wide in parts. During the summer rain season, the water level rose to fill every the mine shaft and pit with water faster than it could be pumped with the biggest pumps money could buy – then and now.",
"**Otto's hope lives on as Johannesburg**",
"President Kruger's whimsey to name a town after magistrate Otto still lives on in the vibrant city of Johannesburg. When news reached the flooded community of gold diggers in Ottoshoop that prospectors were literally hacking gold nuggets out of the rocks on newly found gold reefs in [Barberton](/wiki/Barberton%2C_Mpumalanga \"Barberton, Mpumalanga\")'s [Sheba Mine](/wiki/Sheba_Mine \"Sheba Mine\") and on the Witwatersrand, Ottoshoop emptied almost overnight as the miners strapped their corrugated hotels and tent\\-dwellings onto ox\\-wagons and trekked down Commissioner Street to start Johannesburg and expand Barberton.",
"As more and more prospectors arrived, a vast tented city burgeoned along the main reef of the Witwatersrand. Rising levels of crime and disease called for a town to be built quickly, and the pragmatic government decided to dust off Gilfallen's plans for Ottoshoop's to use as the blueprint for Johannesburg. They decreed only one small change to the plans: with no love lost between the taciturn President Kruger's government and the immigrants, the President instructed that the town's blocks must be made shorter in order to create more street\\-corner shops, which could be taxed, as recorded by [T. V. Bulpin](/wiki/T._V._Bulpin \"T. V. Bulpin\") in *Storm Over The Transvaal* (1955\\).",
""
] |
Demography
----------
{{Historical populations
\|align\=left
\|percentages\=pagr
\|1974 \|202798
\|1981 \|301753
\|1991 \|401388
\|2001 \|508182
\|2011 \|595979
\|2022 \|647586
\|footnote\= Sources:{{cite web \|url\=http://203\.112\.218\.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopCenZilz2011/Zila\_Rangamati.pdf \|title\=Bangladesh Population and Housing Census 2011 Zila Report – Rangamati \|website\=\[\[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]]}}
}}
According to the [2022 Census of Bangladesh](/wiki/2022_Census_of_Bangladesh "2022 Census of Bangladesh"), Rangamati Hill District had 153,482 households and a population of 647,586, 47\.56% of whom lived in urban areas. 18\.38% (119,027\) of the population were under 10 years of age. The population density was 106 people per km2. The literacy rate (age 7 and over) was 71\.41%, compared to the national average of 74\.80%.The sex ratio of the district was at 106 males per 100 females.{{Cite book \|url\=http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/storage/files/1/Publications/PHCensus/Chattaogram/District%20Report%20Rangamati.pdf \|title\=Population and Housing Census 2022 \- District Report: Rangamati \|date\=June 2024 \|publisher\=\[\[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]] \|isbn\=978\-984\-475\-257\-3 \|series\= District Series \|location\=Dhaka \|pages\=}}{{Cite book \|title\=Population and Housing Census 2022: Preliminary Report \|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Vhn2t\_PbEzo5\-NDGBeoFJq4XCoSzOVKg/view \|date\=August 2022 \|publisher\=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics \|pages\=viii, 29, 38, 45 \|isbn\=978\-984\-35\-2977\-0}}
[thumb\|200px\|Indigenous children, Rangamati.\|left](/wiki/Image:Hilly_Children-Rangamati-Biplob_Rahman.jpg "Hilly Children-Rangamati-Biplob Rahman.jpg")
As per the 2022 census, there were a total of 372,875 (57\.58%) indigenous people in the district.{{Cite web \|title\=2022 Census of Bangladesh \- Preliminary Report \|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1T0uDswlsJxK3RuBbFZrdecFLIkjCT4UA/view \|website\=\[\[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]]}} The total population is divided into Bengalis and indigenous communities (ethnic minorities): [Chakma](/wiki/Chakma_people "Chakma people"), [Marma](/wiki/Marma_people "Marma people"), [Tanchangya](/wiki/Tanchangya_people "Tanchangya people"), [Tripuri](/wiki/Tripuri_people "Tripuri people"), [Pankhu](/wiki/Pankhu "Pankhu"), [Lushai](/wiki/Mizo_people "Mizo people"), [Khyang](/wiki/Khyang_people "Khyang people"), [Mro](/wiki/Mro_people "Mro people"), [Rakhine](/wiki/Rakhine_people "Rakhine people"), [Chak](/wiki/Chak_people "Chak people"), [Bawm](/wiki/Bawm_people "Bawm people"), [Khumi](/wiki/Khumi_people "Khumi people").
{{Pie chart
\|thumb \= right
\|caption \= Ethnicity in the Rangamati District (2022\)https://bbs.gov.bd/site/page/2888a55d\-d686\-4736\-bad0\-54b70462afda/\-
\|label1 \= \[\[Chakma people\|Chakma]]
\|value1 \= 42\.63
\|color1 \= yellow
\|label2 \= \[\[Bengalis\|Bengali]]
\|value2 \= 42\.42
\|color2 \= green
\|label3 \= \[\[Marma people\|Marma]]
\|value3 \= 7\.94
\|color3 \= blue
\|label4 \= \[\[Tanchangya people\|Tanchangya]]
\|value4 \= 4\.32
\|color4 \= purple
\|label5 \= \[\[Tripuri people\|Tripura]]
\|value5 \= 1\.90
\|color5 \= orange
\|label6 \= \[\[Khyang people\|Khyang]]
\|value6 \= 0\.26
\|color6 \= salmon
\|label7 \= \[\[Pankhu]]
\|value7 \= 0\.22
\|color7 \= Wheat
\|label8 \= Others
\|value8 \= 0\.31
\|color8 \= black
}}
### Bengali in Rangamati
According to 2022 cencus, [Bengalis](/wiki/Bengalis "Bengalis") are the second largest in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") (42\.42%) with almost equal to [Chakma people](/wiki/Chakma_people "Chakma people") (42\.63%) .
They are largest ethnic group in [Langadu Upazila](/wiki/Langadu_Upazila "Langadu Upazila")(76\.50%), [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila "Kaptai Upazila") (55\.71%), [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila "Rangamati Sadar Upazila") (52\.33%) and [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati "Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati")(44\.88%) .
{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}
| Upazila | District | Percentage of population speaking Bengali [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\-8b4d\-4dac\-a76c\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Langadu Upazila](/wiki/Langadu_Upazila "Langadu Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 76\.50% |
| [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila "Kaptai Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 55\.71%
| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila "Rangamati Sadar Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 52\.33%
| [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati "Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 44\.88%
| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila "Rajasthali Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 32\.33%
| [Barkal Upazila](/wiki/Barkal_Upazila "Barkal Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 28\.96%
| [Bagaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Bagaichhari_Upazila "Bagaichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 28\.22%
| [Naniarchar Upazila](/wiki/Naniarchar_Upazila "Naniarchar Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 18\.27%
| [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila "Belaichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 15\.87%
| [Juraichhari Upazila](/wiki/Juraichhari_Upazila "Juraichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 4\.65%
|
### Chakma in Rangamati
According to 2022 cencus, [Chakmas](/wiki/Chakma_people "Chakma people") are the largest ethnic group in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") (42\.63%).
They are the largest ethnic group in [Juraichhari Upazila](/wiki/Juraichhari_Upazila "Juraichhari Upazila") (91\.15%), [Naniarchar Upazila](/wiki/Naniarchar_Upazila "Naniarchar Upazila")(79\.89%), [Barkal Upazila](/wiki/Barkal_Upazila "Barkal Upazila") (69\.33%) and [Bagaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Bagaichhari_Upazila "Bagaichhari Upazila") (66\.19%) .
{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}
| Upazila | District | Percentage of Chakma[https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\-8b4d\-4dac\-a76c\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Juraichhari Upazila](/wiki/Juraichhari_Upazila "Juraichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 91\.15%
| [Naniarchar Upazila](/wiki/Naniarchar_Upazila "Naniarchar Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 79\.89%
| [Barkal Upazila](/wiki/Barkal_Upazila "Barkal Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 69\.33%
| [Bagaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Bagaichhari_Upazila "Bagaichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 66\.19%
| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila "Rangamati Sadar Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 41\.23%
| [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila "Belaichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 26\.68%
| [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati "Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 25\.92%
| [Langadu Upazila](/wiki/Langadu_Upazila "Langadu Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 23\.10% |
| [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila "Kaptai Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 2\.25%
| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila "Rajasthali Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 0\.97%
|
### Marma in Rangamati
According to 2022 cencus, [Marmas](/wiki/Marma_people "Marma people") are third largest ethnic group in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") (7\.93%).
They are the largest ethnic group in [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila "Rajasthali Upazila") (36\.65%) and second largest in [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila "Kaptai Upazila") (28\.59%) and [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati "Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati")(27\.86%).
{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}
| Upazila | District | Percentage of Marma [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\-8b4d\-4dac\-a76c\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila "Rajasthali Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 36\.65%
| [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila "Kaptai Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 28\.59%
| [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati "Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 27\.86%
| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila "Rangamati Sadar Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 1\.89%
| [Naniarchar Upazila](/wiki/Naniarchar_Upazila "Naniarchar Upazila") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District") | 1\.74%
| Others | \_ | \<1% |
|
### Tanchangya in Rangamati
According to 2022 cencus, [Tanchangyas](/wiki/Tanchangya_people "Tanchangya people") are fourth largest ethnic group in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District")(4\.32%).
They are the largest ethnic group in [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila "Belaichhari Upazila") (38\.77%).
{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}
| Upazila | District | Percentage of Tanchangya [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\-8b4d\-4dac\-a76c\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila "Belaichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 38\.77%
| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila "Rajasthali Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 16\.30%
| [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila "Kaptai Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 12\.42%
| [Juraichhari Upazila](/wiki/Juraichhari_Upazila "Juraichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 3\.33%
| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila "Rangamati Sadar Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 2\.38%
| [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati "Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 1\.02%
| Others | | \<1%
|
### Tripura in Rangamati
According to 2022 cencus, [Tripuras](/wiki/Tripuri_people "Tripuri people") are fifth largest ethnic group in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District "Rangamati Hill District")(1\.90%).
{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}
| Upazila | District | Percentage of Tripura [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\-8b4d\-4dac\-a76c\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila "Rajasthali Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 8\.16%
| [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila "Belaichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 6\.08%
| [Baghaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Baghaichhari_Upazila "Baghaichhari Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 5\.13%
| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila "Rangamati Sadar Upazila") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District "Rangamati District") | 1\.50%
| Others | | \<1%
|
### Khyang in Rangamati
According to 2022 cencus, there are 1670 kyang in [Rangamati district](/wiki/Rangamati_district "Rangamati district") .
They form 5\.10% in [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila "Rajasthali Upazila").
### Phanko in Rangamati
According to 2022 cencus, there are 1,398 Phankos live in [Rangamati district](/wiki/Rangamati_district "Rangamati district").
They form 1\.21% in [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila "Belaichhari Upazila").
|
[
"Demography\n----------",
"{{Historical populations\n\\|align\\=left\n\\|percentages\\=pagr\n\\|1974 \\|202798\n\\|1981 \\|301753\n\\|1991 \\|401388\n\\|2001 \\|508182\n\\|2011 \\|595979\n\\|2022 \\|647586\n\\|footnote\\= Sources:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://203\\.112\\.218\\.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopCenZilz2011/Zila\\_Rangamati.pdf \\|title\\=Bangladesh Population and Housing Census 2011 Zila Report – Rangamati \\|website\\=\\[\\[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]]}}\n}}\nAccording to the [2022 Census of Bangladesh](/wiki/2022_Census_of_Bangladesh \"2022 Census of Bangladesh\"), Rangamati Hill District had 153,482 households and a population of 647,586, 47\\.56% of whom lived in urban areas. 18\\.38% (119,027\\) of the population were under 10 years of age. The population density was 106 people per km2. The literacy rate (age 7 and over) was 71\\.41%, compared to the national average of 74\\.80%.The sex ratio of the district was at 106 males per 100 females.{{Cite book \\|url\\=http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/storage/files/1/Publications/PHCensus/Chattaogram/District%20Report%20Rangamati.pdf \\|title\\=Population and Housing Census 2022 \\- District Report: Rangamati \\|date\\=June 2024 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-984\\-475\\-257\\-3 \\|series\\= District Series \\|location\\=Dhaka \\|pages\\=}}{{Cite book \\|title\\=Population and Housing Census 2022: Preliminary Report \\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Vhn2t\\_PbEzo5\\-NDGBeoFJq4XCoSzOVKg/view \\|date\\=August 2022 \\|publisher\\=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics \\|pages\\=viii, 29, 38, 45 \\|isbn\\=978\\-984\\-35\\-2977\\-0}}",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Indigenous children, Rangamati.\\|left](/wiki/Image:Hilly_Children-Rangamati-Biplob_Rahman.jpg \"Hilly Children-Rangamati-Biplob Rahman.jpg\")",
"As per the 2022 census, there were a total of 372,875 (57\\.58%) indigenous people in the district.{{Cite web \\|title\\=2022 Census of Bangladesh \\- Preliminary Report \\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1T0uDswlsJxK3RuBbFZrdecFLIkjCT4UA/view \\|website\\=\\[\\[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]]}} The total population is divided into Bengalis and indigenous communities (ethnic minorities): [Chakma](/wiki/Chakma_people \"Chakma people\"), [Marma](/wiki/Marma_people \"Marma people\"), [Tanchangya](/wiki/Tanchangya_people \"Tanchangya people\"), [Tripuri](/wiki/Tripuri_people \"Tripuri people\"), [Pankhu](/wiki/Pankhu \"Pankhu\"), [Lushai](/wiki/Mizo_people \"Mizo people\"), [Khyang](/wiki/Khyang_people \"Khyang people\"), [Mro](/wiki/Mro_people \"Mro people\"), [Rakhine](/wiki/Rakhine_people \"Rakhine people\"), [Chak](/wiki/Chak_people \"Chak people\"), [Bawm](/wiki/Bawm_people \"Bawm people\"), [Khumi](/wiki/Khumi_people \"Khumi people\").",
"{{Pie chart\n\\|thumb \\= right\n\\|caption \\= Ethnicity in the Rangamati District (2022\\)https://bbs.gov.bd/site/page/2888a55d\\-d686\\-4736\\-bad0\\-54b70462afda/\\-\n\\|label1 \\= \\[\\[Chakma people\\|Chakma]]\n\\|value1 \\= 42\\.63\n\\|color1 \\= yellow\n\\|label2 \\= \\[\\[Bengalis\\|Bengali]]\n\\|value2 \\= 42\\.42\n\\|color2 \\= green \n\\|label3 \\= \\[\\[Marma people\\|Marma]]\n\\|value3 \\= 7\\.94\n\\|color3 \\= blue\n\\|label4 \\= \\[\\[Tanchangya people\\|Tanchangya]]\n\\|value4 \\= 4\\.32\n\\|color4 \\= purple\n\\|label5 \\= \\[\\[Tripuri people\\|Tripura]]\n\\|value5 \\= 1\\.90\n\\|color5 \\= orange\n\\|label6 \\= \\[\\[Khyang people\\|Khyang]]\n\\|value6 \\= 0\\.26\n\\|color6 \\= salmon \n\\|label7 \\= \\[\\[Pankhu]]\n\\|value7 \\= 0\\.22\n\\|color7 \\= Wheat\n\\|label8 \\= Others\n\\|value8 \\= 0\\.31\n\\|color8 \\= black\n }}",
"### Bengali in Rangamati",
"According to 2022 cencus, [Bengalis](/wiki/Bengalis \"Bengalis\") are the second largest in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") (42\\.42%) with almost equal to [Chakma people](/wiki/Chakma_people \"Chakma people\") (42\\.63%) .",
"They are largest ethnic group in [Langadu Upazila](/wiki/Langadu_Upazila \"Langadu Upazila\")(76\\.50%), [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila \"Kaptai Upazila\") (55\\.71%), [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila \"Rangamati Sadar Upazila\") (52\\.33%) and [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati \"Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati\")(44\\.88%) .",
"{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}",
"| Upazila | District | Percentage of population speaking Bengali [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\\-8b4d\\-4dac\\-a76c\\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Langadu Upazila](/wiki/Langadu_Upazila \"Langadu Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 76\\.50% |\n| [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila \"Kaptai Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 55\\.71%",
"| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila \"Rangamati Sadar Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 52\\.33%",
"| [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati \"Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 44\\.88%",
"| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila \"Rajasthali Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 32\\.33%",
"| [Barkal Upazila](/wiki/Barkal_Upazila \"Barkal Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 28\\.96%",
"| [Bagaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Bagaichhari_Upazila \"Bagaichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 28\\.22%",
"| [Naniarchar Upazila](/wiki/Naniarchar_Upazila \"Naniarchar Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 18\\.27%",
"| [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila \"Belaichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 15\\.87%",
"| [Juraichhari Upazila](/wiki/Juraichhari_Upazila \"Juraichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 4\\.65%",
"|",
"",
"### Chakma in Rangamati",
"According to 2022 cencus, [Chakmas](/wiki/Chakma_people \"Chakma people\") are the largest ethnic group in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") (42\\.63%).",
"They are the largest ethnic group in [Juraichhari Upazila](/wiki/Juraichhari_Upazila \"Juraichhari Upazila\") (91\\.15%), [Naniarchar Upazila](/wiki/Naniarchar_Upazila \"Naniarchar Upazila\")(79\\.89%), [Barkal Upazila](/wiki/Barkal_Upazila \"Barkal Upazila\") (69\\.33%) and [Bagaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Bagaichhari_Upazila \"Bagaichhari Upazila\") (66\\.19%) .",
"{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}",
"| Upazila | District | Percentage of Chakma[https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\\-8b4d\\-4dac\\-a76c\\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Juraichhari Upazila](/wiki/Juraichhari_Upazila \"Juraichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 91\\.15%",
"| [Naniarchar Upazila](/wiki/Naniarchar_Upazila \"Naniarchar Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 79\\.89%",
"| [Barkal Upazila](/wiki/Barkal_Upazila \"Barkal Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 69\\.33%",
"| [Bagaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Bagaichhari_Upazila \"Bagaichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 66\\.19%",
"| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila \"Rangamati Sadar Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 41\\.23%",
"| [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila \"Belaichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 26\\.68%",
"| [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati \"Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 25\\.92%",
"| [Langadu Upazila](/wiki/Langadu_Upazila \"Langadu Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 23\\.10% |\n| [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila \"Kaptai Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 2\\.25%",
"| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila \"Rajasthali Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 0\\.97%",
"|",
"",
"### Marma in Rangamati",
"According to 2022 cencus, [Marmas](/wiki/Marma_people \"Marma people\") are third largest ethnic group in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") (7\\.93%).",
"They are the largest ethnic group in [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila \"Rajasthali Upazila\") (36\\.65%) and second largest in [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila \"Kaptai Upazila\") (28\\.59%) and [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati \"Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati\")(27\\.86%).\n{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}",
"| Upazila | District | Percentage of Marma [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\\-8b4d\\-4dac\\-a76c\\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila \"Rajasthali Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 36\\.65%",
"| [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila \"Kaptai Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 28\\.59%",
"| [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati \"Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 27\\.86%",
"| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila \"Rangamati Sadar Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 1\\.89%",
"| [Naniarchar Upazila](/wiki/Naniarchar_Upazila \"Naniarchar Upazila\") | [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\") | 1\\.74%",
"| Others | \\_ | \\<1% |\n|",
"",
"### Tanchangya in Rangamati",
"According to 2022 cencus, [Tanchangyas](/wiki/Tanchangya_people \"Tanchangya people\") are fourth largest ethnic group in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\")(4\\.32%).",
"They are the largest ethnic group in [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila \"Belaichhari Upazila\") (38\\.77%).\n{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}",
"| Upazila | District | Percentage of Tanchangya [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\\-8b4d\\-4dac\\-a76c\\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila \"Belaichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 38\\.77%",
"| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila \"Rajasthali Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 16\\.30%",
"| [Kaptai Upazila](/wiki/Kaptai_Upazila \"Kaptai Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 12\\.42%",
"| [Juraichhari Upazila](/wiki/Juraichhari_Upazila \"Juraichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 3\\.33%",
"| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila \"Rangamati Sadar Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 2\\.38%",
"| [Kaukhali Upazila](/wiki/Kawkhali_Upazila%2C_Rangamati \"Kawkhali Upazila, Rangamati\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 1\\.02%",
"| Others | | \\<1%",
"|",
"",
"### Tripura in Rangamati",
"According to 2022 cencus, [Tripuras](/wiki/Tripuri_people \"Tripuri people\") are fifth largest ethnic group in [Rangamati Hill District](/wiki/Rangamati_Hill_District \"Rangamati Hill District\")(1\\.90%).",
"{{static row numbers}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}{{row hover highlight}}",
"| Upazila | District | Percentage of Tripura [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5\\-8b4d\\-4dac\\-a76c\\-a9be4e85828c](https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila \"Rajasthali Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 8\\.16%",
"| [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila \"Belaichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 6\\.08%",
"| [Baghaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Baghaichhari_Upazila \"Baghaichhari Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 5\\.13%",
"| [Rangamati Sadar Upazila](/wiki/Rangamati_Sadar_Upazila \"Rangamati Sadar Upazila\") | [Rangamati District](/wiki/Rangamati_District \"Rangamati District\") | 1\\.50%",
"| Others | | \\<1%",
"|",
"",
"### Khyang in Rangamati",
"According to 2022 cencus, there are 1670 kyang in [Rangamati district](/wiki/Rangamati_district \"Rangamati district\") .\nThey form 5\\.10% in [Rajasthali Upazila](/wiki/Rajasthali_Upazila \"Rajasthali Upazila\").",
"### Phanko in Rangamati",
"According to 2022 cencus, there are 1,398 Phankos live in [Rangamati district](/wiki/Rangamati_district \"Rangamati district\").\nThey form 1\\.21% in [Belaichhari Upazila](/wiki/Belaichhari_Upazila \"Belaichhari Upazila\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Sir Douglas was born in [Perth, Scotland](/wiki/Perth%2C_Scotland "Perth, Scotland") and educated at [George Watson's College](/wiki/George_Watson%27s_College "George Watson's College") in Edinburgh. On leaving school in 1942, he volunteered for the army and subsequently served in the [Royal Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Artillery "Royal Artillery") in India, Burma and Malaya. He was demobilised in 1947 with the rank of captain. He attended the [University of Edinburgh](/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh "University of Edinburgh") from 1947 to 1949 where he graduated with a business studies degree. While at the University, Sir Douglas met Anne Rutherford Bell whom he subsequently married in May 1951, after which they moved to London.
In 1951 he joined the [Honourable Artillery Company](/wiki/Honourable_Artillery_Company "Honourable Artillery Company") ("HAC"), the oldest regiment in the British Army, and commanded the 1st Regiment HAC, [Royal Horse Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Horse_Artillery "Royal Horse Artillery"), from 1964 to 1966\. He was appointed Master Gunner within the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London "Tower of London") in 1966, a position he held until 1969\. He was awarded the [Territorial Decoration](/wiki/Territorial_Decoration "Territorial Decoration") ("TD") in 1959\.
Sir Douglas qualified as an English [chartered accountant](/wiki/Chartered_accountant "Chartered accountant") (rather than a Scottish Chartered Accountant as the Scottish Institute had decided not to shorten training contracts for ex\-servicemen) and joined George A. Touche \& Co (now [Deloitte](/wiki/Deloitte "Deloitte")), one of the few accounting firms in the UK at that time with international presence in the United States and Canada. He was made a Partner in 1958 and was appointed its Senior Partner in 1977, a position he held until his retirement from the firm in 1984\. During his time as a partner, Sir Douglas played a significant role in growing the original firm of George A Touche \& Co which when he retired was known as Touche Ross \& Co and is now known as Deloitte.
Sir Douglas became a member of the Council of the [Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales](/wiki/Institute_of_Chartered_Accountants_in_England_and_Wales "Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales") in 1964 and served as President of the Institute (the youngest to be appointed at that time) in 1972\. Soon after joining the Council, he was appointed Chairman of the Institute's Parliamentary and Law Committee, which dealt with Company Law and Taxation. He started a campaign to simplify the tax system, which had become complicated by several new taxes introduced by the then [Chancellor of the Exchequer](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer "Chancellor of the Exchequer"). This campaign was successful and the Chancellor set up a Tax Reform Committee to which he was appointed. At his suggestion, the law was changed to allow property left to a widow in her husband's will to be free of inheritance tax and he was also instrumental in the campaign to introduce the separate taxation of husbands and wives \- which up until that point had been aggregated as one.
He was one of the originators of the Accounting Standards Committee ("ASC") \- whose objective was to develop definitive standards for financial reporting \- and at its inception was appointed Vice Chairman.{{cite news \| title\=Accounting Plan Would Reflect Inflation in U.K. In this role, he was instrumental in setting down the definitive standards by which the Accounting Profession is governed. Firms' Profits, Payouts Seen Affected by Proposals, Expected to Be Adopted \| newspaper\=\[\[The Wall Street Journal]] \| date\=1 December 1976 \| url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/djreprints/access/108202325\.html?dids\=108202325:108202325\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:AI\&type\=historic\&date\=Dec\+01%2C\+1976\&author\=\&pub\=Wall\+Street\+Journal\&desc\=Accounting\+Plan\+Would\+Reflect\+Inflation\+in\+U.K.\&pqatl\=google%20abstract}}{{dead link\|date\=July 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}}
He was Chairman of the Institute's Overseas Relations Committee for several years and which led to his becoming a key member of the International Accountants' Study Group and ultimately its Chairman.
In 1972, as President of the Institute, he was instrumental in the founding of the International Accounting Standards Committee ("IASC") in London. The IASC was responsible for developing International Accounting Standards and promoting the use and application of these standards across the world.
At the end of his Presidency of the Institute he was asked to join the CBI and chair the Tax Committee, but resigned after three years to become Chairman of the Inflation Accounting Steering Committee. This was required to produce a new accounting standard to set out how companies should prepare their accounts taking into consideration the level of inflation, which at the time was high and detrimental to business. This was adopted as SAP16 after a great deal of controversy and over 4 years work for the committee between 1976 and 1980\."British Tax\-Law Change A Boon to U.S. Concerns; British Tax\-Law Shift a Boon" By ROBERT D. HERSHEY Jr *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* 5 September 1979, Wednesday Page D1, [https://www.nytimes.com/1979/09/05/archives/british\-taxlaw\-change\-a\-boon\-to\-us\-concerns\-british\-taxlaw\-shift\-a.html](https://www.nytimes.com/1979/09/05/archives/british-taxlaw-change-a-boon-to-us-concerns-british-taxlaw-shift-a.html)"Britain Institutes Inflation Accounting; Two American Approaches British Business Begins Accounting for Inflation" The New York Times 21 April 1980, Monday Page D1, [https://www.nytimes.com/1980/04/21/archives/britain\-institutes\-inflation\-accounting\-two\-american\-approaches.html](https://www.nytimes.com/1980/04/21/archives/britain-institutes-inflation-accounting-two-american-approaches.html)"Standards for Inflation Accounting Sought in Britain; Rules Become Basic Question" *The New York Times* 5 September 1977, Monday Page 22,[https://www.nytimes.com/1977/09/05/archives/standards\-for\-inflation\-accounting\-sought\-in\-britain\-rules\-become.html](https://www.nytimes.com/1977/09/05/archives/standards-for-inflation-accounting-sought-in-britain-rules-become.html)
In 1979 Sir Douglas was awarded the International Accountant of the Year by the University of Hertford, Connecticut, and in 1981, at the age of 57, Sir Douglas was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace for his services to the accounting profession.
While as President he helped found a livery company. He persuaded the Council of the Institute to authorise it and, with the help and authority of the City of London, the Worshipful Company of Chartered Accountants in [England and Wales](/wiki/England_and_Wales "England and Wales") was created with full livery status in 1976\. He was Senior Warden in 1976, Master in 1977/8 and served as Senior Past Master.
On retiring from Touche Ross \& Co (now Deloitte) he was the first Chairman of the Trustees of the British Telecom Pension Fund, Chairman of [Clerical Medical and General Assurance Group](/wiki/Clerical_Medical "Clerical Medical"), director of the Allied Irish Bank, and director of several other companies before finally retiring at the age of 75\.
He was the honorary Treasurer of the [Royal College of Music](/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music "Royal College of Music") from 1981 to 1996 and was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal College (FRCM).
Sir Douglas was a resident of Shamley Green in Surrey for over 50 years. He supported many local causes and was on the committee to raise the funds to found the HASTE wing at the Royal Surrey Hospital. He was Chairman of the Governors of Longacre School in Shamley Green for many years. His widow, Anne, was the Waverley Borough Councillor for Shamley Green in the 1980s.
Sir Douglas and his wife, Anne, celebrated their 63rd wedding anniversary in 2014\. He and his wife had two sons and two daughters, 6 grandsons and 3 granddaughters.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Sir Douglas was born in [Perth, Scotland](/wiki/Perth%2C_Scotland \"Perth, Scotland\") and educated at [George Watson's College](/wiki/George_Watson%27s_College \"George Watson's College\") in Edinburgh. On leaving school in 1942, he volunteered for the army and subsequently served in the [Royal Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Artillery \"Royal Artillery\") in India, Burma and Malaya. He was demobilised in 1947 with the rank of captain. He attended the [University of Edinburgh](/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh \"University of Edinburgh\") from 1947 to 1949 where he graduated with a business studies degree. While at the University, Sir Douglas met Anne Rutherford Bell whom he subsequently married in May 1951, after which they moved to London.",
"In 1951 he joined the [Honourable Artillery Company](/wiki/Honourable_Artillery_Company \"Honourable Artillery Company\") (\"HAC\"), the oldest regiment in the British Army, and commanded the 1st Regiment HAC, [Royal Horse Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Horse_Artillery \"Royal Horse Artillery\"), from 1964 to 1966\\. He was appointed Master Gunner within the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London \"Tower of London\") in 1966, a position he held until 1969\\. He was awarded the [Territorial Decoration](/wiki/Territorial_Decoration \"Territorial Decoration\") (\"TD\") in 1959\\.",
"Sir Douglas qualified as an English [chartered accountant](/wiki/Chartered_accountant \"Chartered accountant\") (rather than a Scottish Chartered Accountant as the Scottish Institute had decided not to shorten training contracts for ex\\-servicemen) and joined George A. Touche \\& Co (now [Deloitte](/wiki/Deloitte \"Deloitte\")), one of the few accounting firms in the UK at that time with international presence in the United States and Canada. He was made a Partner in 1958 and was appointed its Senior Partner in 1977, a position he held until his retirement from the firm in 1984\\. During his time as a partner, Sir Douglas played a significant role in growing the original firm of George A Touche \\& Co which when he retired was known as Touche Ross \\& Co and is now known as Deloitte.",
"Sir Douglas became a member of the Council of the [Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales](/wiki/Institute_of_Chartered_Accountants_in_England_and_Wales \"Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales\") in 1964 and served as President of the Institute (the youngest to be appointed at that time) in 1972\\. Soon after joining the Council, he was appointed Chairman of the Institute's Parliamentary and Law Committee, which dealt with Company Law and Taxation. He started a campaign to simplify the tax system, which had become complicated by several new taxes introduced by the then [Chancellor of the Exchequer](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer \"Chancellor of the Exchequer\"). This campaign was successful and the Chancellor set up a Tax Reform Committee to which he was appointed. At his suggestion, the law was changed to allow property left to a widow in her husband's will to be free of inheritance tax and he was also instrumental in the campaign to introduce the separate taxation of husbands and wives \\- which up until that point had been aggregated as one.",
"He was one of the originators of the Accounting Standards Committee (\"ASC\") \\- whose objective was to develop definitive standards for financial reporting \\- and at its inception was appointed Vice Chairman.{{cite news \\| title\\=Accounting Plan Would Reflect Inflation in U.K. In this role, he was instrumental in setting down the definitive standards by which the Accounting Profession is governed. Firms' Profits, Payouts Seen Affected by Proposals, Expected to Be Adopted \\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Wall Street Journal]] \\| date\\=1 December 1976 \\| url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/djreprints/access/108202325\\.html?dids\\=108202325:108202325\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:AI\\&type\\=historic\\&date\\=Dec\\+01%2C\\+1976\\&author\\=\\&pub\\=Wall\\+Street\\+Journal\\&desc\\=Accounting\\+Plan\\+Would\\+Reflect\\+Inflation\\+in\\+U.K.\\&pqatl\\=google%20abstract}}{{dead link\\|date\\=July 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}",
"He was Chairman of the Institute's Overseas Relations Committee for several years and which led to his becoming a key member of the International Accountants' Study Group and ultimately its Chairman.",
"In 1972, as President of the Institute, he was instrumental in the founding of the International Accounting Standards Committee (\"IASC\") in London. The IASC was responsible for developing International Accounting Standards and promoting the use and application of these standards across the world.",
"At the end of his Presidency of the Institute he was asked to join the CBI and chair the Tax Committee, but resigned after three years to become Chairman of the Inflation Accounting Steering Committee. This was required to produce a new accounting standard to set out how companies should prepare their accounts taking into consideration the level of inflation, which at the time was high and detrimental to business. This was adopted as SAP16 after a great deal of controversy and over 4 years work for the committee between 1976 and 1980\\.\"British Tax\\-Law Change A Boon to U.S. Concerns; British Tax\\-Law Shift a Boon\" By ROBERT D. HERSHEY Jr *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* 5 September 1979, Wednesday Page D1, [https://www.nytimes.com/1979/09/05/archives/british\\-taxlaw\\-change\\-a\\-boon\\-to\\-us\\-concerns\\-british\\-taxlaw\\-shift\\-a.html](https://www.nytimes.com/1979/09/05/archives/british-taxlaw-change-a-boon-to-us-concerns-british-taxlaw-shift-a.html)\"Britain Institutes Inflation Accounting; Two American Approaches British Business Begins Accounting for Inflation\" The New York Times 21 April 1980, Monday Page D1, [https://www.nytimes.com/1980/04/21/archives/britain\\-institutes\\-inflation\\-accounting\\-two\\-american\\-approaches.html](https://www.nytimes.com/1980/04/21/archives/britain-institutes-inflation-accounting-two-american-approaches.html)\"Standards for Inflation Accounting Sought in Britain; Rules Become Basic Question\" *The New York Times* 5 September 1977, Monday Page 22,[https://www.nytimes.com/1977/09/05/archives/standards\\-for\\-inflation\\-accounting\\-sought\\-in\\-britain\\-rules\\-become.html](https://www.nytimes.com/1977/09/05/archives/standards-for-inflation-accounting-sought-in-britain-rules-become.html)",
"In 1979 Sir Douglas was awarded the International Accountant of the Year by the University of Hertford, Connecticut, and in 1981, at the age of 57, Sir Douglas was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace for his services to the accounting profession.",
"While as President he helped found a livery company. He persuaded the Council of the Institute to authorise it and, with the help and authority of the City of London, the Worshipful Company of Chartered Accountants in [England and Wales](/wiki/England_and_Wales \"England and Wales\") was created with full livery status in 1976\\. He was Senior Warden in 1976, Master in 1977/8 and served as Senior Past Master.",
"On retiring from Touche Ross \\& Co (now Deloitte) he was the first Chairman of the Trustees of the British Telecom Pension Fund, Chairman of [Clerical Medical and General Assurance Group](/wiki/Clerical_Medical \"Clerical Medical\"), director of the Allied Irish Bank, and director of several other companies before finally retiring at the age of 75\\.",
"He was the honorary Treasurer of the [Royal College of Music](/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music \"Royal College of Music\") from 1981 to 1996 and was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal College (FRCM).",
"Sir Douglas was a resident of Shamley Green in Surrey for over 50 years. He supported many local causes and was on the committee to raise the funds to found the HASTE wing at the Royal Surrey Hospital. He was Chairman of the Governors of Longacre School in Shamley Green for many years. His widow, Anne, was the Waverley Borough Councillor for Shamley Green in the 1980s.",
"Sir Douglas and his wife, Anne, celebrated their 63rd wedding anniversary in 2014\\. He and his wife had two sons and two daughters, 6 grandsons and 3 granddaughters.",
""
] |
New Theatre at the Fringe
-------------------------
Each year, the New Theatre takes one or more 'official' shows to the [Edinburgh Festival Fringe](/wiki/Edinburgh_Festival_Fringe "Edinburgh Festival Fringe") and supports any number of shows being performed and produced at the fringe by its members. In 2007, these shows included an adaptation of 'Alice Through the Looking Glass'(New Theatre<http://www.newtheatre.org.uk/fringe.php> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310195817/http://www.newtheatre.org.uk/fringe.php\|date\=10 March 2008}}), 'Dearly Deported' by Charles Brafman (Ankle Productions)<http://www.ankleproductions.co.uk/> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319173921/http://www.ankleproductions.co.uk/\|date\=19 March 2008}} and 'Slippery Soapbox: Spotbanded Skat' (ShutYOface Productions).
In 2008, the New Theatre took two shows; an ensemble devised piece ('Crossing The Rubicon', C Soco Chambers Street 12pm), and a piece of new writing by Anthony Lau ('Cross\-Stitching', C Soco Chambers Street 1pm) officially. Also performing were Ribcaged Productions Ltd ('The Bear Who Paints'), Ankle Productions ('The Third Condiment'), Chimera Theatre Group ('Vivien') and Cicero Productions ('Written Off'), their casts and crew being New Theatre members and alumni.
In 2009, the New Theatre took *Warehouse 364*, written and directed by Andy McNamee, who stepped into a role for one performance when a cast member was unable to perform.
In 2010, the New Theatre took two shows; *Only One Wing*, written by Lizzie Bourne and directed by Andy McNamee, and *The Retreat*, written by Jenni Herzberg and directed by Becky Caitlin.
In 2011, the New Theatre took another two shows: *Beef* written by Rose Williams and directed by Liz Stevenson, *Chasing Dragons* written by Adam H. Wells and directed by Dan Rae\-Scott (both performed at C SoCo).
In 2010 and 2011, Paulden Productions (co\-founded by former New Theatre president Matt Leventhall) took *FRESHER: The Musical* to the fringe, where it won several accolades, including Musical Theatre Matters award for "Best New Musical".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831282743129/MTM%3A\+UK\+Winners%3A\+Barbershopera,\+Hamlet,\+Fresher.html \|title\=London Theatre News, Reviews, Interviews and more \|publisher\=WhatsOnStage \|accessdate\=2015\-10\-09}}
In 2012, the New Theatre continued taking two productions with; *The Hand\-Me\-Down People* written and directed by Adam H. Wells (performed at C Nova) and *Porphyria* written by Craig Wilmann, and co\-directed by Matt Wilks and Tom Barnes (performed at [Zoo Southside](/wiki/Zoo_Southside "Zoo Southside")).
In 2016, the New Theatre enjoyed one of its most successful Fringe residencies, with its production of *[The Great Gatsby](/wiki/The_Great_Gatsby "The Great Gatsby")* by [F. Scott Fitzgerald](/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald "F. Scott Fitzgerald") and *Tyrannosaurus Sketch* receiving 4\-star reviews and enjoying sell out runs. An independent production also came to Edinburgh in association with the New Theatre: *The Toyland Murders* by the Kite Tail Theatre Company. It enjoyed critical and commercial success.
In 2017, the New Theatre took two devised pieces, *Escape for Dummies* and *Wrecked*. Both enjoyed critical and commercial success, with *Escape for Dummies* gaining 5 star reviews.
In 2018, the New Theatre again took two productions, *Working Class Hero* written by Ben Standish and directed by Felicity Chilver, and *The Devil You Know* written and directed by Emma Summerton. These productions took place at Greenside @ Infirmary Street.
In 2019, two more productions were taken to the Fringe, *Order from Chaos* written and directed by Jonny Khan, and *Franz and Marie: Woyzeck Retold* written and directed by Daniel Mcvey. These productions also took place at Greenside @ Infirmary Street. Both shows were met with critical success with *Order From Chaos* receiving 5\-star reviews.
In 2021, two productions were taken to Fringe, *Madhouse* written and directed by Maddie Craig, and *It's Not Rocket Science* written and directed by Cecilia Alexander.
In 2022, the New Theatre took two productions to the Fringe, *The Lacehouse* written and directed by Amalia Costa, and *The Conversation* written and directed by Syania Shaharuddin. These productions took place at TheSpace on North Bridge's Perth Theatre.
|
[
"New Theatre at the Fringe\n-------------------------",
"Each year, the New Theatre takes one or more 'official' shows to the [Edinburgh Festival Fringe](/wiki/Edinburgh_Festival_Fringe \"Edinburgh Festival Fringe\") and supports any number of shows being performed and produced at the fringe by its members. In 2007, these shows included an adaptation of 'Alice Through the Looking Glass'(New Theatre<http://www.newtheatre.org.uk/fringe.php> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310195817/http://www.newtheatre.org.uk/fringe.php\\|date\\=10 March 2008}}), 'Dearly Deported' by Charles Brafman (Ankle Productions)<http://www.ankleproductions.co.uk/> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319173921/http://www.ankleproductions.co.uk/\\|date\\=19 March 2008}} and 'Slippery Soapbox: Spotbanded Skat' (ShutYOface Productions).",
"In 2008, the New Theatre took two shows; an ensemble devised piece ('Crossing The Rubicon', C Soco Chambers Street 12pm), and a piece of new writing by Anthony Lau ('Cross\\-Stitching', C Soco Chambers Street 1pm) officially. Also performing were Ribcaged Productions Ltd ('The Bear Who Paints'), Ankle Productions ('The Third Condiment'), Chimera Theatre Group ('Vivien') and Cicero Productions ('Written Off'), their casts and crew being New Theatre members and alumni.",
"In 2009, the New Theatre took *Warehouse 364*, written and directed by Andy McNamee, who stepped into a role for one performance when a cast member was unable to perform.",
"In 2010, the New Theatre took two shows; *Only One Wing*, written by Lizzie Bourne and directed by Andy McNamee, and *The Retreat*, written by Jenni Herzberg and directed by Becky Caitlin.",
"In 2011, the New Theatre took another two shows: *Beef* written by Rose Williams and directed by Liz Stevenson, *Chasing Dragons* written by Adam H. Wells and directed by Dan Rae\\-Scott (both performed at C SoCo).",
"In 2010 and 2011, Paulden Productions (co\\-founded by former New Theatre president Matt Leventhall) took *FRESHER: The Musical* to the fringe, where it won several accolades, including Musical Theatre Matters award for \"Best New Musical\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831282743129/MTM%3A\\+UK\\+Winners%3A\\+Barbershopera,\\+Hamlet,\\+Fresher.html \\|title\\=London Theatre News, Reviews, Interviews and more \\|publisher\\=WhatsOnStage \\|accessdate\\=2015\\-10\\-09}}",
"In 2012, the New Theatre continued taking two productions with; *The Hand\\-Me\\-Down People* written and directed by Adam H. Wells (performed at C Nova) and *Porphyria* written by Craig Wilmann, and co\\-directed by Matt Wilks and Tom Barnes (performed at [Zoo Southside](/wiki/Zoo_Southside \"Zoo Southside\")).",
"In 2016, the New Theatre enjoyed one of its most successful Fringe residencies, with its production of *[The Great Gatsby](/wiki/The_Great_Gatsby \"The Great Gatsby\")* by [F. Scott Fitzgerald](/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald \"F. Scott Fitzgerald\") and *Tyrannosaurus Sketch* receiving 4\\-star reviews and enjoying sell out runs. An independent production also came to Edinburgh in association with the New Theatre: *The Toyland Murders* by the Kite Tail Theatre Company. It enjoyed critical and commercial success.",
"In 2017, the New Theatre took two devised pieces, *Escape for Dummies* and *Wrecked*. Both enjoyed critical and commercial success, with *Escape for Dummies* gaining 5 star reviews.",
"In 2018, the New Theatre again took two productions, *Working Class Hero* written by Ben Standish and directed by Felicity Chilver, and *The Devil You Know* written and directed by Emma Summerton. These productions took place at Greenside @ Infirmary Street.",
"In 2019, two more productions were taken to the Fringe, *Order from Chaos* written and directed by Jonny Khan, and *Franz and Marie: Woyzeck Retold* written and directed by Daniel Mcvey. These productions also took place at Greenside @ Infirmary Street. Both shows were met with critical success with *Order From Chaos* receiving 5\\-star reviews.",
"In 2021, two productions were taken to Fringe, *Madhouse* written and directed by Maddie Craig, and *It's Not Rocket Science* written and directed by Cecilia Alexander.",
"In 2022, the New Theatre took two productions to the Fringe, *The Lacehouse* written and directed by Amalia Costa, and *The Conversation* written and directed by Syania Shaharuddin. These productions took place at TheSpace on North Bridge's Perth Theatre.",
""
] |
New Theatre at NSDF
-------------------
In 2007 and 2008, New Theatre entered a number of shows into the [National Student Drama Festival](/wiki/National_Student_Drama_Festival "National Student Drama Festival") competition. In both years two productions were selected by the NSDF judges as finalists and were performed at the Festival in [Scarborough](/wiki/Scarborough%2C_North_Yorkshire "Scarborough, North Yorkshire"). In 2008 the theatre's shows '[Disco Pigs](/wiki/Disco_Pigs "Disco Pigs")' and '[Proof](/wiki/Proof_%28play%29 "Proof (play)")' won 6 awards between them, with the theatre also receiving the 'Judges' Award for Promoting Student Theatre'.{{cite web\|url\=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts\_and\_entertainment/stage/theatre/article3628384\.ece \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530111006/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts\_and\_entertainment/stage/theatre/article3628384\.ece \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=30 May 2010 \|title\=Nottingham New Theatre \|publisher\=Entertainment.timesonline.co.ukAaccess\-date\=2015\-10\-09}} {{subscription required\|date\=October 2015}}
> "The NSDF, however, is about drama, not drama students, and a university with no theatre studies at all had two shows in performance. Nottingham University presented an in\-the\-round version of Enda Walsh’s violent, despairing *Disco Pigs*, and a polished production of the American David Auburn’s recent West End success *Proof*. Directed by a student of industrial economics, a cast consisting of a physicist, an English major, a sociologist and a student of Spanish and Portuguese became convincing Chicagoans in a coolly filmic study of family relations. The linguist Anna Wheatley won the Spotlight award for best actress as the daughter who bears the curse of inheriting her father’s mathematical genius, and Guy Unsworth, who designed the atmospheric set as well as directing the excellent cast, won the Directors' Guild award." *(Robert Hewison,© Copyright 2008 Times Newspapers Ltd.)*
In 2011, four separate shows from New Theatre were selected by NSDF, from a total of 13 shows nationally.[http://www.nsdf.org.uk/cms2/uploads/REVISED%20Press%20Release%20NSDF11%20with%20LISTINGS%2021mar11\.pdf](http://www.nsdf.org.uk/cms2/uploads/REVISED%20Press%20Release%20NSDF11%20with%20LISTINGS%2021mar11.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928005253/http://www.nsdf.org.uk/cms2/uploads/REVISED%20Press%20Release%20NSDF11%20with%20LISTINGS%2021mar11\.pdf\|date\=28 September 2011}} These included: *[After the End](/wiki/After_the_End "After the End")*, [Orphans](/wiki/Orphans_%28Dennis_Kelly_play%29 "Orphans (Dennis Kelly play)"), *Bluebird* and *This Wide Night*. The company went on to win four awards at NSDF 2011: three Judges' awards for acting, one to Douggie McMeekin ([Orphans](/wiki/Orphans_%28Dennis_Kelly_play%29 "Orphans (Dennis Kelly play)")), and two to Meg Salter and Lucy Bromilow (both for This Wide Night) respectively, and Best Design for [After the End](/wiki/After_the_End "After the End").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nsdf.org.uk\|title\=National Student Drama Festival : Homepage\|publisher\=Nsdf.org.uk\|accessdate\=2015\-10\-09}}
In 2013, three shows were selected from the Nottingham New Theatre by NSDF, from a total of 11 shows nationally.[http://www.nsdf.org.uk/2013\-festival/selected\-shows/](http://www.nsdf.org.uk/2013-festival/selected-shows/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301105420/http://www.nsdf.org.uk/2013\-festival/selected\-shows/\|date\=1 March 2013}} These included: Memory of Water by [Shelagh Stephenson](/wiki/Shelagh_Stephenson "Shelagh Stephenson"), *[Mercury Fur](/wiki/Mercury_Fur "Mercury Fur")* by [Philip Ridley](/wiki/Philip_Ridley "Philip Ridley") and *[Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem_%28play%29 "Jerusalem (play)")* by [Jez Butterworth](/wiki/Jez_Butterworth "Jez Butterworth").
In 2015, the production of *[The Ritual Slaughter of Gorge Mastromas](/wiki/The_Ritual_Slaughter_of_Gorge_Mastromas "The Ritual Slaughter of Gorge Mastromas")* by [Dennis Kelly](/wiki/Dennis_Kelly "Dennis Kelly") was selected by NSDF. It won The Festgoers Award, voted for by all the participants of the festival.
The following year, the Nottingham New Theatre had two shows selected by NSDF. These included, *West* by [Steven Berkoff](/wiki/Steven_Berkoff "Steven Berkoff") and *The Toyland Murders*, a student\-written puppet show by Ben Hollands. The company won three acting awards for Shannon Smith (West), Becca Jones (West) and James Roscow (The Toyland Murders and West).
For the 2018 festival, a production of *[Pomona](/wiki/Pomona_%28stage_play%29 "Pomona (stage play)")* by [Alistair McDowall](/wiki/Alistair_McDowall "Alistair McDowall") was selected to perform, with Jonny Khan receiving a Commendation for acting.
In 2019, the New Theatre had two shows selected by the NSDF. These were: 'A Girl Is A Half\-Formed Thing' by Eimear McBride, adapted by Annie Ryan; and 'Rotterdam' by Jon Brittain. Maddy Strauss received a Commendation for acting.
|
[
"New Theatre at NSDF\n-------------------",
"In 2007 and 2008, New Theatre entered a number of shows into the [National Student Drama Festival](/wiki/National_Student_Drama_Festival \"National Student Drama Festival\") competition. In both years two productions were selected by the NSDF judges as finalists and were performed at the Festival in [Scarborough](/wiki/Scarborough%2C_North_Yorkshire \"Scarborough, North Yorkshire\"). In 2008 the theatre's shows '[Disco Pigs](/wiki/Disco_Pigs \"Disco Pigs\")' and '[Proof](/wiki/Proof_%28play%29 \"Proof (play)\")' won 6 awards between them, with the theatre also receiving the 'Judges' Award for Promoting Student Theatre'.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts\\_and\\_entertainment/stage/theatre/article3628384\\.ece \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530111006/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts\\_and\\_entertainment/stage/theatre/article3628384\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2010 \\|title\\=Nottingham New Theatre \\|publisher\\=Entertainment.timesonline.co.ukAaccess\\-date\\=2015\\-10\\-09}} {{subscription required\\|date\\=October 2015}}",
"",
"> \"The NSDF, however, is about drama, not drama students, and a university with no theatre studies at all had two shows in performance. Nottingham University presented an in\\-the\\-round version of Enda Walsh’s violent, despairing *Disco Pigs*, and a polished production of the American David Auburn’s recent West End success *Proof*. Directed by a student of industrial economics, a cast consisting of a physicist, an English major, a sociologist and a student of Spanish and Portuguese became convincing Chicagoans in a coolly filmic study of family relations. The linguist Anna Wheatley won the Spotlight award for best actress as the daughter who bears the curse of inheriting her father’s mathematical genius, and Guy Unsworth, who designed the atmospheric set as well as directing the excellent cast, won the Directors' Guild award.\" *(Robert Hewison,© Copyright 2008 Times Newspapers Ltd.)*",
"In 2011, four separate shows from New Theatre were selected by NSDF, from a total of 13 shows nationally.[http://www.nsdf.org.uk/cms2/uploads/REVISED%20Press%20Release%20NSDF11%20with%20LISTINGS%2021mar11\\.pdf](http://www.nsdf.org.uk/cms2/uploads/REVISED%20Press%20Release%20NSDF11%20with%20LISTINGS%2021mar11.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928005253/http://www.nsdf.org.uk/cms2/uploads/REVISED%20Press%20Release%20NSDF11%20with%20LISTINGS%2021mar11\\.pdf\\|date\\=28 September 2011}} These included: *[After the End](/wiki/After_the_End \"After the End\")*, [Orphans](/wiki/Orphans_%28Dennis_Kelly_play%29 \"Orphans (Dennis Kelly play)\"), *Bluebird* and *This Wide Night*. The company went on to win four awards at NSDF 2011: three Judges' awards for acting, one to Douggie McMeekin ([Orphans](/wiki/Orphans_%28Dennis_Kelly_play%29 \"Orphans (Dennis Kelly play)\")), and two to Meg Salter and Lucy Bromilow (both for This Wide Night) respectively, and Best Design for [After the End](/wiki/After_the_End \"After the End\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nsdf.org.uk\\|title\\=National Student Drama Festival : Homepage\\|publisher\\=Nsdf.org.uk\\|accessdate\\=2015\\-10\\-09}}",
"In 2013, three shows were selected from the Nottingham New Theatre by NSDF, from a total of 11 shows nationally.[http://www.nsdf.org.uk/2013\\-festival/selected\\-shows/](http://www.nsdf.org.uk/2013-festival/selected-shows/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301105420/http://www.nsdf.org.uk/2013\\-festival/selected\\-shows/\\|date\\=1 March 2013}} These included: Memory of Water by [Shelagh Stephenson](/wiki/Shelagh_Stephenson \"Shelagh Stephenson\"), *[Mercury Fur](/wiki/Mercury_Fur \"Mercury Fur\")* by [Philip Ridley](/wiki/Philip_Ridley \"Philip Ridley\") and *[Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem_%28play%29 \"Jerusalem (play)\")* by [Jez Butterworth](/wiki/Jez_Butterworth \"Jez Butterworth\").",
"In 2015, the production of *[The Ritual Slaughter of Gorge Mastromas](/wiki/The_Ritual_Slaughter_of_Gorge_Mastromas \"The Ritual Slaughter of Gorge Mastromas\")* by [Dennis Kelly](/wiki/Dennis_Kelly \"Dennis Kelly\") was selected by NSDF. It won The Festgoers Award, voted for by all the participants of the festival.",
"The following year, the Nottingham New Theatre had two shows selected by NSDF. These included, *West* by [Steven Berkoff](/wiki/Steven_Berkoff \"Steven Berkoff\") and *The Toyland Murders*, a student\\-written puppet show by Ben Hollands. The company won three acting awards for Shannon Smith (West), Becca Jones (West) and James Roscow (The Toyland Murders and West).",
"For the 2018 festival, a production of *[Pomona](/wiki/Pomona_%28stage_play%29 \"Pomona (stage play)\")* by [Alistair McDowall](/wiki/Alistair_McDowall \"Alistair McDowall\") was selected to perform, with Jonny Khan receiving a Commendation for acting.",
"In 2019, the New Theatre had two shows selected by the NSDF. These were: 'A Girl Is A Half\\-Formed Thing' by Eimear McBride, adapted by Annie Ryan; and 'Rotterdam' by Jon Brittain. Maddy Strauss received a Commendation for acting.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Tony Manetta moved from New York to Miami with two friends 20 years ago, searching for wealth and success. One friend, Jerry Marks, became a prosperous promoter while his younger friend drives a taxi. Tony manages a small hotel called the Garden of Eden. He was raised poor but spoiled, spending money on expensive suits and a [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac "Cadillac") despite always being in debt and refusing to become more responsible. He is also the widowed father of 11\-year\-old son Ally.
In debt with the rent five months in arrears, Tony is given 48 hours by his landlord to raise $5,300 or else lose the hotel. In desperation, Tony calls his older brother Mario, who owns a clothing store and has loaned Tony money multiple times. Tony lies and says that he needs a loan because Ally is ill. Mario and his wife Sophie fly to Miami and discover the truth.
In Mario's eyes, Tony is a bum who wastes money on fanciful dreams rather than performing honest, hard work. He agrees to stake Tony the funds but only for a sensible small business, not dreams of fancy hotels or casinos. Mario arranges for Tony to meet Eloise Rogers, a widow and an acquaintance of Sophie, who is considered a more appropriate companion for Tony than his current girlfriend Shirl.
Tony is impressed with Eloise and Ally likes her as well. Mario offends her with prying questions about her late husband's will and finances, causing Tony to confess why they were introduced. Eloise reveals to Tony that, having lost both her husband and son, she wants to be with someone who needs her.
Jerry invites Tony to a party. Pretending to be prosperous, Tony explains his scheme to buy land in Florida and open a second [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland") there. Jerry seems interested in being his partner again. He takes Tony to a [greyhound racing](/wiki/Greyhound_racing "Greyhound racing") track, where Tony uses the $500 that he earned from selling his Cadillac to match Jerry's large bet. His dog wins, but he lets it ride in the next race. The obvious desperation in Tony's voice as he roots for the dog to win indicates to Jerry that Tony is not a man of means. Jerry chastises him and tries to insultingly hand him some cash. When Tony throws the cash handout in Jerry's face, Tony is punched by one of Jerry's bodyguards.
Tony decides that it would be best if Ally lived in New York with Mario and Sophie and tells Ally that he is unwanted. Tony goes to the beach by himself, but Ally finds him, and soon Eloise joins them. Mario and Sophie take a long overdue vacation.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Tony Manetta moved from New York to Miami with two friends 20 years ago, searching for wealth and success. One friend, Jerry Marks, became a prosperous promoter while his younger friend drives a taxi. Tony manages a small hotel called the Garden of Eden. He was raised poor but spoiled, spending money on expensive suits and a [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac \"Cadillac\") despite always being in debt and refusing to become more responsible. He is also the widowed father of 11\\-year\\-old son Ally.",
"In debt with the rent five months in arrears, Tony is given 48 hours by his landlord to raise $5,300 or else lose the hotel. In desperation, Tony calls his older brother Mario, who owns a clothing store and has loaned Tony money multiple times. Tony lies and says that he needs a loan because Ally is ill. Mario and his wife Sophie fly to Miami and discover the truth.",
"In Mario's eyes, Tony is a bum who wastes money on fanciful dreams rather than performing honest, hard work. He agrees to stake Tony the funds but only for a sensible small business, not dreams of fancy hotels or casinos. Mario arranges for Tony to meet Eloise Rogers, a widow and an acquaintance of Sophie, who is considered a more appropriate companion for Tony than his current girlfriend Shirl.",
"Tony is impressed with Eloise and Ally likes her as well. Mario offends her with prying questions about her late husband's will and finances, causing Tony to confess why they were introduced. Eloise reveals to Tony that, having lost both her husband and son, she wants to be with someone who needs her.",
"Jerry invites Tony to a party. Pretending to be prosperous, Tony explains his scheme to buy land in Florida and open a second [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland \"Disneyland\") there. Jerry seems interested in being his partner again. He takes Tony to a [greyhound racing](/wiki/Greyhound_racing \"Greyhound racing\") track, where Tony uses the $500 that he earned from selling his Cadillac to match Jerry's large bet. His dog wins, but he lets it ride in the next race. The obvious desperation in Tony's voice as he roots for the dog to win indicates to Jerry that Tony is not a man of means. Jerry chastises him and tries to insultingly hand him some cash. When Tony throws the cash handout in Jerry's face, Tony is punched by one of Jerry's bodyguards.",
"Tony decides that it would be best if Ally lived in New York with Mario and Sophie and tells Ally that he is unwanted. Tony goes to the beach by himself, but Ally finds him, and soon Eloise joins them. Mario and Sophie take a long overdue vacation.",
""
] |
Corporate affairs
-----------------
Onity is licensed to service mortgage loans in all 50 states, the District of Columbia and two U.S. territories. Onity has been servicing residential mortgage loans since 1988 and subprime mortgage loans since 1994\.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2020}}
As of 2010, Ocwen's subprime servicing volume was $56 billion, ranking it fourth in subprime servicing behind American Home Servicing ($78 billion), Bank of America/Countrywide ($82 billion), and Chase Home Finance ($90 billion).{{cite news\|last\=Prior\|first\=Jon\|title\=Ocwen set to become nation's largest subprime servicer\|url\=http://www.housingwire.com/2011/08/04/ocwen\-set\-to\-become\-nations\-largest\-subprime\-servicer\|access\-date\=August 12, 2011\|work\=Housingwire\|date\=August 4, 2011}} As of December 31, 2011, Ocwen had serviced 671,623 residential loans with an aggregate [unpaid principal balance](/wiki/Unpaid_principal_balance "Unpaid principal balance") (UPB) of $102\.2 billion.{{cite web\|url\=http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/ABEA\-6F4AAO/1825745745x0xS1019056\-12\-280/873860/filing.pdf\|title\=FY2011\-Form10\-K\|publisher\=Ocwen Financial Corporation}} As of February 26, 2014, with rights to service a mortgage portfolio of over $500 billionAlloway, Tracy and Hall, Camilla, February 13, 2014, ["Home loan servicer Ocwen builds an empire"](http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/03c29384-94c6-11e3-9146-00144feab7de.html), *Financial Times*. in UPB, it is the biggest non\-bank servicer of U.S. mortgages.Alloway, Tracy, February 24, 2014, ["Ocwen targets $1bn in new finance deal"](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/cd7fcc2c-9b11-11e3-946b-00144feab7de.html), *Financial Times*.
### Acquisitions
In June 2013, Ocwen Financial (OCN), the nation's fourth\-largest [mortgage servicer](/wiki/Mortgage_servicer "Mortgage servicer"), bought the rights to service $78 billion in mortgages from [OneWest Bank](/wiki/OneWest_Bank "OneWest Bank"), the former [IndyMac](/wiki/IndyMac "IndyMac") Bancorp.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2020}}
In September 2010, Ocwen, through Ocwen Loan Servicing, LLC (OLS), a wholly owned [subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary "Subsidiary") of Ocwen, acquired the U.S. non\-prime mortgage servicing business of [Barclays Bank PLC](/wiki/Barclays_Bank_PLC "Barclays Bank PLC"), known as HomEq servicing.{{cite web\|title\=Listings Directory: Ocwen Financial Corporation\|url \= https://www.nyse.com/about/listed/ocn.html\|website\=New York Stock Exchange \| access\-date \= August 12, 2011}} While the transaction did not result in the transfer of ownership of any legal entities, OLS acquired the [mortgage servicing](/wiki/Mortgage_servicer "Mortgage servicer") rights (MSRs) and associated servicer advances of the business as well as the servicing platforms based in Sacramento, California, and Raleigh, North Carolina, for an initial aggregate purchase price of $1\.2 billion. With the close of the HomEq acquisition, Ocwen boarded onto its servicing platform approximately 134,000 residential mortgage loans with an aggregate [UPB](/wiki/Unpaid_principal_balance "Unpaid principal balance") of approximately $22\.4 billion.
In September 2011, Ocwen completed its acquisition of outstanding partnership interests of Litton Loan Servicing LP and certain interest\-only servicing securities previously owned by Goldman Sachs \& Co. from [Goldman Sachs](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs "Goldman Sachs"). Following this $247\.2 million worth acquisition, Ocwen became the largest subprime mortgage servicer in the U.S.{{cite news\|last\=Prior\|first\=Jon\|title\=Ocwen swings to profit, buys Saxon Mortgage Services\|url\= http://www.housingwire.com/2011/10/24/ocwen\-swings\-to\-profit\-buys\-servicing\-rights\-from\-saxon\|access\-date\=October 25, 2011\|newspaper\=Housingwire\|date\=October 24, 2011}} The Litton acquisition increased Ocwen's servicing portfolio by 245,000 residential mortgage loans with an aggregate UPB of approximately $38\.6 billion. Litton Loan Servicing signed a consent order over their [loan servicing](/wiki/Loan_servicing "Loan servicing") practices.{{cite web \|title\=Litton and Saxon Mortgage Servicing Customers will Start to Receive Checks from Foreclosure Review Settlement on May 3rd, 2013 \|url\=http://foreclosurehelpscc.wordpress.com/2013/04/29/litton\-and\-saxon\-mortgage\-servicing\-customers\-will\-start\-to\-receive\-checks\-from\-foreclosure\-review\-settlement\-on\-may\-3rd\-2013/ \|website\=The Customer Bullhorn \|language\=en \|date\=April 29, 2013}}
In April 2012, Ocwen closed on the purchase of approximately $22 billion of mortgage servicing rights from Saxon Mortgage Services, a unit of [Morgan Stanley](/wiki/Morgan_Stanley "Morgan Stanley").{{cite web \| title \= NYSE, New York Stock Exchange \> Listings \> Listings Directory Ocwen Financial Corporation \> SEC Filings
\| url \= http://secfilings.nyse.com/filing.php?doc\=1\&attach\=ON\&ipage\=8180507\&rid\=23 \| access\-date\=April 4, 2012 }} Saxon Mortgage signed consent orders with federal regulators because of its [mortgage loan servicing](/wiki/Mortgage_servicer "Mortgage servicer") practices.
In June 2012, Ocwen completed its purchase of [Aurora Bank](/wiki/Aurora_Bank "Aurora Bank")'s commercial servicing rights portfolio.{{cite news\|last\=Panchuk\| first\=Kerri\| title\= Ocwen buys Aurora Bank\|url\=http://www.housingwire.com/content/ocwen\-buys\-aurora\-bank\|access\-date\=June 5, 2012\|newspaper\=Housingwire\|date\=June 5, 2012}}
In October 2012, Ocwen announced plans to buy Homeward Residential Holdings, Inc. from [WL Ross \& Co.](/wiki/WL_Ross_%26_Co. "WL Ross & Co.") for $750 million. Homeward consisted of the mortgage servicing from [American Home Mortgage](/wiki/American_Home_Mortgage "American Home Mortgage") and Option One Mortgage.{{cite news\|last\=Shah\|first\=Aman\|title\=Ocwen to buy Homeward Residential from WL Ross for $750 million\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-ocwen\-acquisition\-idUSBRE89210T20121003\|date\=October 3, 2012\|work\=Reuters}} The acquisition was finalized on December 27, 2012\.{{cite news\|last\=Panchuk\|first\=Kerri Ann\|title\=Ocwen finalizes acquisition of Homeward Residential\|url\=http://www.housingwire.com/news/2012/12/31/ocwen\-finalizes\-acquisition\-homeward\-residential\|date\=December 31, 2012}} As a result of the acquisition, the [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida "Jacksonville, Florida"), site was closed, laying off all 370 employees, and 325 employees at Homeward's [Coppell, Texas](/wiki/Coppell%2C_Texas "Coppell, Texas"), location were laid off.{{cite news\|last\=Carlisle\|first\=Candace\|title\=Homeward Residential Inc. to lay off 325 workers in Coppell, Addison\|url\=http://www.bizjournals.com/dallas/news/2013/02/12/homeward\-residential\-inc\-to\-lay\-off.html\|date\=February 12, 2013}}
In October 2012, Ocwen also partnered with Walter Investment Management Corp. to place the winning $3 billion bid for [Residential Capital](/wiki/Residential_Capital "Residential Capital")'s mortgage\-servicing and origination assets at a bankruptcy auction.{{cite news\|last\=Rothacker\|first\=Rick\|title\=Ocwen, Walter win bankruptcy auction for ResCap Unit\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/rescap\-auction\-idUSL1E8LO71V20121024\|date\=October 24, 2012\|work\=Reuters}} Additionally, the company entered into an agreement with [Genworth Financial](/wiki/Genworth_Financial "Genworth Financial") Corp. to acquire Genworth Financial Home Equity Access Inc. for $22 million.{{cite news\|title\=Ocwen Pays $22M for Top Reverse Mortgage Lender\|url\=http://www.mortgageorb.com/e107\_plugins/content/content.php?content.12679\|date\=November 1, 2012}}
In February 2012, Gleacher \& Co. announced the sale of its mortgage unit ClearPoint to Ocwen.{{cite news\|last\=Faux\|first\=Zeke\|title\=Gleacher Decides Against Merger While Selling Clearpoint\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\-02\-15/gleacher\-decides\-against\-merger\-while\-selling\-clearpoint.html \|access\-date\=March 7, 2013\|newspaper\=Bloomberg\|date\=February 15, 2013}}
In June 2013, Ocwen Financial Corp. (OCN), a provider of loan and asset\-management services, agreed to buy contracts to handle payment collections on about $78 billion of mortgages from OneWest Bank FSB for $2\.53 billion.
On February 27, 2018, Ocwen Financial Corporation entered into definitive agreement to acquire PHH Corporation for $360 million.
On October 4, 2018, Ocwen Financial Corporation officially acquired PHH Corporation for approximately $360 million. Along with the acquisition, Ocwen announced Glen A. Messina would become the President and CEO and a member of Ocwen's board of directors.{{Cite web\|url\=https://dsnews.com/daily\-dose/10\-04\-2018/ocwen\-completes\-acquisition\-of\-phh\|title\=Ocwen Completes Acquisition of PHH \- DSNews\|last\=Ojha\|first\=Radhika\|website\=dsnews.com\|date\=October 4, 2018 \|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=November 14, 2018}}
### Status of Ocwen due to merger with PHH Mortgage
On June 6, 2019, Ocwen Financial Corporation/Ocwen Loan Servicing is merging all loans that are currently serviced by Ocwen Loan Servicing into [PHH Mortgage](/wiki/PHH_Corporation "PHH Corporation"). The merger also allows more for both of the companies because PHH Mortgage does do actual new mortgages and refinance rather than Ocwen before just doing servicing of loans.
On October 4, 2018, Ocwen Financial completed its acquisition of PHH Corporation{{Cite web\|url\=http://shareholders.ocwen.com/news\-releases/news\-release\-details/ocwen\-financial\-completes\-acquisition\-phh\-corporation\-glen\|title\=Ocwen Financial Completes Acquisition of PHH Corporation; Glen Messina Becomes President and Chief Executive Officer\|website\=Ocwen Financial Corporation\|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 19, 2019}} and is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Ocwen Financial Corp.
### Home Affordable Modification Program
Ocwen is a participant in the [U.S. Treasury Department](/wiki/U.S._Treasury_Department "U.S. Treasury Department")'s [Home Affordable Modification Program](/wiki/Home_Affordable_Modification_Program "Home Affordable Modification Program") (HAMP), which is designed to use loan modifications to help homeowners facing foreclosure. Ocwen early on posted relative success in converting trial loan modifications to permanent ones, in part because it relied on verified income statements from borrowers rather than stated ones.{{cite news\|last\=Luhby\|first\=Tami\|title\=Borrowers flunking out of trial mortgage modifications\|url\=https://money.cnn.com/2010/05/17/news/economy/HAMP\_modifications/\|access\-date\=August 12, 2011\|newspaper\=CNNMoney\|date\=May 17, 2010}}
In August 2010, Ocwen enacted a Shared Appreciation Modification (SAM) program that reduces a qualified delinquent borrower's principal to 95% of the home's current market value, but requires the homeowner to later share 25% of the home's appreciation with the investors when the home is eventually sold or refinanced. In 2011, Ocwen reported that it had modified more than 200,000 troubled loans since the mortgage crisis began in the mid\-2000s.{{cite news\|last\=Franks\|first\=Krista\|title\=Ocwen Financial Offers New Loan Modification Program\|url\=http://www.dsnews.com/articles/ocwen\-financial\-offers\-new\-load\-modification\-program\-2011\-07\-26\|access\-date\=August 12, 2011\|newspaper\=DSNews.com\|date\=July 26, 2011}}
### Altisource spinoff
{{Infobox company
\| name \= Altisource Portfolio Solutions S.A.
\| traded\_as \= {{NASDAQ\|ASPS}}
\[\[Russell 2000 Index]] component
}}
In August 2009, Ocwen completed the distribution of its Ocwen Solutions (OS) line of business via the [spinoff](/wiki/Corporate_spin-off "Corporate spin-off") of a separate publicly traded company called [Altisource](/wiki/Altisource "Altisource") ({{NASDAQ\|ASPS}}). Ocwen claimed that the Separation has allowed it to focus on its core servicing business and to respond better to initiatives and market challenges.
OS consisted of the former [unsecured](/wiki/Unsecured_debt "Unsecured debt") [collections](/wiki/Debt_collection "Debt collection") business, residential fee\-based loan processing businesses and technology platforms as well as the international commercial loan servicing business conducted through Global Servicing Solutions, LLC (GSS) and the equity investment in BMS Holdings (subsequently changed to BHI Liquidation). With the exception of interests in GSS and BMS Holdings, Inc., Ocwen distributed the assets, liabilities, and operations of OS in the spinoff. Altisource specializes in [Real Estate Owned](/wiki/Real_Estate_Owned "Real Estate Owned") (REO) and related business activities.
### Home Loan Servicing Solutions spinoff
Ocwen Financial Corporation spun off Home Loan Servicing Solutions (HLSS) in 2010\. Founded by Ocwen Financial Corporation's Executive Chairman [William Erbey](/wiki/William_Erbey "William Erbey"), HLSS was created to acquire mortgage servicing assets including servicing rights, rights to fees, and other income from servicing loans.{{cite news\|last\=Franks\|first\=Krista\|title\=Ocwen Spin\-Off Prepares IPO\|url\=http://www.dsnews.com/articles/ocwen\-spin\-off\-prepares\-ipo\-2011\-08\-15\|access\-date\=May 1, 2012\|work\=DSNews \|date\=August 15, 2011}}
In February 2011, HLSS announced its plan for an [initial public offering](/wiki/Initial_public_offering "Initial public offering").
{{cite web \| title \= Company Financials \& Filings: Home Loan Servicing Solutions, Ltd. (HLSS) IPO \| url \= http://www.nasdaq.com/markets/ipos/filing.ashx?filingid\=7405050 \|website\=NASDAQ\| access\-date\=May 1, 2012 }} The company raised $186\.2 million in its February 2012 IPO and is traded on [NASDAQ](/wiki/NASDAQ "NASDAQ").{{cite news\|title\=Home Loan Servicing Solutions prices IPO at $14/shr: underwriter\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-homeloanservicingsolutions\-idUSTRE81R28V20120228\|access\-date\=May 1, 2012\|newspaper \=Reuters\| date\=February 28, 2012}}
|
[
"Corporate affairs\n-----------------",
"Onity is licensed to service mortgage loans in all 50 states, the District of Columbia and two U.S. territories. Onity has been servicing residential mortgage loans since 1988 and subprime mortgage loans since 1994\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2020}}",
"As of 2010, Ocwen's subprime servicing volume was $56 billion, ranking it fourth in subprime servicing behind American Home Servicing ($78 billion), Bank of America/Countrywide ($82 billion), and Chase Home Finance ($90 billion).{{cite news\\|last\\=Prior\\|first\\=Jon\\|title\\=Ocwen set to become nation's largest subprime servicer\\|url\\=http://www.housingwire.com/2011/08/04/ocwen\\-set\\-to\\-become\\-nations\\-largest\\-subprime\\-servicer\\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2011\\|work\\=Housingwire\\|date\\=August 4, 2011}} As of December 31, 2011, Ocwen had serviced 671,623 residential loans with an aggregate [unpaid principal balance](/wiki/Unpaid_principal_balance \"Unpaid principal balance\") (UPB) of $102\\.2 billion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/ABEA\\-6F4AAO/1825745745x0xS1019056\\-12\\-280/873860/filing.pdf\\|title\\=FY2011\\-Form10\\-K\\|publisher\\=Ocwen Financial Corporation}} As of February 26, 2014, with rights to service a mortgage portfolio of over $500 billionAlloway, Tracy and Hall, Camilla, February 13, 2014, [\"Home loan servicer Ocwen builds an empire\"](http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/03c29384-94c6-11e3-9146-00144feab7de.html), *Financial Times*. in UPB, it is the biggest non\\-bank servicer of U.S. mortgages.Alloway, Tracy, February 24, 2014, [\"Ocwen targets $1bn in new finance deal\"](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/cd7fcc2c-9b11-11e3-946b-00144feab7de.html), *Financial Times*.",
"### Acquisitions",
"In June 2013, Ocwen Financial (OCN), the nation's fourth\\-largest [mortgage servicer](/wiki/Mortgage_servicer \"Mortgage servicer\"), bought the rights to service $78 billion in mortgages from [OneWest Bank](/wiki/OneWest_Bank \"OneWest Bank\"), the former [IndyMac](/wiki/IndyMac \"IndyMac\") Bancorp.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2020}}",
"In September 2010, Ocwen, through Ocwen Loan Servicing, LLC (OLS), a wholly owned [subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary \"Subsidiary\") of Ocwen, acquired the U.S. non\\-prime mortgage servicing business of [Barclays Bank PLC](/wiki/Barclays_Bank_PLC \"Barclays Bank PLC\"), known as HomEq servicing.{{cite web\\|title\\=Listings Directory: Ocwen Financial Corporation\\|url \\= https://www.nyse.com/about/listed/ocn.html\\|website\\=New York Stock Exchange \\| access\\-date \\= August 12, 2011}} While the transaction did not result in the transfer of ownership of any legal entities, OLS acquired the [mortgage servicing](/wiki/Mortgage_servicer \"Mortgage servicer\") rights (MSRs) and associated servicer advances of the business as well as the servicing platforms based in Sacramento, California, and Raleigh, North Carolina, for an initial aggregate purchase price of $1\\.2 billion. With the close of the HomEq acquisition, Ocwen boarded onto its servicing platform approximately 134,000 residential mortgage loans with an aggregate [UPB](/wiki/Unpaid_principal_balance \"Unpaid principal balance\") of approximately $22\\.4 billion.",
"In September 2011, Ocwen completed its acquisition of outstanding partnership interests of Litton Loan Servicing LP and certain interest\\-only servicing securities previously owned by Goldman Sachs \\& Co. from [Goldman Sachs](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs \"Goldman Sachs\"). Following this $247\\.2 million worth acquisition, Ocwen became the largest subprime mortgage servicer in the U.S.{{cite news\\|last\\=Prior\\|first\\=Jon\\|title\\=Ocwen swings to profit, buys Saxon Mortgage Services\\|url\\= http://www.housingwire.com/2011/10/24/ocwen\\-swings\\-to\\-profit\\-buys\\-servicing\\-rights\\-from\\-saxon\\|access\\-date\\=October 25, 2011\\|newspaper\\=Housingwire\\|date\\=October 24, 2011}} The Litton acquisition increased Ocwen's servicing portfolio by 245,000 residential mortgage loans with an aggregate UPB of approximately $38\\.6 billion. Litton Loan Servicing signed a consent order over their [loan servicing](/wiki/Loan_servicing \"Loan servicing\") practices.{{cite web \\|title\\=Litton and Saxon Mortgage Servicing Customers will Start to Receive Checks from Foreclosure Review Settlement on May 3rd, 2013 \\|url\\=http://foreclosurehelpscc.wordpress.com/2013/04/29/litton\\-and\\-saxon\\-mortgage\\-servicing\\-customers\\-will\\-start\\-to\\-receive\\-checks\\-from\\-foreclosure\\-review\\-settlement\\-on\\-may\\-3rd\\-2013/ \\|website\\=The Customer Bullhorn \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=April 29, 2013}}",
"In April 2012, Ocwen closed on the purchase of approximately $22 billion of mortgage servicing rights from Saxon Mortgage Services, a unit of [Morgan Stanley](/wiki/Morgan_Stanley \"Morgan Stanley\").{{cite web \\| title \\= NYSE, New York Stock Exchange \\> Listings \\> Listings Directory Ocwen Financial Corporation \\> SEC Filings\n\\| url \\= http://secfilings.nyse.com/filing.php?doc\\=1\\&attach\\=ON\\&ipage\\=8180507\\&rid\\=23 \\| access\\-date\\=April 4, 2012 }} Saxon Mortgage signed consent orders with federal regulators because of its [mortgage loan servicing](/wiki/Mortgage_servicer \"Mortgage servicer\") practices.",
"In June 2012, Ocwen completed its purchase of [Aurora Bank](/wiki/Aurora_Bank \"Aurora Bank\")'s commercial servicing rights portfolio.{{cite news\\|last\\=Panchuk\\| first\\=Kerri\\| title\\= Ocwen buys Aurora Bank\\|url\\=http://www.housingwire.com/content/ocwen\\-buys\\-aurora\\-bank\\|access\\-date\\=June 5, 2012\\|newspaper\\=Housingwire\\|date\\=June 5, 2012}}",
"In October 2012, Ocwen announced plans to buy Homeward Residential Holdings, Inc. from [WL Ross \\& Co.](/wiki/WL_Ross_%26_Co. \"WL Ross & Co.\") for $750 million. Homeward consisted of the mortgage servicing from [American Home Mortgage](/wiki/American_Home_Mortgage \"American Home Mortgage\") and Option One Mortgage.{{cite news\\|last\\=Shah\\|first\\=Aman\\|title\\=Ocwen to buy Homeward Residential from WL Ross for $750 million\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-ocwen\\-acquisition\\-idUSBRE89210T20121003\\|date\\=October 3, 2012\\|work\\=Reuters}} The acquisition was finalized on December 27, 2012\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Panchuk\\|first\\=Kerri Ann\\|title\\=Ocwen finalizes acquisition of Homeward Residential\\|url\\=http://www.housingwire.com/news/2012/12/31/ocwen\\-finalizes\\-acquisition\\-homeward\\-residential\\|date\\=December 31, 2012}} As a result of the acquisition, the [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida \"Jacksonville, Florida\"), site was closed, laying off all 370 employees, and 325 employees at Homeward's [Coppell, Texas](/wiki/Coppell%2C_Texas \"Coppell, Texas\"), location were laid off.{{cite news\\|last\\=Carlisle\\|first\\=Candace\\|title\\=Homeward Residential Inc. to lay off 325 workers in Coppell, Addison\\|url\\=http://www.bizjournals.com/dallas/news/2013/02/12/homeward\\-residential\\-inc\\-to\\-lay\\-off.html\\|date\\=February 12, 2013}}",
"In October 2012, Ocwen also partnered with Walter Investment Management Corp. to place the winning $3 billion bid for [Residential Capital](/wiki/Residential_Capital \"Residential Capital\")'s mortgage\\-servicing and origination assets at a bankruptcy auction.{{cite news\\|last\\=Rothacker\\|first\\=Rick\\|title\\=Ocwen, Walter win bankruptcy auction for ResCap Unit\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/rescap\\-auction\\-idUSL1E8LO71V20121024\\|date\\=October 24, 2012\\|work\\=Reuters}} Additionally, the company entered into an agreement with [Genworth Financial](/wiki/Genworth_Financial \"Genworth Financial\") Corp. to acquire Genworth Financial Home Equity Access Inc. for $22 million.{{cite news\\|title\\=Ocwen Pays $22M for Top Reverse Mortgage Lender\\|url\\=http://www.mortgageorb.com/e107\\_plugins/content/content.php?content.12679\\|date\\=November 1, 2012}}",
"In February 2012, Gleacher \\& Co. announced the sale of its mortgage unit ClearPoint to Ocwen.{{cite news\\|last\\=Faux\\|first\\=Zeke\\|title\\=Gleacher Decides Against Merger While Selling Clearpoint\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\\-02\\-15/gleacher\\-decides\\-against\\-merger\\-while\\-selling\\-clearpoint.html \\|access\\-date\\=March 7, 2013\\|newspaper\\=Bloomberg\\|date\\=February 15, 2013}}",
"In June 2013, Ocwen Financial Corp. (OCN), a provider of loan and asset\\-management services, agreed to buy contracts to handle payment collections on about $78 billion of mortgages from OneWest Bank FSB for $2\\.53 billion.",
"On February 27, 2018, Ocwen Financial Corporation entered into definitive agreement to acquire PHH Corporation for $360 million.",
"On October 4, 2018, Ocwen Financial Corporation officially acquired PHH Corporation for approximately $360 million. Along with the acquisition, Ocwen announced Glen A. Messina would become the President and CEO and a member of Ocwen's board of directors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://dsnews.com/daily\\-dose/10\\-04\\-2018/ocwen\\-completes\\-acquisition\\-of\\-phh\\|title\\=Ocwen Completes Acquisition of PHH \\- DSNews\\|last\\=Ojha\\|first\\=Radhika\\|website\\=dsnews.com\\|date\\=October 4, 2018 \\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2018}}",
"### Status of Ocwen due to merger with PHH Mortgage",
"On June 6, 2019, Ocwen Financial Corporation/Ocwen Loan Servicing is merging all loans that are currently serviced by Ocwen Loan Servicing into [PHH Mortgage](/wiki/PHH_Corporation \"PHH Corporation\"). The merger also allows more for both of the companies because PHH Mortgage does do actual new mortgages and refinance rather than Ocwen before just doing servicing of loans.",
"On October 4, 2018, Ocwen Financial completed its acquisition of PHH Corporation{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://shareholders.ocwen.com/news\\-releases/news\\-release\\-details/ocwen\\-financial\\-completes\\-acquisition\\-phh\\-corporation\\-glen\\|title\\=Ocwen Financial Completes Acquisition of PHH Corporation; Glen Messina Becomes President and Chief Executive Officer\\|website\\=Ocwen Financial Corporation\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 19, 2019}} and is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Ocwen Financial Corp.",
"### Home Affordable Modification Program",
"Ocwen is a participant in the [U.S. Treasury Department](/wiki/U.S._Treasury_Department \"U.S. Treasury Department\")'s [Home Affordable Modification Program](/wiki/Home_Affordable_Modification_Program \"Home Affordable Modification Program\") (HAMP), which is designed to use loan modifications to help homeowners facing foreclosure. Ocwen early on posted relative success in converting trial loan modifications to permanent ones, in part because it relied on verified income statements from borrowers rather than stated ones.{{cite news\\|last\\=Luhby\\|first\\=Tami\\|title\\=Borrowers flunking out of trial mortgage modifications\\|url\\=https://money.cnn.com/2010/05/17/news/economy/HAMP\\_modifications/\\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2011\\|newspaper\\=CNNMoney\\|date\\=May 17, 2010}}",
"In August 2010, Ocwen enacted a Shared Appreciation Modification (SAM) program that reduces a qualified delinquent borrower's principal to 95% of the home's current market value, but requires the homeowner to later share 25% of the home's appreciation with the investors when the home is eventually sold or refinanced. In 2011, Ocwen reported that it had modified more than 200,000 troubled loans since the mortgage crisis began in the mid\\-2000s.{{cite news\\|last\\=Franks\\|first\\=Krista\\|title\\=Ocwen Financial Offers New Loan Modification Program\\|url\\=http://www.dsnews.com/articles/ocwen\\-financial\\-offers\\-new\\-load\\-modification\\-program\\-2011\\-07\\-26\\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2011\\|newspaper\\=DSNews.com\\|date\\=July 26, 2011}}",
"### Altisource spinoff",
"{{Infobox company\n\\| name \\= Altisource Portfolio Solutions S.A.\n\\| traded\\_as \\= {{NASDAQ\\|ASPS}} \n\\[\\[Russell 2000 Index]] component\n}}\nIn August 2009, Ocwen completed the distribution of its Ocwen Solutions (OS) line of business via the [spinoff](/wiki/Corporate_spin-off \"Corporate spin-off\") of a separate publicly traded company called [Altisource](/wiki/Altisource \"Altisource\") ({{NASDAQ\\|ASPS}}). Ocwen claimed that the Separation has allowed it to focus on its core servicing business and to respond better to initiatives and market challenges.",
"OS consisted of the former [unsecured](/wiki/Unsecured_debt \"Unsecured debt\") [collections](/wiki/Debt_collection \"Debt collection\") business, residential fee\\-based loan processing businesses and technology platforms as well as the international commercial loan servicing business conducted through Global Servicing Solutions, LLC (GSS) and the equity investment in BMS Holdings (subsequently changed to BHI Liquidation). With the exception of interests in GSS and BMS Holdings, Inc., Ocwen distributed the assets, liabilities, and operations of OS in the spinoff. Altisource specializes in [Real Estate Owned](/wiki/Real_Estate_Owned \"Real Estate Owned\") (REO) and related business activities.",
"### Home Loan Servicing Solutions spinoff",
"Ocwen Financial Corporation spun off Home Loan Servicing Solutions (HLSS) in 2010\\. Founded by Ocwen Financial Corporation's Executive Chairman [William Erbey](/wiki/William_Erbey \"William Erbey\"), HLSS was created to acquire mortgage servicing assets including servicing rights, rights to fees, and other income from servicing loans.{{cite news\\|last\\=Franks\\|first\\=Krista\\|title\\=Ocwen Spin\\-Off Prepares IPO\\|url\\=http://www.dsnews.com/articles/ocwen\\-spin\\-off\\-prepares\\-ipo\\-2011\\-08\\-15\\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2012\\|work\\=DSNews \\|date\\=August 15, 2011}}",
"In February 2011, HLSS announced its plan for an [initial public offering](/wiki/Initial_public_offering \"Initial public offering\").\n{{cite web \\| title \\= Company Financials \\& Filings: Home Loan Servicing Solutions, Ltd. (HLSS) IPO \\| url \\= http://www.nasdaq.com/markets/ipos/filing.ashx?filingid\\=7405050 \\|website\\=NASDAQ\\| access\\-date\\=May 1, 2012 }} The company raised $186\\.2 million in its February 2012 IPO and is traded on [NASDAQ](/wiki/NASDAQ \"NASDAQ\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Home Loan Servicing Solutions prices IPO at $14/shr: underwriter\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-homeloanservicingsolutions\\-idUSTRE81R28V20120228\\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2012\\|newspaper \\=Reuters\\| date\\=February 28, 2012}}",
""
] |
Route description
-----------------
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=December 2013}}
{{nowrap\|SH 17}} begins at Marfa in [Presidio County](/wiki/Presidio_County%2C_Texas "Presidio County, Texas"), passes through [Jeff Davis County](/wiki/Jeff_Davis_County%2C_Texas "Jeff Davis County, Texas"), and terminates at Pecos in [Reeves County](/wiki/Reeves_County%2C_Texas "Reeves County, Texas").
### Presidio County
[thumb\|left\|Presidio County Courthouse with {{nowrap\|SH 17}} route marker in front](/wiki/File:Marfa_courthouse.jpg "Marfa courthouse.jpg")
{{nowrap\|SH 17}} begins at an [intersection](/wiki/Intersection_%28road%29 "Intersection (road)") of San Antonio Street and Highland Avenue. In [Marfa](/wiki/Marfa%2C_Texas "Marfa, Texas"), San Antonio Street is {{nowrap\|\[\[U.S. Route 90 in Texas\|US 90]]}}. {{nowrap\|\[\[U.S. Route 67 in Texas\|US 67]]}} enters the intersection from the south along S. Highland Avenue, then turns east along E. San Antonio Street becoming [concurrent](/wiki/Concurrency_%28road%29 "Concurrency (road)") with {{nowrap\|US 90}}. {{nowrap\|SH 17}} proceeds north along Highland Avenue.
After two blocks, {{nowrap\|SH 17}} intersects the beginning of [Farm to Market Road 1112](/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_1112 "Farm to Market Road 1112") ({{nowrap\|FM 1112}} which proceeds eastward along E. Oak Street which runs parallel to the [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad "Union Pacific Railroad").
{{nowrap\|SH 17}} proceeds north an additional two blocks, then turns east along E. Lincoln Street directly in front of the Presidio County Courthouse. One block later, the route turns north and leaves Marfa along N. Dean Street. North of town, the route passes [Marfa Municipal Airport](/wiki/Marfa_Municipal_Airport "Marfa Municipal Airport").
{{nowrap\|SH 17}} continues toward Fort Davis as a two\-lane roadway with a {{convert\|75\|mph\|km/h}} speed limit. The route follows mostly straight stretches with no sharp turns or steep grades through open ranch land.
### Jeff Davis County
Soon after entering [Jeff Davis County](/wiki/Jeff_Davis_County%2C_Texas "Jeff Davis County, Texas"), {{nowrap\|SH 17}} continues through a gentle pass across the Puertacitas Mountains. The route then passes along mostly straight stretches through ranch land. Approximately {{convert\|2\|mi\|km}} south of [Fort Davis](/wiki/Fort_Davis%2C_Texas "Fort Davis, Texas"), the route intersects the western terminus of {{nowrap\|\[\[Texas State Highway 166\|SH 166]]}}. At this point, {{nowrap\|SH 17}} joins the [Davis Mountains Scenic Loop](/wiki/Davis_Mountains_Scenic_Loop "Davis Mountains Scenic Loop").
The road then enters Fort Davis where the route is called State Street. {{nowrap\|SH 17}} intersects {{nowrap\|\[\[Texas State Highway 118\|SH 118]]}} approaching from the east via Musquiz Drive just south of the Jeff Davis County Courthouse. At this junction, {{nowrap\|SH 17}} joins the [Texas Historical Commission's](/wiki/Texas_Historical_Commission "Texas Historical Commission") [Texas Mountain Trail](/wiki/Texas_Mountain_Trail "Texas Mountain Trail"). {{nowrap\|SH 118}} runs concurrently down State Street through town and past [Fort Davis National Historic Site](/wiki/Fort_Davis_National_Historic_Site "Fort Davis National Historic Site") for a distance of {{convert\|1\.3\|mi\|km}}. The route intersects [Lt. Flipper](/wiki/Henry_Ossian_Flipper "Henry Ossian Flipper") Drive, the entrance to the historic site. Across from the historic site, the route intersects Blackfoot Drive, known locally as Old Balmorhea Road which is the route's former unpaved roadway before the establishment of the state highway system. Just beyond the historic site, the route intersects Canyon Drive. At this point, {{nowrap\|SH 118}}, Davis Mountains Scenic Loop, and the Texas Mountain Trail leave the route and continue west along Canyon Dr. toward [Davis Mountains State Park](/wiki/Davis_Mountains_State_Park "Davis Mountains State Park"), [McDonald Observatory](/wiki/McDonald_Observatory "McDonald Observatory"), and [Kent](/wiki/Kent%2C_Texas "Kent, Texas").
[thumb\|{{nowrap\|SH 17}} north of Fort Davis in Limpia Canyon](/wiki/File:LimpiaCanyonSH17-2.jpg "LimpiaCanyonSH17-2.jpg")
Blackfoot Drive merges back with the route as {{nowrap\|SH 17}} leaves town continuing northward through [Limpia Canyon](/wiki/Limpia_Canyon "Limpia Canyon") in the [Davis Mountains](/wiki/Davis_Mountains "Davis Mountains") with a maximum speed limit of {{convert\|55\|mph\|km/h}}. In Limpia Canyon, the road has many curves, some with recommended speeds as low as {{convert\|40\|mph\|km/h}} as indicated by warning signs. There are also several picnic tables in the canyon followed by one large picnic area just before reaching [Wild Rose Pass](/wiki/Wild_Rose_Pass "Wild Rose Pass"). About {{convert\|2\.4\|mi\|km}} past this pass, the speed limit increases to {{convert\|75\|mph\|km/h}}. The route remains a two\-lane road, but from this point onward there are places where passing lanes occur.
Continuing northward, the route intersects the eastern terminus of {{nowrap\|\[\[Ranch to Market Road 1832\|RM 1832]]}} approaching from Buffalo Trails Boy Scout Ranch. {{nowrap\|SH 17}} then continues through ranch land and leaves the Davis Mountains before leaving the county.
### Reeves County
The route continues northward and intersects {{nowrap\|\[\[Farm to Market Road 3078\|FM 3078]]}} at [Toyahvale](/wiki/Toyahvale%2C_Texas "Toyahvale, Texas"). {{nowrap\|FM 3078}} is the former roadway of {{nowrap\|\[\[U.S. Route 290\|US 290]]}} before it was replaced by [Interstate 10](/wiki/Interstate_10_in_Texas "Interstate 10 in Texas") (I\-10\). {{nowrap\|SH 17}} turns east onto the former {{nowrap\|US 290}} roadway and reaches [Texas Park Road 30](/wiki/Texas_Park_Road_30 "Texas Park Road 30") into [Balmorhea State Park](/wiki/Balmorhea_State_Park "Balmorhea State Park") at Toyahvale.
[thumb\|Canal in Balmorhea city park along {{nowrap\|SH 17}}](/wiki/File:Balmorhea_Park.jpg "Balmorhea Park.jpg")
Continuing into [Balmorhea](/wiki/Balmorhea%2C_Texas "Balmorhea, Texas"), the route passes fields of alfalfa watered from irrigation ditches including one running parallel with the highway. In Balmorhea, this irrigation channel becomes the centerpiece of a city park along one side of {{nowrap\|SH 17}} here known as Main Street. The route intersects [Business Interstate 10\-F](/wiki/Interstate_10_Business_%28Balmorhea%2C_Texas%29 "Interstate 10 Business (Balmorhea, Texas)") at North Fort Worth Street. I\-10 Bus. Loop F going northward becomes {{nowrap\|\[\[Farm to Market Road 2903\|FM 2903]]}} to [Toyah](/wiki/Toyah%2C_Texas "Toyah, Texas") after crossing I\-10\. Eastward, I\-10 Bus. Loop F overlays the route of {{nowrap\|SH 17}}.
After Balmorhea, the route has a speed limit of {{convert\|55\|mph\|km/h}} and passes just north of the foothills of the Davis Mountains and through the small community of [Brogado](/wiki/Brogado%2C_Texas "Brogado, Texas") before reaching I\-10\. At I\-10 Exit 209, I\-10 Bus. Loop F ends, and {{nowrap\|SH 17}} merges with the Interstate for slightly more than {{convert\|2\|mi\|km}} with a speed limit of {{convert\|80\|mph\|km/h}}. {{nowrap\|SH 17}} leaves I\-10 at Exit 212 and heads northward with a speed limit of {{convert\|70\|mph\|km/h}} toward [Saragosa](/wiki/Saragosa%2C_Texas "Saragosa, Texas"). At Saragosa, the route intersects {{nowrap\|\[\[Farm to Market Road 1215\|FM 1215]]}} which merges with {{nowrap\|SH 17}} and the speed limit lowers to {{convert\|55\|mph}}. In the center of Saragosa, {{nowrap\|FM 1215}} turns westward at West Main Street and loops back to end at the north service road of I\-10 and {{nowrap\|SH 17}} without crossing or intersecting the main Interstate roadway.
Beyond Saragosa, the route begins to parallel the route of the [Pecos Valley Southern Railway](/wiki/Pecos_Valley_Southern_Railway "Pecos Valley Southern Railway") which will follow {{nowrap\|SH 17}} the rest of the way into Pecos. The speed limit gradually increases to {{convert\|65\|mph}} before intersecting {{nowrap\|\[\[Farm to Market Road 2448\|FM 2448]]}}. The speed limit then increases to {{convert\|75\|mph\|km/h}} as the route passes through cotton fields with occasional oil wells. The route then intersects {{nowrap\|\[\[Farm to Market Road 3334\|FM 3334]]}} before passing through the small community of [Verhalen](/wiki/Verhalen%2C_Texas "Verhalen, Texas"). The route then intersects {{nowrap\|\[\[Farm to Market Road 869\|FM 869]]}} and later {{nowrap\|\[\[Farm to Market Road 1934\|FM 1934]]}}.
The route passes alongside the community of [Lindsay](/wiki/Lindsay%2C_Reeves_County%2C_Texas "Lindsay, Reeves County, Texas") as it approaches the outskirts of Pecos. The route then passes [Pecos Municipal Airport](/wiki/Pecos_Municipal_Airport "Pecos Municipal Airport"). The speed limit gradually lowers to {{convert\|55\|mph\|km/h}} and then widens to four lanes before reaching [I\-20](/wiki/Interstate_20_in_Texas "Interstate 20 in Texas"). In Pecos, the route intersects I\-20 at Exit 39 then continues north as South Bickley Avenue. The route then intersects {{nowrap\|\[\[Farm to Market Road 761\|FM 761]]}} at Stafford Boulevard. Then, further north, {{nowrap\|SH 17}} terminates at West 3rd Street where it intersects [Business Interstate 20\-B](/wiki/Interstate_20_Business_%28Pecos%2C_Texas%29 "Interstate 20 Business (Pecos, Texas)").
|
[
"Route description\n-----------------",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=December 2013}}\n{{nowrap\\|SH 17}} begins at Marfa in [Presidio County](/wiki/Presidio_County%2C_Texas \"Presidio County, Texas\"), passes through [Jeff Davis County](/wiki/Jeff_Davis_County%2C_Texas \"Jeff Davis County, Texas\"), and terminates at Pecos in [Reeves County](/wiki/Reeves_County%2C_Texas \"Reeves County, Texas\").",
"### Presidio County",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Presidio County Courthouse with {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} route marker in front](/wiki/File:Marfa_courthouse.jpg \"Marfa courthouse.jpg\")\n{{nowrap\\|SH 17}} begins at an [intersection](/wiki/Intersection_%28road%29 \"Intersection (road)\") of San Antonio Street and Highland Avenue. In [Marfa](/wiki/Marfa%2C_Texas \"Marfa, Texas\"), San Antonio Street is {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[U.S. Route 90 in Texas\\|US 90]]}}. {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[U.S. Route 67 in Texas\\|US 67]]}} enters the intersection from the south along S. Highland Avenue, then turns east along E. San Antonio Street becoming [concurrent](/wiki/Concurrency_%28road%29 \"Concurrency (road)\") with {{nowrap\\|US 90}}. {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} proceeds north along Highland Avenue.",
"After two blocks, {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} intersects the beginning of [Farm to Market Road 1112](/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_1112 \"Farm to Market Road 1112\") ({{nowrap\\|FM 1112}} which proceeds eastward along E. Oak Street which runs parallel to the [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad \"Union Pacific Railroad\").",
"{{nowrap\\|SH 17}} proceeds north an additional two blocks, then turns east along E. Lincoln Street directly in front of the Presidio County Courthouse. One block later, the route turns north and leaves Marfa along N. Dean Street. North of town, the route passes [Marfa Municipal Airport](/wiki/Marfa_Municipal_Airport \"Marfa Municipal Airport\").",
"{{nowrap\\|SH 17}} continues toward Fort Davis as a two\\-lane roadway with a {{convert\\|75\\|mph\\|km/h}} speed limit. The route follows mostly straight stretches with no sharp turns or steep grades through open ranch land.",
"### Jeff Davis County",
"Soon after entering [Jeff Davis County](/wiki/Jeff_Davis_County%2C_Texas \"Jeff Davis County, Texas\"), {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} continues through a gentle pass across the Puertacitas Mountains. The route then passes along mostly straight stretches through ranch land. Approximately {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km}} south of [Fort Davis](/wiki/Fort_Davis%2C_Texas \"Fort Davis, Texas\"), the route intersects the western terminus of {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Texas State Highway 166\\|SH 166]]}}. At this point, {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} joins the [Davis Mountains Scenic Loop](/wiki/Davis_Mountains_Scenic_Loop \"Davis Mountains Scenic Loop\").",
"The road then enters Fort Davis where the route is called State Street. {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} intersects {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Texas State Highway 118\\|SH 118]]}} approaching from the east via Musquiz Drive just south of the Jeff Davis County Courthouse. At this junction, {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} joins the [Texas Historical Commission's](/wiki/Texas_Historical_Commission \"Texas Historical Commission\") [Texas Mountain Trail](/wiki/Texas_Mountain_Trail \"Texas Mountain Trail\"). {{nowrap\\|SH 118}} runs concurrently down State Street through town and past [Fort Davis National Historic Site](/wiki/Fort_Davis_National_Historic_Site \"Fort Davis National Historic Site\") for a distance of {{convert\\|1\\.3\\|mi\\|km}}. The route intersects [Lt. Flipper](/wiki/Henry_Ossian_Flipper \"Henry Ossian Flipper\") Drive, the entrance to the historic site. Across from the historic site, the route intersects Blackfoot Drive, known locally as Old Balmorhea Road which is the route's former unpaved roadway before the establishment of the state highway system. Just beyond the historic site, the route intersects Canyon Drive. At this point, {{nowrap\\|SH 118}}, Davis Mountains Scenic Loop, and the Texas Mountain Trail leave the route and continue west along Canyon Dr. toward [Davis Mountains State Park](/wiki/Davis_Mountains_State_Park \"Davis Mountains State Park\"), [McDonald Observatory](/wiki/McDonald_Observatory \"McDonald Observatory\"), and [Kent](/wiki/Kent%2C_Texas \"Kent, Texas\").",
"[thumb\\|{{nowrap\\|SH 17}} north of Fort Davis in Limpia Canyon](/wiki/File:LimpiaCanyonSH17-2.jpg \"LimpiaCanyonSH17-2.jpg\")\nBlackfoot Drive merges back with the route as {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} leaves town continuing northward through [Limpia Canyon](/wiki/Limpia_Canyon \"Limpia Canyon\") in the [Davis Mountains](/wiki/Davis_Mountains \"Davis Mountains\") with a maximum speed limit of {{convert\\|55\\|mph\\|km/h}}. In Limpia Canyon, the road has many curves, some with recommended speeds as low as {{convert\\|40\\|mph\\|km/h}} as indicated by warning signs. There are also several picnic tables in the canyon followed by one large picnic area just before reaching [Wild Rose Pass](/wiki/Wild_Rose_Pass \"Wild Rose Pass\"). About {{convert\\|2\\.4\\|mi\\|km}} past this pass, the speed limit increases to {{convert\\|75\\|mph\\|km/h}}. The route remains a two\\-lane road, but from this point onward there are places where passing lanes occur.",
"Continuing northward, the route intersects the eastern terminus of {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Ranch to Market Road 1832\\|RM 1832]]}} approaching from Buffalo Trails Boy Scout Ranch. {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} then continues through ranch land and leaves the Davis Mountains before leaving the county.",
"### Reeves County",
"The route continues northward and intersects {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Farm to Market Road 3078\\|FM 3078]]}} at [Toyahvale](/wiki/Toyahvale%2C_Texas \"Toyahvale, Texas\"). {{nowrap\\|FM 3078}} is the former roadway of {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[U.S. Route 290\\|US 290]]}} before it was replaced by [Interstate 10](/wiki/Interstate_10_in_Texas \"Interstate 10 in Texas\") (I\\-10\\). {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} turns east onto the former {{nowrap\\|US 290}} roadway and reaches [Texas Park Road 30](/wiki/Texas_Park_Road_30 \"Texas Park Road 30\") into [Balmorhea State Park](/wiki/Balmorhea_State_Park \"Balmorhea State Park\") at Toyahvale.",
"[thumb\\|Canal in Balmorhea city park along {{nowrap\\|SH 17}}](/wiki/File:Balmorhea_Park.jpg \"Balmorhea Park.jpg\")\nContinuing into [Balmorhea](/wiki/Balmorhea%2C_Texas \"Balmorhea, Texas\"), the route passes fields of alfalfa watered from irrigation ditches including one running parallel with the highway. In Balmorhea, this irrigation channel becomes the centerpiece of a city park along one side of {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} here known as Main Street. The route intersects [Business Interstate 10\\-F](/wiki/Interstate_10_Business_%28Balmorhea%2C_Texas%29 \"Interstate 10 Business (Balmorhea, Texas)\") at North Fort Worth Street. I\\-10 Bus. Loop F going northward becomes {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Farm to Market Road 2903\\|FM 2903]]}} to [Toyah](/wiki/Toyah%2C_Texas \"Toyah, Texas\") after crossing I\\-10\\. Eastward, I\\-10 Bus. Loop F overlays the route of {{nowrap\\|SH 17}}.",
"After Balmorhea, the route has a speed limit of {{convert\\|55\\|mph\\|km/h}} and passes just north of the foothills of the Davis Mountains and through the small community of [Brogado](/wiki/Brogado%2C_Texas \"Brogado, Texas\") before reaching I\\-10\\. At I\\-10 Exit 209, I\\-10 Bus. Loop F ends, and {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} merges with the Interstate for slightly more than {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km}} with a speed limit of {{convert\\|80\\|mph\\|km/h}}. {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} leaves I\\-10 at Exit 212 and heads northward with a speed limit of {{convert\\|70\\|mph\\|km/h}} toward [Saragosa](/wiki/Saragosa%2C_Texas \"Saragosa, Texas\"). At Saragosa, the route intersects {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Farm to Market Road 1215\\|FM 1215]]}} which merges with {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} and the speed limit lowers to {{convert\\|55\\|mph}}. In the center of Saragosa, {{nowrap\\|FM 1215}} turns westward at West Main Street and loops back to end at the north service road of I\\-10 and {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} without crossing or intersecting the main Interstate roadway.",
"Beyond Saragosa, the route begins to parallel the route of the [Pecos Valley Southern Railway](/wiki/Pecos_Valley_Southern_Railway \"Pecos Valley Southern Railway\") which will follow {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} the rest of the way into Pecos. The speed limit gradually increases to {{convert\\|65\\|mph}} before intersecting {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Farm to Market Road 2448\\|FM 2448]]}}. The speed limit then increases to {{convert\\|75\\|mph\\|km/h}} as the route passes through cotton fields with occasional oil wells. The route then intersects {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Farm to Market Road 3334\\|FM 3334]]}} before passing through the small community of [Verhalen](/wiki/Verhalen%2C_Texas \"Verhalen, Texas\"). The route then intersects {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Farm to Market Road 869\\|FM 869]]}} and later {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Farm to Market Road 1934\\|FM 1934]]}}.",
"The route passes alongside the community of [Lindsay](/wiki/Lindsay%2C_Reeves_County%2C_Texas \"Lindsay, Reeves County, Texas\") as it approaches the outskirts of Pecos. The route then passes [Pecos Municipal Airport](/wiki/Pecos_Municipal_Airport \"Pecos Municipal Airport\"). The speed limit gradually lowers to {{convert\\|55\\|mph\\|km/h}} and then widens to four lanes before reaching [I\\-20](/wiki/Interstate_20_in_Texas \"Interstate 20 in Texas\"). In Pecos, the route intersects I\\-20 at Exit 39 then continues north as South Bickley Avenue. The route then intersects {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Farm to Market Road 761\\|FM 761]]}} at Stafford Boulevard. Then, further north, {{nowrap\\|SH 17}} terminates at West 3rd Street where it intersects [Business Interstate 20\\-B](/wiki/Interstate_20_Business_%28Pecos%2C_Texas%29 \"Interstate 20 Business (Pecos, Texas)\").",
""
] |
Plot
----
In 2009, John Jones, a 26\-year\-old medical student and experienced [caver](/wiki/Caving "Caving"), arrives in [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah") for the [Thanksgiving weekend](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 "Thanksgiving (United States)") with his wife Emily and young daughter Lizzie. They are picked up by John's brother Josh, who tells him that the [Nutty Putty Cave](/wiki/Nutty_Putty_Cave "Nutty Putty Cave") has been opened after having been closed before. Emily approves because of John's enthusiasm and he and Josh go to explore the cave. After Emily leaves with Josh's car, the two brothers enter the cave. John makes a decision to split up and explore an un\-mapped route. As he goes deeper into the cave, he gets stuck in a small passageway. As he tries to go back and free himself, he falls into an even smaller hole and passes out.
John wakes up upside down in an 18\-inch wide hole and realizes he is completely stuck. He manages to alert Josh, who then tries to pull John out himself but is unsuccessful. Josh, at John's behest, reluctantly leaves him to go get help. While alone, John passes out again due to his upside down position. Hours later, he is woken by Susie, a rescue worker. She tells him many rescuers are on the scene and are doing their best to get him out. Susie then climbs back up to the entrance where she meets with an expert who states that if John is in the tunnel for extended periods of time, his body will begin to shut down. Soon another rescuer, Aaron is brought to the scene. He has been involved in past rescues that have ended tragically, and he vows to not leave without rescuing John.
Aaron climbs down and finds John, whose condition is starting to deteriorate. He assures John that everything will be all right, and promises him that he'll get out of the cave. John falls asleep and has a vision of his daughter in a field, but with an older man wearing grey clothing, whom he has seen before in hallucinations, after which he wakes up and suffers a [panic attack](/wiki/Panic_attack "Panic attack"). Aaron manages to calm him down, but not before John injures himself. John begins to talk to Aaron about his relationship with Emily. His conversation is overshadowed with [flashbacks](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 "Flashback (narrative)") from when he first met Emily to them dating. That night, Josh drives Emily to the entrance of the cave where he convinces the lead rescuers into letting her stay at the entrance.
John's condition continues to worsen as the hours go by. Aaron, Susie and other workers plan to pull John out of the hole by drilling pulleys into the walls and hooking the ropes to his feet. Aaron continues to talk to John, occasionally feeding him [Gatorade](/wiki/Gatorade "Gatorade") to keep him hydrated. John continues to tell him about his relationship with Emily, and reveals that when he first proposed to her she declined, and his family did not take to it kindly. He still continued to date her, amid rising tensions between her and his family. A radio is lowered into the cave and John is able to speak with Emily, who reveals she is pregnant. Shortly afterwards, he suffers another panic attack. While talking with Aaron again, they each realize they both served [Latter Day Saints](/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement "Latter Day Saint movement") [missions](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") in Spanish speaking countries. They both sing "Come Thou Fount of Every Blessing" in Spanish.
The drilling is finished and the attempt to pull John out commences. However, as John is starting to get pulled out, one of the drills comes undone, making dirt explode in all directions, and resulting in John falling back in the hole. The workers rescue an injured Aaron, who struggles to get back to the cave, distraught over another failure and the loss of his new friend. Emily mourns at the entrance, and is able to speak with John one last time. Emily talks with him for a minute before John seemingly dies.
Some time later, John suddenly awakens, and to his surprise, has the strength to push himself out of the hole. He calls for Aaron and Susie and finds the pulley ropes. He notices that the injuries he sustained have disappeared. As he finds his way back to the entrance, he finds it deserted and realizes he has died and is now a spirit in the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife"). Saddened, John goes back to the cave.
In the cave, John encounters another spirit in the form of an infant. As he talks to the baby, he realizes the baby is his soon to be born son. He then reflects on the hallucinations and visions of the boy and man in grey with Emily and Lizzie. He realizes that man was always his son, and tearfully tells the infant to watch over his mother and sister. As he takes the baby from his cradle and exits the cave, the boy is born at a hospital and is placed in Emily's arms, who happily announces that she has named him after John. Epilogue captions state that the cave's entrance has since been sealed, with John's body still inside, and provides a thank\-you to the rescuers from the family.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In 2009, John Jones, a 26\\-year\\-old medical student and experienced [caver](/wiki/Caving \"Caving\"), arrives in [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\") for the [Thanksgiving weekend](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 \"Thanksgiving (United States)\") with his wife Emily and young daughter Lizzie. They are picked up by John's brother Josh, who tells him that the [Nutty Putty Cave](/wiki/Nutty_Putty_Cave \"Nutty Putty Cave\") has been opened after having been closed before. Emily approves because of John's enthusiasm and he and Josh go to explore the cave. After Emily leaves with Josh's car, the two brothers enter the cave. John makes a decision to split up and explore an un\\-mapped route. As he goes deeper into the cave, he gets stuck in a small passageway. As he tries to go back and free himself, he falls into an even smaller hole and passes out.",
"John wakes up upside down in an 18\\-inch wide hole and realizes he is completely stuck. He manages to alert Josh, who then tries to pull John out himself but is unsuccessful. Josh, at John's behest, reluctantly leaves him to go get help. While alone, John passes out again due to his upside down position. Hours later, he is woken by Susie, a rescue worker. She tells him many rescuers are on the scene and are doing their best to get him out. Susie then climbs back up to the entrance where she meets with an expert who states that if John is in the tunnel for extended periods of time, his body will begin to shut down. Soon another rescuer, Aaron is brought to the scene. He has been involved in past rescues that have ended tragically, and he vows to not leave without rescuing John.",
"Aaron climbs down and finds John, whose condition is starting to deteriorate. He assures John that everything will be all right, and promises him that he'll get out of the cave. John falls asleep and has a vision of his daughter in a field, but with an older man wearing grey clothing, whom he has seen before in hallucinations, after which he wakes up and suffers a [panic attack](/wiki/Panic_attack \"Panic attack\"). Aaron manages to calm him down, but not before John injures himself. John begins to talk to Aaron about his relationship with Emily. His conversation is overshadowed with [flashbacks](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 \"Flashback (narrative)\") from when he first met Emily to them dating. That night, Josh drives Emily to the entrance of the cave where he convinces the lead rescuers into letting her stay at the entrance.",
"John's condition continues to worsen as the hours go by. Aaron, Susie and other workers plan to pull John out of the hole by drilling pulleys into the walls and hooking the ropes to his feet. Aaron continues to talk to John, occasionally feeding him [Gatorade](/wiki/Gatorade \"Gatorade\") to keep him hydrated. John continues to tell him about his relationship with Emily, and reveals that when he first proposed to her she declined, and his family did not take to it kindly. He still continued to date her, amid rising tensions between her and his family. A radio is lowered into the cave and John is able to speak with Emily, who reveals she is pregnant. Shortly afterwards, he suffers another panic attack. While talking with Aaron again, they each realize they both served [Latter Day Saints](/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement \"Latter Day Saint movement\") [missions](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") in Spanish speaking countries. They both sing \"Come Thou Fount of Every Blessing\" in Spanish.",
"The drilling is finished and the attempt to pull John out commences. However, as John is starting to get pulled out, one of the drills comes undone, making dirt explode in all directions, and resulting in John falling back in the hole. The workers rescue an injured Aaron, who struggles to get back to the cave, distraught over another failure and the loss of his new friend. Emily mourns at the entrance, and is able to speak with John one last time. Emily talks with him for a minute before John seemingly dies.",
"Some time later, John suddenly awakens, and to his surprise, has the strength to push himself out of the hole. He calls for Aaron and Susie and finds the pulley ropes. He notices that the injuries he sustained have disappeared. As he finds his way back to the entrance, he finds it deserted and realizes he has died and is now a spirit in the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife \"Afterlife\"). Saddened, John goes back to the cave.",
"In the cave, John encounters another spirit in the form of an infant. As he talks to the baby, he realizes the baby is his soon to be born son. He then reflects on the hallucinations and visions of the boy and man in grey with Emily and Lizzie. He realizes that man was always his son, and tearfully tells the infant to watch over his mother and sister. As he takes the baby from his cradle and exits the cave, the boy is born at a hospital and is placed in Emily's arms, who happily announces that she has named him after John. Epilogue captions state that the cave's entrance has since been sealed, with John's body still inside, and provides a thank\\-you to the rescuers from the family.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early history
The regiment was formed as part of the [Childers Reforms](/wiki/Childers_Reforms "Childers Reforms") on 1 July 1881 by the amalgamation of the [71st (Highland) Light Infantry](/wiki/71st_%28Highland%29_Regiment_of_Foot "71st (Highland) Regiment of Foot") (as the 1st Battalion) and the [74th (Highland) Regiment of Foot](/wiki/74th_%28Highland%29_Regiment_of_Foot "74th (Highland) Regiment of Foot") (as the 2nd Battalion) as the city regiment of [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow"), absorbing local [Militia](/wiki/Militia "Militia") and [Rifle Volunteer](/wiki/Volunteer_Force_%28Great_Britain%29 "Volunteer Force (Great Britain)") units. Its exact status was ambiguous: although the regiment insisted on being classified as a non\-kilted Highland regiment, it recruited mainly from Glasgow in [Lowland Scotland](/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands "Scottish Lowlands").{{sfn\|Carman\|1985\|p\=160}}
The 1st battalion was posted to South Africa in October 1899, after the outbreak of the [Second Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War "Second Boer War"). The battalion served throughout the war, which ended in June 1902\. The battalion of 700 men left [Durban](/wiki/Durban "Durban") for Egypt on the *SS Plassy* in January 1903,{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=Naval \& Military intelligence \- Troops returning Home\|date\=22 January 1903 \|page\=8 \|issue\=36984}} and was subsequently stationed there in the following years.Hart′s Army list, 1903
The 2nd Battalion saw action at the [Battle of Tell El Kebir](/wiki/Battle_of_Tell_El_Kebir "Battle of Tell El Kebir") in September 1882 during the [Anglo\-Egyptian War](/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War "Anglo-Egyptian War"): Lieutenant [William Edwards](/wiki/William_Mordaunt_Marsh_Edwards "William Mordaunt Marsh Edwards") was awarded the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross "Victoria Cross") for his actions during the battle.{{London Gazette \|issue\=25198 \|date\=13 February 1883 \|page\=792 \|nolink\=yes}} The battalion was stationed in England from 1883, but moved to India the following year. In February 1900 the battalion departed from [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo "Colombo") to return home,{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=Naval \& Military intelligence \|date\=19 February 1900 \|page\=9 \|issue\=36069}} and in October 1902 they were posted to [Jersey](/wiki/Jersey "Jersey"),{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=Naval \& Military intelligence \|date\=11 October 1902 \|page\=12 \|issue\=36896}} but three months later they were reassigned to [Alderney](/wiki/Alderney "Alderney").{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=Naval \& Military intelligence\|date\=24 December 1902 \|page\=9 \|issue\=36959}}
Following heavy British losses in the early part of the Second Boer War in 1899, many of the militia battalions were embodied for active service, including the 3rd battalion Highland Light (formerly the 1st Royal Lanark Militia), under the command of Lieutenant\-Colonel [William Story](/wiki/William_Story_%28cricketer%29 "William Story (cricketer)"). The battalion served throughout the war, and 890 officers and men were reported to return home on the SS *Doune Castle* in September 1902, after the war had ended earlier that year.{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=The Army in South Africa \- Troops returning Home\|date\=5 September 1902 \|page\=6 \|issue\=36865}}
In 1908, the Volunteers and Militia were reorganised nationally, with the former becoming the [Territorial Force](/wiki/Territorial_Force "Territorial Force") and the latter the [Special Reserve](/wiki/Special_Reserve_%28militia%29 "Special Reserve (militia)");{{cite web\|url\= https://api.parliament.uk/historic\-hansard/commons/1908/mar/31/territorial\-and\-reserve\-forces\-act\-1907\|title\=Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907\|work\=\[\[Hansard\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\|date\=31 March 1908\|access\-date\=20 June 2017}} the regiment now had two Reserve and five Territorial battalions.These were the 3rd and 4th Battalions (Special Reserve), with the 5th (City of Glasgow) Battalion at [Hill Street](/wiki/Haldane_Building "Haldane Building") in Glasgow, the 6th (City of Glasgow) Battalion at [Yorkhill Street](/wiki/Yorkhill_Street_drill_hall "Yorkhill Street drill hall") in Glasgow, the [7th (The Blythswood) Battalion](/wiki/Blythswood_Rifles "Blythswood Rifles") at Main Street in [Bridgeton](/wiki/Bridgeton%2C_Glasgow "Bridgeton, Glasgow") (since demolished), the 8th (Lanark) Battalion at Mousebank Lane in [Lanark](/wiki/Lanark "Lanark") (since demolished) and the 9th (Glasgow Highland) Battalion at Greendyke Street in Glasgow (since demolished) (all Territorial Force)
### First World War
#### Regular Army
The 1st Battalion landed at [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille") as part of the Sirhind Brigade in the [3rd (Lahore) Division](/wiki/3rd_%28Lahore%29_Division "3rd (Lahore) Division") in December 1914 for service on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.1914\-1918\.net/hli.htm\|title\=Highland Light Infantry\|publisher\=The Long, Long Trail\|access\-date\=7 May 2016}} and entered the trenches near [Festubert](/wiki/Festubert "Festubert").1 Bn Highland Light Infantry, [Unit War Diary, 1914 Aug \- 1915 Dec (TNA WO 95/3929/1\)](https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C7356091), *War Office*, Dec 1915\. Retrieved 9 Nov 2023\. It fought in the [Battle of Neuve Chapelle](/wiki/Battle_of_Neuve_Chapelle "Battle of Neuve Chapelle") in March 1915, the [Battle of St Julien](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres "Second Battle of Ypres") in May 1915 and the [Second Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres "Second Battle of Ypres") later in May 1915\.{{cite web\|url\=http://rhf.org.uk/rhf/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=18\&Itemid\=31\|title\=1914\-1939\|publisher\=Royal Highland Fusliers\|access\-date\=7 May 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404161321/http://rhf.org.uk/rhf/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=18\&Itemid\=31\|archive\-date\=4 April 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} It then moved to [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia") in December 1915 and saw action at the [Siege of Kut](/wiki/Siege_of_Kut "Siege of Kut") in Spring 1916 and the [Battle of Sharqat](/wiki/Battle_of_Sharqat "Battle of Sharqat") in October 1918\.
[thumb\|left\|Troops of the Highland Light Infantry resting by the roadside on the way up to attack, 24 September 1917\.](/wiki/File:The_Battle_of_Passchendaele%2C_July-november_1917_Q6006.jpg "The Battle of Passchendaele, July-november 1917 Q6006.jpg")
The 2nd Battalion landed at [Boulogne\-sur\-Mer](/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer "Boulogne-sur-Mer") as part of the [5th Brigade](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "5th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the [2nd Division](/wiki/2nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "2nd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)") in August 1914 for service on the Western Front. It saw action at the [Battle of Aisne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Aisne "First Battle of the Aisne") in September 1914, the [Battle of Ypres](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres "First Battle of Ypres") in November 1914, the [Battle of Loos](/wiki/Battle_of_Loos "Battle of Loos") in October 1915, the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme "Battle of the Somme") in Summer 1916, the [Battle of Arras](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 "Battle of Arras (1917)") in April 1917, the [Battle of Cambrai](/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_%281917%29 "Battle of Cambrai (1917)") in December 1917 and the advance to the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line "Hindenburg Line") in September 1918\.
#### Territorial Force
[thumb\|Gravestones of HLI soldiers who died in the First World War in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery in Gaza City](/wiki/File:Gaza_War_Cemetery_4.jpg "Gaza War Cemetery 4.jpg")
The 1/5th (City of Glasgow) Battalion, the 1/6th (City of Glasgow) Battalion and the [1/7th (Blythswood) Battalion](/wiki/Blythswood_Rifles "Blythswood Rifles") landed at [Cape Helles](/wiki/Cape_Helles "Cape Helles") in [Gallipoli](/wiki/Gallipoli "Gallipoli") as part of the [157th Brigade](/wiki/157th_%28Highland_Light_Infantry%29_Brigade "157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade") in the [52nd (Lowland) Division](/wiki/52nd_%28Lowland%29_Infantry_Division "52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division") in July 1915; after being evacuated to [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") in January 1916 they moved to Marseille in April 1918 for service on the Western Front. The 1/9th (Glasgow Highland) Battalion landed in France as part of the [5th Brigade](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "5th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the [2nd Division](/wiki/2nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "2nd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)") in November 1914 for service on the Western Front.
#### New Armies
The 10th and 11th (Service) Battalions landed at Boulogne\-sur\-Mer as part of the [28th Brigade](/wiki/28th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "28th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the [9th (Scottish) Division](/wiki/9th_%28Scottish%29_Division "9th (Scottish) Division") in May 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 12th (Service) Battalion landed at Boulogne\-sur\-Mer as part of the [46th Brigade](/wiki/46th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "46th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the [15th (Scottish) Division](/wiki/15th_%28Scottish%29_Infantry_Division "15th (Scottish) Infantry Division") in July 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 14th (Service) Battalion landed in France as part of the [120th Brigade](/wiki/120th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "120th Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the [40th Division](/wiki/40th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "40th Division (United Kingdom)") in June 1916 for service on the Western Front.
The 15th (Service) Battalion (1st Glasgow), the 16th (Service) Battalion (2nd Glasgow) and the 17th (Service) Battalion (3rd Glasgow) landed at Boulogne\-sur\-Mer as part of the [97th Brigade](/wiki/97th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "97th Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the [32nd Division](/wiki/32nd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "32nd Division (United Kingdom)") in November 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 16th (Service) Battalion (2nd Glasgow), which was formed from former members of the Glasgow Battalion of the [Boys' Brigade](/wiki/Boys%27_Brigade "Boys' Brigade") and was known as the Glasgow [Boys' Brigade](/wiki/Boys%27_Brigade "Boys' Brigade") Battalion is particularly remembered for an incident at the Frankfurt trench at the [Battle of the Ancre](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ancre "Battle of the Ancre"), the last offensive of the [battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme "Battle of the Somme"), where around 60 men of D company were surrounded and cut off behind enemy lines. Relief attempts failed, but the men of the Frankfurt trench refused to surrender. After refusing to surrender, the Germans stormed the trench and found only 15 wounded men alive, three of whom died soon afterwards. General [Sir Hubert Gough](/wiki/Hubert_Gough "Hubert Gough") praised their stand under Army Order 193\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.glesga.ukpals.com/folk/forces5a.htm\|title\= Glesga Pals: 16th Battalion Highland Light Infantry\|access\-date\=7 May 2016}} Members of the 17th (Service) Battalion were painted by the [war artist](/wiki/War_artist "War artist") [Frederick Farrell](/wiki/Frederick_Farrell "Frederick Farrell") in [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders") in 1917\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.heraldscotland.com/arts\-ents/visual/glasgows\-forgotten\-war\-artist\-fred\-farrell.1400900405\|title\=Glasgow's forgotten war artist Fred Farrell\|date\=24 May 2014\|work\=\[\[Herald Scotland]]\|access\-date\=9 May 2015}}
The 18th (Service) Battalion (4th Glasgow) landed in France as part of the [106th Brigade](/wiki/106th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "106th Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the [35th Division](/wiki/35th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "35th Division (United Kingdom)") in February 1916 for service on the Western Front.
### Between the Wars
In 1923, the regiment's title was expanded to the **Highland Light Infantry (City of Glasgow Regiment)**.Army Order 221/1923 [David Niven](/wiki/David_Niven "David Niven") was commissioned into the regiment in 1930 and served with the 2nd Battalion.{{cite web\|url\=http://scottishmilitary.blogspot.co.uk/2010/12/whos\-who\-in\-scottish\-military\-history\_26\.html\|title\=Who's Who in Scottish Military History \- David Niven\|date\=26 December 2010 \|publisher\=Scottish Military History\|access\-date\=7 May 2016}}
### Second World War
[thumb\|left\|Lorries carrying men of the 2nd Battalion, Highland Light Infantry towards the front line, 9 June 1942\.](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1942_E13123.jpg "The British Army in North Africa 1942 E13123.jpg")
The 1st Battalion landed in France in September 1939 as part of the [127th (Manchester) Brigade](/wiki/127th_%28Manchester%29_Brigade "127th (Manchester) Brigade") in the [42nd (East Lancashire) Division](/wiki/42nd_%28East_Lancashire%29_Infantry_Division "42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division") for service with the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") and then took part in the [Dunkirk evacuation](/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation "Dunkirk evacuation") in June 1940\.{{cite web\|url\=http://rhf.org.uk/rhf/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=19\&Itemid\=32\|title\=1939\-1945\|publisher\=Royal Highland Fusiliers\|access\-date\=8 May 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108031505/http://rhf.org.uk/rhf/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=19\&Itemid\=32\|archive\-date\=8 January 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} As part of the [71st Infantry Brigade](/wiki/71st_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "71st Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the [53rd (Welsh) Division](/wiki/53rd_%28Welsh%29_Infantry_Division "53rd (Welsh) Infantry Division"), it later took part in the [Normandy landings](/wiki/Normandy_landings "Normandy landings") in June 1944 and saw action at the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge "Battle of the Bulge") in January 1945, the [Battle of the Reichswald](/wiki/Operation_Veritable "Operation Veritable") in March 1945 and the final advance into [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany").
The 2nd Battalion moved to [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") early in the war and saw action at the [Battle of Keren](/wiki/Battle_of_Keren "Battle of Keren") in March 1941\. It then transferred to the [Western Desert](/wiki/Libyan_Desert "Libyan Desert") and, as part of the [10th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/10th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "10th Indian Infantry Brigade") of the [5th Indian Infantry Division](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Division_%28India%29 "5th Infantry Division (India)"), saw combat at the [Battle of Knightsbridge](/wiki/Battle_of_Knightsbridge "Battle of Knightsbridge") in June 1942 and the [Battle of Fuka](/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein "First Battle of El Alamein") in July 1942\. It took part in the [Allied invasion of Sicily](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily "Allied invasion of Sicily") in July 1943 and, after a period in [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia"), [Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania") and [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece"), took part in the final advance into Northern Italy.
[thumb\|Churchill tanks of 6th Guards Tank Brigade and troops of the 10th Battalion, Highland Light Infantry during the assault on Tilburg, Holland, 28 October 1944\.](/wiki/File:Churchill_tanks_of_6th_Guards_Tank_Brigade_and_troops_of_the_10th_Highland_Light_Infantry%2C_15th_%28Scottish%29_Division%2C_during_the_assault_on_Tilburg%2C_Holland%2C_28_October_1944._B11419.jpg "Churchill tanks of 6th Guards Tank Brigade and troops of the 10th Highland Light Infantry, 15th (Scottish) Division, during the assault on Tilburg, Holland, 28 October 1944. B11419.jpg")
The 5th and 6th Battalions landed in France as part of the [157th Brigade](/wiki/157th_%28Highland_Light_Infantry%29_Brigade "157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade") in the [52nd (Lowland) Division](/wiki/52nd_%28Lowland%29_Infantry_Division "52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division") in June 1940; after evacuation from [Cherbourg](/wiki/Cherbourg-Octeville "Cherbourg-Octeville") later in the month, they landed in Belgium in October 1944 and took part in [Operation Infatuate](/wiki/Operation_Infatuate "Operation Infatuate") in November 1944 and the subsequent capture of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen") in April 1945\.
The 11th Battalion was converted to armour in 1942, becoming the 156th Regiment in the [Royal Armoured Corps](/wiki/Royal_Armoured_Corps "Royal Armoured Corps"), but with the men retaining their Highland Light Infantry cap badges on the black beret of the RAC.{{sfn\|Forty\|1998\|p\=51}}
### After the War
The Highland Light Infantry was amalgamated with the [Royal Scots Fusiliers](/wiki/Royal_Scots_Fusiliers "Royal Scots Fusiliers") in 1959 to form the [Royal Highland Fusiliers](/wiki/Royal_Highland_Fusiliers "Royal Highland Fusiliers"). The regular 1st battalions of the two Regiments combined at [Redford Barracks](/wiki/Redford_Barracks "Redford Barracks"), [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh") to form the 1st Battalion of the new regiment (1 RHF).{{cite web\|url\=http://british\-army\-units1945on.co.uk/infantry/royal\-highland\-fusiliers.html\|title\=Royal Highland Fusiliers\|publisher\=British Army units 1945 on\|access\-date\=25 May 2014}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early history",
"The regiment was formed as part of the [Childers Reforms](/wiki/Childers_Reforms \"Childers Reforms\") on 1 July 1881 by the amalgamation of the [71st (Highland) Light Infantry](/wiki/71st_%28Highland%29_Regiment_of_Foot \"71st (Highland) Regiment of Foot\") (as the 1st Battalion) and the [74th (Highland) Regiment of Foot](/wiki/74th_%28Highland%29_Regiment_of_Foot \"74th (Highland) Regiment of Foot\") (as the 2nd Battalion) as the city regiment of [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\"), absorbing local [Militia](/wiki/Militia \"Militia\") and [Rifle Volunteer](/wiki/Volunteer_Force_%28Great_Britain%29 \"Volunteer Force (Great Britain)\") units. Its exact status was ambiguous: although the regiment insisted on being classified as a non\\-kilted Highland regiment, it recruited mainly from Glasgow in [Lowland Scotland](/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands \"Scottish Lowlands\").{{sfn\\|Carman\\|1985\\|p\\=160}}",
"The 1st battalion was posted to South Africa in October 1899, after the outbreak of the [Second Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War \"Second Boer War\"). The battalion served throughout the war, which ended in June 1902\\. The battalion of 700 men left [Durban](/wiki/Durban \"Durban\") for Egypt on the *SS Plassy* in January 1903,{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=Naval \\& Military intelligence \\- Troops returning Home\\|date\\=22 January 1903 \\|page\\=8 \\|issue\\=36984}} and was subsequently stationed there in the following years.Hart′s Army list, 1903",
"The 2nd Battalion saw action at the [Battle of Tell El Kebir](/wiki/Battle_of_Tell_El_Kebir \"Battle of Tell El Kebir\") in September 1882 during the [Anglo\\-Egyptian War](/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War \"Anglo-Egyptian War\"): Lieutenant [William Edwards](/wiki/William_Mordaunt_Marsh_Edwards \"William Mordaunt Marsh Edwards\") was awarded the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\") for his actions during the battle.{{London Gazette \\|issue\\=25198 \\|date\\=13 February 1883 \\|page\\=792 \\|nolink\\=yes}} The battalion was stationed in England from 1883, but moved to India the following year. In February 1900 the battalion departed from [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\") to return home,{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=Naval \\& Military intelligence \\|date\\=19 February 1900 \\|page\\=9 \\|issue\\=36069}} and in October 1902 they were posted to [Jersey](/wiki/Jersey \"Jersey\"),{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=Naval \\& Military intelligence \\|date\\=11 October 1902 \\|page\\=12 \\|issue\\=36896}} but three months later they were reassigned to [Alderney](/wiki/Alderney \"Alderney\").{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=Naval \\& Military intelligence\\|date\\=24 December 1902 \\|page\\=9 \\|issue\\=36959}}",
"Following heavy British losses in the early part of the Second Boer War in 1899, many of the militia battalions were embodied for active service, including the 3rd battalion Highland Light (formerly the 1st Royal Lanark Militia), under the command of Lieutenant\\-Colonel [William Story](/wiki/William_Story_%28cricketer%29 \"William Story (cricketer)\"). The battalion served throughout the war, and 890 officers and men were reported to return home on the SS *Doune Castle* in September 1902, after the war had ended earlier that year.{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=The Army in South Africa \\- Troops returning Home\\|date\\=5 September 1902 \\|page\\=6 \\|issue\\=36865}}",
"In 1908, the Volunteers and Militia were reorganised nationally, with the former becoming the [Territorial Force](/wiki/Territorial_Force \"Territorial Force\") and the latter the [Special Reserve](/wiki/Special_Reserve_%28militia%29 \"Special Reserve (militia)\");{{cite web\\|url\\= https://api.parliament.uk/historic\\-hansard/commons/1908/mar/31/territorial\\-and\\-reserve\\-forces\\-act\\-1907\\|title\\=Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907\\|work\\=\\[\\[Hansard\\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\\|date\\=31 March 1908\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2017}} the regiment now had two Reserve and five Territorial battalions.These were the 3rd and 4th Battalions (Special Reserve), with the 5th (City of Glasgow) Battalion at [Hill Street](/wiki/Haldane_Building \"Haldane Building\") in Glasgow, the 6th (City of Glasgow) Battalion at [Yorkhill Street](/wiki/Yorkhill_Street_drill_hall \"Yorkhill Street drill hall\") in Glasgow, the [7th (The Blythswood) Battalion](/wiki/Blythswood_Rifles \"Blythswood Rifles\") at Main Street in [Bridgeton](/wiki/Bridgeton%2C_Glasgow \"Bridgeton, Glasgow\") (since demolished), the 8th (Lanark) Battalion at Mousebank Lane in [Lanark](/wiki/Lanark \"Lanark\") (since demolished) and the 9th (Glasgow Highland) Battalion at Greendyke Street in Glasgow (since demolished) (all Territorial Force)",
"### First World War",
"#### Regular Army",
"The 1st Battalion landed at [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\") as part of the Sirhind Brigade in the [3rd (Lahore) Division](/wiki/3rd_%28Lahore%29_Division \"3rd (Lahore) Division\") in December 1914 for service on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.1914\\-1918\\.net/hli.htm\\|title\\=Highland Light Infantry\\|publisher\\=The Long, Long Trail\\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2016}} and entered the trenches near [Festubert](/wiki/Festubert \"Festubert\").1 Bn Highland Light Infantry, [Unit War Diary, 1914 Aug \\- 1915 Dec (TNA WO 95/3929/1\\)](https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C7356091), *War Office*, Dec 1915\\. Retrieved 9 Nov 2023\\. It fought in the [Battle of Neuve Chapelle](/wiki/Battle_of_Neuve_Chapelle \"Battle of Neuve Chapelle\") in March 1915, the [Battle of St Julien](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres \"Second Battle of Ypres\") in May 1915 and the [Second Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres \"Second Battle of Ypres\") later in May 1915\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://rhf.org.uk/rhf/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=18\\&Itemid\\=31\\|title\\=1914\\-1939\\|publisher\\=Royal Highland Fusliers\\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404161321/http://rhf.org.uk/rhf/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=18\\&Itemid\\=31\\|archive\\-date\\=4 April 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} It then moved to [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\") in December 1915 and saw action at the [Siege of Kut](/wiki/Siege_of_Kut \"Siege of Kut\") in Spring 1916 and the [Battle of Sharqat](/wiki/Battle_of_Sharqat \"Battle of Sharqat\") in October 1918\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Troops of the Highland Light Infantry resting by the roadside on the way up to attack, 24 September 1917\\.](/wiki/File:The_Battle_of_Passchendaele%2C_July-november_1917_Q6006.jpg \"The Battle of Passchendaele, July-november 1917 Q6006.jpg\")",
"The 2nd Battalion landed at [Boulogne\\-sur\\-Mer](/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer \"Boulogne-sur-Mer\") as part of the [5th Brigade](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"5th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the [2nd Division](/wiki/2nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"2nd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\") in August 1914 for service on the Western Front. It saw action at the [Battle of Aisne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Aisne \"First Battle of the Aisne\") in September 1914, the [Battle of Ypres](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres \"First Battle of Ypres\") in November 1914, the [Battle of Loos](/wiki/Battle_of_Loos \"Battle of Loos\") in October 1915, the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme \"Battle of the Somme\") in Summer 1916, the [Battle of Arras](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 \"Battle of Arras (1917)\") in April 1917, the [Battle of Cambrai](/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_%281917%29 \"Battle of Cambrai (1917)\") in December 1917 and the advance to the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line \"Hindenburg Line\") in September 1918\\.",
"#### Territorial Force",
"[thumb\\|Gravestones of HLI soldiers who died in the First World War in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery in Gaza City](/wiki/File:Gaza_War_Cemetery_4.jpg \"Gaza War Cemetery 4.jpg\")\nThe 1/5th (City of Glasgow) Battalion, the 1/6th (City of Glasgow) Battalion and the [1/7th (Blythswood) Battalion](/wiki/Blythswood_Rifles \"Blythswood Rifles\") landed at [Cape Helles](/wiki/Cape_Helles \"Cape Helles\") in [Gallipoli](/wiki/Gallipoli \"Gallipoli\") as part of the [157th Brigade](/wiki/157th_%28Highland_Light_Infantry%29_Brigade \"157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade\") in the [52nd (Lowland) Division](/wiki/52nd_%28Lowland%29_Infantry_Division \"52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division\") in July 1915; after being evacuated to [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") in January 1916 they moved to Marseille in April 1918 for service on the Western Front. The 1/9th (Glasgow Highland) Battalion landed in France as part of the [5th Brigade](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"5th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the [2nd Division](/wiki/2nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"2nd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\") in November 1914 for service on the Western Front.",
"#### New Armies",
"The 10th and 11th (Service) Battalions landed at Boulogne\\-sur\\-Mer as part of the [28th Brigade](/wiki/28th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"28th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the [9th (Scottish) Division](/wiki/9th_%28Scottish%29_Division \"9th (Scottish) Division\") in May 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 12th (Service) Battalion landed at Boulogne\\-sur\\-Mer as part of the [46th Brigade](/wiki/46th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"46th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the [15th (Scottish) Division](/wiki/15th_%28Scottish%29_Infantry_Division \"15th (Scottish) Infantry Division\") in July 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 14th (Service) Battalion landed in France as part of the [120th Brigade](/wiki/120th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"120th Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the [40th Division](/wiki/40th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"40th Division (United Kingdom)\") in June 1916 for service on the Western Front.",
"The 15th (Service) Battalion (1st Glasgow), the 16th (Service) Battalion (2nd Glasgow) and the 17th (Service) Battalion (3rd Glasgow) landed at Boulogne\\-sur\\-Mer as part of the [97th Brigade](/wiki/97th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"97th Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the [32nd Division](/wiki/32nd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"32nd Division (United Kingdom)\") in November 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 16th (Service) Battalion (2nd Glasgow), which was formed from former members of the Glasgow Battalion of the [Boys' Brigade](/wiki/Boys%27_Brigade \"Boys' Brigade\") and was known as the Glasgow [Boys' Brigade](/wiki/Boys%27_Brigade \"Boys' Brigade\") Battalion is particularly remembered for an incident at the Frankfurt trench at the [Battle of the Ancre](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ancre \"Battle of the Ancre\"), the last offensive of the [battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme \"Battle of the Somme\"), where around 60 men of D company were surrounded and cut off behind enemy lines. Relief attempts failed, but the men of the Frankfurt trench refused to surrender. After refusing to surrender, the Germans stormed the trench and found only 15 wounded men alive, three of whom died soon afterwards. General [Sir Hubert Gough](/wiki/Hubert_Gough \"Hubert Gough\") praised their stand under Army Order 193\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.glesga.ukpals.com/folk/forces5a.htm\\|title\\= Glesga Pals: 16th Battalion Highland Light Infantry\\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2016}} Members of the 17th (Service) Battalion were painted by the [war artist](/wiki/War_artist \"War artist\") [Frederick Farrell](/wiki/Frederick_Farrell \"Frederick Farrell\") in [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\") in 1917\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.heraldscotland.com/arts\\-ents/visual/glasgows\\-forgotten\\-war\\-artist\\-fred\\-farrell.1400900405\\|title\\=Glasgow's forgotten war artist Fred Farrell\\|date\\=24 May 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[Herald Scotland]]\\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2015}}",
"The 18th (Service) Battalion (4th Glasgow) landed in France as part of the [106th Brigade](/wiki/106th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"106th Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the [35th Division](/wiki/35th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"35th Division (United Kingdom)\") in February 1916 for service on the Western Front.",
"### Between the Wars",
"In 1923, the regiment's title was expanded to the **Highland Light Infantry (City of Glasgow Regiment)**.Army Order 221/1923 [David Niven](/wiki/David_Niven \"David Niven\") was commissioned into the regiment in 1930 and served with the 2nd Battalion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://scottishmilitary.blogspot.co.uk/2010/12/whos\\-who\\-in\\-scottish\\-military\\-history\\_26\\.html\\|title\\=Who's Who in Scottish Military History \\- David Niven\\|date\\=26 December 2010 \\|publisher\\=Scottish Military History\\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2016}}",
"### Second World War",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Lorries carrying men of the 2nd Battalion, Highland Light Infantry towards the front line, 9 June 1942\\.](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1942_E13123.jpg \"The British Army in North Africa 1942 E13123.jpg\")",
"The 1st Battalion landed in France in September 1939 as part of the [127th (Manchester) Brigade](/wiki/127th_%28Manchester%29_Brigade \"127th (Manchester) Brigade\") in the [42nd (East Lancashire) Division](/wiki/42nd_%28East_Lancashire%29_Infantry_Division \"42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division\") for service with the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") and then took part in the [Dunkirk evacuation](/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation \"Dunkirk evacuation\") in June 1940\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://rhf.org.uk/rhf/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=19\\&Itemid\\=32\\|title\\=1939\\-1945\\|publisher\\=Royal Highland Fusiliers\\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108031505/http://rhf.org.uk/rhf/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=19\\&Itemid\\=32\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} As part of the [71st Infantry Brigade](/wiki/71st_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"71st Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the [53rd (Welsh) Division](/wiki/53rd_%28Welsh%29_Infantry_Division \"53rd (Welsh) Infantry Division\"), it later took part in the [Normandy landings](/wiki/Normandy_landings \"Normandy landings\") in June 1944 and saw action at the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge \"Battle of the Bulge\") in January 1945, the [Battle of the Reichswald](/wiki/Operation_Veritable \"Operation Veritable\") in March 1945 and the final advance into [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\").",
"The 2nd Battalion moved to [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") early in the war and saw action at the [Battle of Keren](/wiki/Battle_of_Keren \"Battle of Keren\") in March 1941\\. It then transferred to the [Western Desert](/wiki/Libyan_Desert \"Libyan Desert\") and, as part of the [10th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/10th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"10th Indian Infantry Brigade\") of the [5th Indian Infantry Division](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Division_%28India%29 \"5th Infantry Division (India)\"), saw combat at the [Battle of Knightsbridge](/wiki/Battle_of_Knightsbridge \"Battle of Knightsbridge\") in June 1942 and the [Battle of Fuka](/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein \"First Battle of El Alamein\") in July 1942\\. It took part in the [Allied invasion of Sicily](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily \"Allied invasion of Sicily\") in July 1943 and, after a period in [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\"), [Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\") and [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\"), took part in the final advance into Northern Italy.",
"[thumb\\|Churchill tanks of 6th Guards Tank Brigade and troops of the 10th Battalion, Highland Light Infantry during the assault on Tilburg, Holland, 28 October 1944\\.](/wiki/File:Churchill_tanks_of_6th_Guards_Tank_Brigade_and_troops_of_the_10th_Highland_Light_Infantry%2C_15th_%28Scottish%29_Division%2C_during_the_assault_on_Tilburg%2C_Holland%2C_28_October_1944._B11419.jpg \"Churchill tanks of 6th Guards Tank Brigade and troops of the 10th Highland Light Infantry, 15th (Scottish) Division, during the assault on Tilburg, Holland, 28 October 1944. B11419.jpg\")",
"The 5th and 6th Battalions landed in France as part of the [157th Brigade](/wiki/157th_%28Highland_Light_Infantry%29_Brigade \"157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade\") in the [52nd (Lowland) Division](/wiki/52nd_%28Lowland%29_Infantry_Division \"52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division\") in June 1940; after evacuation from [Cherbourg](/wiki/Cherbourg-Octeville \"Cherbourg-Octeville\") later in the month, they landed in Belgium in October 1944 and took part in [Operation Infatuate](/wiki/Operation_Infatuate \"Operation Infatuate\") in November 1944 and the subsequent capture of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\") in April 1945\\.",
"The 11th Battalion was converted to armour in 1942, becoming the 156th Regiment in the [Royal Armoured Corps](/wiki/Royal_Armoured_Corps \"Royal Armoured Corps\"), but with the men retaining their Highland Light Infantry cap badges on the black beret of the RAC.{{sfn\\|Forty\\|1998\\|p\\=51}}",
"### After the War",
"The Highland Light Infantry was amalgamated with the [Royal Scots Fusiliers](/wiki/Royal_Scots_Fusiliers \"Royal Scots Fusiliers\") in 1959 to form the [Royal Highland Fusiliers](/wiki/Royal_Highland_Fusiliers \"Royal Highland Fusiliers\"). The regular 1st battalions of the two Regiments combined at [Redford Barracks](/wiki/Redford_Barracks \"Redford Barracks\"), [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") to form the 1st Battalion of the new regiment (1 RHF).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://british\\-army\\-units1945on.co.uk/infantry/royal\\-highland\\-fusiliers.html\\|title\\=Royal Highland Fusiliers\\|publisher\\=British Army units 1945 on\\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2014}}",
""
] |
Timeline of the mutiny
----------------------
McKay and Glatkowski had been considering the operation for some time but had little in the way of a plan with the exception of bringing a gun on board.{{Cite web\|last\=Woldorff\|first\=Daniel\|date\=2019\-04\-09\|editor\-last\=Woldorff\|editor\-first\=Daniel\|title\=E21\-24: WCH Crime – The Columbia Eagle mutiny\|url\=https://workingclasshistory.com/podcast/wch\-crime\-columbia\-eagle\-mutiny/\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-10\|website\=Working Class History\|language\=en\-GB}}
On 14 March 1970, McKay and Glatkowski used guns they had smuggled aboard to seize control of their ship, SS *Columbia Eagle*, in the first armed [mutiny](/wiki/Mutiny "Mutiny") aboard an American ship in 150 years. The ship had been sailing on a [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") supply charter carrying [Napalm](/wiki/Napalm "Napalm") to the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force "U.S. Air Force") bases in [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") for use in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War").
McKay and Glatowski had planned their action to ensure that they would involve the least amount of crew members, knowing full well that they were risking their freedom if not their lives. In order to give themselves the maximum amount of time to secure the ship and their freedom, they planned their action to take place immediately after the daily radio communication of the ship's location, ensuring they had 24 hours before the ship's change of course would be officially noticed.
In order to involve the fewest crew members during the mutiny, McKay and Glatkowski decided that triggering a fire drill would be a good time to get most of the crew off board the ship. After triggering the fire alarm, all but a few crew members took position in lifeboats, as per fire protocol. McKay and Glatowski then took the captain hostage and, claiming that they had a live bomb on board the ship, they demanded that the captain order severing the lifeboat lines, leaving 24 of the crewmen in the lifeboats. By taking action right after the daily radio communication of the ship's location they ensured that the crew on the lifeboats would be found and rescued. The ship's cargo, 3,500 500\-pound bombs, and 1,225 750\-pound bombs, provided leverage and credibility to the bomb threat.
When the crewmen departed in lifeboats, an [SOS](/wiki/SOS "SOS") was transmitted. A [Lockheed P\-3B](/wiki/Lockheed_P-3_Orion "Lockheed P-3 Orion") from [VP\-1](/wiki/VP-1 "VP-1") Crew 6, the "Scalf Hunters", operating from [U\-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield](/wiki/U-Tapao_Royal_Thai_Navy_Airfield "U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield"), Thailand, was directed to launch a [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue "Search and rescue") (SAR) mission to find the SS *Columbia Eagle* and assist as needed. Upon arrival at the ship, they found a small crew and the presence of small arms and immediately reported their assessment that the ship had been hijacked and was heading for Cambodia. Crew 6 maintained communications and status reporting until the ship anchored in Cambodian waters. Afterward, they were relieved and other P\-3 Orion aircrews kept the *Columbia Eagle* under constant surveillance from outside Cambodian territorial waters.
The merchant ship *Rappahanock* picked up the lifeboats and crew members and broadcast the news of the mutiny. The [United States Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard "United States Coast Guard") cutter {{USCGC\|Mellon\|WHEC\-717\|2}} was the first US military vessel to pursue the *Columbia Eagle*. The [amphibious transport dock](/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock "Amphibious transport dock") {{USS\|Denver\|LPD\-9\|6}} was diverted to relieve *Mellon* in its pursuit. The destroyer, {{USS\|Turner Joy\|DD\-951\|6}}, was detached from the station at [I Corps](/wiki/I_Corps_%28United_States%29 "I Corps (United States)") to pursue the *Columbia Eagle* at flank speed and to intervene. However, the *Columbia Eagle* reached Cambodian waters before any U.S. naval ships could intercept it.{{cite web\|title\=1970 Command History of USS ''Denver'' (LPD\-9\)\|url\=http://www.history.navy.mil/shiphist/d/lpd\-9/1970\.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104205441/http://www.history.navy.mil/shiphist/d/lpd\-9/1970\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=4 November 2012\|work\=Command Operations Reports\|publisher\=US Navy Naval History and Heritage Command\|pages\=2–3\|access\-date\=31 May 2013}}
With only 13 crewmen remaining aboard besides the mutineers, they sailed into Cambodian waters, where they assumed they would be welcomed as heroes. They anchored within the {{convert\|12\|mi}} territorial limit claimed by Cambodia on the afternoon of 15 March.
At 09:51 on 16 March, *Denver* anchored {{convert\|15\.6\|mi}} from the coast in the [Gulf of Siam](/wiki/Gulf_of_Siam "Gulf of Siam"), remaining outside Cambodian waters. *Mellon* joined shortly thereafter with [Commander, Amphibious Squadron Seven](/wiki/PHIBRON "PHIBRON"), as the senior officer present. Two [CH\-53 Sea Stallion](/wiki/CH-53_Sea_Stallion "CH-53 Sea Stallion") helicopters landed on *Denver* from bases in [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam") to assist in visual surveillance. Meanwhile, the mutineers had turned the ship over to Cambodia's Prince [Norodom Sihanouk](/wiki/Norodom_Sihanouk "Norodom Sihanouk")'s government, declared themselves anti\-war revolutionaries, and been granted asylum.
On 17 March, the helicopters were detached and *Denver*, with Commander, Amphibious Squadron Seven, departed for [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), passing on\-scene command to *Mellon*.
*Turner Joy* remained on station in a cruising pattern within shipping lanes and in sight of the harbor channel.
On 18 March at 06:36, *Denver* reversed her course; Prince Sihanouk had been [deposed by a coup](/wiki/Cambodian_coup_of_1970 "Cambodian coup of 1970") led by the pro\-U.S. [Sirik Matak](/wiki/Sirik_Matak "Sirik Matak") and [Lon Nol](/wiki/Lon_Nol "Lon Nol"). If the Cambodians could be persuaded to release *Columbia Eagle*, *Denver'''s flight deck could help the rescued crew members rejoin their ship. The coup was unfortunate for mutineers McKay and Glatkowski; as they had hoped to find asylum in a pro\-Communist country; instead, they became prisoners of the new Cambodian government. At 23:59 on 18 March,* Denver *anchored in the Gulf of Siam {{convert\|17\|mi}} from the coast of Cambodia.*
Sihanouk, now in exile, charged that the CIA had masterminded the mutiny to deliver weapons to Lon Nol. Both the mutineers and U.S. officials denied his charges.
When it became clear that Columbia Eagle'*s release was not imminent,* Denver *was detached to proceed to [Da Nang](/wiki/Da_Nang "Da Nang").*
On 8 April, Columbia Eagle *was permitted to leave Cambodian waters. She rendezvoused with {{USCGC\|Chase\|WHEC\-718\|6}} where a Navy [explosive ordnance disposal](/wiki/Explosive_ordnance_disposal "Explosive ordnance disposal") team inspected the ship while* Chase *departed to [An Thoi Naval Base](/wiki/An_Thoi_Naval_Base "An Thoi Naval Base") to pick up the* Columbia Eagle *crew and return them to the ship. With the crew and ship reunited,* Chase *escorted her to [U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Base_Subic_Bay "U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay") arriving 12 April.{{cite web\|title\=Commander, Naval Forces Vietnam (April 1970\)\|url\=http://www.history.navy.mil/ar/docs/comnavforv/1970/April1970\.pdf\|work\=Monthly Historical Summary, April 1970\|publisher\=Naval Historical Center, U.S. Navy\|pages\=31–32\|access\-date\=25 May 2013}}*
Status
------
McKay and Glatkowski were held by the post\-coup Cambodian government for several months after their capture. A [United Press International](/wiki/United_Press_International "United Press International") newspaper interview from August 1970{{cite news\|title\=Manson Hero to Hijackers\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=VwsrAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6829%2C3027306\|access\-date\=20 June 2014\|work\=Reading Eagle\|date\=26 August 1970}} describes them as living under guard in "a rusting World War II landing ship moored in the [Mekong River](/wiki/Mekong_River "Mekong River")," regularly using marijuana supplied by their guards, and making statements supporting the [Manson Family](/wiki/Manson_Family "Manson Family") and violent overthrow of the United States government. Both claimed they supported [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society "Students for a Democratic Society").
McKay said to a reporter:
> We are sympathetic with the Asian people and, while I'm not an authority on the war in Vietnam I respect the opinions of people who were authorities like Bertrand Russell and Jean Paul Sartre who said the war in Asia was genocide and I intend to carry on my actions against the American Government.
In June both men were indicted by a federal grand jury in Los Angeles on charges of mutiny, kidnapping and assault.{{cite book\|last1\=Lipsman\|first1\=Samuel\|last2\=Doyle\|first2\=Edward\|title\=Fighting for Time (The Vietnam Experience)\|publisher\=Boston Publishing Company\|year\=1984\|isbn\=9780939526079\|page\=141 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/fightingfortime00lips/page/141}}
### Glatkowski
After months of imprisonment Glatowski was released and, after seeking asylum at the Chinese and USSR embassies, he turned himself in at a US Embassy in [Phnom Penh](/wiki/Phnom_Penh "Phnom Penh") and was extradited to the United States to face trial. He was charged with mutiny, kidnapping, assault and neglect of duty. On 2 March 1971 Glatkowski pled guilty in a Los Angeles District Court to mutiny and assault. [United States federal judge](/wiki/United_States_federal_judge "United States federal judge") [Manuel Real](/wiki/Manuel_Real "Manuel Real") heard the testimony of four psychiatrists; three of the [psychiatrists](/wiki/Psychiatrist "Psychiatrist") reported that Glatkowski was currently sane and was sane at the time of the mutiny incident. Glatowski was sentenced to 6 months to 10 years in [Federal prison](/wiki/Federal_prison "Federal prison") and served nearly eight of the ten years when mandatorily released from [Lompoc, California](/wiki/Lompoc%2C_California "Lompoc, California") [federal prison](/wiki/Federal_Correctional_Institution%2C_Lompoc "Federal Correctional Institution, Lompoc").True Crime and Punishment: Mutinies, By Barry Stone, page 314{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs\-xpm\-2002\-02\-25\-0202250247\-story.html\|title\=Echoes of 1970 in Lindh case \|first\= Roberto \|last\=Loiederman \|newspaper\=Baltimore Sun \|date\=25 February 2002}}Fourth Arm of Defense: Sealift and Maritime Logistics in the Vietnam War, By Salvatore R. Mercogliano, page 57Pomona Progress Bulletin Newspaper Archives, Thursday, 25 February 1971, Page 50 He has admitted to mistakes in the hijacking but remained unapologetic about their goal of interrupting the napalm shipment.
### McKay
McKay escaped from his captors, along with U.S. Army deserter Larry Humphrey, in October 1970{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pownetwork.org/bios/h/h139\.htm\|title\=Bio, Humphrey, Larry D.\|website\=www.pownetwork.org}} and sought out the [Khmer Rouge](/wiki/Khmer_Rouge "Khmer Rouge").Linnett, pp 228–232 He was officially declared accounted for, with a Date of Loss on 4 November 1970{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.dpaa.mil/Portals/85/VietnamAccounting/pmsea\_acc\_CIVILIAN\_20210402\.pdf\|title\=POW MIA Accounting Agency Listing Civilians}} without being located by the authorities.
According to an article for [Penthouse](/wiki/Penthouse_magazine "Penthouse magazine") *magazine, entitled "The Last Mutineer", by Richard Linnett and Roberto Loiederman, co\-authors of the book "*The Eagle Mutiny''",Richard Linnett and Roberto Loiederman, ["The Last Mutineer"](https://richardlinnett.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/the-last-mutineer.pdf), *[Penthouse](/wiki/Penthouse_%28magazine%29 "Penthouse (magazine)")*. February 2005\. Retrieved on 22 October 2016\. remains of a corpse brought back from Cambodia in 1991{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.reddit.com/r/UnresolvedMysteries/comments/2xqlah/disappearance\_of\_sean\_flynn\_and\_dana\_stone\_1970/\|title\=Disappearance of Sean Flynn and Dana Stone, 1970\|date\=3 March 2015}} were positively identified as Clyde McKay's by the Central Identification Laboratory \- Hawaii (CILHI), the U.S. Navy's forensic lab in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii"). Subsequently the remains were cremated and the ashes were buried by his family in their cemetery plot in [Hemet, California](/wiki/Hemet%2C_California "Hemet, California"), where McKay had spent his youth.Hoffman, Fred S., [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press"), ["U.S. Bomb Ship Seized in Mutiny: Anchored Off Cambodia"](https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SBS19700316.1.2), 16 March 1970, *San Bernardino Sun,* [San Bernardino, California](/wiki/San_Bernardino%2C_California "San Bernardino, California"), Volume 76, Number 137, pp.1\-2, photocopy at retrieved 1 March 2018 from [OCR transcription](/wiki/Optical_character_recognition "Optical character recognition") in [California Digital Newspaper Collection](https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SBS19700316.1.2)["Mutiny Involved 5: Captain,"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/113323752/), 19 March 1970, Nashville *[Tennessean](/wiki/The_Tennessean "The Tennessean"),* Page 13 retrieved 1 March 2018 from [OCR transcription](/wiki/Optical_character_recognition "Optical character recognition") in Newspapers.com]
|
[
"Timeline of the mutiny\n----------------------",
"McKay and Glatkowski had been considering the operation for some time but had little in the way of a plan with the exception of bringing a gun on board.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Woldorff\\|first\\=Daniel\\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-09\\|editor\\-last\\=Woldorff\\|editor\\-first\\=Daniel\\|title\\=E21\\-24: WCH Crime – The Columbia Eagle mutiny\\|url\\=https://workingclasshistory.com/podcast/wch\\-crime\\-columbia\\-eagle\\-mutiny/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-10\\|website\\=Working Class History\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"On 14 March 1970, McKay and Glatkowski used guns they had smuggled aboard to seize control of their ship, SS *Columbia Eagle*, in the first armed [mutiny](/wiki/Mutiny \"Mutiny\") aboard an American ship in 150 years. The ship had been sailing on a [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense \"United States Department of Defense\") supply charter carrying [Napalm](/wiki/Napalm \"Napalm\") to the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force \"U.S. Air Force\") bases in [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") for use in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\").",
"McKay and Glatowski had planned their action to ensure that they would involve the least amount of crew members, knowing full well that they were risking their freedom if not their lives. In order to give themselves the maximum amount of time to secure the ship and their freedom, they planned their action to take place immediately after the daily radio communication of the ship's location, ensuring they had 24 hours before the ship's change of course would be officially noticed.",
"In order to involve the fewest crew members during the mutiny, McKay and Glatkowski decided that triggering a fire drill would be a good time to get most of the crew off board the ship. After triggering the fire alarm, all but a few crew members took position in lifeboats, as per fire protocol. McKay and Glatowski then took the captain hostage and, claiming that they had a live bomb on board the ship, they demanded that the captain order severing the lifeboat lines, leaving 24 of the crewmen in the lifeboats. By taking action right after the daily radio communication of the ship's location they ensured that the crew on the lifeboats would be found and rescued. The ship's cargo, 3,500 500\\-pound bombs, and 1,225 750\\-pound bombs, provided leverage and credibility to the bomb threat.",
"When the crewmen departed in lifeboats, an [SOS](/wiki/SOS \"SOS\") was transmitted. A [Lockheed P\\-3B](/wiki/Lockheed_P-3_Orion \"Lockheed P-3 Orion\") from [VP\\-1](/wiki/VP-1 \"VP-1\") Crew 6, the \"Scalf Hunters\", operating from [U\\-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield](/wiki/U-Tapao_Royal_Thai_Navy_Airfield \"U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield\"), Thailand, was directed to launch a [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue \"Search and rescue\") (SAR) mission to find the SS *Columbia Eagle* and assist as needed. Upon arrival at the ship, they found a small crew and the presence of small arms and immediately reported their assessment that the ship had been hijacked and was heading for Cambodia. Crew 6 maintained communications and status reporting until the ship anchored in Cambodian waters. Afterward, they were relieved and other P\\-3 Orion aircrews kept the *Columbia Eagle* under constant surveillance from outside Cambodian territorial waters.",
"The merchant ship *Rappahanock* picked up the lifeboats and crew members and broadcast the news of the mutiny. The [United States Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard \"United States Coast Guard\") cutter {{USCGC\\|Mellon\\|WHEC\\-717\\|2}} was the first US military vessel to pursue the *Columbia Eagle*. The [amphibious transport dock](/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock \"Amphibious transport dock\") {{USS\\|Denver\\|LPD\\-9\\|6}} was diverted to relieve *Mellon* in its pursuit. The destroyer, {{USS\\|Turner Joy\\|DD\\-951\\|6}}, was detached from the station at [I Corps](/wiki/I_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"I Corps (United States)\") to pursue the *Columbia Eagle* at flank speed and to intervene. However, the *Columbia Eagle* reached Cambodian waters before any U.S. naval ships could intercept it.{{cite web\\|title\\=1970 Command History of USS ''Denver'' (LPD\\-9\\)\\|url\\=http://www.history.navy.mil/shiphist/d/lpd\\-9/1970\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104205441/http://www.history.navy.mil/shiphist/d/lpd\\-9/1970\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2012\\|work\\=Command Operations Reports\\|publisher\\=US Navy Naval History and Heritage Command\\|pages\\=2–3\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2013}}",
"With only 13 crewmen remaining aboard besides the mutineers, they sailed into Cambodian waters, where they assumed they would be welcomed as heroes. They anchored within the {{convert\\|12\\|mi}} territorial limit claimed by Cambodia on the afternoon of 15 March.",
"At 09:51 on 16 March, *Denver* anchored {{convert\\|15\\.6\\|mi}} from the coast in the [Gulf of Siam](/wiki/Gulf_of_Siam \"Gulf of Siam\"), remaining outside Cambodian waters. *Mellon* joined shortly thereafter with [Commander, Amphibious Squadron Seven](/wiki/PHIBRON \"PHIBRON\"), as the senior officer present. Two [CH\\-53 Sea Stallion](/wiki/CH-53_Sea_Stallion \"CH-53 Sea Stallion\") helicopters landed on *Denver* from bases in [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\") to assist in visual surveillance. Meanwhile, the mutineers had turned the ship over to Cambodia's Prince [Norodom Sihanouk](/wiki/Norodom_Sihanouk \"Norodom Sihanouk\")'s government, declared themselves anti\\-war revolutionaries, and been granted asylum.",
"On 17 March, the helicopters were detached and *Denver*, with Commander, Amphibious Squadron Seven, departed for [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), passing on\\-scene command to *Mellon*.\n*Turner Joy* remained on station in a cruising pattern within shipping lanes and in sight of the harbor channel.",
"On 18 March at 06:36, *Denver* reversed her course; Prince Sihanouk had been [deposed by a coup](/wiki/Cambodian_coup_of_1970 \"Cambodian coup of 1970\") led by the pro\\-U.S. [Sirik Matak](/wiki/Sirik_Matak \"Sirik Matak\") and [Lon Nol](/wiki/Lon_Nol \"Lon Nol\"). If the Cambodians could be persuaded to release *Columbia Eagle*, *Denver'''s flight deck could help the rescued crew members rejoin their ship. The coup was unfortunate for mutineers McKay and Glatkowski; as they had hoped to find asylum in a pro\\-Communist country; instead, they became prisoners of the new Cambodian government. At 23:59 on 18 March,* Denver *anchored in the Gulf of Siam {{convert\\|17\\|mi}} from the coast of Cambodia.*",
"Sihanouk, now in exile, charged that the CIA had masterminded the mutiny to deliver weapons to Lon Nol. Both the mutineers and U.S. officials denied his charges.\nWhen it became clear that Columbia Eagle'*s release was not imminent,* Denver *was detached to proceed to [Da Nang](/wiki/Da_Nang \"Da Nang\").*",
"On 8 April, Columbia Eagle *was permitted to leave Cambodian waters. She rendezvoused with {{USCGC\\|Chase\\|WHEC\\-718\\|6}} where a Navy [explosive ordnance disposal](/wiki/Explosive_ordnance_disposal \"Explosive ordnance disposal\") team inspected the ship while* Chase *departed to [An Thoi Naval Base](/wiki/An_Thoi_Naval_Base \"An Thoi Naval Base\") to pick up the* Columbia Eagle *crew and return them to the ship. With the crew and ship reunited,* Chase *escorted her to [U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Base_Subic_Bay \"U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay\") arriving 12 April.{{cite web\\|title\\=Commander, Naval Forces Vietnam (April 1970\\)\\|url\\=http://www.history.navy.mil/ar/docs/comnavforv/1970/April1970\\.pdf\\|work\\=Monthly Historical Summary, April 1970\\|publisher\\=Naval Historical Center, U.S. Navy\\|pages\\=31–32\\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2013}}*",
"Status\n------",
"McKay and Glatkowski were held by the post\\-coup Cambodian government for several months after their capture. A [United Press International](/wiki/United_Press_International \"United Press International\") newspaper interview from August 1970{{cite news\\|title\\=Manson Hero to Hijackers\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=VwsrAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6829%2C3027306\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2014\\|work\\=Reading Eagle\\|date\\=26 August 1970}} describes them as living under guard in \"a rusting World War II landing ship moored in the [Mekong River](/wiki/Mekong_River \"Mekong River\"),\" regularly using marijuana supplied by their guards, and making statements supporting the [Manson Family](/wiki/Manson_Family \"Manson Family\") and violent overthrow of the United States government. Both claimed they supported [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society \"Students for a Democratic Society\").\nMcKay said to a reporter:",
"> We are sympathetic with the Asian people and, while I'm not an authority on the war in Vietnam I respect the opinions of people who were authorities like Bertrand Russell and Jean Paul Sartre who said the war in Asia was genocide and I intend to carry on my actions against the American Government.",
"In June both men were indicted by a federal grand jury in Los Angeles on charges of mutiny, kidnapping and assault.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Lipsman\\|first1\\=Samuel\\|last2\\=Doyle\\|first2\\=Edward\\|title\\=Fighting for Time (The Vietnam Experience)\\|publisher\\=Boston Publishing Company\\|year\\=1984\\|isbn\\=9780939526079\\|page\\=141 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/fightingfortime00lips/page/141}}\n### Glatkowski",
"After months of imprisonment Glatowski was released and, after seeking asylum at the Chinese and USSR embassies, he turned himself in at a US Embassy in [Phnom Penh](/wiki/Phnom_Penh \"Phnom Penh\") and was extradited to the United States to face trial. He was charged with mutiny, kidnapping, assault and neglect of duty. On 2 March 1971 Glatkowski pled guilty in a Los Angeles District Court to mutiny and assault. [United States federal judge](/wiki/United_States_federal_judge \"United States federal judge\") [Manuel Real](/wiki/Manuel_Real \"Manuel Real\") heard the testimony of four psychiatrists; three of the [psychiatrists](/wiki/Psychiatrist \"Psychiatrist\") reported that Glatkowski was currently sane and was sane at the time of the mutiny incident. Glatowski was sentenced to 6 months to 10 years in [Federal prison](/wiki/Federal_prison \"Federal prison\") and served nearly eight of the ten years when mandatorily released from [Lompoc, California](/wiki/Lompoc%2C_California \"Lompoc, California\") [federal prison](/wiki/Federal_Correctional_Institution%2C_Lompoc \"Federal Correctional Institution, Lompoc\").True Crime and Punishment: Mutinies, By Barry Stone, page 314{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs\\-xpm\\-2002\\-02\\-25\\-0202250247\\-story.html\\|title\\=Echoes of 1970 in Lindh case \\|first\\= Roberto \\|last\\=Loiederman \\|newspaper\\=Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=25 February 2002}}Fourth Arm of Defense: Sealift and Maritime Logistics in the Vietnam War, By Salvatore R. Mercogliano, page 57Pomona Progress Bulletin Newspaper Archives, Thursday, 25 February 1971, Page 50 He has admitted to mistakes in the hijacking but remained unapologetic about their goal of interrupting the napalm shipment.\n### McKay",
"McKay escaped from his captors, along with U.S. Army deserter Larry Humphrey, in October 1970{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pownetwork.org/bios/h/h139\\.htm\\|title\\=Bio, Humphrey, Larry D.\\|website\\=www.pownetwork.org}} and sought out the [Khmer Rouge](/wiki/Khmer_Rouge \"Khmer Rouge\").Linnett, pp 228–232 He was officially declared accounted for, with a Date of Loss on 4 November 1970{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dpaa.mil/Portals/85/VietnamAccounting/pmsea\\_acc\\_CIVILIAN\\_20210402\\.pdf\\|title\\=POW MIA Accounting Agency Listing Civilians}} without being located by the authorities.\nAccording to an article for [Penthouse](/wiki/Penthouse_magazine \"Penthouse magazine\") *magazine, entitled \"The Last Mutineer\", by Richard Linnett and Roberto Loiederman, co\\-authors of the book \"*The Eagle Mutiny''\",Richard Linnett and Roberto Loiederman, [\"The Last Mutineer\"](https://richardlinnett.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/the-last-mutineer.pdf), *[Penthouse](/wiki/Penthouse_%28magazine%29 \"Penthouse (magazine)\")*. February 2005\\. Retrieved on 22 October 2016\\. remains of a corpse brought back from Cambodia in 1991{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.reddit.com/r/UnresolvedMysteries/comments/2xqlah/disappearance\\_of\\_sean\\_flynn\\_and\\_dana\\_stone\\_1970/\\|title\\=Disappearance of Sean Flynn and Dana Stone, 1970\\|date\\=3 March 2015}} were positively identified as Clyde McKay's by the Central Identification Laboratory \\- Hawaii (CILHI), the U.S. Navy's forensic lab in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"). Subsequently the remains were cremated and the ashes were buried by his family in their cemetery plot in [Hemet, California](/wiki/Hemet%2C_California \"Hemet, California\"), where McKay had spent his youth.Hoffman, Fred S., [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\"), [\"U.S. Bomb Ship Seized in Mutiny: Anchored Off Cambodia\"](https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SBS19700316.1.2), 16 March 1970, *San Bernardino Sun,* [San Bernardino, California](/wiki/San_Bernardino%2C_California \"San Bernardino, California\"), Volume 76, Number 137, pp.1\\-2, photocopy at retrieved 1 March 2018 from [OCR transcription](/wiki/Optical_character_recognition \"Optical character recognition\") in [California Digital Newspaper Collection](https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SBS19700316.1.2)[\"Mutiny Involved 5: Captain,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/113323752/), 19 March 1970, Nashville *[Tennessean](/wiki/The_Tennessean \"The Tennessean\"),* Page 13 retrieved 1 March 2018 from [OCR transcription](/wiki/Optical_character_recognition \"Optical character recognition\") in Newspapers.com]",
""
] |
History
-------
### Beginnings
On August 3, 1937, it was reported that A. W. McClosay and R. E. Paonessa had arrived at the island, accompanied by their respective wives. McClosay and Paonessa were senior officials of the Sears Roebuck and Company, of the United States, and had come to the island with the purpose of opening an office and showroom for a large part of the products sold by said company at the time through their catalogue business. Sears in this way wanted to strengthen the relationship between them and its clients on the island.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1937\.08\.03 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19370803\-01\.1\.15\&srpos\=1\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-193\-es\-25\-\-1\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+\-\-\-\-1937\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On September 15, 1937, the first Sears Roebuck and Company catalogue store on the island would open in [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico "San Juan, Puerto Rico"), the capital city of Puerto Rico.{{Cite web \|title\=Cronología de la caída de Sears y Kmart \|url\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\-comercios/fotogalerias/cronologia\-de\-la\-caida\-de\-sears\-y\-kmart/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=El Nuevo Día \|language\=es}} By the 1940s, more catalogue stores had opened on the island, being located in the cities of [Ponce](/wiki/Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico "Ponce, Puerto Rico"), [Mayagüez](/wiki/Mayag%C3%BCez%2C_Puerto_Rico "Mayagüez, Puerto Rico") and in the town of [Fajardo](/wiki/Fajardo%2C_Puerto_Rico "Fajardo, Puerto Rico").{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1948\.05\.28 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19480528\-01\.1\.8\&srpos\=4\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-194\-es\-25\-\-1\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+\-\-\-\-1948\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On January 18, 1951, it was reported that a new catalogue store had opened in the city of [Caguas](/wiki/Caguas%2C_Puerto_Rico "Caguas, Puerto Rico"). Around two thousand people would attend the inauguration of the Sears that would be established at Muñoz Rivera Street, several demonstrations were made in relation to different household items. The officials from the headquarters at the time in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), present at the Inauguration ceremony, were very pleased with the interest shown by the public in the demonstrations offered, during which many people placed their orders with the company.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1951\.01\.18 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19510118\-01\.1\.3\&srpos\=74\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-195\-es\-25\-\-51\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On May 30, 1951, it was reported that as of June of that year, the town of [Río Piedras](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Piedras%2C_Puerto_Rico "Río Piedras, Puerto Rico") would have a new catalogue store which would be inaugurated in said town on the occasion of the sixty\-fifth anniversary of the initiation of the company's businesses. The new catalogue store, according to Mr. Antonio Franco, then administrator of Sears on the Island, would be the most elaborate of all of the company's catalogue stores in Puerto Rico at the time.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1951\.05\.30 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19510530\-01\.1\.4\&srpos\=11\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-195\-es\-25\-\-1\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On August 7, 1954, Sears would announce the inauguration of its new location in the town of [Vega Baja](/wiki/Vega_Baja "Vega Baja") in [Puerto Nuevo](/wiki/Puerto_Nuevo%2C_Vega_Baja%2C_Puerto_Rico "Puerto Nuevo, Vega Baja, Puerto Rico").{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1954\.08\.07 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19540807\-01\.1\.14\&srpos\=29\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-195\-es\-25\-\-26\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+inauguraci%C3%B3n\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}} By the late 1950s, Sears locations had opened in [Santurce](/wiki/Santurce%2C_San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico "Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico") and Caparra Terrace in San Juan.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1959\.05\.29 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19590529\-01\.1\.25\&srpos\=98\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-195\-es\-25\-\-76\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
### Incorporation, expanding and success
[thumb\|Logo used from 1966 to 1984](/wiki/File:Sears_Puerto_Rico.jpg "Sears Puerto Rico.jpg")
On January 31, 1961, Sears Roebuck and Company announced the formation of a new local wholly owned Latin American subsidiary Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico, Inc.,{{Cite news \|last\=Ryan \|first\=Frances \|date\=27 September 2007 \|title\=Sears turns 70 \|pages\=20–23 \|work\=Caribbean Business \|url\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\=AQICAHjIloLM\_J\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\_YPnffAGkirSAaLS7Qb5MmBfHPMkwAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDLbuMh5l87mCv4n91QIBEICBkfV4khCKRgBqu1pAs\-4xNL9bHjuEQwfXFPD5JzuVER3p9NlcgHJObqpiot3R55\-aEXimpC\_5ewmQJT\_9g6eGXNRrqGaltG2QNSPZqHhw\_q\_bb5uAloU0PnkFcpcEYU1WqPM1Gin5tTZbIhg6P0OfXpR1caRwMsLEuA4TeZ6ZcMH6NKvW22B7QMGEjzC8n6S45Uc\= \|access\-date\=8 December 2023 \|archive\-url\=}} which initially would operate six existing stores, five in Puerto Rico, and one in the [St. Thomas, Virgin Islands](/wiki/Saint_Thomas%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands "Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands").{{Cite web\|url\=http://archive.org/details/searsannualreports\|title\=Sears, Roebuck \& Co. Annual Reports: 1907–2003\|via\=Internet Archive}}{{Cite news \|date\=1961\-01\-31 \|title\=Sears Puerto Rico \|pages\=24 \|work\=The Sacramento Bee \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-sacramento\-bee\-sears\-puerto\-rico/91041792/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08}}
On November 1, 1962, the first full\-size Sears department store on the island would open in [San Juan, Hato Rey](/wiki/Hato_Rey "Hato Rey"), the 2,500 parking spaces surrounding the building being filled to capacity.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1962\.11\.02 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19621102\-01\.1\.7\&srpos\=57\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-196\-es\-25\-\-51\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+hato\+rey\-\-\-\-1962\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}} The new store would open with 77,000 square\-feet of sales space and would be the largest of eight retail units at the time operated by the Sears subsidiary, Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico, Inc.{{Cite news \|date\=1962\-10\-31 \|title\=Sears San Juan \|pages\=50 \|work\=Chicago Tribune \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/chicago\-tribune\-sears\-san\-juan/91041177/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08}} Through the rest of the 1960s the chain would continue to expand opening a store in [Ponce](/wiki/Poncelet%E2%80%93Steiner_theorem "Poncelet–Steiner theorem") in 1964, [Caguas](/wiki/Caguas%2C_Puerto_Rico "Caguas, Puerto Rico") in 1966, [Arecibo](/wiki/Arecibo%2C_Puerto_Rico "Arecibo, Puerto Rico") in 1967,{{Cite news \|date\=1967\-06\-16 \|title\=Sears 6th opening in Puerto Rico (Arecibo) \|pages\=73 \|work\=Chicago Tribune \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/chicago\-tribune\-sears\-6th\-opening\-in\-pue/90907953/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08}} and [Bayamón](/wiki/Bayam%C3%B3n%2C_Puerto_Rico "Bayamón, Puerto Rico") in 1968 at the [Santa Rosa Plaza](/wiki/Santa_Rosa_Mall_%28Puerto_Rico%29 "Santa Rosa Mall (Puerto Rico)") shopping center.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1978\.12\.28 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19781228\-01\.1\.32\&srpos\=376\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-197\-es\-25\-mndo\-376\-\-img\-txIN\-plaza\+Americas\-\-\-\-1978\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On October 4, 1972, a new Sears store would be inaugurated at the [Mayagüez Mall](/wiki/Mayag%C3%BCez_Mall "Mayagüez Mall") in the city of [Mayagüez](/wiki/Mayag%C3%BCez%2C_Puerto_Rico "Mayagüez, Puerto Rico"). According to reports, the Sears store, which was one of the first to open its doors at the mall, had extraordinary sales that broke all previous records at the time.{{Cite news \|date\=4 October 1972 \|title\=Hoy, El Mayagüez Mall \|pages\=4 \|work\=El Nuevo Día}}{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1972\.10\.05 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19721005\-01\.1\.5\&srpos\=23\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-\-es\-25\-\-1\-\-img\-txIN\-Foxmoor\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-17 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On June 10, 1975, it was reported that management of the Sears store chain had set the goal of opening two new stores in Puerto Rico for the year 1978\. According to Robert B. Gibson, then president of Sears Roebuck of Puerto Rico, Inc., Sears management was in negotiations with the management of Plaza Las Americas, Inc., owners of the [Plaza Las Américas](/wiki/Plaza_Las_Am%C3%A9ricas_%28Puerto_Rico%29 "Plaza Las Américas (Puerto Rico)") shopping mall in Hato Rey for the construction of a new Sears store in that center. The store would be similar in size to those that Sears operated at the time in Hato Rey and Bayamón, and would be located in an extension of Plaza las Américas, towards the north side of the shopping center. The new store would have around 300,000 square feet of sales, office and warehouse space, covering approximately 135,000 square feet in sales space. The other store that Sears was planning to build was the one that would be located in the [Plaza Carolina](/wiki/Plaza_Carolina "Plaza Carolina") shopping mall, which the firm IBEC Realty Company had plans to build towards the south of the Villa Fontana Urbanization, in front of 65 Infantería Avenue, in the [Carolina](/wiki/Carolina_Kostner "Carolina Kostner") area. This would be smaller than the others in the chain on the Island, and would be located in the largest shopping center in Puerto Rico when it would be built. Gibson said that there were still no calculations on the investment that these two new Sears stores on the Island would represent, and mentioned that negotiations for the development of the store in Plaza las Américas were well advanced.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1975\.06\.10 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19750610\-01\.1\.22\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-197\-es\-25\-mndo\-1\-\-img\-txIN\-plaza\+Americas\-\-\-\-1975\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On February 11, 1978, it was reported that the honorable Mayor of San Juan, Dr. Hernán Padilla would cut the opening ribbon of the new Sears store in Plaza Las Américas during the ceremony that would take place that Monday, February 12 at 9:30 am. The Sears store in Plaza Las Américas would be a very different concept from the Hato Rey store that Sears had occupied since 1962\. Located at the north end of the Mall with about 240,000 square feet of total area, it was 80% larger than the Hato Rey store. Mr. John P. Simpson Jr., then manager of the Sears store in Plaza Las Américas, reported that the architects responsible for the design were Eduardo Molinari y Asociados. The Shopping Center's large parking lot with capacity for 6,000 cars and the new structure with 800 additional spaces, which connects to the store on the second level, would be of great convenience for customers. In addition to entering the store from the parking area, you could enter from inside the mall. The store consisted of over 50 merchandise departments, in addition it included a restaurant; Customer Service Center for the purchase of traveler's checks, money orders, for the payment of water, electricity and telephone bills, gift wrapping; a catalog order department; a "Key Shop", watch repair, photography studio, optical department, beauty salon, and pharmacy. One of the great attractions of the new store was also its 40,000 square\-foot automotive center, which was equipped to service 30 cars simultaneously.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1979\.02\.11 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19790211\-01\.1\.45\&srpos\=7\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-197\-es\-25\-mndo\-1\-\-img\-txIN\-plaza\+Americas\-\-\-\-1979\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}} That same year on October 9, 1978, the Sears store located in the Plaza Carolina shopping mall would also be officially inaugurated.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1978\.10\.08 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19781008\-01\.1\.68\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-197\-es\-25\-\-1\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+Carolina\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On December 28, 1978, the president of Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico, Inc. at the time, R. B. Gibson, announced the final closing of the Sears store in Hato Rey which had already begun. Gibson said that all the merchandise in the Hato Rey store would be sold because they we didn't want to move any merchandise to the new store in Plaza las Américas. The liquidation would include not only the merchandise, but also the shelves, office equipment and articles shop decorations. "The decision to close Hato Rey and move to Plaza was a very difficult one to make, as our Hato Rey store has always been one of the most successful stores in the entire organization; however, the continued increase in sales of said store required moving to Plaza Las Américas, where we will be able to serve our customers with approximately fifty percent more sales space," added Gibson at the time.
On November 27, 1981, a new Sears store would open at the [Arecibo Mall](/wiki/Arecibo_Mall "Arecibo Mall") in the city of Arecibo.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1981\.11\.27 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19811127\-01\.1\.12\&srpos\=601\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-198\-es\-25\-mndo\-601\-\-img\-txIN\-Arecibo\+mall\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
### Expanding and success, "The Store of the Future"
On September 15, 1985, it was reported that the Sears store in Plaza Las Américas had undergone a major remodeling and conversion to a new display format. Mr. Paul Brierre, then store manager, reported that after six months of construction, Sears at Plaza Las Américas joined a growing list of Sears stores with the new display system called "The Store of the Future." Mr. Brierre said the 1985 program represented the second of five years it would take to carry out the remodeling and expansion of 600 stores and the construction of 62 new stores, with a total investment of $1\.7 billion. Mr. Brierre added that Sears' strategy was to create an innovative environment that encouraged customers to examine and purchase a broader assortment of merchandise, including more clothing, sports goods and loungewear. "To date the results have been very good," he said. "Customer reaction has been excellent."{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1985\.09\.15 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19850915\-01\.1\.66\&srpos\=11\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-198\-es\-25\-\-1\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\-\-\-\-1985\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On June 17, 1990, it was reported that Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico had announced the opening of Sears Brand Central, a new store concept, which there were plans to expand and open multiple of these stores on the island.{{Cite web \|title\=El Mundo 1990\.06\.17 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \|url\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\=d\&d\=mndo19900617\-01\.1\.59\&srpos\=50\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-\-es\-25\-\-26\-\-img\-txIN\-Sears\+roebuck\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=gpa.eastview.com}}
On November 9, 1992, a new Sears store would open at the [Plaza del Caribe](/wiki/Plaza_del_Caribe "Plaza del Caribe") shopping mall in the city of Ponce.[*Plaza del Caribe Recibe al Publico.*](https://archive.today/20150117132100/http://www.adendi.com/archivo.asp?num=82442&year=1992&month=11&keyword=) El Nuevo Dia. 9 November 1992\. p. 137\. Retrieved 9 March 2015\. This same year another Sears store would open at the [Plaza del Norte](/wiki/Plaza_del_Norte "Plaza del Norte") shopping mall in the city of [Hatillo](/wiki/Hatillo%2C_Puerto_Rico "Hatillo, Puerto Rico").
[thumb\|Mall entrance to the Sears store at [Plaza del Norte](/wiki/Plaza_del_Norte "Plaza del Norte") in [Hatillo](/wiki/Hatillo%2C_Puerto_Rico "Hatillo, Puerto Rico"), in 2011](/wiki/File:Sears_PDN.jpg "Sears PDN.jpg")
On October 25, 1995, it was reported that [Pier 1 Imports](/wiki/Pier_1_Imports "Pier 1 Imports") had announced an agreement with Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico to open six Pier 1 stores inside Sears' department stores on the island. The new Pier 1 stores would have 2,000–3,000 square\-feet of sales space. The first two were scheduled to open in November of that year in the Sears store in Plaza las Américas in San Juan, and in the Sears Homelife store in the Galería Paseos shopping mall in [Cupey](/wiki/Cupeyville_School "Cupeyville School"). Sears at the time had 10 department stores on the island. Sears and Pier 1 had introduced the store\-within\-a\-store concept in 1993 in [Sears’ Mexico](/wiki/Sears_Mexico "Sears Mexico") stores.{{Cite news \|date\=1995\-10\-25 \|title\=Sears Pier 1 Imports Plaza las Americas Galeria Paseos \|pages\=56 \|work\=Fort Worth Star\-Telegram \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/fort\-worth\-star\-telegram\-sears\-pier\-1\-im/91041757/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08}}
During the mid to late 1990s, Sears' expansion on the island was completed with an investment of more than $21 million, enabling the local operation to expand its local footprint considerably. This would include the opening of a Sears Brand Central in the former two\-story [Velasco](/wiki/Es_de_Velasco "Es de Velasco") location at the Plaza Las Américas shopping mall after the department store chain had closed in 1995\. From 1993 to 1999, Sears grew from four to 10 in locations and more than doubled its square footage on the island.
On January 24, 1999, it was reported that the Sears store at the Plaza las Américas shopping mall in San Juan had sold more than any other Sears store in the world.{{Cite news \|date\=1999\-01\-24 \|title\=Plaza las America Sears being the most successful store \|pages\=81 \|work\=South Florida Sun Sentinel \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/south\-florida\-sun\-sentinel\-plaza\-las\-ame/88718363/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08}}
On August 7, 2003, it was reported that traffic and sales at Sears had beat those of the same period last year by slightly more than 10%, said Gary Salvatore, president of local operations. He also said that the Puerto Rico district with 10 stores at the time enjoyed the best overall performance of the entire 63 districts in the nation in 2002\. As a result of such success, he did not dismiss the possibility of Sears opening more stores locally, also mentioning that Puerto Rico had been among the top performing districts for many years. But besides being the top\-performing district, Puerto Rico also accounted for one of the highest credit penetration markets in the chain. In addition, it was also the district enjoying the highest customer satisfaction in the chain, according to Salvatore. In reference to opening more Sears stores on the island, he said "It depends on real estate opportunities. We're just looking at the moment." Salvatore said the key to Sears' success locally had been its effort to adapt to the local market and local consumers' tastes. "This is very important if a business is to be successful in such a competitive market as this one." Sears' local operations had gross sales of $400 million in 2001\.{{Cite news \|last\=Rosa \|first\=Taina \|date\=7 August 2003 \|title\=Sears sees double\-digit sales increase \|pages\=2 \|work\=Caribbean Business \|url\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\=AQICAHjIloLM\_J\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\_YPnffAFPf2SipdvKc\_8EDKh9NhVQAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDKxxAeFemm1KeUfHkAIBEICBkehQqn4tqLhkVlVxZvoI0OxKbTqbNQnJSnzWoYRGSntKHJnIzrjd1je4O9f\-OTCwojP1dnCWgqFC\-XiTt3FTy6hHxBSXEcFLjqlhlpghSFuWhBTuU4s42dX\-IfBuf6owxwZsGE0TeJyR8nWY1zNvOnVdzmD4qz1\-ZS1td\_xztVcGS7M\-Opx\_PPRoEl2lyh3V0z8\= \|access\-date\=8 December 2023}}
On May 13, 2004, it was reported that with a $1\.5 million investment, Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico was transforming three former [Western Auto](/wiki/Western_Auto "Western Auto") stores in San Juan, Ponce, and Mayaguez into Sears Automotive Centers for reopening in mid\-June of that year. In 1988, stateside chain [Advance Auto Parts](/wiki/Advance_Auto_Parts "Advance Auto Parts") had paid Sears $1\.8 million in cash and 40% of its stock for Western Auto. In 1995, five of the six Sears Automotive Centers on the island were converted into Western Auto stores. "After a nine\-year absence from the local market, an automotive center bearing the Sears name will open this spring, offering customers quality tires, major\-brand batteries such as DieHard, and other related services," said Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico President Gary Salvatore. Salvatore said the move was a response to local customers' constant requests for the return of Sears Auto Centers. The first store that was slated to reopen as a Sears Auto Center was at Plaza Las Américas. The 26,000 square\-foot freestanding building would have an expanded 5,000 square\-feet of retail space and 26 service bays. The 14,000 square\-foot auto center in Ponce's Plaza Caribe Mall would have a 1,700 square\-foot retail area and 11 service bays. The one at the Mayaguez Mall would have 16,000 square\-feet, including 2,500 square\-feet of retail space, and 12 service bays. The three Sears Auto Centers would have a combined 130 employees, noted Salvatore. All were Slated to open in June of that year, when Salvatore's replacement would be announced. Salvatore, who had 34 years of service with the department store, had recently been promoted to vice president in charge of the southeast region, based out of Sears' headquarters in Hoffman States, III. The southeast region included all Sears operations from Richmond, Va., to Miami.{{Cite news \|last\=L. Cardona \|first\=Jose \|date\=13 May 2004 \|title\=Sears Auto Centers to reopen in June \|pages\=42 \|work\=Caribbean Business \|url\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\=AQICAHjIloLM\_J\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\_YPnffAGdiZ\_TAK5trZMprXz5qJF3AAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDPLysoXEmnlF0SFqaAIBEICBkeB17\_UWCeHtgg0xKl1gGtkeh4BJ99HBv\-lL1Rh\-kdOaViio0J\_5mL\-FvvGRzH1T1Z\-YBU1q\-tE5e8xq7pD42QI04kcCWHRWvs9zFVgtnVh1Q6BOz7erR7xIrxpcdulZH3gMaLX7RgJgSK1Ul4VDJocKh2zjt4wHNXFvQEe\-xD7W\_cOv8JBuz9pV2TwRObTdc2Y\= \|access\-date\=8 December 2023}}
On June 5, 2005, it was reported that Sears Essentials, the new concept that was arising from the $11 billion Sears/[Kmart](/wiki/Kmart "Kmart") merger, was sure to open in Puerto Rico the following year. Already, eight to 10 Kmart locations had been identified, according to Ted Wells, then president of Sears Holding Co. in Puerto Rico, who added that the stores' conversion to the new concept would probably take place in spring 2006\. Kmart and Sears stores were expected to continue operating as they were, said Wells, adding that Puerto Rico was a great market for both brands at the time. Sears operated 10 stores in Puerto Rico with $400 million in gross sales for 2003 and Kmart had 21, with an estimated $350 million in gross sales for 2003\. Both retailers combined employed more than 4,000 locals, as reported in the 2005 [Caribbean Business](/wiki/Caribbean_Business "Caribbean Business") Book of Lists.{{Cite news \|last\=Rosa \|first\=Taina \|date\=5 June 2005 \|title\=Sears Essentials Identifies up to 10 Potential Locations in P.R. \|pages\=2 \|work\=Caribbean Business \|url\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\=AQICAHjIloLM\_J\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\_YPnffAGLP\_uSdKWrS2y6dioHu8EuAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDM5stt57716P1zoo9gIBEICBkQUu9tWJpMtDooGaoG7BFExDkX6HmGg3W1qUvTGaztuIHFWLykhdvVFM8earTiJV1CizKxfRffWeGUGGzWnFcV\_hSj8Z2X6e3xjUvouHSS8fDogFwOCUgaWap67koMXJxp1POmBv\-XalpzuNSgFcdU24vjaf7WDAmV1JN53d\-XNbXLsJEpcEskOaYYLVnwoTo5c\= \|access\-date\=8 December 2023}}
On September 27, 2007, it was reported that Sears de Puerto Rico operated 10 Sears company\-owned stores: three Sears dealer stores in [Aguadilla](/wiki/Aguadilla%2C_Puerto_Rico "Aguadilla, Puerto Rico"), [Barranquitas](/wiki/Barranquitas%2C_Puerto_Rico "Barranquitas, Puerto Rico") and [San Sebastián](/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n "San Sebastián"); one outlet store in Cupey and three Automotive Centers, spin offs of their predecessor Western Auto. The three local dealer stores operated much like licensed locations using the Sears name, subject to space considerations, each carried the same company merchandise. Sears' Automotive Centers were in Plaza Las Américas, Ponce's Plaza del Caribe and the Mayagüez Mall. Combined, the local Sears operation which continuously ranked among the chain's top three markets battling the first place on and off with the Hawaii market generated an estimated $350 million\-plus in annual sales and employed more than 3,000 people, according to 2006 Caribbean Business Book of Lists.
On February 5, 2009, it was reported that Sears was seeking to expand its local operation through the opening of Sears Hometown Stores in Cayey, [Yauco](/wiki/Yauco%2C_Puerto_Rico "Yauco, Puerto Rico") and [Humacao](/wiki/Humacao%2C_Puerto_Rico "Humacao, Puerto Rico"). Each location, which would run like a franchise owned and operated store, would be integrated within the rest of the island's Sears network. Estimated initial investment for a new Sears Hometown Store ranged from $50,000 to $70,000 and helped create 100 new jobs per location. Sears assigned a regional development manager to promote sales of Sears Hometown Stores in Puerto Rico. The format, based on its size and minimal start\-up costs, could represent a good business opportunity for many entrepreneurs, the Sears manager said. Sears, which was evaluating interested candidates, offered local entrepreneurs the opportunity to own their own store. It was dubbed as one of the fastest\-growing formats in retail, Sears Hometown Stores were smaller in size than the usual anchor\-tenant location, ranging from 5,000 to 8,000 square feet. At the time having recently celebrated its 70th anniversary in Puerto Rico, Sears Holdings now operated 23 Kmart and 14 Sears stores on the island.{{Cite news \|last\=Ryan \|first\=Frances \|date\=5 February 2009 \|title\=Sears to expand local presence \|pages\=4 \|work\=Caribbean Business \|url\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\=AQICAHjIloLM\_J\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\_YPnffAESml0qiGq1poB1RfCbB2oSAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDEceQRrIXuaqaRzeSAIBEICBkWxoKcz5xR19txRw0nTKjVNjeWyDelqCHH7yXJvyRIAt4rRiF1aHLHWu7VSFTjXdg9K8vo61LvAC2hPof6BwQUUqkcQ284twZXKfESqt9hWbRi\-Voz7p\_g8ilTVmU7Y8ekQr\-3IBuhSG1FCsNsRpS7H5mLzSTYiQMXySA3GzW2SCDWNebxSPlqv9B\-0OsOJ15M0\= \|access\-date\=8 December 2023}}
On March 12, 2009, it was reported that Sears, the island's oldest department store at the time, continued its expansion with the opening of its newest dealer store in the town of [Toa Baja](/wiki/Toa_Baja%2C_Puerto_Rico "Toa Baja, Puerto Rico"), on Rd. 2, in the Candelaria Ward. The Toa Baja Sears Hometown Store would be one of several that Sears planned to open around the island.{{Cite news \|last\=Ryan \|first\=Frances \|date\=12 March 2009 \|title\=Sears' expansion continues \|pages\=32 \|work\=Caribbean Business \|url\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\=AQICAHjIloLM\_J\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\_YPnffAEMLTRG77v5ZLrvhXLxFOsgAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDDpQUTpZj2P9L9wAmQIBEICBkcz\-Q1sVYtJkJ9TfZrARzhhVLEavrW6AKszMcGb8TJOY1wSBuKCqgGazFUMhyo22emHMqsXaDu7UtBqpjuy01r2SPbUp6YkaKedg7C\-NBE9qiRe4w6G\-sKAgnHD0s8ZSvkvy3hdHqMCTEkECAArYXsYthekzG\_ho33TyUOdV381Kmvhr7Shy002zP0Fl5Ey4vao\= \|access\-date\=8 December 2023}}
### Decline, downsizing, and current status
[thumb\|Damaged Sears sign in Puerto Rico, in 2018, representative of decline](/wiki/File:Damaged_Sears_sign%2C_Puerto_Rico.jpg "Damaged Sears sign, Puerto Rico.jpg")
In July 2015, [Sears Holdings](/wiki/Sears_Holdings "Sears Holdings") spun off 235 of its properties, this included all Sears and Kmart locations in Puerto Rico into a new [REIT](/wiki/Real_estate_investment_trust "Real estate investment trust") called *Seritage Growth Properties*.{{Cite press release \|last\=Corporation \|first\=Sears Holdings \|title\=Sears Holdings Completes Seritage Growth Properties Transaction \|url\=https://www.prnewswire.com/news\-releases/sears\-holdings\-completes\-seritage\-growth\-properties\-transaction\-300109953\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-07 \|website\=www.prnewswire.com \|language\=en}}
On March 4, 2016, it was reported that Sears had confirmed that one of its stores on the Island would be ceasing operations for the month of May of that year. This was the Sears store at the Galería Paseos in San Juan, which was one of the anchor businesses in the shopping mall. Dave Rodney, president of the Sears and Kmart chains for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, pointed out that the lease contract for the premises had expired and the corporation decided not to renew it. The executive did not specify the reasons for this, but said that in these cases the company took into account, among other factors, how the business was going, the requests of the property owner and the situation of the economy. The final closing of said store would be on May 31, but as soon as that following Friday, March 11, the inventory liquidation sale would begin. The Galería Paseos store employed 35 people.
On May 25, 2018, it was reported that Sears was to open a new location on the first floor of the Santa Rosa Mall, which would serve temporarily until the original store would be planned to reopen in early 2019\. This was for the purpose of covering the needs in Bayamón and adjacent municipalities due to the reconstruction of the original Sears store. This temporary store had 12,000 square\-feet of sales area and would offer around 20 jobs.{{Cite web \|title\=Sears abre nuevo local temporero en Santa Rosa Mall {{!}} Economía {{!}} elvocero.com \|url\=https://www.elvocero.com/economia/sears\-abre\-nuevo\-local\-temporero\-en\-santa\-rosa\-mall/article\_9f4704f0\-602f\-11e8\-b84e\-ef22d0f6f72e.amp.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=www.elvocero.com}}
On November 24, 2018, it was reported that as part of the bankruptcy process it had filed for that last month, Sears Holdings presented the list of stores that were for sale. The document included all the locations they had in Puerto Rico. According to publications specialized in economic issues, the stores that were on the sale list were not exempt from closure. In Puerto Rico the company had about 27 stores between Sears and Kmart.{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-11\-24 \|title\=Sears Holdings pone en venta sus tiendas en la isla \|url\=https://www.metro.pr/pr/noticias/2018/11/24/sears\-holdings\-pone\-venta\-tiendas\-la\-isla.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=Metro Puerto Rico \|language\=es}}
On April 23, 2019, it was reported that the reopening of the Sears store in the [Santa Rosa Mall](/wiki/Santa_Rosa_Mall_%28Puerto_Rico%29 "Santa Rosa Mall (Puerto Rico)") in the city of Bayamón was in danger, as the store had remained closed since the [Hurricane Maria](/wiki/Hurricane_Maria "Hurricane Maria") in 2017\. Sears had spent $3 million cleaning up the structure at Santa Rosa Mall, and had begun rebuilding the roof, but stopped work when the parent company Sears Holdings filed for bankruptcy in October 2018\. Everything indicated that some 21 Sears and Kmart stores could continue operations in Puerto Rico after being saved from bankruptcy by [Edward Lampert](/wiki/Edward_Lampert "Edward Lampert"). However, the Sears store at the Santa Rosa Mall did not suffer the same fate, as it was not on the list of properties for which Lampert assumed the contract.{{Cite web \|date\=2019\-04\-23 \|title\=Peligra la reapertura de Sears en Santa Rosa Mall en Bayamón \|url\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\-comercios/notas/peligra\-la\-reapertura\-de\-sears\-en\-santa\-rosa\-mall\-en\-bayamon/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=El Nuevo Día \|language\=es}}
On August 30, 2019, it was reported that the company [Transformco](/wiki/Transformco "Transformco") had announced the closure of some Kmart and Sears stores in Puerto Rico. This included the Sears Auto Center located at the [Santa Rosa Mall](/wiki/Santa_Rosa_Mall_%28Puerto_Rico%29 "Santa Rosa Mall (Puerto Rico)") in the city of Bayamón. Liquidation sales were expected to begin in mid\-September and stores were expected to close in mid\-December.{{Cite web \|last\=Hernández \|first\=José Rafael \|date\=2019\-08\-30 \|title\=Confirman cierre de tiendas Kmart y Sears en Puerto Rico – Periódico Presencia \|url\=https://www.presenciapr.com/confirman\-cierre\-de\-tiendas\-kmart\-y\-sears\-en\-puerto\-rico/,%20https://www.presenciapr.com/confirman\-cierre\-de\-tiendas\-kmart\-y\-sears\-en\-puerto\-rico/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|language\=en\-US}}
On November 6, 2019, the company TransformCo, owner of Sears and Kmart stores, announced the closure of eight Kmart and Sears stores in Puerto Rico. The announced closure included the Sears stores in Fajardo, Plaza del Caribe in Ponce, and the Céntrico shopping mall in [Guayama](/wiki/Guayama%2C_Puerto_Rico "Guayama, Puerto Rico") which would all cease operations. Liquidation sales were expected to begin in November, extending through February.{{Cite web \|last\=NotiUno.com \|date\=2019\-11\-06 \|title\=Anuncian cierre de tiendas Sears y Kmart en Puerto Rico \|url\=https://www.notiuno.com/noticias/economia/anuncian\-cierre\-de\-tiendas\-sears\-y\-kmart\-en\-puerto\-rico/article\_25270b12\-00af\-11ea\-9c81\-a7cb0691f7e8\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=UNO Radio Group \|language\=en}}
On December 15, 2020, it was reported that two Sears stores would closing, the Sears store in the Las Catalinas Mall in Caguas, and the Sears store in the Plaza Carolina Mall in Carolina.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-12\-27 \|title\=Sears cerrará dos tiendas en la isla \|url\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\-comercios/notas/sears\-cerrara\-dos\-tiendas\-en\-la\-isla/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=El Nuevo Día \|language\=spanish}} Both stores would cease operations by February 2021\.{{Cite web \|last\=Tyko \|first\=Kelly \|title\=Sears and Kmart closing more stores. Is your location closing in 2021? See the updated closure list. \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/shopping/2021/02/03/sears\-kmart\-closing\-stores\-list\-2021/4371235001/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=USA TODAY \|language\=en\-US}}
[thumb\|Mall entrance to the Sears store at [Las Catalinas Mall](/wiki/Las_Catalinas_Mall "Las Catalinas Mall") in [Caguas](/wiki/Caguas%2C_Puerto_Rico "Caguas, Puerto Rico") during liquidation, in 2021](/wiki/File:Sears_Las_Catalinas_Mall_01.jpg "Sears Las Catalinas Mall 01.jpg")
On February 3, 2021, it was reported that four Sears stores in Puerto Rico would be closing, this included the Sears stores in Plaza del Norte in Hatillo, and in the Mayagüez Mall in Mayagüez.
On April 20, 2021, it was reported that two of the last Sears stores still standing in Puerto Rico had finally closed their doors permanently: Mayagüez Mall and Plaza del Norte in Hatillo. The closure of the Sears at the Mayagüez Mall had occurred at 2:00 p.m., long before the mall had ceased operations for the day. In Plaza del Norte in Hatillo the chain had also closed its doors permanently. After 4:00 p.m., people still came to shop, but found the doors closed and the space empty, with no merchandise.{{Cite news \|last\=Díaz \|first\=Marian \|date\=20 April 2021 \|title\=Sears se despide de Mayagüez Mall y Plaza del Norte en Hatillo \|work\=El Nuevo Día \|url\=https://www.pressreader.com/puerto\-rico/el\-nuevo\-dia1/20210420/281530818858272 \|access\-date\=8 December 2023}}
On January 5, 2023, it was reported that Sears Hometown after filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection a month earlier was closing all of its 115 stores. Liquidation sales were underway at the Sears Hometown stores in Puerto Rico of which were included in the closures.{{Cite web \|last\=Urie \|first\=Daniel \|date\=2023\-01\-05 \|title\=Sears Hometown is closing all 115 shops, but Cumberland County appliance store to stay open \|url\=https://pennlive.com/life/2023/01/sears\-hometown\-is\-closing\-all\-of\-its\-115\-stores\-sears\-appliances\-mattresses\-store\-in\-cumberland\-county\-to\-remain\-open.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=pennlive \|language\=en}}
On July 27, 2023, it was reported that Sears was seeking to win back the Puerto Rican consumer. The two Sears stores in Plaza Las Américas, the only ones that remain open in Puerto Rico, would add new brands and products, with the aim of once again attracting consumer support. The brand, once a retail icon, is trying to reinvent itself and is even talking about reopening more stores. Ramón Márquez, Head of Operations and Marketing at TransformCo, a company that acquired the assets of Sears and Kmart in 2019, indicated that as part of the transformation strategy, Sears developed "strategic alliances with important and significant brands for the local market, with in order to strengthen their connection with the public and offer them new options". It was mentioned that in the Sears Brand Central at Plaza las Américas they would add "an impressive selection of high\-quality appliances" and well\-known brands in Puerto Rico. The chain made an alliance with the company The Shack, specialized in beach items, which would also be available at Brand Central. It was asked if with these changes, the Sears furniture department which had reopened in 2022 would move to the Brand Central store, and if TransformCo's plan was to keep both stores open. The executive responded that the furniture department would continue to operate on the third level of the main store. And he assured that both stores would remain in operation and with a greater variety of merchandise. It was also stated that Sears plans to open more stores in Puerto Rico and in the United States. When inquiring in which other parts of the island the company plans to start operations, it was indicated that TransformCo still has six properties in the local market, and it could be in any of them. One of the stores that TransformCo still has on the island is the space that the old Sears occupied in Mayagüez Mall. It was reported that the chain would launch an advertising campaign called "Rediscover Sears" that would premiere at the "Food Fest" event in Plaza las Américas in that August.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-07\-27 \|title\=Sears busca reconquistar al consumidor boricua \|url\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\-comercios/notas/sears\-busca\-reconquistar\-al\-consumidor\-boricua/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-08 \|website\=El Nuevo Día \|language\=es}}
On October 4, 2024, it was reported that the 50,000 square foot two\-level Sears Brand Central \& Home Improvement store in Plaza las Américas had closed. The store started its liquidation on the 1st of that month, by the 4th the store had closed, the rest of its merchandise being moved to the main Sears store at the mall.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-10\-04 \|title\=Sears Brand Central cierra su tienda en Plaza Las Américas \|url\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\-comercios/notas/sears\-brand\-central\-cierra\-su\-tienda\-en\-plaza\-las\-americas/ \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-12 \|website\=El Nuevo Día \|language\=es}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Beginnings",
"On August 3, 1937, it was reported that A. W. McClosay and R. E. Paonessa had arrived at the island, accompanied by their respective wives. McClosay and Paonessa were senior officials of the Sears Roebuck and Company, of the United States, and had come to the island with the purpose of opening an office and showroom for a large part of the products sold by said company at the time through their catalogue business. Sears in this way wanted to strengthen the relationship between them and its clients on the island.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1937\\.08\\.03 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19370803\\-01\\.1\\.15\\&srpos\\=1\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-193\\-es\\-25\\-\\-1\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+\\-\\-\\-\\-1937\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On September 15, 1937, the first Sears Roebuck and Company catalogue store on the island would open in [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\"), the capital city of Puerto Rico.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Cronología de la caída de Sears y Kmart \\|url\\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\\-comercios/fotogalerias/cronologia\\-de\\-la\\-caida\\-de\\-sears\\-y\\-kmart/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=El Nuevo Día \\|language\\=es}} By the 1940s, more catalogue stores had opened on the island, being located in the cities of [Ponce](/wiki/Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Ponce, Puerto Rico\"), [Mayagüez](/wiki/Mayag%C3%BCez%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Mayagüez, Puerto Rico\") and in the town of [Fajardo](/wiki/Fajardo%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Fajardo, Puerto Rico\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1948\\.05\\.28 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19480528\\-01\\.1\\.8\\&srpos\\=4\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-194\\-es\\-25\\-\\-1\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+\\-\\-\\-\\-1948\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On January 18, 1951, it was reported that a new catalogue store had opened in the city of [Caguas](/wiki/Caguas%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Caguas, Puerto Rico\"). Around two thousand people would attend the inauguration of the Sears that would be established at Muñoz Rivera Street, several demonstrations were made in relation to different household items. The officials from the headquarters at the time in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), present at the Inauguration ceremony, were very pleased with the interest shown by the public in the demonstrations offered, during which many people placed their orders with the company.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1951\\.01\\.18 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19510118\\-01\\.1\\.3\\&srpos\\=74\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-195\\-es\\-25\\-\\-51\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On May 30, 1951, it was reported that as of June of that year, the town of [Río Piedras](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Piedras%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Río Piedras, Puerto Rico\") would have a new catalogue store which would be inaugurated in said town on the occasion of the sixty\\-fifth anniversary of the initiation of the company's businesses. The new catalogue store, according to Mr. Antonio Franco, then administrator of Sears on the Island, would be the most elaborate of all of the company's catalogue stores in Puerto Rico at the time.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1951\\.05\\.30 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19510530\\-01\\.1\\.4\\&srpos\\=11\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-195\\-es\\-25\\-\\-1\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On August 7, 1954, Sears would announce the inauguration of its new location in the town of [Vega Baja](/wiki/Vega_Baja \"Vega Baja\") in [Puerto Nuevo](/wiki/Puerto_Nuevo%2C_Vega_Baja%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Nuevo, Vega Baja, Puerto Rico\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1954\\.08\\.07 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19540807\\-01\\.1\\.14\\&srpos\\=29\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-195\\-es\\-25\\-\\-26\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+inauguraci%C3%B3n\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}} By the late 1950s, Sears locations had opened in [Santurce](/wiki/Santurce%2C_San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico\") and Caparra Terrace in San Juan.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1959\\.05\\.29 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19590529\\-01\\.1\\.25\\&srpos\\=98\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-195\\-es\\-25\\-\\-76\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"### Incorporation, expanding and success",
"[thumb\\|Logo used from 1966 to 1984](/wiki/File:Sears_Puerto_Rico.jpg \"Sears Puerto Rico.jpg\")\nOn January 31, 1961, Sears Roebuck and Company announced the formation of a new local wholly owned Latin American subsidiary Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico, Inc.,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Ryan \\|first\\=Frances \\|date\\=27 September 2007 \\|title\\=Sears turns 70 \\|pages\\=20–23 \\|work\\=Caribbean Business \\|url\\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\\=AQICAHjIloLM\\_J\\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\\_YPnffAGkirSAaLS7Qb5MmBfHPMkwAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDLbuMh5l87mCv4n91QIBEICBkfV4khCKRgBqu1pAs\\-4xNL9bHjuEQwfXFPD5JzuVER3p9NlcgHJObqpiot3R55\\-aEXimpC\\_5ewmQJT\\_9g6eGXNRrqGaltG2QNSPZqHhw\\_q\\_bb5uAloU0PnkFcpcEYU1WqPM1Gin5tTZbIhg6P0OfXpR1caRwMsLEuA4TeZ6ZcMH6NKvW22B7QMGEjzC8n6S45Uc\\= \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=}} which initially would operate six existing stores, five in Puerto Rico, and one in the [St. Thomas, Virgin Islands](/wiki/Saint_Thomas%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands \"Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/searsannualreports\\|title\\=Sears, Roebuck \\& Co. Annual Reports: 1907–2003\\|via\\=Internet Archive}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=1961\\-01\\-31 \\|title\\=Sears Puerto Rico \\|pages\\=24 \\|work\\=The Sacramento Bee \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-sacramento\\-bee\\-sears\\-puerto\\-rico/91041792/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08}}",
"On November 1, 1962, the first full\\-size Sears department store on the island would open in [San Juan, Hato Rey](/wiki/Hato_Rey \"Hato Rey\"), the 2,500 parking spaces surrounding the building being filled to capacity.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1962\\.11\\.02 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19621102\\-01\\.1\\.7\\&srpos\\=57\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-196\\-es\\-25\\-\\-51\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+hato\\+rey\\-\\-\\-\\-1962\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}} The new store would open with 77,000 square\\-feet of sales space and would be the largest of eight retail units at the time operated by the Sears subsidiary, Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico, Inc.{{Cite news \\|date\\=1962\\-10\\-31 \\|title\\=Sears San Juan \\|pages\\=50 \\|work\\=Chicago Tribune \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/chicago\\-tribune\\-sears\\-san\\-juan/91041177/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08}} Through the rest of the 1960s the chain would continue to expand opening a store in [Ponce](/wiki/Poncelet%E2%80%93Steiner_theorem \"Poncelet–Steiner theorem\") in 1964, [Caguas](/wiki/Caguas%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Caguas, Puerto Rico\") in 1966, [Arecibo](/wiki/Arecibo%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Arecibo, Puerto Rico\") in 1967,{{Cite news \\|date\\=1967\\-06\\-16 \\|title\\=Sears 6th opening in Puerto Rico (Arecibo) \\|pages\\=73 \\|work\\=Chicago Tribune \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/chicago\\-tribune\\-sears\\-6th\\-opening\\-in\\-pue/90907953/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08}} and [Bayamón](/wiki/Bayam%C3%B3n%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Bayamón, Puerto Rico\") in 1968 at the [Santa Rosa Plaza](/wiki/Santa_Rosa_Mall_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Santa Rosa Mall (Puerto Rico)\") shopping center.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1978\\.12\\.28 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19781228\\-01\\.1\\.32\\&srpos\\=376\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-197\\-es\\-25\\-mndo\\-376\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-plaza\\+Americas\\-\\-\\-\\-1978\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On October 4, 1972, a new Sears store would be inaugurated at the [Mayagüez Mall](/wiki/Mayag%C3%BCez_Mall \"Mayagüez Mall\") in the city of [Mayagüez](/wiki/Mayag%C3%BCez%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Mayagüez, Puerto Rico\"). According to reports, the Sears store, which was one of the first to open its doors at the mall, had extraordinary sales that broke all previous records at the time.{{Cite news \\|date\\=4 October 1972 \\|title\\=Hoy, El Mayagüez Mall \\|pages\\=4 \\|work\\=El Nuevo Día}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1972\\.10\\.05 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19721005\\-01\\.1\\.5\\&srpos\\=23\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-es\\-25\\-\\-1\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Foxmoor\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-17 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On June 10, 1975, it was reported that management of the Sears store chain had set the goal of opening two new stores in Puerto Rico for the year 1978\\. According to Robert B. Gibson, then president of Sears Roebuck of Puerto Rico, Inc., Sears management was in negotiations with the management of Plaza Las Americas, Inc., owners of the [Plaza Las Américas](/wiki/Plaza_Las_Am%C3%A9ricas_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Plaza Las Américas (Puerto Rico)\") shopping mall in Hato Rey for the construction of a new Sears store in that center. The store would be similar in size to those that Sears operated at the time in Hato Rey and Bayamón, and would be located in an extension of Plaza las Américas, towards the north side of the shopping center. The new store would have around 300,000 square feet of sales, office and warehouse space, covering approximately 135,000 square feet in sales space. The other store that Sears was planning to build was the one that would be located in the [Plaza Carolina](/wiki/Plaza_Carolina \"Plaza Carolina\") shopping mall, which the firm IBEC Realty Company had plans to build towards the south of the Villa Fontana Urbanization, in front of 65 Infantería Avenue, in the [Carolina](/wiki/Carolina_Kostner \"Carolina Kostner\") area. This would be smaller than the others in the chain on the Island, and would be located in the largest shopping center in Puerto Rico when it would be built. Gibson said that there were still no calculations on the investment that these two new Sears stores on the Island would represent, and mentioned that negotiations for the development of the store in Plaza las Américas were well advanced.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1975\\.06\\.10 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19750610\\-01\\.1\\.22\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-197\\-es\\-25\\-mndo\\-1\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-plaza\\+Americas\\-\\-\\-\\-1975\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On February 11, 1978, it was reported that the honorable Mayor of San Juan, Dr. Hernán Padilla would cut the opening ribbon of the new Sears store in Plaza Las Américas during the ceremony that would take place that Monday, February 12 at 9:30 am. The Sears store in Plaza Las Américas would be a very different concept from the Hato Rey store that Sears had occupied since 1962\\. Located at the north end of the Mall with about 240,000 square feet of total area, it was 80% larger than the Hato Rey store. Mr. John P. Simpson Jr., then manager of the Sears store in Plaza Las Américas, reported that the architects responsible for the design were Eduardo Molinari y Asociados. The Shopping Center's large parking lot with capacity for 6,000 cars and the new structure with 800 additional spaces, which connects to the store on the second level, would be of great convenience for customers. In addition to entering the store from the parking area, you could enter from inside the mall. The store consisted of over 50 merchandise departments, in addition it included a restaurant; Customer Service Center for the purchase of traveler's checks, money orders, for the payment of water, electricity and telephone bills, gift wrapping; a catalog order department; a \"Key Shop\", watch repair, photography studio, optical department, beauty salon, and pharmacy. One of the great attractions of the new store was also its 40,000 square\\-foot automotive center, which was equipped to service 30 cars simultaneously.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1979\\.02\\.11 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19790211\\-01\\.1\\.45\\&srpos\\=7\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-197\\-es\\-25\\-mndo\\-1\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-plaza\\+Americas\\-\\-\\-\\-1979\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}} That same year on October 9, 1978, the Sears store located in the Plaza Carolina shopping mall would also be officially inaugurated.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1978\\.10\\.08 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19781008\\-01\\.1\\.68\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-197\\-es\\-25\\-\\-1\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+Carolina\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On December 28, 1978, the president of Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico, Inc. at the time, R. B. Gibson, announced the final closing of the Sears store in Hato Rey which had already begun. Gibson said that all the merchandise in the Hato Rey store would be sold because they we didn't want to move any merchandise to the new store in Plaza las Américas. The liquidation would include not only the merchandise, but also the shelves, office equipment and articles shop decorations. \"The decision to close Hato Rey and move to Plaza was a very difficult one to make, as our Hato Rey store has always been one of the most successful stores in the entire organization; however, the continued increase in sales of said store required moving to Plaza Las Américas, where we will be able to serve our customers with approximately fifty percent more sales space,\" added Gibson at the time.",
"On November 27, 1981, a new Sears store would open at the [Arecibo Mall](/wiki/Arecibo_Mall \"Arecibo Mall\") in the city of Arecibo.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1981\\.11\\.27 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19811127\\-01\\.1\\.12\\&srpos\\=601\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-198\\-es\\-25\\-mndo\\-601\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Arecibo\\+mall\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"### Expanding and success, \"The Store of the Future\"",
"On September 15, 1985, it was reported that the Sears store in Plaza Las Américas had undergone a major remodeling and conversion to a new display format. Mr. Paul Brierre, then store manager, reported that after six months of construction, Sears at Plaza Las Américas joined a growing list of Sears stores with the new display system called \"The Store of the Future.\" Mr. Brierre said the 1985 program represented the second of five years it would take to carry out the remodeling and expansion of 600 stores and the construction of 62 new stores, with a total investment of $1\\.7 billion. Mr. Brierre added that Sears' strategy was to create an innovative environment that encouraged customers to examine and purchase a broader assortment of merchandise, including more clothing, sports goods and loungewear. \"To date the results have been very good,\" he said. \"Customer reaction has been excellent.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1985\\.09\\.15 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19850915\\-01\\.1\\.66\\&srpos\\=11\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-198\\-es\\-25\\-\\-1\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\-\\-\\-\\-1985\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On June 17, 1990, it was reported that Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico had announced the opening of Sears Brand Central, a new store concept, which there were plans to expand and open multiple of these stores on the island.{{Cite web \\|title\\=El Mundo 1990\\.06\\.17 — Archivo digital de El Mundo \\|url\\=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/elmundo/?a\\=d\\&d\\=mndo19900617\\-01\\.1\\.59\\&srpos\\=50\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-es\\-25\\-\\-26\\-\\-img\\-txIN\\-Sears\\+roebuck\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=gpa.eastview.com}}",
"On November 9, 1992, a new Sears store would open at the [Plaza del Caribe](/wiki/Plaza_del_Caribe \"Plaza del Caribe\") shopping mall in the city of Ponce.[*Plaza del Caribe Recibe al Publico.*](https://archive.today/20150117132100/http://www.adendi.com/archivo.asp?num=82442&year=1992&month=11&keyword=) El Nuevo Dia. 9 November 1992\\. p. 137\\. Retrieved 9 March 2015\\. This same year another Sears store would open at the [Plaza del Norte](/wiki/Plaza_del_Norte \"Plaza del Norte\") shopping mall in the city of [Hatillo](/wiki/Hatillo%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Hatillo, Puerto Rico\").\n[thumb\\|Mall entrance to the Sears store at [Plaza del Norte](/wiki/Plaza_del_Norte \"Plaza del Norte\") in [Hatillo](/wiki/Hatillo%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Hatillo, Puerto Rico\"), in 2011](/wiki/File:Sears_PDN.jpg \"Sears PDN.jpg\")\nOn October 25, 1995, it was reported that [Pier 1 Imports](/wiki/Pier_1_Imports \"Pier 1 Imports\") had announced an agreement with Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico to open six Pier 1 stores inside Sears' department stores on the island. The new Pier 1 stores would have 2,000–3,000 square\\-feet of sales space. The first two were scheduled to open in November of that year in the Sears store in Plaza las Américas in San Juan, and in the Sears Homelife store in the Galería Paseos shopping mall in [Cupey](/wiki/Cupeyville_School \"Cupeyville School\"). Sears at the time had 10 department stores on the island. Sears and Pier 1 had introduced the store\\-within\\-a\\-store concept in 1993 in [Sears’ Mexico](/wiki/Sears_Mexico \"Sears Mexico\") stores.{{Cite news \\|date\\=1995\\-10\\-25 \\|title\\=Sears Pier 1 Imports Plaza las Americas Galeria Paseos \\|pages\\=56 \\|work\\=Fort Worth Star\\-Telegram \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/fort\\-worth\\-star\\-telegram\\-sears\\-pier\\-1\\-im/91041757/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08}}",
"During the mid to late 1990s, Sears' expansion on the island was completed with an investment of more than $21 million, enabling the local operation to expand its local footprint considerably. This would include the opening of a Sears Brand Central in the former two\\-story [Velasco](/wiki/Es_de_Velasco \"Es de Velasco\") location at the Plaza Las Américas shopping mall after the department store chain had closed in 1995\\. From 1993 to 1999, Sears grew from four to 10 in locations and more than doubled its square footage on the island.",
"On January 24, 1999, it was reported that the Sears store at the Plaza las Américas shopping mall in San Juan had sold more than any other Sears store in the world.{{Cite news \\|date\\=1999\\-01\\-24 \\|title\\=Plaza las America Sears being the most successful store \\|pages\\=81 \\|work\\=South Florida Sun Sentinel \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/south\\-florida\\-sun\\-sentinel\\-plaza\\-las\\-ame/88718363/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08}}",
"On August 7, 2003, it was reported that traffic and sales at Sears had beat those of the same period last year by slightly more than 10%, said Gary Salvatore, president of local operations. He also said that the Puerto Rico district with 10 stores at the time enjoyed the best overall performance of the entire 63 districts in the nation in 2002\\. As a result of such success, he did not dismiss the possibility of Sears opening more stores locally, also mentioning that Puerto Rico had been among the top performing districts for many years. But besides being the top\\-performing district, Puerto Rico also accounted for one of the highest credit penetration markets in the chain. In addition, it was also the district enjoying the highest customer satisfaction in the chain, according to Salvatore. In reference to opening more Sears stores on the island, he said \"It depends on real estate opportunities. We're just looking at the moment.\" Salvatore said the key to Sears' success locally had been its effort to adapt to the local market and local consumers' tastes. \"This is very important if a business is to be successful in such a competitive market as this one.\" Sears' local operations had gross sales of $400 million in 2001\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rosa \\|first\\=Taina \\|date\\=7 August 2003 \\|title\\=Sears sees double\\-digit sales increase \\|pages\\=2 \\|work\\=Caribbean Business \\|url\\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\\=AQICAHjIloLM\\_J\\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\\_YPnffAFPf2SipdvKc\\_8EDKh9NhVQAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDKxxAeFemm1KeUfHkAIBEICBkehQqn4tqLhkVlVxZvoI0OxKbTqbNQnJSnzWoYRGSntKHJnIzrjd1je4O9f\\-OTCwojP1dnCWgqFC\\-XiTt3FTy6hHxBSXEcFLjqlhlpghSFuWhBTuU4s42dX\\-IfBuf6owxwZsGE0TeJyR8nWY1zNvOnVdzmD4qz1\\-ZS1td\\_xztVcGS7M\\-Opx\\_PPRoEl2lyh3V0z8\\= \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2023}}",
"On May 13, 2004, it was reported that with a $1\\.5 million investment, Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico was transforming three former [Western Auto](/wiki/Western_Auto \"Western Auto\") stores in San Juan, Ponce, and Mayaguez into Sears Automotive Centers for reopening in mid\\-June of that year. In 1988, stateside chain [Advance Auto Parts](/wiki/Advance_Auto_Parts \"Advance Auto Parts\") had paid Sears $1\\.8 million in cash and 40% of its stock for Western Auto. In 1995, five of the six Sears Automotive Centers on the island were converted into Western Auto stores. \"After a nine\\-year absence from the local market, an automotive center bearing the Sears name will open this spring, offering customers quality tires, major\\-brand batteries such as DieHard, and other related services,\" said Sears Roebuck de Puerto Rico President Gary Salvatore. Salvatore said the move was a response to local customers' constant requests for the return of Sears Auto Centers. The first store that was slated to reopen as a Sears Auto Center was at Plaza Las Américas. The 26,000 square\\-foot freestanding building would have an expanded 5,000 square\\-feet of retail space and 26 service bays. The 14,000 square\\-foot auto center in Ponce's Plaza Caribe Mall would have a 1,700 square\\-foot retail area and 11 service bays. The one at the Mayaguez Mall would have 16,000 square\\-feet, including 2,500 square\\-feet of retail space, and 12 service bays. The three Sears Auto Centers would have a combined 130 employees, noted Salvatore. All were Slated to open in June of that year, when Salvatore's replacement would be announced. Salvatore, who had 34 years of service with the department store, had recently been promoted to vice president in charge of the southeast region, based out of Sears' headquarters in Hoffman States, III. The southeast region included all Sears operations from Richmond, Va., to Miami.{{Cite news \\|last\\=L. Cardona \\|first\\=Jose \\|date\\=13 May 2004 \\|title\\=Sears Auto Centers to reopen in June \\|pages\\=42 \\|work\\=Caribbean Business \\|url\\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\\=AQICAHjIloLM\\_J\\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\\_YPnffAGdiZ\\_TAK5trZMprXz5qJF3AAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDPLysoXEmnlF0SFqaAIBEICBkeB17\\_UWCeHtgg0xKl1gGtkeh4BJ99HBv\\-lL1Rh\\-kdOaViio0J\\_5mL\\-FvvGRzH1T1Z\\-YBU1q\\-tE5e8xq7pD42QI04kcCWHRWvs9zFVgtnVh1Q6BOz7erR7xIrxpcdulZH3gMaLX7RgJgSK1Ul4VDJocKh2zjt4wHNXFvQEe\\-xD7W\\_cOv8JBuz9pV2TwRObTdc2Y\\= \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2023}}",
"On June 5, 2005, it was reported that Sears Essentials, the new concept that was arising from the $11 billion Sears/[Kmart](/wiki/Kmart \"Kmart\") merger, was sure to open in Puerto Rico the following year. Already, eight to 10 Kmart locations had been identified, according to Ted Wells, then president of Sears Holding Co. in Puerto Rico, who added that the stores' conversion to the new concept would probably take place in spring 2006\\. Kmart and Sears stores were expected to continue operating as they were, said Wells, adding that Puerto Rico was a great market for both brands at the time. Sears operated 10 stores in Puerto Rico with $400 million in gross sales for 2003 and Kmart had 21, with an estimated $350 million in gross sales for 2003\\. Both retailers combined employed more than 4,000 locals, as reported in the 2005 [Caribbean Business](/wiki/Caribbean_Business \"Caribbean Business\") Book of Lists.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rosa \\|first\\=Taina \\|date\\=5 June 2005 \\|title\\=Sears Essentials Identifies up to 10 Potential Locations in P.R. \\|pages\\=2 \\|work\\=Caribbean Business \\|url\\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\\=AQICAHjIloLM\\_J\\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\\_YPnffAGLP\\_uSdKWrS2y6dioHu8EuAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDM5stt57716P1zoo9gIBEICBkQUu9tWJpMtDooGaoG7BFExDkX6HmGg3W1qUvTGaztuIHFWLykhdvVFM8earTiJV1CizKxfRffWeGUGGzWnFcV\\_hSj8Z2X6e3xjUvouHSS8fDogFwOCUgaWap67koMXJxp1POmBv\\-XalpzuNSgFcdU24vjaf7WDAmV1JN53d\\-XNbXLsJEpcEskOaYYLVnwoTo5c\\= \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2023}}",
"On September 27, 2007, it was reported that Sears de Puerto Rico operated 10 Sears company\\-owned stores: three Sears dealer stores in [Aguadilla](/wiki/Aguadilla%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Aguadilla, Puerto Rico\"), [Barranquitas](/wiki/Barranquitas%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Barranquitas, Puerto Rico\") and [San Sebastián](/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n \"San Sebastián\"); one outlet store in Cupey and three Automotive Centers, spin offs of their predecessor Western Auto. The three local dealer stores operated much like licensed locations using the Sears name, subject to space considerations, each carried the same company merchandise. Sears' Automotive Centers were in Plaza Las Américas, Ponce's Plaza del Caribe and the Mayagüez Mall. Combined, the local Sears operation which continuously ranked among the chain's top three markets battling the first place on and off with the Hawaii market generated an estimated $350 million\\-plus in annual sales and employed more than 3,000 people, according to 2006 Caribbean Business Book of Lists.",
"On February 5, 2009, it was reported that Sears was seeking to expand its local operation through the opening of Sears Hometown Stores in Cayey, [Yauco](/wiki/Yauco%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Yauco, Puerto Rico\") and [Humacao](/wiki/Humacao%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Humacao, Puerto Rico\"). Each location, which would run like a franchise owned and operated store, would be integrated within the rest of the island's Sears network. Estimated initial investment for a new Sears Hometown Store ranged from $50,000 to $70,000 and helped create 100 new jobs per location. Sears assigned a regional development manager to promote sales of Sears Hometown Stores in Puerto Rico. The format, based on its size and minimal start\\-up costs, could represent a good business opportunity for many entrepreneurs, the Sears manager said. Sears, which was evaluating interested candidates, offered local entrepreneurs the opportunity to own their own store. It was dubbed as one of the fastest\\-growing formats in retail, Sears Hometown Stores were smaller in size than the usual anchor\\-tenant location, ranging from 5,000 to 8,000 square feet. At the time having recently celebrated its 70th anniversary in Puerto Rico, Sears Holdings now operated 23 Kmart and 14 Sears stores on the island.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Ryan \\|first\\=Frances \\|date\\=5 February 2009 \\|title\\=Sears to expand local presence \\|pages\\=4 \\|work\\=Caribbean Business \\|url\\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\\=AQICAHjIloLM\\_J\\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\\_YPnffAESml0qiGq1poB1RfCbB2oSAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDEceQRrIXuaqaRzeSAIBEICBkWxoKcz5xR19txRw0nTKjVNjeWyDelqCHH7yXJvyRIAt4rRiF1aHLHWu7VSFTjXdg9K8vo61LvAC2hPof6BwQUUqkcQ284twZXKfESqt9hWbRi\\-Voz7p\\_g8ilTVmU7Y8ekQr\\-3IBuhSG1FCsNsRpS7H5mLzSTYiQMXySA3GzW2SCDWNebxSPlqv9B\\-0OsOJ15M0\\= \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2023}}",
"On March 12, 2009, it was reported that Sears, the island's oldest department store at the time, continued its expansion with the opening of its newest dealer store in the town of [Toa Baja](/wiki/Toa_Baja%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Toa Baja, Puerto Rico\"), on Rd. 2, in the Candelaria Ward. The Toa Baja Sears Hometown Store would be one of several that Sears planned to open around the island.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Ryan \\|first\\=Frances \\|date\\=12 March 2009 \\|title\\=Sears' expansion continues \\|pages\\=32 \\|work\\=Caribbean Business \\|url\\=https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content\\=AQICAHjIloLM\\_J\\-oCztr2keYdV8f1ibHmDucods679W\\_YPnffAEMLTRG77v5ZLrvhXLxFOsgAAAA2TCB1gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHIMIHFAgEAMIG\\_BgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDDpQUTpZj2P9L9wAmQIBEICBkcz\\-Q1sVYtJkJ9TfZrARzhhVLEavrW6AKszMcGb8TJOY1wSBuKCqgGazFUMhyo22emHMqsXaDu7UtBqpjuy01r2SPbUp6YkaKedg7C\\-NBE9qiRe4w6G\\-sKAgnHD0s8ZSvkvy3hdHqMCTEkECAArYXsYthekzG\\_ho33TyUOdV381Kmvhr7Shy002zP0Fl5Ey4vao\\= \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2023}}",
"### Decline, downsizing, and current status",
"[thumb\\|Damaged Sears sign in Puerto Rico, in 2018, representative of decline](/wiki/File:Damaged_Sears_sign%2C_Puerto_Rico.jpg \"Damaged Sears sign, Puerto Rico.jpg\")\nIn July 2015, [Sears Holdings](/wiki/Sears_Holdings \"Sears Holdings\") spun off 235 of its properties, this included all Sears and Kmart locations in Puerto Rico into a new [REIT](/wiki/Real_estate_investment_trust \"Real estate investment trust\") called *Seritage Growth Properties*.{{Cite press release \\|last\\=Corporation \\|first\\=Sears Holdings \\|title\\=Sears Holdings Completes Seritage Growth Properties Transaction \\|url\\=https://www.prnewswire.com/news\\-releases/sears\\-holdings\\-completes\\-seritage\\-growth\\-properties\\-transaction\\-300109953\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-07 \\|website\\=www.prnewswire.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"On March 4, 2016, it was reported that Sears had confirmed that one of its stores on the Island would be ceasing operations for the month of May of that year. This was the Sears store at the Galería Paseos in San Juan, which was one of the anchor businesses in the shopping mall. Dave Rodney, president of the Sears and Kmart chains for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, pointed out that the lease contract for the premises had expired and the corporation decided not to renew it. The executive did not specify the reasons for this, but said that in these cases the company took into account, among other factors, how the business was going, the requests of the property owner and the situation of the economy. The final closing of said store would be on May 31, but as soon as that following Friday, March 11, the inventory liquidation sale would begin. The Galería Paseos store employed 35 people.",
"On May 25, 2018, it was reported that Sears was to open a new location on the first floor of the Santa Rosa Mall, which would serve temporarily until the original store would be planned to reopen in early 2019\\. This was for the purpose of covering the needs in Bayamón and adjacent municipalities due to the reconstruction of the original Sears store. This temporary store had 12,000 square\\-feet of sales area and would offer around 20 jobs.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sears abre nuevo local temporero en Santa Rosa Mall {{!}} Economía {{!}} elvocero.com \\|url\\=https://www.elvocero.com/economia/sears\\-abre\\-nuevo\\-local\\-temporero\\-en\\-santa\\-rosa\\-mall/article\\_9f4704f0\\-602f\\-11e8\\-b84e\\-ef22d0f6f72e.amp.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=www.elvocero.com}}",
"On November 24, 2018, it was reported that as part of the bankruptcy process it had filed for that last month, Sears Holdings presented the list of stores that were for sale. The document included all the locations they had in Puerto Rico. According to publications specialized in economic issues, the stores that were on the sale list were not exempt from closure. In Puerto Rico the company had about 27 stores between Sears and Kmart.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-24 \\|title\\=Sears Holdings pone en venta sus tiendas en la isla \\|url\\=https://www.metro.pr/pr/noticias/2018/11/24/sears\\-holdings\\-pone\\-venta\\-tiendas\\-la\\-isla.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=Metro Puerto Rico \\|language\\=es}}",
"On April 23, 2019, it was reported that the reopening of the Sears store in the [Santa Rosa Mall](/wiki/Santa_Rosa_Mall_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Santa Rosa Mall (Puerto Rico)\") in the city of Bayamón was in danger, as the store had remained closed since the [Hurricane Maria](/wiki/Hurricane_Maria \"Hurricane Maria\") in 2017\\. Sears had spent $3 million cleaning up the structure at Santa Rosa Mall, and had begun rebuilding the roof, but stopped work when the parent company Sears Holdings filed for bankruptcy in October 2018\\. Everything indicated that some 21 Sears and Kmart stores could continue operations in Puerto Rico after being saved from bankruptcy by [Edward Lampert](/wiki/Edward_Lampert \"Edward Lampert\"). However, the Sears store at the Santa Rosa Mall did not suffer the same fate, as it was not on the list of properties for which Lampert assumed the contract.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-23 \\|title\\=Peligra la reapertura de Sears en Santa Rosa Mall en Bayamón \\|url\\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\\-comercios/notas/peligra\\-la\\-reapertura\\-de\\-sears\\-en\\-santa\\-rosa\\-mall\\-en\\-bayamon/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=El Nuevo Día \\|language\\=es}}",
"On August 30, 2019, it was reported that the company [Transformco](/wiki/Transformco \"Transformco\") had announced the closure of some Kmart and Sears stores in Puerto Rico. This included the Sears Auto Center located at the [Santa Rosa Mall](/wiki/Santa_Rosa_Mall_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Santa Rosa Mall (Puerto Rico)\") in the city of Bayamón. Liquidation sales were expected to begin in mid\\-September and stores were expected to close in mid\\-December.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hernández \\|first\\=José Rafael \\|date\\=2019\\-08\\-30 \\|title\\=Confirman cierre de tiendas Kmart y Sears en Puerto Rico – Periódico Presencia \\|url\\=https://www.presenciapr.com/confirman\\-cierre\\-de\\-tiendas\\-kmart\\-y\\-sears\\-en\\-puerto\\-rico/,%20https://www.presenciapr.com/confirman\\-cierre\\-de\\-tiendas\\-kmart\\-y\\-sears\\-en\\-puerto\\-rico/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"On November 6, 2019, the company TransformCo, owner of Sears and Kmart stores, announced the closure of eight Kmart and Sears stores in Puerto Rico. The announced closure included the Sears stores in Fajardo, Plaza del Caribe in Ponce, and the Céntrico shopping mall in [Guayama](/wiki/Guayama%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Guayama, Puerto Rico\") which would all cease operations. Liquidation sales were expected to begin in November, extending through February.{{Cite web \\|last\\=NotiUno.com \\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=Anuncian cierre de tiendas Sears y Kmart en Puerto Rico \\|url\\=https://www.notiuno.com/noticias/economia/anuncian\\-cierre\\-de\\-tiendas\\-sears\\-y\\-kmart\\-en\\-puerto\\-rico/article\\_25270b12\\-00af\\-11ea\\-9c81\\-a7cb0691f7e8\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=UNO Radio Group \\|language\\=en}}",
"On December 15, 2020, it was reported that two Sears stores would closing, the Sears store in the Las Catalinas Mall in Caguas, and the Sears store in the Plaza Carolina Mall in Carolina.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-27 \\|title\\=Sears cerrará dos tiendas en la isla \\|url\\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\\-comercios/notas/sears\\-cerrara\\-dos\\-tiendas\\-en\\-la\\-isla/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=El Nuevo Día \\|language\\=spanish}} Both stores would cease operations by February 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Tyko \\|first\\=Kelly \\|title\\=Sears and Kmart closing more stores. Is your location closing in 2021? See the updated closure list. \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/shopping/2021/02/03/sears\\-kmart\\-closing\\-stores\\-list\\-2021/4371235001/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=USA TODAY \\|language\\=en\\-US}}\n[thumb\\|Mall entrance to the Sears store at [Las Catalinas Mall](/wiki/Las_Catalinas_Mall \"Las Catalinas Mall\") in [Caguas](/wiki/Caguas%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Caguas, Puerto Rico\") during liquidation, in 2021](/wiki/File:Sears_Las_Catalinas_Mall_01.jpg \"Sears Las Catalinas Mall 01.jpg\") \nOn February 3, 2021, it was reported that four Sears stores in Puerto Rico would be closing, this included the Sears stores in Plaza del Norte in Hatillo, and in the Mayagüez Mall in Mayagüez.",
"On April 20, 2021, it was reported that two of the last Sears stores still standing in Puerto Rico had finally closed their doors permanently: Mayagüez Mall and Plaza del Norte in Hatillo. The closure of the Sears at the Mayagüez Mall had occurred at 2:00 p.m., long before the mall had ceased operations for the day. In Plaza del Norte in Hatillo the chain had also closed its doors permanently. After 4:00 p.m., people still came to shop, but found the doors closed and the space empty, with no merchandise.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Díaz \\|first\\=Marian \\|date\\=20 April 2021 \\|title\\=Sears se despide de Mayagüez Mall y Plaza del Norte en Hatillo \\|work\\=El Nuevo Día \\|url\\=https://www.pressreader.com/puerto\\-rico/el\\-nuevo\\-dia1/20210420/281530818858272 \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2023}}",
"On January 5, 2023, it was reported that Sears Hometown after filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection a month earlier was closing all of its 115 stores. Liquidation sales were underway at the Sears Hometown stores in Puerto Rico of which were included in the closures.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Urie \\|first\\=Daniel \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-05 \\|title\\=Sears Hometown is closing all 115 shops, but Cumberland County appliance store to stay open \\|url\\=https://pennlive.com/life/2023/01/sears\\-hometown\\-is\\-closing\\-all\\-of\\-its\\-115\\-stores\\-sears\\-appliances\\-mattresses\\-store\\-in\\-cumberland\\-county\\-to\\-remain\\-open.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=pennlive \\|language\\=en}}",
"On July 27, 2023, it was reported that Sears was seeking to win back the Puerto Rican consumer. The two Sears stores in Plaza Las Américas, the only ones that remain open in Puerto Rico, would add new brands and products, with the aim of once again attracting consumer support. The brand, once a retail icon, is trying to reinvent itself and is even talking about reopening more stores. Ramón Márquez, Head of Operations and Marketing at TransformCo, a company that acquired the assets of Sears and Kmart in 2019, indicated that as part of the transformation strategy, Sears developed \"strategic alliances with important and significant brands for the local market, with in order to strengthen their connection with the public and offer them new options\". It was mentioned that in the Sears Brand Central at Plaza las Américas they would add \"an impressive selection of high\\-quality appliances\" and well\\-known brands in Puerto Rico. The chain made an alliance with the company The Shack, specialized in beach items, which would also be available at Brand Central. It was asked if with these changes, the Sears furniture department which had reopened in 2022 would move to the Brand Central store, and if TransformCo's plan was to keep both stores open. The executive responded that the furniture department would continue to operate on the third level of the main store. And he assured that both stores would remain in operation and with a greater variety of merchandise. It was also stated that Sears plans to open more stores in Puerto Rico and in the United States. When inquiring in which other parts of the island the company plans to start operations, it was indicated that TransformCo still has six properties in the local market, and it could be in any of them. One of the stores that TransformCo still has on the island is the space that the old Sears occupied in Mayagüez Mall. It was reported that the chain would launch an advertising campaign called \"Rediscover Sears\" that would premiere at the \"Food Fest\" event in Plaza las Américas in that August.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-27 \\|title\\=Sears busca reconquistar al consumidor boricua \\|url\\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\\-comercios/notas/sears\\-busca\\-reconquistar\\-al\\-consumidor\\-boricua/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|website\\=El Nuevo Día \\|language\\=es}}",
"On October 4, 2024, it was reported that the 50,000 square foot two\\-level Sears Brand Central \\& Home Improvement store in Plaza las Américas had closed. The store started its liquidation on the 1st of that month, by the 4th the store had closed, the rest of its merchandise being moved to the main Sears store at the mall.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-10\\-04 \\|title\\=Sears Brand Central cierra su tienda en Plaza Las Américas \\|url\\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\\-comercios/notas/sears\\-brand\\-central\\-cierra\\-su\\-tienda\\-en\\-plaza\\-las\\-americas/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-12 \\|website\\=El Nuevo Día \\|language\\=es}}",
""
] |
Description
-----------
The Shawangunk is defined as a light to dark\-gray, fine to very coarse grained [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone") and [conglomerate](/wiki/Conglomerate_%28geology%29 "Conglomerate (geology)"), containing a few [shale](/wiki/Shale "Shale") interbeds.Berg, T.M., Edmunds, W.E., Geyer, A.R. and others, compilers, (1980\). Geologic Map of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geologic Survey, Map 1, scale 1:250,000\. There are also four [members](/wiki/Member_%28geology%29 "Member (geology)") of this formation: Tammany, Lizard Creek, Minsi, and Weiders.
The Lizard Creek member is described at Lehigh Gap as having conglomerates, sandstone, calcareous sandstone, siltstone, and shale with a few minor red beds. The Minsi Member is described as a conglomeritic quartzite and the Weiders is described as both a conglomerate and quartzite.Epstein, J.B., Sevon, W.D., Glaeser, J.D. (1974\). Geology and the Mineral Resources of the Lehighton and Palmerton Quardrangles, Carbon and Northampton Counties, Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Geologic Survey, Harrisburg, PA. A195c\&d. The Tammany and Lizard Creek members are equivalent to the Clinton Formation and the Minsi and Weiders members are equivalent to the Tuscarora Formation in the central and western part of Pennsylvania. The Tammany Member was not described at [Lehigh Gap](/wiki/Lehigh_Gap "Lehigh Gap").
### Depositional environment
The [depositional environment](/wiki/Sedimentary_depositional_environment "Sedimentary depositional environment") of the Shawangunk has always been interpreted as mostly terrestrial to a shallow marine deposit resulting in a [molasse](/wiki/Molasse "Molasse") sequence produced by the [Taconic orogeny](/wiki/Taconic_orogeny "Taconic orogeny"). The numerous coarse\-grained beds, especially in the lower part, suggest a relatively close orogenic source with very high to high energy fluvial systems depositing the sediments. Shale interbeds may indicate a slowing or shifting of these ancient river systems.
### Fossils
Very few fossils exist in the Shawangunk; however, [Eurypterids](/wiki/Eurypterid "Eurypterid") can be found in the middle portions of the formation roughly 420–750 feet from the base in some locations in New York State.Epstein, J.B., (1993\) Stratigraphy of Silurian Rocks in Shawangunk Mountain, Southeastern New York, Including a Historical Review of Nomenclature. United States Geological Survey Publication L14\. Linguloid [brachiopods](/wiki/Brachiopod "Brachiopod") were identified in the Lizard Creek Member.
The [ichnofossil](/wiki/Ichnofossil "Ichnofossil") *[Arthrophycus](/wiki/Arthrophycus "Arthrophycus")* was described in the Minsi Member in the area of Lehigh Gap. These were most likely made by [polychaete worms](/wiki/Polychaete "Polychaete") of the family *[Terebellida](/wiki/Terebellida "Terebellida")*.
### Notable Exposures
[thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|Shawangunk Formation (in foreground) at [High Point State Park](/wiki/High_Point_State_Park "High Point State Park") in [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey")](/wiki/Image:Shawangunk_Formation_High_Point_SP_NJ.jpg "Shawangunk Formation High Point SP NJ.jpg")
* [Delaware Water Gap](/wiki/Delaware_Water_Gap "Delaware Water Gap")
* [Lehigh Gap, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lehigh_Gap%2C_Pennsylvania "Lehigh Gap, Pennsylvania")
* [High Point State Park](/wiki/High_Point_State_Park "High Point State Park"), New Jersey
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"The Shawangunk is defined as a light to dark\\-gray, fine to very coarse grained [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\") and [conglomerate](/wiki/Conglomerate_%28geology%29 \"Conglomerate (geology)\"), containing a few [shale](/wiki/Shale \"Shale\") interbeds.Berg, T.M., Edmunds, W.E., Geyer, A.R. and others, compilers, (1980\\). Geologic Map of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geologic Survey, Map 1, scale 1:250,000\\. There are also four [members](/wiki/Member_%28geology%29 \"Member (geology)\") of this formation: Tammany, Lizard Creek, Minsi, and Weiders.",
"The Lizard Creek member is described at Lehigh Gap as having conglomerates, sandstone, calcareous sandstone, siltstone, and shale with a few minor red beds. The Minsi Member is described as a conglomeritic quartzite and the Weiders is described as both a conglomerate and quartzite.Epstein, J.B., Sevon, W.D., Glaeser, J.D. (1974\\). Geology and the Mineral Resources of the Lehighton and Palmerton Quardrangles, Carbon and Northampton Counties, Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Geologic Survey, Harrisburg, PA. A195c\\&d. The Tammany and Lizard Creek members are equivalent to the Clinton Formation and the Minsi and Weiders members are equivalent to the Tuscarora Formation in the central and western part of Pennsylvania. The Tammany Member was not described at [Lehigh Gap](/wiki/Lehigh_Gap \"Lehigh Gap\").",
"### Depositional environment",
"The [depositional environment](/wiki/Sedimentary_depositional_environment \"Sedimentary depositional environment\") of the Shawangunk has always been interpreted as mostly terrestrial to a shallow marine deposit resulting in a [molasse](/wiki/Molasse \"Molasse\") sequence produced by the [Taconic orogeny](/wiki/Taconic_orogeny \"Taconic orogeny\"). The numerous coarse\\-grained beds, especially in the lower part, suggest a relatively close orogenic source with very high to high energy fluvial systems depositing the sediments. Shale interbeds may indicate a slowing or shifting of these ancient river systems.",
"### Fossils",
"Very few fossils exist in the Shawangunk; however, [Eurypterids](/wiki/Eurypterid \"Eurypterid\") can be found in the middle portions of the formation roughly 420–750 feet from the base in some locations in New York State.Epstein, J.B., (1993\\) Stratigraphy of Silurian Rocks in Shawangunk Mountain, Southeastern New York, Including a Historical Review of Nomenclature. United States Geological Survey Publication L14\\. Linguloid [brachiopods](/wiki/Brachiopod \"Brachiopod\") were identified in the Lizard Creek Member.",
"The [ichnofossil](/wiki/Ichnofossil \"Ichnofossil\") *[Arthrophycus](/wiki/Arthrophycus \"Arthrophycus\")* was described in the Minsi Member in the area of Lehigh Gap. These were most likely made by [polychaete worms](/wiki/Polychaete \"Polychaete\") of the family *[Terebellida](/wiki/Terebellida \"Terebellida\")*.",
"### Notable Exposures",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|Shawangunk Formation (in foreground) at [High Point State Park](/wiki/High_Point_State_Park \"High Point State Park\") in [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\")](/wiki/Image:Shawangunk_Formation_High_Point_SP_NJ.jpg \"Shawangunk Formation High Point SP NJ.jpg\")\n* [Delaware Water Gap](/wiki/Delaware_Water_Gap \"Delaware Water Gap\")\n* [Lehigh Gap, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lehigh_Gap%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lehigh Gap, Pennsylvania\")\n* [High Point State Park](/wiki/High_Point_State_Park \"High Point State Park\"), New Jersey",
""
] |
Plot
----
Mary Burns (Sylvia Sidney) runs a small roadside coffee shop near a rural town. She's desperately in love with 'Babe' Wilson (Alan Baxter), a young man who has fallen in love with Mary after coming to her coffee shop several times. However, Mary isn't aware that Babe is a gangster wanted for robbery and murder.
Babe and his partner in crime arrive at the coffee shop, and Babe tells Mary he has to go to Canada right away on “business”, but he wants them to get married immediately and go away with him. Unfortunately, Mary doesn't know that Babe's suitcase is filled with stolen loot.
As they prepare to leave, the police arrive to arrest Babe, but he kills his own partner to prevent him from testifying, then he escapes and leaves Mary to be arrested and convicted for aiding and abetting a known criminal.
After serving three years of her fifteen\-year sentence, Mary escapes with a fellow female inmate, Goldie Gordon (Pert Kelton), unaware that Goldie is actually cooperating with the police. They want to use Mary to lure Babe out of hiding. Mary gets a job as a maid at a hospital, and she meets Barton Powell (Melvyn Douglas), a famous explorer and writer who is recovering from snow blindness. They fall in love after Mary spends several weeks reading to the blind man and talking with him about his adventures.
When one of Babe's accomplices, Spike (Brian Donlevy), comes to the small apartment that Mary and Goldie share and says he's taking her to Babe, Mary flees and goes to the hospital to see Barton one last time. She doesn't tell him she's leaving forever, she simply slips out quietly after he falls asleep.
Mary travels from Oklahoma to Utah and hides out in a small town, but Babe finds her and tries to abduct her during a church service. However, the police have tracked Mary to the small town. Undercover men among the congregation try to arrest Babe, but he shocks the crowd by producing a hand grenade, and he threatens to pull the pin if they don't let him leave with Mary. Babe and Mary escape, and he instructs her to hide again until he can find a way to rejoin her.
Mary is terrified of the homicidal killer, and she hopes he won't find her, but the police succeed in doing so again, and Detective Harper (Wallace Ford), the policeman in charge of the manhunt, takes her to Barton Powell's rustic lakeside house to reunite the couple. Barton has recovered his sight and sees Mary for the first time with his own eyes. He promptly proposes, and Mary accepts.
Detective Harper and his men stake out Barton's lakeside home and wait for Babe to show up to get Mary. But the wily killer manages to sneak into the house, and he threatens to shoot Barton if Mary doesn't leave with him.
Mary pretends she's about to kiss Babe, but she reaches inside his coat, takes hold of a second pistol in his shoulder holster, and pulls the trigger several times, killing Babe. Afterwards, Detective Harper sees to it that Mary's criminal record is expunged, and she marries Barton.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Mary Burns (Sylvia Sidney) runs a small roadside coffee shop near a rural town. She's desperately in love with 'Babe' Wilson (Alan Baxter), a young man who has fallen in love with Mary after coming to her coffee shop several times. However, Mary isn't aware that Babe is a gangster wanted for robbery and murder.",
"Babe and his partner in crime arrive at the coffee shop, and Babe tells Mary he has to go to Canada right away on “business”, but he wants them to get married immediately and go away with him. Unfortunately, Mary doesn't know that Babe's suitcase is filled with stolen loot.",
"As they prepare to leave, the police arrive to arrest Babe, but he kills his own partner to prevent him from testifying, then he escapes and leaves Mary to be arrested and convicted for aiding and abetting a known criminal.",
"After serving three years of her fifteen\\-year sentence, Mary escapes with a fellow female inmate, Goldie Gordon (Pert Kelton), unaware that Goldie is actually cooperating with the police. They want to use Mary to lure Babe out of hiding. Mary gets a job as a maid at a hospital, and she meets Barton Powell (Melvyn Douglas), a famous explorer and writer who is recovering from snow blindness. They fall in love after Mary spends several weeks reading to the blind man and talking with him about his adventures.",
"When one of Babe's accomplices, Spike (Brian Donlevy), comes to the small apartment that Mary and Goldie share and says he's taking her to Babe, Mary flees and goes to the hospital to see Barton one last time. She doesn't tell him she's leaving forever, she simply slips out quietly after he falls asleep.",
"Mary travels from Oklahoma to Utah and hides out in a small town, but Babe finds her and tries to abduct her during a church service. However, the police have tracked Mary to the small town. Undercover men among the congregation try to arrest Babe, but he shocks the crowd by producing a hand grenade, and he threatens to pull the pin if they don't let him leave with Mary. Babe and Mary escape, and he instructs her to hide again until he can find a way to rejoin her.",
"Mary is terrified of the homicidal killer, and she hopes he won't find her, but the police succeed in doing so again, and Detective Harper (Wallace Ford), the policeman in charge of the manhunt, takes her to Barton Powell's rustic lakeside house to reunite the couple. Barton has recovered his sight and sees Mary for the first time with his own eyes. He promptly proposes, and Mary accepts.",
"Detective Harper and his men stake out Barton's lakeside home and wait for Babe to show up to get Mary. But the wily killer manages to sneak into the house, and he threatens to shoot Barton if Mary doesn't leave with him.",
"Mary pretends she's about to kiss Babe, but she reaches inside his coat, takes hold of a second pistol in his shoulder holster, and pulls the trigger several times, killing Babe. Afterwards, Detective Harper sees to it that Mary's criminal record is expunged, and she marries Barton.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In the fictional [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide") suburb of Sunshine Hills, three teenage girls have disappeared: Jenny Wells (found in a dumpster with her body cut open), Teresa Fields (found impaled and hanging from a clothesline), and Amanda Howatt, who disappeared three days earlier.
14\-year\-old Danny Hobson ([Sebastian Gregory](/wiki/Sebastian_Gregory "Sebastian Gregory")) is a loner, who lives with his police officer father Alan ([Aaron Jeffery](/wiki/Aaron_Jeffery "Aaron Jeffery")) and stepmother Sherrie ([Peta Wilson](/wiki/Peta_Wilson "Peta Wilson")). He is obsessed with his 17\-year\-old neighbour, Suzy Thomson ([Tahyna Tozzi](/wiki/Tahyna_Tozzi "Tahyna Tozzi")). They become friends and she tells him about the girls and the mysterious owners of number 46\. She sends him to take some photos with his camera. They walk to number 46, where Suzy tells Danny that a woman is always staring out the window.
While walking down the street, Danny's bouncy ball lands in the backyard of number 46\. He introduces himself to the house's owner, a mysterious woman named Jennifer ([Asher Keddie](/wiki/Asher_Keddie "Asher Keddie")), who asks him to leave her alone. At night, he hides in a bush and sees a car approach the house. The driver, Jennifer's boyfriend, gets out and stares at Danny, who takes a photo of him.
Danny develops the photos and takes them to Suzy, who recognises the boyfriend from a police newsletter. They read through several newsletters and Suzy identifies the man as Max Forster (Socratis Otto), a convicted rapist. Danny begins to suspect Jennifer is being held against her will in the house by Max. Danny goes to meet Jennifer and she shows him a bracelet which is important to her. He immediately recognises the bracelet as one belonging to his mother, whom he never met. He accuses her of being his mother.
Danny has a dream where Suzy is abducted. He wakes up to learn that she has been kidnapped from her bedroom. Alan interrogates Danny, who says he and Suzy only talked about the girls and number 46\. Alan and some fellow officers investigate number 46, but find nothing suspicious. Danny receives a phone call from Suzy, who tells him that Max kidnapped her and that he knows Danny sent the police to his house. Danny must come to the house if he wants to see Suzy alive.
Danny steals Alan's gun and goes to the house, where Jennifer takes him to the backroom, where Max is waiting for him. He tells him that he got out of jail and doesn't want to be sent back. He threatens to keep Danny in the house and take pornographic photos of him, but Danny shoots him in the head. Jennifer runs in and Danny asks her why she left. She denies being his mother and during a scuffle, he shoots her. Alan, who suspected Danny of going to the house, arrives and finds the mess. He tells Danny that Jennifer isn't his mother: his mother died when he was a baby, presumably in an accident caused by Alan. He demands that Danny leave. As Danny leaves, Alan shoots himself.
Danny returns home and begins to mourn Alan's death with Sherrie. He sees Suzy in her front yard and Sherrie says that Suzy was never kidnapped. He realises she set him up and suspects her of making up the rumours about the girls, therefore causing everything. Danny and Sherrie leave Sunshine Hills forever.
The final scene is narrated by a monologue from Suzy's mother ([Deborra\-Lee Furness](/wiki/Deborra-Lee_Furness "Deborra-Lee Furness")), who says that Alan killed Danny's mother. She goes on to mention a rumour that Alan, Max and Jennifer were Satanists and killed the girls as sacrifices. It is revealed that Suzy pretended she was raped in number 46, but refuses to discuss it, and that most people believe Suzy's story, but not the truth. Her mother mentions another rumour about Danny being found dead in a nearby paddock. She says that she only stays in Sunshine Hills because she talks. The movie ends with her saying that she is going to protect Sunshine Hills.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In the fictional [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\") suburb of Sunshine Hills, three teenage girls have disappeared: Jenny Wells (found in a dumpster with her body cut open), Teresa Fields (found impaled and hanging from a clothesline), and Amanda Howatt, who disappeared three days earlier.",
"14\\-year\\-old Danny Hobson ([Sebastian Gregory](/wiki/Sebastian_Gregory \"Sebastian Gregory\")) is a loner, who lives with his police officer father Alan ([Aaron Jeffery](/wiki/Aaron_Jeffery \"Aaron Jeffery\")) and stepmother Sherrie ([Peta Wilson](/wiki/Peta_Wilson \"Peta Wilson\")). He is obsessed with his 17\\-year\\-old neighbour, Suzy Thomson ([Tahyna Tozzi](/wiki/Tahyna_Tozzi \"Tahyna Tozzi\")). They become friends and she tells him about the girls and the mysterious owners of number 46\\. She sends him to take some photos with his camera. They walk to number 46, where Suzy tells Danny that a woman is always staring out the window.",
"While walking down the street, Danny's bouncy ball lands in the backyard of number 46\\. He introduces himself to the house's owner, a mysterious woman named Jennifer ([Asher Keddie](/wiki/Asher_Keddie \"Asher Keddie\")), who asks him to leave her alone. At night, he hides in a bush and sees a car approach the house. The driver, Jennifer's boyfriend, gets out and stares at Danny, who takes a photo of him.",
"Danny develops the photos and takes them to Suzy, who recognises the boyfriend from a police newsletter. They read through several newsletters and Suzy identifies the man as Max Forster (Socratis Otto), a convicted rapist. Danny begins to suspect Jennifer is being held against her will in the house by Max. Danny goes to meet Jennifer and she shows him a bracelet which is important to her. He immediately recognises the bracelet as one belonging to his mother, whom he never met. He accuses her of being his mother.",
"Danny has a dream where Suzy is abducted. He wakes up to learn that she has been kidnapped from her bedroom. Alan interrogates Danny, who says he and Suzy only talked about the girls and number 46\\. Alan and some fellow officers investigate number 46, but find nothing suspicious. Danny receives a phone call from Suzy, who tells him that Max kidnapped her and that he knows Danny sent the police to his house. Danny must come to the house if he wants to see Suzy alive.",
"Danny steals Alan's gun and goes to the house, where Jennifer takes him to the backroom, where Max is waiting for him. He tells him that he got out of jail and doesn't want to be sent back. He threatens to keep Danny in the house and take pornographic photos of him, but Danny shoots him in the head. Jennifer runs in and Danny asks her why she left. She denies being his mother and during a scuffle, he shoots her. Alan, who suspected Danny of going to the house, arrives and finds the mess. He tells Danny that Jennifer isn't his mother: his mother died when he was a baby, presumably in an accident caused by Alan. He demands that Danny leave. As Danny leaves, Alan shoots himself.",
"Danny returns home and begins to mourn Alan's death with Sherrie. He sees Suzy in her front yard and Sherrie says that Suzy was never kidnapped. He realises she set him up and suspects her of making up the rumours about the girls, therefore causing everything. Danny and Sherrie leave Sunshine Hills forever.",
"The final scene is narrated by a monologue from Suzy's mother ([Deborra\\-Lee Furness](/wiki/Deborra-Lee_Furness \"Deborra-Lee Furness\")), who says that Alan killed Danny's mother. She goes on to mention a rumour that Alan, Max and Jennifer were Satanists and killed the girls as sacrifices. It is revealed that Suzy pretended she was raped in number 46, but refuses to discuss it, and that most people believe Suzy's story, but not the truth. Her mother mentions another rumour about Danny being found dead in a nearby paddock. She says that she only stays in Sunshine Hills because she talks. The movie ends with her saying that she is going to protect Sunshine Hills.",
""
] |
History
-------
### World War II
The 44th Flew patrols over the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific "Pacific") from Hawaii from 7 December 1941 – October 1942\. It went on to fly combat missions in the South and Southwest Pacific from 21 December 1942 – 15 August 1945\.
### Vietnam War
It again flew combat missions in [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia") from 18 December 1964 – 25 February 1965, 21 April – 22 June 1965, 19 – 29 October 1965, and 25 April 1967 – 6 October 1970\.
The squadron was unmanned from 31 December 1966 – 24 April 1967 and November 1970–15 May 1971\.
### Japan
It has flown air defense over [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island") and Japan since 1971\.
On 17 January 2006 an F\-15C of the squadron crashed into the Pacific Ocean near Okinawa. The pilot ejected and was rescued by an [HH\-60](/wiki/Sikorsky_HH-60_Pave_Hawk "Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk") of the [33d Rescue Squadron](/wiki/33d_Rescue_Squadron "33d Rescue Squadron").{{cite news \|last\=Slavin \|first\=Eric \|date\=19 January 2006 \|title\=F\-15 crashes during training off Okinawa \|url\=https://www.stripes.com/news/f\-15\-crashes\-during\-training\-off\-okinawa\-1\.43740 \|access\-date\=15 June 2018 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.japanupdate.com/archive/?id\=6716 \|title\=Governor demands F\-15's stop flying after Tuesday crash \|author\= \|date\=24 January 2006 \|access\-date\=15 June 2018 }}{{cite web \|url\= http://usaf.aib.law.af.mil/ExecSum2006/F\-15C\_17Jan06\.pdf \|title\= F\-15C 17 Jan 06 \|website\= usaf.aib.law.af.mil \|access\-date\= 16 October 2014 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064009/http://usaf.aib.law.af.mil/ExecSum2006/F\-15C\_17Jan06\.pdf \|archive\-date\= 4 March 2016 \|url\-status\= dead \|df\= dmy\-all }}
The 44th Fighter Squadron was named as the winner of the Raytheon Trophy for 2012\.{{cite web\|last1\=Doyle\|first1\=Brooke P\|title\=44th FS named Air Force's top air superiority squadron\|url\=http://www.af.mil/News/Article\-Display/Article/109579/44th\-fs\-named\-air\-forces\-top\-air\-superiority\-squadron/\|website\=U.S. Air Force\|access\-date\=14 March 2018}}
### Taiwan
From 3–30 September 1955, 44th Fighter\-Bomber Squadron Deployed to [Taoyuan Air Base](/wiki/Taoyuan_Air_Base "Taoyuan Air Base"), Taiwan with [F\-86 Sabre](/wiki/F-86_Sabre "F-86 Sabre"), returning again in 1962\-1963 in support of “BLUE SKY” military exercise in [Kung Kuan Air Base](/wiki/Kung_Kuan_Air_Base "Kung Kuan Air Base"), Taiwan, equipped [F\-100 Super Sabre](/wiki/F-100_Super_Sabre "F-100 Super Sabre").
The 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron was deployed to [Ching Chuan Kang Air Base](/wiki/Ching_Chuan_Kang_Air_Base "Ching Chuan Kang Air Base") in [Taichung](/wiki/Taichung "Taichung") from 6 November 1972 to 10 April 1975, using [F\-4 Phantom II](/wiki/F-4_Phantom_II "F-4 Phantom II") to assist [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan")’s air defense.
### 2013 Sequestration
Air Combat Command officials announced a stand down and reallocation of flying hours for the rest of the fiscal year 2013 due to mandatory budget cuts. The across\-the board spending cuts, called sequestration, took effect 1 March when [Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") failed to agree on a deficit\-reduction plan.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/archives/2013/04/08/reduced\-flying\-hours\-forces\-grounding\-of\-17\-usaf\-combat\-air/78539120/\|title\=Reduced flying hours forces grounding of 17 USAF combat air squadrons\|last1\=Everstein\|first1\=Brian\|date\=8 April 2013\|access\-date\=4 October 2016\|work\=\[\[Military Times]] \|last2\=Weisgerber\|first2\=Marcus}}
Squadrons either stood down on a rotating basis or kept combat ready or at a reduced readiness level called "basic mission capable" for part or all of the remaining months in fiscal 2013\. This affected the 44th Fighter Squadron with a reduction of its flying hours, placing it into a basic mission capable status from 5 April\-30 September 2013\.
### Recent events
On 28 May 2013 an F\-15C of the squadron crashed into the ocean off Okinawa. The pilot ejected and was rescued by the [Air Rescue Wing Naha Detachment](/wiki/Air_Rescue_Wing_Naha_Detachment_%28JASDF%29 "Air Rescue Wing Naha Detachment (JASDF)") of the [Japan Air Self\-Defense Force](/wiki/Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force "Japan Air Self-Defense Force").{{cite web \|url\=https://news.usni.org/2013/05/28/okinawa\-f\-15\-crashes\-pilot\-safe \|title\=Okinawa F\-15 Crashes, Pilot Safe \|last\=LaGrone \|first\=Sam \|date\=28 May 2018 \|website\=news.usni.org \|access\-date\=15 June 2018 }}{{cite news \|last\=Roth \|first\=Betty \|date\=28 May 2013 \|title\=US Air Force Pilot Survives F\-15 Crash Off Okinaw \|url\=http://www.kpbs.org/news/2013/may/28/us\-air\-force\-pilot\-survives\-f\-15\-crash\-okinawa/ \|access\-date\=15 June 2018 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.af.mil/News/Article\-Display/Article/473148/officials\-release\-report\-on\-f\-15\-accident\-near\-kadena\-ab/ \|title\=Officials release report on F\-15 accident near Kadena AB \|author\= \|date\=22 January 2014 \|website\=af.mil \|access\-date\=15 June 2018 }}
On 11 June 2018 the pilot of another F\-15C from the squadron ejected over the sea off Okinawa. This pilot was also rescued by the Air Rescue Wing Naha Detachment of the Japan Air Self\-Defense Force.{{cite news \|last\=Tan \|first\=Michelle \|date\=11 June 2018 \|title\=Kadena Air Base F\-15 crashes off Okinawa \|url\=https://www.airforcetimes.com/news/your\-air\-force/2018/06/11/kadena\-air\-base\-f\-15\-crashes\-off\-okinawa/ \|access\-date\=11 June 2018 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.thedrive.com/the\-war\-zone/21439/a\-usaf\-f\-15c\-eagle\-crashed\-off\-okinawa\-pilot\-rescued\-alive\-after\-ejection \|title\=A USAF F\-15C Eagle Crashed Off Okinawa, Pilot Rescued Alive After Ejection \|last\=Rogoway \|first\=Tyler \|date\=10 June 2018 \|website\=The War Zone \|access\-date\=11 June 2018 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### World War II",
"The 44th Flew patrols over the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific \"Pacific\") from Hawaii from 7 December 1941 – October 1942\\. It went on to fly combat missions in the South and Southwest Pacific from 21 December 1942 – 15 August 1945\\.",
"### Vietnam War",
"It again flew combat missions in [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia \"Southeast Asia\") from 18 December 1964 – 25 February 1965, 21 April – 22 June 1965, 19 – 29 October 1965, and 25 April 1967 – 6 October 1970\\.",
"The squadron was unmanned from 31 December 1966 – 24 April 1967 and November 1970–15 May 1971\\.",
"### Japan",
"It has flown air defense over [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\") and Japan since 1971\\.",
"On 17 January 2006 an F\\-15C of the squadron crashed into the Pacific Ocean near Okinawa. The pilot ejected and was rescued by an [HH\\-60](/wiki/Sikorsky_HH-60_Pave_Hawk \"Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk\") of the [33d Rescue Squadron](/wiki/33d_Rescue_Squadron \"33d Rescue Squadron\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Slavin \\|first\\=Eric \\|date\\=19 January 2006 \\|title\\=F\\-15 crashes during training off Okinawa \\|url\\=https://www.stripes.com/news/f\\-15\\-crashes\\-during\\-training\\-off\\-okinawa\\-1\\.43740 \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2018 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.japanupdate.com/archive/?id\\=6716 \\|title\\=Governor demands F\\-15's stop flying after Tuesday crash \\|author\\= \\|date\\=24 January 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2018 }}{{cite web \\|url\\= http://usaf.aib.law.af.mil/ExecSum2006/F\\-15C\\_17Jan06\\.pdf \\|title\\= F\\-15C 17 Jan 06 \\|website\\= usaf.aib.law.af.mil \\|access\\-date\\= 16 October 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064009/http://usaf.aib.law.af.mil/ExecSum2006/F\\-15C\\_17Jan06\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\= 4 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\= dead \\|df\\= dmy\\-all }}",
"The 44th Fighter Squadron was named as the winner of the Raytheon Trophy for 2012\\.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Doyle\\|first1\\=Brooke P\\|title\\=44th FS named Air Force's top air superiority squadron\\|url\\=http://www.af.mil/News/Article\\-Display/Article/109579/44th\\-fs\\-named\\-air\\-forces\\-top\\-air\\-superiority\\-squadron/\\|website\\=U.S. Air Force\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2018}}",
"### Taiwan",
"From 3–30 September 1955, 44th Fighter\\-Bomber Squadron Deployed to [Taoyuan Air Base](/wiki/Taoyuan_Air_Base \"Taoyuan Air Base\"), Taiwan with [F\\-86 Sabre](/wiki/F-86_Sabre \"F-86 Sabre\"), returning again in 1962\\-1963 in support of “BLUE SKY” military exercise in [Kung Kuan Air Base](/wiki/Kung_Kuan_Air_Base \"Kung Kuan Air Base\"), Taiwan, equipped [F\\-100 Super Sabre](/wiki/F-100_Super_Sabre \"F-100 Super Sabre\").",
"The 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron was deployed to [Ching Chuan Kang Air Base](/wiki/Ching_Chuan_Kang_Air_Base \"Ching Chuan Kang Air Base\") in [Taichung](/wiki/Taichung \"Taichung\") from 6 November 1972 to 10 April 1975, using [F\\-4 Phantom II](/wiki/F-4_Phantom_II \"F-4 Phantom II\") to assist [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\")’s air defense.",
"### 2013 Sequestration",
"Air Combat Command officials announced a stand down and reallocation of flying hours for the rest of the fiscal year 2013 due to mandatory budget cuts. The across\\-the board spending cuts, called sequestration, took effect 1 March when [Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") failed to agree on a deficit\\-reduction plan.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/archives/2013/04/08/reduced\\-flying\\-hours\\-forces\\-grounding\\-of\\-17\\-usaf\\-combat\\-air/78539120/\\|title\\=Reduced flying hours forces grounding of 17 USAF combat air squadrons\\|last1\\=Everstein\\|first1\\=Brian\\|date\\=8 April 2013\\|access\\-date\\=4 October 2016\\|work\\=\\[\\[Military Times]] \\|last2\\=Weisgerber\\|first2\\=Marcus}}",
"Squadrons either stood down on a rotating basis or kept combat ready or at a reduced readiness level called \"basic mission capable\" for part or all of the remaining months in fiscal 2013\\. This affected the 44th Fighter Squadron with a reduction of its flying hours, placing it into a basic mission capable status from 5 April\\-30 September 2013\\.",
"### Recent events",
"On 28 May 2013 an F\\-15C of the squadron crashed into the ocean off Okinawa. The pilot ejected and was rescued by the [Air Rescue Wing Naha Detachment](/wiki/Air_Rescue_Wing_Naha_Detachment_%28JASDF%29 \"Air Rescue Wing Naha Detachment (JASDF)\") of the [Japan Air Self\\-Defense Force](/wiki/Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force \"Japan Air Self-Defense Force\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://news.usni.org/2013/05/28/okinawa\\-f\\-15\\-crashes\\-pilot\\-safe \\|title\\=Okinawa F\\-15 Crashes, Pilot Safe \\|last\\=LaGrone \\|first\\=Sam \\|date\\=28 May 2018 \\|website\\=news.usni.org \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2018 }}{{cite news \\|last\\=Roth \\|first\\=Betty \\|date\\=28 May 2013 \\|title\\=US Air Force Pilot Survives F\\-15 Crash Off Okinaw \\|url\\=http://www.kpbs.org/news/2013/may/28/us\\-air\\-force\\-pilot\\-survives\\-f\\-15\\-crash\\-okinawa/ \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2018 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.af.mil/News/Article\\-Display/Article/473148/officials\\-release\\-report\\-on\\-f\\-15\\-accident\\-near\\-kadena\\-ab/ \\|title\\=Officials release report on F\\-15 accident near Kadena AB \\|author\\= \\|date\\=22 January 2014 \\|website\\=af.mil \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2018 }}",
"On 11 June 2018 the pilot of another F\\-15C from the squadron ejected over the sea off Okinawa. This pilot was also rescued by the Air Rescue Wing Naha Detachment of the Japan Air Self\\-Defense Force.{{cite news \\|last\\=Tan \\|first\\=Michelle \\|date\\=11 June 2018 \\|title\\=Kadena Air Base F\\-15 crashes off Okinawa \\|url\\=https://www.airforcetimes.com/news/your\\-air\\-force/2018/06/11/kadena\\-air\\-base\\-f\\-15\\-crashes\\-off\\-okinawa/ \\|access\\-date\\=11 June 2018 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.thedrive.com/the\\-war\\-zone/21439/a\\-usaf\\-f\\-15c\\-eagle\\-crashed\\-off\\-okinawa\\-pilot\\-rescued\\-alive\\-after\\-ejection \\|title\\=A USAF F\\-15C Eagle Crashed Off Okinawa, Pilot Rescued Alive After Ejection \\|last\\=Rogoway \\|first\\=Tyler \\|date\\=10 June 2018 \\|website\\=The War Zone \\|access\\-date\\=11 June 2018 }}",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
In 2001, Cronk was selected to play [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league "Rugby league") for Queensland and [Australian Schoolboys](/wiki/Australian_Schoolboys "Australian Schoolboys") teams. He was then selected to play in the [Queensland Cup](/wiki/Queensland_Cup "Queensland Cup")'s [Norths Devils](/wiki/Norths_Devils "Norths Devils") team. He quickly established himself in that competition and trained with the Storm Squad in 2003\. He scored 37 tries for the Norths Devils in the Queensland Cup.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.qrl.com.au/intrust\-super\-cup/clubs/norths\-devils\-profile.html\|title\=Norths Devils\|publisher\=QRL\|year\=2014\|access\-date\=31 August 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903082810/http://www.qrl.com.au/intrust\-super\-cup/clubs/norths\-devils\-profile.html\|archive\-date\=3 September 2014\|url\-status\=dead}}
### 2000s
Cronk made his debut for the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") in 2004, starting as a utility back coming off the bench and playing at {{rlp\|fe\|hk}} and {{rlp\|lk}}.
In the [2006 NRL season](/wiki/2006_NRL_season "2006 NRL season"), Cronk won the [Dally M](/wiki/Dally_M_Medal "Dally M Medal") *Halfback of the Year* award. He also played at half\-back for Melbourne in the [2006 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2006_NRL_Grand_Final "2006 NRL Grand Final") loss to Brisbane.
In 2008, Cronk was called into the Australian test team to replace Jonathan Thurston who had twisted his ankle in training. Thurston later was cleared of injury and played in the test team over Cronk. In August, 2008, Cronk was named in the [preliminary 46\-man Kangaroos squad](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team%23Rugby_League_World_Cup_Squad "Australia national rugby league team#Rugby League World Cup Squad") for the [2008 Rugby League World Cup](/wiki/2008_Rugby_League_World_Cup "2008 Rugby League World Cup"),{{cite news\|author\=Liam FitzGibbon\|publisher\="Fox Sports News (Australia)"\|title\=Surprises in Kangaroos squad\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0,8659,24111780\-23214,00\.html\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-02\|date\=1 August 2008\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080808144730/http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0%2C8659%2C24111780\-23214%2C00\.html\|archive\-date\=8 August 2008}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/08/01/sports/AS\-RGL\-Australia\-Squad.php\|title\=Veteran Lockyer named in Australian squad\|newspaper\=International Herald Tribune\|date\=1 August 2008\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-02}} however he was not selected to make an appearance. When [Cameron Smith](/wiki/Cameron_Smith_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1983%29 "Cameron Smith (rugby league, born 1983)") was sidelined by a [NRL Judiciary](/wiki/NRL_Judiciary "NRL Judiciary") suspension during Melbourne's finals campaign of the [2008 NRL season](/wiki/2008_NRL_season "2008 NRL season"), Cronk stood in as captain and captained the Storm in the [2008 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2008_NRL_Grand_Final "2008 NRL Grand Final") defeat by [Manly Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly_Sea_Eagles "Manly Sea Eagles").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0,8659,24449388\-23214,00\.html\|title\=Grand final: As it happened\|work\=Fox Sports\|date\=5 October 2008\|access\-date\=2008\-10\-05}}
In April 2009, he was named in the preliminary 25\-man squad to represent [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team "Queensland state rugby league team") in the opening [State of Origin](/wiki/Rugby_League_State_of_Origin "Rugby League State of Origin") match for 2009,{{cite news\|work\=\[\[Fox Sports (Australia)\|Fox Sports]]\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0,8659,25398645\-5016947,00\.html\|title\=Queensland name preliminary State of Origin squad\|access\-date\=2009\-04\-28\|date\=28 April 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918133045/http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0,8659,25398645\-5016947,00\.html\|archive\-date\=18 September 2012 }} however he was not selected to make an appearance. He played in the [2009 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2009_NRL_Grand_Final "2009 NRL Grand Final") against the [Parramatta Eels](/wiki/Parramatta_Eels "Parramatta Eels"), setting up 2 tries. This title was later stripped due to salary cap breaches. Cronk was named as part of the [Four Nations](/wiki/Rugby_League_Four_Nations "Rugby League Four Nations") team and played for Australia in [2009 Four Nations](/wiki/2009_Four_Nations "2009 Four Nations") Tournament in Australia against [France](/wiki/France_national_rugby_league_team "France national rugby league team") as a utility.
### 2010s
#### 2010–13
Surgery on his groin saw Cronk miss Melbourne's appearance in the [2010 World Club Challenge](/wiki/2010_World_Club_Challenge "2010 World Club Challenge"). An injury to [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston "Johnathan Thurston") saw Cronk selected for the [2010 ANZAC Test](/wiki/2010_ANZAC_Test "2010 ANZAC Test"). Cronk played off the bench as a utility for [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team "Queensland state rugby league team") in the [2010 State of Origin Series](/wiki/2010_State_of_Origin_Series "2010 State of Origin Series"), playing in all three games. In Game II, he scored his first Origin try.
[thumb\|right\|Cronk playing for Melbourne in 2010](/wiki/File:CooperC.jpg "CooperC.jpg")
He also played for [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") in the [2010 Four Nations](/wiki/2010_Four_Nations "2010 Four Nations").
Cronk played in the [2011 State of Origin Series](/wiki/2011_State_of_Origin_Series "2011 State of Origin Series"). In Game I, he set up a try for [Jharal Yow Yeh](/wiki/Jharal_Yow_Yeh "Jharal Yow Yeh") in the second half and in Game III, he set up [Greg Inglis](/wiki/Greg_Inglis "Greg Inglis") as well. In 2011, Cronk also played the tests against [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team "New Zealand national rugby league team") at the Gold Coast and Newcastle on the bench. Cronk was part of the [2011 Rugby League Four Nations](/wiki/2011_Rugby_League_Four_Nations "2011 Rugby League Four Nations") tournament, playing off the bench when the [Kangaroos](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") played the [Kiwis](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team "New Zealand national rugby league team") and England. Cooper Cronk has been selected to play Five\-Eighth against Wales, with [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston "Johnathan Thurston") at halfback, resting [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer "Darren Lockyer") for the Four Nations Final. In the [2011 Rugby League Four Nations](/wiki/2011_Rugby_League_Four_Nations "2011 Rugby League Four Nations") between Australia and Wales, Cronk scored 3 tries and set\-up 2 tries for Australia. He also played in the Four Nations Grand Final against England.
As of 29 March 2012 Cooper agreed to a further four years with the Melbourne Storm. At the [2012 Dally M Awards](/wiki/2012_Dally_M_Awards "2012 Dally M Awards") Cronk was named the NRL's halfback of the year.{{cite news\|last\=News Limited\|author\-link\=News Limited\|title\=All the Dally M winners plus galleries\|url\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/nrl/fans\-believe\-ben\-barba\-will\-score\-a\-runaway\-win\-in\-the\-dally\-m\-award/story\-e6frfgbo\-1226465030839\|access\-date\=5 September 2012\|newspaper\=\[\[Herald Sun]]\|date\=4 September 2012}} In the [2012 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2012_NRL_Grand_Final "2012 NRL Grand Final") victory over [Canterbury\-Bankstown](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs"), he won the [Clive Churchill Medal](/wiki/Clive_Churchill_Medal "Clive Churchill Medal") for the man of the match award.
Cronk kicked the game and series\-winning field goal in the final minutes of the third State of Origin match in 2012\. He later said, "To be brutally honest I was in a state of grace at that particular moment. Every sinew in my body came together in one perfect whole. But those who have ever experienced that feeling, and it doesn't happen very often, will tell you it's in a whole other place of experience from the usual ego or vanity that drives my game. So I'm not afraid to own it for what it was."{{cite news\| work \= Herald Sun\| author\= Russell Gould
\| title \= No shadow on planet Cooper Cronk
\| url \= http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/no\-shadow\-on\-planet\-cooper\-cronk/story\-fni3fr51\-1226655477237
\| access\-date \= 11 April 2014\|date\=3 June 2013}}
In February 2013, he won man of the match in Storm's 18–14 win over Leeds in the world club challenge. Cronk was also selected as starting halfback for the annual ANZAC Test match between Australia and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team "New Zealand national rugby league team") in [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra "Canberra"), playing at halfback for Australia. He also played a key role in Queensland's eighth consecutive series win with a 12–10 win over [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") in the decider, setting up the match winner try to Justin Hodges.
On 1 October 2013, Cronk was named the Dally M Player winning by two points in front of [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team "Queensland state rugby league team") teammates [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston "Johnathan Thurston") and [Daly Cherry\-Evans](/wiki/Daly_Cherry-Evans "Daly Cherry-Evans") and [Cronulla Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks "Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks") five\-eight [Todd Carney](/wiki/Todd_Carney "Todd Carney"). He was also named the Dally M Halfback of the Year.{{cite news\|title\=Cooper Cronk wins Dally M player of the year\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/cooper\-cronk\-wins\-dally\-m\-player\-of\-the\-year/tabid/10874/newsid/74930/default.aspx\|access\-date\=19 July 2014\|publisher\=NRL.com}}
#### 2014–16
Cronk broke his arm in the opening minutes of Game I of the [2014 State of Origin series](/wiki/2014_State_of_Origin_series "2014 State of Origin series") on 28 May 2014\. Written off for the series, he surprised the entire rugby league community by getting himself fit enough to take the field in Game III just six weeks later. Queensland lost the series after losing Games I and II, but in Game III on 9 July 2014 the Maroons routed New South Wales 32–8\.{{cite news\|title\=State of Origin: Cooper Cronk puts on masterclass\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/state\-of\-origin\-cooper\-cronk\-puts\-on\-masterclass\-20140710\-zt1y0\.html\|access\-date\=18 July 2014\|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald}}
On 30 August 2014, Cronk played his 250th game for Melbourne Storm, a feat achieved by only 3 others players at the club.{{cite news\|title\=Cooper Cronk notches up 250 games with Melbourne Storm\|url\=http://tvnz.co.nz/rugby\-league\-news/cronk\-reflects\-250\-game\-milestone\-6065936\|date\=31 August 2014\|access\-date\=31 August 2014\|work\=TV NZ}}
[thumb\|right\|Cronk at the [2016 TV Week Logie Awards](/wiki/Logie_Awards_of_2016 "Logie Awards of 2016"), May 2016](/wiki/File:Cooper_Cronk_2016.jpg "Cooper Cronk 2016.jpg")
2016 began with rumours linking him to rival [NRL](/wiki/NRL "NRL") clubs in Sydney, most notably the [St George Illawarra Dragons](/wiki/St_George_Illawarra_Dragons "St George Illawarra Dragons"). However, he put that in the back of his head to lead Melbourne to a great start to the season. On 2 April, he scored 2 tries to secure an 18–14 victory over the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights "Newcastle Knights"). 15 days later, he kicked a field goal in the 5th minute of [golden point](/wiki/Golden_point "Golden point") to give the Storm a 19–18 victory over the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers "Wests Tigers"). The Storm won 5 of their opening 7 games.
On 26 June 2016, Cronk became only the fifth NRL player in history to record 200 wins (from 289 games) in a 29 to 20 win over the West Tigers.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/06/26/cronk\_joins\_nrl\_s\_20\.html\|title\=Cronk joins NRL's 200\-win club\|last\=NRL\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-26}}
On 24 September 2016, in Melbourne's grand final qualifier against the Canberra Raiders, Cronk became just the 25th NRL player to notch up 300 first grade games. In doing so, he is only the 11th player to do so with the one club.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/storm/nrl\-300\-gamers\-melbourne\-storm\-halfback\-cooper\-cronk\-joining\-exclusive\-club/news\-story/dba3044cc913c59ce38e5a872d4411d1\|title\=NRL's 300 club a tough nut to crack\|website\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=16 October 2017}}
At the annual Rugby League Dally M awards on 28 September 2016, Cooper Cronk was named the [Dally M](/wiki/Dally_M "Dally M") Player of the Year for a second time after winning his first in 2013\. Cronk tied with [North Queensland Cowboys](/wiki/North_Queensland_Cowboys "North Queensland Cowboys") prop [Jason Taumalolo](/wiki/Jason_Taumalolo "Jason Taumalolo") to win. Cronk was also crowned Dally M Halfback of the Year earning the honours for the fifth time in his careers.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/09/29/dally\_m\_wrap\_storm\_e.html\|title\=Dally M Wrap: Storm Edition\|website\=Melbournestorm.com.au\|access\-date\=29 September 2016}}
[thumb\|right\|Cronk warming up for the Kangaroos at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield "Anfield") in 2016](/wiki/File:Cooper_Cronk_Australia.jpg "Cooper Cronk Australia.jpg")
This was further complemented on 22 December 2016, when Cooper Cronk won the 2016 [Rugby League World Golden Boot Award](/wiki/Rugby_League_World_Golden_Boot_Award "Rugby League World Golden Boot Award") (Worlds best player). The award is decided by a panel of Rugby League experts including [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer "Darren Lockyer").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/12/22/cronk\_s\_golden\_end\_t.html\|title\=Cronk's golden end to 2016\|website\=Melbournestorm.com.au\|access\-date\=22 December 2016}}
#### 2017
On 4 April 2017, Cronk made the announcement that the [2017 NRL season](/wiki/2017_NRL_season "2017 NRL season") would be his last for the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm"), stating he would move to Sydney; Cronk emphasised that this was purely based on family reasons rather than football\-related reasons. His then\-fiancée [Tara Rushton](/wiki/Tara_Rushton "Tara Rushton"), a [Fox sports](/wiki/Fox_Sports_%28Australia%29 "Fox Sports (Australia)") presenter based in Sydney, was the main driver behind his decision. On 30 October 2017 it was announced that he would join the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") for two seasons.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/cooper\-cronk\-signs\-with\-sydney\-roosters/news\-story/d3146538f635a00a798e2555db63873b \|title\=Cooper Cronk signs with Sydney Roosters \|publisher\=News.com.au \|date\=30 October 2017 }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/cooper\-cronk\-joins\-sydney\-roosters\-on\-twoyear\-contract\-20171029\-gzaqz8\.html \|title\=Cooper Cronk signs two\-year contract with Sydney Roosters \|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald \|date\=30 October 2017 }} Cronk and Rushton married on 14 December 2017\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/relationships/marriage/nrl\-star\-cooper\-cronk\-marries\-fox\-sports\-presenter\-tara\-rushton\-at\-jonahs\-in\-whale\-beach/news\-story/44a1716b686a78b940bfbfb235712d11 \|title\=NRL star Cooper Cronk marries Fox Sports presenter Tara Rushton at Jonah's in Whale Beach \|publisher\=News.com.au \|date\=15 December 2017 }}
**2018**
In 2018 Cooper Cronk joined the Sydney Roosters. Where he played all 26 games, including playing with a broken scapula in the grand final victory over his former club the Melbourne Storm. He then became the first player to win consecutive premierships with two different clubs in the NRL era, having won the 2017 Grand Final with Melbourne and 2018 Grand Final with the Roosters starting at halfback in both games. Cooper also became the first player in the modern era to have three consecutive grand final appearances.
**2019**
On 28 September 2019, Cronk led the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") to a 14–6 win over his former club [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") in the preliminary final. After the game, Cronk was full of praise for his former coach [Craig Bellamy](/wiki/Craig_Bellamy_%28rugby_league%29 "Craig Bellamy (rugby league)") and the [Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/nrl\-2019\-finals\-cameron\-smith\-vs\-cooper\-cronk\-storm\-vs\-roosters\-hug\-rivalry\-feud/news\-story/ef8af7d3ce642367189594d632b5248a\|title\=NRL 2019 finals: Cameron Smith vs Cooper Cronk, Storm vs Roosters, hug, rivalry, feud\|date\=2019\-09\-29\|website\=Fox Sports\|language\=en\-AU\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-06}} "It’s hard because I don’t stand here today without the people at the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm"),” Cronk said after the game. "Craig’s forefront of that, he’s a guy I’ve played a lot of football for. "It’s really emotional sometimes coming up against your old team but in this game, you really have to put it to the side because there’s always a chance of next week and you really have to ride the rollercoaster sometimes".
Winning consecutive premierships is a feat that has not been previously achieved in 26 years and Cronk had the opportunity to create history to become the first player in the modern era to win three consecutive grand final appearances and to have four consecutive grand final appearances.
On 6 October 2019, Cooper Cronk played his final game of [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League "Rugby League") in the [NRL](/wiki/NRL "NRL") for the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") in the [2019 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2019_NRL_Grand_Final "2019 NRL Grand Final"). Prior to his last match, the only thing he had not managed to achieve is back\-to\-back titles with the same club. He did that, and set the record for three consecutive grand finals in the modern era, furthermore Cronk was the first player in the NRL era to have won three consecutive premierships, additionally is one of thirteen players who have won consecutive Premierships.
Cronk was revered by the [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League "Rugby League") community for his achievements within the game, to win four [NRL Grand Finals](/wiki/NRL_Grand_Final "NRL Grand Final") from nine games.
During the press conference,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/game\-s\-greatest\-thinker\-trent\-robinson\-s\-big\-praise\-for\-cooper\-cronk\-20191007\-p52y6a.html\|title\='Game's greatest thinker': Trent Robinson's big praise for Cooper Cronk\|last\=Proszenko\|first\=Adrian\|date\=2019\-10\-06\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-06}} coach [Trent Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson "Trent Robinson") labelled the retiree the "greatest thinker to ever play rugby league". "It’s hard to explain how great Cooper is", [Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson "Trent Robinson") said. "I'm a better coach because Cooper is here. We are a better club and a better team because Cooper is here. We asked him to come and do a job and he said, 'I'm going to come, I'm going to get it done.'"I think he is the greatest thinker to ever play rugby league. To walk onto the field and do what he's done in our game – the guy is skilful but my left\-to\-right (pass) is better than Cooper's.
In Cronk's final interview, he laughed 'he had enough'.
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"In 2001, Cronk was selected to play [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league \"Rugby league\") for Queensland and [Australian Schoolboys](/wiki/Australian_Schoolboys \"Australian Schoolboys\") teams. He was then selected to play in the [Queensland Cup](/wiki/Queensland_Cup \"Queensland Cup\")'s [Norths Devils](/wiki/Norths_Devils \"Norths Devils\") team. He quickly established himself in that competition and trained with the Storm Squad in 2003\\. He scored 37 tries for the Norths Devils in the Queensland Cup.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.qrl.com.au/intrust\\-super\\-cup/clubs/norths\\-devils\\-profile.html\\|title\\=Norths Devils\\|publisher\\=QRL\\|year\\=2014\\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903082810/http://www.qrl.com.au/intrust\\-super\\-cup/clubs/norths\\-devils\\-profile.html\\|archive\\-date\\=3 September 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### 2000s",
"Cronk made his debut for the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") in 2004, starting as a utility back coming off the bench and playing at {{rlp\\|fe\\|hk}} and {{rlp\\|lk}}.",
"In the [2006 NRL season](/wiki/2006_NRL_season \"2006 NRL season\"), Cronk won the [Dally M](/wiki/Dally_M_Medal \"Dally M Medal\") *Halfback of the Year* award. He also played at half\\-back for Melbourne in the [2006 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2006_NRL_Grand_Final \"2006 NRL Grand Final\") loss to Brisbane.",
"In 2008, Cronk was called into the Australian test team to replace Jonathan Thurston who had twisted his ankle in training. Thurston later was cleared of injury and played in the test team over Cronk. In August, 2008, Cronk was named in the [preliminary 46\\-man Kangaroos squad](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team%23Rugby_League_World_Cup_Squad \"Australia national rugby league team#Rugby League World Cup Squad\") for the [2008 Rugby League World Cup](/wiki/2008_Rugby_League_World_Cup \"2008 Rugby League World Cup\"),{{cite news\\|author\\=Liam FitzGibbon\\|publisher\\=\"Fox Sports News (Australia)\"\\|title\\=Surprises in Kangaroos squad\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0,8659,24111780\\-23214,00\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-02\\|date\\=1 August 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080808144730/http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0%2C8659%2C24111780\\-23214%2C00\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=8 August 2008}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/08/01/sports/AS\\-RGL\\-Australia\\-Squad.php\\|title\\=Veteran Lockyer named in Australian squad\\|newspaper\\=International Herald Tribune\\|date\\=1 August 2008\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-02}} however he was not selected to make an appearance. When [Cameron Smith](/wiki/Cameron_Smith_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1983%29 \"Cameron Smith (rugby league, born 1983)\") was sidelined by a [NRL Judiciary](/wiki/NRL_Judiciary \"NRL Judiciary\") suspension during Melbourne's finals campaign of the [2008 NRL season](/wiki/2008_NRL_season \"2008 NRL season\"), Cronk stood in as captain and captained the Storm in the [2008 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2008_NRL_Grand_Final \"2008 NRL Grand Final\") defeat by [Manly Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly_Sea_Eagles \"Manly Sea Eagles\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0,8659,24449388\\-23214,00\\.html\\|title\\=Grand final: As it happened\\|work\\=Fox Sports\\|date\\=5 October 2008\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-05}}",
"In April 2009, he was named in the preliminary 25\\-man squad to represent [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team \"Queensland state rugby league team\") in the opening [State of Origin](/wiki/Rugby_League_State_of_Origin \"Rugby League State of Origin\") match for 2009,{{cite news\\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports (Australia)\\|Fox Sports]]\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0,8659,25398645\\-5016947,00\\.html\\|title\\=Queensland name preliminary State of Origin squad\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-28\\|date\\=28 April 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918133045/http://www.foxsports.com.au/story/0,8659,25398645\\-5016947,00\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=18 September 2012 }} however he was not selected to make an appearance. He played in the [2009 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2009_NRL_Grand_Final \"2009 NRL Grand Final\") against the [Parramatta Eels](/wiki/Parramatta_Eels \"Parramatta Eels\"), setting up 2 tries. This title was later stripped due to salary cap breaches. Cronk was named as part of the [Four Nations](/wiki/Rugby_League_Four_Nations \"Rugby League Four Nations\") team and played for Australia in [2009 Four Nations](/wiki/2009_Four_Nations \"2009 Four Nations\") Tournament in Australia against [France](/wiki/France_national_rugby_league_team \"France national rugby league team\") as a utility.",
"### 2010s",
"#### 2010–13",
"Surgery on his groin saw Cronk miss Melbourne's appearance in the [2010 World Club Challenge](/wiki/2010_World_Club_Challenge \"2010 World Club Challenge\"). An injury to [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston \"Johnathan Thurston\") saw Cronk selected for the [2010 ANZAC Test](/wiki/2010_ANZAC_Test \"2010 ANZAC Test\"). Cronk played off the bench as a utility for [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team \"Queensland state rugby league team\") in the [2010 State of Origin Series](/wiki/2010_State_of_Origin_Series \"2010 State of Origin Series\"), playing in all three games. In Game II, he scored his first Origin try. \n[thumb\\|right\\|Cronk playing for Melbourne in 2010](/wiki/File:CooperC.jpg \"CooperC.jpg\")\nHe also played for [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") in the [2010 Four Nations](/wiki/2010_Four_Nations \"2010 Four Nations\").",
"Cronk played in the [2011 State of Origin Series](/wiki/2011_State_of_Origin_Series \"2011 State of Origin Series\"). In Game I, he set up a try for [Jharal Yow Yeh](/wiki/Jharal_Yow_Yeh \"Jharal Yow Yeh\") in the second half and in Game III, he set up [Greg Inglis](/wiki/Greg_Inglis \"Greg Inglis\") as well. In 2011, Cronk also played the tests against [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team \"New Zealand national rugby league team\") at the Gold Coast and Newcastle on the bench. Cronk was part of the [2011 Rugby League Four Nations](/wiki/2011_Rugby_League_Four_Nations \"2011 Rugby League Four Nations\") tournament, playing off the bench when the [Kangaroos](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") played the [Kiwis](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team \"New Zealand national rugby league team\") and England. Cooper Cronk has been selected to play Five\\-Eighth against Wales, with [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston \"Johnathan Thurston\") at halfback, resting [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer \"Darren Lockyer\") for the Four Nations Final. In the [2011 Rugby League Four Nations](/wiki/2011_Rugby_League_Four_Nations \"2011 Rugby League Four Nations\") between Australia and Wales, Cronk scored 3 tries and set\\-up 2 tries for Australia. He also played in the Four Nations Grand Final against England.",
"As of 29 March 2012 Cooper agreed to a further four years with the Melbourne Storm. At the [2012 Dally M Awards](/wiki/2012_Dally_M_Awards \"2012 Dally M Awards\") Cronk was named the NRL's halfback of the year.{{cite news\\|last\\=News Limited\\|author\\-link\\=News Limited\\|title\\=All the Dally M winners plus galleries\\|url\\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/nrl/fans\\-believe\\-ben\\-barba\\-will\\-score\\-a\\-runaway\\-win\\-in\\-the\\-dally\\-m\\-award/story\\-e6frfgbo\\-1226465030839\\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2012\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Herald Sun]]\\|date\\=4 September 2012}} In the [2012 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2012_NRL_Grand_Final \"2012 NRL Grand Final\") victory over [Canterbury\\-Bankstown](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs \"Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs\"), he won the [Clive Churchill Medal](/wiki/Clive_Churchill_Medal \"Clive Churchill Medal\") for the man of the match award.",
"Cronk kicked the game and series\\-winning field goal in the final minutes of the third State of Origin match in 2012\\. He later said, \"To be brutally honest I was in a state of grace at that particular moment. Every sinew in my body came together in one perfect whole. But those who have ever experienced that feeling, and it doesn't happen very often, will tell you it's in a whole other place of experience from the usual ego or vanity that drives my game. So I'm not afraid to own it for what it was.\"{{cite news\\| work \\= Herald Sun\\| author\\= Russell Gould\n\\| title \\= No shadow on planet Cooper Cronk\n\\| url \\= http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/no\\-shadow\\-on\\-planet\\-cooper\\-cronk/story\\-fni3fr51\\-1226655477237\n\\| access\\-date \\= 11 April 2014\\|date\\=3 June 2013}}",
"In February 2013, he won man of the match in Storm's 18–14 win over Leeds in the world club challenge. Cronk was also selected as starting halfback for the annual ANZAC Test match between Australia and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team \"New Zealand national rugby league team\") in [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\"), playing at halfback for Australia. He also played a key role in Queensland's eighth consecutive series win with a 12–10 win over [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") in the decider, setting up the match winner try to Justin Hodges.",
"On 1 October 2013, Cronk was named the Dally M Player winning by two points in front of [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team \"Queensland state rugby league team\") teammates [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston \"Johnathan Thurston\") and [Daly Cherry\\-Evans](/wiki/Daly_Cherry-Evans \"Daly Cherry-Evans\") and [Cronulla Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks \"Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks\") five\\-eight [Todd Carney](/wiki/Todd_Carney \"Todd Carney\"). He was also named the Dally M Halfback of the Year.{{cite news\\|title\\=Cooper Cronk wins Dally M player of the year\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/cooper\\-cronk\\-wins\\-dally\\-m\\-player\\-of\\-the\\-year/tabid/10874/newsid/74930/default.aspx\\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2014\\|publisher\\=NRL.com}}",
"#### 2014–16",
"Cronk broke his arm in the opening minutes of Game I of the [2014 State of Origin series](/wiki/2014_State_of_Origin_series \"2014 State of Origin series\") on 28 May 2014\\. Written off for the series, he surprised the entire rugby league community by getting himself fit enough to take the field in Game III just six weeks later. Queensland lost the series after losing Games I and II, but in Game III on 9 July 2014 the Maroons routed New South Wales 32–8\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=State of Origin: Cooper Cronk puts on masterclass\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/state\\-of\\-origin\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-puts\\-on\\-masterclass\\-20140710\\-zt1y0\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2014\\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald}}",
"On 30 August 2014, Cronk played his 250th game for Melbourne Storm, a feat achieved by only 3 others players at the club.{{cite news\\|title\\=Cooper Cronk notches up 250 games with Melbourne Storm\\|url\\=http://tvnz.co.nz/rugby\\-league\\-news/cronk\\-reflects\\-250\\-game\\-milestone\\-6065936\\|date\\=31 August 2014\\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2014\\|work\\=TV NZ}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Cronk at the [2016 TV Week Logie Awards](/wiki/Logie_Awards_of_2016 \"Logie Awards of 2016\"), May 2016](/wiki/File:Cooper_Cronk_2016.jpg \"Cooper Cronk 2016.jpg\")\n2016 began with rumours linking him to rival [NRL](/wiki/NRL \"NRL\") clubs in Sydney, most notably the [St George Illawarra Dragons](/wiki/St_George_Illawarra_Dragons \"St George Illawarra Dragons\"). However, he put that in the back of his head to lead Melbourne to a great start to the season. On 2 April, he scored 2 tries to secure an 18–14 victory over the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights \"Newcastle Knights\"). 15 days later, he kicked a field goal in the 5th minute of [golden point](/wiki/Golden_point \"Golden point\") to give the Storm a 19–18 victory over the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers \"Wests Tigers\"). The Storm won 5 of their opening 7 games.",
"On 26 June 2016, Cronk became only the fifth NRL player in history to record 200 wins (from 289 games) in a 29 to 20 win over the West Tigers.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/06/26/cronk\\_joins\\_nrl\\_s\\_20\\.html\\|title\\=Cronk joins NRL's 200\\-win club\\|last\\=NRL\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-26}}",
"On 24 September 2016, in Melbourne's grand final qualifier against the Canberra Raiders, Cronk became just the 25th NRL player to notch up 300 first grade games. In doing so, he is only the 11th player to do so with the one club.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/storm/nrl\\-300\\-gamers\\-melbourne\\-storm\\-halfback\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-joining\\-exclusive\\-club/news\\-story/dba3044cc913c59ce38e5a872d4411d1\\|title\\=NRL's 300 club a tough nut to crack\\|website\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=16 October 2017}}",
"At the annual Rugby League Dally M awards on 28 September 2016, Cooper Cronk was named the [Dally M](/wiki/Dally_M \"Dally M\") Player of the Year for a second time after winning his first in 2013\\. Cronk tied with [North Queensland Cowboys](/wiki/North_Queensland_Cowboys \"North Queensland Cowboys\") prop [Jason Taumalolo](/wiki/Jason_Taumalolo \"Jason Taumalolo\") to win. Cronk was also crowned Dally M Halfback of the Year earning the honours for the fifth time in his careers.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/09/29/dally\\_m\\_wrap\\_storm\\_e.html\\|title\\=Dally M Wrap: Storm Edition\\|website\\=Melbournestorm.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=29 September 2016}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Cronk warming up for the Kangaroos at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield \"Anfield\") in 2016](/wiki/File:Cooper_Cronk_Australia.jpg \"Cooper Cronk Australia.jpg\")\nThis was further complemented on 22 December 2016, when Cooper Cronk won the 2016 [Rugby League World Golden Boot Award](/wiki/Rugby_League_World_Golden_Boot_Award \"Rugby League World Golden Boot Award\") (Worlds best player). The award is decided by a panel of Rugby League experts including [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer \"Darren Lockyer\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/12/22/cronk\\_s\\_golden\\_end\\_t.html\\|title\\=Cronk's golden end to 2016\\|website\\=Melbournestorm.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2016}}",
"#### 2017",
"On 4 April 2017, Cronk made the announcement that the [2017 NRL season](/wiki/2017_NRL_season \"2017 NRL season\") would be his last for the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\"), stating he would move to Sydney; Cronk emphasised that this was purely based on family reasons rather than football\\-related reasons. His then\\-fiancée [Tara Rushton](/wiki/Tara_Rushton \"Tara Rushton\"), a [Fox sports](/wiki/Fox_Sports_%28Australia%29 \"Fox Sports (Australia)\") presenter based in Sydney, was the main driver behind his decision. On 30 October 2017 it was announced that he would join the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") for two seasons.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/cooper\\-cronk\\-signs\\-with\\-sydney\\-roosters/news\\-story/d3146538f635a00a798e2555db63873b \\|title\\=Cooper Cronk signs with Sydney Roosters \\|publisher\\=News.com.au \\|date\\=30 October 2017 }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/cooper\\-cronk\\-joins\\-sydney\\-roosters\\-on\\-twoyear\\-contract\\-20171029\\-gzaqz8\\.html \\|title\\=Cooper Cronk signs two\\-year contract with Sydney Roosters \\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald \\|date\\=30 October 2017 }} Cronk and Rushton married on 14 December 2017\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/relationships/marriage/nrl\\-star\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-marries\\-fox\\-sports\\-presenter\\-tara\\-rushton\\-at\\-jonahs\\-in\\-whale\\-beach/news\\-story/44a1716b686a78b940bfbfb235712d11 \\|title\\=NRL star Cooper Cronk marries Fox Sports presenter Tara Rushton at Jonah's in Whale Beach \\|publisher\\=News.com.au \\|date\\=15 December 2017 }}",
"**2018**",
"In 2018 Cooper Cronk joined the Sydney Roosters. Where he played all 26 games, including playing with a broken scapula in the grand final victory over his former club the Melbourne Storm. He then became the first player to win consecutive premierships with two different clubs in the NRL era, having won the 2017 Grand Final with Melbourne and 2018 Grand Final with the Roosters starting at halfback in both games. Cooper also became the first player in the modern era to have three consecutive grand final appearances.",
"**2019**",
"On 28 September 2019, Cronk led the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") to a 14–6 win over his former club [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") in the preliminary final. After the game, Cronk was full of praise for his former coach [Craig Bellamy](/wiki/Craig_Bellamy_%28rugby_league%29 \"Craig Bellamy (rugby league)\") and the [Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/nrl\\-2019\\-finals\\-cameron\\-smith\\-vs\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-storm\\-vs\\-roosters\\-hug\\-rivalry\\-feud/news\\-story/ef8af7d3ce642367189594d632b5248a\\|title\\=NRL 2019 finals: Cameron Smith vs Cooper Cronk, Storm vs Roosters, hug, rivalry, feud\\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-29\\|website\\=Fox Sports\\|language\\=en\\-AU\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-06}} \"It’s hard because I don’t stand here today without the people at the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\"),” Cronk said after the game. \"Craig’s forefront of that, he’s a guy I’ve played a lot of football for. \"It’s really emotional sometimes coming up against your old team but in this game, you really have to put it to the side because there’s always a chance of next week and you really have to ride the rollercoaster sometimes\".",
"Winning consecutive premierships is a feat that has not been previously achieved in 26 years and Cronk had the opportunity to create history to become the first player in the modern era to win three consecutive grand final appearances and to have four consecutive grand final appearances.",
"On 6 October 2019, Cooper Cronk played his final game of [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League \"Rugby League\") in the [NRL](/wiki/NRL \"NRL\") for the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") in the [2019 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2019_NRL_Grand_Final \"2019 NRL Grand Final\"). Prior to his last match, the only thing he had not managed to achieve is back\\-to\\-back titles with the same club. He did that, and set the record for three consecutive grand finals in the modern era, furthermore Cronk was the first player in the NRL era to have won three consecutive premierships, additionally is one of thirteen players who have won consecutive Premierships. \nCronk was revered by the [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League \"Rugby League\") community for his achievements within the game, to win four [NRL Grand Finals](/wiki/NRL_Grand_Final \"NRL Grand Final\") from nine games.",
"During the press conference,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/game\\-s\\-greatest\\-thinker\\-trent\\-robinson\\-s\\-big\\-praise\\-for\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-20191007\\-p52y6a.html\\|title\\='Game's greatest thinker': Trent Robinson's big praise for Cooper Cronk\\|last\\=Proszenko\\|first\\=Adrian\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-06\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-06}} coach [Trent Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson \"Trent Robinson\") labelled the retiree the \"greatest thinker to ever play rugby league\". \"It’s hard to explain how great Cooper is\", [Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson \"Trent Robinson\") said. \"I'm a better coach because Cooper is here. We are a better club and a better team because Cooper is here. We asked him to come and do a job and he said, 'I'm going to come, I'm going to get it done.'\"I think he is the greatest thinker to ever play rugby league. To walk onto the field and do what he's done in our game – the guy is skilful but my left\\-to\\-right (pass) is better than Cooper's.",
"In Cronk's final interview, he laughed 'he had enough'.",
""
] |
### 2010s
#### 2010–13
Surgery on his groin saw Cronk miss Melbourne's appearance in the [2010 World Club Challenge](/wiki/2010_World_Club_Challenge "2010 World Club Challenge"). An injury to [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston "Johnathan Thurston") saw Cronk selected for the [2010 ANZAC Test](/wiki/2010_ANZAC_Test "2010 ANZAC Test"). Cronk played off the bench as a utility for [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team "Queensland state rugby league team") in the [2010 State of Origin Series](/wiki/2010_State_of_Origin_Series "2010 State of Origin Series"), playing in all three games. In Game II, he scored his first Origin try.
[thumb\|right\|Cronk playing for Melbourne in 2010](/wiki/File:CooperC.jpg "CooperC.jpg")
He also played for [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") in the [2010 Four Nations](/wiki/2010_Four_Nations "2010 Four Nations").
Cronk played in the [2011 State of Origin Series](/wiki/2011_State_of_Origin_Series "2011 State of Origin Series"). In Game I, he set up a try for [Jharal Yow Yeh](/wiki/Jharal_Yow_Yeh "Jharal Yow Yeh") in the second half and in Game III, he set up [Greg Inglis](/wiki/Greg_Inglis "Greg Inglis") as well. In 2011, Cronk also played the tests against [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team "New Zealand national rugby league team") at the Gold Coast and Newcastle on the bench. Cronk was part of the [2011 Rugby League Four Nations](/wiki/2011_Rugby_League_Four_Nations "2011 Rugby League Four Nations") tournament, playing off the bench when the [Kangaroos](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") played the [Kiwis](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team "New Zealand national rugby league team") and England. Cooper Cronk has been selected to play Five\-Eighth against Wales, with [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston "Johnathan Thurston") at halfback, resting [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer "Darren Lockyer") for the Four Nations Final. In the [2011 Rugby League Four Nations](/wiki/2011_Rugby_League_Four_Nations "2011 Rugby League Four Nations") between Australia and Wales, Cronk scored 3 tries and set\-up 2 tries for Australia. He also played in the Four Nations Grand Final against England.
As of 29 March 2012 Cooper agreed to a further four years with the Melbourne Storm. At the [2012 Dally M Awards](/wiki/2012_Dally_M_Awards "2012 Dally M Awards") Cronk was named the NRL's halfback of the year.{{cite news\|last\=News Limited\|author\-link\=News Limited\|title\=All the Dally M winners plus galleries\|url\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/nrl/fans\-believe\-ben\-barba\-will\-score\-a\-runaway\-win\-in\-the\-dally\-m\-award/story\-e6frfgbo\-1226465030839\|access\-date\=5 September 2012\|newspaper\=\[\[Herald Sun]]\|date\=4 September 2012}} In the [2012 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2012_NRL_Grand_Final "2012 NRL Grand Final") victory over [Canterbury\-Bankstown](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs"), he won the [Clive Churchill Medal](/wiki/Clive_Churchill_Medal "Clive Churchill Medal") for the man of the match award.
Cronk kicked the game and series\-winning field goal in the final minutes of the third State of Origin match in 2012\. He later said, "To be brutally honest I was in a state of grace at that particular moment. Every sinew in my body came together in one perfect whole. But those who have ever experienced that feeling, and it doesn't happen very often, will tell you it's in a whole other place of experience from the usual ego or vanity that drives my game. So I'm not afraid to own it for what it was."{{cite news\| work \= Herald Sun\| author\= Russell Gould
\| title \= No shadow on planet Cooper Cronk
\| url \= http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/no\-shadow\-on\-planet\-cooper\-cronk/story\-fni3fr51\-1226655477237
\| access\-date \= 11 April 2014\|date\=3 June 2013}}
In February 2013, he won man of the match in Storm's 18–14 win over Leeds in the world club challenge. Cronk was also selected as starting halfback for the annual ANZAC Test match between Australia and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team "New Zealand national rugby league team") in [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra "Canberra"), playing at halfback for Australia. He also played a key role in Queensland's eighth consecutive series win with a 12–10 win over [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") in the decider, setting up the match winner try to Justin Hodges.
On 1 October 2013, Cronk was named the Dally M Player winning by two points in front of [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team "Queensland state rugby league team") teammates [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston "Johnathan Thurston") and [Daly Cherry\-Evans](/wiki/Daly_Cherry-Evans "Daly Cherry-Evans") and [Cronulla Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks "Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks") five\-eight [Todd Carney](/wiki/Todd_Carney "Todd Carney"). He was also named the Dally M Halfback of the Year.{{cite news\|title\=Cooper Cronk wins Dally M player of the year\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/cooper\-cronk\-wins\-dally\-m\-player\-of\-the\-year/tabid/10874/newsid/74930/default.aspx\|access\-date\=19 July 2014\|publisher\=NRL.com}}
#### 2014–16
Cronk broke his arm in the opening minutes of Game I of the [2014 State of Origin series](/wiki/2014_State_of_Origin_series "2014 State of Origin series") on 28 May 2014\. Written off for the series, he surprised the entire rugby league community by getting himself fit enough to take the field in Game III just six weeks later. Queensland lost the series after losing Games I and II, but in Game III on 9 July 2014 the Maroons routed New South Wales 32–8\.{{cite news\|title\=State of Origin: Cooper Cronk puts on masterclass\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/state\-of\-origin\-cooper\-cronk\-puts\-on\-masterclass\-20140710\-zt1y0\.html\|access\-date\=18 July 2014\|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald}}
On 30 August 2014, Cronk played his 250th game for Melbourne Storm, a feat achieved by only 3 others players at the club.{{cite news\|title\=Cooper Cronk notches up 250 games with Melbourne Storm\|url\=http://tvnz.co.nz/rugby\-league\-news/cronk\-reflects\-250\-game\-milestone\-6065936\|date\=31 August 2014\|access\-date\=31 August 2014\|work\=TV NZ}}
[thumb\|right\|Cronk at the [2016 TV Week Logie Awards](/wiki/Logie_Awards_of_2016 "Logie Awards of 2016"), May 2016](/wiki/File:Cooper_Cronk_2016.jpg "Cooper Cronk 2016.jpg")
2016 began with rumours linking him to rival [NRL](/wiki/NRL "NRL") clubs in Sydney, most notably the [St George Illawarra Dragons](/wiki/St_George_Illawarra_Dragons "St George Illawarra Dragons"). However, he put that in the back of his head to lead Melbourne to a great start to the season. On 2 April, he scored 2 tries to secure an 18–14 victory over the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights "Newcastle Knights"). 15 days later, he kicked a field goal in the 5th minute of [golden point](/wiki/Golden_point "Golden point") to give the Storm a 19–18 victory over the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers "Wests Tigers"). The Storm won 5 of their opening 7 games.
On 26 June 2016, Cronk became only the fifth NRL player in history to record 200 wins (from 289 games) in a 29 to 20 win over the West Tigers.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/06/26/cronk\_joins\_nrl\_s\_20\.html\|title\=Cronk joins NRL's 200\-win club\|last\=NRL\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-26}}
On 24 September 2016, in Melbourne's grand final qualifier against the Canberra Raiders, Cronk became just the 25th NRL player to notch up 300 first grade games. In doing so, he is only the 11th player to do so with the one club.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/storm/nrl\-300\-gamers\-melbourne\-storm\-halfback\-cooper\-cronk\-joining\-exclusive\-club/news\-story/dba3044cc913c59ce38e5a872d4411d1\|title\=NRL's 300 club a tough nut to crack\|website\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=16 October 2017}}
At the annual Rugby League Dally M awards on 28 September 2016, Cooper Cronk was named the [Dally M](/wiki/Dally_M "Dally M") Player of the Year for a second time after winning his first in 2013\. Cronk tied with [North Queensland Cowboys](/wiki/North_Queensland_Cowboys "North Queensland Cowboys") prop [Jason Taumalolo](/wiki/Jason_Taumalolo "Jason Taumalolo") to win. Cronk was also crowned Dally M Halfback of the Year earning the honours for the fifth time in his careers.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/09/29/dally\_m\_wrap\_storm\_e.html\|title\=Dally M Wrap: Storm Edition\|website\=Melbournestorm.com.au\|access\-date\=29 September 2016}}
[thumb\|right\|Cronk warming up for the Kangaroos at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield "Anfield") in 2016](/wiki/File:Cooper_Cronk_Australia.jpg "Cooper Cronk Australia.jpg")
This was further complemented on 22 December 2016, when Cooper Cronk won the 2016 [Rugby League World Golden Boot Award](/wiki/Rugby_League_World_Golden_Boot_Award "Rugby League World Golden Boot Award") (Worlds best player). The award is decided by a panel of Rugby League experts including [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer "Darren Lockyer").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/12/22/cronk\_s\_golden\_end\_t.html\|title\=Cronk's golden end to 2016\|website\=Melbournestorm.com.au\|access\-date\=22 December 2016}}
#### 2017
On 4 April 2017, Cronk made the announcement that the [2017 NRL season](/wiki/2017_NRL_season "2017 NRL season") would be his last for the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm"), stating he would move to Sydney; Cronk emphasised that this was purely based on family reasons rather than football\-related reasons. His then\-fiancée [Tara Rushton](/wiki/Tara_Rushton "Tara Rushton"), a [Fox sports](/wiki/Fox_Sports_%28Australia%29 "Fox Sports (Australia)") presenter based in Sydney, was the main driver behind his decision. On 30 October 2017 it was announced that he would join the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") for two seasons.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/cooper\-cronk\-signs\-with\-sydney\-roosters/news\-story/d3146538f635a00a798e2555db63873b \|title\=Cooper Cronk signs with Sydney Roosters \|publisher\=News.com.au \|date\=30 October 2017 }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/cooper\-cronk\-joins\-sydney\-roosters\-on\-twoyear\-contract\-20171029\-gzaqz8\.html \|title\=Cooper Cronk signs two\-year contract with Sydney Roosters \|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald \|date\=30 October 2017 }} Cronk and Rushton married on 14 December 2017\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/relationships/marriage/nrl\-star\-cooper\-cronk\-marries\-fox\-sports\-presenter\-tara\-rushton\-at\-jonahs\-in\-whale\-beach/news\-story/44a1716b686a78b940bfbfb235712d11 \|title\=NRL star Cooper Cronk marries Fox Sports presenter Tara Rushton at Jonah's in Whale Beach \|publisher\=News.com.au \|date\=15 December 2017 }}
**2018**
In 2018 Cooper Cronk joined the Sydney Roosters. Where he played all 26 games, including playing with a broken scapula in the grand final victory over his former club the Melbourne Storm. He then became the first player to win consecutive premierships with two different clubs in the NRL era, having won the 2017 Grand Final with Melbourne and 2018 Grand Final with the Roosters starting at halfback in both games. Cooper also became the first player in the modern era to have three consecutive grand final appearances.
**2019**
On 28 September 2019, Cronk led the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") to a 14–6 win over his former club [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") in the preliminary final. After the game, Cronk was full of praise for his former coach [Craig Bellamy](/wiki/Craig_Bellamy_%28rugby_league%29 "Craig Bellamy (rugby league)") and the [Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/nrl\-2019\-finals\-cameron\-smith\-vs\-cooper\-cronk\-storm\-vs\-roosters\-hug\-rivalry\-feud/news\-story/ef8af7d3ce642367189594d632b5248a\|title\=NRL 2019 finals: Cameron Smith vs Cooper Cronk, Storm vs Roosters, hug, rivalry, feud\|date\=2019\-09\-29\|website\=Fox Sports\|language\=en\-AU\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-06}} "It’s hard because I don’t stand here today without the people at the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm"),” Cronk said after the game. "Craig’s forefront of that, he’s a guy I’ve played a lot of football for. "It’s really emotional sometimes coming up against your old team but in this game, you really have to put it to the side because there’s always a chance of next week and you really have to ride the rollercoaster sometimes".
Winning consecutive premierships is a feat that has not been previously achieved in 26 years and Cronk had the opportunity to create history to become the first player in the modern era to win three consecutive grand final appearances and to have four consecutive grand final appearances.
On 6 October 2019, Cooper Cronk played his final game of [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League "Rugby League") in the [NRL](/wiki/NRL "NRL") for the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") in the [2019 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2019_NRL_Grand_Final "2019 NRL Grand Final"). Prior to his last match, the only thing he had not managed to achieve is back\-to\-back titles with the same club. He did that, and set the record for three consecutive grand finals in the modern era, furthermore Cronk was the first player in the NRL era to have won three consecutive premierships, additionally is one of thirteen players who have won consecutive Premierships.
Cronk was revered by the [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League "Rugby League") community for his achievements within the game, to win four [NRL Grand Finals](/wiki/NRL_Grand_Final "NRL Grand Final") from nine games.
During the press conference,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/game\-s\-greatest\-thinker\-trent\-robinson\-s\-big\-praise\-for\-cooper\-cronk\-20191007\-p52y6a.html\|title\='Game's greatest thinker': Trent Robinson's big praise for Cooper Cronk\|last\=Proszenko\|first\=Adrian\|date\=2019\-10\-06\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-06}} coach [Trent Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson "Trent Robinson") labelled the retiree the "greatest thinker to ever play rugby league". "It’s hard to explain how great Cooper is", [Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson "Trent Robinson") said. "I'm a better coach because Cooper is here. We are a better club and a better team because Cooper is here. We asked him to come and do a job and he said, 'I'm going to come, I'm going to get it done.'"I think he is the greatest thinker to ever play rugby league. To walk onto the field and do what he's done in our game – the guy is skilful but my left\-to\-right (pass) is better than Cooper's.
In Cronk's final interview, he laughed 'he had enough'.
|
[
"### 2010s",
"#### 2010–13",
"Surgery on his groin saw Cronk miss Melbourne's appearance in the [2010 World Club Challenge](/wiki/2010_World_Club_Challenge \"2010 World Club Challenge\"). An injury to [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston \"Johnathan Thurston\") saw Cronk selected for the [2010 ANZAC Test](/wiki/2010_ANZAC_Test \"2010 ANZAC Test\"). Cronk played off the bench as a utility for [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team \"Queensland state rugby league team\") in the [2010 State of Origin Series](/wiki/2010_State_of_Origin_Series \"2010 State of Origin Series\"), playing in all three games. In Game II, he scored his first Origin try. \n[thumb\\|right\\|Cronk playing for Melbourne in 2010](/wiki/File:CooperC.jpg \"CooperC.jpg\")\nHe also played for [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") in the [2010 Four Nations](/wiki/2010_Four_Nations \"2010 Four Nations\").",
"Cronk played in the [2011 State of Origin Series](/wiki/2011_State_of_Origin_Series \"2011 State of Origin Series\"). In Game I, he set up a try for [Jharal Yow Yeh](/wiki/Jharal_Yow_Yeh \"Jharal Yow Yeh\") in the second half and in Game III, he set up [Greg Inglis](/wiki/Greg_Inglis \"Greg Inglis\") as well. In 2011, Cronk also played the tests against [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team \"New Zealand national rugby league team\") at the Gold Coast and Newcastle on the bench. Cronk was part of the [2011 Rugby League Four Nations](/wiki/2011_Rugby_League_Four_Nations \"2011 Rugby League Four Nations\") tournament, playing off the bench when the [Kangaroos](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") played the [Kiwis](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team \"New Zealand national rugby league team\") and England. Cooper Cronk has been selected to play Five\\-Eighth against Wales, with [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston \"Johnathan Thurston\") at halfback, resting [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer \"Darren Lockyer\") for the Four Nations Final. In the [2011 Rugby League Four Nations](/wiki/2011_Rugby_League_Four_Nations \"2011 Rugby League Four Nations\") between Australia and Wales, Cronk scored 3 tries and set\\-up 2 tries for Australia. He also played in the Four Nations Grand Final against England.",
"As of 29 March 2012 Cooper agreed to a further four years with the Melbourne Storm. At the [2012 Dally M Awards](/wiki/2012_Dally_M_Awards \"2012 Dally M Awards\") Cronk was named the NRL's halfback of the year.{{cite news\\|last\\=News Limited\\|author\\-link\\=News Limited\\|title\\=All the Dally M winners plus galleries\\|url\\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/nrl/fans\\-believe\\-ben\\-barba\\-will\\-score\\-a\\-runaway\\-win\\-in\\-the\\-dally\\-m\\-award/story\\-e6frfgbo\\-1226465030839\\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2012\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Herald Sun]]\\|date\\=4 September 2012}} In the [2012 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2012_NRL_Grand_Final \"2012 NRL Grand Final\") victory over [Canterbury\\-Bankstown](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs \"Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs\"), he won the [Clive Churchill Medal](/wiki/Clive_Churchill_Medal \"Clive Churchill Medal\") for the man of the match award.",
"Cronk kicked the game and series\\-winning field goal in the final minutes of the third State of Origin match in 2012\\. He later said, \"To be brutally honest I was in a state of grace at that particular moment. Every sinew in my body came together in one perfect whole. But those who have ever experienced that feeling, and it doesn't happen very often, will tell you it's in a whole other place of experience from the usual ego or vanity that drives my game. So I'm not afraid to own it for what it was.\"{{cite news\\| work \\= Herald Sun\\| author\\= Russell Gould\n\\| title \\= No shadow on planet Cooper Cronk\n\\| url \\= http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/no\\-shadow\\-on\\-planet\\-cooper\\-cronk/story\\-fni3fr51\\-1226655477237\n\\| access\\-date \\= 11 April 2014\\|date\\=3 June 2013}}",
"In February 2013, he won man of the match in Storm's 18–14 win over Leeds in the world club challenge. Cronk was also selected as starting halfback for the annual ANZAC Test match between Australia and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team \"New Zealand national rugby league team\") in [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\"), playing at halfback for Australia. He also played a key role in Queensland's eighth consecutive series win with a 12–10 win over [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") in the decider, setting up the match winner try to Justin Hodges.",
"On 1 October 2013, Cronk was named the Dally M Player winning by two points in front of [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_state_rugby_league_team \"Queensland state rugby league team\") teammates [Johnathan Thurston](/wiki/Johnathan_Thurston \"Johnathan Thurston\") and [Daly Cherry\\-Evans](/wiki/Daly_Cherry-Evans \"Daly Cherry-Evans\") and [Cronulla Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks \"Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks\") five\\-eight [Todd Carney](/wiki/Todd_Carney \"Todd Carney\"). He was also named the Dally M Halfback of the Year.{{cite news\\|title\\=Cooper Cronk wins Dally M player of the year\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/cooper\\-cronk\\-wins\\-dally\\-m\\-player\\-of\\-the\\-year/tabid/10874/newsid/74930/default.aspx\\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2014\\|publisher\\=NRL.com}}",
"#### 2014–16",
"Cronk broke his arm in the opening minutes of Game I of the [2014 State of Origin series](/wiki/2014_State_of_Origin_series \"2014 State of Origin series\") on 28 May 2014\\. Written off for the series, he surprised the entire rugby league community by getting himself fit enough to take the field in Game III just six weeks later. Queensland lost the series after losing Games I and II, but in Game III on 9 July 2014 the Maroons routed New South Wales 32–8\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=State of Origin: Cooper Cronk puts on masterclass\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/state\\-of\\-origin\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-puts\\-on\\-masterclass\\-20140710\\-zt1y0\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2014\\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald}}",
"On 30 August 2014, Cronk played his 250th game for Melbourne Storm, a feat achieved by only 3 others players at the club.{{cite news\\|title\\=Cooper Cronk notches up 250 games with Melbourne Storm\\|url\\=http://tvnz.co.nz/rugby\\-league\\-news/cronk\\-reflects\\-250\\-game\\-milestone\\-6065936\\|date\\=31 August 2014\\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2014\\|work\\=TV NZ}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Cronk at the [2016 TV Week Logie Awards](/wiki/Logie_Awards_of_2016 \"Logie Awards of 2016\"), May 2016](/wiki/File:Cooper_Cronk_2016.jpg \"Cooper Cronk 2016.jpg\")\n2016 began with rumours linking him to rival [NRL](/wiki/NRL \"NRL\") clubs in Sydney, most notably the [St George Illawarra Dragons](/wiki/St_George_Illawarra_Dragons \"St George Illawarra Dragons\"). However, he put that in the back of his head to lead Melbourne to a great start to the season. On 2 April, he scored 2 tries to secure an 18–14 victory over the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights \"Newcastle Knights\"). 15 days later, he kicked a field goal in the 5th minute of [golden point](/wiki/Golden_point \"Golden point\") to give the Storm a 19–18 victory over the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers \"Wests Tigers\"). The Storm won 5 of their opening 7 games.",
"On 26 June 2016, Cronk became only the fifth NRL player in history to record 200 wins (from 289 games) in a 29 to 20 win over the West Tigers.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/06/26/cronk\\_joins\\_nrl\\_s\\_20\\.html\\|title\\=Cronk joins NRL's 200\\-win club\\|last\\=NRL\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-26}}",
"On 24 September 2016, in Melbourne's grand final qualifier against the Canberra Raiders, Cronk became just the 25th NRL player to notch up 300 first grade games. In doing so, he is only the 11th player to do so with the one club.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/storm/nrl\\-300\\-gamers\\-melbourne\\-storm\\-halfback\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-joining\\-exclusive\\-club/news\\-story/dba3044cc913c59ce38e5a872d4411d1\\|title\\=NRL's 300 club a tough nut to crack\\|website\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=16 October 2017}}",
"At the annual Rugby League Dally M awards on 28 September 2016, Cooper Cronk was named the [Dally M](/wiki/Dally_M \"Dally M\") Player of the Year for a second time after winning his first in 2013\\. Cronk tied with [North Queensland Cowboys](/wiki/North_Queensland_Cowboys \"North Queensland Cowboys\") prop [Jason Taumalolo](/wiki/Jason_Taumalolo \"Jason Taumalolo\") to win. Cronk was also crowned Dally M Halfback of the Year earning the honours for the fifth time in his careers.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/09/29/dally\\_m\\_wrap\\_storm\\_e.html\\|title\\=Dally M Wrap: Storm Edition\\|website\\=Melbournestorm.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=29 September 2016}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Cronk warming up for the Kangaroos at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield \"Anfield\") in 2016](/wiki/File:Cooper_Cronk_Australia.jpg \"Cooper Cronk Australia.jpg\")\nThis was further complemented on 22 December 2016, when Cooper Cronk won the 2016 [Rugby League World Golden Boot Award](/wiki/Rugby_League_World_Golden_Boot_Award \"Rugby League World Golden Boot Award\") (Worlds best player). The award is decided by a panel of Rugby League experts including [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer \"Darren Lockyer\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.melbournestorm.com.au/news/2016/12/22/cronk\\_s\\_golden\\_end\\_t.html\\|title\\=Cronk's golden end to 2016\\|website\\=Melbournestorm.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2016}}",
"#### 2017",
"On 4 April 2017, Cronk made the announcement that the [2017 NRL season](/wiki/2017_NRL_season \"2017 NRL season\") would be his last for the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\"), stating he would move to Sydney; Cronk emphasised that this was purely based on family reasons rather than football\\-related reasons. His then\\-fiancée [Tara Rushton](/wiki/Tara_Rushton \"Tara Rushton\"), a [Fox sports](/wiki/Fox_Sports_%28Australia%29 \"Fox Sports (Australia)\") presenter based in Sydney, was the main driver behind his decision. On 30 October 2017 it was announced that he would join the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") for two seasons.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/cooper\\-cronk\\-signs\\-with\\-sydney\\-roosters/news\\-story/d3146538f635a00a798e2555db63873b \\|title\\=Cooper Cronk signs with Sydney Roosters \\|publisher\\=News.com.au \\|date\\=30 October 2017 }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/cooper\\-cronk\\-joins\\-sydney\\-roosters\\-on\\-twoyear\\-contract\\-20171029\\-gzaqz8\\.html \\|title\\=Cooper Cronk signs two\\-year contract with Sydney Roosters \\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald \\|date\\=30 October 2017 }} Cronk and Rushton married on 14 December 2017\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/relationships/marriage/nrl\\-star\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-marries\\-fox\\-sports\\-presenter\\-tara\\-rushton\\-at\\-jonahs\\-in\\-whale\\-beach/news\\-story/44a1716b686a78b940bfbfb235712d11 \\|title\\=NRL star Cooper Cronk marries Fox Sports presenter Tara Rushton at Jonah's in Whale Beach \\|publisher\\=News.com.au \\|date\\=15 December 2017 }}",
"**2018**",
"In 2018 Cooper Cronk joined the Sydney Roosters. Where he played all 26 games, including playing with a broken scapula in the grand final victory over his former club the Melbourne Storm. He then became the first player to win consecutive premierships with two different clubs in the NRL era, having won the 2017 Grand Final with Melbourne and 2018 Grand Final with the Roosters starting at halfback in both games. Cooper also became the first player in the modern era to have three consecutive grand final appearances.",
"**2019**",
"On 28 September 2019, Cronk led the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") to a 14–6 win over his former club [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") in the preliminary final. After the game, Cronk was full of praise for his former coach [Craig Bellamy](/wiki/Craig_Bellamy_%28rugby_league%29 \"Craig Bellamy (rugby league)\") and the [Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/nrl\\-2019\\-finals\\-cameron\\-smith\\-vs\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-storm\\-vs\\-roosters\\-hug\\-rivalry\\-feud/news\\-story/ef8af7d3ce642367189594d632b5248a\\|title\\=NRL 2019 finals: Cameron Smith vs Cooper Cronk, Storm vs Roosters, hug, rivalry, feud\\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-29\\|website\\=Fox Sports\\|language\\=en\\-AU\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-06}} \"It’s hard because I don’t stand here today without the people at the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\"),” Cronk said after the game. \"Craig’s forefront of that, he’s a guy I’ve played a lot of football for. \"It’s really emotional sometimes coming up against your old team but in this game, you really have to put it to the side because there’s always a chance of next week and you really have to ride the rollercoaster sometimes\".",
"Winning consecutive premierships is a feat that has not been previously achieved in 26 years and Cronk had the opportunity to create history to become the first player in the modern era to win three consecutive grand final appearances and to have four consecutive grand final appearances.",
"On 6 October 2019, Cooper Cronk played his final game of [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League \"Rugby League\") in the [NRL](/wiki/NRL \"NRL\") for the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") in the [2019 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2019_NRL_Grand_Final \"2019 NRL Grand Final\"). Prior to his last match, the only thing he had not managed to achieve is back\\-to\\-back titles with the same club. He did that, and set the record for three consecutive grand finals in the modern era, furthermore Cronk was the first player in the NRL era to have won three consecutive premierships, additionally is one of thirteen players who have won consecutive Premierships. \nCronk was revered by the [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League \"Rugby League\") community for his achievements within the game, to win four [NRL Grand Finals](/wiki/NRL_Grand_Final \"NRL Grand Final\") from nine games.",
"During the press conference,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/game\\-s\\-greatest\\-thinker\\-trent\\-robinson\\-s\\-big\\-praise\\-for\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-20191007\\-p52y6a.html\\|title\\='Game's greatest thinker': Trent Robinson's big praise for Cooper Cronk\\|last\\=Proszenko\\|first\\=Adrian\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-06\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-06}} coach [Trent Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson \"Trent Robinson\") labelled the retiree the \"greatest thinker to ever play rugby league\". \"It’s hard to explain how great Cooper is\", [Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson \"Trent Robinson\") said. \"I'm a better coach because Cooper is here. We are a better club and a better team because Cooper is here. We asked him to come and do a job and he said, 'I'm going to come, I'm going to get it done.'\"I think he is the greatest thinker to ever play rugby league. To walk onto the field and do what he's done in our game – the guy is skilful but my left\\-to\\-right (pass) is better than Cooper's.",
"In Cronk's final interview, he laughed 'he had enough'.",
""
] |
#### 2017
On 4 April 2017, Cronk made the announcement that the [2017 NRL season](/wiki/2017_NRL_season "2017 NRL season") would be his last for the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm"), stating he would move to Sydney; Cronk emphasised that this was purely based on family reasons rather than football\-related reasons. His then\-fiancée [Tara Rushton](/wiki/Tara_Rushton "Tara Rushton"), a [Fox sports](/wiki/Fox_Sports_%28Australia%29 "Fox Sports (Australia)") presenter based in Sydney, was the main driver behind his decision. On 30 October 2017 it was announced that he would join the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") for two seasons.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/cooper\-cronk\-signs\-with\-sydney\-roosters/news\-story/d3146538f635a00a798e2555db63873b \|title\=Cooper Cronk signs with Sydney Roosters \|publisher\=News.com.au \|date\=30 October 2017 }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/cooper\-cronk\-joins\-sydney\-roosters\-on\-twoyear\-contract\-20171029\-gzaqz8\.html \|title\=Cooper Cronk signs two\-year contract with Sydney Roosters \|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald \|date\=30 October 2017 }} Cronk and Rushton married on 14 December 2017\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/relationships/marriage/nrl\-star\-cooper\-cronk\-marries\-fox\-sports\-presenter\-tara\-rushton\-at\-jonahs\-in\-whale\-beach/news\-story/44a1716b686a78b940bfbfb235712d11 \|title\=NRL star Cooper Cronk marries Fox Sports presenter Tara Rushton at Jonah's in Whale Beach \|publisher\=News.com.au \|date\=15 December 2017 }}
**2018**
In 2018 Cooper Cronk joined the Sydney Roosters. Where he played all 26 games, including playing with a broken scapula in the grand final victory over his former club the Melbourne Storm. He then became the first player to win consecutive premierships with two different clubs in the NRL era, having won the 2017 Grand Final with Melbourne and 2018 Grand Final with the Roosters starting at halfback in both games. Cooper also became the first player in the modern era to have three consecutive grand final appearances.
**2019**
On 28 September 2019, Cronk led the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") to a 14–6 win over his former club [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") in the preliminary final. After the game, Cronk was full of praise for his former coach [Craig Bellamy](/wiki/Craig_Bellamy_%28rugby_league%29 "Craig Bellamy (rugby league)") and the [Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/nrl\-2019\-finals\-cameron\-smith\-vs\-cooper\-cronk\-storm\-vs\-roosters\-hug\-rivalry\-feud/news\-story/ef8af7d3ce642367189594d632b5248a\|title\=NRL 2019 finals: Cameron Smith vs Cooper Cronk, Storm vs Roosters, hug, rivalry, feud\|date\=2019\-09\-29\|website\=Fox Sports\|language\=en\-AU\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-06}} "It’s hard because I don’t stand here today without the people at the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm"),” Cronk said after the game. "Craig’s forefront of that, he’s a guy I’ve played a lot of football for. "It’s really emotional sometimes coming up against your old team but in this game, you really have to put it to the side because there’s always a chance of next week and you really have to ride the rollercoaster sometimes".
Winning consecutive premierships is a feat that has not been previously achieved in 26 years and Cronk had the opportunity to create history to become the first player in the modern era to win three consecutive grand final appearances and to have four consecutive grand final appearances.
On 6 October 2019, Cooper Cronk played his final game of [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League "Rugby League") in the [NRL](/wiki/NRL "NRL") for the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") in the [2019 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2019_NRL_Grand_Final "2019 NRL Grand Final"). Prior to his last match, the only thing he had not managed to achieve is back\-to\-back titles with the same club. He did that, and set the record for three consecutive grand finals in the modern era, furthermore Cronk was the first player in the NRL era to have won three consecutive premierships, additionally is one of thirteen players who have won consecutive Premierships.
Cronk was revered by the [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League "Rugby League") community for his achievements within the game, to win four [NRL Grand Finals](/wiki/NRL_Grand_Final "NRL Grand Final") from nine games.
During the press conference,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/game\-s\-greatest\-thinker\-trent\-robinson\-s\-big\-praise\-for\-cooper\-cronk\-20191007\-p52y6a.html\|title\='Game's greatest thinker': Trent Robinson's big praise for Cooper Cronk\|last\=Proszenko\|first\=Adrian\|date\=2019\-10\-06\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-06}} coach [Trent Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson "Trent Robinson") labelled the retiree the "greatest thinker to ever play rugby league". "It’s hard to explain how great Cooper is", [Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson "Trent Robinson") said. "I'm a better coach because Cooper is here. We are a better club and a better team because Cooper is here. We asked him to come and do a job and he said, 'I'm going to come, I'm going to get it done.'"I think he is the greatest thinker to ever play rugby league. To walk onto the field and do what he's done in our game – the guy is skilful but my left\-to\-right (pass) is better than Cooper's.
In Cronk's final interview, he laughed 'he had enough'.
|
[
"#### 2017",
"On 4 April 2017, Cronk made the announcement that the [2017 NRL season](/wiki/2017_NRL_season \"2017 NRL season\") would be his last for the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\"), stating he would move to Sydney; Cronk emphasised that this was purely based on family reasons rather than football\\-related reasons. His then\\-fiancée [Tara Rushton](/wiki/Tara_Rushton \"Tara Rushton\"), a [Fox sports](/wiki/Fox_Sports_%28Australia%29 \"Fox Sports (Australia)\") presenter based in Sydney, was the main driver behind his decision. On 30 October 2017 it was announced that he would join the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") for two seasons.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/cooper\\-cronk\\-signs\\-with\\-sydney\\-roosters/news\\-story/d3146538f635a00a798e2555db63873b \\|title\\=Cooper Cronk signs with Sydney Roosters \\|publisher\\=News.com.au \\|date\\=30 October 2017 }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/cooper\\-cronk\\-joins\\-sydney\\-roosters\\-on\\-twoyear\\-contract\\-20171029\\-gzaqz8\\.html \\|title\\=Cooper Cronk signs two\\-year contract with Sydney Roosters \\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald \\|date\\=30 October 2017 }} Cronk and Rushton married on 14 December 2017\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/relationships/marriage/nrl\\-star\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-marries\\-fox\\-sports\\-presenter\\-tara\\-rushton\\-at\\-jonahs\\-in\\-whale\\-beach/news\\-story/44a1716b686a78b940bfbfb235712d11 \\|title\\=NRL star Cooper Cronk marries Fox Sports presenter Tara Rushton at Jonah's in Whale Beach \\|publisher\\=News.com.au \\|date\\=15 December 2017 }}",
"**2018**",
"In 2018 Cooper Cronk joined the Sydney Roosters. Where he played all 26 games, including playing with a broken scapula in the grand final victory over his former club the Melbourne Storm. He then became the first player to win consecutive premierships with two different clubs in the NRL era, having won the 2017 Grand Final with Melbourne and 2018 Grand Final with the Roosters starting at halfback in both games. Cooper also became the first player in the modern era to have three consecutive grand final appearances.",
"**2019**",
"On 28 September 2019, Cronk led the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") to a 14–6 win over his former club [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") in the preliminary final. After the game, Cronk was full of praise for his former coach [Craig Bellamy](/wiki/Craig_Bellamy_%28rugby_league%29 \"Craig Bellamy (rugby league)\") and the [Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/nrl\\-2019\\-finals\\-cameron\\-smith\\-vs\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-storm\\-vs\\-roosters\\-hug\\-rivalry\\-feud/news\\-story/ef8af7d3ce642367189594d632b5248a\\|title\\=NRL 2019 finals: Cameron Smith vs Cooper Cronk, Storm vs Roosters, hug, rivalry, feud\\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-29\\|website\\=Fox Sports\\|language\\=en\\-AU\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-06}} \"It’s hard because I don’t stand here today without the people at the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\"),” Cronk said after the game. \"Craig’s forefront of that, he’s a guy I’ve played a lot of football for. \"It’s really emotional sometimes coming up against your old team but in this game, you really have to put it to the side because there’s always a chance of next week and you really have to ride the rollercoaster sometimes\".",
"Winning consecutive premierships is a feat that has not been previously achieved in 26 years and Cronk had the opportunity to create history to become the first player in the modern era to win three consecutive grand final appearances and to have four consecutive grand final appearances.",
"On 6 October 2019, Cooper Cronk played his final game of [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League \"Rugby League\") in the [NRL](/wiki/NRL \"NRL\") for the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") in the [2019 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2019_NRL_Grand_Final \"2019 NRL Grand Final\"). Prior to his last match, the only thing he had not managed to achieve is back\\-to\\-back titles with the same club. He did that, and set the record for three consecutive grand finals in the modern era, furthermore Cronk was the first player in the NRL era to have won three consecutive premierships, additionally is one of thirteen players who have won consecutive Premierships. \nCronk was revered by the [Rugby League](/wiki/Rugby_League \"Rugby League\") community for his achievements within the game, to win four [NRL Grand Finals](/wiki/NRL_Grand_Final \"NRL Grand Final\") from nine games.",
"During the press conference,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/game\\-s\\-greatest\\-thinker\\-trent\\-robinson\\-s\\-big\\-praise\\-for\\-cooper\\-cronk\\-20191007\\-p52y6a.html\\|title\\='Game's greatest thinker': Trent Robinson's big praise for Cooper Cronk\\|last\\=Proszenko\\|first\\=Adrian\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-06\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-06}} coach [Trent Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson \"Trent Robinson\") labelled the retiree the \"greatest thinker to ever play rugby league\". \"It’s hard to explain how great Cooper is\", [Robinson](/wiki/Trent_Robinson \"Trent Robinson\") said. \"I'm a better coach because Cooper is here. We are a better club and a better team because Cooper is here. We asked him to come and do a job and he said, 'I'm going to come, I'm going to get it done.'\"I think he is the greatest thinker to ever play rugby league. To walk onto the field and do what he's done in our game – the guy is skilful but my left\\-to\\-right (pass) is better than Cooper's.",
"In Cronk's final interview, he laughed 'he had enough'.",
""
] |
Plot
----
A young man, Nicholas “Nic” Gordon, is being chased by dirty cops Officer White and Officer Donnelly. They manage to catch him, handcuff him, and plant [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine "Cocaine") on him so they can make the “arrest”. A week later, Nic and four other minor offenders; Raymond “Ray\-Ray” Martin, Eddie Jasper, Cecile “CeCe“ Washington and the shy Charlotte Davis, are taken by detention officers Denise Martinez and Lieutenant Harris Redding to “Loxahatchee Canyon”. They are to spend 90 days at the location that’s “200 miles away” where they will be renovating a group home for fellow delinquents. On the way, their bus engine blows stranding them in the middle of nowhere, at night, with no cellphone reception.
Redding takes the three men with him to search for cellphone reception. They happen upon a house and Ray\-Ray breaks in when no one answers while Redding climbs a nearby hill in hopes of cell service. A gunshot is heard and Ray\-Ray falls through the front door of the house, having taken a shotgun blast to the chest. A redneck local, Lilly, comes out threatening them to leave. She is about to shoot Eddie when Redding shoots her in the head. He tells them to get Ray\-Ray back to the van while he searches for a phone. On the way back, they hear another gunshot, warning them that there are more rednecks out there. Believing that Redding is dead, the men quickly head back.
They get back to the van and find they have no medical kit with them. Warning the others about the rednecks, Martinez panics when she learns Redding may be dead and Nic takes her gun. The group leaves into the woods to find help. Eventually, they find another house belonging to voodoo priestess, Kadja Boszo, who tells them she can try to help Ray\-Ray with her magic, but if he chooses to stay alive, he'll live, if he chooses to die, he‘ll die. Ce\-Ce tells the group a story that her grandmother told her about, an evil spirit named Killjoy, a revenge demon who can be summoned through black magic. A boy named Michael summoned Killjoy but when Michael was killed, Killjoy used him to gain power by taking revenge on Michael’s killers, then destroyed Michael’s soul and disappeared. Nic and CeCe go outside to talk. Nic, intrigued and believing that Killjoy can help Ray\-Ray, tells Ce\-Ce he’ll give her cocaine if she can bring Killjoy to life.
After the ritual seemingly fails, Nic says the deal’s off, but CeCe offers sex in return for the drugs which Nic agrees to. After having sex, he tells her he actually has no drugs and she leaves angrily. She goes to the outhouse when Killjoy appears and begins terrorizing her from outside the outhouse. Killjoy takes out his teeth, a pair of razor\-sharp windup chattering teeth, and shoves them through a slot in the door. He listens and laughs as the teeth tear her to shreds then chatter their way back out where he puts them back in his mouth. Back inside the house, Nic arrives and gets told that Ray\-Ray choose not to stay and now he's dead and Boszo took him outside. Martinez worries about CeCe and Nic leaves to find Boszo. Eddie leaves to get water from a water pump and finds CeCe’s mangled body. Killjoy emerges and using his telekinetic powers, lifts Eddie up off the ground and impales him onto the pump. He laughs maniacally while pumping blood from Eddie’s body from the pump.
Boszo, Nic, Martinez, and Charlotte begin to worry when Eddie and CeCe both have not returned. They argue about what to do and Nic leaves angrily when Boszo accuses him and CeCe of summoning Killjoy. Outside, he runs into Killjoy, he shoots him several times but it does nothing. Nic pulls out a knife but Killjoy makes Nic “carve a smile” in his own face, killing him.
Martinez, Charlotte and Boszo begin a voodoo ceremony to defeat Killjoy, blessing several jars of liquid on a table. Boszo and Martinez go into the woods to continue the ceremony where Killjoy slashes Boszo’s throat to stop her ritual and Martinez runs back to the house. Killjoy enters, knocks out Martinez and is ready to kill Charlotte when Redding comes in with a gun distracting him. Charlotte grabs the jars of liquid and splashes it onto Killjoy who screams as his face slowly melts. The next day, Charlotte, Ms. Martinez and Redding are taken out of the wilderness by a ranger.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"A young man, Nicholas “Nic” Gordon, is being chased by dirty cops Officer White and Officer Donnelly. They manage to catch him, handcuff him, and plant [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine \"Cocaine\") on him so they can make the “arrest”. A week later, Nic and four other minor offenders; Raymond “Ray\\-Ray” Martin, Eddie Jasper, Cecile “CeCe“ Washington and the shy Charlotte Davis, are taken by detention officers Denise Martinez and Lieutenant Harris Redding to “Loxahatchee Canyon”. They are to spend 90 days at the location that’s “200 miles away” where they will be renovating a group home for fellow delinquents. On the way, their bus engine blows stranding them in the middle of nowhere, at night, with no cellphone reception.",
"Redding takes the three men with him to search for cellphone reception. They happen upon a house and Ray\\-Ray breaks in when no one answers while Redding climbs a nearby hill in hopes of cell service. A gunshot is heard and Ray\\-Ray falls through the front door of the house, having taken a shotgun blast to the chest. A redneck local, Lilly, comes out threatening them to leave. She is about to shoot Eddie when Redding shoots her in the head. He tells them to get Ray\\-Ray back to the van while he searches for a phone. On the way back, they hear another gunshot, warning them that there are more rednecks out there. Believing that Redding is dead, the men quickly head back.",
"They get back to the van and find they have no medical kit with them. Warning the others about the rednecks, Martinez panics when she learns Redding may be dead and Nic takes her gun. The group leaves into the woods to find help. Eventually, they find another house belonging to voodoo priestess, Kadja Boszo, who tells them she can try to help Ray\\-Ray with her magic, but if he chooses to stay alive, he'll live, if he chooses to die, he‘ll die. Ce\\-Ce tells the group a story that her grandmother told her about, an evil spirit named Killjoy, a revenge demon who can be summoned through black magic. A boy named Michael summoned Killjoy but when Michael was killed, Killjoy used him to gain power by taking revenge on Michael’s killers, then destroyed Michael’s soul and disappeared. Nic and CeCe go outside to talk. Nic, intrigued and believing that Killjoy can help Ray\\-Ray, tells Ce\\-Ce he’ll give her cocaine if she can bring Killjoy to life.",
"After the ritual seemingly fails, Nic says the deal’s off, but CeCe offers sex in return for the drugs which Nic agrees to. After having sex, he tells her he actually has no drugs and she leaves angrily. She goes to the outhouse when Killjoy appears and begins terrorizing her from outside the outhouse. Killjoy takes out his teeth, a pair of razor\\-sharp windup chattering teeth, and shoves them through a slot in the door. He listens and laughs as the teeth tear her to shreds then chatter their way back out where he puts them back in his mouth. Back inside the house, Nic arrives and gets told that Ray\\-Ray choose not to stay and now he's dead and Boszo took him outside. Martinez worries about CeCe and Nic leaves to find Boszo. Eddie leaves to get water from a water pump and finds CeCe’s mangled body. Killjoy emerges and using his telekinetic powers, lifts Eddie up off the ground and impales him onto the pump. He laughs maniacally while pumping blood from Eddie’s body from the pump.",
"Boszo, Nic, Martinez, and Charlotte begin to worry when Eddie and CeCe both have not returned. They argue about what to do and Nic leaves angrily when Boszo accuses him and CeCe of summoning Killjoy. Outside, he runs into Killjoy, he shoots him several times but it does nothing. Nic pulls out a knife but Killjoy makes Nic “carve a smile” in his own face, killing him.",
"Martinez, Charlotte and Boszo begin a voodoo ceremony to defeat Killjoy, blessing several jars of liquid on a table. Boszo and Martinez go into the woods to continue the ceremony where Killjoy slashes Boszo’s throat to stop her ritual and Martinez runs back to the house. Killjoy enters, knocks out Martinez and is ready to kill Charlotte when Redding comes in with a gun distracting him. Charlotte grabs the jars of liquid and splashes it onto Killjoy who screams as his face slowly melts. The next day, Charlotte, Ms. Martinez and Redding are taken out of the wilderness by a ranger.",
""
] |
Route of the path
-----------------
### Glasgow to Cambuslang Bridge
This section, which is {{convert\|15\|km\|mi}} long, starts at [Partick station](/wiki/Partick_station "Partick station") (which is on a railway line from [Glasgow Central station](/wiki/Glasgow_Central_railway_station "Glasgow Central railway station")) and proceeds on the north bank of the River Clyde to [Cambuslang](/wiki/Cambuslang "Cambuslang") Bridge. The bridge is a short distance from [Cambuslang railway station](/wiki/Cambuslang_railway_station "Cambuslang railway station"). The path passes by a number of other long distance paths, including the Glasgow to Inverness [National Cycle Route](/wiki/National_Cycle_Network "National Cycle Network"), the [Kelvin Walkway](/wiki/Kelvin_Walkway "Kelvin Walkway") and paths to [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh"), [Irvine](/wiki/Irvine%2C_North_Ayrshire "Irvine, North Ayrshire") and [Greenock](/wiki/Greenock "Greenock"). The path passes a number of sites of interest.
### Cambuslang Bridge to Strathclyde Country Park
For most of this section the path stays close to the River Clyde. It passes [Bothwell Castle](/wiki/Bothwell_Castle "Bothwell Castle"), [David Livingstone](/wiki/David_Livingstone "David Livingstone") Centre, the remains of Craighead Viaduct, [Raith Haugh Nature Reserve](/wiki/Raith_Haugh_Nature_Reserve "Raith Haugh Nature Reserve") and [Bothwell Bridge Lido](/wiki/Bothwell_Bridge_Lido "Bothwell Bridge Lido"). After crossing Bothwell Road at the Lido the path used to return to the side of the river, but since the Raith Interchange upgrade now shares the cycle paths over the interchange and under the M74 in to Strathclyde Park. This section of the path ends at the Watersports Centre in [Strathclyde Country Park](/wiki/Strathclyde_Country_Park "Strathclyde Country Park"). The nearest railway station is approximately {{convert\|1\|mi\|km}} away at [Motherwell](/wiki/Motherwell_railway_station "Motherwell railway station") on both the [West Coast Main Line](/wiki/West_Coast_Main_Line "West Coast Main Line") and [Argyle Line](/wiki/Argyle_Line "Argyle Line"). This section is {{convert\|14\|km\|mi}} in length.
### Strathclyde Country Park to Cardies Bridge
This section, which is {{convert\|14\|km\|mi}} long, follows the north bank of the River Clyde (apart from a short section at the end) through open country. It passes the Avon Walkway which can be followed to [Chatelherault Country Park](/wiki/Chatelherault_Country_Park "Chatelherault Country Park"). The section ends at Cardies Bride which is {{convert\|3\.2\|mi\|km\|order\=flip}} from the closest train station at [Wishaw](/wiki/Wishaw_railway_station "Wishaw railway station").
### Cardies Bridge to Crossford
This {{convert\|10\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} section runs through attractive open countryside. This part of the [Clyde Valley](/wiki/Clyde_Valley "Clyde Valley") was famous for its orchards and greenhouses. Many remain, though few of the orchards are still in commercial production. The path passes the well preserved 16th century [Craignethan Castle](/wiki/Craignethan_Castle "Craignethan Castle"). This section ends at the village of [Crossford](/wiki/Crossford%2C_South_Lanarkshire "Crossford, South Lanarkshire"). There are bus services to Lanark, and to [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_South_Lanarkshire "Hamilton, South Lanarkshire"). The nearest railway station is approximately {{convert\|3\.5\|mi\|km\|order\=flip}} away, uphill at [Carluke](/wiki/Carluke_railway_station "Carluke railway station").
### Crossford to New Lanark
This section, which is {{convert\|11\|km\|mi}} long, is arguably the most attractive section of the path. The path proceeds through open country along the banks of the River Clyde. It first passes Stonybyres Hydroelectric Station. This was built in 1927\. The falls here are {{Convert\|21\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} high and migrating salmon and sea trout cannot get any higher up the river. After passing [Lanark](/wiki/Lanark "Lanark") (founded 1180\) the path enters the UNESCO World Heritage village of [New Lanark](/wiki/New_Lanark "New Lanark"). The village and mills were built in the 18th century to harness the power of the River Clyde to process cotton. It is now a restored industrial village in a rural setting. Beyond the village the path enters the [Falls of Clyde](/wiki/Falls_of_Clyde_%28waterfalls%29 "Falls of Clyde (waterfalls)") Nature Reserve and passes the Bonnington Hydroelectric Station, and the remaining three Falls of Clyde. The most spectacular of these is the {{Convert\|28\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} high [Corra Linn](/wiki/Corra_Linn "Corra Linn").
The path ends in open countryside at the top fall, Bonnington Linn, where there is a dam to divert water to the power station. [Lanark railway station](/wiki/Lanark_railway_station "Lanark railway station") is approximately {{convert\|1\.5\|mi\|km}} from New Lanark. The station is one of the termini of the [Argyle Line](/wiki/Argyle_Line "Argyle Line").
|
[
"Route of the path\n-----------------",
"### Glasgow to Cambuslang Bridge",
"This section, which is {{convert\\|15\\|km\\|mi}} long, starts at [Partick station](/wiki/Partick_station \"Partick station\") (which is on a railway line from [Glasgow Central station](/wiki/Glasgow_Central_railway_station \"Glasgow Central railway station\")) and proceeds on the north bank of the River Clyde to [Cambuslang](/wiki/Cambuslang \"Cambuslang\") Bridge. The bridge is a short distance from [Cambuslang railway station](/wiki/Cambuslang_railway_station \"Cambuslang railway station\"). The path passes by a number of other long distance paths, including the Glasgow to Inverness [National Cycle Route](/wiki/National_Cycle_Network \"National Cycle Network\"), the [Kelvin Walkway](/wiki/Kelvin_Walkway \"Kelvin Walkway\") and paths to [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"), [Irvine](/wiki/Irvine%2C_North_Ayrshire \"Irvine, North Ayrshire\") and [Greenock](/wiki/Greenock \"Greenock\"). The path passes a number of sites of interest.",
"### Cambuslang Bridge to Strathclyde Country Park",
"For most of this section the path stays close to the River Clyde. It passes [Bothwell Castle](/wiki/Bothwell_Castle \"Bothwell Castle\"), [David Livingstone](/wiki/David_Livingstone \"David Livingstone\") Centre, the remains of Craighead Viaduct, [Raith Haugh Nature Reserve](/wiki/Raith_Haugh_Nature_Reserve \"Raith Haugh Nature Reserve\") and [Bothwell Bridge Lido](/wiki/Bothwell_Bridge_Lido \"Bothwell Bridge Lido\"). After crossing Bothwell Road at the Lido the path used to return to the side of the river, but since the Raith Interchange upgrade now shares the cycle paths over the interchange and under the M74 in to Strathclyde Park. This section of the path ends at the Watersports Centre in [Strathclyde Country Park](/wiki/Strathclyde_Country_Park \"Strathclyde Country Park\"). The nearest railway station is approximately {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km}} away at [Motherwell](/wiki/Motherwell_railway_station \"Motherwell railway station\") on both the [West Coast Main Line](/wiki/West_Coast_Main_Line \"West Coast Main Line\") and [Argyle Line](/wiki/Argyle_Line \"Argyle Line\"). This section is {{convert\\|14\\|km\\|mi}} in length.",
"### Strathclyde Country Park to Cardies Bridge",
"This section, which is {{convert\\|14\\|km\\|mi}} long, follows the north bank of the River Clyde (apart from a short section at the end) through open country. It passes the Avon Walkway which can be followed to [Chatelherault Country Park](/wiki/Chatelherault_Country_Park \"Chatelherault Country Park\"). The section ends at Cardies Bride which is {{convert\\|3\\.2\\|mi\\|km\\|order\\=flip}} from the closest train station at [Wishaw](/wiki/Wishaw_railway_station \"Wishaw railway station\").",
"### Cardies Bridge to Crossford",
"This {{convert\\|10\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} section runs through attractive open countryside. This part of the [Clyde Valley](/wiki/Clyde_Valley \"Clyde Valley\") was famous for its orchards and greenhouses. Many remain, though few of the orchards are still in commercial production. The path passes the well preserved 16th century [Craignethan Castle](/wiki/Craignethan_Castle \"Craignethan Castle\"). This section ends at the village of [Crossford](/wiki/Crossford%2C_South_Lanarkshire \"Crossford, South Lanarkshire\"). There are bus services to Lanark, and to [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_South_Lanarkshire \"Hamilton, South Lanarkshire\"). The nearest railway station is approximately {{convert\\|3\\.5\\|mi\\|km\\|order\\=flip}} away, uphill at [Carluke](/wiki/Carluke_railway_station \"Carluke railway station\").",
"### Crossford to New Lanark",
"This section, which is {{convert\\|11\\|km\\|mi}} long, is arguably the most attractive section of the path. The path proceeds through open country along the banks of the River Clyde. It first passes Stonybyres Hydroelectric Station. This was built in 1927\\. The falls here are {{Convert\\|21\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} high and migrating salmon and sea trout cannot get any higher up the river. After passing [Lanark](/wiki/Lanark \"Lanark\") (founded 1180\\) the path enters the UNESCO World Heritage village of [New Lanark](/wiki/New_Lanark \"New Lanark\"). The village and mills were built in the 18th century to harness the power of the River Clyde to process cotton. It is now a restored industrial village in a rural setting. Beyond the village the path enters the [Falls of Clyde](/wiki/Falls_of_Clyde_%28waterfalls%29 \"Falls of Clyde (waterfalls)\") Nature Reserve and passes the Bonnington Hydroelectric Station, and the remaining three Falls of Clyde. The most spectacular of these is the {{Convert\\|28\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} high [Corra Linn](/wiki/Corra_Linn \"Corra Linn\").",
"The path ends in open countryside at the top fall, Bonnington Linn, where there is a dam to divert water to the power station. [Lanark railway station](/wiki/Lanark_railway_station \"Lanark railway station\") is approximately {{convert\\|1\\.5\\|mi\\|km}} from New Lanark. The station is one of the termini of the [Argyle Line](/wiki/Argyle_Line \"Argyle Line\").",
""
] |
Building the unicast routing table
----------------------------------
A major function of the control plane is deciding which routes go into the main routing table. "Main" refers to the table that holds the [unicast](/wiki/Unicast "Unicast") routes that are active. [Multicast](/wiki/Multicast "Multicast") routing may require an additional routing table for multicast routes. Several routing protocols e.g. [IS\-IS](/wiki/IS-IS "IS-IS"), [OSPF](/wiki/Open_Shortest_Path_First "Open Shortest Path First") and [BGP](/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol "Border Gateway Protocol") maintain internal [databases](/wiki/Database "Database") of candidate routes which are promoted when a route fails or when a routing policy is changed.
Several different information sources may provide information about a route to a given destination, but the router must select the "best" route to install into the routing table. In some cases, there may be multiple routes of equal "quality", and the router may install all of them and load\-share across them.
### Sources of routing information
There are three general sources of routing information:
* Information on the status of directly connected hardware and software\-defined interfaces
* Manually configured static routes
* Information from (dynamic) routing protocols
#### Local interface information
Routers forward traffic that enters on an input interface and leaves on an output interface, subject to filtering and other local rules. While routers usually forward from one physical (e.g., [Ethernet](/wiki/Ethernet "Ethernet"), [serial](/wiki/Serial_communications "Serial communications")) to another physical interface, it is also possible to define multiple logical interfaces on a physical interface. A physical Ethernet interface, for example, can have logical interfaces in several [virtual LANs](/wiki/Virtual_LAN "Virtual LAN") defined by [IEEE 802\.1Q](/wiki/IEEE_802.1Q "IEEE 802.1Q") VLAN [headers](/wiki/Header_%28computing%29 "Header (computing)").
When an interface has an address configured in a [subnet](/wiki/Subnetwork "Subnetwork"), such as 192\.0\.2\.1 in the 192\.0\.2\.0/24 (i.e., subnet mask 255\.255\.255\.0\) subnet, and that interface is considered "up" by the router, the router thus has a directly connected route to 192\.0\.2\.0/24\. If a routing protocol offered another router's route to that same subnet, the routing table installation software will normally ignore the dynamic route and prefer the directly connected route.
There also may be software\-only interfaces on the router, which it treats as if they were locally connected. For example, most implementations have a "null" software\-defined interface. Packets having this interface as a next hop will be discarded, which can be a very efficient way to filter traffic. Routers usually can route traffic faster than they can examine it and compare it to filters, so, if the criterion for discarding is the packet's destination address, "blackholing" the traffic will be more efficient than explicit filters.
Other software defined interfaces that are treated as directly connected, as long as they are active, are interfaces associated with [tunneling protocols](/wiki/Tunneling_protocols "Tunneling protocols") such as [Generic Routing Encapsulation](/wiki/Generic_Routing_Encapsulation "Generic Routing Encapsulation") (GRE) or [Multiprotocol Label Switching](/wiki/Multiprotocol_Label_Switching "Multiprotocol Label Switching") (MPLS). Loopback interfaces are virtual interfaces that are considered directly connected interfaces.
#### Static routes
Router configuration rules may contain static routes. A static route minimally has a destination address, a prefix length or subnet mask, and a definition where to send packets for the route. That definition can refer to a local interface on the router, or a next\-hop address that could be on the far end of a subnet to which the router is connected. The next\-hop address could also be on a subnet that is directly connected, and, before the router can determine if the static route is usable, it must do a **recursive lookup** of the next hop address in the local routing table. If the next\-hop address is reachable, the static route is usable, but if the next\-hop is unreachable, the route is ignored.
Static routes also may have preference factors used to select the best static route to the same destination. One application is called a **floating static route**, where the static route is less preferred than a route from any routing protocol. The static route, which might use a dialup link or other slow medium, activates only when the dynamic routing protocol(s) cannot provide a route to the destination.
Static routes that are more preferred than any dynamic route also can be very useful, especially when using traffic engineering principles to make certain traffic go over a specific path with an engineered quality of service.
#### Dynamic routing protocols
See [routing protocols](/wiki/Routing_protocols "Routing protocols"). The routing table manager, according to implementation and configuration rules, may select a particular route or routes from those advertised by various routing protocols.
### Installing unicast routes
Different implementations have different sets of preferences for routing information, and these are not standardized among IP routers. It is fair to say that subnets on directly connected active interfaces are always preferred. Beyond that, however, there will be differences.
Implementers generally have a numerical preference, which Cisco calls an "administrative distance", for route selection. The lower the preference, the more desirable the route. Cisco's IOS[Configuring IP Routing Protocol\-Independent Features](https://web.archive.org/web/20070118002418/http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/software/ios122/122cgcr/fipr_c/ipcprt2/1cfindep.htm), Cisco Systems,July 2006 implementation makes exterior BGP the most preferred source of dynamic routing information, while Nortel RS[Nortel Ethernet Routing Switch 8600 Configuring IP Routing Operations](https://web.archive.org/web/20070929090608/http://support.nortel.com/go/main.jsp?cscat=DOCDETAIL&id=436071&poid=9015), Nortel Networks, January 2007 makes intra\-area OSPF most preferred.
The general order of selecting routes to install is:
1. If the route is not in the routing table, install it.
2. If the route is "more specific" than an existing route, install it in addition to the existing routes. "More specific" means that it has a longer prefix. A /28 route, with a subnet mask of 255\.255\.255\.240, is more specific than a /24 route, with a subnet mask of 255\.255\.255\.0\.
3. If the route is of equal specificity to a route already in the routing table, but comes from a more preferred source of routing information, replace the route in the table.
4. If the route is of equal specificity to a route in the routing table, yet comes from a source of the same preference,
1. Discard it if the route has a higher metric than the existing route
2. Replace the existing route if the new route has a lower metric
3. If the routes are of equal metric and the router supports load\-sharing, add the new route and designate it as part of a load\-sharing group. Typically, implementations will support a maximum number of routes that load\-share to the same destination. If that maximum is already in the table, the new route is usually dropped.
|
[
"Building the unicast routing table\n----------------------------------",
"A major function of the control plane is deciding which routes go into the main routing table. \"Main\" refers to the table that holds the [unicast](/wiki/Unicast \"Unicast\") routes that are active. [Multicast](/wiki/Multicast \"Multicast\") routing may require an additional routing table for multicast routes. Several routing protocols e.g. [IS\\-IS](/wiki/IS-IS \"IS-IS\"), [OSPF](/wiki/Open_Shortest_Path_First \"Open Shortest Path First\") and [BGP](/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol \"Border Gateway Protocol\") maintain internal [databases](/wiki/Database \"Database\") of candidate routes which are promoted when a route fails or when a routing policy is changed.",
"Several different information sources may provide information about a route to a given destination, but the router must select the \"best\" route to install into the routing table. In some cases, there may be multiple routes of equal \"quality\", and the router may install all of them and load\\-share across them.",
"### Sources of routing information",
"There are three general sources of routing information:",
"* Information on the status of directly connected hardware and software\\-defined interfaces\n* Manually configured static routes\n* Information from (dynamic) routing protocols",
"#### Local interface information",
"Routers forward traffic that enters on an input interface and leaves on an output interface, subject to filtering and other local rules. While routers usually forward from one physical (e.g., [Ethernet](/wiki/Ethernet \"Ethernet\"), [serial](/wiki/Serial_communications \"Serial communications\")) to another physical interface, it is also possible to define multiple logical interfaces on a physical interface. A physical Ethernet interface, for example, can have logical interfaces in several [virtual LANs](/wiki/Virtual_LAN \"Virtual LAN\") defined by [IEEE 802\\.1Q](/wiki/IEEE_802.1Q \"IEEE 802.1Q\") VLAN [headers](/wiki/Header_%28computing%29 \"Header (computing)\").",
"When an interface has an address configured in a [subnet](/wiki/Subnetwork \"Subnetwork\"), such as 192\\.0\\.2\\.1 in the 192\\.0\\.2\\.0/24 (i.e., subnet mask 255\\.255\\.255\\.0\\) subnet, and that interface is considered \"up\" by the router, the router thus has a directly connected route to 192\\.0\\.2\\.0/24\\. If a routing protocol offered another router's route to that same subnet, the routing table installation software will normally ignore the dynamic route and prefer the directly connected route.",
"There also may be software\\-only interfaces on the router, which it treats as if they were locally connected. For example, most implementations have a \"null\" software\\-defined interface. Packets having this interface as a next hop will be discarded, which can be a very efficient way to filter traffic. Routers usually can route traffic faster than they can examine it and compare it to filters, so, if the criterion for discarding is the packet's destination address, \"blackholing\" the traffic will be more efficient than explicit filters.",
"Other software defined interfaces that are treated as directly connected, as long as they are active, are interfaces associated with [tunneling protocols](/wiki/Tunneling_protocols \"Tunneling protocols\") such as [Generic Routing Encapsulation](/wiki/Generic_Routing_Encapsulation \"Generic Routing Encapsulation\") (GRE) or [Multiprotocol Label Switching](/wiki/Multiprotocol_Label_Switching \"Multiprotocol Label Switching\") (MPLS). Loopback interfaces are virtual interfaces that are considered directly connected interfaces.",
"#### Static routes",
"Router configuration rules may contain static routes. A static route minimally has a destination address, a prefix length or subnet mask, and a definition where to send packets for the route. That definition can refer to a local interface on the router, or a next\\-hop address that could be on the far end of a subnet to which the router is connected. The next\\-hop address could also be on a subnet that is directly connected, and, before the router can determine if the static route is usable, it must do a **recursive lookup** of the next hop address in the local routing table. If the next\\-hop address is reachable, the static route is usable, but if the next\\-hop is unreachable, the route is ignored.",
"Static routes also may have preference factors used to select the best static route to the same destination. One application is called a **floating static route**, where the static route is less preferred than a route from any routing protocol. The static route, which might use a dialup link or other slow medium, activates only when the dynamic routing protocol(s) cannot provide a route to the destination.",
"Static routes that are more preferred than any dynamic route also can be very useful, especially when using traffic engineering principles to make certain traffic go over a specific path with an engineered quality of service.",
"#### Dynamic routing protocols",
"See [routing protocols](/wiki/Routing_protocols \"Routing protocols\"). The routing table manager, according to implementation and configuration rules, may select a particular route or routes from those advertised by various routing protocols.",
"### Installing unicast routes",
"Different implementations have different sets of preferences for routing information, and these are not standardized among IP routers. It is fair to say that subnets on directly connected active interfaces are always preferred. Beyond that, however, there will be differences.",
"Implementers generally have a numerical preference, which Cisco calls an \"administrative distance\", for route selection. The lower the preference, the more desirable the route. Cisco's IOS[Configuring IP Routing Protocol\\-Independent Features](https://web.archive.org/web/20070118002418/http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/software/ios122/122cgcr/fipr_c/ipcprt2/1cfindep.htm), Cisco Systems,July 2006 implementation makes exterior BGP the most preferred source of dynamic routing information, while Nortel RS[Nortel Ethernet Routing Switch 8600 Configuring IP Routing Operations](https://web.archive.org/web/20070929090608/http://support.nortel.com/go/main.jsp?cscat=DOCDETAIL&id=436071&poid=9015), Nortel Networks, January 2007 makes intra\\-area OSPF most preferred.",
"The general order of selecting routes to install is:",
"1. If the route is not in the routing table, install it.\n2. If the route is \"more specific\" than an existing route, install it in addition to the existing routes. \"More specific\" means that it has a longer prefix. A /28 route, with a subnet mask of 255\\.255\\.255\\.240, is more specific than a /24 route, with a subnet mask of 255\\.255\\.255\\.0\\.\n3. If the route is of equal specificity to a route already in the routing table, but comes from a more preferred source of routing information, replace the route in the table.\n4. If the route is of equal specificity to a route in the routing table, yet comes from a source of the same preference,\n\t1. Discard it if the route has a higher metric than the existing route\n\t2. Replace the existing route if the new route has a lower metric\n\t3. If the routes are of equal metric and the router supports load\\-sharing, add the new route and designate it as part of a load\\-sharing group. Typically, implementations will support a maximum number of routes that load\\-share to the same destination. If that maximum is already in the table, the new route is usually dropped."
] |
### Sources of routing information
There are three general sources of routing information:
* Information on the status of directly connected hardware and software\-defined interfaces
* Manually configured static routes
* Information from (dynamic) routing protocols
#### Local interface information
Routers forward traffic that enters on an input interface and leaves on an output interface, subject to filtering and other local rules. While routers usually forward from one physical (e.g., [Ethernet](/wiki/Ethernet "Ethernet"), [serial](/wiki/Serial_communications "Serial communications")) to another physical interface, it is also possible to define multiple logical interfaces on a physical interface. A physical Ethernet interface, for example, can have logical interfaces in several [virtual LANs](/wiki/Virtual_LAN "Virtual LAN") defined by [IEEE 802\.1Q](/wiki/IEEE_802.1Q "IEEE 802.1Q") VLAN [headers](/wiki/Header_%28computing%29 "Header (computing)").
When an interface has an address configured in a [subnet](/wiki/Subnetwork "Subnetwork"), such as 192\.0\.2\.1 in the 192\.0\.2\.0/24 (i.e., subnet mask 255\.255\.255\.0\) subnet, and that interface is considered "up" by the router, the router thus has a directly connected route to 192\.0\.2\.0/24\. If a routing protocol offered another router's route to that same subnet, the routing table installation software will normally ignore the dynamic route and prefer the directly connected route.
There also may be software\-only interfaces on the router, which it treats as if they were locally connected. For example, most implementations have a "null" software\-defined interface. Packets having this interface as a next hop will be discarded, which can be a very efficient way to filter traffic. Routers usually can route traffic faster than they can examine it and compare it to filters, so, if the criterion for discarding is the packet's destination address, "blackholing" the traffic will be more efficient than explicit filters.
Other software defined interfaces that are treated as directly connected, as long as they are active, are interfaces associated with [tunneling protocols](/wiki/Tunneling_protocols "Tunneling protocols") such as [Generic Routing Encapsulation](/wiki/Generic_Routing_Encapsulation "Generic Routing Encapsulation") (GRE) or [Multiprotocol Label Switching](/wiki/Multiprotocol_Label_Switching "Multiprotocol Label Switching") (MPLS). Loopback interfaces are virtual interfaces that are considered directly connected interfaces.
#### Static routes
Router configuration rules may contain static routes. A static route minimally has a destination address, a prefix length or subnet mask, and a definition where to send packets for the route. That definition can refer to a local interface on the router, or a next\-hop address that could be on the far end of a subnet to which the router is connected. The next\-hop address could also be on a subnet that is directly connected, and, before the router can determine if the static route is usable, it must do a **recursive lookup** of the next hop address in the local routing table. If the next\-hop address is reachable, the static route is usable, but if the next\-hop is unreachable, the route is ignored.
Static routes also may have preference factors used to select the best static route to the same destination. One application is called a **floating static route**, where the static route is less preferred than a route from any routing protocol. The static route, which might use a dialup link or other slow medium, activates only when the dynamic routing protocol(s) cannot provide a route to the destination.
Static routes that are more preferred than any dynamic route also can be very useful, especially when using traffic engineering principles to make certain traffic go over a specific path with an engineered quality of service.
#### Dynamic routing protocols
See [routing protocols](/wiki/Routing_protocols "Routing protocols"). The routing table manager, according to implementation and configuration rules, may select a particular route or routes from those advertised by various routing protocols.
|
[
"### Sources of routing information",
"There are three general sources of routing information:",
"* Information on the status of directly connected hardware and software\\-defined interfaces\n* Manually configured static routes\n* Information from (dynamic) routing protocols",
"#### Local interface information",
"Routers forward traffic that enters on an input interface and leaves on an output interface, subject to filtering and other local rules. While routers usually forward from one physical (e.g., [Ethernet](/wiki/Ethernet \"Ethernet\"), [serial](/wiki/Serial_communications \"Serial communications\")) to another physical interface, it is also possible to define multiple logical interfaces on a physical interface. A physical Ethernet interface, for example, can have logical interfaces in several [virtual LANs](/wiki/Virtual_LAN \"Virtual LAN\") defined by [IEEE 802\\.1Q](/wiki/IEEE_802.1Q \"IEEE 802.1Q\") VLAN [headers](/wiki/Header_%28computing%29 \"Header (computing)\").",
"When an interface has an address configured in a [subnet](/wiki/Subnetwork \"Subnetwork\"), such as 192\\.0\\.2\\.1 in the 192\\.0\\.2\\.0/24 (i.e., subnet mask 255\\.255\\.255\\.0\\) subnet, and that interface is considered \"up\" by the router, the router thus has a directly connected route to 192\\.0\\.2\\.0/24\\. If a routing protocol offered another router's route to that same subnet, the routing table installation software will normally ignore the dynamic route and prefer the directly connected route.",
"There also may be software\\-only interfaces on the router, which it treats as if they were locally connected. For example, most implementations have a \"null\" software\\-defined interface. Packets having this interface as a next hop will be discarded, which can be a very efficient way to filter traffic. Routers usually can route traffic faster than they can examine it and compare it to filters, so, if the criterion for discarding is the packet's destination address, \"blackholing\" the traffic will be more efficient than explicit filters.",
"Other software defined interfaces that are treated as directly connected, as long as they are active, are interfaces associated with [tunneling protocols](/wiki/Tunneling_protocols \"Tunneling protocols\") such as [Generic Routing Encapsulation](/wiki/Generic_Routing_Encapsulation \"Generic Routing Encapsulation\") (GRE) or [Multiprotocol Label Switching](/wiki/Multiprotocol_Label_Switching \"Multiprotocol Label Switching\") (MPLS). Loopback interfaces are virtual interfaces that are considered directly connected interfaces.",
"#### Static routes",
"Router configuration rules may contain static routes. A static route minimally has a destination address, a prefix length or subnet mask, and a definition where to send packets for the route. That definition can refer to a local interface on the router, or a next\\-hop address that could be on the far end of a subnet to which the router is connected. The next\\-hop address could also be on a subnet that is directly connected, and, before the router can determine if the static route is usable, it must do a **recursive lookup** of the next hop address in the local routing table. If the next\\-hop address is reachable, the static route is usable, but if the next\\-hop is unreachable, the route is ignored.",
"Static routes also may have preference factors used to select the best static route to the same destination. One application is called a **floating static route**, where the static route is less preferred than a route from any routing protocol. The static route, which might use a dialup link or other slow medium, activates only when the dynamic routing protocol(s) cannot provide a route to the destination.",
"Static routes that are more preferred than any dynamic route also can be very useful, especially when using traffic engineering principles to make certain traffic go over a specific path with an engineered quality of service.",
"#### Dynamic routing protocols",
"See [routing protocols](/wiki/Routing_protocols \"Routing protocols\"). The routing table manager, according to implementation and configuration rules, may select a particular route or routes from those advertised by various routing protocols.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Bismuth studied the violin with [Roland Charmy](/wiki/Roland_Charmy "Roland Charmy") at the [Conservatoire de Paris](/wiki/Conservatoire_de_Paris "Conservatoire de Paris").
From 1993 to 1998, Bismuth was teacher of [baroque violin](/wiki/Baroque_violin "Baroque violin") at the Conservatoire de Paris and is currently teacher at the Versailles, Boulogne Billancourt, Paris and Reims conservatories. Learning the baroque violin allows him to interpret differently classical, romantic and contemporary repertoires.
He has performed in numerous concerts with his [ensemble](/wiki/Ensemble_%28music%29 "Ensemble (music)") "La Tempesta" and the Atlantis Quartet,[Atlantis Quartet](http://quatuor.atlantis.free.fr/) of which he is co\-founder and also with the [organist](/wiki/Organist "Organist") [Louis Thiry](/wiki/Louis_Thiry "Louis Thiry"), who opened up the horizon of [early music](/wiki/Early_music "Early music") to him. He has been involved for many years in [Jean\-Claude Malgoire](/wiki/Jean-Claude_Malgoire "Jean-Claude Malgoire")'s ensembles.
He has recorded Bach's *[Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin](/wiki/Sonatas_and_Partitas_for_Solo_Violin_%28Bach%29 "Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin (Bach)")*, Heinrich Biber's *[Rosary Sonatas](/wiki/Rosary_Sonatas "Rosary Sonatas")* and sonatas by [Jean\-Marie Leclair](/wiki/Jean-Marie_Leclair "Jean-Marie Leclair"), but also works by [Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel "Maurice Ravel"), [Kreisler](/wiki/Fritz_Kreisler "Fritz Kreisler") and [Enesco](/wiki/Georges_Enesco "Georges Enesco"). Under the title "Musique dans la cité interdite" he took part with the "Ensemble XVIII\-21" of flutist [Jean\-Christophe Frisch](/wiki/Jean-Christophe_Frisch "Jean-Christophe Frisch"), to the recording of music from the imperial court of China in the 18th century, and also pieces by [Teodorico Pedrini](/wiki/Teodorico_Pedrini "Teodorico Pedrini") and [Joseph\-Marie Amiot](/wiki/Joseph-Marie_Amiot "Joseph-Marie Amiot").
In 2011, with the organist Louis Thiry, he recorded [Tientos](/wiki/Tiento "Tiento") by [Francisco Correa de Arauxo](/wiki/Francisco_Correa_de_Arauxo "Francisco Correa de Arauxo"), playing the violin, the viola and the [viola da spalla](/wiki/Viola_da_spalla "Viola da spalla").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Bismuth studied the violin with [Roland Charmy](/wiki/Roland_Charmy \"Roland Charmy\") at the [Conservatoire de Paris](/wiki/Conservatoire_de_Paris \"Conservatoire de Paris\").",
"From 1993 to 1998, Bismuth was teacher of [baroque violin](/wiki/Baroque_violin \"Baroque violin\") at the Conservatoire de Paris and is currently teacher at the Versailles, Boulogne Billancourt, Paris and Reims conservatories. Learning the baroque violin allows him to interpret differently classical, romantic and contemporary repertoires.",
"He has performed in numerous concerts with his [ensemble](/wiki/Ensemble_%28music%29 \"Ensemble (music)\") \"La Tempesta\" and the Atlantis Quartet,[Atlantis Quartet](http://quatuor.atlantis.free.fr/) of which he is co\\-founder and also with the [organist](/wiki/Organist \"Organist\") [Louis Thiry](/wiki/Louis_Thiry \"Louis Thiry\"), who opened up the horizon of [early music](/wiki/Early_music \"Early music\") to him. He has been involved for many years in [Jean\\-Claude Malgoire](/wiki/Jean-Claude_Malgoire \"Jean-Claude Malgoire\")'s ensembles.",
"He has recorded Bach's *[Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin](/wiki/Sonatas_and_Partitas_for_Solo_Violin_%28Bach%29 \"Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin (Bach)\")*, Heinrich Biber's *[Rosary Sonatas](/wiki/Rosary_Sonatas \"Rosary Sonatas\")* and sonatas by [Jean\\-Marie Leclair](/wiki/Jean-Marie_Leclair \"Jean-Marie Leclair\"), but also works by [Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\"), [Kreisler](/wiki/Fritz_Kreisler \"Fritz Kreisler\") and [Enesco](/wiki/Georges_Enesco \"Georges Enesco\"). Under the title \"Musique dans la cité interdite\" he took part with the \"Ensemble XVIII\\-21\" of flutist [Jean\\-Christophe Frisch](/wiki/Jean-Christophe_Frisch \"Jean-Christophe Frisch\"), to the recording of music from the imperial court of China in the 18th century, and also pieces by [Teodorico Pedrini](/wiki/Teodorico_Pedrini \"Teodorico Pedrini\") and [Joseph\\-Marie Amiot](/wiki/Joseph-Marie_Amiot \"Joseph-Marie Amiot\").",
"In 2011, with the organist Louis Thiry, he recorded [Tientos](/wiki/Tiento \"Tiento\") by [Francisco Correa de Arauxo](/wiki/Francisco_Correa_de_Arauxo \"Francisco Correa de Arauxo\"), playing the violin, the viola and the [viola da spalla](/wiki/Viola_da_spalla \"Viola da spalla\").",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1910\= 317
\|1920\= 385
\|1930\= 445
\|1940\= 516
\|1950\= 656
\|1960\= 617
\|1970\= 616
\|1980\= 504
\|1990\= 588
\|2000\= 556
\|2010\= 487
\|2020\= 432
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=U.S. Decennial Census\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 6, 2013}}
2013 Estimate{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2013/SUB\-EST2013\-3\.html\|title\=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013\|accessdate\=June 3, 2014}}
}}
Red Level first appeared on the 1910 U.S. Census, having incorporated as a town in 1901\. In 1960, it was erroneously reported as having 327 residents.{{cite web \|title\=Number of Inhabitants \- Alabama \|url\=http://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/37721510v1p2ch2\.pdf \|website\=United States Census Bureau \|date\=1960}} This was due to an error which placed almost half of the residents outside the town limits, it was afterwards adjusted to 617 residents.{{cite web \|title\=List of Corrections \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1960/population\-volume\-1/vol\-01\-02\-b.pdf \|website\=United States Census Bureau \|date\=1960}} Red Level derives its name from a store that once existed in the area named Read’s Level and predates the town by a few years. James Read, the owner of the store, always pronounced his name with a silent “a,” which prompted a misspelling of the name.{{Cite web \|title\=Red Level \|url\=https://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/red\-level/ \|access\-date\=December 2, 2023 \|website\=Encyclopedia of Alabama \|language\=en\-US}}
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 556 people, 213 households, and 151 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|296\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 248 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|132\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 88\.67% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 10\.07% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.18% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.54% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.54% from two or more races.
There were 213 households, out of which 33\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 11\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29\.1% were non\-families. 28\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.55 and the average family size was 3\.09\.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 26\.4% under the age of 18, 7\.9% from 18 to 24, 26\.3% from 25 to 44, 22\.3% from 45 to 64, and 17\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 102\.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101\.5 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $25,956, and the median income for a family was $36,250\. Males had a median income of $25,833 versus $18,750 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $14,491\. About 11\.0% of families and 16\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 22\.3% of those under age 18 and 20\.0% of those age 65 or over.
### 2020 census
| \+Red Level racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US0163768\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 17, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race | Num. | Perc. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) | 382 | 88\.43% |
| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) | 27 | 6\.25% |
| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") | 1 | 0\.23% |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)") | 1 | 0\.23% |
| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") | 19 | 4\.4% |
| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") | 2 | 0\.46% |
As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 432 people, 159 households, and 107 families residing in the town.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1910\\= 317\n\\|1920\\= 385\n\\|1930\\= 445\n\\|1940\\= 516\n\\|1950\\= 656\n\\|1960\\= 617\n\\|1970\\= 616\n\\|1980\\= 504\n\\|1990\\= 588\n\\|2000\\= 556\n\\|2010\\= 487\n\\|2020\\= 432\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=U.S. Decennial Census\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 6, 2013}} \n2013 Estimate{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2013/SUB\\-EST2013\\-3\\.html\\|title\\=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013\\|accessdate\\=June 3, 2014}}\n}}\nRed Level first appeared on the 1910 U.S. Census, having incorporated as a town in 1901\\. In 1960, it was erroneously reported as having 327 residents.{{cite web \\|title\\=Number of Inhabitants \\- Alabama \\|url\\=http://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/37721510v1p2ch2\\.pdf \\|website\\=United States Census Bureau \\|date\\=1960}} This was due to an error which placed almost half of the residents outside the town limits, it was afterwards adjusted to 617 residents.{{cite web \\|title\\=List of Corrections \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1960/population\\-volume\\-1/vol\\-01\\-02\\-b.pdf \\|website\\=United States Census Bureau \\|date\\=1960}} Red Level derives its name from a store that once existed in the area named Read’s Level and predates the town by a few years. James Read, the owner of the store, always pronounced his name with a silent “a,” which prompted a misspelling of the name.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Red Level \\|url\\=https://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/red\\-level/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 2, 2023 \\|website\\=Encyclopedia of Alabama \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 556 people, 213 households, and 151 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|296\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 248 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|132\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 88\\.67% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 10\\.07% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.18% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.54% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.54% from two or more races.",
"There were 213 households, out of which 33\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 11\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29\\.1% were non\\-families. 28\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.55 and the average family size was 3\\.09\\.",
"In the town, the population was spread out, with 26\\.4% under the age of 18, 7\\.9% from 18 to 24, 26\\.3% from 25 to 44, 22\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 17\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 102\\.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101\\.5 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $25,956, and the median income for a family was $36,250\\. Males had a median income of $25,833 versus $18,750 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $14,491\\. About 11\\.0% of families and 16\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 22\\.3% of those under age 18 and 20\\.0% of those age 65 or over.",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+Red Level racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US0163768\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 17, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race | Num. | Perc. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic) | 382 | 88\\.43% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic) | 27 | 6\\.25% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") | 1 | 0\\.23% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\") | 1 | 0\\.23% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") | 19 | 4\\.4% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") | 2 | 0\\.46% |",
"As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 432 people, 159 households, and 107 families residing in the town.",
""
] |
Life
----
### Early life
The princess belonged to the [House of Darmstadt](/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Darmstadt "Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt"), which held the Hessian landgraviate. She was born on 30 January 1757 in [Frederick II](/wiki/Frederick_II_of_Prussia "Frederick II of Prussia")'s Prussian capital, Berlin, where her parents were due to the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War "Seven Years' War"). Her father [Louis IX](/wiki/Louis_IX%2C_Landgrave_of_Hesse-Darmstadt "Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt") succeeded to the landgraviate in 1768 and was at the time of her birth fighting as a general for the Prussian forces. He was thus often away from his children and so the princess's education was in her mother [Caroline](/wiki/Countess_Palatine_Caroline_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken "Countess Palatine Caroline of Zweibrücken")'s hands. Caroline educated Louise in the evangelical Protestant tradition, and she became interested in literature and music.
As the youngest daughter, with eight siblings, Louise's education was important to improve her marriage prospects. Since Louis IX showed little interest in his children, it was vital to get Louise married off and a matter also in the hands of her mother, becoming known as the "great Landgräfin" and von Zweibrücken due to her expert international dynastic politics in ancien regime Europe. In 1773 Louise travelled with her mother and sisters [Amalie](/wiki/Princess_Amalie_of_Hesse-Darmstadt "Princess Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt") and [Wilhelmine](/wiki/Natalia_Alexeievna_%28Wilhelmina_Louisa_of_Hesse-Darmstadt%29 "Natalia Alexeievna (Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt)") to Beschau then to the Russian court in [St Petersburg](/wiki/St_Petersburg "St Petersburg"). Tsarina [Catharine II](/wiki/Catharine_II_of_Russia "Catharine II of Russia") decided Louise was unsuitable as a wife for the grand\-prince and future Tsar [Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia"), preferring her sister Wilhemine. This rebuff and her relationship with her future brother\-in\-law Paul formed Louise, leading to her being a persistent influence in the Russian state.
Nevertheless, this journey was not without influence on Louise, since on the way to Russia Caroline had learned of another female regent of a small German state – [Anna Amalia](/wiki/Anna_Amalia_von_Braunschweig-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel_%28Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach%29 "Anna Amalia von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel (Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach)"). Anna and Louise probably found favour together.
### Marriage
At the end of this acquaintance, under the influence of the governor in Erfurt from the [Archbishopric of Mainz](/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Mainz "Archbishopric of Mainz"), [Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg](/wiki/Karl_Theodor_Anton_Maria_von_Dalberg "Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg"), the 18\-year\-old Louise was betrothed to the young knight Carl August of [Sachsen\-Weimar](/wiki/Sachsen-Weimar "Sachsen-Weimar"). The marriage occurred on 3 October 1775 at the Karlsruher court, where (as a new princess\-consort) Louise became caught up in the [Ernestine](/wiki/Ernestine_duchies "Ernestine duchies") Weimar court.
The marriage was wholly dynastic in purpose (her sisters were married off to [heir to Prussia](/wiki/Frederick_William_II_of_Prussia "Frederick William II of Prussia") and the [Tsarevitch](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia")), consolidating the duchy of Saxe\-Weimar's place at the heart of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire "Holy Roman Empire"). Primary and secondary sources agree that it was as unhappy, with Louise (noted for her delicacy and timidity) had difficulty fitting in at court and remained in the shadow of her mother\-in\-law, the dowager duchess Anna Amalia. Louise especially attended the convents in her new country. A [Romantic](/wiki/Romanticism "Romanticism") *avant la lettre*, she did not have a taste for the Romantic lifestyle. [Goethe](/wiki/Goethe "Goethe") was court poet and minister to her husband (and his companion in his extra\-marital affairs), but was moved by her charm, noble\-heartedness and her eyes "the colour of cornflowers". Taking her under his wing, Goethe dedicated the following words to her:
{{Cquote\|I know one, thin as the lily / Whose pride is only innocence. / No one – not even Solomon – ever saw her like.
(J'en sais une, mince comme lys/ Dont la fierté n'est qu'innocence./ Nul – pas même Salomon – n'en vit de pareille.)}}
After four years of marriage, in 1779 Louise finally gave birth her first child, who was not the hoped\-for male heir but a daughter; named after her mother, she lived for only five years. Louise's next pregnancy, in 1781, produced a second daughter who died immediately after birth. At this time the Weimar ducal court also went through its [sturm und drang](/wiki/Sturm_und_drang "Sturm und drang") phase, drawing not only Goethe but also the Ernestines from Miseleien and Eseleien. The resulting emotional coldness did not help their marriage, with her husband publicly humiliating the marriage by a long\-term affair with the actress [Karoline Jagemann](/wiki/Karoline_Jagemann "Karoline Jagemann"). Louise only gave him the heir in 1783, with the birth of [Charles Frederick](/wiki/Charles_Frederick%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach "Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach"); after him, followed four more children, of whom two survived infancy: [Caroline Louise](/wiki/Princess_Caroline_Louise_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach "Princess Caroline Louise of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach") in 1786 and [Bernhard](/wiki/Prince_Bernhard_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach_%281792%E2%80%931862%29 "Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1792–1862)") in 1792\. With the birth of Bernhard the marriage had finally served its purpose of guaranteeing the succession to the throne and the continuation of the dynasty. Charles Frederick later married [Maria](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Maria_Pavlovna_of_Russia_%281786-1859%29 "Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia (1786-1859)") (sister of [Alexander I of Russia](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia "Alexander I of Russia"), and their daughter [Augusta of Saxe\-Weimar](/wiki/Augusta_of_Saxe-Weimar "Augusta of Saxe-Weimar") married prince [Wilhelm of Prussia](/wiki/Wilhelm_I%2C_German_Emperor "Wilhelm I, German Emperor"), thus becoming the first empress of Germany.
### Napoleonic Wars
Louise had her great moment in October 1806\. Despite her childhood and her early experiences in Weimar, she was a great influence in literary circles. The [battle of Jena\-Auerstedt](/wiki/Battle_of_Jena-Auerstedt "Battle of Jena-Auerstedt") (14 October), led to the defeat of the Prussian\-Saxon forces and the total submission of all the German states to France and precipitated the fall of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire "Holy Roman Empire"). Soon after the battle, the victorious French troops advanced on Weimar. The other family members either fled or were away fighting in the Prussian forces, and so Louise remained in Weimar as mother and protector of the nation.
Two days after the battle she ended up opposing [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France "Napoleon I of France") himself. He insisted that her husband withdraw from Prussian military service but she quite undiplomatically made it clear to Napoleon that he could not do so. Nevertheless, at her husband's request and inspired by the example of the German patriot queen [Louise of Prussia](/wiki/Princess_Louise_of_Prussia_%281808-1870%29 "Princess Louise of Prussia (1808-1870)"), she managed to arrange the French plundering of the area so that Weimar got off lightly compared to the university\-city of Jena. Whether Napoleon let himself soften towards Louise, or whether he acted this way due to his own calculations in power\-politics remains open to discussion. The Saxe\-Weimar\-Eisenach duchy remained with the alliance upon the [Treaty of Poznań](/wiki/Treaty_of_Pozna%C5%84 "Treaty of Poznań") and survived the Napoleonic era via further politicking. Since Louise was now considered as the country's leader, and her subjects and contemporaries maintained this image of her – along with her part in the Weimar myth.
In 1815 her politicking during the war ensured that at the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna") her husband's small duchy not only retained all its territory but rose to become a grand duchy (her [Thuringian](/wiki/Thuringia "Thuringia") cousins the [house of Saxony](/wiki/House_of_Saxony "House of Saxony"), in contrast, merely preserved their title of duke). She then became devoted to ambassadorial duties. The Russian alliance ended with her successor [Maria Pavlovna](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Maria_Pavlovna_of_Russia_%281786-1859%29 "Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia (1786-1859)"). The jubilee of her rule and her golden wedding, both in 1825, passed with little celebration and – already very withdrawn – she died aged 73 on 14 February 1830\.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"### Early life",
"The princess belonged to the [House of Darmstadt](/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Darmstadt \"Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt\"), which held the Hessian landgraviate. She was born on 30 January 1757 in [Frederick II](/wiki/Frederick_II_of_Prussia \"Frederick II of Prussia\")'s Prussian capital, Berlin, where her parents were due to the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War \"Seven Years' War\"). Her father [Louis IX](/wiki/Louis_IX%2C_Landgrave_of_Hesse-Darmstadt \"Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt\") succeeded to the landgraviate in 1768 and was at the time of her birth fighting as a general for the Prussian forces. He was thus often away from his children and so the princess's education was in her mother [Caroline](/wiki/Countess_Palatine_Caroline_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken \"Countess Palatine Caroline of Zweibrücken\")'s hands. Caroline educated Louise in the evangelical Protestant tradition, and she became interested in literature and music.",
"As the youngest daughter, with eight siblings, Louise's education was important to improve her marriage prospects. Since Louis IX showed little interest in his children, it was vital to get Louise married off and a matter also in the hands of her mother, becoming known as the \"great Landgräfin\" and von Zweibrücken due to her expert international dynastic politics in ancien regime Europe. In 1773 Louise travelled with her mother and sisters [Amalie](/wiki/Princess_Amalie_of_Hesse-Darmstadt \"Princess Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt\") and [Wilhelmine](/wiki/Natalia_Alexeievna_%28Wilhelmina_Louisa_of_Hesse-Darmstadt%29 \"Natalia Alexeievna (Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt)\") to Beschau then to the Russian court in [St Petersburg](/wiki/St_Petersburg \"St Petersburg\"). Tsarina [Catharine II](/wiki/Catharine_II_of_Russia \"Catharine II of Russia\") decided Louise was unsuitable as a wife for the grand\\-prince and future Tsar [Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\"), preferring her sister Wilhemine. This rebuff and her relationship with her future brother\\-in\\-law Paul formed Louise, leading to her being a persistent influence in the Russian state.",
"Nevertheless, this journey was not without influence on Louise, since on the way to Russia Caroline had learned of another female regent of a small German state – [Anna Amalia](/wiki/Anna_Amalia_von_Braunschweig-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel_%28Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach%29 \"Anna Amalia von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel (Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach)\"). Anna and Louise probably found favour together.",
"### Marriage",
"At the end of this acquaintance, under the influence of the governor in Erfurt from the [Archbishopric of Mainz](/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Mainz \"Archbishopric of Mainz\"), [Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg](/wiki/Karl_Theodor_Anton_Maria_von_Dalberg \"Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg\"), the 18\\-year\\-old Louise was betrothed to the young knight Carl August of [Sachsen\\-Weimar](/wiki/Sachsen-Weimar \"Sachsen-Weimar\"). The marriage occurred on 3 October 1775 at the Karlsruher court, where (as a new princess\\-consort) Louise became caught up in the [Ernestine](/wiki/Ernestine_duchies \"Ernestine duchies\") Weimar court.",
"The marriage was wholly dynastic in purpose (her sisters were married off to [heir to Prussia](/wiki/Frederick_William_II_of_Prussia \"Frederick William II of Prussia\") and the [Tsarevitch](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\")), consolidating the duchy of Saxe\\-Weimar's place at the heart of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire \"Holy Roman Empire\"). Primary and secondary sources agree that it was as unhappy, with Louise (noted for her delicacy and timidity) had difficulty fitting in at court and remained in the shadow of her mother\\-in\\-law, the dowager duchess Anna Amalia. Louise especially attended the convents in her new country. A [Romantic](/wiki/Romanticism \"Romanticism\") *avant la lettre*, she did not have a taste for the Romantic lifestyle. [Goethe](/wiki/Goethe \"Goethe\") was court poet and minister to her husband (and his companion in his extra\\-marital affairs), but was moved by her charm, noble\\-heartedness and her eyes \"the colour of cornflowers\". Taking her under his wing, Goethe dedicated the following words to her:\n{{Cquote\\|I know one, thin as the lily / Whose pride is only innocence. / No one – not even Solomon – ever saw her like. \n(J'en sais une, mince comme lys/ Dont la fierté n'est qu'innocence./ Nul – pas même Salomon – n'en vit de pareille.)}}",
"After four years of marriage, in 1779 Louise finally gave birth her first child, who was not the hoped\\-for male heir but a daughter; named after her mother, she lived for only five years. Louise's next pregnancy, in 1781, produced a second daughter who died immediately after birth. At this time the Weimar ducal court also went through its [sturm und drang](/wiki/Sturm_und_drang \"Sturm und drang\") phase, drawing not only Goethe but also the Ernestines from Miseleien and Eseleien. The resulting emotional coldness did not help their marriage, with her husband publicly humiliating the marriage by a long\\-term affair with the actress [Karoline Jagemann](/wiki/Karoline_Jagemann \"Karoline Jagemann\"). Louise only gave him the heir in 1783, with the birth of [Charles Frederick](/wiki/Charles_Frederick%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach \"Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach\"); after him, followed four more children, of whom two survived infancy: [Caroline Louise](/wiki/Princess_Caroline_Louise_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach \"Princess Caroline Louise of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach\") in 1786 and [Bernhard](/wiki/Prince_Bernhard_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach_%281792%E2%80%931862%29 \"Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1792–1862)\") in 1792\\. With the birth of Bernhard the marriage had finally served its purpose of guaranteeing the succession to the throne and the continuation of the dynasty. Charles Frederick later married [Maria](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Maria_Pavlovna_of_Russia_%281786-1859%29 \"Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia (1786-1859)\") (sister of [Alexander I of Russia](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia \"Alexander I of Russia\"), and their daughter [Augusta of Saxe\\-Weimar](/wiki/Augusta_of_Saxe-Weimar \"Augusta of Saxe-Weimar\") married prince [Wilhelm of Prussia](/wiki/Wilhelm_I%2C_German_Emperor \"Wilhelm I, German Emperor\"), thus becoming the first empress of Germany.",
"### Napoleonic Wars",
"Louise had her great moment in October 1806\\. Despite her childhood and her early experiences in Weimar, she was a great influence in literary circles. The [battle of Jena\\-Auerstedt](/wiki/Battle_of_Jena-Auerstedt \"Battle of Jena-Auerstedt\") (14 October), led to the defeat of the Prussian\\-Saxon forces and the total submission of all the German states to France and precipitated the fall of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire \"Holy Roman Empire\"). Soon after the battle, the victorious French troops advanced on Weimar. The other family members either fled or were away fighting in the Prussian forces, and so Louise remained in Weimar as mother and protector of the nation.",
"Two days after the battle she ended up opposing [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France \"Napoleon I of France\") himself. He insisted that her husband withdraw from Prussian military service but she quite undiplomatically made it clear to Napoleon that he could not do so. Nevertheless, at her husband's request and inspired by the example of the German patriot queen [Louise of Prussia](/wiki/Princess_Louise_of_Prussia_%281808-1870%29 \"Princess Louise of Prussia (1808-1870)\"), she managed to arrange the French plundering of the area so that Weimar got off lightly compared to the university\\-city of Jena. Whether Napoleon let himself soften towards Louise, or whether he acted this way due to his own calculations in power\\-politics remains open to discussion. The Saxe\\-Weimar\\-Eisenach duchy remained with the alliance upon the [Treaty of Poznań](/wiki/Treaty_of_Pozna%C5%84 \"Treaty of Poznań\") and survived the Napoleonic era via further politicking. Since Louise was now considered as the country's leader, and her subjects and contemporaries maintained this image of her – along with her part in the Weimar myth.",
"In 1815 her politicking during the war ensured that at the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\") her husband's small duchy not only retained all its territory but rose to become a grand duchy (her [Thuringian](/wiki/Thuringia \"Thuringia\") cousins the [house of Saxony](/wiki/House_of_Saxony \"House of Saxony\"), in contrast, merely preserved their title of duke). She then became devoted to ambassadorial duties. The Russian alliance ended with her successor [Maria Pavlovna](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Maria_Pavlovna_of_Russia_%281786-1859%29 \"Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia (1786-1859)\"). The jubilee of her rule and her golden wedding, both in 1825, passed with little celebration and – already very withdrawn – she died aged 73 on 14 February 1830\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
Early in 1940, Macon's Chamber of Commerce began a campaign to bring war industries and defense installations to the city. Negotiations with the [Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps "United States Army Air Corps") resulted in a tract of land in a highly developed agricultural area nine miles (14 km) south of the City known as Avondale being selected by the Air Corps.
The City of Macon and Bibb County obtained options on the desired tracts of land. Once the Army Air Corps finally decided to build an airbase at the site, it required the base be built as soon as possible. An informal agreement with the Army stipulated that when the War Department had no further use for the property, the deed would revert to the City and the County.
On August 17, 1941 the first class of British [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") cadets arrived at Cochran Field under the [Arnold Scheme](/wiki/Arnold_Scheme "Arnold Scheme"). Until June 1942, Cochran was used exclusively for British training. With the last British class graduating in early 1943, the War Department constituted and activated the 27th Flying Training Wing (Basic) at Cochran and assigned it to the (redesignated) AAF Eastern Flying Training Command as a flying training unit. Peak training took place during 1943\. From the beginning of 1944 flight training steadily diminished. The Air Force inactivated the base on 15 December 1945\.
Following the war, Cochran was utilized for various purposes. [Smart Field](/wiki/Macon_Downtown_Airport "Macon Downtown Airport") remained as Macon's municipal airport until 1947\. After a tornado swept Smart Field, the airlines moved their operations to Cochran where they remain to this day. The passenger terminal was built in 1959 and extensively renovated in 2003\.
The two Army built hangars still exist along with a few old warehouses. The Air Force at one time had a presence at the airport, hosting the **202d Engineering Installation Squadron**, a non\-flying engineering unit of the [Georgia Air National Guard](/wiki/Georgia_Air_National_Guard "Georgia Air National Guard"). However, this unit was relocated to nearby [Robins AFB](/wiki/Robins_AFB "Robins AFB") at the end of Fiscal Year 2011 pursuant to [BRAC](/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure "Base Realignment and Closure") action.
In June 2019, Brazilian regional jet manufacturer [Embraer](/wiki/Embraer "Embraer") announced it would open a repair and maintenance facility for its [ERJ](/wiki/Embraer_ERJ_family "Embraer ERJ family") and [E\-Jet](/wiki/Embraer_E-Jet_family "Embraer E-Jet family") commercial aircraft at the airport, in a hangar previously occupied by [HAECO](/wiki/HAECO "HAECO").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.globalatlanta.com/brazilian\-aircraft\-embraer\-to\-land\-in\-macon\-employing\-100\-at\-maintenance\-hub/\|title\=Brazilian Aircraft Giant Embraer to Land in Macon, Employing 100 at Maintenance Hub\|last\=Williams\|first\=Trevor\|date\=2018\-06\-06\|website\=Global Atlanta\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-18}}
Middle Georgia Regional Airport has also previously been known as **Lewis B. Wilson Municipal Airport** (named for the mayor of Macon between 1948 and 1953{{Cite web\|url\=http://politicalgraveyard.com/geo/GA/ofc/macon.html\|title\=The Political Graveyard: Mayors and Intendants of Macon, Georgia\|website\=politicalgraveyard.com\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-18}}), **Macon Municipal Airport**, and **Cochran Field**.
### History of commercial service
Commercial airlines historically serving the airport included [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines "Delta Air Lines") and [Eastern Airlines](/wiki/Eastern_Airlines "Eastern Airlines"), both beginning in the 1940s using [Douglas DC\-3](/wiki/Douglas_DC-3 "Douglas DC-3") aircraft. Both carriers later upgraded with [Convair 440](/wiki/Convair_440 "Convair 440") aircraft and during the 1970s decade both carriers operated [McDonnell Douglas DC\-9](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-9 "McDonnell Douglas DC-9") jets from Macon on flights to Atlanta. Eastern ended their service in 1979 and Delta transferred their service to [Atlantic Southeast Airlines](/wiki/Atlantic_Southeast_Airlines "Atlantic Southeast Airlines") operating as [Delta Connection](/wiki/Delta_Connection "Delta Connection") in the mid 1980s. [Eastern Express](/wiki/Eastern_Express "Eastern Express") operated by [Metro Airlines](/wiki/Metro_Airlines "Metro Airlines") on behalf of Eastern Airlines brought back a return of Eastern service in late 1986\. Both carriers provided service to Atlanta using a variety of commuter prop aircraft. In 1988 [Piedmont Commuter](/wiki/Piedmont_Commuter "Piedmont Commuter") operated by [CCAir](/wiki/CCAir "CCAir") began service to Charlotte using [Jetstream 31](/wiki/British_Aerospace_Jetstream "British Aerospace Jetstream") prop aircraft. In 1989 Piedmont Airlines was merged into [USAir](/wiki/USAir "USAir") at which time Piedmont Commuter became [USAir Express](/wiki/US_Airways_Express "US Airways Express"). Eastern Airlines went out of business in early 1991 discontinuing its Eastern Express service while USAir Express discontinued service at nearly the same time.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sunshineskies.com/macon\-airport\-history.html\|title\=History of airline service at Macon, GA\|website\=Sunshine Skies\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-18}} Delta Connection, operated by ASA, continued service until 2008 at which time [GeorgiaSkies](/wiki/GeorgiaSkies "GeorgiaSkies") began serving Macon with flights to Atlanta under an [Essential Air Service](/wiki/Essential_Air_Service "Essential Air Service") contract. GeorgiaSkies flew single engine [Cessna 208 Caravan](/wiki/Cessna_208_Caravan "Cessna 208 Caravan") aircraft. In 2013 [Silver Airways](/wiki/Silver_Airways "Silver Airways") took over with flights to Atlanta and Orlando but soon discontinued service in late 2014\. Under both GeorgiaSkies and Silver Airways, passenger traffic dropped precipitously due to the loss of the seamless connections ASA offered with Delta's flights from its Atlanta hub. The Macon airport then saw no commercial air service for nearly three years.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.macon.com/news/local/article30138135\.html\|title\=Silver Airways seeks to leave Macon service\|last\=Gaines\|first\=Jim\|date\=2014\-08\-14\|work\=The (Macon, Ga.) Telegraph\|access\-date\=2018\-08\-18}}
On August 12, 2017 [Contour Airlines](/wiki/Contour_Airlines "Contour Airlines") began offering daily flights to and from Baltimore using 30\-passenger [ERJ\-135](/wiki/Embraer_ERJ_family "Embraer ERJ family") aircraft under an Alternative Essential Air Service contract.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.maconbibb.us/contourairlines/\|title\=Macon\-Bibb County and Contour Airlines announce nonstop service to Washington D.C. Area {{!}} Macon\-Bibb County, Georgia\|last\=Gambill\|first\=Rachel\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-18}} resulting in a substantial recovery in passenger numbers from the GeorgiaSkies and Silver days.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.maconbibb.us/enplanements2018/\|title\=Middle Georgia Regional Airport passes major passenger service milestone {{!}} Macon\-Bibb County, Georgia\|last\=Gambill\|first\=Rachel\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-18}} Contour also briefly offered flights to and from Tampa between December 2018 and February 2019, with less success than its Baltimore route.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.13wmaz.com/article/news/local/macon\-regional\-airport\-ends\-tampa\-flight\-continues\-casino\-and\-baltimore\-washington\-trips/93\-e3650808\-f15d\-42ea\-a67f\-89e761ca4047\|title\=Macon Regional Airport ends Tampa flight, continues casino and Baltimore\-Washington trips\|last\=Kousouris\|first\=Abby\|date\=2019\-03\-22\|website\=WMAZ\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-18}} In addition to these scheduled flights, a number of irregular casino charters have been offered in recent years.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Early in 1940, Macon's Chamber of Commerce began a campaign to bring war industries and defense installations to the city. Negotiations with the [Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps \"United States Army Air Corps\") resulted in a tract of land in a highly developed agricultural area nine miles (14 km) south of the City known as Avondale being selected by the Air Corps.",
"The City of Macon and Bibb County obtained options on the desired tracts of land. Once the Army Air Corps finally decided to build an airbase at the site, it required the base be built as soon as possible. An informal agreement with the Army stipulated that when the War Department had no further use for the property, the deed would revert to the City and the County.",
"On August 17, 1941 the first class of British [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") cadets arrived at Cochran Field under the [Arnold Scheme](/wiki/Arnold_Scheme \"Arnold Scheme\"). Until June 1942, Cochran was used exclusively for British training. With the last British class graduating in early 1943, the War Department constituted and activated the 27th Flying Training Wing (Basic) at Cochran and assigned it to the (redesignated) AAF Eastern Flying Training Command as a flying training unit. Peak training took place during 1943\\. From the beginning of 1944 flight training steadily diminished. The Air Force inactivated the base on 15 December 1945\\.",
"Following the war, Cochran was utilized for various purposes. [Smart Field](/wiki/Macon_Downtown_Airport \"Macon Downtown Airport\") remained as Macon's municipal airport until 1947\\. After a tornado swept Smart Field, the airlines moved their operations to Cochran where they remain to this day. The passenger terminal was built in 1959 and extensively renovated in 2003\\.",
"The two Army built hangars still exist along with a few old warehouses. The Air Force at one time had a presence at the airport, hosting the **202d Engineering Installation Squadron**, a non\\-flying engineering unit of the [Georgia Air National Guard](/wiki/Georgia_Air_National_Guard \"Georgia Air National Guard\"). However, this unit was relocated to nearby [Robins AFB](/wiki/Robins_AFB \"Robins AFB\") at the end of Fiscal Year 2011 pursuant to [BRAC](/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure \"Base Realignment and Closure\") action.",
"In June 2019, Brazilian regional jet manufacturer [Embraer](/wiki/Embraer \"Embraer\") announced it would open a repair and maintenance facility for its [ERJ](/wiki/Embraer_ERJ_family \"Embraer ERJ family\") and [E\\-Jet](/wiki/Embraer_E-Jet_family \"Embraer E-Jet family\") commercial aircraft at the airport, in a hangar previously occupied by [HAECO](/wiki/HAECO \"HAECO\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.globalatlanta.com/brazilian\\-aircraft\\-embraer\\-to\\-land\\-in\\-macon\\-employing\\-100\\-at\\-maintenance\\-hub/\\|title\\=Brazilian Aircraft Giant Embraer to Land in Macon, Employing 100 at Maintenance Hub\\|last\\=Williams\\|first\\=Trevor\\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-06\\|website\\=Global Atlanta\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-18}}",
"Middle Georgia Regional Airport has also previously been known as **Lewis B. Wilson Municipal Airport** (named for the mayor of Macon between 1948 and 1953{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://politicalgraveyard.com/geo/GA/ofc/macon.html\\|title\\=The Political Graveyard: Mayors and Intendants of Macon, Georgia\\|website\\=politicalgraveyard.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-18}}), **Macon Municipal Airport**, and **Cochran Field**.",
"### History of commercial service",
"Commercial airlines historically serving the airport included [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines \"Delta Air Lines\") and [Eastern Airlines](/wiki/Eastern_Airlines \"Eastern Airlines\"), both beginning in the 1940s using [Douglas DC\\-3](/wiki/Douglas_DC-3 \"Douglas DC-3\") aircraft. Both carriers later upgraded with [Convair 440](/wiki/Convair_440 \"Convair 440\") aircraft and during the 1970s decade both carriers operated [McDonnell Douglas DC\\-9](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-9 \"McDonnell Douglas DC-9\") jets from Macon on flights to Atlanta. Eastern ended their service in 1979 and Delta transferred their service to [Atlantic Southeast Airlines](/wiki/Atlantic_Southeast_Airlines \"Atlantic Southeast Airlines\") operating as [Delta Connection](/wiki/Delta_Connection \"Delta Connection\") in the mid 1980s. [Eastern Express](/wiki/Eastern_Express \"Eastern Express\") operated by [Metro Airlines](/wiki/Metro_Airlines \"Metro Airlines\") on behalf of Eastern Airlines brought back a return of Eastern service in late 1986\\. Both carriers provided service to Atlanta using a variety of commuter prop aircraft. In 1988 [Piedmont Commuter](/wiki/Piedmont_Commuter \"Piedmont Commuter\") operated by [CCAir](/wiki/CCAir \"CCAir\") began service to Charlotte using [Jetstream 31](/wiki/British_Aerospace_Jetstream \"British Aerospace Jetstream\") prop aircraft. In 1989 Piedmont Airlines was merged into [USAir](/wiki/USAir \"USAir\") at which time Piedmont Commuter became [USAir Express](/wiki/US_Airways_Express \"US Airways Express\"). Eastern Airlines went out of business in early 1991 discontinuing its Eastern Express service while USAir Express discontinued service at nearly the same time.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sunshineskies.com/macon\\-airport\\-history.html\\|title\\=History of airline service at Macon, GA\\|website\\=Sunshine Skies\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-18}} Delta Connection, operated by ASA, continued service until 2008 at which time [GeorgiaSkies](/wiki/GeorgiaSkies \"GeorgiaSkies\") began serving Macon with flights to Atlanta under an [Essential Air Service](/wiki/Essential_Air_Service \"Essential Air Service\") contract. GeorgiaSkies flew single engine [Cessna 208 Caravan](/wiki/Cessna_208_Caravan \"Cessna 208 Caravan\") aircraft. In 2013 [Silver Airways](/wiki/Silver_Airways \"Silver Airways\") took over with flights to Atlanta and Orlando but soon discontinued service in late 2014\\. Under both GeorgiaSkies and Silver Airways, passenger traffic dropped precipitously due to the loss of the seamless connections ASA offered with Delta's flights from its Atlanta hub. The Macon airport then saw no commercial air service for nearly three years.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.macon.com/news/local/article30138135\\.html\\|title\\=Silver Airways seeks to leave Macon service\\|last\\=Gaines\\|first\\=Jim\\|date\\=2014\\-08\\-14\\|work\\=The (Macon, Ga.) Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-18}}",
"On August 12, 2017 [Contour Airlines](/wiki/Contour_Airlines \"Contour Airlines\") began offering daily flights to and from Baltimore using 30\\-passenger [ERJ\\-135](/wiki/Embraer_ERJ_family \"Embraer ERJ family\") aircraft under an Alternative Essential Air Service contract.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.maconbibb.us/contourairlines/\\|title\\=Macon\\-Bibb County and Contour Airlines announce nonstop service to Washington D.C. Area {{!}} Macon\\-Bibb County, Georgia\\|last\\=Gambill\\|first\\=Rachel\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-18}} resulting in a substantial recovery in passenger numbers from the GeorgiaSkies and Silver days.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.maconbibb.us/enplanements2018/\\|title\\=Middle Georgia Regional Airport passes major passenger service milestone {{!}} Macon\\-Bibb County, Georgia\\|last\\=Gambill\\|first\\=Rachel\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-18}} Contour also briefly offered flights to and from Tampa between December 2018 and February 2019, with less success than its Baltimore route.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.13wmaz.com/article/news/local/macon\\-regional\\-airport\\-ends\\-tampa\\-flight\\-continues\\-casino\\-and\\-baltimore\\-washington\\-trips/93\\-e3650808\\-f15d\\-42ea\\-a67f\\-89e761ca4047\\|title\\=Macon Regional Airport ends Tampa flight, continues casino and Baltimore\\-Washington trips\\|last\\=Kousouris\\|first\\=Abby\\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-22\\|website\\=WMAZ\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-18}} In addition to these scheduled flights, a number of irregular casino charters have been offered in recent years.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Ogura was born in [Sendai](/wiki/Sendai "Sendai"), [Miyagi Prefecture](/wiki/Miyagi_Prefecture "Miyagi Prefecture"), Empire of Japan into a family of scholars. After graduating from the Second Tertiary School (predecessor to the modern [Tohoku University](/wiki/Tohoku_University "Tohoku University"){{Cite web \|title\=Tohoku University Registered Tangible Cultural Properties \|url\=http://bunkazai.tohoku.ac.jp/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-01 \|website\=Tohoku University Registered Tangible Cultural Properties \|language\=ja}}{{Cite web \|title\=오구라 신페이(小倉進平, 1882\-1944\) \|trans\-title\=Ogura Shinpei (1882–1944\) \|url\=http://kostma.korea.ac.kr/knowledge/knowView?knowType\=%EA%B0%9C%EC%9D%B8%EC%88%98%EC%A7%91%EA%B0%80\&id\=40 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-01 \|website\=Center for Overseas Resources on Korean Studies}}), he entered [Tokyo Imperial University](/wiki/Tokyo_Imperial_University "Tokyo Imperial University"), where he majored in linguistics. He graduated in 1906, with a thesis on the phonology of Japanese during the [Heian period](/wiki/Heian_period "Heian period"). After graduating, he performed research under the guidance of notable Japanese linguist {{Ill\|Ueda Kazutoshi\|ja\|上田萬年}}. During this period, he planned to continue studying Japanese, but in 1911, ended up moving to Korea at the age of 29 to serve as an official under the Japanese [Governor\-General of Korea](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Ch%C5%8Dsen "Governor-General of Chōsen"). He would end up spending 20 years on the peninsula.
### Researching Korean
During this time, he held a number of academic and teaching positions, including at the {{Ill\|Keijō Medical School\|ko\|경성의학전문학교 (서울)}} (a predecessor to [Seoul National University](/wiki/Seoul_National_University "Seoul National University")). He also taught Japanese to students and edited textbooks. By June 1919, his rank in the government was Vice\-Chancellor. While working in the colonial government, Ogura contributed to the development of a Korean dictionary, which was eventually published in 1920\.
#### Researching dialects
Ogura travelled the peninsula and performed extensive research on the various [Korean dialects](/wiki/Korean_dialects "Korean dialects"), making him the first modern researcher to do so. While his interest in dialects was initially more of a hobby (he even used his own vacation time to make these trips), he eventually devoted more attention in it, as he saw studying texts alone as insufficient to deciphering *hyangga*. He visited [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island "Jeju Island") in 1912, [Hwanghae Province](/wiki/Hwanghae_Province "Hwanghae Province") in 1913, [South Gyeongsang Province](/wiki/South_Gyeongsang_Province "South Gyeongsang Province") in 1915, North Gyeongsang Province in 1916, South Chungcheong and South Jeolla Province in 1918, [South Hamgyong Province](/wiki/South_Hamgyong_Province "South Hamgyong Province") in 1920, [North Jeolla](/wiki/North_Jeolla_Province "North Jeolla Province") and [North Chungcheong Province](/wiki/North_Chungcheong_Province "North Chungcheong Province") in 1921, [North Gyeongsang Province](/wiki/North_Gyeongsang_Province "North Gyeongsang Province") in 1922, and [Gangwon Province](/wiki/Gangwon_Province_%28historical%29 "Gangwon Province (historical)") in 1923\.
Throughout his surveys, he studied dialects at 259 points throughout the peninsula. He began at each regional county office and branched out from there. For much of this work, he traveled on horseback, as there was a significant lack of infrastructure in rural areas. The colonial government actively supported his research; he was assigned a police officer for protection when he worked in Jeju. The result of this work was around 40 papers on Korean dialects.
#### *Hyangga* and *idu*
During this time, he also studied old Korean books and documents. This includes his now famous research on *hyangga* in the 1920s, which he eventually published in 1929\. In 1927, he received a doctorate in literature, with his thesis on *hyangga* and *[idu](/wiki/Idu_script "Idu script")*. His work in this area inspired the Korean academic [Yang Ju\-dong](/wiki/Yang_Ju-dong "Yang Ju-dong") to research *hyangga* as well.{{Cite web \|last\=이 \|first\=혜숙 \|date\=2021\-10\-03 \|title\=천년의 수수께끼, 신라 향가를 해독한 최초의 인물 \|url\=https://www.ohmynews.com/NWS\_Web/View/at\_pg.aspx?CNTN\_CD\=A0002776376 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-01 \|website\=\[\[OhmyNews]] \|language\=ko}}{{Better source needed\|reason\=The current source is insufficiently reliable (\[\[WP:NOTRS]]).\|date\=January 2024}}
### Later career
From August 1924 to April 1926, he studied abroad in Europe as an overseas researcher and professor at an overseas branch of [Keijō Imperial University](/wiki/Keij%C5%8D_Imperial_University "Keijō Imperial University"). Following this, he returned to Korea and was made a professor of linguistics at Keijō. There, he trained a number of Korean linguists. He also opened the first university library in Korea in 1926\. A significant number of the notable Korean linguists and librarians from around this period were his former students.
In 1933, he was appointed professor of linguistics at Tokyo Imperial University, although he visited Korea annually to lecture. During this time, he continued publishing on Korean dialects. In 1935, he received an [Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy](/wiki/Imperial_Prize_of_the_Japan_Academy "Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy") for his contributions to East Asian linguistics and his exploration of the relationship between the Korean and Japanese languages. In 1938, he served as the first vice president of the Linguistic Society of Japan.
He retired in 1943 due to poor health, although he continued his research on Korean. He died on February 8, 1944\. At the time of his death, he had been in the final stages of preparing a book of his life's research. The book was subsequently posthumously published that May by one of his students, {{Nihongo\|Shibata Takeshi\|2\=柴田武\|3\=\|4\=1918–2007}}. Many of the old books that he collected throughout his research are now held in the Ogura Collection at Tokyo University.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Ogura was born in [Sendai](/wiki/Sendai \"Sendai\"), [Miyagi Prefecture](/wiki/Miyagi_Prefecture \"Miyagi Prefecture\"), Empire of Japan into a family of scholars. After graduating from the Second Tertiary School (predecessor to the modern [Tohoku University](/wiki/Tohoku_University \"Tohoku University\"){{Cite web \\|title\\=Tohoku University Registered Tangible Cultural Properties \\|url\\=http://bunkazai.tohoku.ac.jp/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-01 \\|website\\=Tohoku University Registered Tangible Cultural Properties \\|language\\=ja}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=오구라 신페이(小倉進平, 1882\\-1944\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=Ogura Shinpei (1882–1944\\) \\|url\\=http://kostma.korea.ac.kr/knowledge/knowView?knowType\\=%EA%B0%9C%EC%9D%B8%EC%88%98%EC%A7%91%EA%B0%80\\&id\\=40 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-01 \\|website\\=Center for Overseas Resources on Korean Studies}}), he entered [Tokyo Imperial University](/wiki/Tokyo_Imperial_University \"Tokyo Imperial University\"), where he majored in linguistics. He graduated in 1906, with a thesis on the phonology of Japanese during the [Heian period](/wiki/Heian_period \"Heian period\"). After graduating, he performed research under the guidance of notable Japanese linguist {{Ill\\|Ueda Kazutoshi\\|ja\\|上田萬年}}. During this period, he planned to continue studying Japanese, but in 1911, ended up moving to Korea at the age of 29 to serve as an official under the Japanese [Governor\\-General of Korea](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Ch%C5%8Dsen \"Governor-General of Chōsen\"). He would end up spending 20 years on the peninsula.",
"### Researching Korean",
"During this time, he held a number of academic and teaching positions, including at the {{Ill\\|Keijō Medical School\\|ko\\|경성의학전문학교 (서울)}} (a predecessor to [Seoul National University](/wiki/Seoul_National_University \"Seoul National University\")). He also taught Japanese to students and edited textbooks. By June 1919, his rank in the government was Vice\\-Chancellor. While working in the colonial government, Ogura contributed to the development of a Korean dictionary, which was eventually published in 1920\\.",
"#### Researching dialects",
"Ogura travelled the peninsula and performed extensive research on the various [Korean dialects](/wiki/Korean_dialects \"Korean dialects\"), making him the first modern researcher to do so. While his interest in dialects was initially more of a hobby (he even used his own vacation time to make these trips), he eventually devoted more attention in it, as he saw studying texts alone as insufficient to deciphering *hyangga*. He visited [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island \"Jeju Island\") in 1912, [Hwanghae Province](/wiki/Hwanghae_Province \"Hwanghae Province\") in 1913, [South Gyeongsang Province](/wiki/South_Gyeongsang_Province \"South Gyeongsang Province\") in 1915, North Gyeongsang Province in 1916, South Chungcheong and South Jeolla Province in 1918, [South Hamgyong Province](/wiki/South_Hamgyong_Province \"South Hamgyong Province\") in 1920, [North Jeolla](/wiki/North_Jeolla_Province \"North Jeolla Province\") and [North Chungcheong Province](/wiki/North_Chungcheong_Province \"North Chungcheong Province\") in 1921, [North Gyeongsang Province](/wiki/North_Gyeongsang_Province \"North Gyeongsang Province\") in 1922, and [Gangwon Province](/wiki/Gangwon_Province_%28historical%29 \"Gangwon Province (historical)\") in 1923\\.",
"Throughout his surveys, he studied dialects at 259 points throughout the peninsula. He began at each regional county office and branched out from there. For much of this work, he traveled on horseback, as there was a significant lack of infrastructure in rural areas. The colonial government actively supported his research; he was assigned a police officer for protection when he worked in Jeju. The result of this work was around 40 papers on Korean dialects.",
"#### *Hyangga* and *idu*",
"During this time, he also studied old Korean books and documents. This includes his now famous research on *hyangga* in the 1920s, which he eventually published in 1929\\. In 1927, he received a doctorate in literature, with his thesis on *hyangga* and *[idu](/wiki/Idu_script \"Idu script\")*. His work in this area inspired the Korean academic [Yang Ju\\-dong](/wiki/Yang_Ju-dong \"Yang Ju-dong\") to research *hyangga* as well.{{Cite web \\|last\\=이 \\|first\\=혜숙 \\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-03 \\|title\\=천년의 수수께끼, 신라 향가를 해독한 최초의 인물 \\|url\\=https://www.ohmynews.com/NWS\\_Web/View/at\\_pg.aspx?CNTN\\_CD\\=A0002776376 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-01 \\|website\\=\\[\\[OhmyNews]] \\|language\\=ko}}{{Better source needed\\|reason\\=The current source is insufficiently reliable (\\[\\[WP:NOTRS]]).\\|date\\=January 2024}}",
"### Later career",
"From August 1924 to April 1926, he studied abroad in Europe as an overseas researcher and professor at an overseas branch of [Keijō Imperial University](/wiki/Keij%C5%8D_Imperial_University \"Keijō Imperial University\"). Following this, he returned to Korea and was made a professor of linguistics at Keijō. There, he trained a number of Korean linguists. He also opened the first university library in Korea in 1926\\. A significant number of the notable Korean linguists and librarians from around this period were his former students.",
"In 1933, he was appointed professor of linguistics at Tokyo Imperial University, although he visited Korea annually to lecture. During this time, he continued publishing on Korean dialects. In 1935, he received an [Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy](/wiki/Imperial_Prize_of_the_Japan_Academy \"Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy\") for his contributions to East Asian linguistics and his exploration of the relationship between the Korean and Japanese languages. In 1938, he served as the first vice president of the Linguistic Society of Japan.",
"He retired in 1943 due to poor health, although he continued his research on Korean. He died on February 8, 1944\\. At the time of his death, he had been in the final stages of preparing a book of his life's research. The book was subsequently posthumously published that May by one of his students, {{Nihongo\\|Shibata Takeshi\\|2\\=柴田武\\|3\\=\\|4\\=1918–2007}}. Many of the old books that he collected throughout his research are now held in the Ogura Collection at Tokyo University.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Printing trade and journalism
In 1892, Simpson was one of 27 members of the Typographical Union on strike against the *Toronto News*. The strikers, including Simpson, founded the *[Evening Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")* on November 3, 1892, as a strike paper.Michael Horton, "Out of the darkness The Evening Star is born \-\-\- A group of jilted printers had enough and created 'a paper for the people'", [Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star"), November 1, 2002 For ten years, Simpson served as the *Star*{{'s}} City Hall reporter including nine years as the paper's municipal editor.Jimmy Simpson 1873\-1938: Our shocking socialist mayor, November 1, 1992 He subsequently became editor of a labour newspaper."The Late James Simpson", *Toronto Daily Star*, September 26, 1938
In 1900, Simpson and eight others founded the Ruskin Literary and Debating Society. He served as its first president. Today, it is Canada's oldest debating society.Zena Cherry, Globe and Mail, February 16, 1980
### Labour leader
Simpson went on to become a labour leader and was the vice\-president of the Toronto and District Trades and Labour Council at the turn of the century and also served three terms as vice\-president of the [Trades and Labour Congress of Canada](/wiki/Trades_and_Labour_Congress_of_Canada "Trades and Labour Congress of Canada") between 1904 and 1936\.
### Labour Party
[thumb\|1932 election ad for Simpson](/wiki/File:J_Simpson_-_1933.PNG "J Simpson - 1933.PNG")
As a socialist labour politician, he ran in the May 1902 Ontario election in Toronto. As a candidate for the newly\-formed [Socialist Party of Canada](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Canada "Socialist Party of Canada"), he ran in [Toronto North](/wiki/Toronto_North_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 "Toronto North (provincial electoral district)") in the 1905 Ontario provincial election and in a 1906 provincial by\-election in Toronto and in the 1908 provincial election, all unsuccessfully.Peter Newell, the Impossibilists, p. 28; Edmonton Bulletin, February 23, 1906\.
He was elected and served as a Toronto school board trustee, 1905–10\.
He ran for mayor of Toronto in the [1908 Toronto municipal election](/wiki/1908_Toronto_municipal_election "1908 Toronto municipal election") as a Socialist but was not elected.Edmonton Bulletin, Jan. 2, 1908
He was elected to the [Toronto Board of Control](/wiki/Toronto_Board_of_Control "Toronto Board of Control") in 1914 with the highest vote total ever given a candidate up to that time and sat on the Board of Control again from 1930 to 1934\.Rupert J. Taylor, "Labour history: The struggle for workers' rights", Canada \& the World Backgrounder, December 1, 1997
He was one of the co\-leaders of the [Ontario Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Canada%29 "Labour Party (Canada)") (Ontario section of the Canadian Labour Party) in the 1920s and a Labour candidate for the [House of Commons of Canada](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Canada "House of Commons of Canada") in [Parkdale](/wiki/Parkdale_%28federal_electoral_district%29 "Parkdale (federal electoral district)") in the [1921 Canadian federal election](/wiki/1921_Canadian_federal_election "1921 Canadian federal election"), in [Toronto Northwest](/wiki/Toronto_Northwest "Toronto Northwest") in [1925](/wiki/1925_Canadian_federal_election "1925 Canadian federal election") and [1926 Canadian federal elections](/wiki/1926_Canadian_federal_election "1926 Canadian federal election") but was unable to win election to [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada "Parliament of Canada").
Simpson played a leading role in opposing [Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Canada "Communist Party of Canada") in the Labour Party. After Communists convinced the party to withdraw its nomination of Simpson as its candidate for Toronto city council's Board of Control in 1927, Simpson and his supporters quit the party leading to its collapse. They then formed the Toronto Labour Party, which explicitly excluded Communists from membership.
### Mayor
In the 1930s, he became a leading member of the [Ontario CCF](/wiki/Ontario_New_Democratic_Party "Ontario New Democratic Party"). In 1934 he ran as a CCF candidate for the Toronto Board of Control and was elected which set the stage for him to run for Mayor of Toronto in the [1935 municipal election](/wiki/1935_Toronto_municipal_election "1935 Toronto municipal election"). The only one of the city's newspapers to support him was the *[Toronto Daily Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")*. The other papers and both the Conservative and Liberal parties supported Simpson's opponent, Alderman [Harry W. Hunt](/wiki/Harry_W._Hunt "Harry W. Hunt") and accused the CCF of being anti\-British and under Communist influence. Percy Parker, a leading Liberal, declared on the radio that "the bells of Moscow will ring when Simpson is elected mayor."
Simpson's personal popularity and the organization put together by the CCF and the trade union movement was enough to elect him making Toronto the largest city in North America to have elected a socialist mayor. As mayor, Simpson supported the campaign to boycott the [1936 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics "1936 Summer Olympics") being held in [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") that summer.Bruce Kidd, "Early Boycotts", Globe and Mail, August 18, 1980\.
### Religion
Simpson was a [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist "Methodist") and [Christian socialist](/wiki/Christian_socialist "Christian socialist") who became active with the [Epworth League](/wiki/Epworth_League "Epworth League") movement at the age of 16 ultimately becoming president of the Epworth League Toronto Conference. He also served as president of the Toronto Methodist Young People's Union and the Toronto Methodists' Cycling Union. Simpson was intensely anti\-[Catholic](/wiki/Catholic "Catholic") which cost him the support of the *Toronto Star*. When he ran for re\-election as mayor in 1936 this contributed to his defeat.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Printing trade and journalism",
"In 1892, Simpson was one of 27 members of the Typographical Union on strike against the *Toronto News*. The strikers, including Simpson, founded the *[Evening Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")* on November 3, 1892, as a strike paper.Michael Horton, \"Out of the darkness The Evening Star is born \\-\\-\\- A group of jilted printers had enough and created 'a paper for the people'\", [Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\"), November 1, 2002 For ten years, Simpson served as the *Star*{{'s}} City Hall reporter including nine years as the paper's municipal editor.Jimmy Simpson 1873\\-1938: Our shocking socialist mayor, November 1, 1992 He subsequently became editor of a labour newspaper.\"The Late James Simpson\", *Toronto Daily Star*, September 26, 1938",
"In 1900, Simpson and eight others founded the Ruskin Literary and Debating Society. He served as its first president. Today, it is Canada's oldest debating society.Zena Cherry, Globe and Mail, February 16, 1980",
"### Labour leader",
"Simpson went on to become a labour leader and was the vice\\-president of the Toronto and District Trades and Labour Council at the turn of the century and also served three terms as vice\\-president of the [Trades and Labour Congress of Canada](/wiki/Trades_and_Labour_Congress_of_Canada \"Trades and Labour Congress of Canada\") between 1904 and 1936\\.",
"### Labour Party",
"[thumb\\|1932 election ad for Simpson](/wiki/File:J_Simpson_-_1933.PNG \"J Simpson - 1933.PNG\")\nAs a socialist labour politician, he ran in the May 1902 Ontario election in Toronto. As a candidate for the newly\\-formed [Socialist Party of Canada](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Canada \"Socialist Party of Canada\"), he ran in [Toronto North](/wiki/Toronto_North_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 \"Toronto North (provincial electoral district)\") in the 1905 Ontario provincial election and in a 1906 provincial by\\-election in Toronto and in the 1908 provincial election, all unsuccessfully.Peter Newell, the Impossibilists, p. 28; Edmonton Bulletin, February 23, 1906\\.",
"He was elected and served as a Toronto school board trustee, 1905–10\\.",
"He ran for mayor of Toronto in the [1908 Toronto municipal election](/wiki/1908_Toronto_municipal_election \"1908 Toronto municipal election\") as a Socialist but was not elected.Edmonton Bulletin, Jan. 2, 1908",
"He was elected to the [Toronto Board of Control](/wiki/Toronto_Board_of_Control \"Toronto Board of Control\") in 1914 with the highest vote total ever given a candidate up to that time and sat on the Board of Control again from 1930 to 1934\\.Rupert J. Taylor, \"Labour history: The struggle for workers' rights\", Canada \\& the World Backgrounder, December 1, 1997",
"He was one of the co\\-leaders of the [Ontario Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Canada%29 \"Labour Party (Canada)\") (Ontario section of the Canadian Labour Party) in the 1920s and a Labour candidate for the [House of Commons of Canada](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Canada \"House of Commons of Canada\") in [Parkdale](/wiki/Parkdale_%28federal_electoral_district%29 \"Parkdale (federal electoral district)\") in the [1921 Canadian federal election](/wiki/1921_Canadian_federal_election \"1921 Canadian federal election\"), in [Toronto Northwest](/wiki/Toronto_Northwest \"Toronto Northwest\") in [1925](/wiki/1925_Canadian_federal_election \"1925 Canadian federal election\") and [1926 Canadian federal elections](/wiki/1926_Canadian_federal_election \"1926 Canadian federal election\") but was unable to win election to [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada \"Parliament of Canada\").",
"Simpson played a leading role in opposing [Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Canada \"Communist Party of Canada\") in the Labour Party. After Communists convinced the party to withdraw its nomination of Simpson as its candidate for Toronto city council's Board of Control in 1927, Simpson and his supporters quit the party leading to its collapse. They then formed the Toronto Labour Party, which explicitly excluded Communists from membership.",
"### Mayor",
"In the 1930s, he became a leading member of the [Ontario CCF](/wiki/Ontario_New_Democratic_Party \"Ontario New Democratic Party\"). In 1934 he ran as a CCF candidate for the Toronto Board of Control and was elected which set the stage for him to run for Mayor of Toronto in the [1935 municipal election](/wiki/1935_Toronto_municipal_election \"1935 Toronto municipal election\"). The only one of the city's newspapers to support him was the *[Toronto Daily Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")*. The other papers and both the Conservative and Liberal parties supported Simpson's opponent, Alderman [Harry W. Hunt](/wiki/Harry_W._Hunt \"Harry W. Hunt\") and accused the CCF of being anti\\-British and under Communist influence. Percy Parker, a leading Liberal, declared on the radio that \"the bells of Moscow will ring when Simpson is elected mayor.\"",
"Simpson's personal popularity and the organization put together by the CCF and the trade union movement was enough to elect him making Toronto the largest city in North America to have elected a socialist mayor. As mayor, Simpson supported the campaign to boycott the [1936 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics \"1936 Summer Olympics\") being held in [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") that summer.Bruce Kidd, \"Early Boycotts\", Globe and Mail, August 18, 1980\\.",
"### Religion",
"Simpson was a [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist \"Methodist\") and [Christian socialist](/wiki/Christian_socialist \"Christian socialist\") who became active with the [Epworth League](/wiki/Epworth_League \"Epworth League\") movement at the age of 16 ultimately becoming president of the Epworth League Toronto Conference. He also served as president of the Toronto Methodist Young People's Union and the Toronto Methodists' Cycling Union. Simpson was intensely anti\\-[Catholic](/wiki/Catholic \"Catholic\") which cost him the support of the *Toronto Star*. When he ran for re\\-election as mayor in 1936 this contributed to his defeat.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early history and toponymy
Daventry is overlooked by the {{cvt\|653\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-high}} [Borough Hill](/wiki/Borough_Hill "Borough Hill") on the eastern edge of the town. The hill has been the site of human activity dating back into prehistory: remains have been found of two [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") [barrows](/wiki/Tumulus "Tumulus"), two [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") [hill forts](/wiki/Hillforts_in_Britain "Hillforts in Britain") – one of which is the fourth largest found in Britain, and [a later Roman villa](/wiki/Borough_Hill_Roman_villa "Borough Hill Roman villa") and farming settlement.{{cite web \|title\=Borough Hill, A landscape through time \|url\=https://molarchaeology.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid\=5f8454e89fce4effa9cabbb660e1f56e \|publisher\=Museum of London Archaeology \|access\-date\=12 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=30 October 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030101707/https://molarchaeology.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid\=5f8454e89fce4effa9cabbb660e1f56e \|url\-status\=live}}{{NHLE \|desc\=Borough Hill: two Iron Age hillforts and a defended enclosure, two Bronze Age barrows, a Roman building complex and barrow cemetery \|num\=1010696 \|access\-date\=12 October 2020}}
According to local folklore Daventry had [Danish](/wiki/Danes_%28Germanic_tribe%29 "Danes (Germanic tribe)") ([Viking](/wiki/Viking "Viking")) origins, this was partly due to the old pronunciation of Daventry as *Daintry*, which was interpreted as "Dane Tree", however in more modern interpretation the town's name is thought likelier to be [Anglo\-Saxon](/wiki/Anglo-Saxon "Anglo-Saxon") in origin: "Dafa's tree" (Dafa being a founding father or [paterfamila](/wiki/Pater_familias "Pater familias")) and there was very likely a meeting tree, possibly on Borough Hill. Thus the name may have been formed on lines similar to Coventry ("Cofa's tree", i.e. "tree of Cofa").{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|p\=5}} Another theory which was popular in the 19th century, was that of [Thomas Pennant](/wiki/Thomas_Pennant "Thomas Pennant"), the Welsh naturalist and antiquarian, who acknowledged the town's 'considerable antiquity' and speculated that the name was [Brythonic](/wiki/Brittonic_languages "Brittonic languages"), *dwy\-avon\-tre* (town of two rivers), a derivation seemingly supported by the town's topography, situated as it is between the sources of the [River Leam](/wiki/River_Leam "River Leam"), which flows west, and the [River Nene](/wiki/River_Nene "River Nene") which flows east.[Datchworth – Dean, West \|A Topographical Dictionary of England (pp. 15–23\)](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=50915) {{Webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022173824/http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=50915 \|date\=22 October 2012 }}. British\-history.ac.uk (2003\-06\-22\). Retrieved on 2013\-07\-17{{cite web \|last1\=Pennant \|first1\=Thomas \|title\=Journey from Chester to London \|url\=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/Pennant\_C2L/10\#pn\_26 \|website\=Vision of Britain \|access\-date\=5 September 2017 \|archive\-date\=5 September 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905235528/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/Pennant\_C2L/10\#pn\_26 \|url\-status\=live}} This theory however is now discredited.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|p\=5}}
### Medieval and Tudor
Daventry was mentioned in the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book") of 1086 as *Daventrei*.{{cite web \|title\=Northamptonshire A\-E \|url\=http://www.domesdaybook.co.uk/northamptonshire1\.html\#daventry \|publisher\=Domesday Book Online \|access\-date\=5 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=6 August 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806223020/http://www.domesdaybook.co.uk/northamptonshire1\.html\#daventry \|url\-status\=live}} It was recorded as belonging to [Countess Judith](/wiki/Judith_of_Lens "Judith of Lens"), niece of [William the Conqueror](/wiki/William_the_Conqueror "William the Conqueror").{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=12\-14}}
In around 1108, [Daventry Priory](/wiki/Daventry_Priory "Daventry Priory") a small [Cluniac](/wiki/Cluniac "Cluniac") priory was founded at Daventry, alongside the parish church.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=12\-14}} The priory was closed in 1526 by [Cardinal Wolsey](/wiki/Thomas_Wolsey "Thomas Wolsey") who granted its assets to [Christ Church, Oxford](/wiki/Christ_Church%2C_Oxford "Christ Church, Oxford").{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|p\=21}}
In 1203 a [market](/wiki/Marketplace "Marketplace") was first recorded at Daventry. The market benefited from Daventry's location upon the main road (now the [A45 road](/wiki/A45_road "A45 road")) linking the important city of [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry") with [Watling Street](/wiki/Watling_Street "Watling Street") (now the [A5 road](/wiki/A5_road_%28Great_Britain%29 "A5 road (Great Britain)")) which was the main route from the Midlands to [London](/wiki/London "London"), which brought in much passing trade.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=12\-14}}
In 1576 Daventry [grammar school](/wiki/Grammar_school "Grammar school") was founded by William Parker, a woollen draper and native of the town. The original schoolhouse on New Street, dating from around 1600 still stands, although it is now a private house. That same year [Queen Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England") granted Daventry [borough status](/wiki/Ancient_borough "Ancient borough").{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=23\-26}}
The town was mentioned by [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare") in *[Henry IV, Part I](/wiki/Henry_IV%2C_Part_I "Henry IV, Part I")* (Act IV, Sc II), which refers to "the red\-nosed innkeeper of Daventry". Shakespeare would have known Daventry due to its relatively close proximity to [Stratford\-upon\-Avon](/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon "Stratford-upon-Avon"), and its position on the main route from the Midlands to London.{{cite web \|title\=Shakespeare teases Daventry \- and the comedy carries on \|date\=2016 \|website\=BBC.co.uk \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/5b1fJST9wwdp9zflJkPvdFg/shakespeare\-teases\-daventry\-and\-the\-comedy\-carries\-on}}
### English Civil War
During the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War "English Civil War"), the army of [King Charles I](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England "Charles I of England") stayed at Daventry in 1645 after storming the Parliamentary garrison at [Leicester](/wiki/Leicester "Leicester") and on its way to relieve the [siege of Oxford](/wiki/Siege_of_Oxford "Siege of Oxford"). The King stayed at the Wheatsheaf Inn, whilst his [Royalist](/wiki/Cavalier "Cavalier") army camped on Borough Hill.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|p\=34}}
According to local legend, it was during his stay at the Wheatsheaf Inn in Daventry that Charles was twice visited by the ghost of his former adviser and friend, [Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford](/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth%2C_1st_Earl_of_Strafford "Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford"), who advised him to keep heading north and warned him that he would not win through force of arms.{{cite web \|title\=The spooky Daventry care home said to be haunted by King Charles I adviser \|date\=17 April 2021 \|url\=https://www.northantslive.news/news/history/spooky\-daventry\-care\-home\-said\-5298629 \|publisher\=Northants Live \|access\-date\=6 December 2021}}
However, Parliament's newly formed [New Model Army](/wiki/New_Model_Army "New Model Army"), led by [Sir Thomas Fairfax](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Fairfax "Sir Thomas Fairfax"), was marching north from besieging Oxford after being instructed to engage the king's main army. Fairfax's leading detachments of horse clashed with Royalist outposts near Daventry on 12 June, alerting the king to the presence of the Parliamentary army. The Royalists made for their reinforcements at [Newark\-on\-Trent](/wiki/Newark-on-Trent "Newark-on-Trent") but after reaching [Market Harborough](/wiki/Market_Harborough "Market Harborough") turned to fight, which resulted in the decisive [Battle of Naseby](/wiki/Battle_of_Naseby "Battle of Naseby"), in which the Royalist army was heavily defeated by the Parliamentarians. The village of [Naseby](/wiki/Naseby "Naseby") is approximately {{cvt\|14\|mi\|km\|0}} northeast of Daventry.
### Dissenters
[English Dissenters](/wiki/English_Dissenters "English Dissenters") founded a Dissenting chapel in the town around 1722 in buildings opposite The Wheatsheaf on the southern end of Sheaf Street. Later in 1752 a [Dissenting Academy](/wiki/Daventry_Academy "Daventry Academy") was moved from [Northampton](/wiki/Northampton "Northampton") to this site. The chemist and theologian [Joseph Priestley](/wiki/Joseph_Priestley "Joseph Priestley") studied there from 1752 to 1755\. In 1789, the Academy moved back to Northampton.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=39\-40}}
### Coaching town
[thumb\|*The Dun Cow*, an old coaching inn, a grade II listed building](/wiki/File:The_Dun_Cow.jpg "The Dun Cow.jpg")
[Daniel Defoe](/wiki/Daniel_Defoe "Daniel Defoe") described Daventry as a "considerable market town which subsists chiefly on the great concourse of travellers on the old Watling Street way."{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=42\-55}}
During the [Georgian era](/wiki/Georgian_era "Georgian era") of the 18th and early 19th century, a national system of [turnpike roads](/wiki/Turnpike_trust "Turnpike trust") with improved road surfaces developed, this in turn allowed the development of a national system of [mail coaches](/wiki/Mail_coach "Mail coach") and long distance [passenger stagecoaches](/wiki/Stagecoach "Stagecoach"). Daventry, being located on the main roads linking London with the West Midlands, [Holyhead](/wiki/Holyhead "Holyhead") and [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire "Lancashire"), flourished as a coaching town. There were many [coaching inns](/wiki/Coaching_inn "Coaching inn") in the town including the *Wheatsheaf* the *Saracen's Head* the *Plough and Bell* the *Dun Cow* and the *Brown Bear*.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=55\-75}}
At the zenith of the coaching era in the 1830s, Daventry had become a major hub of the national network, with more than 250 coaches passing through the town every week, including services between London, [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick "Warwick"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool") and Holyhead, and Birmingham and [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge "Cambridge").{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=55\-75}}
Reflecting Daventry's prosperity, many of the town's finest building were constructed during this period, including, most notably, the [Holy Cross Church](/wiki/Holy_Cross_Church%2C_Daventry "Holy Cross Church, Daventry") of 1758\.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=42\-55}}
### Stagnation and decline 1838–1955
[thumb\|Map of Daventry from 1946](/wiki/File:OS_Daventry_1946_map.jpg "OS Daventry 1946 map.jpg")
The [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") largely passed Daventry by, owing to its failure to become linked to the newer transport networks: The [Grand Junction Canal](/wiki/Grand_Junction_Canal "Grand Junction Canal") (now Grand Union) had opened in 1796, and passed a few miles north of Daventry. An arm from the canal to Daventry was proposed, and was included in the Act of Parliament authorising it, however this was never built.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|p\=75}}
The opening of the [London and Birmingham Railway](/wiki/London_and_Birmingham_Railway "London and Birmingham Railway") in 1838 signalled the beginning of the [railway](/wiki/Railway "Railway") age; almost immediately the coaching trade slumped and Daventry entered a long period of stagnation and decline which lasted for over a century: In 1841 Daventry had a population of 4,565, from thereon it went into steady decline until 1911, when it bottomed out at 3,516, and then slowly recovered, reaching 4,077 in 1951, but did not recover to the 1841 level until later in the 1950s.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=89\-109}}{{cite web \|title\=Daventry CP/AP Parish\-level Unit \|url\=https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10273122/cube/TOT\_POP \|publisher\=Vision of Britain \|access\-date\=6 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=12 October 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012030841/https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10273122/cube/TOT\_POP \|url\-status\=live}}
The London and Birmingham Railway passed a few miles to the east of the town through the [Watford Gap](/wiki/Watford_Gap "Watford Gap"). A branch line to Daventry was included in the original Act of Parliament, however, despite several earlier attempts, the line was not built until 1888, when [a short branch](/wiki/Weedon%E2%80%93Marton_Junction_line "Weedon–Marton Junction line") was built from [Weedon](/wiki/Weedon_railway_station "Weedon railway station") to [Daventry railway station](/wiki/Daventry_railway_station "Daventry railway station"). In 1895 the line was extended to [Leamington Spa](/wiki/Leamington_Spa "Leamington Spa"). However being only a branch line this did little to revive the town's economy.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=89\-109}} The only significant industry to develop in the town during this time was [shoemaking](/wiki/Shoemaking "Shoemaking"), which at its height in the 1870s employed around 700 workers.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=89\-109}}
### Broadcasting station
{{main\|Daventry transmitting station}}
[thumb\|right\|The former transmitter station on Borough Hill, around 1990](/wiki/File:Daventry_TX_station_masts.jpg "Daventry TX station masts.jpg")
In 1925, the newly created [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") constructed a radio transmitting station on [Borough Hill](/wiki/Borough_Hill "Borough Hill"){{Cite web \|url\=http://www.bbceng.info/Books/dx\-world/dx\-calling\-the\-world\-2008a.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=17 July 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224203242/http://bbceng.info/Books/dx\-world/dx\-calling\-the\-world\-2008a.pdf \|archive\-date\=24 December 2013 \|url\-status\=dead}} just outside the town. Daventry was chosen because it was the point of maximum contact with the land mass of England and [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"). From 1932 the **BBC Empire Service** (now the [BBC World Service](/wiki/BBC_World_Service "BBC World Service")) was broadcast from there. The radio announcement of "Daventry calling" made Daventry well known across the world. It was the BBC's use of the literal pronunciation in this call\-sign that resulted in the widespread displacement of the historical pronunciation "Daintree" ({{IPA\|ˈdeɪntri}}). The transmitting station contributed to the town's population revival, as a number of BBC staff and their families moved into the area.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=105\-107}}
At its height by 1990 the station had 43 [radio masts](/wiki/Radio_mast "Radio mast"), however the station closed in 1992 and all but one of the radio masts was taken down, with most of the land being sold to Daventry District Council who opened it up to the public as a country park. A commercial unit of the BBC remained based locally for a few years after.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=105\-107}} A busy directional radio beacon (VOR), identifier "DTY", for aircraft is situated approximately {{cvt\|4\|mi\|km\|0\|abbr\=off\|spell\=on}} south of the town. The town also gives its name to the busy Daventry [air traffic control](/wiki/Air_traffic_control "Air traffic control") sector.
#### Radar experiment
On the early morning of Tuesday 26 February 1935 the radio transmitter at Daventry was used for what became known as the "[Daventry Experiment](/wiki/Chain_Home%23Daventry_experiment "Chain Home#Daventry experiment")" which involved the first\-ever practical demonstration of [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar"), by its inventor [Robert Watson\-Watt](/wiki/Robert_Watson-Watt "Robert Watson-Watt") and [Arnold Frederic Wilkins](/wiki/Arnold_Frederic_Wilkins "Arnold Frederic Wilkins"). They used a radio receiver installed in a van at [Litchborough](/wiki/Litchborough "Litchborough") (just off the [A5](/wiki/A5_road_%28Great_Britain%29 "A5 road (Great Britain)") about {{cvt\|6\|mi\|km\|0\|abbr\=off\|spell\=on}} south of Daventry) to receive signals bounced off a metal\-clad [Handley Page Heyford](/wiki/Handley_Page_Heyford "Handley Page Heyford") bomber flying across the radio transmissions. The interference picked up from the aircraft allowed its approximate [navigational position](/wiki/Bearing_%28navigation%29 "Bearing (navigation)") to be estimated, and therefore proved that it was possible to detect the position of aircraft using radio waves. The success of the experiment persuaded the British government to fund the development of a network of full scale radar stations on the south coast of England, known as [Chain Home](/wiki/Chain_Home "Chain Home"), which provided a decisive advantage to the [RAF](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") in the [Battle of Britain](/wiki/Battle_of_Britain "Battle of Britain") in 1940\.{{cite web \|title\=The Daventry Experiment: 80th Anniversary on 26th February 2015 \|url\=https://www.theheritagealliance.org.uk/update/the\-daventry\-experiment\-80th\-anniversary\-on\-26th\-february\-2015/ \|publisher\=The Heritage Alliance \|access\-date\=7 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=12 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612065122/http://www.theheritagealliance.org.uk/update/the\-daventry\-experiment\-80th\-anniversary\-on\-26th\-february\-2015/ \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news \|title\=The Daventry Experiment: Commemorating the birth of British radar \|work\=BBC News \|date\=26 February 2015 \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-england\-northamptonshire\-31634132 \|access\-date\=7 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=14 February 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214045515/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-england\-northamptonshire\-31634132 \|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|right\|Birth of Radar memorial](/wiki/File:Watson_watt_02_fr.jpg "Watson watt 02 fr.jpg")
75 years to the day of the original launch, on 26 February 2010, teams from the Coventry Amateur Radio Society \& The Northampton Radio Club re\-enacted the 'Daventry Experiment'. Signals from GB75RDF at [Borough Hill](/wiki/Borough_Hill "Borough Hill"), reflected from aircraft (all of which were flown by radio hams), were detected in a receiving set housed in a replica [Morris van](/wiki/Morris_Motors "Morris Motors"). The receiving station set up in the field that is the home to The Birth of RADAR memorial at [Litchborough](/wiki/Litchborough "Litchborough"). The team was led by Brian Leathley, known as Andrew G8GMU.{{cite web \|title\=G8GMU Birth of RADAR 26th Feb 2010 page \|url\=http://www.andrewphotographic.co.uk/g8gmu9c.htm \|website\=www.andrewphotographic.co.uk \|access\-date\=18 September 2019 \|archive\-date\=1 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601223146/http://www.andrewphotographic.co.uk/g8gmu9c.htm \|url\-status\=live}}
Borough Hill was also the site of the [Gee](/wiki/Gee_%28navigation%29 "Gee (navigation)") Eastern chain master transmitter mast: this was part of a radio navigation system used by the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.daventryexpress.co.uk/news/local/it\-s\-time\-to\-pay\-our\-respects\-to\-us\-airmen\-who\-died\-in\-daventry\-1\-6793532 \|title\=It's time to pay our respects to US airmen who died in Daventry \|access\-date\=3 May 2016 \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041853/http://www.daventryexpress.co.uk/news/local/it\-s\-time\-to\-pay\-our\-respects\-to\-us\-airmen\-who\-died\-in\-daventry\-1\-6793532 \|url\-status\=live}} [Borough Hill Roman villa](/wiki/Borough_Hill_Roman_villa "Borough Hill Roman villa") is also located here.
### Daventry since 1955
The modern growth of Daventry occurred from the mid\-1950s onwards. Real growth started in 1955 when the [tapered roller bearing](/wiki/Tapered_roller_bearing "Tapered roller bearing") manufacturer [British Timken](/wiki/Timken_Company "Timken Company") opened a large factory in the town (the factory closed in 1993 although the distribution Centre stayed open until 2000\).{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1297971\.stm \|title\=BBC News – BUSINESS – British Timken to axe 950 jobs \|access\-date\=3 May 2016 \|date\=2001\-04\-26 \|archive\-date\=13 December 2003 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20031213215814/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1297971\.stm \|url\-status\=live}}
The town's fortunes were also boosted when the first phase of the [M1 motorway](/wiki/M1_motorway "M1 motorway") was opened nearby, giving the town a direct motorway link with [London](/wiki/London "London"), with the expansion of the motorway network connecting it to the north of England within a decade.
Despite the growth of the town, [Daventry railway station](/wiki/Daventry_railway_station "Daventry railway station") was closed to passengers in 1958, with the line closing to freight in 1963\.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=105\-107}}
#### Planned expansion
In 1961, Daventry was designated as an 'overspill' to house people and industry relocated from [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), as government policy of the time favoured moving [population and industry away from Birmingham](/wiki/History_of_Birmingham%23Loss_of_independence_and_the_prevention_of_growth "History of Birmingham#Loss of independence and the prevention of growth"). Although Daventry was not formally designated as a [New Town](/wiki/New_towns_in_the_United_Kingdom "New towns in the United Kingdom"), its expansion bore many similarities to such developments: A [planned expansion](/wiki/Planned_community "Planned community") of the town was carried out as part of a three\-way agreement between [Birmingham City Council](/wiki/Birmingham_City_Council "Birmingham City Council"), Daventry Borough Council, and [Northamptonshire County Council](/wiki/Northamptonshire_County_Council "Northamptonshire County Council"): Birmingham's role was to buy land, and build houses and [industrial estates](/wiki/Industrial_estate "Industrial estate"), Northamptonshire provided roads, schools and libraries, whilst Daventry provided drainage and sewage disposal.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=109\-122}}
[thumb\|left\|Construction of houses in Daventry in 1967](/wiki/File:Construction_of_Council_Houses_on_Ashby_Road%2C_August_1967.jpg "Construction of Council Houses on Ashby Road, August 1967.jpg")
Work on the official expansion of Daventry began in the second half of the 1960s, when Birmingham City Council purchased nearly {{cvt\|1000\|acre\|ha\|abbr\=off\|sigfig\=1}} of land to be developed for housing and industrial use.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=109\-122}} The first phase of this expansion was constructed on the south\-east slopes of Borough Hill and was named the Southbrook Estate. It was designed and laid out by the architect J A Maudsley{{cite book \|title\=Northamptonshire – The Buildings of England \|last\=Pevsner \|first\=Nikolaus \|publisher\=Penguin Books \|date\=1998 \|isbn\=9780140710229 \|page\=175 \|work\=Description of the Southbrook Estate and reference to J A Maudsley}} for [City of Birmingham Architects Department](/wiki/City_of_Birmingham_Architects_Department "City of Birmingham Architects Department"). This began in 1966\. and is designed with short terraces of dwellings grouped around a series of cul\-de\-sacs grouped around a large looped access road around the edge of the hill. There is a central focal point which has schools for children from early years to senior level. There are several service shops and originally there was an estate public house but that was demolished in the mid 1990s. There is also a community centre.
The plan got off to a good start, and by 1972 more than 1,000 new families had moved to Daventry, along with many new industries. However by the mid\-1970s growth had slowed sharply, due to a combination of the faltering national economy and public spending cuts. The planning agreement had originally been intended to last for 30 years (until 1991\) however Birmingham City Council decided to pull out of it half way through in 1976, due in part to spending cuts, but also as it had become clear that the town's plan was falling short of expectations: The target population had been 36,000 by 1981, but actual growth was much slower than this, nevertheless, between 1961 and 1981 the population had nearly tripled from 5,860 to 16,178; Subsequent growth in the following decades has been slower and driven mainly by private developments. The population had reached 22,367 by 2001, and by 2011 it was 25,026\.{{sfn\|Greenall\|1999\|pp\=109\-122}}
[thumb\|Modern map of Daventry, following its urban expansion](/wiki/File:Daventry_map.jpg "Daventry map.jpg")
#### Recent history
Daventry was struck by [an F0/T1 tornado](/wiki/1981_United_Kingdom_tornado_outbreak "1981 United Kingdom tornado outbreak") on 23 November 1981, as part of the record\-breaking nationwide tornado outbreak on that day.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.eswd.eu/cgi\-bin/eswd.cgi \|title\=European Severe Weather Database \|access\-date\=24 August 2018 \|archive\-date\=22 December 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222045014/http://www.eswd.eu/cgi\-bin/eswd.cgi \|url\-status\=live}} In 1995 [RAF](/wiki/RAF "RAF") Daventry was listed as a [USAF](/wiki/USAF "USAF") communication facility by the then [Minister of State for the Armed Forces](/wiki/Minister_of_State_for_the_Armed_Forces "Minister of State for the Armed Forces") [Nicholas Soames](/wiki/Nicholas_Soames "Nicholas Soames") in answer to a question from [Max Madden](/wiki/Max_Madden "Max Madden").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.parliament.the\-stationery\-office.co.uk/pa/cm199495/cmhansrd/1995\-07\-12/Writtens\-14\.html \|title\=House of Commons Hansard Debates for 12 Jul 1995 \|access\-date\=2014\-10\-19 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194320/http://www.parliament.the\-stationery\-office.co.uk/pa/cm199495/cmhansrd/1995\-07\-12/Writtens\-14\.html \|archive\-date\=3 March 2016 \|df\=dmy}} RAF Daventry is most likely the transmitter base at a former WW1 isolation hospital site on the [Staverton to Newnham road](https://wtp2.appspot.com/wheresthepath.htm?lat=52.244753&lon=-1.197963&lz=15&rz=18<=Old%2025K&rt=satellite&lov=None) which was eventually sold by the [Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)") in 2007\.
In 2006, the [outdoor pool](/wiki/Lido_%28swimming_pool%29 "Lido (swimming pool)") – which had been built and funded by Daventry residents in the 1950s following the drowning of three children in the local reservoir – was closed due to funding difficulties.{{cite news \|title\=Outdoor pool shuts after 40 years \|date\=4 September 2006 \|newspaper\=BBC News \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/northamptonshire/5311536\.stm \|quote\=An outdoor swimming pool, built following the deaths of five children in a reservoir, is shut down. \|access\-date\=19 October 2009 \|archive\-date\=26 April 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426174627/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/northamptonshire/5311536\.stm \|url\-status\=live}} In 2007, Daventry began plans to modernise the town with a futuristic [personal rapid transit](/wiki/Personal_rapid_transit "Personal rapid transit") system that would link outer estates to the town centre, and a canal arm with [marina](/wiki/Marina "Marina") next to the former site of the outdoor pool. In May 2018, the District Council dropped the building a canal arm and marina scheme in favour of achievable projects.{{cite web \|url\=http://cmis.daventrydc.gov.uk/daventry/Meetings/tabid/70/ctl/ViewMeetingPublic/mid/397/Meeting/802/Committee/1/Default.aspx \|title\=Meetings \|access\-date\=2018\-06\-13 \|archive\-date\=27 September 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927123109/https://cmis.daventrydc.gov.uk/daventry/Meetings/tabid/70/ctl/ViewMeetingPublic/mid/397/Meeting/802/Committee/1/Default.aspx \|url\-status\=live}}
In March 2018, the town's High Street was used as a filming location for the feature film, *[Nativity Rocks!](/wiki/Nativity_Rocks%21 "Nativity Rocks!")*.{{cite web \|title\=Film crews come to Daventry for latest Nativity movie \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/uk\-england\-northamptonshire\-43385133 \|publisher\=BBC Northamptonshire \|access\-date\=23 March 2022}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early history and toponymy",
"Daventry is overlooked by the {{cvt\\|653\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-high}} [Borough Hill](/wiki/Borough_Hill \"Borough Hill\") on the eastern edge of the town. The hill has been the site of human activity dating back into prehistory: remains have been found of two [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") [barrows](/wiki/Tumulus \"Tumulus\"), two [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") [hill forts](/wiki/Hillforts_in_Britain \"Hillforts in Britain\") – one of which is the fourth largest found in Britain, and [a later Roman villa](/wiki/Borough_Hill_Roman_villa \"Borough Hill Roman villa\") and farming settlement.{{cite web \\|title\\=Borough Hill, A landscape through time \\|url\\=https://molarchaeology.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid\\=5f8454e89fce4effa9cabbb660e1f56e \\|publisher\\=Museum of London Archaeology \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 October 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030101707/https://molarchaeology.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid\\=5f8454e89fce4effa9cabbb660e1f56e \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{NHLE \\|desc\\=Borough Hill: two Iron Age hillforts and a defended enclosure, two Bronze Age barrows, a Roman building complex and barrow cemetery \\|num\\=1010696 \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2020}}",
"According to local folklore Daventry had [Danish](/wiki/Danes_%28Germanic_tribe%29 \"Danes (Germanic tribe)\") ([Viking](/wiki/Viking \"Viking\")) origins, this was partly due to the old pronunciation of Daventry as *Daintry*, which was interpreted as \"Dane Tree\", however in more modern interpretation the town's name is thought likelier to be [Anglo\\-Saxon](/wiki/Anglo-Saxon \"Anglo-Saxon\") in origin: \"Dafa's tree\" (Dafa being a founding father or [paterfamila](/wiki/Pater_familias \"Pater familias\")) and there was very likely a meeting tree, possibly on Borough Hill. Thus the name may have been formed on lines similar to Coventry (\"Cofa's tree\", i.e. \"tree of Cofa\").{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|p\\=5}} Another theory which was popular in the 19th century, was that of [Thomas Pennant](/wiki/Thomas_Pennant \"Thomas Pennant\"), the Welsh naturalist and antiquarian, who acknowledged the town's 'considerable antiquity' and speculated that the name was [Brythonic](/wiki/Brittonic_languages \"Brittonic languages\"), *dwy\\-avon\\-tre* (town of two rivers), a derivation seemingly supported by the town's topography, situated as it is between the sources of the [River Leam](/wiki/River_Leam \"River Leam\"), which flows west, and the [River Nene](/wiki/River_Nene \"River Nene\") which flows east.[Datchworth – Dean, West \\|A Topographical Dictionary of England (pp. 15–23\\)](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=50915) {{Webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022173824/http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=50915 \\|date\\=22 October 2012 }}. British\\-history.ac.uk (2003\\-06\\-22\\). Retrieved on 2013\\-07\\-17{{cite web \\|last1\\=Pennant \\|first1\\=Thomas \\|title\\=Journey from Chester to London \\|url\\=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/Pennant\\_C2L/10\\#pn\\_26 \\|website\\=Vision of Britain \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905235528/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/Pennant\\_C2L/10\\#pn\\_26 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} This theory however is now discredited.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|p\\=5}}",
"### Medieval and Tudor",
"Daventry was mentioned in the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") of 1086 as *Daventrei*.{{cite web \\|title\\=Northamptonshire A\\-E \\|url\\=http://www.domesdaybook.co.uk/northamptonshire1\\.html\\#daventry \\|publisher\\=Domesday Book Online \\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806223020/http://www.domesdaybook.co.uk/northamptonshire1\\.html\\#daventry \\|url\\-status\\=live}} It was recorded as belonging to [Countess Judith](/wiki/Judith_of_Lens \"Judith of Lens\"), niece of [William the Conqueror](/wiki/William_the_Conqueror \"William the Conqueror\").{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=12\\-14}}",
"In around 1108, [Daventry Priory](/wiki/Daventry_Priory \"Daventry Priory\") a small [Cluniac](/wiki/Cluniac \"Cluniac\") priory was founded at Daventry, alongside the parish church.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=12\\-14}} The priory was closed in 1526 by [Cardinal Wolsey](/wiki/Thomas_Wolsey \"Thomas Wolsey\") who granted its assets to [Christ Church, Oxford](/wiki/Christ_Church%2C_Oxford \"Christ Church, Oxford\").{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|p\\=21}}",
"In 1203 a [market](/wiki/Marketplace \"Marketplace\") was first recorded at Daventry. The market benefited from Daventry's location upon the main road (now the [A45 road](/wiki/A45_road \"A45 road\")) linking the important city of [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\") with [Watling Street](/wiki/Watling_Street \"Watling Street\") (now the [A5 road](/wiki/A5_road_%28Great_Britain%29 \"A5 road (Great Britain)\")) which was the main route from the Midlands to [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), which brought in much passing trade.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=12\\-14}}",
"In 1576 Daventry [grammar school](/wiki/Grammar_school \"Grammar school\") was founded by William Parker, a woollen draper and native of the town. The original schoolhouse on New Street, dating from around 1600 still stands, although it is now a private house. That same year [Queen Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\") granted Daventry [borough status](/wiki/Ancient_borough \"Ancient borough\").{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=23\\-26}}",
"The town was mentioned by [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\") in *[Henry IV, Part I](/wiki/Henry_IV%2C_Part_I \"Henry IV, Part I\")* (Act IV, Sc II), which refers to \"the red\\-nosed innkeeper of Daventry\". Shakespeare would have known Daventry due to its relatively close proximity to [Stratford\\-upon\\-Avon](/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon \"Stratford-upon-Avon\"), and its position on the main route from the Midlands to London.{{cite web \\|title\\=Shakespeare teases Daventry \\- and the comedy carries on \\|date\\=2016 \\|website\\=BBC.co.uk \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/5b1fJST9wwdp9zflJkPvdFg/shakespeare\\-teases\\-daventry\\-and\\-the\\-comedy\\-carries\\-on}}",
"### English Civil War",
"During the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"), the army of [King Charles I](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England \"Charles I of England\") stayed at Daventry in 1645 after storming the Parliamentary garrison at [Leicester](/wiki/Leicester \"Leicester\") and on its way to relieve the [siege of Oxford](/wiki/Siege_of_Oxford \"Siege of Oxford\"). The King stayed at the Wheatsheaf Inn, whilst his [Royalist](/wiki/Cavalier \"Cavalier\") army camped on Borough Hill.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|p\\=34}}",
"According to local legend, it was during his stay at the Wheatsheaf Inn in Daventry that Charles was twice visited by the ghost of his former adviser and friend, [Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford](/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth%2C_1st_Earl_of_Strafford \"Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford\"), who advised him to keep heading north and warned him that he would not win through force of arms.{{cite web \\|title\\=The spooky Daventry care home said to be haunted by King Charles I adviser \\|date\\=17 April 2021 \\|url\\=https://www.northantslive.news/news/history/spooky\\-daventry\\-care\\-home\\-said\\-5298629 \\|publisher\\=Northants Live \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2021}}",
"However, Parliament's newly formed [New Model Army](/wiki/New_Model_Army \"New Model Army\"), led by [Sir Thomas Fairfax](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Fairfax \"Sir Thomas Fairfax\"), was marching north from besieging Oxford after being instructed to engage the king's main army. Fairfax's leading detachments of horse clashed with Royalist outposts near Daventry on 12 June, alerting the king to the presence of the Parliamentary army. The Royalists made for their reinforcements at [Newark\\-on\\-Trent](/wiki/Newark-on-Trent \"Newark-on-Trent\") but after reaching [Market Harborough](/wiki/Market_Harborough \"Market Harborough\") turned to fight, which resulted in the decisive [Battle of Naseby](/wiki/Battle_of_Naseby \"Battle of Naseby\"), in which the Royalist army was heavily defeated by the Parliamentarians. The village of [Naseby](/wiki/Naseby \"Naseby\") is approximately {{cvt\\|14\\|mi\\|km\\|0}} northeast of Daventry.",
"### Dissenters",
"[English Dissenters](/wiki/English_Dissenters \"English Dissenters\") founded a Dissenting chapel in the town around 1722 in buildings opposite The Wheatsheaf on the southern end of Sheaf Street. Later in 1752 a [Dissenting Academy](/wiki/Daventry_Academy \"Daventry Academy\") was moved from [Northampton](/wiki/Northampton \"Northampton\") to this site. The chemist and theologian [Joseph Priestley](/wiki/Joseph_Priestley \"Joseph Priestley\") studied there from 1752 to 1755\\. In 1789, the Academy moved back to Northampton.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=39\\-40}}",
"### Coaching town",
"[thumb\\|*The Dun Cow*, an old coaching inn, a grade II listed building](/wiki/File:The_Dun_Cow.jpg \"The Dun Cow.jpg\")\n[Daniel Defoe](/wiki/Daniel_Defoe \"Daniel Defoe\") described Daventry as a \"considerable market town which subsists chiefly on the great concourse of travellers on the old Watling Street way.\"{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=42\\-55}}",
"During the [Georgian era](/wiki/Georgian_era \"Georgian era\") of the 18th and early 19th century, a national system of [turnpike roads](/wiki/Turnpike_trust \"Turnpike trust\") with improved road surfaces developed, this in turn allowed the development of a national system of [mail coaches](/wiki/Mail_coach \"Mail coach\") and long distance [passenger stagecoaches](/wiki/Stagecoach \"Stagecoach\"). Daventry, being located on the main roads linking London with the West Midlands, [Holyhead](/wiki/Holyhead \"Holyhead\") and [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire \"Lancashire\"), flourished as a coaching town. There were many [coaching inns](/wiki/Coaching_inn \"Coaching inn\") in the town including the *Wheatsheaf* the *Saracen's Head* the *Plough and Bell* the *Dun Cow* and the *Brown Bear*.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=55\\-75}}",
"At the zenith of the coaching era in the 1830s, Daventry had become a major hub of the national network, with more than 250 coaches passing through the town every week, including services between London, [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick \"Warwick\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\") and Holyhead, and Birmingham and [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge \"Cambridge\").{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=55\\-75}}",
"Reflecting Daventry's prosperity, many of the town's finest building were constructed during this period, including, most notably, the [Holy Cross Church](/wiki/Holy_Cross_Church%2C_Daventry \"Holy Cross Church, Daventry\") of 1758\\.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=42\\-55}}",
"### Stagnation and decline 1838–1955",
"[thumb\\|Map of Daventry from 1946](/wiki/File:OS_Daventry_1946_map.jpg \"OS Daventry 1946 map.jpg\")\nThe [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") largely passed Daventry by, owing to its failure to become linked to the newer transport networks: The [Grand Junction Canal](/wiki/Grand_Junction_Canal \"Grand Junction Canal\") (now Grand Union) had opened in 1796, and passed a few miles north of Daventry. An arm from the canal to Daventry was proposed, and was included in the Act of Parliament authorising it, however this was never built.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|p\\=75}}",
"The opening of the [London and Birmingham Railway](/wiki/London_and_Birmingham_Railway \"London and Birmingham Railway\") in 1838 signalled the beginning of the [railway](/wiki/Railway \"Railway\") age; almost immediately the coaching trade slumped and Daventry entered a long period of stagnation and decline which lasted for over a century: In 1841 Daventry had a population of 4,565, from thereon it went into steady decline until 1911, when it bottomed out at 3,516, and then slowly recovered, reaching 4,077 in 1951, but did not recover to the 1841 level until later in the 1950s.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=89\\-109}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Daventry CP/AP Parish\\-level Unit \\|url\\=https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10273122/cube/TOT\\_POP \\|publisher\\=Vision of Britain \\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 October 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012030841/https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10273122/cube/TOT\\_POP \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The London and Birmingham Railway passed a few miles to the east of the town through the [Watford Gap](/wiki/Watford_Gap \"Watford Gap\"). A branch line to Daventry was included in the original Act of Parliament, however, despite several earlier attempts, the line was not built until 1888, when [a short branch](/wiki/Weedon%E2%80%93Marton_Junction_line \"Weedon–Marton Junction line\") was built from [Weedon](/wiki/Weedon_railway_station \"Weedon railway station\") to [Daventry railway station](/wiki/Daventry_railway_station \"Daventry railway station\"). In 1895 the line was extended to [Leamington Spa](/wiki/Leamington_Spa \"Leamington Spa\"). However being only a branch line this did little to revive the town's economy.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=89\\-109}} The only significant industry to develop in the town during this time was [shoemaking](/wiki/Shoemaking \"Shoemaking\"), which at its height in the 1870s employed around 700 workers.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=89\\-109}}",
"### Broadcasting station",
"{{main\\|Daventry transmitting station}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|The former transmitter station on Borough Hill, around 1990](/wiki/File:Daventry_TX_station_masts.jpg \"Daventry TX station masts.jpg\")\nIn 1925, the newly created [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") constructed a radio transmitting station on [Borough Hill](/wiki/Borough_Hill \"Borough Hill\"){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bbceng.info/Books/dx\\-world/dx\\-calling\\-the\\-world\\-2008a.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=17 July 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224203242/http://bbceng.info/Books/dx\\-world/dx\\-calling\\-the\\-world\\-2008a.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} just outside the town. Daventry was chosen because it was the point of maximum contact with the land mass of England and [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"). From 1932 the **BBC Empire Service** (now the [BBC World Service](/wiki/BBC_World_Service \"BBC World Service\")) was broadcast from there. The radio announcement of \"Daventry calling\" made Daventry well known across the world. It was the BBC's use of the literal pronunciation in this call\\-sign that resulted in the widespread displacement of the historical pronunciation \"Daintree\" ({{IPA\\|ˈdeɪntri}}). The transmitting station contributed to the town's population revival, as a number of BBC staff and their families moved into the area.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=105\\-107}}",
"At its height by 1990 the station had 43 [radio masts](/wiki/Radio_mast \"Radio mast\"), however the station closed in 1992 and all but one of the radio masts was taken down, with most of the land being sold to Daventry District Council who opened it up to the public as a country park. A commercial unit of the BBC remained based locally for a few years after.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=105\\-107}} A busy directional radio beacon (VOR), identifier \"DTY\", for aircraft is situated approximately {{cvt\\|4\\|mi\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=off\\|spell\\=on}} south of the town. The town also gives its name to the busy Daventry [air traffic control](/wiki/Air_traffic_control \"Air traffic control\") sector.",
"#### Radar experiment",
"On the early morning of Tuesday 26 February 1935 the radio transmitter at Daventry was used for what became known as the \"[Daventry Experiment](/wiki/Chain_Home%23Daventry_experiment \"Chain Home#Daventry experiment\")\" which involved the first\\-ever practical demonstration of [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\"), by its inventor [Robert Watson\\-Watt](/wiki/Robert_Watson-Watt \"Robert Watson-Watt\") and [Arnold Frederic Wilkins](/wiki/Arnold_Frederic_Wilkins \"Arnold Frederic Wilkins\"). They used a radio receiver installed in a van at [Litchborough](/wiki/Litchborough \"Litchborough\") (just off the [A5](/wiki/A5_road_%28Great_Britain%29 \"A5 road (Great Britain)\") about {{cvt\\|6\\|mi\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=off\\|spell\\=on}} south of Daventry) to receive signals bounced off a metal\\-clad [Handley Page Heyford](/wiki/Handley_Page_Heyford \"Handley Page Heyford\") bomber flying across the radio transmissions. The interference picked up from the aircraft allowed its approximate [navigational position](/wiki/Bearing_%28navigation%29 \"Bearing (navigation)\") to be estimated, and therefore proved that it was possible to detect the position of aircraft using radio waves. The success of the experiment persuaded the British government to fund the development of a network of full scale radar stations on the south coast of England, known as [Chain Home](/wiki/Chain_Home \"Chain Home\"), which provided a decisive advantage to the [RAF](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") in the [Battle of Britain](/wiki/Battle_of_Britain \"Battle of Britain\") in 1940\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=The Daventry Experiment: 80th Anniversary on 26th February 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.theheritagealliance.org.uk/update/the\\-daventry\\-experiment\\-80th\\-anniversary\\-on\\-26th\\-february\\-2015/ \\|publisher\\=The Heritage Alliance \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612065122/http://www.theheritagealliance.org.uk/update/the\\-daventry\\-experiment\\-80th\\-anniversary\\-on\\-26th\\-february\\-2015/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news \\|title\\=The Daventry Experiment: Commemorating the birth of British radar \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=26 February 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-england\\-northamptonshire\\-31634132 \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214045515/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-england\\-northamptonshire\\-31634132 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Birth of Radar memorial](/wiki/File:Watson_watt_02_fr.jpg \"Watson watt 02 fr.jpg\")\n75 years to the day of the original launch, on 26 February 2010, teams from the Coventry Amateur Radio Society \\& The Northampton Radio Club re\\-enacted the 'Daventry Experiment'. Signals from GB75RDF at [Borough Hill](/wiki/Borough_Hill \"Borough Hill\"), reflected from aircraft (all of which were flown by radio hams), were detected in a receiving set housed in a replica [Morris van](/wiki/Morris_Motors \"Morris Motors\"). The receiving station set up in the field that is the home to The Birth of RADAR memorial at [Litchborough](/wiki/Litchborough \"Litchborough\"). The team was led by Brian Leathley, known as Andrew G8GMU.{{cite web \\|title\\=G8GMU Birth of RADAR 26th Feb 2010 page \\|url\\=http://www.andrewphotographic.co.uk/g8gmu9c.htm \\|website\\=www.andrewphotographic.co.uk \\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601223146/http://www.andrewphotographic.co.uk/g8gmu9c.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Borough Hill was also the site of the [Gee](/wiki/Gee_%28navigation%29 \"Gee (navigation)\") Eastern chain master transmitter mast: this was part of a radio navigation system used by the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.daventryexpress.co.uk/news/local/it\\-s\\-time\\-to\\-pay\\-our\\-respects\\-to\\-us\\-airmen\\-who\\-died\\-in\\-daventry\\-1\\-6793532 \\|title\\=It's time to pay our respects to US airmen who died in Daventry \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041853/http://www.daventryexpress.co.uk/news/local/it\\-s\\-time\\-to\\-pay\\-our\\-respects\\-to\\-us\\-airmen\\-who\\-died\\-in\\-daventry\\-1\\-6793532 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Borough Hill Roman villa](/wiki/Borough_Hill_Roman_villa \"Borough Hill Roman villa\") is also located here.",
"### Daventry since 1955",
"The modern growth of Daventry occurred from the mid\\-1950s onwards. Real growth started in 1955 when the [tapered roller bearing](/wiki/Tapered_roller_bearing \"Tapered roller bearing\") manufacturer [British Timken](/wiki/Timken_Company \"Timken Company\") opened a large factory in the town (the factory closed in 1993 although the distribution Centre stayed open until 2000\\).{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1297971\\.stm \\|title\\=BBC News – BUSINESS – British Timken to axe 950 jobs \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2016 \\|date\\=2001\\-04\\-26 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2003 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20031213215814/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1297971\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The town's fortunes were also boosted when the first phase of the [M1 motorway](/wiki/M1_motorway \"M1 motorway\") was opened nearby, giving the town a direct motorway link with [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), with the expansion of the motorway network connecting it to the north of England within a decade.",
"Despite the growth of the town, [Daventry railway station](/wiki/Daventry_railway_station \"Daventry railway station\") was closed to passengers in 1958, with the line closing to freight in 1963\\.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=105\\-107}}",
"#### Planned expansion",
"In 1961, Daventry was designated as an 'overspill' to house people and industry relocated from [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), as government policy of the time favoured moving [population and industry away from Birmingham](/wiki/History_of_Birmingham%23Loss_of_independence_and_the_prevention_of_growth \"History of Birmingham#Loss of independence and the prevention of growth\"). Although Daventry was not formally designated as a [New Town](/wiki/New_towns_in_the_United_Kingdom \"New towns in the United Kingdom\"), its expansion bore many similarities to such developments: A [planned expansion](/wiki/Planned_community \"Planned community\") of the town was carried out as part of a three\\-way agreement between [Birmingham City Council](/wiki/Birmingham_City_Council \"Birmingham City Council\"), Daventry Borough Council, and [Northamptonshire County Council](/wiki/Northamptonshire_County_Council \"Northamptonshire County Council\"): Birmingham's role was to buy land, and build houses and [industrial estates](/wiki/Industrial_estate \"Industrial estate\"), Northamptonshire provided roads, schools and libraries, whilst Daventry provided drainage and sewage disposal.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=109\\-122}} \n[thumb\\|left\\|Construction of houses in Daventry in 1967](/wiki/File:Construction_of_Council_Houses_on_Ashby_Road%2C_August_1967.jpg \"Construction of Council Houses on Ashby Road, August 1967.jpg\")\nWork on the official expansion of Daventry began in the second half of the 1960s, when Birmingham City Council purchased nearly {{cvt\\|1000\\|acre\\|ha\\|abbr\\=off\\|sigfig\\=1}} of land to be developed for housing and industrial use.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=109\\-122}} The first phase of this expansion was constructed on the south\\-east slopes of Borough Hill and was named the Southbrook Estate. It was designed and laid out by the architect J A Maudsley{{cite book \\|title\\=Northamptonshire – The Buildings of England \\|last\\=Pevsner \\|first\\=Nikolaus \\|publisher\\=Penguin Books \\|date\\=1998 \\|isbn\\=9780140710229 \\|page\\=175 \\|work\\=Description of the Southbrook Estate and reference to J A Maudsley}} for [City of Birmingham Architects Department](/wiki/City_of_Birmingham_Architects_Department \"City of Birmingham Architects Department\"). This began in 1966\\. and is designed with short terraces of dwellings grouped around a series of cul\\-de\\-sacs grouped around a large looped access road around the edge of the hill. There is a central focal point which has schools for children from early years to senior level. There are several service shops and originally there was an estate public house but that was demolished in the mid 1990s. There is also a community centre.",
"The plan got off to a good start, and by 1972 more than 1,000 new families had moved to Daventry, along with many new industries. However by the mid\\-1970s growth had slowed sharply, due to a combination of the faltering national economy and public spending cuts. The planning agreement had originally been intended to last for 30 years (until 1991\\) however Birmingham City Council decided to pull out of it half way through in 1976, due in part to spending cuts, but also as it had become clear that the town's plan was falling short of expectations: The target population had been 36,000 by 1981, but actual growth was much slower than this, nevertheless, between 1961 and 1981 the population had nearly tripled from 5,860 to 16,178; Subsequent growth in the following decades has been slower and driven mainly by private developments. The population had reached 22,367 by 2001, and by 2011 it was 25,026\\.{{sfn\\|Greenall\\|1999\\|pp\\=109\\-122}}\n[thumb\\|Modern map of Daventry, following its urban expansion](/wiki/File:Daventry_map.jpg \"Daventry map.jpg\")",
"#### Recent history",
"Daventry was struck by [an F0/T1 tornado](/wiki/1981_United_Kingdom_tornado_outbreak \"1981 United Kingdom tornado outbreak\") on 23 November 1981, as part of the record\\-breaking nationwide tornado outbreak on that day.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.eswd.eu/cgi\\-bin/eswd.cgi \\|title\\=European Severe Weather Database \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222045014/http://www.eswd.eu/cgi\\-bin/eswd.cgi \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 1995 [RAF](/wiki/RAF \"RAF\") Daventry was listed as a [USAF](/wiki/USAF \"USAF\") communication facility by the then [Minister of State for the Armed Forces](/wiki/Minister_of_State_for_the_Armed_Forces \"Minister of State for the Armed Forces\") [Nicholas Soames](/wiki/Nicholas_Soames \"Nicholas Soames\") in answer to a question from [Max Madden](/wiki/Max_Madden \"Max Madden\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.parliament.the\\-stationery\\-office.co.uk/pa/cm199495/cmhansrd/1995\\-07\\-12/Writtens\\-14\\.html \\|title\\=House of Commons Hansard Debates for 12 Jul 1995 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-19 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194320/http://www.parliament.the\\-stationery\\-office.co.uk/pa/cm199495/cmhansrd/1995\\-07\\-12/Writtens\\-14\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016 \\|df\\=dmy}} RAF Daventry is most likely the transmitter base at a former WW1 isolation hospital site on the [Staverton to Newnham road](https://wtp2.appspot.com/wheresthepath.htm?lat=52.244753&lon=-1.197963&lz=15&rz=18<=Old%2025K&rt=satellite&lov=None) which was eventually sold by the [Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)\") in 2007\\.",
"In 2006, the [outdoor pool](/wiki/Lido_%28swimming_pool%29 \"Lido (swimming pool)\") – which had been built and funded by Daventry residents in the 1950s following the drowning of three children in the local reservoir – was closed due to funding difficulties.{{cite news \\|title\\=Outdoor pool shuts after 40 years \\|date\\=4 September 2006 \\|newspaper\\=BBC News \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/northamptonshire/5311536\\.stm \\|quote\\=An outdoor swimming pool, built following the deaths of five children in a reservoir, is shut down. \\|access\\-date\\=19 October 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426174627/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/northamptonshire/5311536\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2007, Daventry began plans to modernise the town with a futuristic [personal rapid transit](/wiki/Personal_rapid_transit \"Personal rapid transit\") system that would link outer estates to the town centre, and a canal arm with [marina](/wiki/Marina \"Marina\") next to the former site of the outdoor pool. In May 2018, the District Council dropped the building a canal arm and marina scheme in favour of achievable projects.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://cmis.daventrydc.gov.uk/daventry/Meetings/tabid/70/ctl/ViewMeetingPublic/mid/397/Meeting/802/Committee/1/Default.aspx \\|title\\=Meetings \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-13 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927123109/https://cmis.daventrydc.gov.uk/daventry/Meetings/tabid/70/ctl/ViewMeetingPublic/mid/397/Meeting/802/Committee/1/Default.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In March 2018, the town's High Street was used as a filming location for the feature film, *[Nativity Rocks!](/wiki/Nativity_Rocks%21 \"Nativity Rocks!\")*.{{cite web \\|title\\=Film crews come to Daventry for latest Nativity movie \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/uk\\-england\\-northamptonshire\\-43385133 \\|publisher\\=BBC Northamptonshire \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2022}}",
""
] |
Transport
---------
### Road
Daventry is near the [M1 motorway](/wiki/M1_motorway "M1 motorway") with access to two junctions: 18 to the northeast and 16 to the southeast of the town.
The [A45](/wiki/A45_road "A45 road") runs around Daventry; eastbound it connects it with the [A5](/wiki/A5_road_%28Great_Britain%29 "A5 road (Great Britain)") and the M1 at junction 16, and then Northampton. To the north\-west it connects to [Rugby](/wiki/Rugby%2C_Warwickshire "Rugby, Warwickshire"), [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry"), and [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham").
The [A425](/wiki/A425_road "A425 road") connects Daventry with [Southam](/wiki/Southam "Southam"), [Leamington Spa](/wiki/Leamington_Spa "Leamington Spa") and [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick "Warwick") to the west.
The [A361](/wiki/A361_road "A361 road") connects Daventry to the [A5](/wiki/A5_road_%28Great_Britain%29 "A5 road (Great Britain)") at [Kilsby](/wiki/Kilsby "Kilsby") to the north, which then gives access to junction 18 of the [M1](/wiki/M1_Motorway "M1 Motorway"). To the south\-west the A361 connects Daventry with junction 11 of the [M40](/wiki/M40_motorway "M40 motorway") and then [Banbury](/wiki/Banbury "Banbury").
These roads all converge on the town's outer ringroad.
#### Bus
Local and regional bus services are provided by [Stagecoach Midlands](/wiki/Stagecoach_Midlands "Stagecoach Midlands"){{cite web \|url\= http://www.stagecoachbus.com/timetables.aspx \|title\=Timetables \|access\-date\=3 May 2016 \|archive\-date\=25 September 2015 \|publisher\= Stagecoach \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150925160228/https://www.stagecoachbus.com/timetables.aspx \|url\-status\=live}} from their bases in Northampton, Rugby and until December 2016, Leamington Spa. [Stagecoach in Oxfordshire](/wiki/Stagecoach_in_Oxfordshire "Stagecoach in Oxfordshire") provides an hourly service to Banbury. Villages without a regular connection to Daventry had a bookable County Connect{{cite web \|url\= http://www.county\-connect.co.uk/map\-countyconnect.phtml \|title\= CountyConnect – public transport, bus services \|access\-date\=3 May 2016 \|archive\-date\=5 March 2016 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305035811/http://www.county\-connect.co.uk/map\-countyconnect.phtml \|url\-status\=dead}} bus service run by [Centrebus](/wiki/Centrebus "Centrebus") under a County Council contract until 1 September 2014, when the operator changed to [Kier Fleet Passenger Services](/wiki/Kier_Group "Kier Group"). All subsidies for bus services in Northamptonshire have been discontinued due to financial mismanagement at [Northamptonshire County Council](/wiki/Northamptonshire_County_Council "Northamptonshire County Council"), meaning most of these bus services will end.{{cite news \|url\= https://www.northamptonchron.co.uk/news/cuts\-u\-turn\-slashed\-bus\-subsidies\-will\-take\-us\-back\-to\-the\-stone\-age\-fears\-northamptonshire\-villager\-1\-8395380 \|title\=CUTS U\-TURN: Slashed bus subsidies will take us back to the 'Stone Age' fears Northamptonshire villager \|work\=Northampton Chronicle \& Echo \|date\=27 February 2017 \|access\-date\=13 June 2018 \|archive\-date\=13 June 2018 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180613162431/https://www.northamptonchron.co.uk/news/cuts\-u\-turn\-slashed\-bus\-subsidies\-will\-take\-us\-back\-to\-the\-stone\-age\-fears\-northamptonshire\-villager\-1\-8395380 \|url\-status\=live}}
### Railways
The nearest railway station to Daventry today is [Long Buckby railway station](/wiki/Long_Buckby_railway_station "Long Buckby railway station") about {{convert\|4\|miles\|0}} northeast, where [West Midlands Trains](/wiki/West_Midlands_Trains "West Midlands Trains") provide services via the [Northampton loop](/wiki/Northampton_Loop_Line "Northampton Loop Line") of the [West Coast Main Line](/wiki/West_Coast_Main_Line "West Coast Main Line"), northbound to {{rws\|Rugby}} and stations to [Birmingham New Street](/wiki/Birmingham_New_Street_railway_station "Birmingham New Street railway station"), and southbound to [Northampton](/wiki/Northampton_railway_station "Northampton railway station") and stations to [London Euston](/wiki/Euston_railway_station "Euston railway station").
[thumb\|[Daventry railway station](/wiki/Daventry_railway_station "Daventry railway station") operated between 1888 and 1958, it is now demolished](/wiki/File:Daventry_station%2C_old_photograph_1.jpg "Daventry station, old photograph 1.jpg")
Daventry once had [its own railway station](/wiki/Daventry_railway_station "Daventry railway station") on the former [London and North Western Railway](/wiki/London_and_North_Western_Railway "London and North Western Railway") branch\-line [from Weedon to Leamington Spa](/wiki/Weedon_to_Leamington_Spa_line "Weedon to Leamington Spa line"), which opened in 1888 and was closed on 15 September 1958 and is now demolished. Daventry is now one of the largest towns in England without its own railway station.{{cite web \|title\=Daventry Town Transport Strategy \|url\=https://www3\.northamptonshire.gov.uk/councilservices/northamptonshire\-highways/transport\-plans\-and\-policies/Documents/Daventry%20Town%20Transport%20Strategy.pdf \|publisher\=Northamptonshire County Council \|access\-date\=4 February 2019 \|archive\-date\=7 February 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072216/https://www3\.northamptonshire.gov.uk/councilservices/northamptonshire\-highways/transport\-plans\-and\-policies/Documents/Daventry%20Town%20Transport%20Strategy.pdf \|url\-status\=live}}
In addition to this the former [Braunston and Willoughby railway station](/wiki/Braunston_and_Willoughby_railway_station "Braunston and Willoughby railway station") on the [Great Central Main Line](/wiki/Great_Central_Main_Line "Great Central Main Line") which ran to the west of Daventry, was originally called *Willoughby for Daventry* when it opened in 1899, despite the station being around five miles north\-west of Daventry in neighbouring [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire "Warwickshire"). It was later renamed *Braunston and Willoughby for Daventry* in 1904, before the reference to Daventry was finally dropped in 1938\. The station itself closed in 1957, and the line in 1966\.Butt, R.V.J. (1995\). The Directory of Railway Stations. Yeovil: Patrick Stephens Ltd. {{ISBN\|1\-85260\-508\-1}}. R508\.
### Air
The nearest major international airports are [Birmingham Airport](/wiki/Birmingham_Airport "Birmingham Airport") and [East Midlands Airport](/wiki/East_Midlands_Airport "East Midlands Airport").
|
[
"Transport\n---------",
"### Road",
"Daventry is near the [M1 motorway](/wiki/M1_motorway \"M1 motorway\") with access to two junctions: 18 to the northeast and 16 to the southeast of the town.",
"The [A45](/wiki/A45_road \"A45 road\") runs around Daventry; eastbound it connects it with the [A5](/wiki/A5_road_%28Great_Britain%29 \"A5 road (Great Britain)\") and the M1 at junction 16, and then Northampton. To the north\\-west it connects to [Rugby](/wiki/Rugby%2C_Warwickshire \"Rugby, Warwickshire\"), [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\"), and [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\").",
"The [A425](/wiki/A425_road \"A425 road\") connects Daventry with [Southam](/wiki/Southam \"Southam\"), [Leamington Spa](/wiki/Leamington_Spa \"Leamington Spa\") and [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick \"Warwick\") to the west.",
"The [A361](/wiki/A361_road \"A361 road\") connects Daventry to the [A5](/wiki/A5_road_%28Great_Britain%29 \"A5 road (Great Britain)\") at [Kilsby](/wiki/Kilsby \"Kilsby\") to the north, which then gives access to junction 18 of the [M1](/wiki/M1_Motorway \"M1 Motorway\"). To the south\\-west the A361 connects Daventry with junction 11 of the [M40](/wiki/M40_motorway \"M40 motorway\") and then [Banbury](/wiki/Banbury \"Banbury\").",
"These roads all converge on the town's outer ringroad.",
"#### Bus",
"Local and regional bus services are provided by [Stagecoach Midlands](/wiki/Stagecoach_Midlands \"Stagecoach Midlands\"){{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.stagecoachbus.com/timetables.aspx \\|title\\=Timetables \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2015 \\|publisher\\= Stagecoach \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150925160228/https://www.stagecoachbus.com/timetables.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live}} from their bases in Northampton, Rugby and until December 2016, Leamington Spa. [Stagecoach in Oxfordshire](/wiki/Stagecoach_in_Oxfordshire \"Stagecoach in Oxfordshire\") provides an hourly service to Banbury. Villages without a regular connection to Daventry had a bookable County Connect{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.county\\-connect.co.uk/map\\-countyconnect.phtml \\|title\\= CountyConnect – public transport, bus services \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305035811/http://www.county\\-connect.co.uk/map\\-countyconnect.phtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} bus service run by [Centrebus](/wiki/Centrebus \"Centrebus\") under a County Council contract until 1 September 2014, when the operator changed to [Kier Fleet Passenger Services](/wiki/Kier_Group \"Kier Group\"). All subsidies for bus services in Northamptonshire have been discontinued due to financial mismanagement at [Northamptonshire County Council](/wiki/Northamptonshire_County_Council \"Northamptonshire County Council\"), meaning most of these bus services will end.{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.northamptonchron.co.uk/news/cuts\\-u\\-turn\\-slashed\\-bus\\-subsidies\\-will\\-take\\-us\\-back\\-to\\-the\\-stone\\-age\\-fears\\-northamptonshire\\-villager\\-1\\-8395380 \\|title\\=CUTS U\\-TURN: Slashed bus subsidies will take us back to the 'Stone Age' fears Northamptonshire villager \\|work\\=Northampton Chronicle \\& Echo \\|date\\=27 February 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=13 June 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180613162431/https://www.northamptonchron.co.uk/news/cuts\\-u\\-turn\\-slashed\\-bus\\-subsidies\\-will\\-take\\-us\\-back\\-to\\-the\\-stone\\-age\\-fears\\-northamptonshire\\-villager\\-1\\-8395380 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Railways",
"The nearest railway station to Daventry today is [Long Buckby railway station](/wiki/Long_Buckby_railway_station \"Long Buckby railway station\") about {{convert\\|4\\|miles\\|0}} northeast, where [West Midlands Trains](/wiki/West_Midlands_Trains \"West Midlands Trains\") provide services via the [Northampton loop](/wiki/Northampton_Loop_Line \"Northampton Loop Line\") of the [West Coast Main Line](/wiki/West_Coast_Main_Line \"West Coast Main Line\"), northbound to {{rws\\|Rugby}} and stations to [Birmingham New Street](/wiki/Birmingham_New_Street_railway_station \"Birmingham New Street railway station\"), and southbound to [Northampton](/wiki/Northampton_railway_station \"Northampton railway station\") and stations to [London Euston](/wiki/Euston_railway_station \"Euston railway station\").\n[thumb\\|[Daventry railway station](/wiki/Daventry_railway_station \"Daventry railway station\") operated between 1888 and 1958, it is now demolished](/wiki/File:Daventry_station%2C_old_photograph_1.jpg \"Daventry station, old photograph 1.jpg\")\nDaventry once had [its own railway station](/wiki/Daventry_railway_station \"Daventry railway station\") on the former [London and North Western Railway](/wiki/London_and_North_Western_Railway \"London and North Western Railway\") branch\\-line [from Weedon to Leamington Spa](/wiki/Weedon_to_Leamington_Spa_line \"Weedon to Leamington Spa line\"), which opened in 1888 and was closed on 15 September 1958 and is now demolished. Daventry is now one of the largest towns in England without its own railway station.{{cite web \\|title\\=Daventry Town Transport Strategy \\|url\\=https://www3\\.northamptonshire.gov.uk/councilservices/northamptonshire\\-highways/transport\\-plans\\-and\\-policies/Documents/Daventry%20Town%20Transport%20Strategy.pdf \\|publisher\\=Northamptonshire County Council \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 February 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072216/https://www3\\.northamptonshire.gov.uk/councilservices/northamptonshire\\-highways/transport\\-plans\\-and\\-policies/Documents/Daventry%20Town%20Transport%20Strategy.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In addition to this the former [Braunston and Willoughby railway station](/wiki/Braunston_and_Willoughby_railway_station \"Braunston and Willoughby railway station\") on the [Great Central Main Line](/wiki/Great_Central_Main_Line \"Great Central Main Line\") which ran to the west of Daventry, was originally called *Willoughby for Daventry* when it opened in 1899, despite the station being around five miles north\\-west of Daventry in neighbouring [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire \"Warwickshire\"). It was later renamed *Braunston and Willoughby for Daventry* in 1904, before the reference to Daventry was finally dropped in 1938\\. The station itself closed in 1957, and the line in 1966\\.Butt, R.V.J. (1995\\). The Directory of Railway Stations. Yeovil: Patrick Stephens Ltd. {{ISBN\\|1\\-85260\\-508\\-1}}. R508\\.",
"### Air",
"The nearest major international airports are [Birmingham Airport](/wiki/Birmingham_Airport \"Birmingham Airport\") and [East Midlands Airport](/wiki/East_Midlands_Airport \"East Midlands Airport\").",
""
] |
Early life and education
------------------------
Busse was born in [Bergisch\-Gladbach](/wiki/Bergisch-Gladbach "Bergisch-Gladbach"), Germany, on 19 September 1977\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://idw\-online.de/de/news238969 \|title\=Verleihung des DPZ\-Förderpreises 2007 \|trans\-title\=Award of the DPZ Promotion Prize 2007 \|date\=5 December 2007 \|publisher\=\[\[German Primate Centre]] \|via\=\[\[Informationsdienst Wissenschaft]] \|language\=de}} She had an early interest in brain studies and received a scholarship from the [State of Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria") that supported her studies in basic psychology at the [University of Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig_University "Leipzig University"), in Leipzig, Germany from 1997 to 1999\. Busse then pursued further studies at the [Max Planck Research School at the University of Tübingen](/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen "University of Tübingen") in Germany where she focused in Neural and Behavioral Sciences from 1999 to 2001\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://translate.google.com/translate?hl\=en\&sl\=de\&u\=http://www.bbaw.de/die\-akademie/auszeichnungen/ehemals\-verliehene\-preise/foerderpreis\-der\-bbaw/2009\&prev\=search\|title\=Google Translate\|website\=translate.google.com\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}}{{full citation needed\|date\=October 2021}}
During her time at Tübingen, Busse pursued research abroad for her Master's in Neuroscience. She moved to the United States for 6 months where she studied under the mentorship of [Marty Woldorff](/wiki/Marty_G._Woldorff "Marty G. Woldorff") at [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.neurizons.uni\-goettingen.de/speakers\-2020/circuits\-and\-networks\-neuroscience/laura\-busse/\|title\=Laura Busse\|website\=Neurizons 2020\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}} Busse explored the cognitive underpinnings of attention in the human brain in the Center for Cognitive Neuroscience at Duke University.{{Cite web\|url\=https://psychandneuro.duke.edu/people/marty\-g\-woldorff\|title\=Marty G. Woldorff {{!}} Duke Psychology \& Neuroscience\|website\=psychandneuro.duke.edu\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}} After successfully completing her Master's in 2001, Busse stayed at [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University") for another year to work as a research technician, continuing to explore the neurobiological underpinnings of cognition using various imaging techniques such as fMRI, EEG, and ERP.
In late 2002, Busse pursued her doctoral work back in Germany at the [German Primate Center Göttingen](/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen "University of Göttingen") and the Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience. Busse worked under the mentorship of [Stefan Treue](/wiki/Stefan_Treue_%28scientist%29 "Stefan Treue (scientist)"), where she entered the field of visual processing, exploring the neural basis of visual perception using non\-human primates as a model organism.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.uni\-goettingen.de/en/58048\.html\|title\=Treue, Stefan, Prof. Dr. \- Cognitive Neurosciences (DPZ, Uni\-Bio) \- Georg\-August\-Universität Göttingen\|last\=Öffentlichkeitsarbeit\|first\=Georg\-August\-Universität Göttingen\-\|website\=www.uni\-goettingen.de\|language\=de\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}} Busse completed her PhD in neuroscience in 2006 and then moved back to the United States for one year funded by the Leopoldina Postdoctoral Scholarship. Busse completed her postdoctoral work at the [Smith\-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute](/wiki/Smith-Kettlewell_Eye_Research_Institute "Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), USA in 2007 and then moved to the Institute of Ophthalmology at the [University College London](/wiki/University_College_London "University College London"), in the United Kingdom to work as a Research Associate under the mentorship of [Matteo Carandini](/wiki/Matteo_Carandini "Matteo Carandini") from 2008 to 2010\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://neurotree.org/beta/peopleinfo.php?pid\=2747\|title\=Neurotree \- Laura Busse\|website\=neurotree.org\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}} Under Carandini, Busse explored visual processing in the cat V1 and visual behavior in mice.
### Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention
In the Woldorff Lab, Busse explored caveats to [fMRI](/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging "Functional magnetic resonance imaging") experimental trial structure in human fMRI experiments.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Busse\|first1\=Laura\|last2\=Woldorff\|first2\=Marty G.\|date\=April 2003\|title\=The ERP omitted stimulus response to "no\-stim" events and its implications for fast\-rate event\-related fMRI designs\|journal\=NeuroImage\|volume\=18\|issue\=4\|pages\=856–864\|doi\=10\.1016/s1053\-8119(03\)00012\-0\|issn\=1053\-8119\|pmid\=12725762\|s2cid\=25351923}} Since fMRI experiments often suffer from extensive overlap of adjacent trial brain signals, experimenters started to implement “null” or “no\-stim” trials in order to provide time for extraction of stimulus generated signal during non\-event trials. However, Busse sought to explore the hypothesis that “null\-event” trials actually evoke unique brain activity patterns, called the omitted stimulus response (OSR). In an auditory task, Busse found significant OSRs, defined by an early posterior negative wave followed by a larger anterior positive wave, across a variety of stimulus rates and omitted stimulus percentages. Her work provided not only insight into the brain's OSR but also to the caveat associated with using OSRs as a “null” trial.
Busse then published a paper in the [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America") exploring the phenomenon of cross\-modal attentional spreading.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Busse\|first1\=Laura\|last2\=Roberts\|first2\=Kenneth C.\|last3\=Crist\|first3\=Roy E.\|last4\=Weissman\|first4\=Daniel H.\|last5\=Woldorff\|first5\=Marty G.\|date\=2005\-12\-20\|title\=The spread of attention across modalities and space in a multisensory object\|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\|volume\=102\|issue\=51\|pages\=18751–18756\|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.0507704102\|issn\=0027\-8424\|pmc\=1317940\|pmid\=16339900\|bibcode\=2005PNAS..10218751B\|doi\-access\=free}} Busse found that when a subject is paying attention to a stimulus in one sensory modality, it increases the subject's attention to a non\-related stimulus in a different sensory modality. This finding elucidated the idea that simultaneous yet disconnected stimuli can be grouped into one multisensory object enhancing the cognitive processing that is allocated to both stimuli.
### Visual Attention and Processing
For her graduate work, Busse explored how cognition influences sensory information processing. For example, Busse became interested in top\-down processing of sensory information in the case of visual attention, which is the ability of the brain to focus on one aspect of the visual environment even though it is taking in multitudes of visual information at once.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Busse\|first1\=Laura\|last2\=Katzner\|first2\=Steffen\|last3\=Treue\|first3\=Stefan\|date\=2006\-06\-01\|title\=Spatial and feature\-based effects of exogenous cueing on visual motion processing\|journal\=Vision Research\|language\=en\|volume\=46\|issue\=13\|pages\=2019–2027\|doi\=10\.1016/j.visres.2005\.12\.016\|pmid\=16476463\|issn\=0042\-6989\|doi\-access\=free}} Busse first showed both spatial and feature\-based influences of exogenous cueing on motion processing. Autonomic shifts in attention, driven by exogenous cueing, appeared to be integrally driven by characteristic modulations of sensory processing.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.znv.de/materials/busse\_laura.pdf\|title\=Effects of Selective Attention on Sensory Processing of Visual Motion\|last\=Busse\|first\=Laura\|date\=2008\|website\=Thesis Gottingen\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=April 23, 2020}} Busse then explored how cognitive attention in macaques changes the neural representation of motion information. Busse found that visual attention enhances the spatio\-temporal structure of receptive fields for moving objects.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Busse\|first1\=Laura\|last2\=Katzner\|first2\=Steffen\|last3\=Tillmann\|first3\=Christine\|last4\=Treue\|first4\=Stefan\|date\=2008\-07\-02\|title\=Effects of attention on perceptual direction tuning curves in the human visual system\|url\=https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid\=2193282\|journal\=Journal of Vision\|language\=en\|volume\=8\|issue\=9\|pages\=2\.1–13\|doi\=10\.1167/8\.9\.2\|pmid\=18831638\|issn\=1534\-7362\|doi\-access\=free}} Busse completed her dissertation in 2008, showing that cognitive factors have strong modulatory effects on the processing of visual motion.
In her postdoctoral studies, Busse first explored visual processing in the primary visual cortex in cats. Busse found that when populations of neurons encode multiple stimuli simultaneously, a model of contrast normalization best explains how neurons represent multiple stimuli in V1\.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Busse\|first1\=Laura\|last2\=Wade\|first2\=Alex R\|last3\=Carandini\|first3\=Matteo\|date\=2009\-12\-24\|title\=Representation of concurrent stimuli by population activity in visual cortex\|journal\=Neuron\|volume\=64\|issue\=6\|pages\=931–942\|doi\=10\.1016/j.neuron.2009\.11\.004\|issn\=0896\-6273\|pmc\=2807406\|pmid\=20064398}} Essentially, the population response can be described as a weighted sum of the individual responses to the components of the visual stimulus. Not only did their modelling of normalization hold in cats, but also extended to recordings from human primary visual cortex.
Busse was then ready to move her experiments into mice, a common model organism is systems neuroscience to dissect neural circuits, but she first had to pioneer a new approach to be able to relate vision circuits to perception in mice.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Busse\|first1\=Laura\|last2\=Ayaz\|first2\=Asli\|last3\=Dhruv\|first3\=Neel T.\|last4\=Katzner\|first4\=Steffen\|last5\=Saleem\|first5\=Aman B.\|last6\=Schölvinck\|first6\=Marieke L.\|last7\=Zaharia\|first7\=Andrew D.\|last8\=Carandini\|first8\=Matteo\|date\=2011\-08\-03\|title\=The detection of visual contrast in the behaving mouse\|journal\=The Journal of Neuroscience\|volume\=31\|issue\=31\|pages\=11351–11361\|doi\=10\.1523/JNEUROSCI.6689\-10\.2011\|issn\=1529\-2401\|pmc\=6623377\|pmid\=21813694}} Busse extensively trained mice to detect visual contrast using trial\-based operant conditioning. After extensive training, they found that choices mice made in this operant task were not only based on the learned contrast association but also factors such as reward value or recent failures. When they used a [generalized linear model](/wiki/Generalized_linear_model "Generalized linear model") to decode the neural data to predict behavioral outputs, they found that the decoder performed better than the mouse suggesting that the mouse might not be using the V1 information in the most optimal way.
|
[
"Early life and education\n------------------------",
"Busse was born in [Bergisch\\-Gladbach](/wiki/Bergisch-Gladbach \"Bergisch-Gladbach\"), Germany, on 19 September 1977\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://idw\\-online.de/de/news238969 \\|title\\=Verleihung des DPZ\\-Förderpreises 2007 \\|trans\\-title\\=Award of the DPZ Promotion Prize 2007 \\|date\\=5 December 2007 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[German Primate Centre]] \\|via\\=\\[\\[Informationsdienst Wissenschaft]] \\|language\\=de}} She had an early interest in brain studies and received a scholarship from the [State of Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\") that supported her studies in basic psychology at the [University of Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig_University \"Leipzig University\"), in Leipzig, Germany from 1997 to 1999\\. Busse then pursued further studies at the [Max Planck Research School at the University of Tübingen](/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen \"University of Tübingen\") in Germany where she focused in Neural and Behavioral Sciences from 1999 to 2001\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://translate.google.com/translate?hl\\=en\\&sl\\=de\\&u\\=http://www.bbaw.de/die\\-akademie/auszeichnungen/ehemals\\-verliehene\\-preise/foerderpreis\\-der\\-bbaw/2009\\&prev\\=search\\|title\\=Google Translate\\|website\\=translate.google.com\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}}{{full citation needed\\|date\\=October 2021}}",
"During her time at Tübingen, Busse pursued research abroad for her Master's in Neuroscience. She moved to the United States for 6 months where she studied under the mentorship of [Marty Woldorff](/wiki/Marty_G._Woldorff \"Marty G. Woldorff\") at [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University \"Duke University\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.neurizons.uni\\-goettingen.de/speakers\\-2020/circuits\\-and\\-networks\\-neuroscience/laura\\-busse/\\|title\\=Laura Busse\\|website\\=Neurizons 2020\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}} Busse explored the cognitive underpinnings of attention in the human brain in the Center for Cognitive Neuroscience at Duke University.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://psychandneuro.duke.edu/people/marty\\-g\\-woldorff\\|title\\=Marty G. Woldorff {{!}} Duke Psychology \\& Neuroscience\\|website\\=psychandneuro.duke.edu\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}} After successfully completing her Master's in 2001, Busse stayed at [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University \"Duke University\") for another year to work as a research technician, continuing to explore the neurobiological underpinnings of cognition using various imaging techniques such as fMRI, EEG, and ERP.",
"In late 2002, Busse pursued her doctoral work back in Germany at the [German Primate Center Göttingen](/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen \"University of Göttingen\") and the Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience. Busse worked under the mentorship of [Stefan Treue](/wiki/Stefan_Treue_%28scientist%29 \"Stefan Treue (scientist)\"), where she entered the field of visual processing, exploring the neural basis of visual perception using non\\-human primates as a model organism.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.uni\\-goettingen.de/en/58048\\.html\\|title\\=Treue, Stefan, Prof. Dr. \\- Cognitive Neurosciences (DPZ, Uni\\-Bio) \\- Georg\\-August\\-Universität Göttingen\\|last\\=Öffentlichkeitsarbeit\\|first\\=Georg\\-August\\-Universität Göttingen\\-\\|website\\=www.uni\\-goettingen.de\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}} Busse completed her PhD in neuroscience in 2006 and then moved back to the United States for one year funded by the Leopoldina Postdoctoral Scholarship. Busse completed her postdoctoral work at the [Smith\\-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute](/wiki/Smith-Kettlewell_Eye_Research_Institute \"Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), USA in 2007 and then moved to the Institute of Ophthalmology at the [University College London](/wiki/University_College_London \"University College London\"), in the United Kingdom to work as a Research Associate under the mentorship of [Matteo Carandini](/wiki/Matteo_Carandini \"Matteo Carandini\") from 2008 to 2010\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://neurotree.org/beta/peopleinfo.php?pid\\=2747\\|title\\=Neurotree \\- Laura Busse\\|website\\=neurotree.org\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}} Under Carandini, Busse explored visual processing in the cat V1 and visual behavior in mice.",
"### Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention",
"In the Woldorff Lab, Busse explored caveats to [fMRI](/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging \"Functional magnetic resonance imaging\") experimental trial structure in human fMRI experiments.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Busse\\|first1\\=Laura\\|last2\\=Woldorff\\|first2\\=Marty G.\\|date\\=April 2003\\|title\\=The ERP omitted stimulus response to \"no\\-stim\" events and its implications for fast\\-rate event\\-related fMRI designs\\|journal\\=NeuroImage\\|volume\\=18\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=856–864\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/s1053\\-8119(03\\)00012\\-0\\|issn\\=1053\\-8119\\|pmid\\=12725762\\|s2cid\\=25351923}} Since fMRI experiments often suffer from extensive overlap of adjacent trial brain signals, experimenters started to implement “null” or “no\\-stim” trials in order to provide time for extraction of stimulus generated signal during non\\-event trials. However, Busse sought to explore the hypothesis that “null\\-event” trials actually evoke unique brain activity patterns, called the omitted stimulus response (OSR). In an auditory task, Busse found significant OSRs, defined by an early posterior negative wave followed by a larger anterior positive wave, across a variety of stimulus rates and omitted stimulus percentages. Her work provided not only insight into the brain's OSR but also to the caveat associated with using OSRs as a “null” trial.",
"Busse then published a paper in the [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\") exploring the phenomenon of cross\\-modal attentional spreading.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Busse\\|first1\\=Laura\\|last2\\=Roberts\\|first2\\=Kenneth C.\\|last3\\=Crist\\|first3\\=Roy E.\\|last4\\=Weissman\\|first4\\=Daniel H.\\|last5\\=Woldorff\\|first5\\=Marty G.\\|date\\=2005\\-12\\-20\\|title\\=The spread of attention across modalities and space in a multisensory object\\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\\|volume\\=102\\|issue\\=51\\|pages\\=18751–18756\\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.0507704102\\|issn\\=0027\\-8424\\|pmc\\=1317940\\|pmid\\=16339900\\|bibcode\\=2005PNAS..10218751B\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Busse found that when a subject is paying attention to a stimulus in one sensory modality, it increases the subject's attention to a non\\-related stimulus in a different sensory modality. This finding elucidated the idea that simultaneous yet disconnected stimuli can be grouped into one multisensory object enhancing the cognitive processing that is allocated to both stimuli.",
"### Visual Attention and Processing",
"For her graduate work, Busse explored how cognition influences sensory information processing. For example, Busse became interested in top\\-down processing of sensory information in the case of visual attention, which is the ability of the brain to focus on one aspect of the visual environment even though it is taking in multitudes of visual information at once.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Busse\\|first1\\=Laura\\|last2\\=Katzner\\|first2\\=Steffen\\|last3\\=Treue\\|first3\\=Stefan\\|date\\=2006\\-06\\-01\\|title\\=Spatial and feature\\-based effects of exogenous cueing on visual motion processing\\|journal\\=Vision Research\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=46\\|issue\\=13\\|pages\\=2019–2027\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.visres.2005\\.12\\.016\\|pmid\\=16476463\\|issn\\=0042\\-6989\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Busse first showed both spatial and feature\\-based influences of exogenous cueing on motion processing. Autonomic shifts in attention, driven by exogenous cueing, appeared to be integrally driven by characteristic modulations of sensory processing.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.znv.de/materials/busse\\_laura.pdf\\|title\\=Effects of Selective Attention on Sensory Processing of Visual Motion\\|last\\=Busse\\|first\\=Laura\\|date\\=2008\\|website\\=Thesis Gottingen\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2020}} Busse then explored how cognitive attention in macaques changes the neural representation of motion information. Busse found that visual attention enhances the spatio\\-temporal structure of receptive fields for moving objects.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Busse\\|first1\\=Laura\\|last2\\=Katzner\\|first2\\=Steffen\\|last3\\=Tillmann\\|first3\\=Christine\\|last4\\=Treue\\|first4\\=Stefan\\|date\\=2008\\-07\\-02\\|title\\=Effects of attention on perceptual direction tuning curves in the human visual system\\|url\\=https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid\\=2193282\\|journal\\=Journal of Vision\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=8\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=2\\.1–13\\|doi\\=10\\.1167/8\\.9\\.2\\|pmid\\=18831638\\|issn\\=1534\\-7362\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Busse completed her dissertation in 2008, showing that cognitive factors have strong modulatory effects on the processing of visual motion.",
"In her postdoctoral studies, Busse first explored visual processing in the primary visual cortex in cats. Busse found that when populations of neurons encode multiple stimuli simultaneously, a model of contrast normalization best explains how neurons represent multiple stimuli in V1\\.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Busse\\|first1\\=Laura\\|last2\\=Wade\\|first2\\=Alex R\\|last3\\=Carandini\\|first3\\=Matteo\\|date\\=2009\\-12\\-24\\|title\\=Representation of concurrent stimuli by population activity in visual cortex\\|journal\\=Neuron\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=931–942\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.neuron.2009\\.11\\.004\\|issn\\=0896\\-6273\\|pmc\\=2807406\\|pmid\\=20064398}} Essentially, the population response can be described as a weighted sum of the individual responses to the components of the visual stimulus. Not only did their modelling of normalization hold in cats, but also extended to recordings from human primary visual cortex.",
"Busse was then ready to move her experiments into mice, a common model organism is systems neuroscience to dissect neural circuits, but she first had to pioneer a new approach to be able to relate vision circuits to perception in mice.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Busse\\|first1\\=Laura\\|last2\\=Ayaz\\|first2\\=Asli\\|last3\\=Dhruv\\|first3\\=Neel T.\\|last4\\=Katzner\\|first4\\=Steffen\\|last5\\=Saleem\\|first5\\=Aman B.\\|last6\\=Schölvinck\\|first6\\=Marieke L.\\|last7\\=Zaharia\\|first7\\=Andrew D.\\|last8\\=Carandini\\|first8\\=Matteo\\|date\\=2011\\-08\\-03\\|title\\=The detection of visual contrast in the behaving mouse\\|journal\\=The Journal of Neuroscience\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=31\\|pages\\=11351–11361\\|doi\\=10\\.1523/JNEUROSCI.6689\\-10\\.2011\\|issn\\=1529\\-2401\\|pmc\\=6623377\\|pmid\\=21813694}} Busse extensively trained mice to detect visual contrast using trial\\-based operant conditioning. After extensive training, they found that choices mice made in this operant task were not only based on the learned contrast association but also factors such as reward value or recent failures. When they used a [generalized linear model](/wiki/Generalized_linear_model \"Generalized linear model\") to decode the neural data to predict behavioral outputs, they found that the decoder performed better than the mouse suggesting that the mouse might not be using the V1 information in the most optimal way.",
""
] |
Career and research
-------------------
In 2010, Busse became a Junior Research Group Leader in the [Werner Reichardt Center for Integrative Neuroscience](/wiki/Werner_Reichardt_Centre_for_Integrative_Neuroscience "Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience") at the [University of Tübingen](/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen "University of Tübingen"), in Germany.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.orn.mpg.de/4538943/200402\_Laura\-Busse\_MG.pdf\|title\=Laura Busse \- Seewiesen Lecture Series\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|website\=Max Planck Institute\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=April 23, 2020}} She led a team of researchers to approach studying the visual stimuli in an ethologically relevant way. Since visual systems are designed to reflect an organism's environment, Busse shaped her research program around probing the neural circuits underlying visual processing with stimuli similar to those that would be experienced in that organism's natural environment.
In 2016, Busse was recruited to the [Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich](/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich "Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich") in Germany to hold a professorship within the Munich Center for Neurosciences.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.gsn.uni\-muenchen.de/people/scientific\_board/laura\-busse/index.html\|title\=Laura Busse \- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences GSN\-LMU \- LMU Munich\|website\=www.gsn.uni\-muenchen.de\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}} Busse currently leads the Vision Circuits Lab along with co\-principal investigator [Steffen Katzner](/wiki/Steffen_Katzner "Steffen Katzner") within the Department of Biology, Neurobiology Division.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.en.uni\-muenchen.de/about\_lmu/introducing\-lmu/people/appointments/2016/index.html\|title\=New appointments to LMU in 2016 \- LMU Munich\|website\=www.en.uni\-muenchen.de\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://visioncircuitslab.org/people/\|title\=People\|website\=vision circuits lab\|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}}
### Exploring Neuronal Circuits of Visual Perception in Mice
As a Junior Research Group Leader, Busse began to explore the neural circuits underlying visual processing in mouse models. Busse began by asking whether surround suppression, a computation known to underlie visual salience, could be observed in the V1 cortex.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Vaiceliunaite\|first1\=Agne\|last2\=Erisken\|first2\=Sinem\|last3\=Franzen\|first3\=Florian\|last4\=Katzner\|first4\=Steffen\|last5\=Busse\|first5\=Laura\|date\=August 2013\|title\=Spatial integration in mouse primary visual cortex\|journal\=Journal of Neurophysiology\|volume\=110\|issue\=4\|pages\=964–972\|doi\=10\.1152/jn.00138\.2013\|issn\=1522\-1598\|pmc\=3742980\|pmid\=23719206}} Busse and her team found that in awake mice, [parvalbumin](/wiki/Parvalbumin "Parvalbumin") positive interneurons in the primary visual cortex mediate surround suppression, however, when mice are under anesthesia, this profoundly affects surround suppression and thus spatial integration. Using [optogenetics](/wiki/Optogenetics "Optogenetics"), Busse and her team were able to show in awake mice that activation of PV\+ interneurons increases the receptive field size and decreases the suppression of neural populations, underscoring the role these cells play in spatial integration and highlighting the utility of mice in circuit level analyses of visual processing.
Continuing to use mice as models to study visual processing, Busse and her team explored how behavioral context impacts neural activity in V1\.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Erisken\|first1\=Sinem\|last2\=Vaiceliunaite\|first2\=Agne\|last3\=Jurjut\|first3\=Ovidiu\|last4\=Fiorini\|first4\=Matilde\|last5\=Katzner\|first5\=Steffen\|last6\=Busse\|first6\=Laura\|date\=2014\-12\-15\|title\=Effects of locomotion extend throughout the mouse early visual system\|journal\=Current Biology\|volume\=24\|issue\=24\|pages\=2899–2907\|doi\=10\.1016/j.cub.2014\.10\.045\|issn\=1879\-0445\|pmid\=25484299\|doi\-access\=free}} They found that locomotion de\-correlates V1 population responses however, locomotion seemed to control the tuning of dorsolateral geniculate nucleus population responses. Overall, their findings highlighted novel insight into the effects of locomotion in early visual system information processing.
As a new faculty at the [Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich](/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich "Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich"), Busse explored whether and how each cortical layer performs [surround suppression](/wiki/Surround_suppression "Surround suppression") and coordinates this across cortical layers.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Plomp\|first1\=Gijs\|last2\=Larderet\|first2\=Ivan\|last3\=Fiorini\|first3\=Matilde\|last4\=Busse\|first4\=Laura\|date\=2019\-01\-09\|title\=Layer 3 Dynamically Coordinates Columnar Activity According to Spatial Context\|journal\=Journal of Neuroscience\|language\=en\|volume\=39\|issue\=2\|pages\=281–294\|doi\=10\.1523/JNEUROSCI.1568\-18\.2018\|issn\=0270\-6474\|pmid\=30459226\|pmc\=6360286}} Using in vivo recordings, Busse and her group were able to detect that layer 3 and layer 4 exhibited the strongest surround suppression and that intermediate stimulus sizes resulted in the strongest functional connections between layers.
In their 2019 publication in Neuron, Busse and her colleagues at Tübingen shed light on the mechanisms by which the large degree of visual information coming in from the retina is processed and transferred in a manageable way to the visual cortex.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.en.uni\-muenchen.de/news/newsarchiv/2019/busse\_sehen.html\|title\=Signals on the scales \- LMU Munich\|website\=www.en.uni\-muenchen.de\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-25}} In the feedforward visual processing pathway, the retina extracts visual information from light inputs and passes this information on via its output layer of [retinal ganglion cells](/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cells "Retinal ganglion cells") (RGCs), which project axons to the [dorsolateral geniculate nucleus](/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus "Lateral geniculate nucleus") (dLGN) of the thalamus, which in turn routes this information to the [primary visual cortex](/wiki/Primary_visual_cortex "Primary visual cortex") (V1\). Whereas the dLGN has traditionally been thought of as a passive relay in visual signal processing,{{cite journal \|last1\=Hubel \|first1\=D.H. \|last2\=Wiesel \|first2\=T. N. \|title\=Integrative Action in the Cat's Lateral Geniculate Body \|journal\=J. Physiol. \|date\=1961 \|volume\=155 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=385–398 \|doi\=10\.1113/jphysiol.1961\.sp006635 \|pmid\=13716436\|pmc\=1359861 }} Busse and her colleagues investigate the hypothesis that it might instead be involved in actively shaping visual signals via several factors including recombination of incoming RGC inputs, processing of cortico\-thalamic feedback inputs and local inhibitory interneuron computations, amongst others, which will actively shape the output signals sent to the primary visual cortex (V1\)
(e.g. via altering the thalamic firing modes between burst vs. tonic firing). To test the contribution of recombination of retinal input signals from RGCs, Busse and her colleagues recorded responses from RGCs and thalamic cells to the same set of visual stimuli and then used computational modelling to see which retinal cells contribute to the responses of thalamic cells.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Román Rosón\|first1\=Miroslav\|last2\=Bauer\|first2\=Yannik\|last3\=Kotkat\|first3\=Ann H.\|last4\=Berens\|first4\=Philipp\|last5\=Euler\|first5\=Thomas\|last6\=Busse\|first6\=Laura\|date\=2019\-04\-17\|title\=Mouse dLGN Receives Functional Input from a Diverse Population of Retinal Ganglion Cells with Limited Convergence\|journal\=Neuron\|language\=en\|volume\=102\|issue\=2\|pages\=462–476\.e8\|doi\=10\.1016/j.neuron.2019\.01\.040\|pmid\=30799020\|issn\=0896\-6273\|doi\-access\=free}} Fascinatingly, they found that the output of one thalamic cell relies on no more than 5 retinal cells, and that though these retinal inputs are combined to generate an output, they are not given equal weights. Their work highlighted the active role of the thalamus in signal processing, not just signal relaying as is thought to be the canonical function of the thalamus.
|
[
"Career and research\n-------------------",
"In 2010, Busse became a Junior Research Group Leader in the [Werner Reichardt Center for Integrative Neuroscience](/wiki/Werner_Reichardt_Centre_for_Integrative_Neuroscience \"Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience\") at the [University of Tübingen](/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen \"University of Tübingen\"), in Germany.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orn.mpg.de/4538943/200402\\_Laura\\-Busse\\_MG.pdf\\|title\\=Laura Busse \\- Seewiesen Lecture Series\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|website\\=Max Planck Institute\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2020}} She led a team of researchers to approach studying the visual stimuli in an ethologically relevant way. Since visual systems are designed to reflect an organism's environment, Busse shaped her research program around probing the neural circuits underlying visual processing with stimuli similar to those that would be experienced in that organism's natural environment.",
"In 2016, Busse was recruited to the [Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich](/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich \"Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich\") in Germany to hold a professorship within the Munich Center for Neurosciences.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gsn.uni\\-muenchen.de/people/scientific\\_board/laura\\-busse/index.html\\|title\\=Laura Busse \\- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences GSN\\-LMU \\- LMU Munich\\|website\\=www.gsn.uni\\-muenchen.de\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}} Busse currently leads the Vision Circuits Lab along with co\\-principal investigator [Steffen Katzner](/wiki/Steffen_Katzner \"Steffen Katzner\") within the Department of Biology, Neurobiology Division.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.en.uni\\-muenchen.de/about\\_lmu/introducing\\-lmu/people/appointments/2016/index.html\\|title\\=New appointments to LMU in 2016 \\- LMU Munich\\|website\\=www.en.uni\\-muenchen.de\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://visioncircuitslab.org/people/\\|title\\=People\\|website\\=vision circuits lab\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}}",
"### Exploring Neuronal Circuits of Visual Perception in Mice",
"As a Junior Research Group Leader, Busse began to explore the neural circuits underlying visual processing in mouse models. Busse began by asking whether surround suppression, a computation known to underlie visual salience, could be observed in the V1 cortex.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Vaiceliunaite\\|first1\\=Agne\\|last2\\=Erisken\\|first2\\=Sinem\\|last3\\=Franzen\\|first3\\=Florian\\|last4\\=Katzner\\|first4\\=Steffen\\|last5\\=Busse\\|first5\\=Laura\\|date\\=August 2013\\|title\\=Spatial integration in mouse primary visual cortex\\|journal\\=Journal of Neurophysiology\\|volume\\=110\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=964–972\\|doi\\=10\\.1152/jn.00138\\.2013\\|issn\\=1522\\-1598\\|pmc\\=3742980\\|pmid\\=23719206}} Busse and her team found that in awake mice, [parvalbumin](/wiki/Parvalbumin \"Parvalbumin\") positive interneurons in the primary visual cortex mediate surround suppression, however, when mice are under anesthesia, this profoundly affects surround suppression and thus spatial integration. Using [optogenetics](/wiki/Optogenetics \"Optogenetics\"), Busse and her team were able to show in awake mice that activation of PV\\+ interneurons increases the receptive field size and decreases the suppression of neural populations, underscoring the role these cells play in spatial integration and highlighting the utility of mice in circuit level analyses of visual processing.",
"Continuing to use mice as models to study visual processing, Busse and her team explored how behavioral context impacts neural activity in V1\\.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Erisken\\|first1\\=Sinem\\|last2\\=Vaiceliunaite\\|first2\\=Agne\\|last3\\=Jurjut\\|first3\\=Ovidiu\\|last4\\=Fiorini\\|first4\\=Matilde\\|last5\\=Katzner\\|first5\\=Steffen\\|last6\\=Busse\\|first6\\=Laura\\|date\\=2014\\-12\\-15\\|title\\=Effects of locomotion extend throughout the mouse early visual system\\|journal\\=Current Biology\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=24\\|pages\\=2899–2907\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cub.2014\\.10\\.045\\|issn\\=1879\\-0445\\|pmid\\=25484299\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} They found that locomotion de\\-correlates V1 population responses however, locomotion seemed to control the tuning of dorsolateral geniculate nucleus population responses. Overall, their findings highlighted novel insight into the effects of locomotion in early visual system information processing.",
"As a new faculty at the [Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich](/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich \"Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich\"), Busse explored whether and how each cortical layer performs [surround suppression](/wiki/Surround_suppression \"Surround suppression\") and coordinates this across cortical layers.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Plomp\\|first1\\=Gijs\\|last2\\=Larderet\\|first2\\=Ivan\\|last3\\=Fiorini\\|first3\\=Matilde\\|last4\\=Busse\\|first4\\=Laura\\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-09\\|title\\=Layer 3 Dynamically Coordinates Columnar Activity According to Spatial Context\\|journal\\=Journal of Neuroscience\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=39\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=281–294\\|doi\\=10\\.1523/JNEUROSCI.1568\\-18\\.2018\\|issn\\=0270\\-6474\\|pmid\\=30459226\\|pmc\\=6360286}} Using in vivo recordings, Busse and her group were able to detect that layer 3 and layer 4 exhibited the strongest surround suppression and that intermediate stimulus sizes resulted in the strongest functional connections between layers.",
"In their 2019 publication in Neuron, Busse and her colleagues at Tübingen shed light on the mechanisms by which the large degree of visual information coming in from the retina is processed and transferred in a manageable way to the visual cortex.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.en.uni\\-muenchen.de/news/newsarchiv/2019/busse\\_sehen.html\\|title\\=Signals on the scales \\- LMU Munich\\|website\\=www.en.uni\\-muenchen.de\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-25}} In the feedforward visual processing pathway, the retina extracts visual information from light inputs and passes this information on via its output layer of [retinal ganglion cells](/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cells \"Retinal ganglion cells\") (RGCs), which project axons to the [dorsolateral geniculate nucleus](/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus \"Lateral geniculate nucleus\") (dLGN) of the thalamus, which in turn routes this information to the [primary visual cortex](/wiki/Primary_visual_cortex \"Primary visual cortex\") (V1\\). Whereas the dLGN has traditionally been thought of as a passive relay in visual signal processing,{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hubel \\|first1\\=D.H. \\|last2\\=Wiesel \\|first2\\=T. N. \\|title\\=Integrative Action in the Cat's Lateral Geniculate Body \\|journal\\=J. Physiol. \\|date\\=1961 \\|volume\\=155 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=385–398 \\|doi\\=10\\.1113/jphysiol.1961\\.sp006635 \\|pmid\\=13716436\\|pmc\\=1359861 }} Busse and her colleagues investigate the hypothesis that it might instead be involved in actively shaping visual signals via several factors including recombination of incoming RGC inputs, processing of cortico\\-thalamic feedback inputs and local inhibitory interneuron computations, amongst others, which will actively shape the output signals sent to the primary visual cortex (V1\\)\n(e.g. via altering the thalamic firing modes between burst vs. tonic firing). To test the contribution of recombination of retinal input signals from RGCs, Busse and her colleagues recorded responses from RGCs and thalamic cells to the same set of visual stimuli and then used computational modelling to see which retinal cells contribute to the responses of thalamic cells.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Román Rosón\\|first1\\=Miroslav\\|last2\\=Bauer\\|first2\\=Yannik\\|last3\\=Kotkat\\|first3\\=Ann H.\\|last4\\=Berens\\|first4\\=Philipp\\|last5\\=Euler\\|first5\\=Thomas\\|last6\\=Busse\\|first6\\=Laura\\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-17\\|title\\=Mouse dLGN Receives Functional Input from a Diverse Population of Retinal Ganglion Cells with Limited Convergence\\|journal\\=Neuron\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=102\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=462–476\\.e8\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.neuron.2019\\.01\\.040\\|pmid\\=30799020\\|issn\\=0896\\-6273\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Fascinatingly, they found that the output of one thalamic cell relies on no more than 5 retinal cells, and that though these retinal inputs are combined to generate an output, they are not given equal weights. Their work highlighted the active role of the thalamus in signal processing, not just signal relaying as is thought to be the canonical function of the thalamus.",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
### Tampa Bay Devil Rays
Veras was signed as an undrafted [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent "Free agent") by the [Tampa Bay Devil Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays "Tampa Bay Rays") in 1998\. He steadily rose through the Tampa Bay minor league system as a starter. He missed spring training in 2002 due to visa issues and briefly pitched in the [New York\-Penn League](/wiki/New_York%E2%80%93Penn_League "New York–Penn League") to get himself ready for the season as a result.{{Cite web \|last\=Rodriguez \|first\=Justin \|date\=June 20, 2002 \|title\=For Veras, a late start to season \|url\=https://www.recordonline.com/story/sports/2002/06/20/for\-veras\-late\-start\-to/51178817007/ \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=Times Herald\-Record \|language\=en\-US}}
Veras was designated for assignment in 2002\.{{Cite web \|title\=ESPN.com: MLB \- Saturday's Around the Horn \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/aroundthehorn/020831\.html \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=www.espn.com}} He struggled when he reached Triple\-A in 2003 and was moved to the bullpen, but still managed to lead the organization in strikeouts with 121\.{{Cite news \|last\=Kepner \|first\=Tyler \|date\=June 12, 2008 \|title\=Yankees' Veras Making the Most of His Chance \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/12/sports/baseball/12pins.html \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331}} He was released after the 2004 season.{{Cite web \|title\=Jose Veras Trades and Transactions by Baseball Almanac \|url\=https://www.baseball\-almanac.com/players/trades.php?p\=verasjo01 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=www.baseball\-almanac.com}}
### Texas Rangers
Veras signed with the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)") for the 2005 season and was converted into a full\-time reliever.{{Cite web \|last\=AP \|date\=November 20, 2004 \|title\=Friday's Sports Transactions \|url\=https://lasvegassun.com/news/2004/nov/20/fridays\-sports\-transactions/ \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=Las Vegas Sun}} He pitched for their Triple\-A affiliate, the [Oklahoma RedHawks](/wiki/Oklahoma_RedHawks "Oklahoma RedHawks"), that year. He became a free agent at the end of the season.{{Cite web \|last\=Newberg \|first\=Jamey \|date\=November 5, 2005 \|title\=The Newberg Report \|url\=http://www.newbergreport.com/article.asp?articleid\=352 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=Jamey Newberg's Newberg Report \|language\=en}}
### New York Yankees
[thumb\|left\|Veras with the Yankees in 2006](/wiki/File:Sep906_188_Jos%C3%A9_Veras.jpg "Sep906 188 José Veras.jpg")
Veras signed with the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees "New York Yankees") before the 2006 season.{{Cite web \|last\=Writer \|first\=Staff \|title\=Yankees call up Veras for bullpen \|url\=https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2006/06/19/yankees\-call\-up\-veras\-for\-bullpen/31487101007/ \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=Gainesville Sun \|language\=en\-US}} He was called up on August 5{{Cite web \|last\=King III \|first\=George A. \|date\=August 5, 2006 \|title\=BOMBERS SAY BYE TO BUBBA \|url\=https://nypost.com/2006/08/05/bombers\-say\-bye\-to\-bubba/ \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|language\=en\-US}} and pitched to a 4\.09 ERA in 11 innings. In March 2007, Veras underwent surgery to remove bone chips in his elbow.{{Cite news \|last\=Kepner \|first\=Tyler \|date\=March 25, 2007 \|title\=Yankees' Wang to Start Season on Disabled List \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/25/sports/baseball/25yanks.html \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331}} He missed most of the season but rehabbed and returned to MLB as a [September call up](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_rosters%23September_call-ups "Major League Baseball rosters#September call-ups").{{Cite news \|last\=Finley \|first\=Bill \|date\=September 1, 2007 \|title\=Yankees Follow Up a Needed Sweep With a Big Loss \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/01/sports/baseball/01yankees.html \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331}} Veras was added to the Yankees roster for the [American League Division Series](/wiki/American_League_Division_Series "American League Division Series") against the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Guardians "Cleveland Guardians").{{Cite news \|last\=Kepner \|first\=Tyler \|date\=October 4, 2007 \|title\=Yankees Found Balance Amid a Lefty Lineup \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/04/sports/baseball/04yankees.html \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331}}
Veras was cut at the end of spring training in 2008\. After being called up to the majors on May 3,{{Cite web \|date\=May 3, 2008 \|title\=Transactions \|url\=https://www.deseret.com/2008/5/3/20085928/transactions \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=Deseret News \|language\=en}} he emerged as a dominant force out of the bullpen. He was predominantly used in the 7th inning{{Cite web \|last\=Burke \|first\=Don \|date\=June 21, 2008 \|title\=So far, Veras makes good on bold prediction \|url\=https://www.nj.com/yankees/2008/06/so\_far\_veras\_makes\_good\_on\_bol.html \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=The Star Ledger \|language\=en}} and became the setup reliever after the Yankees traded [Kyle Farnsworth](/wiki/Kyle_Farnsworth "Kyle Farnsworth").{{Cite news \|last\=Kepner \|first\=Tyler \|date\=July 31, 2008 \|title\=Yankees Obtain Rodríguez in Trade for Farnsworth \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/sports/baseball/31pudge.html \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331}} Veras made the opening day roster out of spring training in 2009\.{{Cite web \|date\=April 1, 2009 \|title\=Asbury Park Press \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/144509094/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=Newspapers.com \|language\=en\-US}} After allowing 23 runs on 17 hits and 14 walks in 25 games, he was [designated for assignment](/wiki/Designated_for_assignment "Designated for assignment") by the Yankees on June 16, 2009\.{{Cite web\|last\=\|date\=June 16, 2009\|title\=Bruney activated by Yankees, who cut Veras\|url\=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut\-bba\-yankees\-bruney\-061609\-2009jun16\-story.html\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=\[\[San Diego Union\-Tribune]]\|publisher\=\[\[Associated Press]]\|language\=en\-US}}
### Cleveland Indians
On June 24, 2009, Veras was acquired by the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians "Cleveland Indians") for cash considerations.{{Cite web\|date\=June 24, 2009\|title\=Indians acquire Veras from Yankees for cash\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id\=4284492\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|publisher\=\[\[Associated Press]]\|language\=en}} On August 5, 2009, he was designated for assignment,{{Cite web\|last\=Schmid\|first\=Eddie\|date\=August 4, 2009\|title\=Indians DFA Jose Veras\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2009/08/indians\-dfa\-jose\-veras.html\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=MLB Trade Rumors\|language\=en\-US}} and on August 11, 2009, he was outrighted to Triple\-A.{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|title\=Veras joins crowded Clippers bullpen \|url\=https://www.dispatch.com/story/news/2009/08/13/veras\-joins\-crowded\-clippers\-bullpen/23695426007/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=The Columbus Dispatch \|language\=en\-US}} He was called up again in September toward the end of the 2009 season.{{Cite web\|last\=Crow\|first\=Chuck\|date\=September 1, 2009\|title\=Cleveland Indians promote Michael Brantley and Jose Veras from Class AAA Columbus\|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/tribe/2009/09/cleveland\_indians\_expected\_to\_1\.html\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=\[\[The Plain Dealer]]\|language\=en}} After the season, Veras was non\-tendered by the Indians, making him a free agent.{{Cite web \|date\=December 13, 2009 \|title\=Non\-Tendered Players \|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2009/12/nontendered\-players.html \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=MLB Trade Rumors \|language\=en\-US}}
### Florida Marlins
On January 29, 2010, Veras signed a minor league contract with the [Florida Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins "Miami Marlins") with an invite to spring training{{Cite web\|last\=Dierkes\|first\=Tim\|date\=January 29, 2010\|title\=Marlins Sign Jose Veras\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2010/01/marlins\-sign\-jose\-veras.html\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=MLB Trade Rumors\|language\=en\-US}} and made the opening day roster.{{Cite web \|last\=craig \|date\=April 4, 2010 \|title\=Marlins roster set \|url\=https://www.fishstripes.com/2010/4/4/1404571/marlins\-roster\-set \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=Fish Stripes \|language\=en}} On April 14, after allowing eight runs in just four games, Veras was designated for assignment to bring up [Chris Leroux](/wiki/Chris_Leroux "Chris Leroux") to take his spot, he cleared waivers and was sent outright to Triple\-A [New Orleans Zepyhrs](/wiki/New_Orleans_Zepyhrs "New Orleans Zepyhrs") on April 16\.{{Cite web\|last\=Spencer\|first\=Clark\|date\=April 14, 2010\|title\=Jose Veras, Emilio Bonifacio Out; Chris Leroux, Brett Carroll In {{!}} Fish Bytes\|url\=https://miamiherald.typepad.com/fish\_bytes/2010/04/jose\-veras\-emilio\-bonifacio\-out\-chris\-leroux\-brett\-carroll\-in.html\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=\[\[Miami Herald]]}} He was called up on June 25, 2010\. [James Houser](/wiki/James_Houser "James Houser") was designated for assignment to make room.{{Cite web\|date\=June 25, 2010\|title\=Marlins designate Houser, call up Veras\|url\=https://www.columbian.com/news/2010/jun/25/marlins\-designate\-houser\-call\-up\-veras/\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=\[\[The Columbian]]\|language\=en\-US}} He was non\-tendered and became a free agent on December 2\.
### Pittsburgh Pirates
On January 18, 2011, Veras signed a minor league contract with the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates "Pittsburgh Pirates") with an invitation to spring training worth $1 million plus incentives.{{Cite web\|last\=Rojas\|first\=Enrique\|date\=January 16, 2011\|title\=Acuerdo de liga menor entre Piratas y Veras\|url\=https://espndeportes.espn.com/noticias/nota?s\=bei\&id\=1208264\&type\=story\|access\-date\=January 16, 2011\|website\=\[\[ESPN Deportes]]\|language\=es}} He made the team out of spring training{{Cite web \|last\=Wilmoth \|first\=Charlie \|date\=March 30, 2011 \|title\=MLB Opening Day: Pittsburgh Pirates Roster \|url\=https://pittsburgh.sbnation.com/pittsburgh\-pirates/2011/3/30/2081219/mlb\-opening\-day\-pittsburgh\-pirates\-roster \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=SB Nation Pittsburgh \|language\=en}} and was a reliable late\-inning reliever with a 3\.80 ERA and 79 strikeouts over 79 appearances.
### Milwaukee Brewers
On December 13, 2011, Veras was traded to the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers "Milwaukee Brewers") in exchange for [Casey McGehee](/wiki/Casey_McGehee "Casey McGehee").{{cite web\|last\=Haudricourt\|first\=Tom\|date\=December 12, 2011\|title\=Brewers trade McGehee for Veras\|url\=http://www.jsonline.com/blogs/sports/135480828\.html\|access\-date\=December 12, 2011\|work\=\[\[Milwaukee Journal\-Sentinel]]}} He made the club's opening day roster as a late\-inning reliever.{{Cite web \|date\=April 4, 2012 \|title\=Brewers opening day roster \|url\=http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brewers/brewrost05\-m84sl14\-146211635\.html \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last1\=Haudricourt \|first1\=Tom \|last2\=Rosiak \|first2\=Todd \|date\=March 20, 2012 \|title\=Veras settling into seventh\-inning role \|url\=http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brewers/veras\-settling\-into\-7thinning\-role\-for\-brewers\-rs4ljd9\-143585116\.html \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel \|language\=en}} In 2012, he pitched to a 3\.63 ERA, while striking out 79 and walking 40 batters, in 67 innings across 72 games. He became a free agent following the season.
### Houston Astros
On December 21, 2012, Veras signed a one\-year, $2 million contract with the [Houston Astros](/wiki/Houston_Astros "Houston Astros") with a 2014 option worth $3\.25 million and a $150,000 buyout.{{Cite web\|last\=Nicholson\-Smith\|first\=Ben\|date\=December 21, 2012\|title\=Astros Sign Jose Veras\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2012/12/astros\-to\-sign\-jose\-veras.html\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=MLB Trade Rumors\|language\=en\-US}} He pitched for the Dominican Republic national team in the [2013 World Baseball Classic](/wiki/2013_World_Baseball_Classic "2013 World Baseball Classic"), winning gold.{{Cite web \|last\=Brian T. \|first\=Smith \|date\=March 22, 2013 \|title\=Astros' Veras on D.R.'s WBC gold medal he'll cherish to 'last day of my life,' plantain power \|url\=https://blog.chron.com/ultimateastros/2013/03/22/astros\-veras\-on\-d\-r\-s\-wbc\-gold\-medal\-hell\-cherish\-to\-last\-day\-of\-my\-life\-plantain\-power/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=Houston Chronicle \|language\=en\-US}} Veras entered the season as the Astros closer.{{Cite web \|date\=March 15, 2013 \|title\=2013 Team Preview: Houston Astros \|url\=https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/2013\-team\-preview\-houston\-astros/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=CBSSports.com \|language\=en}} He pitched to a 2\.93 ERA with 44 strikeouts and 19 saves in 43 innings.
### Detroit Tigers
On July 29, 2013, Veras was traded to the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers "Detroit Tigers") in exchange for [Danry Vasquez](/wiki/Danry_Vasquez "Danry Vasquez") and a [player to be named later](/wiki/Player_to_be_named_later "Player to be named later").{{cite web\|last\=Farrell\|first\=Perry A.\|date\=July 30, 2013\|title\=Detroit Tigers land RP Jose Veras in trade with Astros; 'We're happy'\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801164616/http://www.freep.com/article/20130729/SPORTS02/307290053/detroit\-tigers\-jose\-veras\-trade\-houston\-astros\|url\=http://www.freep.com/article/20130729/SPORTS02/307290053/detroit\-tigers\-jose\-veras\-trade\-houston\-astros\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2013\|access\-date\=July 30, 2013\|website\=\[\[Detroit Free Press]]\|publisher\=}} The Tigers used him as a setup reliever for closer [Joaquin Benoit](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Benoit "Joaquín Benoit").{{Cite web \|last\=Fine \|first\=Larry \|date\=July 29, 2013 \|title\=Tigers get Astros closer Veras in deadline deal \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-baseball\-tigers\-veras\-idUSBRE96S10B20130729/ \|website\=Reuters}} He gave up the game winning grand slam home run to [Shane Victorino](/wiki/Shane_Victorino "Shane Victorino") of the Red Sox in Game 6 of the [2013 American League Championship Series](/wiki/2013_American_League_Championship_Series "2013 American League Championship Series").{{Cite web\|last\=MacMullan\|first\=Jackie\|date\=October 20, 2013\|title\=MacMullan: Victorino slam sends Sox to Series\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/9853944/shane\-victorino\-grand\-slam\-sends\-boston\-red\-sox\-2013\-world\-series\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|language\=en}} At the conclusion of the season, the Tigers declined Veras' club option for 2014\.{{Cite web\|date\=November 1, 2013\|title\=Tigers opt out on Veras, lose 2 to waivers\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/9913227/detroit\-tigers\-decline\-option\-jose\-veras\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|language\=en}}
### Chicago Cubs
On December 27, 2013, Veras agreed to a one\-year contract with the [Chicago Cubs](/wiki/Chicago_Cubs "Chicago Cubs") for the 2014 season worth $3\.85 million with a $5\.5 million club option for 2015 and performance bonuses.{{cite news\|last1\=Muskat\|first1\=Carrie\|date\=December 27, 2013\|title\=Cubs announce deal with righty closer Veras\|work\=\[\[Chicago Cubs]]\|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306070427/http://m.cubs.mlb.com/news/article/66213716\|access\-date\=June 11, 2014\|url\=http://m.cubs.mlb.com/news/article/66213716\|archive\-date\=March 6, 2016}}{{Cite web \|title\=MLB: Paul Blair, star CF for Yankees and Orioles, dies \|url\=https://www.poughkeepsiejournal.com/story/news/2013/12/28/mlb\-paul\-blair\-star\-cf\-for\-yankees\-and\-orioles\-dies/4228519/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=Poughkeepsie Journal \|language\=en\-US}}
Veras struggled early in the 2014 season, blowing two saves and allowing 10 earned runs in his first 6 appearances. Veras would then land on the [disabled list](/wiki/Disabled_list "Disabled list") with an oblique injury.{{Cite web \|date\=April 26, 2014 \|title\=Cubs place RHP Jose Veras on 15\-day disabled list, recall RHP Brian Schlitter from Triple\-A Iowa \|url\=https://www.mlb.com/news/cubs\-place\-rhp\-veras\-on\-15\-day\-dl\-recall\-rhp\-schlitter\-from\-triple\-a/c\-73475470 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=MLB.com \|language\=en}} He then lost the closer role to fellow Cubs reliever [Héctor Rondón](/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Rond%C3%B3n "Héctor Rondón").{{Cite web \|last\=Rogers \|first\=Jesse \|date\=May 3, 2014 \|title\=Hector Rondon makes ninth look easy \|url\=https://www.espn.com/blog/chicago/cubs/post/\_/id/23626/hector\-rondon\-makes\-ninth\-look\-easy \|access\-date\=January 1, 2024 \|website\=ESPN.com \|language\=en}} On June 3, he was designated for assignment.{{cite news\|date\=June 3, 2014\|title\=Cubs put C Castro on DL, cut reliever Veras\|work\=\[\[ESPN]]\|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]\|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\=mlb\&id\=11028286\|access\-date\=June 4, 2014}} On June 10, the Cubs officially released Veras.{{cite news\|last1\=Rogers\|first1\=Jesse\|date\=June 10, 2014\|title\=Cubs release Jose Veras\|work\=\[\[ESPN]]\|url\=https://www.espn.com/chicago/mlb/story/\_/id/11062467/chicago\-cubs\-release\-relief\-pitcher\-jose\-veras\|access\-date\=June 11, 2014}}
### Houston Astros (second stint)
On June 20, 2014, Veras signed a minor league contract with the [Houston Astros](/wiki/Houston_Astros "Houston Astros"){{Cite web \|date\=June 15, 2014 \|title\=Astros sign ex\-Cub closer Veras to minor league deal \|url\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/cubs/chi\-jose\-veras\-astros\-20140615\-story.html \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=Chicago Tribune}} He was called up to the major league squad on June 26\.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.kspr.com/sports/Astros\-call\-up\-RHP\-Veras/21051914\_26675140 \|title\=Astros call up RHP Veras \|newspaper\=\[\[KGHZ\|KSPR]] \|location\=Springfield, Missouri \|publisher\=Perkin Media \|date\=June 26, 2014 \|agency\=The Sports Xchange \|access\-date\=June 27, 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140628034050/http://www.kspr.com/sports/Astros\-call\-up\-RHP\-Veras/21051914\_26675140 \|archive\-date\=June 28, 2014 }} He pitched to a 3\.03 ERA with 37 strikeouts in 32\.2 innings. He became a free agent following the season.
### Atlanta Braves
On February 10, 2015, Veras signed a minor league deal with the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves "Atlanta Braves").{{cite news\|last1\=Bowman\|first1\=Mark\|date\=February 10, 2015\|title\=Braves give righty Veras Minor League deal\|work\=\[\[Atlanta Braves]]\|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212004325/http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/108915818/braves\-give\-veteran\-pitcher\-jose\-veras\-minor\-league\-deal\|access\-date\=February 11, 2015\|url\=http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/108915818/braves\-give\-veteran\-pitcher\-jose\-veras\-minor\-league\-deal\|archive\-date\=February 12, 2015}} Veras was released by the Braves on March 19, 2015\.{{cite news\|last1\=Bowman\|first1\=Mark\|date\=March 19, 2015\|title\=Veteran reliever Veras released by Braves\|work\=\[\[Atlanta Braves]]\|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321201928/http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/113487556/veteran\-reliever\-jose\-veras\-released\-by\-braves\|access\-date\=March 19, 2015\|url\=http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/113487556/veteran\-reliever\-jose\-veras\-released\-by\-braves\|archive\-date\=March 21, 2015}}{{cite news\|last1\=O'Brien\|first1\=David\|date\=March 19, 2015\|title\=Braves release veteran reliever Veras\|work\=\[\[Atlanta Journal\-Constitution]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321210722/http://www.ajc.com/news/sports/baseball/braves\-release\-veteran\-reliever\-veras/nkZjc/\|access\-date\=March 19, 2015\|url\=http://www.ajc.com/news/sports/baseball/braves\-release\-veteran\-reliever\-veras/nkZjc/\|archive\-date\=March 21, 2015}}
### Houston Astros (third stint)
On May 15, 2015, Veras signed a minor league deal to return to the Astros.{{cite news\|last1\=de Jesus Ortiz\|first1\=Jose\|date\=May 15, 2015\|title\=Astros ink Veras to Minor League deal\|work\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|publisher\=\|url\=http://blog.chron.com/ultimateastros/2015/05/15/astros\-ink\-reliever\-jose\-veras\-to\-minor\-league\-deal/\#31931101\=0\|access\-date\=May 15, 2015}} After allowing 12 earned runs on 23 hits in 19 innings at Triple\-A, he was released on July 30\.{{Cite web\|last\=Adams\|first\=Steve\|date\=August 7, 2015\|title\=Jose Veras Released By Astros\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2015/08/jose\-veras\-released\-astros.html\|access\-date\=July 21, 2021\|website\=MLB Trade Rumors\|language\=en\-US}}
### Bridgeport Bluefish
On June 20, 2016, Veras signed with the [Bridgeport Bluefish](/wiki/Bridgeport_Bluefish "Bridgeport Bluefish") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball "Atlantic League of Professional Baseball").{{Cite web \|title\=Bluefish Add Nine\-Year MLB Vet to Bullpen \|url\=http://www.atlanticleague.com/news/index.html?article\_id\=566 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2023 \|website\=www.atlanticleague.com \|language\=en}} This marks the first time Veras has ever pitched in independent baseball. He became a free agent after the 2016 season. In 26 games 23\.2 innings of relief he struggled going 2\-2 with a 5\.32 ERA with 25 strikeouts and 12 saves.
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"### Tampa Bay Devil Rays",
"Veras was signed as an undrafted [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent \"Free agent\") by the [Tampa Bay Devil Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays \"Tampa Bay Rays\") in 1998\\. He steadily rose through the Tampa Bay minor league system as a starter. He missed spring training in 2002 due to visa issues and briefly pitched in the [New York\\-Penn League](/wiki/New_York%E2%80%93Penn_League \"New York–Penn League\") to get himself ready for the season as a result.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rodriguez \\|first\\=Justin \\|date\\=June 20, 2002 \\|title\\=For Veras, a late start to season \\|url\\=https://www.recordonline.com/story/sports/2002/06/20/for\\-veras\\-late\\-start\\-to/51178817007/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=Times Herald\\-Record \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Veras was designated for assignment in 2002\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=ESPN.com: MLB \\- Saturday's Around the Horn \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/aroundthehorn/020831\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=www.espn.com}} He struggled when he reached Triple\\-A in 2003 and was moved to the bullpen, but still managed to lead the organization in strikeouts with 121\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Kepner \\|first\\=Tyler \\|date\\=June 12, 2008 \\|title\\=Yankees' Veras Making the Most of His Chance \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/12/sports/baseball/12pins.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} He was released after the 2004 season.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Jose Veras Trades and Transactions by Baseball Almanac \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-almanac.com/players/trades.php?p\\=verasjo01 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=www.baseball\\-almanac.com}}",
"### Texas Rangers",
"Veras signed with the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\") for the 2005 season and was converted into a full\\-time reliever.{{Cite web \\|last\\=AP \\|date\\=November 20, 2004 \\|title\\=Friday's Sports Transactions \\|url\\=https://lasvegassun.com/news/2004/nov/20/fridays\\-sports\\-transactions/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=Las Vegas Sun}} He pitched for their Triple\\-A affiliate, the [Oklahoma RedHawks](/wiki/Oklahoma_RedHawks \"Oklahoma RedHawks\"), that year. He became a free agent at the end of the season.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Newberg \\|first\\=Jamey \\|date\\=November 5, 2005 \\|title\\=The Newberg Report \\|url\\=http://www.newbergreport.com/article.asp?articleid\\=352 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=Jamey Newberg's Newberg Report \\|language\\=en}}",
"### New York Yankees",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Veras with the Yankees in 2006](/wiki/File:Sep906_188_Jos%C3%A9_Veras.jpg \"Sep906 188 José Veras.jpg\")\nVeras signed with the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees \"New York Yankees\") before the 2006 season.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Writer \\|first\\=Staff \\|title\\=Yankees call up Veras for bullpen \\|url\\=https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2006/06/19/yankees\\-call\\-up\\-veras\\-for\\-bullpen/31487101007/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=Gainesville Sun \\|language\\=en\\-US}} He was called up on August 5{{Cite web \\|last\\=King III \\|first\\=George A. \\|date\\=August 5, 2006 \\|title\\=BOMBERS SAY BYE TO BUBBA \\|url\\=https://nypost.com/2006/08/05/bombers\\-say\\-bye\\-to\\-bubba/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} and pitched to a 4\\.09 ERA in 11 innings. In March 2007, Veras underwent surgery to remove bone chips in his elbow.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Kepner \\|first\\=Tyler \\|date\\=March 25, 2007 \\|title\\=Yankees' Wang to Start Season on Disabled List \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/25/sports/baseball/25yanks.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} He missed most of the season but rehabbed and returned to MLB as a [September call up](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_rosters%23September_call-ups \"Major League Baseball rosters#September call-ups\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Finley \\|first\\=Bill \\|date\\=September 1, 2007 \\|title\\=Yankees Follow Up a Needed Sweep With a Big Loss \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/01/sports/baseball/01yankees.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} Veras was added to the Yankees roster for the [American League Division Series](/wiki/American_League_Division_Series \"American League Division Series\") against the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Guardians \"Cleveland Guardians\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Kepner \\|first\\=Tyler \\|date\\=October 4, 2007 \\|title\\=Yankees Found Balance Amid a Lefty Lineup \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/04/sports/baseball/04yankees.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"Veras was cut at the end of spring training in 2008\\. After being called up to the majors on May 3,{{Cite web \\|date\\=May 3, 2008 \\|title\\=Transactions \\|url\\=https://www.deseret.com/2008/5/3/20085928/transactions \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=Deseret News \\|language\\=en}} he emerged as a dominant force out of the bullpen. He was predominantly used in the 7th inning{{Cite web \\|last\\=Burke \\|first\\=Don \\|date\\=June 21, 2008 \\|title\\=So far, Veras makes good on bold prediction \\|url\\=https://www.nj.com/yankees/2008/06/so\\_far\\_veras\\_makes\\_good\\_on\\_bol.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=The Star Ledger \\|language\\=en}} and became the setup reliever after the Yankees traded [Kyle Farnsworth](/wiki/Kyle_Farnsworth \"Kyle Farnsworth\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Kepner \\|first\\=Tyler \\|date\\=July 31, 2008 \\|title\\=Yankees Obtain Rodríguez in Trade for Farnsworth \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/sports/baseball/31pudge.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} Veras made the opening day roster out of spring training in 2009\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=April 1, 2009 \\|title\\=Asbury Park Press \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/144509094/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=Newspapers.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}} After allowing 23 runs on 17 hits and 14 walks in 25 games, he was [designated for assignment](/wiki/Designated_for_assignment \"Designated for assignment\") by the Yankees on June 16, 2009\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|date\\=June 16, 2009\\|title\\=Bruney activated by Yankees, who cut Veras\\|url\\=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut\\-bba\\-yankees\\-bruney\\-061609\\-2009jun16\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[San Diego Union\\-Tribune]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Cleveland Indians",
"On June 24, 2009, Veras was acquired by the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians \"Cleveland Indians\") for cash considerations.{{Cite web\\|date\\=June 24, 2009\\|title\\=Indians acquire Veras from Yankees for cash\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id\\=4284492\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]\\|language\\=en}} On August 5, 2009, he was designated for assignment,{{Cite web\\|last\\=Schmid\\|first\\=Eddie\\|date\\=August 4, 2009\\|title\\=Indians DFA Jose Veras\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2009/08/indians\\-dfa\\-jose\\-veras.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=MLB Trade Rumors\\|language\\=en\\-US}} and on August 11, 2009, he was outrighted to Triple\\-A.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|title\\=Veras joins crowded Clippers bullpen \\|url\\=https://www.dispatch.com/story/news/2009/08/13/veras\\-joins\\-crowded\\-clippers\\-bullpen/23695426007/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=The Columbus Dispatch \\|language\\=en\\-US}} He was called up again in September toward the end of the 2009 season.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Crow\\|first\\=Chuck\\|date\\=September 1, 2009\\|title\\=Cleveland Indians promote Michael Brantley and Jose Veras from Class AAA Columbus\\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/tribe/2009/09/cleveland\\_indians\\_expected\\_to\\_1\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer]]\\|language\\=en}} After the season, Veras was non\\-tendered by the Indians, making him a free agent.{{Cite web \\|date\\=December 13, 2009 \\|title\\=Non\\-Tendered Players \\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2009/12/nontendered\\-players.html \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=MLB Trade Rumors \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Florida Marlins",
"On January 29, 2010, Veras signed a minor league contract with the [Florida Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins \"Miami Marlins\") with an invite to spring training{{Cite web\\|last\\=Dierkes\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=January 29, 2010\\|title\\=Marlins Sign Jose Veras\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2010/01/marlins\\-sign\\-jose\\-veras.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=MLB Trade Rumors\\|language\\=en\\-US}} and made the opening day roster.{{Cite web \\|last\\=craig \\|date\\=April 4, 2010 \\|title\\=Marlins roster set \\|url\\=https://www.fishstripes.com/2010/4/4/1404571/marlins\\-roster\\-set \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=Fish Stripes \\|language\\=en}} On April 14, after allowing eight runs in just four games, Veras was designated for assignment to bring up [Chris Leroux](/wiki/Chris_Leroux \"Chris Leroux\") to take his spot, he cleared waivers and was sent outright to Triple\\-A [New Orleans Zepyhrs](/wiki/New_Orleans_Zepyhrs \"New Orleans Zepyhrs\") on April 16\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Spencer\\|first\\=Clark\\|date\\=April 14, 2010\\|title\\=Jose Veras, Emilio Bonifacio Out; Chris Leroux, Brett Carroll In {{!}} Fish Bytes\\|url\\=https://miamiherald.typepad.com/fish\\_bytes/2010/04/jose\\-veras\\-emilio\\-bonifacio\\-out\\-chris\\-leroux\\-brett\\-carroll\\-in.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[Miami Herald]]}} He was called up on June 25, 2010\\. [James Houser](/wiki/James_Houser \"James Houser\") was designated for assignment to make room.{{Cite web\\|date\\=June 25, 2010\\|title\\=Marlins designate Houser, call up Veras\\|url\\=https://www.columbian.com/news/2010/jun/25/marlins\\-designate\\-houser\\-call\\-up\\-veras/\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Columbian]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}} He was non\\-tendered and became a free agent on December 2\\.",
"### Pittsburgh Pirates",
"On January 18, 2011, Veras signed a minor league contract with the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates \"Pittsburgh Pirates\") with an invitation to spring training worth $1 million plus incentives.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Rojas\\|first\\=Enrique\\|date\\=January 16, 2011\\|title\\=Acuerdo de liga menor entre Piratas y Veras\\|url\\=https://espndeportes.espn.com/noticias/nota?s\\=bei\\&id\\=1208264\\&type\\=story\\|access\\-date\\=January 16, 2011\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN Deportes]]\\|language\\=es}} He made the team out of spring training{{Cite web \\|last\\=Wilmoth \\|first\\=Charlie \\|date\\=March 30, 2011 \\|title\\=MLB Opening Day: Pittsburgh Pirates Roster \\|url\\=https://pittsburgh.sbnation.com/pittsburgh\\-pirates/2011/3/30/2081219/mlb\\-opening\\-day\\-pittsburgh\\-pirates\\-roster \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=SB Nation Pittsburgh \\|language\\=en}} and was a reliable late\\-inning reliever with a 3\\.80 ERA and 79 strikeouts over 79 appearances.",
"### Milwaukee Brewers",
"On December 13, 2011, Veras was traded to the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers \"Milwaukee Brewers\") in exchange for [Casey McGehee](/wiki/Casey_McGehee \"Casey McGehee\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Haudricourt\\|first\\=Tom\\|date\\=December 12, 2011\\|title\\=Brewers trade McGehee for Veras\\|url\\=http://www.jsonline.com/blogs/sports/135480828\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2011\\|work\\=\\[\\[Milwaukee Journal\\-Sentinel]]}} He made the club's opening day roster as a late\\-inning reliever.{{Cite web \\|date\\=April 4, 2012 \\|title\\=Brewers opening day roster \\|url\\=http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brewers/brewrost05\\-m84sl14\\-146211635\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Haudricourt \\|first1\\=Tom \\|last2\\=Rosiak \\|first2\\=Todd \\|date\\=March 20, 2012 \\|title\\=Veras settling into seventh\\-inning role \\|url\\=http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brewers/veras\\-settling\\-into\\-7thinning\\-role\\-for\\-brewers\\-rs4ljd9\\-143585116\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel \\|language\\=en}} In 2012, he pitched to a 3\\.63 ERA, while striking out 79 and walking 40 batters, in 67 innings across 72 games. He became a free agent following the season.",
"### Houston Astros",
"On December 21, 2012, Veras signed a one\\-year, $2 million contract with the [Houston Astros](/wiki/Houston_Astros \"Houston Astros\") with a 2014 option worth $3\\.25 million and a $150,000 buyout.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Nicholson\\-Smith\\|first\\=Ben\\|date\\=December 21, 2012\\|title\\=Astros Sign Jose Veras\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2012/12/astros\\-to\\-sign\\-jose\\-veras.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=MLB Trade Rumors\\|language\\=en\\-US}} He pitched for the Dominican Republic national team in the [2013 World Baseball Classic](/wiki/2013_World_Baseball_Classic \"2013 World Baseball Classic\"), winning gold.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Brian T. \\|first\\=Smith \\|date\\=March 22, 2013 \\|title\\=Astros' Veras on D.R.'s WBC gold medal he'll cherish to 'last day of my life,' plantain power \\|url\\=https://blog.chron.com/ultimateastros/2013/03/22/astros\\-veras\\-on\\-d\\-r\\-s\\-wbc\\-gold\\-medal\\-hell\\-cherish\\-to\\-last\\-day\\-of\\-my\\-life\\-plantain\\-power/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=Houston Chronicle \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Veras entered the season as the Astros closer.{{Cite web \\|date\\=March 15, 2013 \\|title\\=2013 Team Preview: Houston Astros \\|url\\=https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/2013\\-team\\-preview\\-houston\\-astros/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=CBSSports.com \\|language\\=en}} He pitched to a 2\\.93 ERA with 44 strikeouts and 19 saves in 43 innings.",
"### Detroit Tigers",
"On July 29, 2013, Veras was traded to the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers \"Detroit Tigers\") in exchange for [Danry Vasquez](/wiki/Danry_Vasquez \"Danry Vasquez\") and a [player to be named later](/wiki/Player_to_be_named_later \"Player to be named later\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Farrell\\|first\\=Perry A.\\|date\\=July 30, 2013\\|title\\=Detroit Tigers land RP Jose Veras in trade with Astros; 'We're happy'\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801164616/http://www.freep.com/article/20130729/SPORTS02/307290053/detroit\\-tigers\\-jose\\-veras\\-trade\\-houston\\-astros\\|url\\=http://www.freep.com/article/20130729/SPORTS02/307290053/detroit\\-tigers\\-jose\\-veras\\-trade\\-houston\\-astros\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=July 30, 2013\\|website\\=\\[\\[Detroit Free Press]]\\|publisher\\=}} The Tigers used him as a setup reliever for closer [Joaquin Benoit](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Benoit \"Joaquín Benoit\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fine \\|first\\=Larry \\|date\\=July 29, 2013 \\|title\\=Tigers get Astros closer Veras in deadline deal \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-baseball\\-tigers\\-veras\\-idUSBRE96S10B20130729/ \\|website\\=Reuters}} He gave up the game winning grand slam home run to [Shane Victorino](/wiki/Shane_Victorino \"Shane Victorino\") of the Red Sox in Game 6 of the [2013 American League Championship Series](/wiki/2013_American_League_Championship_Series \"2013 American League Championship Series\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=MacMullan\\|first\\=Jackie\\|date\\=October 20, 2013\\|title\\=MacMullan: Victorino slam sends Sox to Series\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/9853944/shane\\-victorino\\-grand\\-slam\\-sends\\-boston\\-red\\-sox\\-2013\\-world\\-series\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|language\\=en}} At the conclusion of the season, the Tigers declined Veras' club option for 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=November 1, 2013\\|title\\=Tigers opt out on Veras, lose 2 to waivers\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/9913227/detroit\\-tigers\\-decline\\-option\\-jose\\-veras\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Chicago Cubs",
"On December 27, 2013, Veras agreed to a one\\-year contract with the [Chicago Cubs](/wiki/Chicago_Cubs \"Chicago Cubs\") for the 2014 season worth $3\\.85 million with a $5\\.5 million club option for 2015 and performance bonuses.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Muskat\\|first1\\=Carrie\\|date\\=December 27, 2013\\|title\\=Cubs announce deal with righty closer Veras\\|work\\=\\[\\[Chicago Cubs]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306070427/http://m.cubs.mlb.com/news/article/66213716\\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2014\\|url\\=http://m.cubs.mlb.com/news/article/66213716\\|archive\\-date\\=March 6, 2016}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=MLB: Paul Blair, star CF for Yankees and Orioles, dies \\|url\\=https://www.poughkeepsiejournal.com/story/news/2013/12/28/mlb\\-paul\\-blair\\-star\\-cf\\-for\\-yankees\\-and\\-orioles\\-dies/4228519/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=Poughkeepsie Journal \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Veras struggled early in the 2014 season, blowing two saves and allowing 10 earned runs in his first 6 appearances. Veras would then land on the [disabled list](/wiki/Disabled_list \"Disabled list\") with an oblique injury.{{Cite web \\|date\\=April 26, 2014 \\|title\\=Cubs place RHP Jose Veras on 15\\-day disabled list, recall RHP Brian Schlitter from Triple\\-A Iowa \\|url\\=https://www.mlb.com/news/cubs\\-place\\-rhp\\-veras\\-on\\-15\\-day\\-dl\\-recall\\-rhp\\-schlitter\\-from\\-triple\\-a/c\\-73475470 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=MLB.com \\|language\\=en}} He then lost the closer role to fellow Cubs reliever [Héctor Rondón](/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Rond%C3%B3n \"Héctor Rondón\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rogers \\|first\\=Jesse \\|date\\=May 3, 2014 \\|title\\=Hector Rondon makes ninth look easy \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/blog/chicago/cubs/post/\\_/id/23626/hector\\-rondon\\-makes\\-ninth\\-look\\-easy \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2024 \\|website\\=ESPN.com \\|language\\=en}} On June 3, he was designated for assignment.{{cite news\\|date\\=June 3, 2014\\|title\\=Cubs put C Castro on DL, cut reliever Veras\\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\\=mlb\\&id\\=11028286\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2014}} On June 10, the Cubs officially released Veras.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Rogers\\|first1\\=Jesse\\|date\\=June 10, 2014\\|title\\=Cubs release Jose Veras\\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/chicago/mlb/story/\\_/id/11062467/chicago\\-cubs\\-release\\-relief\\-pitcher\\-jose\\-veras\\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2014}}",
"### Houston Astros (second stint)",
"On June 20, 2014, Veras signed a minor league contract with the [Houston Astros](/wiki/Houston_Astros \"Houston Astros\"){{Cite web \\|date\\=June 15, 2014 \\|title\\=Astros sign ex\\-Cub closer Veras to minor league deal \\|url\\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/cubs/chi\\-jose\\-veras\\-astros\\-20140615\\-story.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=Chicago Tribune}} He was called up to the major league squad on June 26\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.kspr.com/sports/Astros\\-call\\-up\\-RHP\\-Veras/21051914\\_26675140 \\|title\\=Astros call up RHP Veras \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[KGHZ\\|KSPR]] \\|location\\=Springfield, Missouri \\|publisher\\=Perkin Media \\|date\\=June 26, 2014 \\|agency\\=The Sports Xchange \\|access\\-date\\=June 27, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140628034050/http://www.kspr.com/sports/Astros\\-call\\-up\\-RHP\\-Veras/21051914\\_26675140 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 28, 2014 }} He pitched to a 3\\.03 ERA with 37 strikeouts in 32\\.2 innings. He became a free agent following the season.",
"### Atlanta Braves",
"On February 10, 2015, Veras signed a minor league deal with the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves \"Atlanta Braves\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Bowman\\|first1\\=Mark\\|date\\=February 10, 2015\\|title\\=Braves give righty Veras Minor League deal\\|work\\=\\[\\[Atlanta Braves]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212004325/http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/108915818/braves\\-give\\-veteran\\-pitcher\\-jose\\-veras\\-minor\\-league\\-deal\\|access\\-date\\=February 11, 2015\\|url\\=http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/108915818/braves\\-give\\-veteran\\-pitcher\\-jose\\-veras\\-minor\\-league\\-deal\\|archive\\-date\\=February 12, 2015}} Veras was released by the Braves on March 19, 2015\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Bowman\\|first1\\=Mark\\|date\\=March 19, 2015\\|title\\=Veteran reliever Veras released by Braves\\|work\\=\\[\\[Atlanta Braves]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321201928/http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/113487556/veteran\\-reliever\\-jose\\-veras\\-released\\-by\\-braves\\|access\\-date\\=March 19, 2015\\|url\\=http://m.braves.mlb.com/news/article/113487556/veteran\\-reliever\\-jose\\-veras\\-released\\-by\\-braves\\|archive\\-date\\=March 21, 2015}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=O'Brien\\|first1\\=David\\|date\\=March 19, 2015\\|title\\=Braves release veteran reliever Veras\\|work\\=\\[\\[Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321210722/http://www.ajc.com/news/sports/baseball/braves\\-release\\-veteran\\-reliever\\-veras/nkZjc/\\|access\\-date\\=March 19, 2015\\|url\\=http://www.ajc.com/news/sports/baseball/braves\\-release\\-veteran\\-reliever\\-veras/nkZjc/\\|archive\\-date\\=March 21, 2015}}",
"### Houston Astros (third stint)",
"On May 15, 2015, Veras signed a minor league deal to return to the Astros.{{cite news\\|last1\\=de Jesus Ortiz\\|first1\\=Jose\\|date\\=May 15, 2015\\|title\\=Astros ink Veras to Minor League deal\\|work\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|publisher\\=\\|url\\=http://blog.chron.com/ultimateastros/2015/05/15/astros\\-ink\\-reliever\\-jose\\-veras\\-to\\-minor\\-league\\-deal/\\#31931101\\=0\\|access\\-date\\=May 15, 2015}} After allowing 12 earned runs on 23 hits in 19 innings at Triple\\-A, he was released on July 30\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Adams\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=August 7, 2015\\|title\\=Jose Veras Released By Astros\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2015/08/jose\\-veras\\-released\\-astros.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|website\\=MLB Trade Rumors\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Bridgeport Bluefish",
"On June 20, 2016, Veras signed with the [Bridgeport Bluefish](/wiki/Bridgeport_Bluefish \"Bridgeport Bluefish\") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball \"Atlantic League of Professional Baseball\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Bluefish Add Nine\\-Year MLB Vet to Bullpen \\|url\\=http://www.atlanticleague.com/news/index.html?article\\_id\\=566 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2023 \\|website\\=www.atlanticleague.com \\|language\\=en}} This marks the first time Veras has ever pitched in independent baseball. He became a free agent after the 2016 season. In 26 games 23\\.2 innings of relief he struggled going 2\\-2 with a 5\\.32 ERA with 25 strikeouts and 12 saves.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In the spring of 1946, Ivan, an American soldier, returns home [psychologically](/wiki/Psychologically "Psychologically") scarred after spending some time in a Japanese prison camp during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). Once back in his small [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania") town, Ivan settles in, trying to put his life back together while living with his [stoic](/wiki/Stoicism "Stoicism") peasant father.
Shortly after his arrival, Ivan looks for his childhood sweetheart, Maria, a beautiful woman who is taking care of her old [deaf](/wiki/Deaf "Deaf") grandmother. However, he is disappointed to find Maria in the arms of Al, a captain. Ivan's father thinks that Maria is too good for his son, but perhaps good enough for himself. He pairs his son with Mrs. Wynic, a flirty neighbor. Ivan has [sex](/wiki/Sex "Sex") with her, but he is tormented by the traumas of the war. He tells her that it was his dreams about Maria that allowed him to survive the [prison camp](/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp "Prisoner-of-war camp").
Ivan is given a hero's welcoming by his community, formed by immigrants from [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia"). During the celebrations, when Al goes to dance with one of Maria's friends, Ivan grabs the opportunity to get close to her. Together they leave the party on his [motorbike](/wiki/Motorbike "Motorbike"), heading for their favorite spot of years ago. He gives her a pair of [earrings](/wiki/Earrings "Earrings") that he planted there for her, before leaving for the war. The next morning, Al is furious and breaks his relationship with Maria. Ivan's goal is fulfilled and he marries Maria, but his dream of a happiness shared with Maria is soon broken. Having adored Maria for so long from afar, now that they are together, Ivan is unable to consummate their marriage, disturbing their happiness.
Maria works as a nurse and would like to have children. Deeply in love with Ivan, she has to deal with her increasing sexual [frustration](/wiki/Frustration "Frustration"). On the advice of Clarence, a drifter singer passing by the town, Ivan reaffirms his sense of manliness with Mrs. Wynic, with whom he is not impotent. Maria discovers Ivan's [infidelity](/wiki/Infidelity "Infidelity"), and a terrible argument ensues between them. Al invites the couple to his engagement party to Maria's girlfriend. In the middle of this gathering, Al breaks off his engagement, realizing that he is still in love with Maria. Al and Ivan have a confrontation. Ivan offers to let Al have Maria, but to demonstrate his own love for Maria, he puts his hand in a burning [stove](/wiki/Stove "Stove"). Maria, very much in love with Ivan, tells Al that she does not love him.
Maria heals Ivan's hand, but the unhappiness between them increases further. She is pursued by Clarence who tries to seduce her, but she remains faithful to Ivan and resists Clarence's advances. One day, unexpectedly, Ivan leaves town by train. Moving to a new city, he starts work in a [slaughter house](/wiki/Slaughterhouse "Slaughterhouse"), making new friends.
Left to her own devices, Maria finally succumbs to Clarence's advances. Though she quickly rejects him, she is [pregnant](/wiki/Pregnancy "Pregnancy"). Maria searches out Ivan and tells him of her pregnancy and of the death of her grandmother, but Ivan is now cruelly [indifferent](/wiki/Apathy "Apathy") towards her.
Out with his friends one night, Ivan meets up with Clarence. Clarence does not remember him and tells the story of how he seduced Maria, and that she later refused to have anything further to do with him. Furious, Ivan hits a still incredulous Clarence.
Ivan, still tormented by [nightmares](/wiki/Nightmare "Nightmare") of his war experiences, is visited by his father, who tells Ivan that he is dying and that he must come back to Maria. Ivan returns home, admitting to Maria that he loves her baby. Now that Maria's chaste image has vanished, she and Ivan are able to make love for the first time.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In the spring of 1946, Ivan, an American soldier, returns home [psychologically](/wiki/Psychologically \"Psychologically\") scarred after spending some time in a Japanese prison camp during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). Once back in his small [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\") town, Ivan settles in, trying to put his life back together while living with his [stoic](/wiki/Stoicism \"Stoicism\") peasant father.",
"Shortly after his arrival, Ivan looks for his childhood sweetheart, Maria, a beautiful woman who is taking care of her old [deaf](/wiki/Deaf \"Deaf\") grandmother. However, he is disappointed to find Maria in the arms of Al, a captain. Ivan's father thinks that Maria is too good for his son, but perhaps good enough for himself. He pairs his son with Mrs. Wynic, a flirty neighbor. Ivan has [sex](/wiki/Sex \"Sex\") with her, but he is tormented by the traumas of the war. He tells her that it was his dreams about Maria that allowed him to survive the [prison camp](/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp \"Prisoner-of-war camp\").",
"Ivan is given a hero's welcoming by his community, formed by immigrants from [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\"). During the celebrations, when Al goes to dance with one of Maria's friends, Ivan grabs the opportunity to get close to her. Together they leave the party on his [motorbike](/wiki/Motorbike \"Motorbike\"), heading for their favorite spot of years ago. He gives her a pair of [earrings](/wiki/Earrings \"Earrings\") that he planted there for her, before leaving for the war. The next morning, Al is furious and breaks his relationship with Maria. Ivan's goal is fulfilled and he marries Maria, but his dream of a happiness shared with Maria is soon broken. Having adored Maria for so long from afar, now that they are together, Ivan is unable to consummate their marriage, disturbing their happiness.",
"Maria works as a nurse and would like to have children. Deeply in love with Ivan, she has to deal with her increasing sexual [frustration](/wiki/Frustration \"Frustration\"). On the advice of Clarence, a drifter singer passing by the town, Ivan reaffirms his sense of manliness with Mrs. Wynic, with whom he is not impotent. Maria discovers Ivan's [infidelity](/wiki/Infidelity \"Infidelity\"), and a terrible argument ensues between them. Al invites the couple to his engagement party to Maria's girlfriend. In the middle of this gathering, Al breaks off his engagement, realizing that he is still in love with Maria. Al and Ivan have a confrontation. Ivan offers to let Al have Maria, but to demonstrate his own love for Maria, he puts his hand in a burning [stove](/wiki/Stove \"Stove\"). Maria, very much in love with Ivan, tells Al that she does not love him.",
"Maria heals Ivan's hand, but the unhappiness between them increases further. She is pursued by Clarence who tries to seduce her, but she remains faithful to Ivan and resists Clarence's advances. One day, unexpectedly, Ivan leaves town by train. Moving to a new city, he starts work in a [slaughter house](/wiki/Slaughterhouse \"Slaughterhouse\"), making new friends.",
"Left to her own devices, Maria finally succumbs to Clarence's advances. Though she quickly rejects him, she is [pregnant](/wiki/Pregnancy \"Pregnancy\"). Maria searches out Ivan and tells him of her pregnancy and of the death of her grandmother, but Ivan is now cruelly [indifferent](/wiki/Apathy \"Apathy\") towards her.",
"Out with his friends one night, Ivan meets up with Clarence. Clarence does not remember him and tells the story of how he seduced Maria, and that she later refused to have anything further to do with him. Furious, Ivan hits a still incredulous Clarence.",
"Ivan, still tormented by [nightmares](/wiki/Nightmare \"Nightmare\") of his war experiences, is visited by his father, who tells Ivan that he is dying and that he must come back to Maria. Ivan returns home, admitting to Maria that he loves her baby. Now that Maria's chaste image has vanished, she and Ivan are able to make love for the first time.",
""
] |
Course
------
In its upper course, the wadi is formed by two arms of similar length and flow, which originate at approximately an altitude of {{Convert\|542\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}}; they border Al Jaroof to the east and west, respectively; and converge to the south of this town, defining the main channel, which initially follows the direction from northeast to southwest.
Two kilometers after the exit of Al Jaroof, past the place known as **Sidrat al Qorah**, Frontiers between Muscat and Trucial States \- Ref. FO 371/132797 PAGE 103 \& 111 \- 1958\- The National Archives, London, England \<<https://www.agda.ae/en/catalogue/tna/fo/371/132797/n/103>\> the Wadi Kub receives from the right the waters of one of its main tributaries: the **Wadi Al Yanhah**, which also originates, like the neighboring [Wadi Al Himriyyah](/wiki/Wadi_Al_Himriyyah "Wadi Al Himriyyah"),{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.alkhaleej.ae/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82/%E2%80%9C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A\-%D9%83%D9%88%D8%A8%E2%80%9D\-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A9\-%D9%81%D9%8A\-%D8%AD%D8%B6%D9%86\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%84\|title\="Wadi Kub" is an oasis in the embrace of the mountain{{!}} \|website\=www.alkhaleej.ae\|language\=ar\|access\-date\=2024\-05\-11}} on the southern slope of Jabal Huq ({{Convert\|629\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}}).
Very few meters after this confluence, the first of four dams on the Wadi Kub was built in 2013, intended to feed the [underground water resources](/wiki/Aquifer "Aquifer"), essential for the agriculture of the region, and to reduce damage due to possible floods, and which is identified with the name of *Wadi Kub Breaker (1\)*. Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure in UAE \- Federal Dams [https://admin.bayanat.ae/Home/DatasetInfo?dID\=lFWr8jmvtTwdCtQd7uDtLjOq\-EB6rfmemu\-OtkcDuCo\&langKey\=en](https://admin.bayanat.ae/Home/DatasetInfo?dID=lFWr8jmvtTwdCtQd7uDtLjOq-EB6rfmemu-OtkcDuCo&langKey=en)\>
[thumbnail\|Wadi Kub course map. Map from OpenStreetMap (CyclOSM)](/wiki/File:Wadi_Kub_-_Ras_al_Khaimah_-_UAE.jpg "Wadi Kub - Ras al Khaimah - UAE.jpg")
[thumbnail\|Wadi Kub Breaker (1\). One of the dams built in 2013 along the Wadi Kub channel](/wiki/File:Wadi_Kub._View_of_Wadi_Kub_Breaker_%281%29.jpg "Wadi Kub. View of Wadi Kub Breaker (1).jpg")
[thumbnail\|Wadi Kub Dam (2\) and road reinforcement, which also acts as a dam and expands the surface of the reservoir](/wiki/File:Wadi_Kub_Dam-_2-3.jpg "Wadi Kub Dam- 2-3.jpg")
In that same area, just {{Convert\|300\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} to the south, is the old village of **Kub / Qub**,[Mindat.org \- Kūb, Ra’s al Khaymah, United Arab Emirates](https://www.mindat.org/feature-291644.html) located at the mouth of the **Wadi Lil**, left tributary of the Wadi Kub.
Following the main course of the Wadi Kub, occupied for the most part by a wide dirt track called *Al Mesrah Road*, and already in the [Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah](/wiki/Emirate_of_Ras_Al_Khaimah "Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah"), is {{Convert\|800\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} later, the cultivation area of **Karas**,[Mindat.org \- Karās, Ra’s al Khaymah, United Arab Emirates](https://www.mindat.org/feature-291760.html) located next to the mouth of another important tributary to the left of the Kub, the **Wadi Suftah / Wādī Şafat**.[Mindat.org \- Wādī Suftah, Ra’s al Khaymah, United Arab Emirates](https://www.mindat.org/feature-290728.html)
At the end of its middle course, the Wadi Kub turns towards the northwest, and its most important dam with greatest capacity, the *Wadi Kub Dam (2\)*, was built in its channel, also in 2013, whose [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoir "Reservoir") has been expanded with road reinforcement and covers an area of {{Convert\|25,000\|m2\|ha\|abbr\=on}}.
In its lower course, with very little slope, the wadi runs the last kilometers to its mouth, bordering to the south and west a large urbanization, built on the alluvial plain formed by the Wadi Kub, the [Wadi Al Himriyyah](/wiki/Wadi_Al_Himriyyah "Wadi Al Himriyyah"), the Wadi Mu'taridah / Wadi Mutarid and others, which for greater confusion also adopted the name of Kub (like the homonymous village in the [Emirate of Fujairah](/wiki/Emirate_of_Fujairah "Emirate of Fujairah")).
Its course is almost exhausted, on the outskirts of the aforementioned urbanization, and before its mouth at the foot of Jabal Satif there is a fourth dam, the *Wadi Kub Dam (4\)*, which means that practically the last section of the wadi remains constantly dry.
|
[
"Course\n------",
"In its upper course, the wadi is formed by two arms of similar length and flow, which originate at approximately an altitude of {{Convert\\|542\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}; they border Al Jaroof to the east and west, respectively; and converge to the south of this town, defining the main channel, which initially follows the direction from northeast to southwest.",
"Two kilometers after the exit of Al Jaroof, past the place known as **Sidrat al Qorah**, Frontiers between Muscat and Trucial States \\- Ref. FO 371/132797 PAGE 103 \\& 111 \\- 1958\\- The National Archives, London, England \\<<https://www.agda.ae/en/catalogue/tna/fo/371/132797/n/103>\\> the Wadi Kub receives from the right the waters of one of its main tributaries: the **Wadi Al Yanhah**, which also originates, like the neighboring [Wadi Al Himriyyah](/wiki/Wadi_Al_Himriyyah \"Wadi Al Himriyyah\"),{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.alkhaleej.ae/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82/%E2%80%9C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A\\-%D9%83%D9%88%D8%A8%E2%80%9D\\-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A9\\-%D9%81%D9%8A\\-%D8%AD%D8%B6%D9%86\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%84\\|title\\=\"Wadi Kub\" is an oasis in the embrace of the mountain{{!}} \\|website\\=www.alkhaleej.ae\\|language\\=ar\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-11}} on the southern slope of Jabal Huq ({{Convert\\|629\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}).",
"Very few meters after this confluence, the first of four dams on the Wadi Kub was built in 2013, intended to feed the [underground water resources](/wiki/Aquifer \"Aquifer\"), essential for the agriculture of the region, and to reduce damage due to possible floods, and which is identified with the name of *Wadi Kub Breaker (1\\)*. Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure in UAE \\- Federal Dams [https://admin.bayanat.ae/Home/DatasetInfo?dID\\=lFWr8jmvtTwdCtQd7uDtLjOq\\-EB6rfmemu\\-OtkcDuCo\\&langKey\\=en](https://admin.bayanat.ae/Home/DatasetInfo?dID=lFWr8jmvtTwdCtQd7uDtLjOq-EB6rfmemu-OtkcDuCo&langKey=en)\\>",
"[thumbnail\\|Wadi Kub course map. Map from OpenStreetMap (CyclOSM)](/wiki/File:Wadi_Kub_-_Ras_al_Khaimah_-_UAE.jpg \"Wadi Kub - Ras al Khaimah - UAE.jpg\")",
"[thumbnail\\|Wadi Kub Breaker (1\\). One of the dams built in 2013 along the Wadi Kub channel](/wiki/File:Wadi_Kub._View_of_Wadi_Kub_Breaker_%281%29.jpg \"Wadi Kub. View of Wadi Kub Breaker (1).jpg\")",
"[thumbnail\\|Wadi Kub Dam (2\\) and road reinforcement, which also acts as a dam and expands the surface of the reservoir](/wiki/File:Wadi_Kub_Dam-_2-3.jpg \"Wadi Kub Dam- 2-3.jpg\")",
"In that same area, just {{Convert\\|300\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} to the south, is the old village of **Kub / Qub**,[Mindat.org \\- Kūb, Ra’s al Khaymah, United Arab Emirates](https://www.mindat.org/feature-291644.html) located at the mouth of the **Wadi Lil**, left tributary of the Wadi Kub.",
"Following the main course of the Wadi Kub, occupied for the most part by a wide dirt track called *Al Mesrah Road*, and already in the [Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah](/wiki/Emirate_of_Ras_Al_Khaimah \"Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah\"), is {{Convert\\|800\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} later, the cultivation area of **Karas**,[Mindat.org \\- Karās, Ra’s al Khaymah, United Arab Emirates](https://www.mindat.org/feature-291760.html) located next to the mouth of another important tributary to the left of the Kub, the **Wadi Suftah / Wādī Şafat**.[Mindat.org \\- Wādī Suftah, Ra’s al Khaymah, United Arab Emirates](https://www.mindat.org/feature-290728.html)",
"At the end of its middle course, the Wadi Kub turns towards the northwest, and its most important dam with greatest capacity, the *Wadi Kub Dam (2\\)*, was built in its channel, also in 2013, whose [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoir \"Reservoir\") has been expanded with road reinforcement and covers an area of {{Convert\\|25,000\\|m2\\|ha\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"In its lower course, with very little slope, the wadi runs the last kilometers to its mouth, bordering to the south and west a large urbanization, built on the alluvial plain formed by the Wadi Kub, the [Wadi Al Himriyyah](/wiki/Wadi_Al_Himriyyah \"Wadi Al Himriyyah\"), the Wadi Mu'taridah / Wadi Mutarid and others, which for greater confusion also adopted the name of Kub (like the homonymous village in the [Emirate of Fujairah](/wiki/Emirate_of_Fujairah \"Emirate of Fujairah\")).",
"Its course is almost exhausted, on the outskirts of the aforementioned urbanization, and before its mouth at the foot of Jabal Satif there is a fourth dam, the *Wadi Kub Dam (4\\)*, which means that practically the last section of the wadi remains constantly dry.",
""
] |
Career
------
Chenier grew up in the 1960s, in the housing projects of his native Port Arthur, Texas.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cvsmusic.org/2003\_04/Chenierartist\_bio.htm\|title\=C. J. Chenier biography\|website\=Cvsmusic.org\|access\-date\=March 5, 2021\|archive\-date\=July 25, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725213812/http://www.cvsmusic.org/2003\_04/Chenierartist\_bio.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} There, Chenier was aware of, but not exposed to his father's music as a young child, and had not heard the word Zydeco until later in his youth. Instead, Chenier developed tastes in the 1970s [soul](/wiki/Soul_%28music%29 "Soul (music)"), [funk](/wiki/Funk "Funk") and [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") music of [James Brown](/wiki/James_Brown "James Brown"), [Funkadelic](/wiki/Funkadelic "Funkadelic"), [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane "John Coltrane") and [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis").
Upon first listening to his father's music, Chenier thought all the songs sounded the same. But he eventually began to appreciate and master the zydeco style, as he later joined and then took over his father's band and career. The first instrument Chenier learned to play was the [saxophone](/wiki/Saxophone "Saxophone"). As a teenager in the early 1970s he played in black Top 40 bands in Port Arthur. By the mid 1970s Chenier went to college to study music.
In 1978 his father invited Chenier to play his saxophone with the Red Hot Louisiana Band, whose members also included his Uncle, Cleveland Chenier, on [washboard](/wiki/Washboard_%28musical_instrument%29 "Washboard (musical instrument)").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/klru/austin/artists/program268\.html\|title\=Doug Kershaw followed by Clifton Chenier, Austin City Limits, 1979\|website\=Pbs.org\|access\-date\=March 5, 2021}} By 1985, as his father was growing ill from diabetes, he invited Chenier to start playing the [accordion](/wiki/Accordion "Accordion") in a larger role with the band, and to open the shows.
In 1987, the year his father died, Chenier continued his own musical career where his father left off. He has since played such venues as the [New Orleans Jazz \& Heritage Festival](/wiki/New_Orleans_Jazz_%26_Heritage_Festival "New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival"), San Diego's [Street Scene](/wiki/Street_Scene_%28San_Diego_music_festival%29 "Street Scene (San Diego music festival)") and Milwaukee's [Summerfest](/wiki/Summerfest "Summerfest").
[Paul Simon](/wiki/Paul_Simon "Paul Simon") first heard Chenier in 1990, and featured him on the album *[The Rhythm of the Saints](/wiki/The_Rhythm_of_the_Saints "The Rhythm of the Saints")*, and that year's 'Born At The Right Time' tour. In 1992 Chenier played accordion on "Cajun Song", a track on the [Gin Blossoms](/wiki/Gin_Blossoms "Gin Blossoms")' album, *[New Miserable Experience](/wiki/New_Miserable_Experience "New Miserable Experience")*.
1992 saw Chenier featured with the Red Hot Louisiana Band on the [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service "Public Broadcasting Service") music television program *[Austin City Limits](/wiki/Austin_City_Limits "Austin City Limits")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/klru/austin/artists/program323\.html\|title\=Los Lobos followed by C.J. Chenier, Austin City Limits, 1992\|website\=Pbs.org\|access\-date\=March 5, 2021\|archive\-date\=October 15, 2007\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015002152/http://www.pbs.org/klru/austin/artists/program323\.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
By October 1994, Chenier was signed by Alligator. His debut release there was *[Too Much Fun](/wiki/Too_Much_Fun_%28album%29 "Too Much Fun (album)")*, named the next year as best zydeco album of 1995 by *[Living Blues](/wiki/Living_Blues "Living Blues")* magazine. In 1995, Chenier gained his widest audience to date with television appearances on the [Jon Stewart Show](/wiki/Jon_Stewart_Show "Jon Stewart Show") and [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN"). His 1996 appearance at the New Orleans Jazz \& Heritage Festival was featured in a segment by the [VH1](/wiki/VH1 "VH1") cable music television network, as well as by *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly "Entertainment Weekly")*.
Chenier and the band also appeared that year at the [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas"), 1996 [SxSW](/wiki/SxSW "SxSW") Music Conference, a special event for Alligator Records' 25th anniversary.
Chenier won the 1997 Living Blues' Critics' Poll Award and also an [AFIM](/wiki/AFIM "AFIM") Indie Award for best zydeco album, for his next release, *The Big Squeeze*. In 2001, Chenier played in front of 60,000 fans at the [Chicago Blues Festival](/wiki/Chicago_Blues_Festival "Chicago Blues Festival").
In 2001 his recording *Step It Up!* was released, recorded at Dockside Studios in [Maurice, Louisiana](/wiki/Maurice%2C_Louisiana "Maurice, Louisiana").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Chenier grew up in the 1960s, in the housing projects of his native Port Arthur, Texas.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cvsmusic.org/2003\\_04/Chenierartist\\_bio.htm\\|title\\=C. J. Chenier biography\\|website\\=Cvsmusic.org\\|access\\-date\\=March 5, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=July 25, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725213812/http://www.cvsmusic.org/2003\\_04/Chenierartist\\_bio.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} There, Chenier was aware of, but not exposed to his father's music as a young child, and had not heard the word Zydeco until later in his youth. Instead, Chenier developed tastes in the 1970s [soul](/wiki/Soul_%28music%29 \"Soul (music)\"), [funk](/wiki/Funk \"Funk\") and [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") music of [James Brown](/wiki/James_Brown \"James Brown\"), [Funkadelic](/wiki/Funkadelic \"Funkadelic\"), [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane \"John Coltrane\") and [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis \"Miles Davis\").",
"Upon first listening to his father's music, Chenier thought all the songs sounded the same. But he eventually began to appreciate and master the zydeco style, as he later joined and then took over his father's band and career. The first instrument Chenier learned to play was the [saxophone](/wiki/Saxophone \"Saxophone\"). As a teenager in the early 1970s he played in black Top 40 bands in Port Arthur. By the mid 1970s Chenier went to college to study music.",
"In 1978 his father invited Chenier to play his saxophone with the Red Hot Louisiana Band, whose members also included his Uncle, Cleveland Chenier, on [washboard](/wiki/Washboard_%28musical_instrument%29 \"Washboard (musical instrument)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/klru/austin/artists/program268\\.html\\|title\\=Doug Kershaw followed by Clifton Chenier, Austin City Limits, 1979\\|website\\=Pbs.org\\|access\\-date\\=March 5, 2021}} By 1985, as his father was growing ill from diabetes, he invited Chenier to start playing the [accordion](/wiki/Accordion \"Accordion\") in a larger role with the band, and to open the shows.",
"In 1987, the year his father died, Chenier continued his own musical career where his father left off. He has since played such venues as the [New Orleans Jazz \\& Heritage Festival](/wiki/New_Orleans_Jazz_%26_Heritage_Festival \"New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival\"), San Diego's [Street Scene](/wiki/Street_Scene_%28San_Diego_music_festival%29 \"Street Scene (San Diego music festival)\") and Milwaukee's [Summerfest](/wiki/Summerfest \"Summerfest\").",
"[Paul Simon](/wiki/Paul_Simon \"Paul Simon\") first heard Chenier in 1990, and featured him on the album *[The Rhythm of the Saints](/wiki/The_Rhythm_of_the_Saints \"The Rhythm of the Saints\")*, and that year's 'Born At The Right Time' tour. In 1992 Chenier played accordion on \"Cajun Song\", a track on the [Gin Blossoms](/wiki/Gin_Blossoms \"Gin Blossoms\")' album, *[New Miserable Experience](/wiki/New_Miserable_Experience \"New Miserable Experience\")*.",
"1992 saw Chenier featured with the Red Hot Louisiana Band on the [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service \"Public Broadcasting Service\") music television program *[Austin City Limits](/wiki/Austin_City_Limits \"Austin City Limits\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/klru/austin/artists/program323\\.html\\|title\\=Los Lobos followed by C.J. Chenier, Austin City Limits, 1992\\|website\\=Pbs.org\\|access\\-date\\=March 5, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=October 15, 2007\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015002152/http://www.pbs.org/klru/austin/artists/program323\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"By October 1994, Chenier was signed by Alligator. His debut release there was *[Too Much Fun](/wiki/Too_Much_Fun_%28album%29 \"Too Much Fun (album)\")*, named the next year as best zydeco album of 1995 by *[Living Blues](/wiki/Living_Blues \"Living Blues\")* magazine. In 1995, Chenier gained his widest audience to date with television appearances on the [Jon Stewart Show](/wiki/Jon_Stewart_Show \"Jon Stewart Show\") and [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\"). His 1996 appearance at the New Orleans Jazz \\& Heritage Festival was featured in a segment by the [VH1](/wiki/VH1 \"VH1\") cable music television network, as well as by *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly \"Entertainment Weekly\")*.",
"Chenier and the band also appeared that year at the [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\"), 1996 [SxSW](/wiki/SxSW \"SxSW\") Music Conference, a special event for Alligator Records' 25th anniversary.",
"Chenier won the 1997 Living Blues' Critics' Poll Award and also an [AFIM](/wiki/AFIM \"AFIM\") Indie Award for best zydeco album, for his next release, *The Big Squeeze*. In 2001, Chenier played in front of 60,000 fans at the [Chicago Blues Festival](/wiki/Chicago_Blues_Festival \"Chicago Blues Festival\").",
"In 2001 his recording *Step It Up!* was released, recorded at Dockside Studios in [Maurice, Louisiana](/wiki/Maurice%2C_Louisiana \"Maurice, Louisiana\").",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1910\= 135
\|1920\= 530
\|1930\= 289
\|1940\= 390
\|1950\= 409
\|1960\= 403
\|1970\= 329
\|1980\= 295
\|1990\= 237
\|2000\= 246
\|2010\= 229
\|2020\= 194
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2012\-07\-08}} of 2010, there were 229 people, 98 households, and 62 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1347\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 112 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|658\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\.01% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.44% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 3\.49% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 3\.06% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 5\.68% of the population.
There were 98 households, of which 27\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 14\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\.7% were non\-families. 33\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.34 and the average family size was 2\.89\.
The median age in the city was 42\.2 years. 22\.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 4\.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\.4% were from 25 to 44; 30\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 17% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 55\.0% male and 45\.0% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 246 people, 96 households, and 71 families living in the town. The population density was {{convert\|1,424\.3\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 112 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|648\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 93\.90% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 2\.44% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.41% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 3\.25% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.66% of the population.
There were 96 households, out of which 31\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\.0% were non\-families. 24\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.56 and the average family size was 2\.90\.
In the town the population was spread out, with 25\.2% under the age of 18, 9\.3% from 18 to 24, 26\.8% from 25 to 44, 21\.5% from 45 to 64, and 17\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 106\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104\.4 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $35,278, and the median income for a family was $36,875\. Males had a median income of $35,417 versus $20,000 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $12,524\. About 9\.8% of families and 12\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 7\.3% of those under the age of eighteen and 21\.7% of those 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1910\\= 135\n\\|1920\\= 530\n\\|1930\\= 289\n\\|1940\\= 390\n\\|1950\\= 409\n\\|1960\\= 403\n\\|1970\\= 329\n\\|1980\\= 295\n\\|1990\\= 237\n\\|2000\\= 246\n\\|2010\\= 229\n\\|2020\\= 194\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-08}} of 2010, there were 229 people, 98 households, and 62 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1347\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 112 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|658\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\\.01% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.44% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.49% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 3\\.06% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 5\\.68% of the population.",
"There were 98 households, of which 27\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42\\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 14\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\\.7% were non\\-families. 33\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.34 and the average family size was 2\\.89\\.",
"The median age in the city was 42\\.2 years. 22\\.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 4\\.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\\.4% were from 25 to 44; 30\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 17% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 55\\.0% male and 45\\.0% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 246 people, 96 households, and 71 families living in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|1,424\\.3\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 112 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|648\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 93\\.90% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.44% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.41% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.25% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.66% of the population.",
"There were 96 households, out of which 31\\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\\.0% were non\\-families. 24\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.56 and the average family size was 2\\.90\\.",
"In the town the population was spread out, with 25\\.2% under the age of 18, 9\\.3% from 18 to 24, 26\\.8% from 25 to 44, 21\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 17\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 106\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104\\.4 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $35,278, and the median income for a family was $36,875\\. Males had a median income of $35,417 versus $20,000 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $12,524\\. About 9\\.8% of families and 12\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 7\\.3% of those under the age of eighteen and 21\\.7% of those 65 or over.",
""
] |
Vocabulary
----------
### Categorisation and sources
These are the three general categories of words in modern Indo\-Aryan: *tadbhav*, *tatsam*, and loanwords.Snell, R. (2000\) *Teach Yourself Beginner's Hindi Script*. Hodder \& Stoughton. pp. 83–86\.
#### Tadbhav
*tadbhava*, "of the nature of that". Rajasthani is a modern Indo\-Aryan language descended from [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") (old Indo\-Aryan), and this category pertains exactly to that: words of Sanskritic origin that have demonstratively undergone change over the ages, ending up characteristic of modern Indo\-Aryan languages specifically as well as in general. Thus the "that" in "of the nature of that" refers to Sanskrit. They tend to be non\-technical, everyday, crucial words; part of the spoken vernacular. Below is a table of a few Rajasthani *tadbhav* words and their Old Indo\-Aryan sources:
|Old Indo\-Aryan
Rajasthani
Ref |
| --- |
| I | *ahám* | *hũ* | | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:773\.soas p. 44\. Entry 992\.]}} |
| falls, slips | *khasati* | *khisaknũ* | to move | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:229\.soas p. 203\. Entry 3856\.]}} |
| causes to move | *arpáyati* | *ārpanũ* | to give | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:552\.soas p. 30\. Entry 684\.]}} |
| attains to, obtains | *prāpnoti* | *pāvnũ* | | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:2005\.soas p. 502\. Entry 8947\.]}} |
| tiger | *vyāghrá* | *vāgh* | | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2126\.soas p. 706\. Entry 12193\.]}} |
| equal, alike, level | *samá* | *shamũ* | right, sound | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:541\.soas p. 762\. Entry 13173\.]}} |
| all | *sárva* | *sau/sāb* | | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:616\.soas p. 766\. Entry 13276\.]}} |
#### Tatsam
*tatsama*, "same as that". While Sanskrit eventually stopped being spoken vernacularly, in that it changed into [Middle Indo\-Aryan](/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages "Middle Indo-Aryan languages"), it was nonetheless standardised and retained as a literary and [liturgical language](/wiki/Liturgical_language "Liturgical language") for long after. This category consists of these borrowed words of (more or less) pure Sanskrit character. They serve to enrich Gujarati and modern Indo\-Aryan in its formal, technical, and religious vocabulary. They are recognisable by their Sanskrit inflections and markings; they are thus often treated as a separate grammatical category unto themselves.
| Tatsam | English | Rajasthani |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *lekhak* | writer | *lakākh* |
| *vijetā* | winner | *vijetā* |
| *vikǎsit* | developed | *vikǎsāt* |
| *jāgǎraṇ* | awakening | *jāgān* |
Many old tatsam words have changed their meanings or have had their meanings adopted for modern times. *prasāraṇ* means "spreading", but now it is used for "broadcasting". In addition to this are [neologisms](/wiki/Neologism "Neologism"), often being [calques](/wiki/Calque "Calque"). An example is *telephone*, which is [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language "Greek language") for "far talk", translated as *durbhāṣ*. Most people, though, just use *phon* and thus neo\-Sanskrit has varying degrees of acceptance.
So, while having unique *tadbhav* sets, modern IA languages have a common, higher *tatsam* pool. Also, *tatsam*s and their derived *tadbhav*s can also co\-exist in a language; sometimes of no consequence and at other times with differences in meaning:
|Tatsam
Tadbhav
| |
| *[karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma")* | Work—[Dharmic](/wiki/Dharmic "Dharmic") religious concept of works or deeds whose divine consequences are experienced in this life or the next. | *kām* | work \[without any religious connotations]. |
| *kṣetra* | Field—Abstract sense, such as a field of knowledge or activity; *khāngī kṣetra* → private sector. Physical sense, but of higher or special importance; *raṇǎkṣetra* → battlefield. | *khetar* | field \[in agricultural sense]. |
What remains are words of foreign origin (*videśī*), as well as words of local origin that cannot be pegged as belonging to any of the three prior categories (*deśaj*). The former consists mainly of [Persian](/wiki/Persian_language "Persian language"), [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic "Arabic"), and English, with trace elements of [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_language "Portuguese language") and [Turkish](/wiki/Turkic_languages "Turkic languages"). While the phenomenon of English [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") is relatively new, Perso\-Arabic has a longer history behind it. Both English and Perso\-Arabic influences are quite nationwide phenomena, in a way paralleling *tatsam* as a common vocabulary set or bank. What's more is how, beyond a transposition into general Indo\-Aryan, the Perso\-Arabic set has also been assimilated in a manner characteristic and relevant to the specific Indo\-Aryan language it is being used in, bringing to mind *tadbhav*.
#### Perso\-Arabic
{{See also\|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}}
India was ruled for many centuries by Persian\-speaking [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent "Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent"), amongst the most notable being the [Delhi Sultanate](/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate "Delhi Sultanate"), and the [Mughal dynasty](/wiki/Mughal_dynasty "Mughal dynasty"). As a consequence Indian languages were changed greatly, with the large scale entry of Persian and its many Arabic loans into the Gujarati lexicon. One fundamental adoption was Persian's conjunction "that", *ke*. Also, while *tatsam* or Sanskrit is etymologically continuous to Gujarati, it is essentially of a differing grammar (or language), and that in comparison while Perso\-Arabic is etymologically foreign, it has been in certain instances and to varying degrees grammatically indigenised. Owing to centuries of situation and the end of Persian education and power, (1\) Perso\-Arabic loans are quite unlikely to be thought of or known as loans, and (2\) more importantly, these loans have often been Rajasthani\-ized. *dāvo* – claim, *fāydo* – benefit, *natījo* – result, and *hamlo* – attack, all carry Gujarati's masculine gender marker, *o*. *khānũ* – compartment, has the neuter *ũ*. Aside from easy slotting with the auxiliary *karnũ*, a few words have made a complete transition of verbification: *kabūlnũ* – to admit (fault), *kharīdnũ* – to buy, *kharǎcnũ* – to spend (money), *gujarnũ* – to pass. The last three are definite part and parcel.
Below is a table displaying a number of these loans. Currently some of the etymologies are being referenced to an Urdu [dictionary](/wiki/Dictionary "Dictionary") so that Gujarati's singular masculine *o* corresponds to Urdu *ā*, neuter *ũ* groups into *ā* as Urdu has no neuter gender, and Urdu's Persian *z* is not upheld in Rajasthani and corresponds to *j* or *jh*. In contrast to modern Persian, the pronunciation of these loans into Rajasthani and other Indo\-Aryan languages, as well as that of Indian\-recited Persian, seems to be in line with Persian spoken in [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") and [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"), perhaps 500 years ago.{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=75}}
|Nouns
Adjectives
|{{abbr\|m\|masculine}}
{{abbr\|n\|neuter}}
{{abbr\|f\|feminine}}
| *fāydo* | gain, advantage, benefit | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.5:1:1202\.platts 776]}} | *khānũ* | compartment | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2080\.platts 486]}} | *kharīdī* | purchase(s), shopping | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2215\.platts 489]}} | *tājũ* | fresh | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:778\.platts 305]}} |
| *humlo* | attack | A | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=168}} | *makān* | house, building | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:147\.platts 1057]}} | *śardī* | [common cold](/wiki/Common_cold "Common cold") | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:2715\.platts 653]}} | *judũ* | different, separate | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=170}} |
| *dāvo* | claim | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:3371\.platts 519]}} | *nasīb* | luck | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:3404\.platts 1142]}} | *bāju* | side | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=160}} | *najīk* | near | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=177}} |
| *natījo* | result | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:2542\.platts 1123]}} | *śaher* | city | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=184}} | *cījh* | thing | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:1580\.platts 471]}} | *kharāb* | bad | A | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=172}} |
| *gusso* | anger | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.5:1:1046\.platts 771]}} | *medān* | plain | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=175}} | *jindgī* | life | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=169}} | *lāl* | red | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.6:1:2251\.platts 947]}} |
Lastly, Persian, being part of the [Indo\-Iranian language family](/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages "Indo-Iranian languages") as Sanskrit and Rajasthani are, met up in some instances with its cognates:{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=71}}
| Persian | Indo\-Aryan | English |
| *marăd* | *martya* | man, mortal |
| *[stān](/wiki/-stan "-stan")* | *sthān* | place, land |
| *ī* | *īya* | (adjectival suffix) |
| *band* | *bandh* | closed, fastened |
| *shamsheri* | *aarkshak* | policeman |
[Zoroastrian](/wiki/Zoroastrian "Zoroastrian") Persian [refugees](/wiki/Refugee "Refugee") known as [Parsis](/wiki/Parsi_people "Parsi people") also speak an accordingly Persianized form of Gujarati.{{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=15}}
#### English
With the end of Perso\-Arabic inflow, English became the current foreign source of new vocabulary. English had and continues to have a considerable influence over Indian languages. Loanwords include new innovations and concepts, first introduced directly through [British colonial rule](/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj"), and then streaming in on the basis of continued [Anglophone](/wiki/English_language "English language") dominance in the [Republic of India](/wiki/India "India"). Besides the category of new ideas is the category of English words that already have Rajasthani counterparts which end up replaced or existed alongside. The major driving force behind this latter category has to be the continuing role of English in modern India as a language of education, prestige, and mobility. In this way, Indian speech can be sprinkled with English words and expressions, even switches to whole sentences.{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|pp\=49–50}} *See [Hinglish](/wiki/Hinglish "Hinglish"), [Code\-switching](/wiki/Code-switching "Code-switching")*.
In matters of sound, English [alveolar](/wiki/Alveolar_consonant "Alveolar consonant") consonants map as [retroflexes](/wiki/Retroflex_consonant "Retroflex consonant") rather than [dentals](/wiki/Dental_consonant "Dental consonant"). Two new characters were created in Rajasthani to represent English /æ/'s and /ɔ/'s. Levels of Rajasthani\-ization in sound vary. Some words do not go far beyond this basic transpositional rule, and sound much like their English source, while others differ in ways, one of those ways being the carrying of dentals. *See [Indian English](/wiki/Indian_English "Indian English")*.
As English loanwords are a relatively new phenomenon, they adhere to English grammar, as *tatsam* words adhere to Sanskrit. That is not to say that the most basic changes have been underway: many English words are pluralised with Rajasthani *o* over English "s". Also, with Rajasthani having three genders, genderless English words must take one. Though often inexplicable, gender assignment may follow the same basis as it is expressed in Gujarati: vowel type, and the nature of word meaning.
| Loanword | English source |
| *bâṅk* | bank |
| *phon* | phone |
| *ṭebal* | table |
| *bas* | bus |
| *rabbar* | [rubber](/wiki/Eraser "Eraser") |
| *dôkṭar* | [doctor](/wiki/Physician "Physician") |
| *rasīd* | receipt |
| *helo halo hālo* | hello |
| *hôspiṭalaspitālispitāl* | hospital |
| *sṭeśan ṭeśan* | [railway station](/wiki/Railway_station "Railway station") |
| *sāykal* | bicycle |
| *rum* | room |
| *āis krīm* | ice cream |
| *esī* | [air conditioning](/wiki/Air_conditioning "Air conditioning") |
| *aṅkal*1 | uncle |
| *āṇṭī*1 | aunt |
| *pākīṭ* | [wallet](/wiki/Wallet "Wallet") |
| *kavar* | [envelope](/wiki/Envelope "Envelope") |
| *noṭ* | [banknote](/wiki/Banknote "Banknote") |
| *skūl* | school |
| *ṭyuśan* | [tuition](/wiki/Tuition_payments "Tuition payments") |
| *miniṭ* | minute |
| *ṭikiṭ* *ṭikaṭ* | ticket |
| *sleṭ* | slate |
| *hoṭal* | hotel |
| *pārṭī* | [political party](/wiki/Political_party "Political party") |
| *ṭren* | train |
| *kalekṭar* | [district collector](/wiki/District_collector "District collector") |
| *reḍīyo* | radio |
* 1 These English forms are often used (prominently by [NRIs](/wiki/Indian_diaspora "Indian diaspora")) for those family friends and elders that are not actually uncles and aunts but are of the age.
#### Portuguese
The smaller foothold the Portuguese had in wider India had linguistic effects due to extensive trade. Rajasthani took up a number of words, while elsewhere the influence was great enough to the extent that creole languages came to be (*see [Portuguese India](/wiki/Portuguese_India "Portuguese India"), [Portuguese\-based creole languages in India and Sri Lanka](/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages%23India_and_Sri_Lanka "Portuguese-based creole languages#India and Sri Lanka")*). Comparatively, the impact of Portuguese has been greater on coastal languages{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=49}} and their loans tend to be closer to the Portuguese originals.{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=73}} The source dialect of these loans imparts an earlier pronunciation of *ch* as an affricate instead of the current standard of {{IPA\|\[ʃ]}}.{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=75}}
| Rajasthani | Meaning | Portuguese |
| *istrī* | iron(ing) | estirar1 |
| *mistrī*2 | [carpenter](/wiki/Carpenter "Carpenter") | mestre3 |
| *sābu* | soap | sabão |
| *chābī* | key | chave |
| *tambāku* | [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco "Tobacco") | {{nat\|tabaco}} |
| *gobī* | [cabbage](/wiki/Cabbage "Cabbage") | couve |
| *kāju* | [cashew](/wiki/Cashew "Cashew") | cajú |
| *pāũ* | [bread](/wiki/Bread "Bread") | pão |
| *baṭāko* | [potato](/wiki/Potato "Potato") | batata |
| *anānas* | [pineapple](/wiki/Pineapple "Pineapple") | ananás |
| *pādrī* | [father](/wiki/The_Reverend%23Catholic_Churches "The Reverend#Catholic Churches") (in Catholicism) | padre |
| *aṅgrej(ī)* | English (not specifically the language) | inglês |
| *nātāl* | [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") | natal |
1 "To stretch (out)".
2 Common occupational [surname](/wiki/Surname "Surname").
3 "Master".
### Loans into English
*[Bungalow](/wiki/Bungalow "Bungalow")*—
{{cquote\|1676, from Gujarati ''bangalo'', from Hindi ''bangla'' "low, thatched house," lit. "Bengalese," used elliptically for "house in the Bengal style."\[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term\=bungalow Bungalow]. \[\[Online Etymology Dictionary]].}}
*[Coolie](/wiki/Coolie "Coolie")*—
{{cquote\|1598, "name given by Europeans to hired laborers in India and China," from Hindi ''quli'' "hired servant," probably from ''koli'', name of an aboriginal tribe or caste in Gujarat.\[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term\=coolie Coolie]. Online Etymology Dictionary.}}
*[Tank](/wiki/Tank_%28disambiguation%29 "Tank (disambiguation)")*—
{{cquote\|c.1616, "pool or lake for irrigation or drinking water," a word originally brought by the Portuguese from India, ult. from Gujarati ''tankh'' "cistern, underground reservoir for water," Marathi ''tanken'', or ''tanka'' "reservoir of water, tank." Perhaps from Skt. ''tadaga\-m'' "pond, lake pool," and reinforced in later sense of "large artificial container for liquid" (1690\) by Port. ''tanque'' "reservoir," from ''estancar'' "hold back a current of water," from V.L. \*''stanticare'' (see ''stanch''). But others say the Port. word is the source of the Indian ones.\[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term\=tank Tank]. Online Etymology Dictionary.}}
|
[
"Vocabulary\n----------",
"### Categorisation and sources",
"These are the three general categories of words in modern Indo\\-Aryan: *tadbhav*, *tatsam*, and loanwords.Snell, R. (2000\\) *Teach Yourself Beginner's Hindi Script*. Hodder \\& Stoughton. pp. 83–86\\.",
"#### Tadbhav",
"*tadbhava*, \"of the nature of that\". Rajasthani is a modern Indo\\-Aryan language descended from [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit \"Sanskrit\") (old Indo\\-Aryan), and this category pertains exactly to that: words of Sanskritic origin that have demonstratively undergone change over the ages, ending up characteristic of modern Indo\\-Aryan languages specifically as well as in general. Thus the \"that\" in \"of the nature of that\" refers to Sanskrit. They tend to be non\\-technical, everyday, crucial words; part of the spoken vernacular. Below is a table of a few Rajasthani *tadbhav* words and their Old Indo\\-Aryan sources:",
"",
"|Old Indo\\-Aryan",
"Rajasthani",
"Ref |\n| --- |\n| I | *ahám* | *hũ* | | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:773\\.soas p. 44\\. Entry 992\\.]}} |\n| falls, slips | *khasati* | *khisaknũ* | to move | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:229\\.soas p. 203\\. Entry 3856\\.]}} |\n| causes to move | *arpáyati* | *ārpanũ* | to give | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:552\\.soas p. 30\\. Entry 684\\.]}} |\n| attains to, obtains | *prāpnoti* | *pāvnũ* | | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:2005\\.soas p. 502\\. Entry 8947\\.]}} |\n| tiger | *vyāghrá* | *vāgh* | | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2126\\.soas p. 706\\. Entry 12193\\.]}} |\n| equal, alike, level | *samá* | *shamũ* | right, sound | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:541\\.soas p. 762\\. Entry 13173\\.]}} |\n| all | *sárva* | *sau/sāb* | | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:616\\.soas p. 766\\. Entry 13276\\.]}} |",
"#### Tatsam",
"*tatsama*, \"same as that\". While Sanskrit eventually stopped being spoken vernacularly, in that it changed into [Middle Indo\\-Aryan](/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages \"Middle Indo-Aryan languages\"), it was nonetheless standardised and retained as a literary and [liturgical language](/wiki/Liturgical_language \"Liturgical language\") for long after. This category consists of these borrowed words of (more or less) pure Sanskrit character. They serve to enrich Gujarati and modern Indo\\-Aryan in its formal, technical, and religious vocabulary. They are recognisable by their Sanskrit inflections and markings; they are thus often treated as a separate grammatical category unto themselves.",
"",
"| Tatsam | English | Rajasthani |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| *lekhak* | writer | *lakākh* |\n| *vijetā* | winner | *vijetā* |\n| *vikǎsit* | developed | *vikǎsāt* |\n| *jāgǎraṇ* | awakening | *jāgān* |",
"Many old tatsam words have changed their meanings or have had their meanings adopted for modern times. *prasāraṇ* means \"spreading\", but now it is used for \"broadcasting\". In addition to this are [neologisms](/wiki/Neologism \"Neologism\"), often being [calques](/wiki/Calque \"Calque\"). An example is *telephone*, which is [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language \"Greek language\") for \"far talk\", translated as *durbhāṣ*. Most people, though, just use *phon* and thus neo\\-Sanskrit has varying degrees of acceptance.",
"So, while having unique *tadbhav* sets, modern IA languages have a common, higher *tatsam* pool. Also, *tatsam*s and their derived *tadbhav*s can also co\\-exist in a language; sometimes of no consequence and at other times with differences in meaning:",
"|Tatsam",
"Tadbhav",
"| |\n| *[karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\")* | Work—[Dharmic](/wiki/Dharmic \"Dharmic\") religious concept of works or deeds whose divine consequences are experienced in this life or the next. | *kām* | work \\[without any religious connotations]. |\n| *kṣetra* | Field—Abstract sense, such as a field of knowledge or activity; *khāngī kṣetra* → private sector. Physical sense, but of higher or special importance; *raṇǎkṣetra* → battlefield. | *khetar* | field \\[in agricultural sense]. |",
"",
"What remains are words of foreign origin (*videśī*), as well as words of local origin that cannot be pegged as belonging to any of the three prior categories (*deśaj*). The former consists mainly of [Persian](/wiki/Persian_language \"Persian language\"), [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic \"Arabic\"), and English, with trace elements of [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_language \"Portuguese language\") and [Turkish](/wiki/Turkic_languages \"Turkic languages\"). While the phenomenon of English [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword \"Loanword\") is relatively new, Perso\\-Arabic has a longer history behind it. Both English and Perso\\-Arabic influences are quite nationwide phenomena, in a way paralleling *tatsam* as a common vocabulary set or bank. What's more is how, beyond a transposition into general Indo\\-Aryan, the Perso\\-Arabic set has also been assimilated in a manner characteristic and relevant to the specific Indo\\-Aryan language it is being used in, bringing to mind *tadbhav*.",
"#### Perso\\-Arabic",
"{{See also\\|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}}\nIndia was ruled for many centuries by Persian\\-speaking [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent \"Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent\"), amongst the most notable being the [Delhi Sultanate](/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate \"Delhi Sultanate\"), and the [Mughal dynasty](/wiki/Mughal_dynasty \"Mughal dynasty\"). As a consequence Indian languages were changed greatly, with the large scale entry of Persian and its many Arabic loans into the Gujarati lexicon. One fundamental adoption was Persian's conjunction \"that\", *ke*. Also, while *tatsam* or Sanskrit is etymologically continuous to Gujarati, it is essentially of a differing grammar (or language), and that in comparison while Perso\\-Arabic is etymologically foreign, it has been in certain instances and to varying degrees grammatically indigenised. Owing to centuries of situation and the end of Persian education and power, (1\\) Perso\\-Arabic loans are quite unlikely to be thought of or known as loans, and (2\\) more importantly, these loans have often been Rajasthani\\-ized. *dāvo* – claim, *fāydo* – benefit, *natījo* – result, and *hamlo* – attack, all carry Gujarati's masculine gender marker, *o*. *khānũ* – compartment, has the neuter *ũ*. Aside from easy slotting with the auxiliary *karnũ*, a few words have made a complete transition of verbification: *kabūlnũ* – to admit (fault), *kharīdnũ* – to buy, *kharǎcnũ* – to spend (money), *gujarnũ* – to pass. The last three are definite part and parcel.",
"Below is a table displaying a number of these loans. Currently some of the etymologies are being referenced to an Urdu [dictionary](/wiki/Dictionary \"Dictionary\") so that Gujarati's singular masculine *o* corresponds to Urdu *ā*, neuter *ũ* groups into *ā* as Urdu has no neuter gender, and Urdu's Persian *z* is not upheld in Rajasthani and corresponds to *j* or *jh*. In contrast to modern Persian, the pronunciation of these loans into Rajasthani and other Indo\\-Aryan languages, as well as that of Indian\\-recited Persian, seems to be in line with Persian spoken in [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") and [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"), perhaps 500 years ago.{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=75}}",
"",
"|Nouns",
"Adjectives",
"|{{abbr\\|m\\|masculine}}",
"{{abbr\\|n\\|neuter}}",
"{{abbr\\|f\\|feminine}}",
"| *fāydo* | gain, advantage, benefit | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.5:1:1202\\.platts 776]}} | *khānũ* | compartment | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2080\\.platts 486]}} | *kharīdī* | purchase(s), shopping | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2215\\.platts 489]}} | *tājũ* | fresh | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:778\\.platts 305]}} |\n| *humlo* | attack | A | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=168}} | *makān* | house, building | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:147\\.platts 1057]}} | *śardī* | [common cold](/wiki/Common_cold \"Common cold\") | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:2715\\.platts 653]}} | *judũ* | different, separate | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=170}} |\n| *dāvo* | claim | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:3371\\.platts 519]}} | *nasīb* | luck | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:3404\\.platts 1142]}} | *bāju* | side | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=160}} | *najīk* | near | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=177}} |\n| *natījo* | result | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:2542\\.platts 1123]}} | *śaher* | city | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=184}} | *cījh* | thing | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:1580\\.platts 471]}} | *kharāb* | bad | A | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=172}} |\n| *gusso* | anger | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.5:1:1046\\.platts 771]}} | *medān* | plain | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=175}} | *jindgī* | life | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=169}} | *lāl* | red | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.6:1:2251\\.platts 947]}} |",
"Lastly, Persian, being part of the [Indo\\-Iranian language family](/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages \"Indo-Iranian languages\") as Sanskrit and Rajasthani are, met up in some instances with its cognates:{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=71}}",
"",
"| Persian | Indo\\-Aryan | English |",
"| *marăd* | *martya* | man, mortal |\n| *[stān](/wiki/-stan \"-stan\")* | *sthān* | place, land |\n| *ī* | *īya* | (adjectival suffix) |\n| *band* | *bandh* | closed, fastened |\n| *shamsheri* | *aarkshak* | policeman |",
"[Zoroastrian](/wiki/Zoroastrian \"Zoroastrian\") Persian [refugees](/wiki/Refugee \"Refugee\") known as [Parsis](/wiki/Parsi_people \"Parsi people\") also speak an accordingly Persianized form of Gujarati.{{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=15}}",
"#### English",
"With the end of Perso\\-Arabic inflow, English became the current foreign source of new vocabulary. English had and continues to have a considerable influence over Indian languages. Loanwords include new innovations and concepts, first introduced directly through [British colonial rule](/wiki/British_Raj \"British Raj\"), and then streaming in on the basis of continued [Anglophone](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") dominance in the [Republic of India](/wiki/India \"India\"). Besides the category of new ideas is the category of English words that already have Rajasthani counterparts which end up replaced or existed alongside. The major driving force behind this latter category has to be the continuing role of English in modern India as a language of education, prestige, and mobility. In this way, Indian speech can be sprinkled with English words and expressions, even switches to whole sentences.{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|pp\\=49–50}} *See [Hinglish](/wiki/Hinglish \"Hinglish\"), [Code\\-switching](/wiki/Code-switching \"Code-switching\")*.",
"In matters of sound, English [alveolar](/wiki/Alveolar_consonant \"Alveolar consonant\") consonants map as [retroflexes](/wiki/Retroflex_consonant \"Retroflex consonant\") rather than [dentals](/wiki/Dental_consonant \"Dental consonant\"). Two new characters were created in Rajasthani to represent English /æ/'s and /ɔ/'s. Levels of Rajasthani\\-ization in sound vary. Some words do not go far beyond this basic transpositional rule, and sound much like their English source, while others differ in ways, one of those ways being the carrying of dentals. *See [Indian English](/wiki/Indian_English \"Indian English\")*.",
"As English loanwords are a relatively new phenomenon, they adhere to English grammar, as *tatsam* words adhere to Sanskrit. That is not to say that the most basic changes have been underway: many English words are pluralised with Rajasthani *o* over English \"s\". Also, with Rajasthani having three genders, genderless English words must take one. Though often inexplicable, gender assignment may follow the same basis as it is expressed in Gujarati: vowel type, and the nature of word meaning.",
"",
"| Loanword | English source |",
"| *bâṅk* | bank |\n| *phon* | phone |\n| *ṭebal* | table |\n| *bas* | bus |\n| *rabbar* | [rubber](/wiki/Eraser \"Eraser\") |\n| *dôkṭar* | [doctor](/wiki/Physician \"Physician\") |\n| *rasīd* | receipt |\n| *helo halo hālo* | hello |\n| *hôspiṭalaspitālispitāl* | hospital |\n| *sṭeśan ṭeśan* | [railway station](/wiki/Railway_station \"Railway station\") |\n| *sāykal* | bicycle |\n| *rum* | room |\n| *āis krīm* | ice cream |\n| *esī* | [air conditioning](/wiki/Air_conditioning \"Air conditioning\") |\n| *aṅkal*1 | uncle |\n| *āṇṭī*1 | aunt |\n| *pākīṭ* | [wallet](/wiki/Wallet \"Wallet\") |\n| *kavar* | [envelope](/wiki/Envelope \"Envelope\") |\n| *noṭ* | [banknote](/wiki/Banknote \"Banknote\") |\n| *skūl* | school |\n| *ṭyuśan* | [tuition](/wiki/Tuition_payments \"Tuition payments\") |\n| *miniṭ* | minute |\n| *ṭikiṭ* *ṭikaṭ* | ticket |\n| *sleṭ* | slate |\n| *hoṭal* | hotel |\n| *pārṭī* | [political party](/wiki/Political_party \"Political party\") |\n| *ṭren* | train |\n| *kalekṭar* | [district collector](/wiki/District_collector \"District collector\") |\n| *reḍīyo* | radio |",
"* 1 These English forms are often used (prominently by [NRIs](/wiki/Indian_diaspora \"Indian diaspora\")) for those family friends and elders that are not actually uncles and aunts but are of the age.",
"#### Portuguese",
"The smaller foothold the Portuguese had in wider India had linguistic effects due to extensive trade. Rajasthani took up a number of words, while elsewhere the influence was great enough to the extent that creole languages came to be (*see [Portuguese India](/wiki/Portuguese_India \"Portuguese India\"), [Portuguese\\-based creole languages in India and Sri Lanka](/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages%23India_and_Sri_Lanka \"Portuguese-based creole languages#India and Sri Lanka\")*). Comparatively, the impact of Portuguese has been greater on coastal languages{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=49}} and their loans tend to be closer to the Portuguese originals.{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=73}} The source dialect of these loans imparts an earlier pronunciation of *ch* as an affricate instead of the current standard of {{IPA\\|\\[ʃ]}}.{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=75}}",
"",
"| Rajasthani | Meaning | Portuguese |",
"| *istrī* | iron(ing) | estirar1 |\n| *mistrī*2 | [carpenter](/wiki/Carpenter \"Carpenter\") | mestre3 |\n| *sābu* | soap | sabão |\n| *chābī* | key | chave |\n| *tambāku* | [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco \"Tobacco\") | {{nat\\|tabaco}} |\n| *gobī* | [cabbage](/wiki/Cabbage \"Cabbage\") | couve |\n| *kāju* | [cashew](/wiki/Cashew \"Cashew\") | cajú |\n| *pāũ* | [bread](/wiki/Bread \"Bread\") | pão |\n| *baṭāko* | [potato](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\") | batata |\n| *anānas* | [pineapple](/wiki/Pineapple \"Pineapple\") | ananás |\n| *pādrī* | [father](/wiki/The_Reverend%23Catholic_Churches \"The Reverend#Catholic Churches\") (in Catholicism) | padre |\n| *aṅgrej(ī)* | English (not specifically the language) | inglês |\n| *nātāl* | [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") | natal |",
"1 \"To stretch (out)\".\n2 Common occupational [surname](/wiki/Surname \"Surname\").\n3 \"Master\".\n### Loans into English",
"*[Bungalow](/wiki/Bungalow \"Bungalow\")*—\n{{cquote\\|1676, from Gujarati ''bangalo'', from Hindi ''bangla'' \"low, thatched house,\" lit. \"Bengalese,\" used elliptically for \"house in the Bengal style.\"\\[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term\\=bungalow Bungalow]. \\[\\[Online Etymology Dictionary]].}}",
"*[Coolie](/wiki/Coolie \"Coolie\")*—\n{{cquote\\|1598, \"name given by Europeans to hired laborers in India and China,\" from Hindi ''quli'' \"hired servant,\" probably from ''koli'', name of an aboriginal tribe or caste in Gujarat.\\[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term\\=coolie Coolie]. Online Etymology Dictionary.}}",
"*[Tank](/wiki/Tank_%28disambiguation%29 \"Tank (disambiguation)\")*—\n{{cquote\\|c.1616, \"pool or lake for irrigation or drinking water,\" a word originally brought by the Portuguese from India, ult. from Gujarati ''tankh'' \"cistern, underground reservoir for water,\" Marathi ''tanken'', or ''tanka'' \"reservoir of water, tank.\" Perhaps from Skt. ''tadaga\\-m'' \"pond, lake pool,\" and reinforced in later sense of \"large artificial container for liquid\" (1690\\) by Port. ''tanque'' \"reservoir,\" from ''estancar'' \"hold back a current of water,\" from V.L. \\*''stanticare'' (see ''stanch''). But others say the Port. word is the source of the Indian ones.\\[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term\\=tank Tank]. Online Etymology Dictionary.}}",
""
] |
### Categorisation and sources
These are the three general categories of words in modern Indo\-Aryan: *tadbhav*, *tatsam*, and loanwords.Snell, R. (2000\) *Teach Yourself Beginner's Hindi Script*. Hodder \& Stoughton. pp. 83–86\.
#### Tadbhav
*tadbhava*, "of the nature of that". Rajasthani is a modern Indo\-Aryan language descended from [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") (old Indo\-Aryan), and this category pertains exactly to that: words of Sanskritic origin that have demonstratively undergone change over the ages, ending up characteristic of modern Indo\-Aryan languages specifically as well as in general. Thus the "that" in "of the nature of that" refers to Sanskrit. They tend to be non\-technical, everyday, crucial words; part of the spoken vernacular. Below is a table of a few Rajasthani *tadbhav* words and their Old Indo\-Aryan sources:
|Old Indo\-Aryan
Rajasthani
Ref |
| --- |
| I | *ahám* | *hũ* | | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:773\.soas p. 44\. Entry 992\.]}} |
| falls, slips | *khasati* | *khisaknũ* | to move | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:229\.soas p. 203\. Entry 3856\.]}} |
| causes to move | *arpáyati* | *ārpanũ* | to give | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:552\.soas p. 30\. Entry 684\.]}} |
| attains to, obtains | *prāpnoti* | *pāvnũ* | | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:2005\.soas p. 502\. Entry 8947\.]}} |
| tiger | *vyāghrá* | *vāgh* | | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2126\.soas p. 706\. Entry 12193\.]}} |
| equal, alike, level | *samá* | *shamũ* | right, sound | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:541\.soas p. 762\. Entry 13173\.]}} |
| all | *sárva* | *sau/sāb* | | {{sfnp\|Turner\|1966\|loc\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:616\.soas p. 766\. Entry 13276\.]}} |
#### Tatsam
*tatsama*, "same as that". While Sanskrit eventually stopped being spoken vernacularly, in that it changed into [Middle Indo\-Aryan](/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages "Middle Indo-Aryan languages"), it was nonetheless standardised and retained as a literary and [liturgical language](/wiki/Liturgical_language "Liturgical language") for long after. This category consists of these borrowed words of (more or less) pure Sanskrit character. They serve to enrich Gujarati and modern Indo\-Aryan in its formal, technical, and religious vocabulary. They are recognisable by their Sanskrit inflections and markings; they are thus often treated as a separate grammatical category unto themselves.
| Tatsam | English | Rajasthani |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *lekhak* | writer | *lakākh* |
| *vijetā* | winner | *vijetā* |
| *vikǎsit* | developed | *vikǎsāt* |
| *jāgǎraṇ* | awakening | *jāgān* |
Many old tatsam words have changed their meanings or have had their meanings adopted for modern times. *prasāraṇ* means "spreading", but now it is used for "broadcasting". In addition to this are [neologisms](/wiki/Neologism "Neologism"), often being [calques](/wiki/Calque "Calque"). An example is *telephone*, which is [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language "Greek language") for "far talk", translated as *durbhāṣ*. Most people, though, just use *phon* and thus neo\-Sanskrit has varying degrees of acceptance.
So, while having unique *tadbhav* sets, modern IA languages have a common, higher *tatsam* pool. Also, *tatsam*s and their derived *tadbhav*s can also co\-exist in a language; sometimes of no consequence and at other times with differences in meaning:
|Tatsam
Tadbhav
| |
| *[karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma")* | Work—[Dharmic](/wiki/Dharmic "Dharmic") religious concept of works or deeds whose divine consequences are experienced in this life or the next. | *kām* | work \[without any religious connotations]. |
| *kṣetra* | Field—Abstract sense, such as a field of knowledge or activity; *khāngī kṣetra* → private sector. Physical sense, but of higher or special importance; *raṇǎkṣetra* → battlefield. | *khetar* | field \[in agricultural sense]. |
What remains are words of foreign origin (*videśī*), as well as words of local origin that cannot be pegged as belonging to any of the three prior categories (*deśaj*). The former consists mainly of [Persian](/wiki/Persian_language "Persian language"), [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic "Arabic"), and English, with trace elements of [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_language "Portuguese language") and [Turkish](/wiki/Turkic_languages "Turkic languages"). While the phenomenon of English [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") is relatively new, Perso\-Arabic has a longer history behind it. Both English and Perso\-Arabic influences are quite nationwide phenomena, in a way paralleling *tatsam* as a common vocabulary set or bank. What's more is how, beyond a transposition into general Indo\-Aryan, the Perso\-Arabic set has also been assimilated in a manner characteristic and relevant to the specific Indo\-Aryan language it is being used in, bringing to mind *tadbhav*.
#### Perso\-Arabic
{{See also\|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}}
India was ruled for many centuries by Persian\-speaking [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent "Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent"), amongst the most notable being the [Delhi Sultanate](/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate "Delhi Sultanate"), and the [Mughal dynasty](/wiki/Mughal_dynasty "Mughal dynasty"). As a consequence Indian languages were changed greatly, with the large scale entry of Persian and its many Arabic loans into the Gujarati lexicon. One fundamental adoption was Persian's conjunction "that", *ke*. Also, while *tatsam* or Sanskrit is etymologically continuous to Gujarati, it is essentially of a differing grammar (or language), and that in comparison while Perso\-Arabic is etymologically foreign, it has been in certain instances and to varying degrees grammatically indigenised. Owing to centuries of situation and the end of Persian education and power, (1\) Perso\-Arabic loans are quite unlikely to be thought of or known as loans, and (2\) more importantly, these loans have often been Rajasthani\-ized. *dāvo* – claim, *fāydo* – benefit, *natījo* – result, and *hamlo* – attack, all carry Gujarati's masculine gender marker, *o*. *khānũ* – compartment, has the neuter *ũ*. Aside from easy slotting with the auxiliary *karnũ*, a few words have made a complete transition of verbification: *kabūlnũ* – to admit (fault), *kharīdnũ* – to buy, *kharǎcnũ* – to spend (money), *gujarnũ* – to pass. The last three are definite part and parcel.
Below is a table displaying a number of these loans. Currently some of the etymologies are being referenced to an Urdu [dictionary](/wiki/Dictionary "Dictionary") so that Gujarati's singular masculine *o* corresponds to Urdu *ā*, neuter *ũ* groups into *ā* as Urdu has no neuter gender, and Urdu's Persian *z* is not upheld in Rajasthani and corresponds to *j* or *jh*. In contrast to modern Persian, the pronunciation of these loans into Rajasthani and other Indo\-Aryan languages, as well as that of Indian\-recited Persian, seems to be in line with Persian spoken in [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") and [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"), perhaps 500 years ago.{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=75}}
|Nouns
Adjectives
|{{abbr\|m\|masculine}}
{{abbr\|n\|neuter}}
{{abbr\|f\|feminine}}
| *fāydo* | gain, advantage, benefit | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.5:1:1202\.platts 776]}} | *khānũ* | compartment | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2080\.platts 486]}} | *kharīdī* | purchase(s), shopping | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2215\.platts 489]}} | *tājũ* | fresh | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:778\.platts 305]}} |
| *humlo* | attack | A | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=168}} | *makān* | house, building | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:147\.platts 1057]}} | *śardī* | [common cold](/wiki/Common_cold "Common cold") | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:2715\.platts 653]}} | *judũ* | different, separate | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=170}} |
| *dāvo* | claim | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:3371\.platts 519]}} | *nasīb* | luck | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:3404\.platts 1142]}} | *bāju* | side | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=160}} | *najīk* | near | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=177}} |
| *natījo* | result | A | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:2542\.platts 1123]}} | *śaher* | city | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=184}} | *cījh* | thing | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:1580\.platts 471]}} | *kharāb* | bad | A | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=172}} |
| *gusso* | anger | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.5:1:1046\.platts 771]}} | *medān* | plain | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=175}} | *jindgī* | life | P | {{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=169}} | *lāl* | red | P | {{sfnp\|Platts\|1884\|p\=\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.6:1:2251\.platts 947]}} |
Lastly, Persian, being part of the [Indo\-Iranian language family](/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages "Indo-Iranian languages") as Sanskrit and Rajasthani are, met up in some instances with its cognates:{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=71}}
| Persian | Indo\-Aryan | English |
| *marăd* | *martya* | man, mortal |
| *[stān](/wiki/-stan "-stan")* | *sthān* | place, land |
| *ī* | *īya* | (adjectival suffix) |
| *band* | *bandh* | closed, fastened |
| *shamsheri* | *aarkshak* | policeman |
[Zoroastrian](/wiki/Zoroastrian "Zoroastrian") Persian [refugees](/wiki/Refugee "Refugee") known as [Parsis](/wiki/Parsi_people "Parsi people") also speak an accordingly Persianized form of Gujarati.{{sfnp\|Tisdall\|1892\|p\=15}}
#### English
With the end of Perso\-Arabic inflow, English became the current foreign source of new vocabulary. English had and continues to have a considerable influence over Indian languages. Loanwords include new innovations and concepts, first introduced directly through [British colonial rule](/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj"), and then streaming in on the basis of continued [Anglophone](/wiki/English_language "English language") dominance in the [Republic of India](/wiki/India "India"). Besides the category of new ideas is the category of English words that already have Rajasthani counterparts which end up replaced or existed alongside. The major driving force behind this latter category has to be the continuing role of English in modern India as a language of education, prestige, and mobility. In this way, Indian speech can be sprinkled with English words and expressions, even switches to whole sentences.{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|pp\=49–50}} *See [Hinglish](/wiki/Hinglish "Hinglish"), [Code\-switching](/wiki/Code-switching "Code-switching")*.
In matters of sound, English [alveolar](/wiki/Alveolar_consonant "Alveolar consonant") consonants map as [retroflexes](/wiki/Retroflex_consonant "Retroflex consonant") rather than [dentals](/wiki/Dental_consonant "Dental consonant"). Two new characters were created in Rajasthani to represent English /æ/'s and /ɔ/'s. Levels of Rajasthani\-ization in sound vary. Some words do not go far beyond this basic transpositional rule, and sound much like their English source, while others differ in ways, one of those ways being the carrying of dentals. *See [Indian English](/wiki/Indian_English "Indian English")*.
As English loanwords are a relatively new phenomenon, they adhere to English grammar, as *tatsam* words adhere to Sanskrit. That is not to say that the most basic changes have been underway: many English words are pluralised with Rajasthani *o* over English "s". Also, with Rajasthani having three genders, genderless English words must take one. Though often inexplicable, gender assignment may follow the same basis as it is expressed in Gujarati: vowel type, and the nature of word meaning.
| Loanword | English source |
| *bâṅk* | bank |
| *phon* | phone |
| *ṭebal* | table |
| *bas* | bus |
| *rabbar* | [rubber](/wiki/Eraser "Eraser") |
| *dôkṭar* | [doctor](/wiki/Physician "Physician") |
| *rasīd* | receipt |
| *helo halo hālo* | hello |
| *hôspiṭalaspitālispitāl* | hospital |
| *sṭeśan ṭeśan* | [railway station](/wiki/Railway_station "Railway station") |
| *sāykal* | bicycle |
| *rum* | room |
| *āis krīm* | ice cream |
| *esī* | [air conditioning](/wiki/Air_conditioning "Air conditioning") |
| *aṅkal*1 | uncle |
| *āṇṭī*1 | aunt |
| *pākīṭ* | [wallet](/wiki/Wallet "Wallet") |
| *kavar* | [envelope](/wiki/Envelope "Envelope") |
| *noṭ* | [banknote](/wiki/Banknote "Banknote") |
| *skūl* | school |
| *ṭyuśan* | [tuition](/wiki/Tuition_payments "Tuition payments") |
| *miniṭ* | minute |
| *ṭikiṭ* *ṭikaṭ* | ticket |
| *sleṭ* | slate |
| *hoṭal* | hotel |
| *pārṭī* | [political party](/wiki/Political_party "Political party") |
| *ṭren* | train |
| *kalekṭar* | [district collector](/wiki/District_collector "District collector") |
| *reḍīyo* | radio |
* 1 These English forms are often used (prominently by [NRIs](/wiki/Indian_diaspora "Indian diaspora")) for those family friends and elders that are not actually uncles and aunts but are of the age.
#### Portuguese
The smaller foothold the Portuguese had in wider India had linguistic effects due to extensive trade. Rajasthani took up a number of words, while elsewhere the influence was great enough to the extent that creole languages came to be (*see [Portuguese India](/wiki/Portuguese_India "Portuguese India"), [Portuguese\-based creole languages in India and Sri Lanka](/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages%23India_and_Sri_Lanka "Portuguese-based creole languages#India and Sri Lanka")*). Comparatively, the impact of Portuguese has been greater on coastal languages{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=49}} and their loans tend to be closer to the Portuguese originals.{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=73}} The source dialect of these loans imparts an earlier pronunciation of *ch* as an affricate instead of the current standard of {{IPA\|\[ʃ]}}.{{sfnp\|Masica\|1991\|p\=75}}
| Rajasthani | Meaning | Portuguese |
| *istrī* | iron(ing) | estirar1 |
| *mistrī*2 | [carpenter](/wiki/Carpenter "Carpenter") | mestre3 |
| *sābu* | soap | sabão |
| *chābī* | key | chave |
| *tambāku* | [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco "Tobacco") | {{nat\|tabaco}} |
| *gobī* | [cabbage](/wiki/Cabbage "Cabbage") | couve |
| *kāju* | [cashew](/wiki/Cashew "Cashew") | cajú |
| *pāũ* | [bread](/wiki/Bread "Bread") | pão |
| *baṭāko* | [potato](/wiki/Potato "Potato") | batata |
| *anānas* | [pineapple](/wiki/Pineapple "Pineapple") | ananás |
| *pādrī* | [father](/wiki/The_Reverend%23Catholic_Churches "The Reverend#Catholic Churches") (in Catholicism) | padre |
| *aṅgrej(ī)* | English (not specifically the language) | inglês |
| *nātāl* | [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") | natal |
1 "To stretch (out)".
2 Common occupational [surname](/wiki/Surname "Surname").
3 "Master".
|
[
"### Categorisation and sources",
"These are the three general categories of words in modern Indo\\-Aryan: *tadbhav*, *tatsam*, and loanwords.Snell, R. (2000\\) *Teach Yourself Beginner's Hindi Script*. Hodder \\& Stoughton. pp. 83–86\\.",
"#### Tadbhav",
"*tadbhava*, \"of the nature of that\". Rajasthani is a modern Indo\\-Aryan language descended from [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit \"Sanskrit\") (old Indo\\-Aryan), and this category pertains exactly to that: words of Sanskritic origin that have demonstratively undergone change over the ages, ending up characteristic of modern Indo\\-Aryan languages specifically as well as in general. Thus the \"that\" in \"of the nature of that\" refers to Sanskrit. They tend to be non\\-technical, everyday, crucial words; part of the spoken vernacular. Below is a table of a few Rajasthani *tadbhav* words and their Old Indo\\-Aryan sources:",
"",
"|Old Indo\\-Aryan",
"Rajasthani",
"Ref |\n| --- |\n| I | *ahám* | *hũ* | | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:773\\.soas p. 44\\. Entry 992\\.]}} |\n| falls, slips | *khasati* | *khisaknũ* | to move | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:229\\.soas p. 203\\. Entry 3856\\.]}} |\n| causes to move | *arpáyati* | *ārpanũ* | to give | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:552\\.soas p. 30\\. Entry 684\\.]}} |\n| attains to, obtains | *prāpnoti* | *pāvnũ* | | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:2005\\.soas p. 502\\. Entry 8947\\.]}} |\n| tiger | *vyāghrá* | *vāgh* | | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2126\\.soas p. 706\\. Entry 12193\\.]}} |\n| equal, alike, level | *samá* | *shamũ* | right, sound | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:541\\.soas p. 762\\. Entry 13173\\.]}} |\n| all | *sárva* | *sau/sāb* | | {{sfnp\\|Turner\\|1966\\|loc\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:616\\.soas p. 766\\. Entry 13276\\.]}} |",
"#### Tatsam",
"*tatsama*, \"same as that\". While Sanskrit eventually stopped being spoken vernacularly, in that it changed into [Middle Indo\\-Aryan](/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages \"Middle Indo-Aryan languages\"), it was nonetheless standardised and retained as a literary and [liturgical language](/wiki/Liturgical_language \"Liturgical language\") for long after. This category consists of these borrowed words of (more or less) pure Sanskrit character. They serve to enrich Gujarati and modern Indo\\-Aryan in its formal, technical, and religious vocabulary. They are recognisable by their Sanskrit inflections and markings; they are thus often treated as a separate grammatical category unto themselves.",
"",
"| Tatsam | English | Rajasthani |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| *lekhak* | writer | *lakākh* |\n| *vijetā* | winner | *vijetā* |\n| *vikǎsit* | developed | *vikǎsāt* |\n| *jāgǎraṇ* | awakening | *jāgān* |",
"Many old tatsam words have changed their meanings or have had their meanings adopted for modern times. *prasāraṇ* means \"spreading\", but now it is used for \"broadcasting\". In addition to this are [neologisms](/wiki/Neologism \"Neologism\"), often being [calques](/wiki/Calque \"Calque\"). An example is *telephone*, which is [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language \"Greek language\") for \"far talk\", translated as *durbhāṣ*. Most people, though, just use *phon* and thus neo\\-Sanskrit has varying degrees of acceptance.",
"So, while having unique *tadbhav* sets, modern IA languages have a common, higher *tatsam* pool. Also, *tatsam*s and their derived *tadbhav*s can also co\\-exist in a language; sometimes of no consequence and at other times with differences in meaning:",
"|Tatsam",
"Tadbhav",
"| |\n| *[karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\")* | Work—[Dharmic](/wiki/Dharmic \"Dharmic\") religious concept of works or deeds whose divine consequences are experienced in this life or the next. | *kām* | work \\[without any religious connotations]. |\n| *kṣetra* | Field—Abstract sense, such as a field of knowledge or activity; *khāngī kṣetra* → private sector. Physical sense, but of higher or special importance; *raṇǎkṣetra* → battlefield. | *khetar* | field \\[in agricultural sense]. |",
"",
"What remains are words of foreign origin (*videśī*), as well as words of local origin that cannot be pegged as belonging to any of the three prior categories (*deśaj*). The former consists mainly of [Persian](/wiki/Persian_language \"Persian language\"), [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic \"Arabic\"), and English, with trace elements of [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_language \"Portuguese language\") and [Turkish](/wiki/Turkic_languages \"Turkic languages\"). While the phenomenon of English [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword \"Loanword\") is relatively new, Perso\\-Arabic has a longer history behind it. Both English and Perso\\-Arabic influences are quite nationwide phenomena, in a way paralleling *tatsam* as a common vocabulary set or bank. What's more is how, beyond a transposition into general Indo\\-Aryan, the Perso\\-Arabic set has also been assimilated in a manner characteristic and relevant to the specific Indo\\-Aryan language it is being used in, bringing to mind *tadbhav*.",
"#### Perso\\-Arabic",
"{{See also\\|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}}\nIndia was ruled for many centuries by Persian\\-speaking [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent \"Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent\"), amongst the most notable being the [Delhi Sultanate](/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate \"Delhi Sultanate\"), and the [Mughal dynasty](/wiki/Mughal_dynasty \"Mughal dynasty\"). As a consequence Indian languages were changed greatly, with the large scale entry of Persian and its many Arabic loans into the Gujarati lexicon. One fundamental adoption was Persian's conjunction \"that\", *ke*. Also, while *tatsam* or Sanskrit is etymologically continuous to Gujarati, it is essentially of a differing grammar (or language), and that in comparison while Perso\\-Arabic is etymologically foreign, it has been in certain instances and to varying degrees grammatically indigenised. Owing to centuries of situation and the end of Persian education and power, (1\\) Perso\\-Arabic loans are quite unlikely to be thought of or known as loans, and (2\\) more importantly, these loans have often been Rajasthani\\-ized. *dāvo* – claim, *fāydo* – benefit, *natījo* – result, and *hamlo* – attack, all carry Gujarati's masculine gender marker, *o*. *khānũ* – compartment, has the neuter *ũ*. Aside from easy slotting with the auxiliary *karnũ*, a few words have made a complete transition of verbification: *kabūlnũ* – to admit (fault), *kharīdnũ* – to buy, *kharǎcnũ* – to spend (money), *gujarnũ* – to pass. The last three are definite part and parcel.",
"Below is a table displaying a number of these loans. Currently some of the etymologies are being referenced to an Urdu [dictionary](/wiki/Dictionary \"Dictionary\") so that Gujarati's singular masculine *o* corresponds to Urdu *ā*, neuter *ũ* groups into *ā* as Urdu has no neuter gender, and Urdu's Persian *z* is not upheld in Rajasthani and corresponds to *j* or *jh*. In contrast to modern Persian, the pronunciation of these loans into Rajasthani and other Indo\\-Aryan languages, as well as that of Indian\\-recited Persian, seems to be in line with Persian spoken in [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") and [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"), perhaps 500 years ago.{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=75}}",
"",
"|Nouns",
"Adjectives",
"|{{abbr\\|m\\|masculine}}",
"{{abbr\\|n\\|neuter}}",
"{{abbr\\|f\\|feminine}}",
"| *fāydo* | gain, advantage, benefit | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.5:1:1202\\.platts 776]}} | *khānũ* | compartment | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2080\\.platts 486]}} | *kharīdī* | purchase(s), shopping | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2215\\.platts 489]}} | *tājũ* | fresh | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:778\\.platts 305]}} |\n| *humlo* | attack | A | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=168}} | *makān* | house, building | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:147\\.platts 1057]}} | *śardī* | [common cold](/wiki/Common_cold \"Common cold\") | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:2715\\.platts 653]}} | *judũ* | different, separate | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=170}} |\n| *dāvo* | claim | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:3371\\.platts 519]}} | *nasīb* | luck | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:3404\\.platts 1142]}} | *bāju* | side | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=160}} | *najīk* | near | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=177}} |\n| *natījo* | result | A | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:2542\\.platts 1123]}} | *śaher* | city | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=184}} | *cījh* | thing | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:1580\\.platts 471]}} | *kharāb* | bad | A | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=172}} |\n| *gusso* | anger | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.5:1:1046\\.platts 771]}} | *medān* | plain | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=175}} | *jindgī* | life | P | {{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=169}} | *lāl* | red | P | {{sfnp\\|Platts\\|1884\\|p\\=\\[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi\\-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.6:1:2251\\.platts 947]}} |",
"Lastly, Persian, being part of the [Indo\\-Iranian language family](/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages \"Indo-Iranian languages\") as Sanskrit and Rajasthani are, met up in some instances with its cognates:{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=71}}",
"",
"| Persian | Indo\\-Aryan | English |",
"| *marăd* | *martya* | man, mortal |\n| *[stān](/wiki/-stan \"-stan\")* | *sthān* | place, land |\n| *ī* | *īya* | (adjectival suffix) |\n| *band* | *bandh* | closed, fastened |\n| *shamsheri* | *aarkshak* | policeman |",
"[Zoroastrian](/wiki/Zoroastrian \"Zoroastrian\") Persian [refugees](/wiki/Refugee \"Refugee\") known as [Parsis](/wiki/Parsi_people \"Parsi people\") also speak an accordingly Persianized form of Gujarati.{{sfnp\\|Tisdall\\|1892\\|p\\=15}}",
"#### English",
"With the end of Perso\\-Arabic inflow, English became the current foreign source of new vocabulary. English had and continues to have a considerable influence over Indian languages. Loanwords include new innovations and concepts, first introduced directly through [British colonial rule](/wiki/British_Raj \"British Raj\"), and then streaming in on the basis of continued [Anglophone](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") dominance in the [Republic of India](/wiki/India \"India\"). Besides the category of new ideas is the category of English words that already have Rajasthani counterparts which end up replaced or existed alongside. The major driving force behind this latter category has to be the continuing role of English in modern India as a language of education, prestige, and mobility. In this way, Indian speech can be sprinkled with English words and expressions, even switches to whole sentences.{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|pp\\=49–50}} *See [Hinglish](/wiki/Hinglish \"Hinglish\"), [Code\\-switching](/wiki/Code-switching \"Code-switching\")*.",
"In matters of sound, English [alveolar](/wiki/Alveolar_consonant \"Alveolar consonant\") consonants map as [retroflexes](/wiki/Retroflex_consonant \"Retroflex consonant\") rather than [dentals](/wiki/Dental_consonant \"Dental consonant\"). Two new characters were created in Rajasthani to represent English /æ/'s and /ɔ/'s. Levels of Rajasthani\\-ization in sound vary. Some words do not go far beyond this basic transpositional rule, and sound much like their English source, while others differ in ways, one of those ways being the carrying of dentals. *See [Indian English](/wiki/Indian_English \"Indian English\")*.",
"As English loanwords are a relatively new phenomenon, they adhere to English grammar, as *tatsam* words adhere to Sanskrit. That is not to say that the most basic changes have been underway: many English words are pluralised with Rajasthani *o* over English \"s\". Also, with Rajasthani having three genders, genderless English words must take one. Though often inexplicable, gender assignment may follow the same basis as it is expressed in Gujarati: vowel type, and the nature of word meaning.",
"",
"| Loanword | English source |",
"| *bâṅk* | bank |\n| *phon* | phone |\n| *ṭebal* | table |\n| *bas* | bus |\n| *rabbar* | [rubber](/wiki/Eraser \"Eraser\") |\n| *dôkṭar* | [doctor](/wiki/Physician \"Physician\") |\n| *rasīd* | receipt |\n| *helo halo hālo* | hello |\n| *hôspiṭalaspitālispitāl* | hospital |\n| *sṭeśan ṭeśan* | [railway station](/wiki/Railway_station \"Railway station\") |\n| *sāykal* | bicycle |\n| *rum* | room |\n| *āis krīm* | ice cream |\n| *esī* | [air conditioning](/wiki/Air_conditioning \"Air conditioning\") |\n| *aṅkal*1 | uncle |\n| *āṇṭī*1 | aunt |\n| *pākīṭ* | [wallet](/wiki/Wallet \"Wallet\") |\n| *kavar* | [envelope](/wiki/Envelope \"Envelope\") |\n| *noṭ* | [banknote](/wiki/Banknote \"Banknote\") |\n| *skūl* | school |\n| *ṭyuśan* | [tuition](/wiki/Tuition_payments \"Tuition payments\") |\n| *miniṭ* | minute |\n| *ṭikiṭ* *ṭikaṭ* | ticket |\n| *sleṭ* | slate |\n| *hoṭal* | hotel |\n| *pārṭī* | [political party](/wiki/Political_party \"Political party\") |\n| *ṭren* | train |\n| *kalekṭar* | [district collector](/wiki/District_collector \"District collector\") |\n| *reḍīyo* | radio |",
"* 1 These English forms are often used (prominently by [NRIs](/wiki/Indian_diaspora \"Indian diaspora\")) for those family friends and elders that are not actually uncles and aunts but are of the age.",
"#### Portuguese",
"The smaller foothold the Portuguese had in wider India had linguistic effects due to extensive trade. Rajasthani took up a number of words, while elsewhere the influence was great enough to the extent that creole languages came to be (*see [Portuguese India](/wiki/Portuguese_India \"Portuguese India\"), [Portuguese\\-based creole languages in India and Sri Lanka](/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages%23India_and_Sri_Lanka \"Portuguese-based creole languages#India and Sri Lanka\")*). Comparatively, the impact of Portuguese has been greater on coastal languages{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=49}} and their loans tend to be closer to the Portuguese originals.{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=73}} The source dialect of these loans imparts an earlier pronunciation of *ch* as an affricate instead of the current standard of {{IPA\\|\\[ʃ]}}.{{sfnp\\|Masica\\|1991\\|p\\=75}}",
"",
"| Rajasthani | Meaning | Portuguese |",
"| *istrī* | iron(ing) | estirar1 |\n| *mistrī*2 | [carpenter](/wiki/Carpenter \"Carpenter\") | mestre3 |\n| *sābu* | soap | sabão |\n| *chābī* | key | chave |\n| *tambāku* | [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco \"Tobacco\") | {{nat\\|tabaco}} |\n| *gobī* | [cabbage](/wiki/Cabbage \"Cabbage\") | couve |\n| *kāju* | [cashew](/wiki/Cashew \"Cashew\") | cajú |\n| *pāũ* | [bread](/wiki/Bread \"Bread\") | pão |\n| *baṭāko* | [potato](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\") | batata |\n| *anānas* | [pineapple](/wiki/Pineapple \"Pineapple\") | ananás |\n| *pādrī* | [father](/wiki/The_Reverend%23Catholic_Churches \"The Reverend#Catholic Churches\") (in Catholicism) | padre |\n| *aṅgrej(ī)* | English (not specifically the language) | inglês |\n| *nātāl* | [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") | natal |",
"1 \"To stretch (out)\".\n2 Common occupational [surname](/wiki/Surname \"Surname\").\n3 \"Master\"."
] |
Economy
-------
| \+Paulínia's Exportations{{Cite web \|title\=Exportações dos municípios paulistas \|url\=http://www.ipeadata.gov.br/ExibeSerieR.aspx?stub\=1\&serid\=1828975897\&SERIDCarto\=1828975897\&tipoCarto\=R\&DateCarto\=2007\&MINDATA\=2003\&MAXDATA\=2007\&TNIVID\=5\&TPAID\=35\&module\=R \|access\-date\=2010\-07\-20}} | Year | Exportations (R$) |
| 2003 | 166\.065\.926 |
| 2004 | 240\.058\.507 |
| 2005 | 345\.316\.502 |
| 2006 | 387\.935\.929 |
| 2007 | 460\.190\.677 |
| 2008 | 578\.336\.315 |
Paulínia is the biggest petrochemical power in [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America "Latin America"),{{Cite web \|last\=Nossa São Paulo \|title\=Dados e informações sobre Paulínia \|url\=http://www.nossosaopaulo.com.br/Reg\_10/Reg10\_Paulinia.htm \|access\-date\=2008\-01\-28}}{{Cite web \|last\=Luz \& Cena \|title\=Inscrições abertas para projetos de audiovisual em Paulínia \|url\=http://www.musitec.com.br/luzecena/noticias/noticia.asp?noticiaID\=777 \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-28}} being home to [REPLAN](/wiki/Refinaria_do_Planalto_Paulista "Refinaria do Planalto Paulista"), the biggest [Petrobras](/wiki/Petrobras "Petrobras") and Brazilian refinery,{{Cite web \|title\=Maior refinaria do país mostra sua eficiência \|url\=http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/petrobras/patrocinador\_407440\.shtml \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016061720/http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/petrobras/patrocinador\_407440\.shtml \|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-16 \|access\-date\=2009\-04\-16 \|website\=Planeta sustentável}} besides having countless other establishments and industries in the sector, representing companies such as Transo, [Shell](/wiki/Shell_plc "Shell plc"), [Exxon](/wiki/ExxonMobil "ExxonMobil"), Fic, [Rhodia](/wiki/Rhodia_%28company%29 "Rhodia (company)"),{{Cite web \|last\=Maplink \|title\=Guia de indústrias em Paulínia \|url\=http://maplink.com.br/v2/local/sp/paulinia/industrias.html \|access\-date\=2009\-04\-16 \|website\=UOL}} among others, which, attracted by the good infrastructure and by advantages offered by the city hall, such as exemption or reduction in municipal taxes, have settled in the city. GDP per capita is quite high, as is its [Gross Domestic Product](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product"), which is R$6,734,450, representing the 63rd city with the highest [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") in Brazil.{{Cite web \|title\=As 100 cidades com maior PIB do Brasil \|url\=http://georgelins.com/2010/12/12/pib\-as\-100\-maiores\-cidades\-do\-brasil\-ibge\-2010/ \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-02}}{{Cite web \|title\=Produto Interno Bruto dos Municípios 2004\-2008 \|url\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/economia/pibmunicipios/2004\_2008 \|access\-date\=2010\-12\-11 \|publisher\=Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística}} In addition to oil, Paulínia has food and mechanical industries. With the *Paulínia Magia do Cinema* project,{{Cite web \|title\=Paulínia Magia do Cinema no Web Archive \|url\=http://www.pauliniamagiadocinema.com.br/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021024658/http://www.pauliniamagiadocinema.com.br/ \|access\-date\=2007\-10\-21\|archive\-date\=21 October 2007 }} an increase in companies linked to tourism and cinema is predicted.{{Cite web \|title\=Pólo cinematográfico de Paulínia enfatiza benefícios para a cidade, apesar de questionamentos \|url\=http://paulinia.net/2009/04/polo\-cinematografico\-de\-paulinia\-enfatiza\-beneficios\-para\-a\-cidade\-apesar\-de\-questionamentos \|access\-date\=2009\-04\-17 \|website\=Paulínia.net}} There are 346 industrial, 1679 commercial and 1305 service establishments in the municipality.{{Cite web \|last\=IBGE \|title\=Dados sobre a estrutura empresarial de Paulínia \|url\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/xtras/temas.php?nomemun\=Paul%EDnia\&codmun\=353650\&tema\=empresas\&desc\=Estrutura%20Empresarial%202006\&legenda\=Fonte%3A%20IBGE%2CCadastro%20Central%20de%20Empresas%202006%3B%20Malha%20municipal%20digital%20do%20Brasil%3A%20situa%E7%E3o%20em%202006\.%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro%3A%20IBGE%2C%202008\.%20%20NOTA%201%3AAtribui\-se%20zeros%20aos%20valores%20dos%20munic%EDpios%20onde%20n%E3o%20h%E1%20ocorr%EAncia%20da%20vari%E1vel%20ou%20onde%2C%20por%20arredondamento%2C%20os%20totais%20n%E3o%20atigem%20a%20unidade%20de%20medida.%20%20NOTA%202%3AOs%20dados%20com%20menos%20de%203%28tr%EAs%29%20informantes%20est%E3o%20desidentificados%2C%20apresentando%20a%20express%E3o%20%3Cb%3EN%E3o%20dispon%EDvel%3C%2Fb%3E%2C%20a%20fim%20de%20evitar%20a%20individualiza%E7%E3o%20da%20informa%E7%E3o.\&uf\=sp\&r\=2 \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-21}} The services sector employed the most in 2009, with 15,454 workers, followed by industry, which employed 9,020 people.{{Cite web \|title\=Informações dos Municípios Paulistas – IMP \|url\=http://www.seade.gov.br/produtos/imp/index.php?page\=consulta\&action\=ano\_save \|access\-date\=2011\-02\-01 \|website\=SEADE}} The formal labor force in Paulínia was 43,304 people in 2001, the working age population was 26,281,{{Cite web \|title\=População e Domicílios \- Censo 2000 com Divisão Territorial 2001 \- Cidades@ \- IBGE \|url\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430164910/http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2012\-04\-30 \|access\-date\=2008\-12\-26}} and the consumption potential index was US$2,775\.{{Cite web \|last\=Canal Executivo \- Pesquisas \|title\=Consumo na região de Campinas \|url\=http://www2\.uol.com.br/canalexecutivo/notas/210420042\.htm \|access\-date\=2009\-02\-06}} The municipality has 3,011 local units, according to IBGE data from 2005\.{{Cite web \|title\=Sistema IBGE de Recuperação Automática (SIDRA) \|url\=http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/listabl.asp?c\=2933\&codunit\=3682\&u\=3682\&z\=t\&o\=4\&i\=P \|access\-date\=2008\-09\-23 \|publisher\=Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE)}} The estimated budget for 2011 is R$892\.1 million.{{Cite web \|last\=Notícia 23 \|title\=«Prefeitura de Paulínia deve arrecadar R$ 892,1 milhões em 2011 \|url\=http://noticia23\.com.br/?p\=7259 \|access\-date\=2010\-10\-02}} In recent years, Paulínia's foreign trade has been growing, as shown in the table above.
### Primary Sector
| **Sugarcane, Orange and Corn Production (2007\)**
**Product** |
**Harvested area (Hectares)** |
**Production (Ton)** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Sugarcane | 3\.677 | 275\.780 |
| Orange | 357 | 9\.513 |
| Corn | 40 | 144 |
Agriculture is of little importance in Paulínia. The main crops are [sugar cane](/wiki/Sugarcane "Sugarcane"), corn and orange. The north\-northwest regions used to stand out for the large orange production, but this culture has been losing space to the subdivision of land in the region, with the creation of neighborhoods such as São José and Marieta Dian. Sugar cane is still a highlight in the southern region, with large producing areas. In total, Paulínia has 380 farms, but most of them are small\-sized.{{Cite web \|last\=IBGE Cidades \|title\=Produções agrícolas paulinenses \|url\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430164910/http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2012\-04\-30 \|access\-date\=2009\-02\-25}}
According to the [IBGE](/wiki/Brazilian_Institute_of_Geography_and_Statistics "Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics") in 2006 Paulínia had a [herd](/wiki/Herd "Herd") of 246 cattle, 334 pigs, 95 horses, 91 sheep, and 292,490 poultry, among these 182,490 chickens and 110,000 roosters, chickens and chicks.{{Cite web \|last\=IBGE \|title\=Dados sobre a pecuária de Paulínia \|url\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/xtras/temas.php?nomemun\=Paul%EDnia\&codmun\=353650\&tema\=prodpec2007\&desc\=Pecu%E1ria%202007\&legenda\=Fonte%3A%20IBGE%2C%20Produ%E7%E3o%20da%20Pecu%E1ria%20Municipal%202007%3B%20Malha%20municipal%20digital%20do%20Brasil%3A%20situa%E7%E3o%20em%202007\.%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro%3A%20IBGE%2C%202008\.%20%0D%0ANOTA%201%3A%20Atribui\-se%20zeros%20aos%20valores%20dos%20munic%EDpios%20onde%2C%20por%20arredondamento%2C%20os%20totais%20n%E3o%20atingem%20a%20unidade%20de%20medida.%0D%0ANOTA%202%3A%20Atribui\-se%20a%20express%E3o%20dado%20%3Cb%3En%E3o%20existente%3C%2Fb%3E%20onde%20n%E3o%20h%E1%20ocorr%EAncia%20da%20vari%E1vel%20no%20munic%EDpio.\&uf\=sp\&r\=2 \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-16}} In 2006 the city produced 150,000 liters of milk from 97 cows. 3\.285 million dozen hen eggs were produced.
Paulínia's permanent plantation produces mainly oranges (9,513 tons) and avocados (3,619 tons).{{Cite web \|last\=IBGE Cidades \|title\=Lavoura permanente de Paulínia \|url\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/xtras/temas.php?nomemun\=Paul%EDnia\&codmun\=353650\&tema\=lavperm2007\&desc\=Lavoura%20Permanente%202007\&legenda\=Fontes%3A%20IBGE%2C%20Produ%E7%E3o%20Agr%EDcola%20Municipal%202007%3B%20Malha%20municipal%20digital%20do%20Brasil%3A%20situa%E7%E3o%20em%202007\.%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro%3A%20IBGE%2C%202008\.%20%0D%0ANOTA%201%3A%20Atribui\-se%20zeros%20aos%20valores%20dos%20munic%EDpios%20onde%2C%20por%20arredondamento%2C%20os%20totais%20n%E3o%20atingem%20a%20unidade%20de%20medida.%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%0D%0ANOTA%202%3A%20Atribui\-se%20a%20express%E3o%20dado%20%3Cb%3En%E3o%20existente%3C%2Fb%3E%2C%20onde%20n%E3o%20h%E1%20ocorr%EAncia%20da%20vari%E1vel%20no%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%0D%0A%20referido%20munic%EDpio%2C%20Medida%20esta%20proferida%20na%20A%E7%E3o%20Direta%20de%20Inconstitucionalidade%20n%BA%202381\-1%2C%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%0D%0ARio%20Grande%20do%20Sul%2C%20de%2020%2F06%2F2001%2C%20publicada%20no%20Di%E1rio%20da%20Justi%E7a%20de%2014%2F12%2F2001\.%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%0D%0A\&uf\=sp\&r\=2 \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-31}} Considering the relation between planted area and total harvested, the guava stands out, producing 45,000 kilos per hectare, and the tangerine, whose yield is 46,500 kilos per hectare. Coffee, which was very important in the past, has lost importance, and currently only 32 tons are produced.
### Secondary Sector
[left\|thumb\|View of the propylene production unit towers, in REPLAN.](/wiki/File:Propeno.JPG "Propeno.JPG")
The secondary sector is currently the main source generating Paulínia's Gross Domestic Product. Represented mainly by the chemical and petrochemical industries, Paulínia's secondary sector is known for the large number of industries, especially multinationals, such as the American [ExxonMobil](/wiki/ExxonMobil "ExxonMobil") and the New Zealand\-British Shell. Paulínia's industrial development began with the installation of Rhodia on São Francisco farm, in 1942, when Paulínia still belonged to Campinas, but the main event occurred after emancipation, with the inauguration of REPLAN in 1972, which transformed the town into a large producer of refined petroleum. The industrial pole in Paulínia, formed by companies such as Petrobras, owner of Replan, Fic, [Ipiranga](/wiki/Ipiranga_%28company%29 "Ipiranga (company)"), Eucatex and Rhodia makes the city the largest petrochemical pole in Latin America. Other companies stand out, such as Nutriara, from the food industry, [Cargill](/wiki/Cargill "Cargill") and [Purina](/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9_Purina_PetCare "Nestlé Purina PetCare"), from the animal feed industry, AsGa, from the telecommunications industry, among others.{{Cite web \|title\=Empresa \- Sobre a AsGa \|url\=http://www.asga.com.br/empresa.html \|access\-date\=2010\-10\-02 \|website\=asga.com.br}}{{Cite web \|last\=Seade \|title\=Pib dos municípios paulistas em 2008 \|url\=http://www.seade.gov.br/produtos/pibmun/tab\_2008\.htm}}
Replan is Petrobras' biggest refinery in terms of production.{{Cite web \|last\=Planeta sustentável \|title\=Maior refinaria da Petrobrás mostra sua eficiência \|url\=http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/petrobras/patrocinador\_407440\.shtml \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016061720/http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/petrobras/patrocinador\_407440\.shtml \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-16 \|access\-date\=2009\-09\-20}} It produces several products, such as [asphalt](/wiki/Asphalt_concrete "Asphalt concrete"), [kerosene](/wiki/Kerosene "Kerosene"), and [gasoline](/wiki/Gasoline "Gasoline"), and its production is mainly sold to the state of São Paulo.{{Cite web \|title\=Petrobras investe na modernização da replan \|url\=http://www.portaldepaulinia.com.br/home/noticias\-de\-paulinia/economia/10806\-petrobras\-investe\-na\-modernizacao\-da\-replan.html \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20121231144243/http://www.portaldepaulinia.com.br/home/noticias\-de\-paulinia/economia/10806\-petrobras\-investe\-na\-modernizacao\-da\-replan.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-12\-31 \|access\-date\=2012\-01\-29 \|website\=portaldepaulinia.com.br}} It is responsible for about twelve billion *[reais](/wiki/Brazilian_real "Brazilian real")* per year in taxes paid to the government and for Paulínia's high per capita income.
Paulínia's industry is the third largest GDP generator in the [Metropolitan Region of Campinas](/wiki/Campinas_metropolitan_area "Campinas metropolitan area"), smaller only than the neighboring metropolis, Campinas, and the city of Sumaré. The industrial sector accounts for almost 50% of Paulínia's GDP. Oil derivatives represent the most produced products in Paulínia, followed by other chemical products and food.
#### Petrochemical Pole
The largest chemical and petrochemical industrial complex in Brazil is located in the northern region of the municipality. Centered in the Planalto Paulista Refinery, there are also companies such as Rhodia, the first in the city, Shell, Ipiranga, ExxonMobil and [Braskem](/wiki/Braskem "Braskem"). The center is responsible for a good part of the jobs and of the Gross Domestic Product of Paulínia, being one of the main reasons for attracting immigrants to the city.
### Tertiary sector
[thumb\|Municipal Theater of Paulínia.](/wiki/File:Theatro_municipal_paulinia.JPG "Theatro municipal paulinia.JPG")
Nationally, Paulínia's commerce is not outstanding. In the tertiary sector, the town is known for having a large cinema pole, built through the *[Paulínia Magia do Cinema](/wiki/Paul%C3%ADnia_Magia_do_Cinema "Paulínia Magia do Cinema")* project, and which has been the location for several films, such as *[O Menino da Porteira](/wiki/O_Menino_da_Porteira_%282009%29 "O Menino da Porteira (2009)")*. Tourism is also important in the town.
[José Paulino Avenue](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Paulino_Avenue "José Paulino Avenue"), in the center of Paulínia, has important commercial establishments, most of them being branches of large national chains. Other important commercial centers in Paulínia are the districts of Santa Cecília and Nova Paulínia, where Santa Cruz Street is located, headquarters of numerous medical clinics and other stores.{{Cite web \|title\=Cidade de Paulínia \|url\=http://pauliniablog.blogspot.com/ \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-24}} The sector that most employs in Paulínia is the tertiary one, which at the beginning of 2001 employed 978 people.
In 2006 the city administration created the project *Paulínia Magia do Cinema*, with the goals of increasing tourism and boosting the economy. Through this project, the [Paulínia Film Festival](/wiki/Festival_Paul%C3%ADnia_de_Cinema "Festival Paulínia de Cinema"), Paulínia Cinematographic Pole, *Magia do Cinema* School and the Paulínia Film Commission were idealized. Several films have already been shot at the pole, such as *O Menino da Porteira* and *[Topografia de um Desnudo](/wiki/Topografia_de_um_Desnudo "Topografia de um Desnudo")*. The cinema pole is the result of one of the largest investments in audiovisual production in Brazil. Around 550 million *reais* from the administration and companies have already been spent on the project. *Paulínia Magia do Cinema* project has been highlighted in the national press due to the size of the investments.{{Cite web \|title\=Críticos se rendem ao Paulínia Magia do Cinema \|url\=http://www.cineclubes.org.br/tiki/tiki\-read\_article.php?articleId\=39 \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-22 \|website\=Cineclubes.org}}{{Cite web \|last\=Cinemagia \|title\=Paulínia: investimento público em cinema como propulsor cultural, econômico e social \|url\=http://www.usp.br/celacc/ojs/index.php/blacc/article/view/155/188 \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-22}}{{Cite web \|last\=Cinemagia \|title\=Paulínia inicia o Projeto Paulínia Magia do Cinema \|url\=http://www.cineclubes.org.br/tiki/tiki\-view\_articles.php?find\=\&topic\=\&type\=\&offset\=390\&sort\_mode\=publishDate\_desc \|access\-date\=2009\-02\-21}}
#### Tourism
[left\|thumb\|Parque José Maria Malavazzi, or Zeca Malavazzi, an important tourist attraction in Paulínia.](/wiki/File:Zeca_Malavazzi.jpg "Zeca Malavazzi.jpg")
Paulínia has many tourist attractions. Among the most visited natural tourist spots are the minipantanal, the ecological park, and the Adelelmo Piva Júnior Botanical Garden, which still keeps animal and vegetal species preserved in their natural habitat. The virtual library, where the population has free access to the internet, and the [Municipal Theater](/wiki/Municipal_Theater_of_Paul%C3%ADnia "Municipal Theater of Paulínia"), part of Paulínia's cinematographic pole, are other important tourist attractions.{{Cite web \|last\=Conheça Paulínia \|title\=Turismo em Paulínia \|url\=http://www.conhecapaulinia.com.br/a\-cidade/pontos\-turisticos \|access\-date\=2010\-02\-21}}
The portals located at the entrances to the city are symbols of Paulínia. With different styles, they are tourist attractions and have municipal guard posts. The main ones are the Medieval Portal, the Colonial, the Futuristic and the Parque Brasil 500\.{{Cite web \|last\=Prefeitura de Paulínia \|title\=Praça Paul Percy Harris \|url\=http://www.paulinia.sp.gov.br/mostraservico.aspx?id\=57}} Paulínia's squares and traffic circles are also visited a lot thanks to the decoration made with several colorful plants, which form drawings of several shapes.{{Cite web \|title\=Turismo em Paulínia \|url\=http://paulinia.net/turismo \|access\-date\=2012\-01\-28 \|website\=paulinia.net}} The Paul Percy Harris square is known for having the largest [Rotarian](/wiki/Rotary_International "Rotary International") symbol in the world.
Other tourist attractions in Paulínia are the Cidade Feliz fountain, which supplies mineral water to the population, the bicycle cross track, where several competitions are held, such as [Bicicross Américas](/wiki/Bicicross_Am%C3%A9ricas "Bicicross Américas"), Zeca Malavazzi park, Brasil 500 park, the historical museum, Saint Benedict church, and the Sagrado Coração de Jesus square.{{Cite web \|title\=Turismo em Paulínia \|url\=http://www.ferias.tur.br/informacoes/9464/paulinia\-sp.html \|access\-date\=2009\-02\-25 \|website\=Ferias.tur.br}}
[Paulínia's carnival](/wiki/Paul%C3%ADnia%27s_carnival "Paulínia's carnival") is considered the largest in the Metropolitan Region of Campinas and is much appreciated by tourists, especially from towns in the area. The main schools are Hawaí 71, Ktoto, Unidos do João Aranha, among others. The [samba](/wiki/Samba_school "Samba school") school parades are held in the largest indoor sambodrome in Brazil.
Paulínia's events and tourist sites attract many tourists every year. Events such as *[Folia de Reis](/wiki/Folia_de_Reis "Folia de Reis")*, *Paulitália*, which is a party in honor of the Italian immigrants in Paulínia, and the Christmas of Lights stand out.
|
[
"Economy\n-------",
"",
"| \\+Paulínia's Exportations{{Cite web \\|title\\=Exportações dos municípios paulistas \\|url\\=http://www.ipeadata.gov.br/ExibeSerieR.aspx?stub\\=1\\&serid\\=1828975897\\&SERIDCarto\\=1828975897\\&tipoCarto\\=R\\&DateCarto\\=2007\\&MINDATA\\=2003\\&MAXDATA\\=2007\\&TNIVID\\=5\\&TPAID\\=35\\&module\\=R \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-20}} | Year | Exportations (R$) |",
"| 2003 | 166\\.065\\.926 |\n| 2004 | 240\\.058\\.507 |\n| 2005 | 345\\.316\\.502 |\n| 2006 | 387\\.935\\.929 |\n| 2007 | 460\\.190\\.677 |\n| 2008 | 578\\.336\\.315 |",
"Paulínia is the biggest petrochemical power in [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\"),{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nossa São Paulo \\|title\\=Dados e informações sobre Paulínia \\|url\\=http://www.nossosaopaulo.com.br/Reg\\_10/Reg10\\_Paulinia.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-28}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Luz \\& Cena \\|title\\=Inscrições abertas para projetos de audiovisual em Paulínia \\|url\\=http://www.musitec.com.br/luzecena/noticias/noticia.asp?noticiaID\\=777 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-28}} being home to [REPLAN](/wiki/Refinaria_do_Planalto_Paulista \"Refinaria do Planalto Paulista\"), the biggest [Petrobras](/wiki/Petrobras \"Petrobras\") and Brazilian refinery,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Maior refinaria do país mostra sua eficiência \\|url\\=http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/petrobras/patrocinador\\_407440\\.shtml \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016061720/http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/petrobras/patrocinador\\_407440\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-16 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-16 \\|website\\=Planeta sustentável}} besides having countless other establishments and industries in the sector, representing companies such as Transo, [Shell](/wiki/Shell_plc \"Shell plc\"), [Exxon](/wiki/ExxonMobil \"ExxonMobil\"), Fic, [Rhodia](/wiki/Rhodia_%28company%29 \"Rhodia (company)\"),{{Cite web \\|last\\=Maplink \\|title\\=Guia de indústrias em Paulínia \\|url\\=http://maplink.com.br/v2/local/sp/paulinia/industrias.html \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-16 \\|website\\=UOL}} among others, which, attracted by the good infrastructure and by advantages offered by the city hall, such as exemption or reduction in municipal taxes, have settled in the city. GDP per capita is quite high, as is its [Gross Domestic Product](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\"), which is R$6,734,450, representing the 63rd city with the highest [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") in Brazil.{{Cite web \\|title\\=As 100 cidades com maior PIB do Brasil \\|url\\=http://georgelins.com/2010/12/12/pib\\-as\\-100\\-maiores\\-cidades\\-do\\-brasil\\-ibge\\-2010/ \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-02}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Produto Interno Bruto dos Municípios 2004\\-2008 \\|url\\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/economia/pibmunicipios/2004\\_2008 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-11 \\|publisher\\=Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística}} In addition to oil, Paulínia has food and mechanical industries. With the *Paulínia Magia do Cinema* project,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Paulínia Magia do Cinema no Web Archive \\|url\\=http://www.pauliniamagiadocinema.com.br/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021024658/http://www.pauliniamagiadocinema.com.br/ \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-10\\-21\\|archive\\-date\\=21 October 2007 }} an increase in companies linked to tourism and cinema is predicted.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Pólo cinematográfico de Paulínia enfatiza benefícios para a cidade, apesar de questionamentos \\|url\\=http://paulinia.net/2009/04/polo\\-cinematografico\\-de\\-paulinia\\-enfatiza\\-beneficios\\-para\\-a\\-cidade\\-apesar\\-de\\-questionamentos \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-17 \\|website\\=Paulínia.net}} There are 346 industrial, 1679 commercial and 1305 service establishments in the municipality.{{Cite web \\|last\\=IBGE \\|title\\=Dados sobre a estrutura empresarial de Paulínia \\|url\\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/xtras/temas.php?nomemun\\=Paul%EDnia\\&codmun\\=353650\\&tema\\=empresas\\&desc\\=Estrutura%20Empresarial%202006\\&legenda\\=Fonte%3A%20IBGE%2CCadastro%20Central%20de%20Empresas%202006%3B%20Malha%20municipal%20digital%20do%20Brasil%3A%20situa%E7%E3o%20em%202006\\.%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro%3A%20IBGE%2C%202008\\.%20%20NOTA%201%3AAtribui\\-se%20zeros%20aos%20valores%20dos%20munic%EDpios%20onde%20n%E3o%20h%E1%20ocorr%EAncia%20da%20vari%E1vel%20ou%20onde%2C%20por%20arredondamento%2C%20os%20totais%20n%E3o%20atigem%20a%20unidade%20de%20medida.%20%20NOTA%202%3AOs%20dados%20com%20menos%20de%203%28tr%EAs%29%20informantes%20est%E3o%20desidentificados%2C%20apresentando%20a%20express%E3o%20%3Cb%3EN%E3o%20dispon%EDvel%3C%2Fb%3E%2C%20a%20fim%20de%20evitar%20a%20individualiza%E7%E3o%20da%20informa%E7%E3o.\\&uf\\=sp\\&r\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-21}} The services sector employed the most in 2009, with 15,454 workers, followed by industry, which employed 9,020 people.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Informações dos Municípios Paulistas – IMP \\|url\\=http://www.seade.gov.br/produtos/imp/index.php?page\\=consulta\\&action\\=ano\\_save \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-01 \\|website\\=SEADE}} The formal labor force in Paulínia was 43,304 people in 2001, the working age population was 26,281,{{Cite web \\|title\\=População e Domicílios \\- Censo 2000 com Divisão Territorial 2001 \\- Cidades@ \\- IBGE \\|url\\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430164910/http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-30 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-26}} and the consumption potential index was US$2,775\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Canal Executivo \\- Pesquisas \\|title\\=Consumo na região de Campinas \\|url\\=http://www2\\.uol.com.br/canalexecutivo/notas/210420042\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-06}} The municipality has 3,011 local units, according to IBGE data from 2005\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sistema IBGE de Recuperação Automática (SIDRA) \\|url\\=http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/listabl.asp?c\\=2933\\&codunit\\=3682\\&u\\=3682\\&z\\=t\\&o\\=4\\&i\\=P \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-23 \\|publisher\\=Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE)}} The estimated budget for 2011 is R$892\\.1 million.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Notícia 23 \\|title\\=«Prefeitura de Paulínia deve arrecadar R$ 892,1 milhões em 2011 \\|url\\=http://noticia23\\.com.br/?p\\=7259 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-02}} In recent years, Paulínia's foreign trade has been growing, as shown in the table above.",
"### Primary Sector",
"",
"| **Sugarcane, Orange and Corn Production (2007\\)**",
"**Product** |\n **Harvested area (Hectares)** |\n **Production (Ton)** |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Sugarcane | 3\\.677 | 275\\.780 |\n| Orange | 357 | 9\\.513 |\n| Corn | 40 | 144 |",
"Agriculture is of little importance in Paulínia. The main crops are [sugar cane](/wiki/Sugarcane \"Sugarcane\"), corn and orange. The north\\-northwest regions used to stand out for the large orange production, but this culture has been losing space to the subdivision of land in the region, with the creation of neighborhoods such as São José and Marieta Dian. Sugar cane is still a highlight in the southern region, with large producing areas. In total, Paulínia has 380 farms, but most of them are small\\-sized.{{Cite web \\|last\\=IBGE Cidades \\|title\\=Produções agrícolas paulinenses \\|url\\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430164910/http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-30 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-25}}",
"According to the [IBGE](/wiki/Brazilian_Institute_of_Geography_and_Statistics \"Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics\") in 2006 Paulínia had a [herd](/wiki/Herd \"Herd\") of 246 cattle, 334 pigs, 95 horses, 91 sheep, and 292,490 poultry, among these 182,490 chickens and 110,000 roosters, chickens and chicks.{{Cite web \\|last\\=IBGE \\|title\\=Dados sobre a pecuária de Paulínia \\|url\\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/xtras/temas.php?nomemun\\=Paul%EDnia\\&codmun\\=353650\\&tema\\=prodpec2007\\&desc\\=Pecu%E1ria%202007\\&legenda\\=Fonte%3A%20IBGE%2C%20Produ%E7%E3o%20da%20Pecu%E1ria%20Municipal%202007%3B%20Malha%20municipal%20digital%20do%20Brasil%3A%20situa%E7%E3o%20em%202007\\.%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro%3A%20IBGE%2C%202008\\.%20%0D%0ANOTA%201%3A%20Atribui\\-se%20zeros%20aos%20valores%20dos%20munic%EDpios%20onde%2C%20por%20arredondamento%2C%20os%20totais%20n%E3o%20atingem%20a%20unidade%20de%20medida.%0D%0ANOTA%202%3A%20Atribui\\-se%20a%20express%E3o%20dado%20%3Cb%3En%E3o%20existente%3C%2Fb%3E%20onde%20n%E3o%20h%E1%20ocorr%EAncia%20da%20vari%E1vel%20no%20munic%EDpio.\\&uf\\=sp\\&r\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-16}} In 2006 the city produced 150,000 liters of milk from 97 cows. 3\\.285 million dozen hen eggs were produced.",
"Paulínia's permanent plantation produces mainly oranges (9,513 tons) and avocados (3,619 tons).{{Cite web \\|last\\=IBGE Cidades \\|title\\=Lavoura permanente de Paulínia \\|url\\=http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/xtras/temas.php?nomemun\\=Paul%EDnia\\&codmun\\=353650\\&tema\\=lavperm2007\\&desc\\=Lavoura%20Permanente%202007\\&legenda\\=Fontes%3A%20IBGE%2C%20Produ%E7%E3o%20Agr%EDcola%20Municipal%202007%3B%20Malha%20municipal%20digital%20do%20Brasil%3A%20situa%E7%E3o%20em%202007\\.%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro%3A%20IBGE%2C%202008\\.%20%0D%0ANOTA%201%3A%20Atribui\\-se%20zeros%20aos%20valores%20dos%20munic%EDpios%20onde%2C%20por%20arredondamento%2C%20os%20totais%20n%E3o%20atingem%20a%20unidade%20de%20medida.%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%0D%0ANOTA%202%3A%20Atribui\\-se%20a%20express%E3o%20dado%20%3Cb%3En%E3o%20existente%3C%2Fb%3E%2C%20onde%20n%E3o%20h%E1%20ocorr%EAncia%20da%20vari%E1vel%20no%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%0D%0A%20referido%20munic%EDpio%2C%20Medida%20esta%20proferida%20na%20A%E7%E3o%20Direta%20de%20Inconstitucionalidade%20n%BA%202381\\-1%2C%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%0D%0ARio%20Grande%20do%20Sul%2C%20de%2020%2F06%2F2001%2C%20publicada%20no%20Di%E1rio%20da%20Justi%E7a%20de%2014%2F12%2F2001\\.%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%0D%0A\\&uf\\=sp\\&r\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-31}} Considering the relation between planted area and total harvested, the guava stands out, producing 45,000 kilos per hectare, and the tangerine, whose yield is 46,500 kilos per hectare. Coffee, which was very important in the past, has lost importance, and currently only 32 tons are produced.",
"### Secondary Sector",
"[left\\|thumb\\|View of the propylene production unit towers, in REPLAN.](/wiki/File:Propeno.JPG \"Propeno.JPG\")\nThe secondary sector is currently the main source generating Paulínia's Gross Domestic Product. Represented mainly by the chemical and petrochemical industries, Paulínia's secondary sector is known for the large number of industries, especially multinationals, such as the American [ExxonMobil](/wiki/ExxonMobil \"ExxonMobil\") and the New Zealand\\-British Shell. Paulínia's industrial development began with the installation of Rhodia on São Francisco farm, in 1942, when Paulínia still belonged to Campinas, but the main event occurred after emancipation, with the inauguration of REPLAN in 1972, which transformed the town into a large producer of refined petroleum. The industrial pole in Paulínia, formed by companies such as Petrobras, owner of Replan, Fic, [Ipiranga](/wiki/Ipiranga_%28company%29 \"Ipiranga (company)\"), Eucatex and Rhodia makes the city the largest petrochemical pole in Latin America. Other companies stand out, such as Nutriara, from the food industry, [Cargill](/wiki/Cargill \"Cargill\") and [Purina](/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9_Purina_PetCare \"Nestlé Purina PetCare\"), from the animal feed industry, AsGa, from the telecommunications industry, among others.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Empresa \\- Sobre a AsGa \\|url\\=http://www.asga.com.br/empresa.html \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-02 \\|website\\=asga.com.br}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Seade \\|title\\=Pib dos municípios paulistas em 2008 \\|url\\=http://www.seade.gov.br/produtos/pibmun/tab\\_2008\\.htm}}",
"Replan is Petrobras' biggest refinery in terms of production.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Planeta sustentável \\|title\\=Maior refinaria da Petrobrás mostra sua eficiência \\|url\\=http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/petrobras/patrocinador\\_407440\\.shtml \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016061720/http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/petrobras/patrocinador\\_407440\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-16 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-09\\-20}} It produces several products, such as [asphalt](/wiki/Asphalt_concrete \"Asphalt concrete\"), [kerosene](/wiki/Kerosene \"Kerosene\"), and [gasoline](/wiki/Gasoline \"Gasoline\"), and its production is mainly sold to the state of São Paulo.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Petrobras investe na modernização da replan \\|url\\=http://www.portaldepaulinia.com.br/home/noticias\\-de\\-paulinia/economia/10806\\-petrobras\\-investe\\-na\\-modernizacao\\-da\\-replan.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20121231144243/http://www.portaldepaulinia.com.br/home/noticias\\-de\\-paulinia/economia/10806\\-petrobras\\-investe\\-na\\-modernizacao\\-da\\-replan.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-31 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-29 \\|website\\=portaldepaulinia.com.br}} It is responsible for about twelve billion *[reais](/wiki/Brazilian_real \"Brazilian real\")* per year in taxes paid to the government and for Paulínia's high per capita income.",
"Paulínia's industry is the third largest GDP generator in the [Metropolitan Region of Campinas](/wiki/Campinas_metropolitan_area \"Campinas metropolitan area\"), smaller only than the neighboring metropolis, Campinas, and the city of Sumaré. The industrial sector accounts for almost 50% of Paulínia's GDP. Oil derivatives represent the most produced products in Paulínia, followed by other chemical products and food.",
"#### Petrochemical Pole",
"The largest chemical and petrochemical industrial complex in Brazil is located in the northern region of the municipality. Centered in the Planalto Paulista Refinery, there are also companies such as Rhodia, the first in the city, Shell, Ipiranga, ExxonMobil and [Braskem](/wiki/Braskem \"Braskem\"). The center is responsible for a good part of the jobs and of the Gross Domestic Product of Paulínia, being one of the main reasons for attracting immigrants to the city.",
"### Tertiary sector",
"[thumb\\|Municipal Theater of Paulínia.](/wiki/File:Theatro_municipal_paulinia.JPG \"Theatro municipal paulinia.JPG\")\nNationally, Paulínia's commerce is not outstanding. In the tertiary sector, the town is known for having a large cinema pole, built through the *[Paulínia Magia do Cinema](/wiki/Paul%C3%ADnia_Magia_do_Cinema \"Paulínia Magia do Cinema\")* project, and which has been the location for several films, such as *[O Menino da Porteira](/wiki/O_Menino_da_Porteira_%282009%29 \"O Menino da Porteira (2009)\")*. Tourism is also important in the town.",
"[José Paulino Avenue](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Paulino_Avenue \"José Paulino Avenue\"), in the center of Paulínia, has important commercial establishments, most of them being branches of large national chains. Other important commercial centers in Paulínia are the districts of Santa Cecília and Nova Paulínia, where Santa Cruz Street is located, headquarters of numerous medical clinics and other stores.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Cidade de Paulínia \\|url\\=http://pauliniablog.blogspot.com/ \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-24}} The sector that most employs in Paulínia is the tertiary one, which at the beginning of 2001 employed 978 people.",
"In 2006 the city administration created the project *Paulínia Magia do Cinema*, with the goals of increasing tourism and boosting the economy. Through this project, the [Paulínia Film Festival](/wiki/Festival_Paul%C3%ADnia_de_Cinema \"Festival Paulínia de Cinema\"), Paulínia Cinematographic Pole, *Magia do Cinema* School and the Paulínia Film Commission were idealized. Several films have already been shot at the pole, such as *O Menino da Porteira* and *[Topografia de um Desnudo](/wiki/Topografia_de_um_Desnudo \"Topografia de um Desnudo\")*. The cinema pole is the result of one of the largest investments in audiovisual production in Brazil. Around 550 million *reais* from the administration and companies have already been spent on the project. *Paulínia Magia do Cinema* project has been highlighted in the national press due to the size of the investments.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Críticos se rendem ao Paulínia Magia do Cinema \\|url\\=http://www.cineclubes.org.br/tiki/tiki\\-read\\_article.php?articleId\\=39 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-22 \\|website\\=Cineclubes.org}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cinemagia \\|title\\=Paulínia: investimento público em cinema como propulsor cultural, econômico e social \\|url\\=http://www.usp.br/celacc/ojs/index.php/blacc/article/view/155/188 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-22}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cinemagia \\|title\\=Paulínia inicia o Projeto Paulínia Magia do Cinema \\|url\\=http://www.cineclubes.org.br/tiki/tiki\\-view\\_articles.php?find\\=\\&topic\\=\\&type\\=\\&offset\\=390\\&sort\\_mode\\=publishDate\\_desc \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-21}}",
"#### Tourism",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Parque José Maria Malavazzi, or Zeca Malavazzi, an important tourist attraction in Paulínia.](/wiki/File:Zeca_Malavazzi.jpg \"Zeca Malavazzi.jpg\")\nPaulínia has many tourist attractions. Among the most visited natural tourist spots are the minipantanal, the ecological park, and the Adelelmo Piva Júnior Botanical Garden, which still keeps animal and vegetal species preserved in their natural habitat. The virtual library, where the population has free access to the internet, and the [Municipal Theater](/wiki/Municipal_Theater_of_Paul%C3%ADnia \"Municipal Theater of Paulínia\"), part of Paulínia's cinematographic pole, are other important tourist attractions.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Conheça Paulínia \\|title\\=Turismo em Paulínia \\|url\\=http://www.conhecapaulinia.com.br/a\\-cidade/pontos\\-turisticos \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-21}}",
"The portals located at the entrances to the city are symbols of Paulínia. With different styles, they are tourist attractions and have municipal guard posts. The main ones are the Medieval Portal, the Colonial, the Futuristic and the Parque Brasil 500\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Prefeitura de Paulínia \\|title\\=Praça Paul Percy Harris \\|url\\=http://www.paulinia.sp.gov.br/mostraservico.aspx?id\\=57}} Paulínia's squares and traffic circles are also visited a lot thanks to the decoration made with several colorful plants, which form drawings of several shapes.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Turismo em Paulínia \\|url\\=http://paulinia.net/turismo \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-28 \\|website\\=paulinia.net}} The Paul Percy Harris square is known for having the largest [Rotarian](/wiki/Rotary_International \"Rotary International\") symbol in the world.",
"Other tourist attractions in Paulínia are the Cidade Feliz fountain, which supplies mineral water to the population, the bicycle cross track, where several competitions are held, such as [Bicicross Américas](/wiki/Bicicross_Am%C3%A9ricas \"Bicicross Américas\"), Zeca Malavazzi park, Brasil 500 park, the historical museum, Saint Benedict church, and the Sagrado Coração de Jesus square.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Turismo em Paulínia \\|url\\=http://www.ferias.tur.br/informacoes/9464/paulinia\\-sp.html \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-25 \\|website\\=Ferias.tur.br}}",
"[Paulínia's carnival](/wiki/Paul%C3%ADnia%27s_carnival \"Paulínia's carnival\") is considered the largest in the Metropolitan Region of Campinas and is much appreciated by tourists, especially from towns in the area. The main schools are Hawaí 71, Ktoto, Unidos do João Aranha, among others. The [samba](/wiki/Samba_school \"Samba school\") school parades are held in the largest indoor sambodrome in Brazil.",
"Paulínia's events and tourist sites attract many tourists every year. Events such as *[Folia de Reis](/wiki/Folia_de_Reis \"Folia de Reis\")*, *Paulitália*, which is a party in honor of the Italian immigrants in Paulínia, and the Christmas of Lights stand out.",
""
] |
Declaration of the restoration of independence
----------------------------------------------
The first meeting of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR kicked off on 10 March 1990 at night. It was broadcast live on radio and television. The meeting elected and approved the Vote\-Counting Panel, the Mandate Panel, the secretariat of the inaugural session and spent a lot of time debating the procedure of the election of the [President](/wiki/President_%28government_title%29 "President (government title)") of the Supreme Council. The meeting was adjourned at 11 p.m.
Another two meetings took place on 11 March. The work began at 9 a.m. and continued late into the night. The meetings elected [Vytautas Landsbergis](/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis "Vytautas Landsbergis") as the President of the Supreme Council. It also elected a presidium and approved the powers of the President of the [Council of Ministers](/wiki/Council_of_Ministers "Council of Ministers"), [Kazimiera Danutė Prunskienė](/wiki/Kazimira_Prunskien%C4%97 "Kazimira Prunskienė").Č. Laurinavičius, V. Sirutavičius, Lietuvos istorija. Sąjūdis: nuo „Persitvarkymo“ iki Kovo 11\-osios, t. XII, I d., Vilnius, 2008\.
The third meeting adopted a set of five documents, including the provisional organic law that laid the foundation for the restoration of Independence. The Independence of the state of Lithuania was officially declared at 10:44 p.m., with 124 [deputies](/wiki/Deputy_%28legislator%29 "Deputy (legislator)") voting in favour of the reestablishment of the state, and 6 persons abstaining. No votes were cast against it.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|title\=Lietuvos Nepriklausomybės Akto signatarų biografijos\|url\=https://www.lrs.lt/sip/portal.show?p\_r\=37045\&p\_k\=1\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=28 December 2020\|website\=www.lrs.lt}}
The deputies that attended the first meeting as members of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR left the third meeting as members of the democratic parliament of the Republic of Lithuania.
The USSR had no intention of recognising Lithuania's independence. On 18 April 1990, it enforced an [economic blockade](/wiki/Economic_blockade "Economic blockade") against Lithuania, cutting or grievously restricting the supply of raw materials. The escalating tensions peaked in January 1991, when the Soviet Union deployed its paratrooper units in the [Baltic states](/wiki/Baltic_states "Baltic states"); on 12 January, armoured troops appeared on the streets of Vilnius. Then, crowds of people gathered at the Press House, the [TV tower](/wiki/TV_Tower "TV Tower"), the radio and television building, and the [House of Parliament](/wiki/House_of_parliament "House of parliament"), intent to defend the independence peacefully. During the armed aggression on the USSR's part, 14 people were killed on 13 January 1991\.
The [Russian Federation](/wiki/Russia "Russia") recognised Lithuania's full and complete independence on 29 July 1991 by signing an agreement on the grounds of cross\-border relations with Lithuania.
|
[
"Declaration of the restoration of independence\n----------------------------------------------",
"The first meeting of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR kicked off on 10 March 1990 at night. It was broadcast live on radio and television. The meeting elected and approved the Vote\\-Counting Panel, the Mandate Panel, the secretariat of the inaugural session and spent a lot of time debating the procedure of the election of the [President](/wiki/President_%28government_title%29 \"President (government title)\") of the Supreme Council. The meeting was adjourned at 11 p.m.",
"Another two meetings took place on 11 March. The work began at 9 a.m. and continued late into the night. The meetings elected [Vytautas Landsbergis](/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis \"Vytautas Landsbergis\") as the President of the Supreme Council. It also elected a presidium and approved the powers of the President of the [Council of Ministers](/wiki/Council_of_Ministers \"Council of Ministers\"), [Kazimiera Danutė Prunskienė](/wiki/Kazimira_Prunskien%C4%97 \"Kazimira Prunskienė\").Č. Laurinavičius, V. Sirutavičius, Lietuvos istorija. Sąjūdis: nuo „Persitvarkymo“ iki Kovo 11\\-osios, t. XII, I d., Vilnius, 2008\\.",
"The third meeting adopted a set of five documents, including the provisional organic law that laid the foundation for the restoration of Independence. The Independence of the state of Lithuania was officially declared at 10:44 p.m., with 124 [deputies](/wiki/Deputy_%28legislator%29 \"Deputy (legislator)\") voting in favour of the reestablishment of the state, and 6 persons abstaining. No votes were cast against it.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|title\\=Lietuvos Nepriklausomybės Akto signatarų biografijos\\|url\\=https://www.lrs.lt/sip/portal.show?p\\_r\\=37045\\&p\\_k\\=1\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2020\\|website\\=www.lrs.lt}}",
"The deputies that attended the first meeting as members of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR left the third meeting as members of the democratic parliament of the Republic of Lithuania.",
"The USSR had no intention of recognising Lithuania's independence. On 18 April 1990, it enforced an [economic blockade](/wiki/Economic_blockade \"Economic blockade\") against Lithuania, cutting or grievously restricting the supply of raw materials. The escalating tensions peaked in January 1991, when the Soviet Union deployed its paratrooper units in the [Baltic states](/wiki/Baltic_states \"Baltic states\"); on 12 January, armoured troops appeared on the streets of Vilnius. Then, crowds of people gathered at the Press House, the [TV tower](/wiki/TV_Tower \"TV Tower\"), the radio and television building, and the [House of Parliament](/wiki/House_of_parliament \"House of parliament\"), intent to defend the independence peacefully. During the armed aggression on the USSR's part, 14 people were killed on 13 January 1991\\.",
"The [Russian Federation](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") recognised Lithuania's full and complete independence on 29 July 1991 by signing an agreement on the grounds of cross\\-border relations with Lithuania.",
""
] |
Background
----------
Carra (pronounced cuh\-RAH) was born in Salina, [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"). His parents immigrated to [Boston, Massachusetts](/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts "Boston, Massachusetts"), in 1912, where they started a grocery business. One of his high school teachers arranged for a full scholarship to [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), where he studied biology. He was active in the Harvard drama club and graduated in 1931\.
He attended medical school in [Rome](/wiki/Rome%2C_Italy "Rome, Italy") for one year, but his passion for theater caused him to return to the States and to enroll in [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University "Yale University")'s drama school, from which he graduated in 1935\. At Yale he was a research assistant for Professor Alexander Dean on the first edition of his classic textbook *The Fundamentals of Play Directing*. Carra assumed the role of co\-author after Dean's death in 1939\. More than sixty years later, the book is in its fifth edition and still is widely used in colleges.
Carra taught directing at [Northwestern University](/wiki/Northwestern_University "Northwestern University") and the [University of Texas at Austin](/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin "University of Texas at Austin") before joining the drama school of Carnegie Tech, now Carnegie Mellon University, in 1947\. He eventually became the department chairman.
His directing students at CMU included [William Ball](/wiki/William_Ball_%28stage_director%29 "William Ball (stage director)"), founder of [American Conservatory Theater](/wiki/American_Conservatory_Theater "American Conservatory Theater"); [Steven Bochco](/wiki/Steven_Bochco "Steven Bochco"), creator of the hit TV series *[Hill Street Blues](/wiki/Hill_Street_Blues "Hill Street Blues")*, *[LA Law](/wiki/LA_Law "LA Law")*, and *[NYPD Blue](/wiki/NYPD_Blue "NYPD Blue")*; [Mel Shapiro](/wiki/Mel_Shapiro "Mel Shapiro"), who co\-wrote and directed the musical adaptation of *[Two Gentlemen of Verona](/wiki/Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona_%28musical%29 "Two Gentlemen of Verona (musical)")* on Broadway; and [John\-Michael Tebelak](/wiki/John-Michael_Tebelak "John-Michael Tebelak"), creator of the popular musical *[Godspell](/wiki/Godspell "Godspell")*.
He died at age 97 on March 30, 2006, at his [Squirrel Hill](/wiki/Squirrel_Hill "Squirrel Hill") home in Pittsburgh and is buried at [Homewood Cemetery](/wiki/Homewood_Cemetery "Homewood Cemetery").
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"Carra (pronounced cuh\\-RAH) was born in Salina, [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). His parents immigrated to [Boston, Massachusetts](/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts \"Boston, Massachusetts\"), in 1912, where they started a grocery business. One of his high school teachers arranged for a full scholarship to [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), where he studied biology. He was active in the Harvard drama club and graduated in 1931\\.",
"He attended medical school in [Rome](/wiki/Rome%2C_Italy \"Rome, Italy\") for one year, but his passion for theater caused him to return to the States and to enroll in [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\")'s drama school, from which he graduated in 1935\\. At Yale he was a research assistant for Professor Alexander Dean on the first edition of his classic textbook *The Fundamentals of Play Directing*. Carra assumed the role of co\\-author after Dean's death in 1939\\. More than sixty years later, the book is in its fifth edition and still is widely used in colleges.",
"Carra taught directing at [Northwestern University](/wiki/Northwestern_University \"Northwestern University\") and the [University of Texas at Austin](/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin \"University of Texas at Austin\") before joining the drama school of Carnegie Tech, now Carnegie Mellon University, in 1947\\. He eventually became the department chairman.",
"His directing students at CMU included [William Ball](/wiki/William_Ball_%28stage_director%29 \"William Ball (stage director)\"), founder of [American Conservatory Theater](/wiki/American_Conservatory_Theater \"American Conservatory Theater\"); [Steven Bochco](/wiki/Steven_Bochco \"Steven Bochco\"), creator of the hit TV series *[Hill Street Blues](/wiki/Hill_Street_Blues \"Hill Street Blues\")*, *[LA Law](/wiki/LA_Law \"LA Law\")*, and *[NYPD Blue](/wiki/NYPD_Blue \"NYPD Blue\")*; [Mel Shapiro](/wiki/Mel_Shapiro \"Mel Shapiro\"), who co\\-wrote and directed the musical adaptation of *[Two Gentlemen of Verona](/wiki/Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona_%28musical%29 \"Two Gentlemen of Verona (musical)\")* on Broadway; and [John\\-Michael Tebelak](/wiki/John-Michael_Tebelak \"John-Michael Tebelak\"), creator of the popular musical *[Godspell](/wiki/Godspell \"Godspell\")*.",
"He died at age 97 on March 30, 2006, at his [Squirrel Hill](/wiki/Squirrel_Hill \"Squirrel Hill\") home in Pittsburgh and is buried at [Homewood Cemetery](/wiki/Homewood_Cemetery \"Homewood Cemetery\").",
""
] |
Design and technology
---------------------
The encoding material sits atop a thicker substrate (usually [polycarbonate](/wiki/Polycarbonate "Polycarbonate")) that makes up the bulk of the disc and forms a dust defocusing layer. The encoding pattern follows a continuous, spiral path covering the entire disc surface and extending from the innermost track to the outermost track.
The data are stored on the disc with a [laser](/wiki/Laser "Laser") or [stamping machine](/wiki/Replication_%28optical_media%29 "Replication (optical media)"), and can be accessed when the data path is illuminated with a [laser diode](/wiki/Laser_diode "Laser diode") in an [optical disc drive](/wiki/Optical_disc_drive "Optical disc drive") that spins the disc at speeds of about 200 to 4,000 [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute "Revolutions per minute") or more, depending on the drive type, disc format, and the distance of the read head from the center of the disc (outer tracks are read at a higher data speed due to higher [linear velocities](/wiki/Constant_linear_velocity "Constant linear velocity") at the same [angular velocities](/wiki/Constant_angular_velocity "Constant angular velocity")).
Most optical discs exhibit a characteristic [iridescence](/wiki/Iridescence "Iridescence") as a result of the [diffraction grating](/wiki/Diffraction_grating "Diffraction grating") formed by their grooves.{{cite book \|author\=Shinya Yoshioka \|editor\=Shuichi Kinoshita \|title\=Pattern formations and oscillatory phenomena \|date\=2013\|publisher\=Elsevier\|location\=Waltham\|isbn\=978\-0\-12\-397014\-5\|page\=240\|edition\=Online\-Ausg.\|doi\=10\.1016/B978\-0\-12\-397014\-5\.00006\-7\|chapter\=Structural Color in Nature: Basic Observations and Analysis}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Cornwall\|first1\=Malcolm G\|title\=CD means Colourful Diffraction\|journal\=Physics Education\|date\=January 1993\|volume\=28\|issue\=1\|pages\=12–14\|doi\=10\.1088/0031\-9120/28/1/002\|bibcode\=1993PhyEd..28\...12C\|s2cid\=250742863 }} This side of the disc contains the actual data and is typically coated with a transparent material, usually [lacquer](/wiki/Lacquer "Lacquer").
The reverse side of an optical disc usually has a printed label, sometimes made of paper but often printed or stamped onto the disc itself. Unlike the 3{{frac\|1\|2}}\-inch [floppy disk](/wiki/Floppy_disk "Floppy disk"), most optical discs do not have an integrated protective casing and are therefore susceptible to data transfer problems due to scratches, fingerprints, and other environmental problems. Blu\-rays have a coating called [durabis](/wiki/Durabis "Durabis") that mitigates these problems.
Optical discs are usually between {{convert\|7\.6\|and\|30\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}} in diameter, with {{convert\|12\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}} being the most common size. The so\-called *program area* that contains the data commonly starts 25 millimetres away from the center point.{{Cite web\|url\=https://docplayer.es/74808946\-Fundamentos\-de\-hardware.html\|title\=Fundamentos De Hardware. \- PDF Free Download\|website\=docplayer.es\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-02\|archive\-date\=2022\-02\-23\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223102343/https://docplayer.es/74808946\-fundamentos\-de\-hardware.html\|url\-status\=dead}} A typical disc is about {{convert\|1\.2\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}} thick, while the track pitch (distance from the center of one track to the center of the next) ranges from 1\.6 [μm](/wiki/Micrometre "Micrometre") (for CDs) to 320 [nm](/wiki/Nanometre "Nanometre") (for [Blu\-ray discs](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc "Blu-ray Disc")).
### Recording types
An optical disc is designed to support one of three recording types: read\-only (e.g.: CD and [CD\-ROM](/wiki/CD-ROM "CD-ROM")), recordable (write\-once, e.g. [CD\-R](/wiki/CD-R "CD-R")), or re\-recordable (rewritable, e.g. [CD\-RW](/wiki/CD-RW "CD-RW")). Write\-once optical discs commonly have an organic dye (may also be a ([Phthalocyanine](/wiki/Phthalocyanine "Phthalocyanine")) [Azo dye](/wiki/Azo_dye "Azo dye"), mainly used by [Verbatim](/wiki/Verbatim_%28brand%29 "Verbatim (brand)"), or an oxonol dye, used by [Fujifilm](/wiki/Fujifilm "Fujifilm"){{Cite web \|url\=https://www.fujifilm.com/products/storage/pdf/fujifilm\_datamedia\_catalog\_dvd\_01\.pdf \|title\=Fujifilm \[Global] \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-13 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714050219/http://www.fujifilm.com/products/storage/pdf/fujifilm\_datamedia\_catalog\_dvd\_01\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2018\-07\-14 \|url\-status\=live }}) recording layer between the substrate and the reflective layer. Rewritable discs typically contain an [alloy](/wiki/Alloy "Alloy") recording layer composed of a [phase change material](/wiki/Phase_change_material "Phase change material"), most often [AgInSbTe](/wiki/AgInSbTe "AgInSbTe"), an alloy of [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"), [indium](/wiki/Indium "Indium"), [antimony](/wiki/Antimony "Antimony"), and [tellurium](/wiki/Tellurium "Tellurium").[Guides/Storage/CD\-R/CD\-RW – PC Technology Guide](http://www.pctechguide.com/33CDR-RW_CD-RW.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330222151/http://www.pctechguide.com/33CDR\-RW\_CD\-RW.htm \|date\=2009\-03\-30 }}. Pctechguide.com (1999\-02\-22\). Retrieved on 2011\-10\-09\. Azo dyes were introduced in 1996 and phthalocyanine only began to see wide use in 2002\. The type of dye and the material used on the reflective layer on an optical disc may be determined by shining a light through the disc, as different dye and material combinations have different colors.
[Blu\-ray Disc recordable](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc_recordable "Blu-ray Disc recordable") discs do not usually use an organic dye recording layer, instead using an inorganic recording layer. Those that do are known as low\-to\-high (LTH) discs and can be made in existing CD and DVD production lines, but are of lower quality than traditional Blu\-ray recordable discs.
### File systems
File systems specifically created for optical discs are [ISO9660](/wiki/ISO9660 "ISO9660") and the [Universal Disk Format](/wiki/Universal_Disk_Format "Universal Disk Format") (UDF).
ISO9660 can be extended using the "Joliet" extension to store longer file names than standalone ISO9660\. The "Rock Ridge" extension can store even longer file names and Unix/Linux\-style file permissions, but is not recognized by Windows and by DVD players and similar devices that can read data discs.
For [cross\-platform](/wiki/Cross-platform "Cross-platform") compatibility, multiple file systems can co\-exist on one disc and reference the same files.[UDF 2\.60 specification](http://www.osta.org/specs/pdf/udf260.pdf): 6\.11\.4 UDF Bridge format.[UDF 1\.02 specification](http://www.osta.org/specs/pdf/udf102.pdf): 6\.9 Requirements for DVD\-ROM
### Usage
Optical discs are often stored [in special cases](/wiki/Optical_disc_packaging "Optical disc packaging") sometimes called jewel cases and are most commonly used for [digital preservation](/wiki/Digital_preservation "Digital preservation"), storing music (e.g. for use in a [CD player](/wiki/CD_player "CD player")), video (e.g. for use in a [Blu\-ray](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc "Blu-ray Disc") player), or data and programs for [personal computers](/wiki/Personal_computer "Personal computer") (PC), as well as offline [hard copy](/wiki/Hard_copy "Hard copy") data distribution due to lower per\-unit prices than other types of media. The [Optical Storage Technology Association](/wiki/Optical_Storage_Technology_Association "Optical Storage Technology Association") (OSTA) promoted standardized [optical storage](/wiki/Optical_storage "Optical storage") formats.
Libraries and archives enact [optical media preservation](/wiki/Optical_media_preservation "Optical media preservation") procedures to ensure continued usability in the computer's optical disc drive or corresponding disc player.
[File operations](/wiki/File_operation "File operation") of traditional [mass storage](/wiki/Mass_storage "Mass storage") devices such as [flash drives](/wiki/Flash_drives "Flash drives"), [memory cards](/wiki/Memory_card "Memory card") and [hard drives](/wiki/Hard_drive "Hard drive") can be simulated using a [UDF](/wiki/Universal_Disk_Format "Universal Disk Format") live file system.
For computer data backup and physical data transfer, optical discs such as CDs and [DVDs](/wiki/DVD "DVD") are gradually being replaced with faster, smaller solid\-state devices, especially the [USB flash drive](/wiki/USB_flash_drive "USB flash drive").{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NyXU3KBCdMcC\&q\=For\+computer\+data\+backup\+and\+physical\+data\+transfer,\+optical\+discs\+such\+as\+CDs\+and\+DVDs\+are\+gradually\+being\+replaced\+with\+faster,\+smaller\+solid\-state\+devices,\+especially\+the\+USB\+flash\+drive\&pg\=PA193\|title\=An Introduction to Lasers Theory and Applications\|last\=Avadhanulu\|first\=M. N.\|date\=2001\|publisher\=S. Chand Publishing\|isbn\=9788121920711\|language\=en\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203005723/https://books.google.co.in/books?id\=NyXU3KBCdMcC\&pg\=PA193\&lpg\=PA193\&dq\=For\+computer\+data\+backup\+and\+physical\+data\+transfer,\+optical\+discs\+such\+as\+CDs\+and\+DVDs\+are\+gradually\+being\+replaced\+with\+faster,\+smaller\+solid\-state\+devices,\+especially\+the\+USB\+flash\+drive\&source\=bl\&ots\=KX0\_cTnEeE\&sig\=CXcINH7FyhROxjqO\-xgYYFWv1XM\&hl\=en\&sa\=X\&ved\=0ahUKEwiR3Z6c5obZAhWJybwKHYIHBUEQ6AEILjAB\#v\=onepage\&q\=For%20computer%20data%20backup%20and%20physical%20data%20transfer,%20optical%20discs%20such%20as%20CDs%20and%20DVDs%20are%20gradually%20being%20replaced%20with%20faster,%20smaller%20solid\-state%20devices,%20especially%20the%20USB%20flash%20drive\&f\=false\|archive\-date\=2018\-02\-03}}{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2013}} This trend is expected to continue as USB flash drives continue to increase in capacity and drop in price.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2013}}
Additionally, music, movies, games, software and TV shows purchased, shared or streamed over the Internet has significantly reduced the number of audio CDs, video DVDs and Blu\-ray discs sold annually. However, audio CDs and Blu\-rays are still preferred and bought by some, as a way of supporting their favorite works while getting something tangible in return and also since audio CDs (alongside [vinyl records](/wiki/Vinyl_record "Vinyl record") and [cassette tapes](/wiki/Cassette_tape "Cassette tape")) contain uncompressed audio without the artifacts introduced by [lossy compression](/wiki/Lossy_compression "Lossy compression") algorithms like [MP3](/wiki/MP3 "MP3"), and Blu\-rays offer better image and sound quality than streaming media, without visible compression artifacts, due to higher bitrates and more available storage space.[https://www.reviewgeek.com/6416/is\-it\-better\-to\-watch\-a\-4k\-movie\-on\-blu\-ray\-or\-through\-streaming/](https://www.reviewgeek.com/6416/is-it-better-to-watch-a-4k-movie-on-blu-ray-or-through-streaming/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412125930/https://www.reviewgeek.com/6416/is\-it\-better\-to\-watch\-a\-4k\-movie\-on\-blu\-ray\-or\-through\-streaming/ \|date\=2020\-04\-12 }} (For streaming 4K content, streaming media provider Netflix recommends a 25 Mbps internet connection, suggesting a 25 Mbit/s bitrate. <https://help.netflix.com/en/node/306> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411122511/https://help.netflix.com/en/node/306 \|date\=2020\-04\-11 }} The 2018 [Ultra HD Blu\-ray](/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray "Ultra HD Blu-ray") optical disc specification, in comparison, allows for bitrates from 72 to 144 Mbit/s for 4K content [http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\_Paper\_General\_5th\_20180216\.pdf](http://www.blu-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White_Paper_General_5th_20180216.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062740/http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\_Paper\_General\_5th\_20180216\.pdf \|date\=2020\-04\-11 }}) However, Blu\-rays may sometimes be [torrented](/wiki/BitTorrent "BitTorrent") over the internet, but torrenting may not be an option for some, due to restrictions put in place by [ISPs](/wiki/ISP "ISP") on legal or copyright grounds, low download speeds or not having enough available storage space, since the content may weigh up to several dozen gigabytes. Blu\-rays may be the only option for those looking to play large games without having to download them over an unreliable or slow internet connection, which is the reason why they are still (as of 2020\) widely used by gaming consoles, like the [PlayStation 4](/wiki/PlayStation_4 "PlayStation 4") and [Xbox One X](/wiki/Xbox_One_X "Xbox One X"). As of 2020, it is unusual for PC games to be available in a physical format like Blu\-ray.
Discs should not have any stickers and should not be stored together with paper; papers must be removed from the jewel case before storage. Discs should be handled by the edges to prevent scratching, with the thumb on the inner edge of the disc. The ISO Standard 18938:2014 is about best optical disc handling techniques. Optical disc cleaning should never be done in a circular pattern, to avoid concentric cirles from forming on the disc. Improper cleaning can scratch the disc. Recordable discs should not be exposed to light for extended periods of time. Optical discs should be stored in dry and cool conditions to increase longevity, with temperatures between \-10 and 23 °C, never exceeding 32 °C, and with humidity never falling below 10%, with recommended storage at 20 to 50% of humidity without fluctuations of more than ±10%.{{citation \|title\=ISO 18938:2014 \|url\=https://www.iso.org/standard/63076\.html \|publisher\=\[\[ISO]]}}
### Durability
[thumb\|Optical discs are not vulnerable to water.](/wiki/File:Water_running_on_CD-RW_-_label_side.jpg "Water running on CD-RW - label side.jpg")
Although optical discs are more durable than earlier audio\-visual and data storage formats, they are susceptible to environmental and daily\-use damage, if handled improperly.
Optical discs are not prone to uncontrollable [catastrophic failures](/wiki/Catastrophic_failure "Catastrophic failure") such as [head crashes](/wiki/Head_crash "Head crash"), [power surges](/wiki/Voltage_spike "Voltage spike"), or exposure to water like [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drive "Hard disk drive") and [flash storage](/wiki/Flash_storage "Flash storage"), since optical drives' storage controllers are not tied to optical discs themselves like with hard disk drives and [flash memory controllers](/wiki/Flash_memory_controller "Flash memory controller"), and a disc is usually recoverable from a defective optical drive by pushing an unsharp needle into the emergency ejection pinhole, and has no point of immediate water ingress and no integrated circuitry.
### Safety
As the media itself only is accessed through a laser beam and has no internal control circuitry, it cannot contain malicious hardware in the same way as so\-called *rubber\-duckies* or *[USB killers](/wiki/USB_killer "USB killer")*. Like any data storage media, optical discs can contain malicious *data,* they are able to contain and spread [malware](/wiki/Malware "Malware") \- as happened in the case of [Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal](/wiki/Sony_BMG_copy_protection_rootkit_scandal "Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal") where Sony misused discs by pre\-loading them with malware.{{Cite web \|title\=Inside the Spyware Scandal \|url\=https://www.technologyreview.com/2006/05/01/229261/inside\-the\-spyware\-scandal/ \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-15 \|website\=MIT Technology Review \|language\=en}}
Many types of optical discs are factory\-pressed or finalized [Write once read many](/wiki/Write_once_read_many "Write once read many") storage devices and would therefore not be effective at spreading [computer worms](/wiki/Computer_worm "Computer worm") that are designed to spread by copying themselves onto optical media, because data on those discs can not be modified once pressed or written. However, re\-writable disc technologies (such as [CD\-RW](/wiki/CD-RW "CD-RW")) *are* able to spread this type of malware.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-05\-16 \|title\=Autorun worm definition – Glossary {{!}} NordVPN \|url\=https://nordvpn.com/cybersecurity/glossary/autorun\-worm/ \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-15 \|website\=nordvpn.com \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Design and technology\n---------------------",
"The encoding material sits atop a thicker substrate (usually [polycarbonate](/wiki/Polycarbonate \"Polycarbonate\")) that makes up the bulk of the disc and forms a dust defocusing layer. The encoding pattern follows a continuous, spiral path covering the entire disc surface and extending from the innermost track to the outermost track.",
"The data are stored on the disc with a [laser](/wiki/Laser \"Laser\") or [stamping machine](/wiki/Replication_%28optical_media%29 \"Replication (optical media)\"), and can be accessed when the data path is illuminated with a [laser diode](/wiki/Laser_diode \"Laser diode\") in an [optical disc drive](/wiki/Optical_disc_drive \"Optical disc drive\") that spins the disc at speeds of about 200 to 4,000 [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute \"Revolutions per minute\") or more, depending on the drive type, disc format, and the distance of the read head from the center of the disc (outer tracks are read at a higher data speed due to higher [linear velocities](/wiki/Constant_linear_velocity \"Constant linear velocity\") at the same [angular velocities](/wiki/Constant_angular_velocity \"Constant angular velocity\")).",
"Most optical discs exhibit a characteristic [iridescence](/wiki/Iridescence \"Iridescence\") as a result of the [diffraction grating](/wiki/Diffraction_grating \"Diffraction grating\") formed by their grooves.{{cite book \\|author\\=Shinya Yoshioka \\|editor\\=Shuichi Kinoshita \\|title\\=Pattern formations and oscillatory phenomena \\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Elsevier\\|location\\=Waltham\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-12\\-397014\\-5\\|page\\=240\\|edition\\=Online\\-Ausg.\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/B978\\-0\\-12\\-397014\\-5\\.00006\\-7\\|chapter\\=Structural Color in Nature: Basic Observations and Analysis}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Cornwall\\|first1\\=Malcolm G\\|title\\=CD means Colourful Diffraction\\|journal\\=Physics Education\\|date\\=January 1993\\|volume\\=28\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=12–14\\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0031\\-9120/28/1/002\\|bibcode\\=1993PhyEd..28\\...12C\\|s2cid\\=250742863 }} This side of the disc contains the actual data and is typically coated with a transparent material, usually [lacquer](/wiki/Lacquer \"Lacquer\").",
"The reverse side of an optical disc usually has a printed label, sometimes made of paper but often printed or stamped onto the disc itself. Unlike the 3{{frac\\|1\\|2}}\\-inch [floppy disk](/wiki/Floppy_disk \"Floppy disk\"), most optical discs do not have an integrated protective casing and are therefore susceptible to data transfer problems due to scratches, fingerprints, and other environmental problems. Blu\\-rays have a coating called [durabis](/wiki/Durabis \"Durabis\") that mitigates these problems.",
"Optical discs are usually between {{convert\\|7\\.6\\|and\\|30\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} in diameter, with {{convert\\|12\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} being the most common size. The so\\-called *program area* that contains the data commonly starts 25 millimetres away from the center point.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://docplayer.es/74808946\\-Fundamentos\\-de\\-hardware.html\\|title\\=Fundamentos De Hardware. \\- PDF Free Download\\|website\\=docplayer.es\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-02\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-23\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223102343/https://docplayer.es/74808946\\-fundamentos\\-de\\-hardware.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} A typical disc is about {{convert\\|1\\.2\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} thick, while the track pitch (distance from the center of one track to the center of the next) ranges from 1\\.6 [μm](/wiki/Micrometre \"Micrometre\") (for CDs) to 320 [nm](/wiki/Nanometre \"Nanometre\") (for [Blu\\-ray discs](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc \"Blu-ray Disc\")).",
"### Recording types",
"An optical disc is designed to support one of three recording types: read\\-only (e.g.: CD and [CD\\-ROM](/wiki/CD-ROM \"CD-ROM\")), recordable (write\\-once, e.g. [CD\\-R](/wiki/CD-R \"CD-R\")), or re\\-recordable (rewritable, e.g. [CD\\-RW](/wiki/CD-RW \"CD-RW\")). Write\\-once optical discs commonly have an organic dye (may also be a ([Phthalocyanine](/wiki/Phthalocyanine \"Phthalocyanine\")) [Azo dye](/wiki/Azo_dye \"Azo dye\"), mainly used by [Verbatim](/wiki/Verbatim_%28brand%29 \"Verbatim (brand)\"), or an oxonol dye, used by [Fujifilm](/wiki/Fujifilm \"Fujifilm\"){{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fujifilm.com/products/storage/pdf/fujifilm\\_datamedia\\_catalog\\_dvd\\_01\\.pdf \\|title\\=Fujifilm \\[Global] \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-13 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714050219/http://www.fujifilm.com/products/storage/pdf/fujifilm\\_datamedia\\_catalog\\_dvd\\_01\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-14 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}) recording layer between the substrate and the reflective layer. Rewritable discs typically contain an [alloy](/wiki/Alloy \"Alloy\") recording layer composed of a [phase change material](/wiki/Phase_change_material \"Phase change material\"), most often [AgInSbTe](/wiki/AgInSbTe \"AgInSbTe\"), an alloy of [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"), [indium](/wiki/Indium \"Indium\"), [antimony](/wiki/Antimony \"Antimony\"), and [tellurium](/wiki/Tellurium \"Tellurium\").[Guides/Storage/CD\\-R/CD\\-RW – PC Technology Guide](http://www.pctechguide.com/33CDR-RW_CD-RW.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330222151/http://www.pctechguide.com/33CDR\\-RW\\_CD\\-RW.htm \\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-30 }}. Pctechguide.com (1999\\-02\\-22\\). Retrieved on 2011\\-10\\-09\\. Azo dyes were introduced in 1996 and phthalocyanine only began to see wide use in 2002\\. The type of dye and the material used on the reflective layer on an optical disc may be determined by shining a light through the disc, as different dye and material combinations have different colors.",
"[Blu\\-ray Disc recordable](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc_recordable \"Blu-ray Disc recordable\") discs do not usually use an organic dye recording layer, instead using an inorganic recording layer. Those that do are known as low\\-to\\-high (LTH) discs and can be made in existing CD and DVD production lines, but are of lower quality than traditional Blu\\-ray recordable discs.",
"### File systems",
"File systems specifically created for optical discs are [ISO9660](/wiki/ISO9660 \"ISO9660\") and the [Universal Disk Format](/wiki/Universal_Disk_Format \"Universal Disk Format\") (UDF).",
"ISO9660 can be extended using the \"Joliet\" extension to store longer file names than standalone ISO9660\\. The \"Rock Ridge\" extension can store even longer file names and Unix/Linux\\-style file permissions, but is not recognized by Windows and by DVD players and similar devices that can read data discs.",
"For [cross\\-platform](/wiki/Cross-platform \"Cross-platform\") compatibility, multiple file systems can co\\-exist on one disc and reference the same files.[UDF 2\\.60 specification](http://www.osta.org/specs/pdf/udf260.pdf): 6\\.11\\.4 UDF Bridge format.[UDF 1\\.02 specification](http://www.osta.org/specs/pdf/udf102.pdf): 6\\.9 Requirements for DVD\\-ROM",
"### Usage",
"Optical discs are often stored [in special cases](/wiki/Optical_disc_packaging \"Optical disc packaging\") sometimes called jewel cases and are most commonly used for [digital preservation](/wiki/Digital_preservation \"Digital preservation\"), storing music (e.g. for use in a [CD player](/wiki/CD_player \"CD player\")), video (e.g. for use in a [Blu\\-ray](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc \"Blu-ray Disc\") player), or data and programs for [personal computers](/wiki/Personal_computer \"Personal computer\") (PC), as well as offline [hard copy](/wiki/Hard_copy \"Hard copy\") data distribution due to lower per\\-unit prices than other types of media. The [Optical Storage Technology Association](/wiki/Optical_Storage_Technology_Association \"Optical Storage Technology Association\") (OSTA) promoted standardized [optical storage](/wiki/Optical_storage \"Optical storage\") formats.",
"Libraries and archives enact [optical media preservation](/wiki/Optical_media_preservation \"Optical media preservation\") procedures to ensure continued usability in the computer's optical disc drive or corresponding disc player.",
"[File operations](/wiki/File_operation \"File operation\") of traditional [mass storage](/wiki/Mass_storage \"Mass storage\") devices such as [flash drives](/wiki/Flash_drives \"Flash drives\"), [memory cards](/wiki/Memory_card \"Memory card\") and [hard drives](/wiki/Hard_drive \"Hard drive\") can be simulated using a [UDF](/wiki/Universal_Disk_Format \"Universal Disk Format\") live file system.",
"For computer data backup and physical data transfer, optical discs such as CDs and [DVDs](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") are gradually being replaced with faster, smaller solid\\-state devices, especially the [USB flash drive](/wiki/USB_flash_drive \"USB flash drive\").{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NyXU3KBCdMcC\\&q\\=For\\+computer\\+data\\+backup\\+and\\+physical\\+data\\+transfer,\\+optical\\+discs\\+such\\+as\\+CDs\\+and\\+DVDs\\+are\\+gradually\\+being\\+replaced\\+with\\+faster,\\+smaller\\+solid\\-state\\+devices,\\+especially\\+the\\+USB\\+flash\\+drive\\&pg\\=PA193\\|title\\=An Introduction to Lasers Theory and Applications\\|last\\=Avadhanulu\\|first\\=M. N.\\|date\\=2001\\|publisher\\=S. Chand Publishing\\|isbn\\=9788121920711\\|language\\=en\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203005723/https://books.google.co.in/books?id\\=NyXU3KBCdMcC\\&pg\\=PA193\\&lpg\\=PA193\\&dq\\=For\\+computer\\+data\\+backup\\+and\\+physical\\+data\\+transfer,\\+optical\\+discs\\+such\\+as\\+CDs\\+and\\+DVDs\\+are\\+gradually\\+being\\+replaced\\+with\\+faster,\\+smaller\\+solid\\-state\\+devices,\\+especially\\+the\\+USB\\+flash\\+drive\\&source\\=bl\\&ots\\=KX0\\_cTnEeE\\&sig\\=CXcINH7FyhROxjqO\\-xgYYFWv1XM\\&hl\\=en\\&sa\\=X\\&ved\\=0ahUKEwiR3Z6c5obZAhWJybwKHYIHBUEQ6AEILjAB\\#v\\=onepage\\&q\\=For%20computer%20data%20backup%20and%20physical%20data%20transfer,%20optical%20discs%20such%20as%20CDs%20and%20DVDs%20are%20gradually%20being%20replaced%20with%20faster,%20smaller%20solid\\-state%20devices,%20especially%20the%20USB%20flash%20drive\\&f\\=false\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-03}}{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2013}} This trend is expected to continue as USB flash drives continue to increase in capacity and drop in price.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2013}}",
"Additionally, music, movies, games, software and TV shows purchased, shared or streamed over the Internet has significantly reduced the number of audio CDs, video DVDs and Blu\\-ray discs sold annually. However, audio CDs and Blu\\-rays are still preferred and bought by some, as a way of supporting their favorite works while getting something tangible in return and also since audio CDs (alongside [vinyl records](/wiki/Vinyl_record \"Vinyl record\") and [cassette tapes](/wiki/Cassette_tape \"Cassette tape\")) contain uncompressed audio without the artifacts introduced by [lossy compression](/wiki/Lossy_compression \"Lossy compression\") algorithms like [MP3](/wiki/MP3 \"MP3\"), and Blu\\-rays offer better image and sound quality than streaming media, without visible compression artifacts, due to higher bitrates and more available storage space.[https://www.reviewgeek.com/6416/is\\-it\\-better\\-to\\-watch\\-a\\-4k\\-movie\\-on\\-blu\\-ray\\-or\\-through\\-streaming/](https://www.reviewgeek.com/6416/is-it-better-to-watch-a-4k-movie-on-blu-ray-or-through-streaming/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412125930/https://www.reviewgeek.com/6416/is\\-it\\-better\\-to\\-watch\\-a\\-4k\\-movie\\-on\\-blu\\-ray\\-or\\-through\\-streaming/ \\|date\\=2020\\-04\\-12 }} (For streaming 4K content, streaming media provider Netflix recommends a 25 Mbps internet connection, suggesting a 25 Mbit/s bitrate. <https://help.netflix.com/en/node/306> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411122511/https://help.netflix.com/en/node/306 \\|date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 }} The 2018 [Ultra HD Blu\\-ray](/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray \"Ultra HD Blu-ray\") optical disc specification, in comparison, allows for bitrates from 72 to 144 Mbit/s for 4K content [http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\\_Paper\\_General\\_5th\\_20180216\\.pdf](http://www.blu-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White_Paper_General_5th_20180216.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062740/http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\\_Paper\\_General\\_5th\\_20180216\\.pdf \\|date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 }}) However, Blu\\-rays may sometimes be [torrented](/wiki/BitTorrent \"BitTorrent\") over the internet, but torrenting may not be an option for some, due to restrictions put in place by [ISPs](/wiki/ISP \"ISP\") on legal or copyright grounds, low download speeds or not having enough available storage space, since the content may weigh up to several dozen gigabytes. Blu\\-rays may be the only option for those looking to play large games without having to download them over an unreliable or slow internet connection, which is the reason why they are still (as of 2020\\) widely used by gaming consoles, like the [PlayStation 4](/wiki/PlayStation_4 \"PlayStation 4\") and [Xbox One X](/wiki/Xbox_One_X \"Xbox One X\"). As of 2020, it is unusual for PC games to be available in a physical format like Blu\\-ray.",
"Discs should not have any stickers and should not be stored together with paper; papers must be removed from the jewel case before storage. Discs should be handled by the edges to prevent scratching, with the thumb on the inner edge of the disc. The ISO Standard 18938:2014 is about best optical disc handling techniques. Optical disc cleaning should never be done in a circular pattern, to avoid concentric cirles from forming on the disc. Improper cleaning can scratch the disc. Recordable discs should not be exposed to light for extended periods of time. Optical discs should be stored in dry and cool conditions to increase longevity, with temperatures between \\-10 and 23 °C, never exceeding 32 °C, and with humidity never falling below 10%, with recommended storage at 20 to 50% of humidity without fluctuations of more than ±10%.{{citation \\|title\\=ISO 18938:2014 \\|url\\=https://www.iso.org/standard/63076\\.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ISO]]}}",
"### Durability",
"[thumb\\|Optical discs are not vulnerable to water.](/wiki/File:Water_running_on_CD-RW_-_label_side.jpg \"Water running on CD-RW - label side.jpg\")\nAlthough optical discs are more durable than earlier audio\\-visual and data storage formats, they are susceptible to environmental and daily\\-use damage, if handled improperly.",
"Optical discs are not prone to uncontrollable [catastrophic failures](/wiki/Catastrophic_failure \"Catastrophic failure\") such as [head crashes](/wiki/Head_crash \"Head crash\"), [power surges](/wiki/Voltage_spike \"Voltage spike\"), or exposure to water like [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drive \"Hard disk drive\") and [flash storage](/wiki/Flash_storage \"Flash storage\"), since optical drives' storage controllers are not tied to optical discs themselves like with hard disk drives and [flash memory controllers](/wiki/Flash_memory_controller \"Flash memory controller\"), and a disc is usually recoverable from a defective optical drive by pushing an unsharp needle into the emergency ejection pinhole, and has no point of immediate water ingress and no integrated circuitry.",
"### Safety",
"As the media itself only is accessed through a laser beam and has no internal control circuitry, it cannot contain malicious hardware in the same way as so\\-called *rubber\\-duckies* or *[USB killers](/wiki/USB_killer \"USB killer\")*. Like any data storage media, optical discs can contain malicious *data,* they are able to contain and spread [malware](/wiki/Malware \"Malware\") \\- as happened in the case of [Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal](/wiki/Sony_BMG_copy_protection_rootkit_scandal \"Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal\") where Sony misused discs by pre\\-loading them with malware.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Inside the Spyware Scandal \\|url\\=https://www.technologyreview.com/2006/05/01/229261/inside\\-the\\-spyware\\-scandal/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-15 \\|website\\=MIT Technology Review \\|language\\=en}}",
"Many types of optical discs are factory\\-pressed or finalized [Write once read many](/wiki/Write_once_read_many \"Write once read many\") storage devices and would therefore not be effective at spreading [computer worms](/wiki/Computer_worm \"Computer worm\") that are designed to spread by copying themselves onto optical media, because data on those discs can not be modified once pressed or written. However, re\\-writable disc technologies (such as [CD\\-RW](/wiki/CD-RW \"CD-RW\")) *are* able to spread this type of malware.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-16 \\|title\\=Autorun worm definition – Glossary {{!}} NordVPN \\|url\\=https://nordvpn.com/cybersecurity/glossary/autorun\\-worm/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-15 \\|website\\=nordvpn.com \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
### First\-generation
From the start optical discs were used to store broadcast\-quality analog video, and later digital media such as music or computer software. The [LaserDisc](/wiki/LaserDisc "LaserDisc") format stored [analog video](/wiki/Analog_video "Analog video") signals for the distribution of [home video](/wiki/Home_video "Home video"), but commercially lost to the [VHS](/wiki/VHS "VHS") [videocassette](/wiki/Videocassette%23Cassette_formats "Videocassette#Cassette formats") format, due mainly to its high cost and non\-re\-recordability; other first\-generation disc formats were designed only to store digital data and were not initially capable of use as a [digital video](/wiki/Digital_video "Digital video") medium.
Most first\-generation disc devices had an infrared laser reading head. The minimum size of the laser spot is proportional to the [wavelength](/wiki/Wavelength "Wavelength") of the laser, so wavelength is a limiting factor upon the amount of information that can be stored in a given physical area on the disc. The infrared range is beyond the long\-wavelength end of the visible light spectrum, so it supports less density than shorter\-wavelength visible light. One example of high\-density data storage capacity, achieved with an infrared laser, is 700 MB of net user data for a 12 cm compact disc.
Other factors that affect data storage density include: the existence of multiple layers of data on the disc, the method of rotation ([Constant linear velocity](/wiki/Constant_linear_velocity "Constant linear velocity") (CLV), [Constant angular velocity](/wiki/Constant_angular_velocity "Constant angular velocity") (CAV), or zoned\-CAV), the composition of lands and pits, and how much margin is unused is at the center and the edge of the disc.
Types of Optical Discs:
* [Compact disc](/wiki/Compact_disc "Compact disc") (CD) and derivatives
+ [Audio CD](/wiki/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio "Compact Disc Digital Audio")
+ [Video CD](/wiki/Video_CD "Video CD") (VCD)
+ [Super Video CD](/wiki/Super_Video_CD "Super Video CD")
+ [CD Video](/wiki/CD_Video "CD Video")
+ [CD\-Interactive](/wiki/CD-Interactive "CD-Interactive")
* [LaserDisc](/wiki/LaserDisc "LaserDisc")
* [GD\-ROM](/wiki/GD-ROM "GD-ROM")
* [Phase\-change Dual](/wiki/Phase-change_Dual "Phase-change Dual")
* [Double Density Compact Disc](/wiki/Double_Density_Compact_Disc "Double Density Compact Disc") (DDCD)
* [Magneto\-optical disc](/wiki/Magneto-optical_disc "Magneto-optical disc")
* [MiniDisc](/wiki/MiniDisc "MiniDisc") (MD)
+ [MD Data](/wiki/MD_Data "MD Data")
* [Write Once Read Many](/wiki/Write_Once_Read_Many "Write Once Read Many") (WORM)
#### Laserdisc
In the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") in 1969, [Philips](/wiki/Philips "Philips") Research [physicist](/wiki/Physicist "Physicist"), Pieter Kramer invented an optical [videodisc](/wiki/Videodisc "Videodisc") in reflective mode with a protective layer read by a focused [laser](/wiki/Laser "Laser") beam {{US Patent\|5,068,846}}, filed 1972, issued 1991\. Kramer's physical format is used in all optical discs.
In 1975, Philips and MCA began to work together, and in 1978, commercially much too late, they presented their long\-awaited [Laserdisc](/wiki/Laserdisc "Laserdisc") in [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta"). MCA delivered the discs and Philips the players. However, the presentation was a commercial failure, and the cooperation ended.
In Japan and the U.S., [Pioneer](/wiki/Pioneer_Corporation "Pioneer Corporation") succeeded with the Laserdisc until the advent of the DVD. In 1979, Philips and [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony"), in consortium, successfully developed the [audio compact disc](/wiki/Audio_compact_disc "Audio compact disc").
#### WORM drive
In 1979, Exxon STAR Systems in Pasadena, CA built a computer controlled WORM drive that utilized thin film coatings of Tellurium and Selenium on a 12" diameter glass disk. The recording system utilized blue light at 457 nm to record and red light at 632\.8 nm to read. STAR Systems was bought by Storage Technology Corporation (STC) in 1981 and moved to Boulder, CO. Development of the WORM technology was continued using 14" diameter aluminum substrates. Beta testing of the disk drives, originally labeled the Laser Storage Drive 2000 (LSD\-2000\), was only moderately successful. Many of the disks were shipped to RCA Laboratories (now David Sarnoff Research Center) to be used in the Library of Congress archiving efforts. The STC disks utilized a sealed cartridge with an optical window for protection {{US Patent\|4,542,495}}.
#### CD\-ROM
The [CD\-ROM](/wiki/CD-ROM "CD-ROM") format was developed by Sony and [Philips](/wiki/Philips "Philips"), introduced in 1984, as an extension of [Compact Disc Digital Audio](/wiki/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio "Compact Disc Digital Audio") and adapted to hold any form of digital data. The same year, Sony demonstrated a [LaserDisc](/wiki/LaserDisc "LaserDisc") data storage format, with a larger data capacity of 3\.28 GB.[Japanese PCs (1984\)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbh1XP4kCT4) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707091011/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=rbh1XP4kCT4 \|date\=2017\-07\-07 }} (14:24\), *[Computer Chronicles](/wiki/Computer_Chronicles "Computer Chronicles")*
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Optex, Inc. of Rockville, MD, built an erasable optical digital video disc system {{US Patent\|5,113,387}} using Electron Trapping Optical Media (ETOM){{US Patent\|5,128,849}}. Although this technology was written up in Video Pro Magazine's December 1994 issue promising "the death of the tape", it was never marketed.
Magnetic disks found limited applications in storing the data in large amount. So, there was the need of finding some more data storing techniques. As a result, it was found that by using optical means large data storing devices can be made that in turn gave rise to the optical discs. The very first application of this kind was the compact disc (CD), which was used in audio systems.
Sony and Philips developed the first generation of the CDs in the mid\-1980s with the complete specifications for these devices. With the help of this kind of technology the possibility of representing the analog signal into digital signal was exploited to a great level. For this purpose, the 16\-bit samples of the analog signal were taken at the rate of [44,100 samples per second](/wiki/44%2C100_Hz "44,100 Hz"). This sample rate was based on the [Nyquist rate](/wiki/Nyquist_rate "Nyquist rate") of 40,000 samples per second required to capture the audible frequency range to 20 kHz without aliasing, with an additional tolerance to allow the use of less\-than\-perfect analog audio pre\-filters to remove any higher frequencies.Hass, J. *Introduction to Computer Music*, Indiana University CECM (retrieved 8 October 2014\), Volume One, Chapter Five: Digital Audio.{{cite web\|title\=Chapter Five: Principles of Digital Audio\|url\=http://www.indiana.edu/\~emusic/etext/digital\_audio/chapter5\_rate.shtml\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608134439/http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eemusic/etext/digital\_audio/chapter5\_rate.shtml\|archive\-date\=2014\-06\-08\|access\-date\=2014\-10\-08}} The first version of the standard allowed up to 74 minutes of music or 650 MB of data storage.
|
[
"### First\\-generation",
"From the start optical discs were used to store broadcast\\-quality analog video, and later digital media such as music or computer software. The [LaserDisc](/wiki/LaserDisc \"LaserDisc\") format stored [analog video](/wiki/Analog_video \"Analog video\") signals for the distribution of [home video](/wiki/Home_video \"Home video\"), but commercially lost to the [VHS](/wiki/VHS \"VHS\") [videocassette](/wiki/Videocassette%23Cassette_formats \"Videocassette#Cassette formats\") format, due mainly to its high cost and non\\-re\\-recordability; other first\\-generation disc formats were designed only to store digital data and were not initially capable of use as a [digital video](/wiki/Digital_video \"Digital video\") medium.",
"Most first\\-generation disc devices had an infrared laser reading head. The minimum size of the laser spot is proportional to the [wavelength](/wiki/Wavelength \"Wavelength\") of the laser, so wavelength is a limiting factor upon the amount of information that can be stored in a given physical area on the disc. The infrared range is beyond the long\\-wavelength end of the visible light spectrum, so it supports less density than shorter\\-wavelength visible light. One example of high\\-density data storage capacity, achieved with an infrared laser, is 700 MB of net user data for a 12 cm compact disc.",
"Other factors that affect data storage density include: the existence of multiple layers of data on the disc, the method of rotation ([Constant linear velocity](/wiki/Constant_linear_velocity \"Constant linear velocity\") (CLV), [Constant angular velocity](/wiki/Constant_angular_velocity \"Constant angular velocity\") (CAV), or zoned\\-CAV), the composition of lands and pits, and how much margin is unused is at the center and the edge of the disc.",
"Types of Optical Discs:\n* [Compact disc](/wiki/Compact_disc \"Compact disc\") (CD) and derivatives\n\t+ [Audio CD](/wiki/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio \"Compact Disc Digital Audio\")\n\t+ [Video CD](/wiki/Video_CD \"Video CD\") (VCD)\n\t+ [Super Video CD](/wiki/Super_Video_CD \"Super Video CD\")\n\t+ [CD Video](/wiki/CD_Video \"CD Video\")\n\t+ [CD\\-Interactive](/wiki/CD-Interactive \"CD-Interactive\")\n* [LaserDisc](/wiki/LaserDisc \"LaserDisc\")\n* [GD\\-ROM](/wiki/GD-ROM \"GD-ROM\")\n* [Phase\\-change Dual](/wiki/Phase-change_Dual \"Phase-change Dual\")\n* [Double Density Compact Disc](/wiki/Double_Density_Compact_Disc \"Double Density Compact Disc\") (DDCD)\n* [Magneto\\-optical disc](/wiki/Magneto-optical_disc \"Magneto-optical disc\")\n* [MiniDisc](/wiki/MiniDisc \"MiniDisc\") (MD)\n\t+ [MD Data](/wiki/MD_Data \"MD Data\")\n* [Write Once Read Many](/wiki/Write_Once_Read_Many \"Write Once Read Many\") (WORM)",
"#### Laserdisc",
"In the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") in 1969, [Philips](/wiki/Philips \"Philips\") Research [physicist](/wiki/Physicist \"Physicist\"), Pieter Kramer invented an optical [videodisc](/wiki/Videodisc \"Videodisc\") in reflective mode with a protective layer read by a focused [laser](/wiki/Laser \"Laser\") beam {{US Patent\\|5,068,846}}, filed 1972, issued 1991\\. Kramer's physical format is used in all optical discs.",
"In 1975, Philips and MCA began to work together, and in 1978, commercially much too late, they presented their long\\-awaited [Laserdisc](/wiki/Laserdisc \"Laserdisc\") in [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\"). MCA delivered the discs and Philips the players. However, the presentation was a commercial failure, and the cooperation ended.",
"In Japan and the U.S., [Pioneer](/wiki/Pioneer_Corporation \"Pioneer Corporation\") succeeded with the Laserdisc until the advent of the DVD. In 1979, Philips and [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\"), in consortium, successfully developed the [audio compact disc](/wiki/Audio_compact_disc \"Audio compact disc\").",
"#### WORM drive",
"In 1979, Exxon STAR Systems in Pasadena, CA built a computer controlled WORM drive that utilized thin film coatings of Tellurium and Selenium on a 12\" diameter glass disk. The recording system utilized blue light at 457 nm to record and red light at 632\\.8 nm to read. STAR Systems was bought by Storage Technology Corporation (STC) in 1981 and moved to Boulder, CO. Development of the WORM technology was continued using 14\" diameter aluminum substrates. Beta testing of the disk drives, originally labeled the Laser Storage Drive 2000 (LSD\\-2000\\), was only moderately successful. Many of the disks were shipped to RCA Laboratories (now David Sarnoff Research Center) to be used in the Library of Congress archiving efforts. The STC disks utilized a sealed cartridge with an optical window for protection {{US Patent\\|4,542,495}}.",
"#### CD\\-ROM",
"The [CD\\-ROM](/wiki/CD-ROM \"CD-ROM\") format was developed by Sony and [Philips](/wiki/Philips \"Philips\"), introduced in 1984, as an extension of [Compact Disc Digital Audio](/wiki/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio \"Compact Disc Digital Audio\") and adapted to hold any form of digital data. The same year, Sony demonstrated a [LaserDisc](/wiki/LaserDisc \"LaserDisc\") data storage format, with a larger data capacity of 3\\.28 GB.[Japanese PCs (1984\\)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbh1XP4kCT4) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707091011/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=rbh1XP4kCT4 \\|date\\=2017\\-07\\-07 }} (14:24\\), *[Computer Chronicles](/wiki/Computer_Chronicles \"Computer Chronicles\")*",
"In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Optex, Inc. of Rockville, MD, built an erasable optical digital video disc system {{US Patent\\|5,113,387}} using Electron Trapping Optical Media (ETOM){{US Patent\\|5,128,849}}. Although this technology was written up in Video Pro Magazine's December 1994 issue promising \"the death of the tape\", it was never marketed.",
"Magnetic disks found limited applications in storing the data in large amount. So, there was the need of finding some more data storing techniques. As a result, it was found that by using optical means large data storing devices can be made that in turn gave rise to the optical discs. The very first application of this kind was the compact disc (CD), which was used in audio systems.",
"Sony and Philips developed the first generation of the CDs in the mid\\-1980s with the complete specifications for these devices. With the help of this kind of technology the possibility of representing the analog signal into digital signal was exploited to a great level. For this purpose, the 16\\-bit samples of the analog signal were taken at the rate of [44,100 samples per second](/wiki/44%2C100_Hz \"44,100 Hz\"). This sample rate was based on the [Nyquist rate](/wiki/Nyquist_rate \"Nyquist rate\") of 40,000 samples per second required to capture the audible frequency range to 20 kHz without aliasing, with an additional tolerance to allow the use of less\\-than\\-perfect analog audio pre\\-filters to remove any higher frequencies.Hass, J. *Introduction to Computer Music*, Indiana University CECM (retrieved 8 October 2014\\), Volume One, Chapter Five: Digital Audio.{{cite web\\|title\\=Chapter Five: Principles of Digital Audio\\|url\\=http://www.indiana.edu/\\~emusic/etext/digital\\_audio/chapter5\\_rate.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608134439/http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eemusic/etext/digital\\_audio/chapter5\\_rate.shtml\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-06\\-08\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-08}} The first version of the standard allowed up to 74 minutes of music or 650 MB of data storage.",
""
] |
Surface error scanning
----------------------
[thumb\|Error rate measurement on a DVD\+R. The error rate is still within a healthy range.](/wiki/File:QPxTool_DVD_error_rate_graph.png "QPxTool DVD error rate graph.png")
{{expand section\|date\=July 2020}}
Optical media can [predictively](/wiki/Predictive_failure_analysis "Predictive failure analysis") be scanned for errors and [media deterioration](/wiki/Disc_rot "Disc rot") well before any data becomes unreadable.{{Cite web\|url\=https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/faq.html\|title\=QPxTool \- check the quality\|website\=qpxtool.sourceforge.io\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-06\|archive\-date\=2020\-08\-06\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806024813/https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/faq.html\|url\-status\=live}} Optical formats include some redundancy for [error correction](/wiki/Error_correction "Error correction"), which works until the amount of error exceeds a threshold. A higher rate of errors may indicate deteriorating and/or low quality media, physical damage, an unclean surface and/or media written using a defective optical drive.
Precise error scanning requires access to the raw, uncorrected readout of a disc, which is not always provided by a drive. As a result, support of this functionality varies per optical drive manufacturer and model. On ordinary drives without this functionality, it is possible to still look for unexpected reduction in read speed as an indirect, much less reliable measure.{{cite web\| url \= https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/supported.html\| title \= List of supported devices by disc quality scanning software QPxTool\| access\-date \= 2020\-07\-06\| archive\-date \= 2020\-07\-06\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200706162837/https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/supported.html\| url\-status \= live}}
Optical media, such as [CDs](/wiki/Compact_disc "Compact disc") and [DVDs](/wiki/DVD "DVD"), can be scanned to detect errors and signs of deterioration well before data becomes unreadable. These formats include built\-in [error correction](/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction "Error detection and correction") mechanisms, which function by adding redundant data. However, once the rate of errors surpasses the correction threshold, the media becomes vulnerable to failure. A high error rate can signal physical deterioration, low\-quality manufacturing, surface contamination, or data recorded by a faulty optical drive.
Accurate error scanning requires access to a disc's raw, uncorrected readout. However, not all optical drives provide this capability, and support for this feature can vary significantly between manufacturers and drive models. On drives lacking raw data access, users may rely on a less precise method: monitoring unexpected reductions in read speed, though this is a far less reliable indicator of disc health.
Several specialized tools are available for performing error scans on optical media. Popular programs include [Nero DiscSpeed](/wiki/Nero_DiscSpeed "Nero DiscSpeed"), [K\-Probe](/wiki/KProbe "KProbe"), [Opti Drive Control](https://www.cdspeed2000.com/) (previously known as "CD Speed 2000"), and [DVD Info Pro](http://www.dvdinfopro.com/) for [Windows](/wiki/Windows "Windows"). For cross\-platform users, [QPxTool](https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/) is available to help monitor and maintain optical media integrity. Each of these tools allows for detailed analysis of the error rates and conditions affecting optical discs.
### Error types
There are different types of error measurements, including so\-called *"C1"*, *"[C2](/wiki/C2_error "C2 error")"* and *"CU"* errors [on CDs](/wiki/Compact_disc%23Measurement "Compact disc#Measurement"), and *"PI/PO (parity inner/outer) errors"* and the more critical [*"PI/PO failures"* on DVDs](/wiki/DVD%23Disc_quality_measurements "DVD#Disc quality measurements"). Finer\-grain error measurements on CDs supported by very few optical drives are called *E11*, *E21*, *E31*, *E21*, *E22*, *E32*.
*"CU"* and *"POF"* represent uncorrectable errors on data CDs and DVDs respectively, thus [data loss](/wiki/Data_loss "Data loss"), and can be a result of too many consecutive smaller errors.{{cite web \|title\=QPxTool glossary \|url\=https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/glossar.html \|website\=qpxtool.sourceforge.io \|publisher\=QPxTool \|access\-date\=22 July 2020 \|ref\=QPx\-Glossary \|archive\-date\=1 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801053045/https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/glossar.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Due to the weaker error correction used on [Audio CDs](/wiki/Audio_CD "Audio CD") ([Red Book](/wiki/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio "Compact Disc Digital Audio") standard) and [Video CDs](/wiki/Video_CD "Video CD") ([White Book](/wiki/White_Book_%28CD_standard%29 "White Book (CD standard)") standard), [C2 errors](/wiki/C2_error "C2 error") already lead to data loss. However, even with C2 errors, the damage is inaudible to some extent.
[Blu\-ray](/wiki/Blu-ray "Blu-ray") discs use so\-called *LDC* (*Long Distance Code*s) and *BIS* (*Burst Indication Subcode*s) error parameters. According to the developer of the *Opti Drive Control* software, a disc can be considered healthy at an *LDC* error rate below 13 and *BIS* error rate below 15\.{{cite web \|title\=Blu\-Ray Writing Quality Tests Vol 2 \|url\=https://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/Reviews/Print.aspx?ArticleId\=25532 \|website\=www.cdrinfo.com \|publisher\=CDR info \|access\-date\=1 August 2020 \|date\=2009\-06\-19 \|archive\-date\=2010\-01\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107203123/https://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/Reviews/Print.aspx?ArticleId\=25532 \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Surface error scanning\n----------------------",
"[thumb\\|Error rate measurement on a DVD\\+R. The error rate is still within a healthy range.](/wiki/File:QPxTool_DVD_error_rate_graph.png \"QPxTool DVD error rate graph.png\")\n{{expand section\\|date\\=July 2020}}\nOptical media can [predictively](/wiki/Predictive_failure_analysis \"Predictive failure analysis\") be scanned for errors and [media deterioration](/wiki/Disc_rot \"Disc rot\") well before any data becomes unreadable.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/faq.html\\|title\\=QPxTool \\- check the quality\\|website\\=qpxtool.sourceforge.io\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-06\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-06\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806024813/https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/faq.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Optical formats include some redundancy for [error correction](/wiki/Error_correction \"Error correction\"), which works until the amount of error exceeds a threshold. A higher rate of errors may indicate deteriorating and/or low quality media, physical damage, an unclean surface and/or media written using a defective optical drive.",
"Precise error scanning requires access to the raw, uncorrected readout of a disc, which is not always provided by a drive. As a result, support of this functionality varies per optical drive manufacturer and model. On ordinary drives without this functionality, it is possible to still look for unexpected reduction in read speed as an indirect, much less reliable measure.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/supported.html\\| title \\= List of supported devices by disc quality scanning software QPxTool\\| access\\-date \\= 2020\\-07\\-06\\| archive\\-date \\= 2020\\-07\\-06\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200706162837/https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/supported.html\\| url\\-status \\= live}}",
"Optical media, such as [CDs](/wiki/Compact_disc \"Compact disc\") and [DVDs](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\"), can be scanned to detect errors and signs of deterioration well before data becomes unreadable. These formats include built\\-in [error correction](/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction \"Error detection and correction\") mechanisms, which function by adding redundant data. However, once the rate of errors surpasses the correction threshold, the media becomes vulnerable to failure. A high error rate can signal physical deterioration, low\\-quality manufacturing, surface contamination, or data recorded by a faulty optical drive.",
"Accurate error scanning requires access to a disc's raw, uncorrected readout. However, not all optical drives provide this capability, and support for this feature can vary significantly between manufacturers and drive models. On drives lacking raw data access, users may rely on a less precise method: monitoring unexpected reductions in read speed, though this is a far less reliable indicator of disc health.",
"Several specialized tools are available for performing error scans on optical media. Popular programs include [Nero DiscSpeed](/wiki/Nero_DiscSpeed \"Nero DiscSpeed\"), [K\\-Probe](/wiki/KProbe \"KProbe\"), [Opti Drive Control](https://www.cdspeed2000.com/) (previously known as \"CD Speed 2000\"), and [DVD Info Pro](http://www.dvdinfopro.com/) for [Windows](/wiki/Windows \"Windows\"). For cross\\-platform users, [QPxTool](https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/) is available to help monitor and maintain optical media integrity. Each of these tools allows for detailed analysis of the error rates and conditions affecting optical discs.",
"### Error types",
"There are different types of error measurements, including so\\-called *\"C1\"*, *\"[C2](/wiki/C2_error \"C2 error\")\"* and *\"CU\"* errors [on CDs](/wiki/Compact_disc%23Measurement \"Compact disc#Measurement\"), and *\"PI/PO (parity inner/outer) errors\"* and the more critical [*\"PI/PO failures\"* on DVDs](/wiki/DVD%23Disc_quality_measurements \"DVD#Disc quality measurements\"). Finer\\-grain error measurements on CDs supported by very few optical drives are called *E11*, *E21*, *E31*, *E21*, *E22*, *E32*.",
"*\"CU\"* and *\"POF\"* represent uncorrectable errors on data CDs and DVDs respectively, thus [data loss](/wiki/Data_loss \"Data loss\"), and can be a result of too many consecutive smaller errors.{{cite web \\|title\\=QPxTool glossary \\|url\\=https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/glossar.html \\|website\\=qpxtool.sourceforge.io \\|publisher\\=QPxTool \\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2020 \\|ref\\=QPx\\-Glossary \\|archive\\-date\\=1 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801053045/https://qpxtool.sourceforge.io/glossar.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Due to the weaker error correction used on [Audio CDs](/wiki/Audio_CD \"Audio CD\") ([Red Book](/wiki/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio \"Compact Disc Digital Audio\") standard) and [Video CDs](/wiki/Video_CD \"Video CD\") ([White Book](/wiki/White_Book_%28CD_standard%29 \"White Book (CD standard)\") standard), [C2 errors](/wiki/C2_error \"C2 error\") already lead to data loss. However, even with C2 errors, the damage is inaudible to some extent.",
"[Blu\\-ray](/wiki/Blu-ray \"Blu-ray\") discs use so\\-called *LDC* (*Long Distance Code*s) and *BIS* (*Burst Indication Subcode*s) error parameters. According to the developer of the *Opti Drive Control* software, a disc can be considered healthy at an *LDC* error rate below 13 and *BIS* error rate below 15\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Blu\\-Ray Writing Quality Tests Vol 2 \\|url\\=https://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/Reviews/Print.aspx?ArticleId\\=25532 \\|website\\=www.cdrinfo.com \\|publisher\\=CDR info \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2020 \\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-19 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107203123/https://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/Reviews/Print.aspx?ArticleId\\=25532 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
Optical disc manufacturing
--------------------------
{{Main\|CD manufacturing}}
Optical discs are made using replication. This process can be used with all disc types. Recordable discs have pre\-recorded vital information, like manufacturer, disc type, maximum read and write speeds, etc. In replication, a [cleanroom](/wiki/Cleanroom "Cleanroom") with yellow light is necessary to protect the light\-sensitive photoresist and to prevent dust from corrupting the data on the disc.
A glass master is used in replication. The master is placed in a machine that cleans it as much as possible using a rotating brush and deionized water, preparing it for the next step. In the next step, a surface analyzer inspects the cleanliness of the master before photoresist is applied on the master.
The photoresist is then baked in an oven to solidify it. Then, in the exposure process, the master is placed in a turntable where a laser selectively exposes the resist to light. At the same time, a developer and deionized water are applied to the disc to remove the exposed resist. This process forms the pits and lands that represent the data on the disc.
A thin coating of metal is then applied to the master, making a negative of the master with the pits and lands in it. The negative is then peeled off the master and coated in a thin layer of plastic. The plastic protects the coating while a punching press punches a hole into the center of the disc, and punches excess material.
The negative is now a stamper \- a part of the mold that will be used for replication. It is placed on one side of the mold with the data side containing the pits and lands facing out. This is done inside an injection molding machine. The machine then closes the mold and injects polycarbonate in the cavity formed by the walls of the mold, which forms or molds the disc with the data on it.
The molten polycarbonate fills the pits or spaces between the lands on the negative, acquiring their shape when it solidifies. This step is somewhat similar to [record pressing](/wiki/Production_of_phonograph_records "Production of phonograph records").
The polycarbonate disc cools quickly and is promptly removed from the machine, before forming another disc. The disc is then metallized, covered with a thin reflective layer of aluminum. The aluminum fills the space once occupied by the negative.
A layer of varnish is then applied to protect the aluminum coating and provide a surface suitable for printing. The varnish is applied near the center of the disc, and the disc is spun, evenly distributing the varnish on the surface of the disc. The varnish is hardened using UV light. The discs are then silkscreened or a label is otherwise applied.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.singulus.com/en/skyline\-ii.html\|title\=CD Production Replication Machine\|first\=SINGULUS TECHNOLOGIES\|last\=AG\|date\=March 3, 2020\|website\=www.singulus.com\|access\-date\=April 11, 2020\|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062834/https://www.singulus.com/en/skyline\-ii.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|title\=SKYLINE II Replication Line for CD \& DVD 5 \|url\=https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/SKYLINE\_II\_2\_2020\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411071527/https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/SKYLINE\_II\_2\_2020\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020 \|website\=Singulus}}How it's made: Compact discs, Season 1, Episode 2
Recordable discs add a dye layer, and rewritable discs add a phase change alloy layer instead, which is protected by upper and lower dielectric (electrically insulating) layers. The layers may be sputtered. The additional layer is between the grooves and the reflective layer of the disc. Grooves are made in recordable discs in place of the traditional pits and lands found in replicated discs, and the two can be made in the same exposure process.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\_Paper\_BD\-R\_7th\_20150818\_clean.pdf \|title\=White Paper Blu\-ray Disc™ Format \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016221203/http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\_Paper\_BD\-R\_7th\_20150818\_clean.pdf \|archive\-date\=2015\-10\-16 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|title\=White Paper, Blu\-ray Disc Format \|url\=http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\_Paper\_BD\-RE\_5th\_20180216\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411111052/http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\_Paper\_BD\-RE\_5th\_20180216\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020 \|website\=Blu\-Ray Disc}}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\_Paper\_General\_5th\_20180216\.pdf \|title\=White Paper Blu\-ray Disc™ Format General 5th Edition \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062740/http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\_Paper\_General\_5th\_20180216\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White%20Paper%20BD\-ROM\_Part1\_9th\_20150806\_clean.pdf \|title\=White Paper Blu\-ray Disc™ Format 1\.C Physical Format Specifications for BD\-ROM 9th Edition \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531020530/http://www.blu\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White%20Paper%20BD\-ROM\_Part1\_9th\_20150806\_clean.pdf \|archive\-date\=2019\-05\-31}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://art\-design\-glossary.musabi.ac.jp/\|title\=MAU ART \& DESIGN GLOSSARY｜Musashino Art University\|website\=MAU ART \& DESIGN GLOSSARY｜Musashino Art University\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004043421/http://art\-design\-glossary.musabi.ac.jp/\|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-04\|url\-status\=live}} In DVDs, the same processes as in CDs are carried out, but in a thinner disc. The thinner disc is then bonded to a second, equally thin but blank, disc using UV\-curable [Liquid optically clear adhesive](/wiki/Liquid_optically_clear_adhesive "Liquid optically clear adhesive"), forming a DVD disc.{{Cite web \|url\=https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/blu\-ray2\.htm \|title\=How Blu\-ray Discs Work \|date\=16 October 2004 \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220124440/https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/blu\-ray2\.htm \|archive\-date\=2019\-12\-20 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|title\=SPACELINE II \|url\=https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/SPACELINE\_II\_2\_2020\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411071530/https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/SPACELINE\_II\_2\_2020\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020 \|website\=Singulus}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.singulus.com/en/spaceline\-ii.html\|title\=DVD Production Replication Machine\|first\=SINGULUS TECHNOLOGIES\|last\=AG\|date\=March 3, 2020\|website\=www.singulus.com\|access\-date\=April 11, 2020\|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062811/https://www.singulus.com/en/spaceline\-ii.html\|url\-status\=live}} This leaves the data in the middle of the disc, which is necessary for DVDs to achieve their storage capacity. In multi layer discs, semi reflective instead of reflective coatings are used for all layers except the last layer, which is the deepest one and uses a traditional reflective coating.{{cite web \|url\=https://docs\-europe.electrocomponents.com/webdocs/0bdc/0900766b80bdcccf.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|website\=docs\-europe.electrocomponents.com \|access\-date\=14 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413022441/https://docs\-europe.electrocomponents.com/webdocs/0bdc/0900766b80bdcccf.pdf \|archive\-date\=13 April 2020 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.techpowerup.com/10670/tdk\-developing\-quad\-and\-octal\-layer\-blu\-ray\-discs\|title\=TDK developing Quad and Octal layer Blu\-ray discs\|website\=TechPowerUp\|date\=12 April 2006 \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-09\|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-21\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421205738/https://www.techpowerup.com/10670/tdk\-developing\-quad\-and\-octal\-layer\-blu\-ray\-discs\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cdrom2go.com/dvd\-plus\-r\-dl\-double\-layer\|title\=Knowledge Base {{pipe}} DVD\+R DL \- CDROM2GO\|website\=www.cdrom2go.com\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-09\|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-21\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421205801/https://www.cdrom2go.com/dvd\-plus\-r\-dl\-double\-layer\|url\-status\=live}}
Dual layer DVDs are made slightly differently. After metallization (with a thinner metal layer to allow some light to pass through), base and pit transfer resins are applied and pre\-cured in the center of the disc. Then the disc is pressed again using a different stamper, and the resins are completely cured using UV light before being separated from the stamper. Then the disc receives another, thicker metallization layer, and is then bonded to the blank disc using LOCA glue. DVD\-R DL and DVD\+R DL discs receive a dye layer after curing, but before metallization. CD\-R, DVD\-R, and DVD\+R discs receive the dye layer after pressing but before metallization. CD\-RW, DVD\-RW and DVD\+RW receive a metal alloy layer sandwiched between 2 dielectric layers. HD\-DVD is made in the same way as DVD. In recordable and rewritable media, most of the stamper is composed of grooves, not pits and lands. The grooves contain a [wobble frequency](/wiki/Wobble_frequency "Wobble frequency") that is used to locate the position of the reading or writing laser on the disc. DVDs use pre\-pits instead, with a constant frequency wobble.
### Blu\-ray
*HTL* ([high\-to\-low type](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc_recordable%23HTL_%28high_to_low%29 "Blu-ray Disc recordable#HTL (high to low)")) Blu\-ray discs are made differently. First, a [silicon wafer](/wiki/Silicon_wafer "Silicon wafer") is used instead of a glass master.{{Cite web \|title\=Post\-mastering: galvanics and stamper preparation \|url\=http://www.media\-tech.net/fileadmin/templates/BD\_News/OTO222forMTA.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919181009/http://www.media\-tech.net/fileadmin/templates/BD\_News/OTO222forMTA.pdf \|archive\-date\=September 19, 2009}} The wafer is processed in the same way a glass master would.
The wafer is then electroplated to form a 300\-micron thick nickel stamper, which is peeled off from the wafer. The stamper is mounted onto a mold inside a press or embosser.
The polycarbonate discs are molded in a similar fashion to DVD and CD discs. If the discs being produced are BD\-Rs or BD\-REs, the mold is fitted with a stamper that stamps a groove pattern onto the discs, in lieu of the pits and lands found on BD\-ROM discs.
After cooling, a 35 nanometre\-thick layer of silver alloy is applied to the disc using [sputtering](/wiki/Sputtering "Sputtering").{{Cite web \|title\=BLULINE II \|url\=https://www.singulus.de/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/BLULINE\_II\_2\_2020\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062738/https://www.singulus.de/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/BLULINE\_II\_2\_2020\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020 \|website\=Singulus}}{{Cite web \|title\=How to produce a Blu\-ray? \|url\=https://hofa\-shop.com/erp/owweb/spezi/en\_14061\.pdf \|website\=HOFA \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062739/https://hofa\-shop.com/erp/owweb/spezi/en\_14061\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.digital\-scrapbooking\-storage.com/blu\-ray\-technology.html \|title\=Blu Ray Technology and Disc Structure \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305192336/http://www.digital\-scrapbooking\-storage.com/blu\-ray\-technology.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-05 \|url\-status\=live }} Then the second layer is made by applying base and pit transfer resins to the disc, and are pre\-cured in its center.
After application and pre\-curing, the disc is pressed or embossed using a stamper and the resins are immediately cured using intense UV light, before the disc is separated from the stamper. The stamper contains the data that will be transferred to the disc. This process is known as embossing and is the step that engraves the data onto the disc, replacing the pressing process used in the first layer, and it is also used for multi layer DVD discs.
Then, a 30 nanometre\-thick layer of silver alloy is then sputtered onto the disc and the process is repeated as many times as required. Each repetition creates a new data layer. (The resins are applied again, pre\-cured, stamped (with data or grooves) and cured, silver alloy is sputtered and so on)
BD\-R and BD\-RE discs receive (through sputtering) a metal (recording layer) alloy (that is sandwiched between two dielectric layers, also sputtered, in BD\-RE), before receiving the 30 nanometre metallization (silver alloy, aluminum or gold) layer, which is sputtered. Alternatively, the silver alloy may be applied before the recording layer is applied. Silver alloys are usually used in Blu\-rays, and aluminum is usually used on CDs and DVDs. Gold is used in some "Archival" CDs and DVDs, since it is more chemically inert and resistant to corrosion than aluminum, which corrodes into [aluminum oxide](/wiki/Aluminum_oxide "Aluminum oxide"), which can be seen in [disc rot](/wiki/Disc_rot "Disc rot") as transparent patches or dots in the disc, that prevent the disc from being read, since the laser light passes through the disc instead of being reflected back into the laser pickup assembly to be read. Normally, aluminum does not corrode since it has a thin oxide layer that forms on contact with oxygen. In this case, it can corrode due to its thinness.
Then, the 98 micron\-thick cover layer is applied using UV\-curable [liquid optically clear adhesive](/wiki/Liquid_optically_clear_adhesive "Liquid optically clear adhesive"), and a 2 micron\-thick hard coat (such as [Durabis](/wiki/Durabis "Durabis")) is also applied and cured using UV light. In the last step, a 10 nanometre\-thick [silicon nitride](/wiki/Silicon_nitride "Silicon nitride") barrier layer is applied to the label side of the disc to protect against humidity.{{Cite web \|title\=BLULINE II: Enabling Fascination 3D \|url\=https://www.singulus.com/uploads/tx\_pspublications/BLULINE\_II\_2012\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062743/https://www.singulus.com/uploads/tx\_pspublications/BLULINE\_II\_2012\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020}}{{Cite web \|title\=BLULINE III \|url\=https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/BLULINE\_III\_2\_2020\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062738/https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/BLULINE\_III\_2\_2020\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020 \|website\=Singulus}} Blu\-rays have their data very close to the read surface of the disc, which is necessary for Blu\-rays to achieve their capacity.
Discs in large quantities can either be replicated or duplicated. In replication, the process explained above is used to make the discs, while in duplication, CD\-R, DVD\-R or BD\-R discs are recorded and finalized to prevent further recording and allow for wider compatibility.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.replicat.com.au/content/replication\-and\-duplication\|title\=The Difference Between Replication \& Duplication \|website\=Replicat \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311170517/https://www.replicat.com.au/content/replication\-and\-duplication\|archive\-date\=2020\-03\-11}} (See [Optical disc authoring](/wiki/Optical_disc_authoring "Optical disc authoring")). The equipment is also different: replication is carried out by fully automated purpose\-built machinery whose cost is in the hundreds of thousands of US dollars in the used market,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cdvdpacking.com/A\_Cinram/index.html \|title\=Cinram Machines\|website\=www.cdvdpacking.com\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930070519/http://www.cdvdpacking.com/A\_Cinram/index.html\|archive\-date\=2019\-09\-30\|url\-status\=live}} while duplication can be automated (using what's known as an autoloader{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/aero220\-s0t\-bd\-bk \|title\=Aero Blu\-ray/DVD/CD Autoloader \- CD Copier, DVD Duplicator, Blu\-Ray Duplicator \|website\=Vinpower Digital \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411101902/https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/aero220\-s0t\-bd\-bk \|url\-status\=live }}) or be done by hand, and only requires a small tabletop duplicator.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/slimmicro\_bd\_s0 \|title\=Slim Micro Blu\-ray DVD CD Duplicator \- CD Copier, DVD Duplicator, Blu\-Ray Duplicator \|website\=Vinpower Digital \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411101859/https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/slimmicro\_bd\_s0 \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Optical disc manufacturing\n--------------------------",
"{{Main\\|CD manufacturing}}\nOptical discs are made using replication. This process can be used with all disc types. Recordable discs have pre\\-recorded vital information, like manufacturer, disc type, maximum read and write speeds, etc. In replication, a [cleanroom](/wiki/Cleanroom \"Cleanroom\") with yellow light is necessary to protect the light\\-sensitive photoresist and to prevent dust from corrupting the data on the disc.",
"A glass master is used in replication. The master is placed in a machine that cleans it as much as possible using a rotating brush and deionized water, preparing it for the next step. In the next step, a surface analyzer inspects the cleanliness of the master before photoresist is applied on the master.",
"The photoresist is then baked in an oven to solidify it. Then, in the exposure process, the master is placed in a turntable where a laser selectively exposes the resist to light. At the same time, a developer and deionized water are applied to the disc to remove the exposed resist. This process forms the pits and lands that represent the data on the disc.",
"A thin coating of metal is then applied to the master, making a negative of the master with the pits and lands in it. The negative is then peeled off the master and coated in a thin layer of plastic. The plastic protects the coating while a punching press punches a hole into the center of the disc, and punches excess material.",
"The negative is now a stamper \\- a part of the mold that will be used for replication. It is placed on one side of the mold with the data side containing the pits and lands facing out. This is done inside an injection molding machine. The machine then closes the mold and injects polycarbonate in the cavity formed by the walls of the mold, which forms or molds the disc with the data on it.",
"The molten polycarbonate fills the pits or spaces between the lands on the negative, acquiring their shape when it solidifies. This step is somewhat similar to [record pressing](/wiki/Production_of_phonograph_records \"Production of phonograph records\").",
"The polycarbonate disc cools quickly and is promptly removed from the machine, before forming another disc. The disc is then metallized, covered with a thin reflective layer of aluminum. The aluminum fills the space once occupied by the negative.",
"A layer of varnish is then applied to protect the aluminum coating and provide a surface suitable for printing. The varnish is applied near the center of the disc, and the disc is spun, evenly distributing the varnish on the surface of the disc. The varnish is hardened using UV light. The discs are then silkscreened or a label is otherwise applied.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.singulus.com/en/skyline\\-ii.html\\|title\\=CD Production Replication Machine\\|first\\=SINGULUS TECHNOLOGIES\\|last\\=AG\\|date\\=March 3, 2020\\|website\\=www.singulus.com\\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062834/https://www.singulus.com/en/skyline\\-ii.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=SKYLINE II Replication Line for CD \\& DVD 5 \\|url\\=https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/SKYLINE\\_II\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411071527/https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/SKYLINE\\_II\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|website\\=Singulus}}How it's made: Compact discs, Season 1, Episode 2",
"Recordable discs add a dye layer, and rewritable discs add a phase change alloy layer instead, which is protected by upper and lower dielectric (electrically insulating) layers. The layers may be sputtered. The additional layer is between the grooves and the reflective layer of the disc. Grooves are made in recordable discs in place of the traditional pits and lands found in replicated discs, and the two can be made in the same exposure process.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\\_Paper\\_BD\\-R\\_7th\\_20150818\\_clean.pdf \\|title\\=White Paper Blu\\-ray Disc™ Format \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016221203/http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\\_Paper\\_BD\\-R\\_7th\\_20150818\\_clean.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-10\\-16 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=White Paper, Blu\\-ray Disc Format \\|url\\=http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\\_Paper\\_BD\\-RE\\_5th\\_20180216\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411111052/http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\\_Paper\\_BD\\-RE\\_5th\\_20180216\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|website\\=Blu\\-Ray Disc}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\\_Paper\\_General\\_5th\\_20180216\\.pdf \\|title\\=White Paper Blu\\-ray Disc™ Format General 5th Edition \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062740/http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White\\_Paper\\_General\\_5th\\_20180216\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White%20Paper%20BD\\-ROM\\_Part1\\_9th\\_20150806\\_clean.pdf \\|title\\=White Paper Blu\\-ray Disc™ Format 1\\.C Physical Format Specifications for BD\\-ROM 9th Edition \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531020530/http://www.blu\\-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/White%20Paper%20BD\\-ROM\\_Part1\\_9th\\_20150806\\_clean.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-31}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://art\\-design\\-glossary.musabi.ac.jp/\\|title\\=MAU ART \\& DESIGN GLOSSARY｜Musashino Art University\\|website\\=MAU ART \\& DESIGN GLOSSARY｜Musashino Art University\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004043421/http://art\\-design\\-glossary.musabi.ac.jp/\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-04\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In DVDs, the same processes as in CDs are carried out, but in a thinner disc. The thinner disc is then bonded to a second, equally thin but blank, disc using UV\\-curable [Liquid optically clear adhesive](/wiki/Liquid_optically_clear_adhesive \"Liquid optically clear adhesive\"), forming a DVD disc.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/blu\\-ray2\\.htm \\|title\\=How Blu\\-ray Discs Work \\|date\\=16 October 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220124440/https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/blu\\-ray2\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-20 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=SPACELINE II \\|url\\=https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/SPACELINE\\_II\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411071530/https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/SPACELINE\\_II\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|website\\=Singulus}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.singulus.com/en/spaceline\\-ii.html\\|title\\=DVD Production Replication Machine\\|first\\=SINGULUS TECHNOLOGIES\\|last\\=AG\\|date\\=March 3, 2020\\|website\\=www.singulus.com\\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062811/https://www.singulus.com/en/spaceline\\-ii.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} This leaves the data in the middle of the disc, which is necessary for DVDs to achieve their storage capacity. In multi layer discs, semi reflective instead of reflective coatings are used for all layers except the last layer, which is the deepest one and uses a traditional reflective coating.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://docs\\-europe.electrocomponents.com/webdocs/0bdc/0900766b80bdcccf.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|website\\=docs\\-europe.electrocomponents.com \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413022441/https://docs\\-europe.electrocomponents.com/webdocs/0bdc/0900766b80bdcccf.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.techpowerup.com/10670/tdk\\-developing\\-quad\\-and\\-octal\\-layer\\-blu\\-ray\\-discs\\|title\\=TDK developing Quad and Octal layer Blu\\-ray discs\\|website\\=TechPowerUp\\|date\\=12 April 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-09\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-21\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421205738/https://www.techpowerup.com/10670/tdk\\-developing\\-quad\\-and\\-octal\\-layer\\-blu\\-ray\\-discs\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cdrom2go.com/dvd\\-plus\\-r\\-dl\\-double\\-layer\\|title\\=Knowledge Base {{pipe}} DVD\\+R DL \\- CDROM2GO\\|website\\=www.cdrom2go.com\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-09\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-21\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421205801/https://www.cdrom2go.com/dvd\\-plus\\-r\\-dl\\-double\\-layer\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Dual layer DVDs are made slightly differently. After metallization (with a thinner metal layer to allow some light to pass through), base and pit transfer resins are applied and pre\\-cured in the center of the disc. Then the disc is pressed again using a different stamper, and the resins are completely cured using UV light before being separated from the stamper. Then the disc receives another, thicker metallization layer, and is then bonded to the blank disc using LOCA glue. DVD\\-R DL and DVD\\+R DL discs receive a dye layer after curing, but before metallization. CD\\-R, DVD\\-R, and DVD\\+R discs receive the dye layer after pressing but before metallization. CD\\-RW, DVD\\-RW and DVD\\+RW receive a metal alloy layer sandwiched between 2 dielectric layers. HD\\-DVD is made in the same way as DVD. In recordable and rewritable media, most of the stamper is composed of grooves, not pits and lands. The grooves contain a [wobble frequency](/wiki/Wobble_frequency \"Wobble frequency\") that is used to locate the position of the reading or writing laser on the disc. DVDs use pre\\-pits instead, with a constant frequency wobble.",
"### Blu\\-ray",
"*HTL* ([high\\-to\\-low type](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc_recordable%23HTL_%28high_to_low%29 \"Blu-ray Disc recordable#HTL (high to low)\")) Blu\\-ray discs are made differently. First, a [silicon wafer](/wiki/Silicon_wafer \"Silicon wafer\") is used instead of a glass master.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Post\\-mastering: galvanics and stamper preparation \\|url\\=http://www.media\\-tech.net/fileadmin/templates/BD\\_News/OTO222forMTA.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919181009/http://www.media\\-tech.net/fileadmin/templates/BD\\_News/OTO222forMTA.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2009}} The wafer is processed in the same way a glass master would.",
"The wafer is then electroplated to form a 300\\-micron thick nickel stamper, which is peeled off from the wafer. The stamper is mounted onto a mold inside a press or embosser.",
"The polycarbonate discs are molded in a similar fashion to DVD and CD discs. If the discs being produced are BD\\-Rs or BD\\-REs, the mold is fitted with a stamper that stamps a groove pattern onto the discs, in lieu of the pits and lands found on BD\\-ROM discs.",
"After cooling, a 35 nanometre\\-thick layer of silver alloy is applied to the disc using [sputtering](/wiki/Sputtering \"Sputtering\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=BLULINE II \\|url\\=https://www.singulus.de/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/BLULINE\\_II\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062738/https://www.singulus.de/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/BLULINE\\_II\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|website\\=Singulus}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=How to produce a Blu\\-ray? \\|url\\=https://hofa\\-shop.com/erp/owweb/spezi/en\\_14061\\.pdf \\|website\\=HOFA \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062739/https://hofa\\-shop.com/erp/owweb/spezi/en\\_14061\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.digital\\-scrapbooking\\-storage.com/blu\\-ray\\-technology.html \\|title\\=Blu Ray Technology and Disc Structure \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305192336/http://www.digital\\-scrapbooking\\-storage.com/blu\\-ray\\-technology.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-05 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Then the second layer is made by applying base and pit transfer resins to the disc, and are pre\\-cured in its center.",
"After application and pre\\-curing, the disc is pressed or embossed using a stamper and the resins are immediately cured using intense UV light, before the disc is separated from the stamper. The stamper contains the data that will be transferred to the disc. This process is known as embossing and is the step that engraves the data onto the disc, replacing the pressing process used in the first layer, and it is also used for multi layer DVD discs.",
"Then, a 30 nanometre\\-thick layer of silver alloy is then sputtered onto the disc and the process is repeated as many times as required. Each repetition creates a new data layer. (The resins are applied again, pre\\-cured, stamped (with data or grooves) and cured, silver alloy is sputtered and so on)",
"BD\\-R and BD\\-RE discs receive (through sputtering) a metal (recording layer) alloy (that is sandwiched between two dielectric layers, also sputtered, in BD\\-RE), before receiving the 30 nanometre metallization (silver alloy, aluminum or gold) layer, which is sputtered. Alternatively, the silver alloy may be applied before the recording layer is applied. Silver alloys are usually used in Blu\\-rays, and aluminum is usually used on CDs and DVDs. Gold is used in some \"Archival\" CDs and DVDs, since it is more chemically inert and resistant to corrosion than aluminum, which corrodes into [aluminum oxide](/wiki/Aluminum_oxide \"Aluminum oxide\"), which can be seen in [disc rot](/wiki/Disc_rot \"Disc rot\") as transparent patches or dots in the disc, that prevent the disc from being read, since the laser light passes through the disc instead of being reflected back into the laser pickup assembly to be read. Normally, aluminum does not corrode since it has a thin oxide layer that forms on contact with oxygen. In this case, it can corrode due to its thinness.",
"Then, the 98 micron\\-thick cover layer is applied using UV\\-curable [liquid optically clear adhesive](/wiki/Liquid_optically_clear_adhesive \"Liquid optically clear adhesive\"), and a 2 micron\\-thick hard coat (such as [Durabis](/wiki/Durabis \"Durabis\")) is also applied and cured using UV light. In the last step, a 10 nanometre\\-thick [silicon nitride](/wiki/Silicon_nitride \"Silicon nitride\") barrier layer is applied to the label side of the disc to protect against humidity.{{Cite web \\|title\\=BLULINE II: Enabling Fascination 3D \\|url\\=https://www.singulus.com/uploads/tx\\_pspublications/BLULINE\\_II\\_2012\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062743/https://www.singulus.com/uploads/tx\\_pspublications/BLULINE\\_II\\_2012\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=BLULINE III \\|url\\=https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/BLULINE\\_III\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062738/https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/BLULINE\\_III\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|website\\=Singulus}} Blu\\-rays have their data very close to the read surface of the disc, which is necessary for Blu\\-rays to achieve their capacity.",
"Discs in large quantities can either be replicated or duplicated. In replication, the process explained above is used to make the discs, while in duplication, CD\\-R, DVD\\-R or BD\\-R discs are recorded and finalized to prevent further recording and allow for wider compatibility.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.replicat.com.au/content/replication\\-and\\-duplication\\|title\\=The Difference Between Replication \\& Duplication \\|website\\=Replicat \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311170517/https://www.replicat.com.au/content/replication\\-and\\-duplication\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-11}} (See [Optical disc authoring](/wiki/Optical_disc_authoring \"Optical disc authoring\")). The equipment is also different: replication is carried out by fully automated purpose\\-built machinery whose cost is in the hundreds of thousands of US dollars in the used market,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cdvdpacking.com/A\\_Cinram/index.html \\|title\\=Cinram Machines\\|website\\=www.cdvdpacking.com\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930070519/http://www.cdvdpacking.com/A\\_Cinram/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-30\\|url\\-status\\=live}} while duplication can be automated (using what's known as an autoloader{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/aero220\\-s0t\\-bd\\-bk \\|title\\=Aero Blu\\-ray/DVD/CD Autoloader \\- CD Copier, DVD Duplicator, Blu\\-Ray Duplicator \\|website\\=Vinpower Digital \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411101902/https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/aero220\\-s0t\\-bd\\-bk \\|url\\-status\\=live }}) or be done by hand, and only requires a small tabletop duplicator.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/slimmicro\\_bd\\_s0 \\|title\\=Slim Micro Blu\\-ray DVD CD Duplicator \\- CD Copier, DVD Duplicator, Blu\\-Ray Duplicator \\|website\\=Vinpower Digital \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411101859/https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/slimmicro\\_bd\\_s0 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
### Blu\-ray
*HTL* ([high\-to\-low type](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc_recordable%23HTL_%28high_to_low%29 "Blu-ray Disc recordable#HTL (high to low)")) Blu\-ray discs are made differently. First, a [silicon wafer](/wiki/Silicon_wafer "Silicon wafer") is used instead of a glass master.{{Cite web \|title\=Post\-mastering: galvanics and stamper preparation \|url\=http://www.media\-tech.net/fileadmin/templates/BD\_News/OTO222forMTA.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919181009/http://www.media\-tech.net/fileadmin/templates/BD\_News/OTO222forMTA.pdf \|archive\-date\=September 19, 2009}} The wafer is processed in the same way a glass master would.
The wafer is then electroplated to form a 300\-micron thick nickel stamper, which is peeled off from the wafer. The stamper is mounted onto a mold inside a press or embosser.
The polycarbonate discs are molded in a similar fashion to DVD and CD discs. If the discs being produced are BD\-Rs or BD\-REs, the mold is fitted with a stamper that stamps a groove pattern onto the discs, in lieu of the pits and lands found on BD\-ROM discs.
After cooling, a 35 nanometre\-thick layer of silver alloy is applied to the disc using [sputtering](/wiki/Sputtering "Sputtering").{{Cite web \|title\=BLULINE II \|url\=https://www.singulus.de/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/BLULINE\_II\_2\_2020\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062738/https://www.singulus.de/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/BLULINE\_II\_2\_2020\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020 \|website\=Singulus}}{{Cite web \|title\=How to produce a Blu\-ray? \|url\=https://hofa\-shop.com/erp/owweb/spezi/en\_14061\.pdf \|website\=HOFA \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062739/https://hofa\-shop.com/erp/owweb/spezi/en\_14061\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.digital\-scrapbooking\-storage.com/blu\-ray\-technology.html \|title\=Blu Ray Technology and Disc Structure \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305192336/http://www.digital\-scrapbooking\-storage.com/blu\-ray\-technology.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-05 \|url\-status\=live }} Then the second layer is made by applying base and pit transfer resins to the disc, and are pre\-cured in its center.
After application and pre\-curing, the disc is pressed or embossed using a stamper and the resins are immediately cured using intense UV light, before the disc is separated from the stamper. The stamper contains the data that will be transferred to the disc. This process is known as embossing and is the step that engraves the data onto the disc, replacing the pressing process used in the first layer, and it is also used for multi layer DVD discs.
Then, a 30 nanometre\-thick layer of silver alloy is then sputtered onto the disc and the process is repeated as many times as required. Each repetition creates a new data layer. (The resins are applied again, pre\-cured, stamped (with data or grooves) and cured, silver alloy is sputtered and so on)
BD\-R and BD\-RE discs receive (through sputtering) a metal (recording layer) alloy (that is sandwiched between two dielectric layers, also sputtered, in BD\-RE), before receiving the 30 nanometre metallization (silver alloy, aluminum or gold) layer, which is sputtered. Alternatively, the silver alloy may be applied before the recording layer is applied. Silver alloys are usually used in Blu\-rays, and aluminum is usually used on CDs and DVDs. Gold is used in some "Archival" CDs and DVDs, since it is more chemically inert and resistant to corrosion than aluminum, which corrodes into [aluminum oxide](/wiki/Aluminum_oxide "Aluminum oxide"), which can be seen in [disc rot](/wiki/Disc_rot "Disc rot") as transparent patches or dots in the disc, that prevent the disc from being read, since the laser light passes through the disc instead of being reflected back into the laser pickup assembly to be read. Normally, aluminum does not corrode since it has a thin oxide layer that forms on contact with oxygen. In this case, it can corrode due to its thinness.
Then, the 98 micron\-thick cover layer is applied using UV\-curable [liquid optically clear adhesive](/wiki/Liquid_optically_clear_adhesive "Liquid optically clear adhesive"), and a 2 micron\-thick hard coat (such as [Durabis](/wiki/Durabis "Durabis")) is also applied and cured using UV light. In the last step, a 10 nanometre\-thick [silicon nitride](/wiki/Silicon_nitride "Silicon nitride") barrier layer is applied to the label side of the disc to protect against humidity.{{Cite web \|title\=BLULINE II: Enabling Fascination 3D \|url\=https://www.singulus.com/uploads/tx\_pspublications/BLULINE\_II\_2012\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062743/https://www.singulus.com/uploads/tx\_pspublications/BLULINE\_II\_2012\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020}}{{Cite web \|title\=BLULINE III \|url\=https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/BLULINE\_III\_2\_2020\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062738/https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\_upload/202003/BLULINE\_III\_2\_2020\.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2020 \|website\=Singulus}} Blu\-rays have their data very close to the read surface of the disc, which is necessary for Blu\-rays to achieve their capacity.
Discs in large quantities can either be replicated or duplicated. In replication, the process explained above is used to make the discs, while in duplication, CD\-R, DVD\-R or BD\-R discs are recorded and finalized to prevent further recording and allow for wider compatibility.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.replicat.com.au/content/replication\-and\-duplication\|title\=The Difference Between Replication \& Duplication \|website\=Replicat \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311170517/https://www.replicat.com.au/content/replication\-and\-duplication\|archive\-date\=2020\-03\-11}} (See [Optical disc authoring](/wiki/Optical_disc_authoring "Optical disc authoring")). The equipment is also different: replication is carried out by fully automated purpose\-built machinery whose cost is in the hundreds of thousands of US dollars in the used market,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cdvdpacking.com/A\_Cinram/index.html \|title\=Cinram Machines\|website\=www.cdvdpacking.com\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930070519/http://www.cdvdpacking.com/A\_Cinram/index.html\|archive\-date\=2019\-09\-30\|url\-status\=live}} while duplication can be automated (using what's known as an autoloader{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/aero220\-s0t\-bd\-bk \|title\=Aero Blu\-ray/DVD/CD Autoloader \- CD Copier, DVD Duplicator, Blu\-Ray Duplicator \|website\=Vinpower Digital \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411101902/https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/aero220\-s0t\-bd\-bk \|url\-status\=live }}) or be done by hand, and only requires a small tabletop duplicator.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/slimmicro\_bd\_s0 \|title\=Slim Micro Blu\-ray DVD CD Duplicator \- CD Copier, DVD Duplicator, Blu\-Ray Duplicator \|website\=Vinpower Digital \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-04\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411101859/https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/slimmicro\_bd\_s0 \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"### Blu\\-ray",
"*HTL* ([high\\-to\\-low type](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc_recordable%23HTL_%28high_to_low%29 \"Blu-ray Disc recordable#HTL (high to low)\")) Blu\\-ray discs are made differently. First, a [silicon wafer](/wiki/Silicon_wafer \"Silicon wafer\") is used instead of a glass master.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Post\\-mastering: galvanics and stamper preparation \\|url\\=http://www.media\\-tech.net/fileadmin/templates/BD\\_News/OTO222forMTA.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919181009/http://www.media\\-tech.net/fileadmin/templates/BD\\_News/OTO222forMTA.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2009}} The wafer is processed in the same way a glass master would.",
"The wafer is then electroplated to form a 300\\-micron thick nickel stamper, which is peeled off from the wafer. The stamper is mounted onto a mold inside a press or embosser.",
"The polycarbonate discs are molded in a similar fashion to DVD and CD discs. If the discs being produced are BD\\-Rs or BD\\-REs, the mold is fitted with a stamper that stamps a groove pattern onto the discs, in lieu of the pits and lands found on BD\\-ROM discs.",
"After cooling, a 35 nanometre\\-thick layer of silver alloy is applied to the disc using [sputtering](/wiki/Sputtering \"Sputtering\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=BLULINE II \\|url\\=https://www.singulus.de/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/BLULINE\\_II\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062738/https://www.singulus.de/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/BLULINE\\_II\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|website\\=Singulus}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=How to produce a Blu\\-ray? \\|url\\=https://hofa\\-shop.com/erp/owweb/spezi/en\\_14061\\.pdf \\|website\\=HOFA \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062739/https://hofa\\-shop.com/erp/owweb/spezi/en\\_14061\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.digital\\-scrapbooking\\-storage.com/blu\\-ray\\-technology.html \\|title\\=Blu Ray Technology and Disc Structure \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305192336/http://www.digital\\-scrapbooking\\-storage.com/blu\\-ray\\-technology.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-05 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Then the second layer is made by applying base and pit transfer resins to the disc, and are pre\\-cured in its center.",
"After application and pre\\-curing, the disc is pressed or embossed using a stamper and the resins are immediately cured using intense UV light, before the disc is separated from the stamper. The stamper contains the data that will be transferred to the disc. This process is known as embossing and is the step that engraves the data onto the disc, replacing the pressing process used in the first layer, and it is also used for multi layer DVD discs.",
"Then, a 30 nanometre\\-thick layer of silver alloy is then sputtered onto the disc and the process is repeated as many times as required. Each repetition creates a new data layer. (The resins are applied again, pre\\-cured, stamped (with data or grooves) and cured, silver alloy is sputtered and so on)",
"BD\\-R and BD\\-RE discs receive (through sputtering) a metal (recording layer) alloy (that is sandwiched between two dielectric layers, also sputtered, in BD\\-RE), before receiving the 30 nanometre metallization (silver alloy, aluminum or gold) layer, which is sputtered. Alternatively, the silver alloy may be applied before the recording layer is applied. Silver alloys are usually used in Blu\\-rays, and aluminum is usually used on CDs and DVDs. Gold is used in some \"Archival\" CDs and DVDs, since it is more chemically inert and resistant to corrosion than aluminum, which corrodes into [aluminum oxide](/wiki/Aluminum_oxide \"Aluminum oxide\"), which can be seen in [disc rot](/wiki/Disc_rot \"Disc rot\") as transparent patches or dots in the disc, that prevent the disc from being read, since the laser light passes through the disc instead of being reflected back into the laser pickup assembly to be read. Normally, aluminum does not corrode since it has a thin oxide layer that forms on contact with oxygen. In this case, it can corrode due to its thinness.",
"Then, the 98 micron\\-thick cover layer is applied using UV\\-curable [liquid optically clear adhesive](/wiki/Liquid_optically_clear_adhesive \"Liquid optically clear adhesive\"), and a 2 micron\\-thick hard coat (such as [Durabis](/wiki/Durabis \"Durabis\")) is also applied and cured using UV light. In the last step, a 10 nanometre\\-thick [silicon nitride](/wiki/Silicon_nitride \"Silicon nitride\") barrier layer is applied to the label side of the disc to protect against humidity.{{Cite web \\|title\\=BLULINE II: Enabling Fascination 3D \\|url\\=https://www.singulus.com/uploads/tx\\_pspublications/BLULINE\\_II\\_2012\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062743/https://www.singulus.com/uploads/tx\\_pspublications/BLULINE\\_II\\_2012\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=BLULINE III \\|url\\=https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/BLULINE\\_III\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411062738/https://www.singulus.com/fileadmin/user\\_upload/202003/BLULINE\\_III\\_2\\_2020\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|website\\=Singulus}} Blu\\-rays have their data very close to the read surface of the disc, which is necessary for Blu\\-rays to achieve their capacity.",
"Discs in large quantities can either be replicated or duplicated. In replication, the process explained above is used to make the discs, while in duplication, CD\\-R, DVD\\-R or BD\\-R discs are recorded and finalized to prevent further recording and allow for wider compatibility.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.replicat.com.au/content/replication\\-and\\-duplication\\|title\\=The Difference Between Replication \\& Duplication \\|website\\=Replicat \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311170517/https://www.replicat.com.au/content/replication\\-and\\-duplication\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-11}} (See [Optical disc authoring](/wiki/Optical_disc_authoring \"Optical disc authoring\")). The equipment is also different: replication is carried out by fully automated purpose\\-built machinery whose cost is in the hundreds of thousands of US dollars in the used market,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cdvdpacking.com/A\\_Cinram/index.html \\|title\\=Cinram Machines\\|website\\=www.cdvdpacking.com\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930070519/http://www.cdvdpacking.com/A\\_Cinram/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-30\\|url\\-status\\=live}} while duplication can be automated (using what's known as an autoloader{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/aero220\\-s0t\\-bd\\-bk \\|title\\=Aero Blu\\-ray/DVD/CD Autoloader \\- CD Copier, DVD Duplicator, Blu\\-Ray Duplicator \\|website\\=Vinpower Digital \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411101902/https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/aero220\\-s0t\\-bd\\-bk \\|url\\-status\\=live }}) or be done by hand, and only requires a small tabletop duplicator.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/slimmicro\\_bd\\_s0 \\|title\\=Slim Micro Blu\\-ray DVD CD Duplicator \\- CD Copier, DVD Duplicator, Blu\\-Ray Duplicator \\|website\\=Vinpower Digital \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411101859/https://www.vinpowerdigital.com/products/slimmicro\\_bd\\_s0 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
Democratic Opposition of Serbia
-------------------------------
The ASNS became part of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia, a broad and ideologically diverse coalition of parties opposed to Milošević's rule, in early 2000\. DOS candidate [Vojislav Koštunica](/wiki/Vojislav_Ko%C5%A1tunica "Vojislav Koštunica") defeated Milošević in the [2000 Yugoslavian presidential election](/wiki/2000_Yugoslavian_presidential_election "2000 Yugoslavian presidential election"), a watershed moment in Serbian and Yugoslavian politics. As in 1996, the Milošević regime did not initially accept the opposition's victory, and Milovanović and the ASNS were active in the protests that ultimately [brought down the administration](/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87 "Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević") on 5 September 2000\."Belgrade police arrest eight demonstrators after roadblocks," *British Broadcasting Corporation Monitoring Service: Central Europe \& Balkans*, 4 October 2000 (Source: Radio B2\-92, Belgrade, in Serbo\-Croat 1900 gmt 2 Oct 00\).
The DOS also defeated the SPS in the concurrent election for the Yugoslavian parliament. Milovanović was personally elected to the assembly's Chamber of Citizens with a co\-endorsement from the ASNS and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Serbia%29 "Democratic Party (Serbia)") (*Demokratska stranka*, DS).Izborna lista za Veće građana Savezne skupštine, Demokratske opozicije Srbije, {{Cite web \|url\=http://www.dos.org.yu/liste/gradjani.html \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-20 \|archive\-date\=2000\-10\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20001017151623/http://www.dos.org.yu/liste/gradjani.html \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}, National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia, accessed 24 November 2022\.ИЗБОРИ 2000: ВЕЋЕ РЕПУБЛИКА И ВЕЋЕ ГРАЂАНА САВЕЗНЕ СКУПШТИНЕ, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Department of Statistics (2000\), p. 62\.["Kompletan savezni parlament"](http://arhiva.glas-javnosti.rs/arhiva/2000/11/04/srpski/P00110307.shtm), *Glas javnosti*, 4 November 2000, accessed 16 December 2022\. He was also elected to the [City Assembly of Belgrade](/wiki/City_Assembly_of_Belgrade "City Assembly of Belgrade") as an ASNS candidate in the concurrent [2000 Serbian local elections](/wiki/2000_Serbian_local_elections "2000 Serbian local elections").*Službeni List (Grada Beograda)*, Volume 46 Number 13 (15 September 2000\), p. 428\-429; *Službeni List (Grada Beograda)*, Volume 46 Number 15 (20 October 2000\), p. 469\-470\.
The [Serbian government](/wiki/Government_of_Serbia "Government of Serbia") fell after Milošević's defeat in the Yugoslavian election, and a [new Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2000_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2000 Serbian parliamentary election") was held in December 2000\. The DOS won a landslide majority victory, and [Bratislav Đurić](/wiki/Bratislav_%C4%90uri%C4%87 "Bratislav Đurić") was elected to the [national assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Serbia "National Assembly of Serbia") with an ASNS endorsement.[Milan Milošević, "Mrtve duše živih poslanika"](https://www.vreme.com/vreme/mrtve-duse-zivih-poslanika/), *Vreme*, 8 August 2002, accessed 19 December 2022\.[PRVA KONSTITUTIVNA SEDNICA, 22\.01\.2001\.](https://otvoreniparlament.rs/transkript/5823?page=4), Otvoreni Parlament, accessed 29 December 2001\. [Zoran Đinđić](/wiki/Zoran_%C4%90in%C4%91i%C4%87 "Zoran Đinđić") was appointed as [Serbia's prime minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Serbia "Prime Minister of Serbia") in January 2001, and Milovanović became minister of labour and employment in the new government. He resigned from the ASNS leadership to avoid being in a [conflict\-of\-interest](/wiki/Conflict-of-interest "Conflict-of-interest") situation and was replaced on an interim basis by Đurić. Ranka Savić was elected as the federation's president at its second congress in October 2002\.[https://www.istinomer.rs/akter/ranka\-savic/](https://www.istinomer.rs/akter/ranka-savic/) Ranka Savić], istinomer.rs, accessed 19 December 2022\.
The ASNS faced strong opposition in this period from the [Confederation of Autonomous Trade Unions of Serbia](/wiki/Confederation_of_Autonomous_Trade_Unions_of_Serbia "Confederation of Autonomous Trade Unions of Serbia") (*Savez Samostalnih Sindikata Srbije*, SSSS), which had generally been aligned with Milošević."KFOR General Says Things 'Going Very Well,'" *IPR Strategic Information Database*, 26 September 1999\."Serb unions protest at labour law," *British Broadcasting Corporation Monitoring Newsfile*, 16 July 2001 (Source: Tanjug news agency, Belgrade, in Serbo\-Croat 16 Jul 01\)."Serbian union threatens general strike over draft labour law," *British Broadcasting Corporation Monitoring Newsfile*, 15 October 2001 (Source: Tanjug news agency, Belgrade, in English 1416 gmt 15 Oct 01\).
On 19 October 2002, the ASNS established the [Labour Party of Serbia](/wiki/Labour_Party_of_Serbia "Labour Party of Serbia") (*Laburisticka partija Srbije*, LPS) as its political wing. Milovanović served as the party's leader. The LPS contested the [2003 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2003_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2003 Serbian parliamentary election") on its own and fared poorly, falling below the [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold "Electoral threshold").[ЗА НАРОДНЕ ПОСЛАНИКЕ НАРОДНЕ СКУПШТИНЕ РЕПУБЛИКЕ СРБИЈЕ одржани 28\. 1 2\.2003\.](http://arhiva.rik.parlament.gov.rs/doc/arhiva/poslanici/2003/3.%20Publikacija%202003%20np%20rzs.pdf), Republican Electoral Commission, Republic of Serbia, accessed 19 December 2022\. The party largely became dormant after this time, and Milovanović stood down from cabinet when a new government was formed in March 2004\.
|
[
"Democratic Opposition of Serbia\n-------------------------------",
"The ASNS became part of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia, a broad and ideologically diverse coalition of parties opposed to Milošević's rule, in early 2000\\. DOS candidate [Vojislav Koštunica](/wiki/Vojislav_Ko%C5%A1tunica \"Vojislav Koštunica\") defeated Milošević in the [2000 Yugoslavian presidential election](/wiki/2000_Yugoslavian_presidential_election \"2000 Yugoslavian presidential election\"), a watershed moment in Serbian and Yugoslavian politics. As in 1996, the Milošević regime did not initially accept the opposition's victory, and Milovanović and the ASNS were active in the protests that ultimately [brought down the administration](/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87 \"Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević\") on 5 September 2000\\.\"Belgrade police arrest eight demonstrators after roadblocks,\" *British Broadcasting Corporation Monitoring Service: Central Europe \\& Balkans*, 4 October 2000 (Source: Radio B2\\-92, Belgrade, in Serbo\\-Croat 1900 gmt 2 Oct 00\\).",
"The DOS also defeated the SPS in the concurrent election for the Yugoslavian parliament. Milovanović was personally elected to the assembly's Chamber of Citizens with a co\\-endorsement from the ASNS and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Serbia%29 \"Democratic Party (Serbia)\") (*Demokratska stranka*, DS).Izborna lista za Veće građana Savezne skupštine, Demokratske opozicije Srbije, {{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dos.org.yu/liste/gradjani.html \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-20 \\|archive\\-date\\=2000\\-10\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20001017151623/http://www.dos.org.yu/liste/gradjani.html \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}, National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia, accessed 24 November 2022\\.ИЗБОРИ 2000: ВЕЋЕ РЕПУБЛИКА И ВЕЋЕ ГРАЂАНА САВЕЗНЕ СКУПШТИНЕ, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Department of Statistics (2000\\), p. 62\\.[\"Kompletan savezni parlament\"](http://arhiva.glas-javnosti.rs/arhiva/2000/11/04/srpski/P00110307.shtm), *Glas javnosti*, 4 November 2000, accessed 16 December 2022\\. He was also elected to the [City Assembly of Belgrade](/wiki/City_Assembly_of_Belgrade \"City Assembly of Belgrade\") as an ASNS candidate in the concurrent [2000 Serbian local elections](/wiki/2000_Serbian_local_elections \"2000 Serbian local elections\").*Službeni List (Grada Beograda)*, Volume 46 Number 13 (15 September 2000\\), p. 428\\-429; *Službeni List (Grada Beograda)*, Volume 46 Number 15 (20 October 2000\\), p. 469\\-470\\.",
"The [Serbian government](/wiki/Government_of_Serbia \"Government of Serbia\") fell after Milošević's defeat in the Yugoslavian election, and a [new Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2000_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2000 Serbian parliamentary election\") was held in December 2000\\. The DOS won a landslide majority victory, and [Bratislav Đurić](/wiki/Bratislav_%C4%90uri%C4%87 \"Bratislav Đurić\") was elected to the [national assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Serbia \"National Assembly of Serbia\") with an ASNS endorsement.[Milan Milošević, \"Mrtve duše živih poslanika\"](https://www.vreme.com/vreme/mrtve-duse-zivih-poslanika/), *Vreme*, 8 August 2002, accessed 19 December 2022\\.[PRVA KONSTITUTIVNA SEDNICA, 22\\.01\\.2001\\.](https://otvoreniparlament.rs/transkript/5823?page=4), Otvoreni Parlament, accessed 29 December 2001\\. [Zoran Đinđić](/wiki/Zoran_%C4%90in%C4%91i%C4%87 \"Zoran Đinđić\") was appointed as [Serbia's prime minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Serbia \"Prime Minister of Serbia\") in January 2001, and Milovanović became minister of labour and employment in the new government. He resigned from the ASNS leadership to avoid being in a [conflict\\-of\\-interest](/wiki/Conflict-of-interest \"Conflict-of-interest\") situation and was replaced on an interim basis by Đurić. Ranka Savić was elected as the federation's president at its second congress in October 2002\\.[https://www.istinomer.rs/akter/ranka\\-savic/](https://www.istinomer.rs/akter/ranka-savic/) Ranka Savić], istinomer.rs, accessed 19 December 2022\\.",
"The ASNS faced strong opposition in this period from the [Confederation of Autonomous Trade Unions of Serbia](/wiki/Confederation_of_Autonomous_Trade_Unions_of_Serbia \"Confederation of Autonomous Trade Unions of Serbia\") (*Savez Samostalnih Sindikata Srbije*, SSSS), which had generally been aligned with Milošević.\"KFOR General Says Things 'Going Very Well,'\" *IPR Strategic Information Database*, 26 September 1999\\.\"Serb unions protest at labour law,\" *British Broadcasting Corporation Monitoring Newsfile*, 16 July 2001 (Source: Tanjug news agency, Belgrade, in Serbo\\-Croat 16 Jul 01\\).\"Serbian union threatens general strike over draft labour law,\" *British Broadcasting Corporation Monitoring Newsfile*, 15 October 2001 (Source: Tanjug news agency, Belgrade, in English 1416 gmt 15 Oct 01\\).",
"On 19 October 2002, the ASNS established the [Labour Party of Serbia](/wiki/Labour_Party_of_Serbia \"Labour Party of Serbia\") (*Laburisticka partija Srbije*, LPS) as its political wing. Milovanović served as the party's leader. The LPS contested the [2003 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2003_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2003 Serbian parliamentary election\") on its own and fared poorly, falling below the [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold \"Electoral threshold\").[ЗА НАРОДНЕ ПОСЛАНИКЕ НАРОДНЕ СКУПШТИНЕ РЕПУБЛИКЕ СРБИЈЕ одржани 28\\. 1 2\\.2003\\.](http://arhiva.rik.parlament.gov.rs/doc/arhiva/poslanici/2003/3.%20Publikacija%202003%20np%20rzs.pdf), Republican Electoral Commission, Republic of Serbia, accessed 19 December 2022\\. The party largely became dormant after this time, and Milovanović stood down from cabinet when a new government was formed in March 2004\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Formation and *No Love Lost* (2003–2006\)
Joel Stoker and Lucas Crowther met at [Redbridge College](/wiki/Redbridge_College "Redbridge College") in 2003\. They were both inspired by an [Oasis](/wiki/Oasis_%28band%29 "Oasis (band)") concert the two attended in [Knebworth](/wiki/Knebworth "Knebworth"), England. Guitarist Crowther revealed "From that moment on we knew we had to start a band."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.contactmusic.com/new/artist.nsf/artistnames/the%20rifles\|title\=The Rifles\|author\=Mark Moore\|website\=Contactmusic.com}} After adding bassist Robert Pyne, who Joel knew from school, and drummer Grant Marsh, who Luke met in the *Candy Box* club, the Rifles performed their first gig at *The Bull \& Gate* pub in [Kentish Town](/wiki/Kentish_Town "Kentish Town"), London in 2004\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.music\-news.com/ShowReview.asp?nCID\=0\&H\=The\-Rifles\-Luke\-Crowther\&nReviewID\=1092\&nType\=4\|title\=The Rifles \- Luke Crowther \- Music\-News.com\|work\=music\-news.com}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.egigs.co.uk/index.php?a\=12789\|title\=The Rifles' lead singer Joel Stoker talks to eGigs \- about the new album, inspirations, aspirations, and live filming\|website\=Egigs.co.uk}}
The Rifles' first official release was a 7" demo of "[Peace \& Quiet](/wiki/Peace_%26_Quiet_%28The_Rifles_song%29 "Peace & Quiet (The Rifles song)")" released by [Blow Up Records](/wiki/Blow_Up_Records "Blow Up Records"). The band switched to fellow independent label [Xtra Mile Recordings](/wiki/Xtra_Mile_Recordings "Xtra Mile Recordings") for their May 2005 release of the single "[When I'm Alone](/wiki/When_I%27m_Alone "When I'm Alone")", which would go on to reach number 64 in the UK charts. Later that year the band's next single "[Local Boy](/wiki/Local_Boy "Local Boy")" would be released via Right Hook Recordings. It would get airplay on the Saturday morning show *[Soccer AM](/wiki/Soccer_AM "Soccer AM")* and would help give the band more exposure and even help them become regular guests on the show. The Rifles released two singles, "[Repeated Offender](/wiki/Repeated_Offender "Repeated Offender")" and "[She's Got Standards](/wiki/She%27s_Got_Standards "She's Got Standards")", ahead of the 17 July release of their debut album *[No Love Lost](/wiki/No_Love_Lost_%28The_Rifles_album%29 "No Love Lost (The Rifles album)")*, which peaked at 26 in the UK charts. The band [toured](/wiki/Concert_tour "Concert tour") in 2006, and performed at [A Campingflight to Lowlands Paradise](/wiki/A_Campingflight_to_Lowlands_Paradise "A Campingflight to Lowlands Paradise") 2007 and Paaspop Schijndel 2007, two [music festivals](/wiki/Music_festival "Music festival") in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"). The Rifles launched their [European](/wiki/Europe "Europe") tour to promote their new album including a gig at the Forum, London, at which [Paul Weller](/wiki/Paul_Weller_%28singer%29 "Paul Weller (singer)") ([The Jam](/wiki/The_Jam "The Jam")) appeared on stage to play the song "She's the Only One" with the band, and The Jam's single, "[The Eton Rifles](/wiki/The_Eton_Rifles "The Eton Rifles")". The Rifles then released a free download of the song "No Love Lost" a year after their album of the same name was released.
[thumb\|The Rifles at the University of Warwick SU 2007](/wiki/File:The_Rifles_-_Joel_Stoker_2007-03-08_at_the_University_of_Warwick_SU.jpg "The Rifles - Joel Stoker 2007-03-08 at the University of Warwick SU.jpg")
### *Great Escape* (2007–2010\)
Touring on the back of their album *[No Love Lost](/wiki/No_Love_Lost_%28The_Rifles_album%29 "No Love Lost (The Rifles album)")*, The Rifles again released a free download, this time of their single "[Talking](/wiki/Talking_%28The_Rifles_song%29 "Talking (The Rifles song)")" on 20 October 2007\. The single garnered high accolades from BBC Radio 1's Zane Lowe, who called it the "Hottest Record in the World". "Talking" also marked the band's label switch from Red Ink to [679 Recordings](/wiki/679_Recordings "679 Recordings"). On 21 July 2008, the single "[I Could Never Lie](/wiki/I_Could_Never_Lie "I Could Never Lie")" was released on a limited\-edition vinyl disc. The Rifles also made appearances at the [Underage Festival](/wiki/Underage_Festival "Underage Festival") and the [V Festival](/wiki/V_Festival "V Festival") in the summer and played an extensive tour throughout October and November in 2008 when long\-time friend of the band Dean Mumford (from the band Regency) was added on keyboards as session player for live performances.
When the band's second album was delayed from October 2008 to January 2009, the Rifles created [The Rifles EP](/wiki/The_Rifles_EP "The Rifles EP") that fans could download on the internet. The Rifles released their second album *[Great Escape](/wiki/Great_Escape_%28The_Rifles_album%29 "Great Escape (The Rifles album)")*{{cite web\|url\=http://www.myspace.com/therifles\|title\=Featured Content on Myspace\|website\=Myspace.com}} on 26 January 2009,{{cite web\|url\=http://therifles.sandbag.uk.com/Store/DII\-69\-2\-great\+escape.html\|title\=The Rifles \- GREAT ESCAPE CD\|website\=Sandbag.uk.com}} which peaked at 27 in the UK charts and reached the number 2 slot in the UK indie charts. In April 2009 they performed live at the PFA Awards performing a re\-written version of Billy Joel's "[We Didn't Start the Fire](/wiki/We_Didn%27t_Start_the_Fire "We Didn't Start the Fire")" which was broadcast by Sky Sports. After a tour throughout the United Kingdom and Germany, the band announced extensive acoustic tours for the autumn and winter of 2010 and plans for a third album.
### *Freedom Run* (2010–2013\)
On 17 October 2010, Grant Marsh and Rob Pyne announced they had left the band.[http://www.therifles.me.uk/news/53\-statement](http://www.therifles.me.uk/news/53-statement) {{dead link\|date\=June 2020}} While touring in 2010, the Rifles released *Acoustic No. 1*, an acoustic album containing new and old songs. Long time friends Lee Burgess and Kenton Shinn from the band Garda were added to the Rifles. On 15 February 2011, the Rifles began recording songs for a third studio album.{{cite tweet\|user\=theriflesband\|author\=The Rifles\|number\=36966671067385856\|date\=14 February 2011\|title\=in the studio tomorrow official kick off for recording the album!! x}} The new album, called *[Freedom Run](/wiki/Freedom_Run_%28album%29 "Freedom Run (album)")*,{{cite tweet\|user\=theriflesband\|author\=The Rifles\|number\=76588830819495936\|date\=3 June 2011\|title\=third album will be called freedom run!!! not long to a first single now!! X}} was released on 19 September 2011\.{{cite tweet\|user\=theriflesband\|author\=The Rifles\|number\=85300906513539072\|date\=27 June 2011\|title\=album release date is the 19th of september!!! BANG}} The Rifles began work on a deluxe version of *Freedom Run* on 9 February 2012\.{{cite tweet\|user\=theriflesband\|author\=The Rifles\|number\=167314976690810881\|date\=8 February 2012\|title\=Starting work tomorrow on the deluxe freedom run album hopefully be ready for the march gigs!}} In addition to a deluxe *Freedom Run*, the Rifles had an autumn/winter acoustic tour in 2012 and started work on songs for a new album.{{cite tweet\|user\=theriflesband\|author\=The Rifles\|number\=241145859436339200\|date\=30 August 2012\|title\=Sorry we can't get everywhere on the acoustic tour as working hard on new album aswell but we will tour that as full band everywhere! X}} The Rifles launched their [PledgeMusic](/wiki/PledgeMusic "PledgeMusic") campaign on 28 September 2012 to help fund their fourth studio album.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.facebook.com/therifles/posts/10151040839200773\|title\=The Rifles \- The Rifles: New Album has launched! \- Facebook\|work\=facebook.com}} The band also recorded *Acoustic No. 2*, their second acoustic album which was available on their winter 2012 acoustic tour.{{cite web\|url\=http://therifles.com/news/210\-acoustic\-2\|title\=The Rifles\|website\=Rifles.net}}
[thumb\|upright\=3\.5\|The Rifles onstage at Guilfest 2011](/wiki/File:The_Rifles_at_Guilfest_2011.jpg "The Rifles at Guilfest 2011.jpg")
In May 2013, the band announced that the four original members, including Marsh and Pyne, had reunited and were working on a fourth album.{{cite web \| url\=http://therifles.com/news/190\-the\-rifles\-back\-together \| title\=The Rifles Back Together\|website\=Therifles.com \| access\-date\=13 May 2013}}
### *None the Wiser* (2014–2015\)
The band's fourth studio album *[None the Wiser](/wiki/None_the_Wiser_%28album%29 "None the Wiser (album)")* was released on 27 January 2014\. It reached no. 21 in the album chart, the highest position for a Rifles album.
While touring on the re\-release of *No Love Lost* for the album's ten\-year anniversary in 2015, Joel Stoker stated the band were already writing songs for a 5th studio album.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.gigslutz.co.uk/interview\-the\-rifles/\|title\=INTERVIEW: The Rifles \|website\=Gigslutz.co.uk\|date\=7 June 2015 \|access\-date\=8 June 2020}} Several new songs were played live by the band on their early 2016 tour of the UK.
### *Big Life* (2016\)
The fifth studio album, *Big Life*, the band's first double album, was released in August 2016\.{{cite news \|last1\=Earls \|first1\=John \|title\=Listen as The Rifles announce new album and tour \|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/the\-rifles\-1201541 \|access\-date\=9 December 2021 \|work\=NME \|date\=10 June 2016}}{{cite news \|last1\=Daly \|first1\=Rhian \|title\=Bands You Thought Had Split Up But Are Still Going \|url\=https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme\-blogs/bands\-you\-thought\-had\-split\-up\-761343 \|access\-date\=9 December 2021 \|work\=NME \|date\=26 September 2016}}
### *Singles Collection and Unplugged Album* (2017\)
In 2017, the band released two albums. The Singles Collection, a collection of singles taken from their five albums and handful of EPs{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.banquetrecords.com/the\-rifles/singles\-collection/COOKLP693\|title\=Singles Collection \|website\=www.banquetrecords.com\|date\=4 January 2018 \|access\-date\= 11 Dec 2021}} and Unplugged Album, recorded live at the [Abbey Road Studios](/wiki/Abbey_Road_Studios "Abbey Road Studios") alongside a string quarter and a large choir. The album features versions of their songs taken from None The Wiser, Great Escape, Freedom Run, No Love Lost and Big Life.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.banquetrecords.com/the\-rifles/unplugged\-album%3A\-recorded\-at\-abbey\-road\-studios/COOKCD669\|title\=Unplugged Album \|website\=www.banquetrecords.com\|access\-date\= 11 Dec 2021}}
### *Live At The Roundhouse* (2020\)
In 2020, the band released a double\-LP live album featuring songs spanning their career.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.normanrecords.com/records/181071\-the\-rifles\-live\-at\-the\-roundhouse\|title\=Live Album \| website\=www.normanrecords.com\|access\-date\= 11 Dec 2021}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Formation and *No Love Lost* (2003–2006\\)",
"Joel Stoker and Lucas Crowther met at [Redbridge College](/wiki/Redbridge_College \"Redbridge College\") in 2003\\. They were both inspired by an [Oasis](/wiki/Oasis_%28band%29 \"Oasis (band)\") concert the two attended in [Knebworth](/wiki/Knebworth \"Knebworth\"), England. Guitarist Crowther revealed \"From that moment on we knew we had to start a band.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.contactmusic.com/new/artist.nsf/artistnames/the%20rifles\\|title\\=The Rifles\\|author\\=Mark Moore\\|website\\=Contactmusic.com}} After adding bassist Robert Pyne, who Joel knew from school, and drummer Grant Marsh, who Luke met in the *Candy Box* club, the Rifles performed their first gig at *The Bull \\& Gate* pub in [Kentish Town](/wiki/Kentish_Town \"Kentish Town\"), London in 2004\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.music\\-news.com/ShowReview.asp?nCID\\=0\\&H\\=The\\-Rifles\\-Luke\\-Crowther\\&nReviewID\\=1092\\&nType\\=4\\|title\\=The Rifles \\- Luke Crowther \\- Music\\-News.com\\|work\\=music\\-news.com}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.egigs.co.uk/index.php?a\\=12789\\|title\\=The Rifles' lead singer Joel Stoker talks to eGigs \\- about the new album, inspirations, aspirations, and live filming\\|website\\=Egigs.co.uk}}",
"The Rifles' first official release was a 7\" demo of \"[Peace \\& Quiet](/wiki/Peace_%26_Quiet_%28The_Rifles_song%29 \"Peace & Quiet (The Rifles song)\")\" released by [Blow Up Records](/wiki/Blow_Up_Records \"Blow Up Records\"). The band switched to fellow independent label [Xtra Mile Recordings](/wiki/Xtra_Mile_Recordings \"Xtra Mile Recordings\") for their May 2005 release of the single \"[When I'm Alone](/wiki/When_I%27m_Alone \"When I'm Alone\")\", which would go on to reach number 64 in the UK charts. Later that year the band's next single \"[Local Boy](/wiki/Local_Boy \"Local Boy\")\" would be released via Right Hook Recordings. It would get airplay on the Saturday morning show *[Soccer AM](/wiki/Soccer_AM \"Soccer AM\")* and would help give the band more exposure and even help them become regular guests on the show. The Rifles released two singles, \"[Repeated Offender](/wiki/Repeated_Offender \"Repeated Offender\")\" and \"[She's Got Standards](/wiki/She%27s_Got_Standards \"She's Got Standards\")\", ahead of the 17 July release of their debut album *[No Love Lost](/wiki/No_Love_Lost_%28The_Rifles_album%29 \"No Love Lost (The Rifles album)\")*, which peaked at 26 in the UK charts. The band [toured](/wiki/Concert_tour \"Concert tour\") in 2006, and performed at [A Campingflight to Lowlands Paradise](/wiki/A_Campingflight_to_Lowlands_Paradise \"A Campingflight to Lowlands Paradise\") 2007 and Paaspop Schijndel 2007, two [music festivals](/wiki/Music_festival \"Music festival\") in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"). The Rifles launched their [European](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") tour to promote their new album including a gig at the Forum, London, at which [Paul Weller](/wiki/Paul_Weller_%28singer%29 \"Paul Weller (singer)\") ([The Jam](/wiki/The_Jam \"The Jam\")) appeared on stage to play the song \"She's the Only One\" with the band, and The Jam's single, \"[The Eton Rifles](/wiki/The_Eton_Rifles \"The Eton Rifles\")\". The Rifles then released a free download of the song \"No Love Lost\" a year after their album of the same name was released.",
"[thumb\\|The Rifles at the University of Warwick SU 2007](/wiki/File:The_Rifles_-_Joel_Stoker_2007-03-08_at_the_University_of_Warwick_SU.jpg \"The Rifles - Joel Stoker 2007-03-08 at the University of Warwick SU.jpg\")",
"### *Great Escape* (2007–2010\\)",
"Touring on the back of their album *[No Love Lost](/wiki/No_Love_Lost_%28The_Rifles_album%29 \"No Love Lost (The Rifles album)\")*, The Rifles again released a free download, this time of their single \"[Talking](/wiki/Talking_%28The_Rifles_song%29 \"Talking (The Rifles song)\")\" on 20 October 2007\\. The single garnered high accolades from BBC Radio 1's Zane Lowe, who called it the \"Hottest Record in the World\". \"Talking\" also marked the band's label switch from Red Ink to [679 Recordings](/wiki/679_Recordings \"679 Recordings\"). On 21 July 2008, the single \"[I Could Never Lie](/wiki/I_Could_Never_Lie \"I Could Never Lie\")\" was released on a limited\\-edition vinyl disc. The Rifles also made appearances at the [Underage Festival](/wiki/Underage_Festival \"Underage Festival\") and the [V Festival](/wiki/V_Festival \"V Festival\") in the summer and played an extensive tour throughout October and November in 2008 when long\\-time friend of the band Dean Mumford (from the band Regency) was added on keyboards as session player for live performances.",
"When the band's second album was delayed from October 2008 to January 2009, the Rifles created [The Rifles EP](/wiki/The_Rifles_EP \"The Rifles EP\") that fans could download on the internet. The Rifles released their second album *[Great Escape](/wiki/Great_Escape_%28The_Rifles_album%29 \"Great Escape (The Rifles album)\")*{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.myspace.com/therifles\\|title\\=Featured Content on Myspace\\|website\\=Myspace.com}} on 26 January 2009,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://therifles.sandbag.uk.com/Store/DII\\-69\\-2\\-great\\+escape.html\\|title\\=The Rifles \\- GREAT ESCAPE CD\\|website\\=Sandbag.uk.com}} which peaked at 27 in the UK charts and reached the number 2 slot in the UK indie charts. In April 2009 they performed live at the PFA Awards performing a re\\-written version of Billy Joel's \"[We Didn't Start the Fire](/wiki/We_Didn%27t_Start_the_Fire \"We Didn't Start the Fire\")\" which was broadcast by Sky Sports. After a tour throughout the United Kingdom and Germany, the band announced extensive acoustic tours for the autumn and winter of 2010 and plans for a third album.",
"### *Freedom Run* (2010–2013\\)",
"On 17 October 2010, Grant Marsh and Rob Pyne announced they had left the band.[http://www.therifles.me.uk/news/53\\-statement](http://www.therifles.me.uk/news/53-statement) {{dead link\\|date\\=June 2020}} While touring in 2010, the Rifles released *Acoustic No. 1*, an acoustic album containing new and old songs. Long time friends Lee Burgess and Kenton Shinn from the band Garda were added to the Rifles. On 15 February 2011, the Rifles began recording songs for a third studio album.{{cite tweet\\|user\\=theriflesband\\|author\\=The Rifles\\|number\\=36966671067385856\\|date\\=14 February 2011\\|title\\=in the studio tomorrow official kick off for recording the album!! x}} The new album, called *[Freedom Run](/wiki/Freedom_Run_%28album%29 \"Freedom Run (album)\")*,{{cite tweet\\|user\\=theriflesband\\|author\\=The Rifles\\|number\\=76588830819495936\\|date\\=3 June 2011\\|title\\=third album will be called freedom run!!! not long to a first single now!! X}} was released on 19 September 2011\\.{{cite tweet\\|user\\=theriflesband\\|author\\=The Rifles\\|number\\=85300906513539072\\|date\\=27 June 2011\\|title\\=album release date is the 19th of september!!! BANG}} The Rifles began work on a deluxe version of *Freedom Run* on 9 February 2012\\.{{cite tweet\\|user\\=theriflesband\\|author\\=The Rifles\\|number\\=167314976690810881\\|date\\=8 February 2012\\|title\\=Starting work tomorrow on the deluxe freedom run album hopefully be ready for the march gigs!}} In addition to a deluxe *Freedom Run*, the Rifles had an autumn/winter acoustic tour in 2012 and started work on songs for a new album.{{cite tweet\\|user\\=theriflesband\\|author\\=The Rifles\\|number\\=241145859436339200\\|date\\=30 August 2012\\|title\\=Sorry we can't get everywhere on the acoustic tour as working hard on new album aswell but we will tour that as full band everywhere! X}} The Rifles launched their [PledgeMusic](/wiki/PledgeMusic \"PledgeMusic\") campaign on 28 September 2012 to help fund their fourth studio album.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.facebook.com/therifles/posts/10151040839200773\\|title\\=The Rifles \\- The Rifles: New Album has launched! \\- Facebook\\|work\\=facebook.com}} The band also recorded *Acoustic No. 2*, their second acoustic album which was available on their winter 2012 acoustic tour.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://therifles.com/news/210\\-acoustic\\-2\\|title\\=The Rifles\\|website\\=Rifles.net}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=3\\.5\\|The Rifles onstage at Guilfest 2011](/wiki/File:The_Rifles_at_Guilfest_2011.jpg \"The Rifles at Guilfest 2011.jpg\") \nIn May 2013, the band announced that the four original members, including Marsh and Pyne, had reunited and were working on a fourth album.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://therifles.com/news/190\\-the\\-rifles\\-back\\-together \\| title\\=The Rifles Back Together\\|website\\=Therifles.com \\| access\\-date\\=13 May 2013}}",
"### *None the Wiser* (2014–2015\\)",
"The band's fourth studio album *[None the Wiser](/wiki/None_the_Wiser_%28album%29 \"None the Wiser (album)\")* was released on 27 January 2014\\. It reached no. 21 in the album chart, the highest position for a Rifles album.",
"While touring on the re\\-release of *No Love Lost* for the album's ten\\-year anniversary in 2015, Joel Stoker stated the band were already writing songs for a 5th studio album.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gigslutz.co.uk/interview\\-the\\-rifles/\\|title\\=INTERVIEW: The Rifles \\|website\\=Gigslutz.co.uk\\|date\\=7 June 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2020}} Several new songs were played live by the band on their early 2016 tour of the UK.",
"### *Big Life* (2016\\)",
"The fifth studio album, *Big Life*, the band's first double album, was released in August 2016\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Earls \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=Listen as The Rifles announce new album and tour \\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/the\\-rifles\\-1201541 \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2021 \\|work\\=NME \\|date\\=10 June 2016}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Daly \\|first1\\=Rhian \\|title\\=Bands You Thought Had Split Up But Are Still Going \\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme\\-blogs/bands\\-you\\-thought\\-had\\-split\\-up\\-761343 \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2021 \\|work\\=NME \\|date\\=26 September 2016}}",
"### *Singles Collection and Unplugged Album* (2017\\)",
"In 2017, the band released two albums. The Singles Collection, a collection of singles taken from their five albums and handful of EPs{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.banquetrecords.com/the\\-rifles/singles\\-collection/COOKLP693\\|title\\=Singles Collection \\|website\\=www.banquetrecords.com\\|date\\=4 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\= 11 Dec 2021}} and Unplugged Album, recorded live at the [Abbey Road Studios](/wiki/Abbey_Road_Studios \"Abbey Road Studios\") alongside a string quarter and a large choir. The album features versions of their songs taken from None The Wiser, Great Escape, Freedom Run, No Love Lost and Big Life.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.banquetrecords.com/the\\-rifles/unplugged\\-album%3A\\-recorded\\-at\\-abbey\\-road\\-studios/COOKCD669\\|title\\=Unplugged Album \\|website\\=www.banquetrecords.com\\|access\\-date\\= 11 Dec 2021}}",
"### *Live At The Roundhouse* (2020\\)",
"In 2020, the band released a double\\-LP live album featuring songs spanning their career.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.normanrecords.com/records/181071\\-the\\-rifles\\-live\\-at\\-the\\-roundhouse\\|title\\=Live Album \\| website\\=www.normanrecords.com\\|access\\-date\\= 11 Dec 2021}}",
""
] |
Life and family
---------------
### Early years
Grinly was born in [Borrowstounness](/wiki/Borrowstounness "Borrowstounness"), near [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh") in 1748,{{Cite web \|title\=Mary Evans WM GRINLY (KAY) 10149429 \|url\=https://www.maryevans.com/history/wm\-grinly\-kay\-10149429 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-26 \|website\=www.maryevans.com}} to a prominent seafaring family. His father and all three of his brothers were [shipowners](/wiki/Ship-owner "Ship-owner") and [shipmasters](/wiki/Shipmaster "Shipmaster"), and as a young man he travelled extensively as part of the family merchant shipping business, including going [supercargo](/wiki/Supercargo "Supercargo") to [Holland](/wiki/Holland "Holland"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), and [America](/wiki/America "America").
During his early travels Grinly was shipwrecked multiple times and twice captured by [privateers](/wiki/Privateer "Privateer"). In the late 18th century, he was aboard the *[Isabella](/wiki/Isabella_%281793_ship%29 "Isabella (1793 ship)")* when it was captured on its homeward journey, and the entire [ship's company](/wiki/Ship%27s_company "Ship's company") robbed and marooned, with Grinly being stripped of all his possessions apart from his watch. Several of the shipwrecks he survived, particularly off the coast of France, saw the entire ship and all cargo lost.
### Shipping, soldiering and philanthropy
Grinly also pursued various independent business ventures and was active in supporting the interests of local people. He established Anderson \& Grinly, a mercantile firm initially based in [Bo'ness](/wiki/Bo%27ness "Bo'ness") and [Leith](/wiki/Leith "Leith"), but operations expanded across southern [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") to include areas of the southwest coast. In 1773, he was presented with the [Freedom of the](/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City "Freedom of the City") [Burgh](/wiki/Burgh "Burgh") of [Kirkcudbright](/wiki/Kirkcudbright "Kirkcudbright"), for his philanthropy and expedient business dealings in support of the area. However, when his operations in Bo'ness ultimately proved unsuccessful, he travelled to [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") to establish a new line of enterprise and support the founding of various [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism_in_Ireland "Protestantism in Ireland") [stranger churches](/wiki/Stranger_churches "Stranger churches").{{Cite book \|url\=https://www.corkrecords.com/images/freemen1710\-1841\.pdf \|title\=List of Freemen of Cork City 1710\-1841 \|publisher\=Cork City and County Archives \|year\=2007 \|pages\=73 \|quote\=Grinly, William. Merchant, “Protestant Stranger etc.,”. 7/6/1781}} Although there only 2 years, his activities resulted in him being awarded the [Freedom of the City](/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City "Freedom of the City") of [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 "Cork (city)") on 7 June 1781, before he again relocated back to Scotland.
For several years after returning to Leith, Grinly operated a successful [shipping](/wiki/Shipping "Shipping") business, but as a result of over [speculation](/wiki/Speculation "Speculation") in [maritime](/wiki/Maritime_transport "Maritime transport") [underwriting](/wiki/Underwriting "Underwriting") he lost the majority of his wealth. However, undeterred by his misfortunes, he then again reentered the world of commerce as a [ship broker](/wiki/Ship_broker "Ship broker"), merchant, and auctioneer, based in Tolbooth Wynd, Leith and amassed a considerable fortune enabling him to retire entirely from business.
Grinly was [Quartermaster](/wiki/Quartermaster "Quartermaster") of the Royal Leith Volunteers following their embodiment and [receiving of colours](/wiki/Presentation_of_Colours "Presentation of Colours") on 26 September 1795, presented by the [Lord\-lieutenant](/wiki/Lord-lieutenant "Lord-lieutenant") to Capt. Bruce, son of [Robert Bruce, Lord Kennet](/wiki/Robert_Bruce%2C_Lord_Kennet "Robert Bruce, Lord Kennet").{{Cite book \|last\=Grant \|first\=James \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Vt4HAAAAQAAJ\&dq\=royal\+leith\+volunteers\&pg\=PA264 \|title\=Cassell's old and new Edinburgh \|date\=1880 \|pages\=198 \|language\=en}} In 1797, he was one of the 120 [sea captains](/wiki/Sea_captain "Sea captain") who volunteered to fight with the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") during the [French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars "French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars"), and while the [Imperial Russian Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy "Imperial Russian Navy") was stationed in [Leith Roads](/wiki/Leith_Roads "Leith Roads"), he frequently met and conversed with the officers regarding developments in the east, drawing on his knowledge of Russia and previous travels to the country.
All throughout his life, Grinly was a committed [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism"), being an [Elder](/wiki/Ministers_and_elders_of_the_Church_of_Scotland "Ministers and elders of the Church of Scotland") of [South Leith Parish Church](/wiki/South_Leith_Parish_Church "South Leith Parish Church") for around 30 years and a close friend of [William Robertson](/wiki/William_Robertson_%28historian%29 "William Robertson (historian)"). His efforts to promote improvements across Edinburgh and Leith as a member of the [Merchant Company of Edinburgh](/wiki/Merchant_Company_of_Edinburgh "Merchant Company of Edinburgh"), and his high standing in the community meant he was regularly asked to act as a local [magistrate](/wiki/Magistrate "Magistrate"), although he always refused on the grounds that he did not have the time to do justice to the office.
### Marriage and later life
Grinly married twice, firstly to Isabel, daughter of John Ritchie Esq. of Middle Thorn, with whom he had ten children, four sons and six daughters, and secondly to Susan, daughter of [John Scott, 3rd Laird of Malleny](/wiki/John_Scott%2C_3rd_Laird_of_Malleny "John Scott, 3rd Laird of Malleny") of [Malleny House](/wiki/Malleny_House_and_Garden "Malleny House and Garden").{{Cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ZRUbAAAAYAAJ\&dq\=William\+grinly\&pg\=PA77 \|title\=The Scots Magazine and Edinburgh Literary Miscellany \|date\=1813 \|publisher\=Archibald Constable \& Company \|pages\=77 \|language\=en \|quote\=Marriages. Lately at Leith William Grinly broker to Susanna youngest daughter of the late John Scott Esq of Malleny.}}{{Cite web \|last\=Scotland \|first\=National Trust for \|date\=2022\-06\-25 \|title\=Facing Our Past at Malleny Garden \|url\=https://www.nts.org.uk/stories/facing\-our\-past\-at\-malleny\-garden \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-26 \|website\=National Trust for Scotland \|language\=en}}
In the last years of his life he went entirely blind and had to be escorted at all times when outside. He died in 1827 aged 80, survived by his second wife, and his remains were interred in the family burial ground at South Leith Church.
|
[
"Life and family\n---------------",
"### Early years",
"Grinly was born in [Borrowstounness](/wiki/Borrowstounness \"Borrowstounness\"), near [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") in 1748,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mary Evans WM GRINLY (KAY) 10149429 \\|url\\=https://www.maryevans.com/history/wm\\-grinly\\-kay\\-10149429 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-26 \\|website\\=www.maryevans.com}} to a prominent seafaring family. His father and all three of his brothers were [shipowners](/wiki/Ship-owner \"Ship-owner\") and [shipmasters](/wiki/Shipmaster \"Shipmaster\"), and as a young man he travelled extensively as part of the family merchant shipping business, including going [supercargo](/wiki/Supercargo \"Supercargo\") to [Holland](/wiki/Holland \"Holland\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), and [America](/wiki/America \"America\").",
"During his early travels Grinly was shipwrecked multiple times and twice captured by [privateers](/wiki/Privateer \"Privateer\"). In the late 18th century, he was aboard the *[Isabella](/wiki/Isabella_%281793_ship%29 \"Isabella (1793 ship)\")* when it was captured on its homeward journey, and the entire [ship's company](/wiki/Ship%27s_company \"Ship's company\") robbed and marooned, with Grinly being stripped of all his possessions apart from his watch. Several of the shipwrecks he survived, particularly off the coast of France, saw the entire ship and all cargo lost.",
"### Shipping, soldiering and philanthropy",
"Grinly also pursued various independent business ventures and was active in supporting the interests of local people. He established Anderson \\& Grinly, a mercantile firm initially based in [Bo'ness](/wiki/Bo%27ness \"Bo'ness\") and [Leith](/wiki/Leith \"Leith\"), but operations expanded across southern [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") to include areas of the southwest coast. In 1773, he was presented with the [Freedom of the](/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City \"Freedom of the City\") [Burgh](/wiki/Burgh \"Burgh\") of [Kirkcudbright](/wiki/Kirkcudbright \"Kirkcudbright\"), for his philanthropy and expedient business dealings in support of the area. However, when his operations in Bo'ness ultimately proved unsuccessful, he travelled to [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") to establish a new line of enterprise and support the founding of various [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism_in_Ireland \"Protestantism in Ireland\") [stranger churches](/wiki/Stranger_churches \"Stranger churches\").{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://www.corkrecords.com/images/freemen1710\\-1841\\.pdf \\|title\\=List of Freemen of Cork City 1710\\-1841 \\|publisher\\=Cork City and County Archives \\|year\\=2007 \\|pages\\=73 \\|quote\\=Grinly, William. Merchant, “Protestant Stranger etc.,”. 7/6/1781}} Although there only 2 years, his activities resulted in him being awarded the [Freedom of the City](/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City \"Freedom of the City\") of [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 \"Cork (city)\") on 7 June 1781, before he again relocated back to Scotland.",
"For several years after returning to Leith, Grinly operated a successful [shipping](/wiki/Shipping \"Shipping\") business, but as a result of over [speculation](/wiki/Speculation \"Speculation\") in [maritime](/wiki/Maritime_transport \"Maritime transport\") [underwriting](/wiki/Underwriting \"Underwriting\") he lost the majority of his wealth. However, undeterred by his misfortunes, he then again reentered the world of commerce as a [ship broker](/wiki/Ship_broker \"Ship broker\"), merchant, and auctioneer, based in Tolbooth Wynd, Leith and amassed a considerable fortune enabling him to retire entirely from business.",
"Grinly was [Quartermaster](/wiki/Quartermaster \"Quartermaster\") of the Royal Leith Volunteers following their embodiment and [receiving of colours](/wiki/Presentation_of_Colours \"Presentation of Colours\") on 26 September 1795, presented by the [Lord\\-lieutenant](/wiki/Lord-lieutenant \"Lord-lieutenant\") to Capt. Bruce, son of [Robert Bruce, Lord Kennet](/wiki/Robert_Bruce%2C_Lord_Kennet \"Robert Bruce, Lord Kennet\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Grant \\|first\\=James \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Vt4HAAAAQAAJ\\&dq\\=royal\\+leith\\+volunteers\\&pg\\=PA264 \\|title\\=Cassell's old and new Edinburgh \\|date\\=1880 \\|pages\\=198 \\|language\\=en}} In 1797, he was one of the 120 [sea captains](/wiki/Sea_captain \"Sea captain\") who volunteered to fight with the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") during the [French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars \"French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars\"), and while the [Imperial Russian Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy \"Imperial Russian Navy\") was stationed in [Leith Roads](/wiki/Leith_Roads \"Leith Roads\"), he frequently met and conversed with the officers regarding developments in the east, drawing on his knowledge of Russia and previous travels to the country.",
"All throughout his life, Grinly was a committed [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\"), being an [Elder](/wiki/Ministers_and_elders_of_the_Church_of_Scotland \"Ministers and elders of the Church of Scotland\") of [South Leith Parish Church](/wiki/South_Leith_Parish_Church \"South Leith Parish Church\") for around 30 years and a close friend of [William Robertson](/wiki/William_Robertson_%28historian%29 \"William Robertson (historian)\"). His efforts to promote improvements across Edinburgh and Leith as a member of the [Merchant Company of Edinburgh](/wiki/Merchant_Company_of_Edinburgh \"Merchant Company of Edinburgh\"), and his high standing in the community meant he was regularly asked to act as a local [magistrate](/wiki/Magistrate \"Magistrate\"), although he always refused on the grounds that he did not have the time to do justice to the office.",
"### Marriage and later life",
"Grinly married twice, firstly to Isabel, daughter of John Ritchie Esq. of Middle Thorn, with whom he had ten children, four sons and six daughters, and secondly to Susan, daughter of [John Scott, 3rd Laird of Malleny](/wiki/John_Scott%2C_3rd_Laird_of_Malleny \"John Scott, 3rd Laird of Malleny\") of [Malleny House](/wiki/Malleny_House_and_Garden \"Malleny House and Garden\").{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ZRUbAAAAYAAJ\\&dq\\=William\\+grinly\\&pg\\=PA77 \\|title\\=The Scots Magazine and Edinburgh Literary Miscellany \\|date\\=1813 \\|publisher\\=Archibald Constable \\& Company \\|pages\\=77 \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=Marriages. Lately at Leith William Grinly broker to Susanna youngest daughter of the late John Scott Esq of Malleny.}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scotland \\|first\\=National Trust for \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-25 \\|title\\=Facing Our Past at Malleny Garden \\|url\\=https://www.nts.org.uk/stories/facing\\-our\\-past\\-at\\-malleny\\-garden \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-26 \\|website\\=National Trust for Scotland \\|language\\=en}}",
"In the last years of his life he went entirely blind and had to be escorted at all times when outside. He died in 1827 aged 80, survived by his second wife, and his remains were interred in the family burial ground at South Leith Church.",
""
] |
United States
-------------
On display
F\-101A
* 53\-2418 \- [Evergreen Air and Space Museum](/wiki/Evergreen_Air_and_Space_Museum "Evergreen Air and Space Museum"), [McMinnville, Oregon](/wiki/McMinnville%2C_Oregon "McMinnville, Oregon").["F\-101 Voodoo/53\-2418\."](http://evergreenmuseum.org/blog/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607205323/http://evergreenmuseum.org/blog/ \|date\=2015\-06\-07 }} *Evergreen Air and Space Museum.* Retrieved: 2 June 2015\.
* 53\-2422 \- While not displayed as such, the aircraft sits derelict on the southeastern edge of the [Edwards AFB](/wiki/Edwards_Air_Force_Base "Edwards Air Force Base") photo range [California](/wiki/California "California"), and has been located there since at least 1979\.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 54\-1443 \- In front of Atlantic Heating \& Cooling, 553 Central Dr, Virginia Beach, VA 23454 as of July 2023\.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
CF\-101B
* 101044 \- [Peterson Air and Space Museum](/wiki/Peterson_Air_and_Space_Museum "Peterson Air and Space Museum"), [Peterson AFB](/wiki/Peterson_AFB "Peterson AFB"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado").["F\-101 Voodoo/57\-0381\."](http://www.petemuseum.org/CF101B.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210064247/http://www.petemuseum.org/CF101B.html \|date\=2013\-02\-10 }} *Peterson Air and Space Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
CF\-101F
* 17400 \- [Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum](/wiki/Valiant_Air_Command_Warbird_Museum "Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum"), [Space Coast Regional Airport](/wiki/Space_Coast_Regional_Airport "Space Coast Regional Airport"), [Titusville, Florida](/wiki/Titusville%2C_Florida "Titusville, Florida").["F\-101 Voodoo/59\-0400\."](http://www.vacwarbirds.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/DSC0976-F101.jpg) *Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\. The original serial number was 59\-0400\.
F\-101B
[thumb\|F\-101B on display at the Strategic Air Command \& Aerospace Museum in Nebraska](/wiki/File:F-101B_on_display_at_the_Strategic_Air_Command_%26_Aerospace_Museum_in_Nebraska.jpg "F-101B on display at the Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum in Nebraska.jpg")
[thumb\|F\-101B at [Fairchild AFB](/wiki/Fairchild_AFB "Fairchild AFB")](/wiki/File:F-101B_Fairchild.jpg "F-101B Fairchild.jpg")
* 56\-0241 \- [USAF Airman Heritage Museum](/wiki/USAF_Airman_Heritage_Museum "USAF Airman Heritage Museum"), [Lackland AFB](/wiki/Lackland_AFB "Lackland AFB"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0252 \- [Hill Aerospace Museum](/wiki/Hill_Aerospace_Museum "Hill Aerospace Museum"), [Hill AFB](/wiki/Hill_AFB "Hill AFB"), [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah")["F\-101 Voodoo/57\-0252\."](http://www.hill.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=5770) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007232717/http://www.hill.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\=5770 \|date\=2012\-10\-07 }} *Hill Aerospace Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 57\-0282 \- [Pima Air \& Space Museum](/wiki/Pima_Air_%26_Space_Museum "Pima Air & Space Museum"), adjacent to [Davis\-Monthan AFB](/wiki/Davis-Monthan_AFB "Davis-Monthan AFB"), [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona")["F\-101 Voodoo/57\-0282\."](http://www.pimaair.org/aircraft-by-name/item/mcdonnell-f-101b-voodoo) *Pima Air \& Space Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 57\-0294 \- [Washington National Guard Museum](/wiki/Washington_National_Guard_Museum "Washington National Guard Museum"), [Camp Murray](/wiki/Camp_Murray "Camp Murray"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"). It is a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0308 \- Wilmington Airport Collection, [Wilmington Airport](/wiki/Wilmington_Airport_%28Ohio%29 "Wilmington Airport (Ohio)"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0374 \- [Maine Air National Guard](/wiki/Maine_Air_National_Guard "Maine Air National Guard"), [Bangor Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Bangor_Air_National_Guard_Base "Bangor Air National Guard Base"), [Bangor, Maine](/wiki/Bangor%2C_Maine "Bangor, Maine"). It is a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0410 \- [Combat Air Museum](/wiki/Combat_Air_Museum "Combat Air Museum"), [Topeka, Kansas](/wiki/Topeka%2C_Kansas "Topeka, Kansas"). N8234, nickname, ‘the Gray Ghost'; previously at [Colorado State University](/wiki/Colorado_State_University "Colorado State University").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0412 \- [Castle Air Museum](/wiki/Castle_Air_Museum "Castle Air Museum"), [Castle Airport](/wiki/Castle_Airport "Castle Airport") (formerly [Castle AFB](/wiki/Castle_AFB "Castle AFB")), [Atwater, California](/wiki/Atwater%2C_California "Atwater, California").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0417 (painted as 56\-0417\) \- Callaway Recreational Complex, [Callaway, Florida](/wiki/Callaway%2C_Florida "Callaway, Florida"). It is a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0427 \- [Aerospace Museum of California](/wiki/Aerospace_Museum_of_California "Aerospace Museum of California"), [McClellan Airport](/wiki/McClellan_Airport "McClellan Airport") (former [McClellan AFB](/wiki/McClellan_AFB "McClellan AFB")), [Sacramento, California](/wiki/Sacramento%2C_California "Sacramento, California")["F\-101 Voodoo/57\-0427\."](http://www.aerospaceca.org/mcdonnell-f-101b-voodoo/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328234924/http://www.aerospaceca.org/mcdonnell\-f\-101b\-voodoo/ \|date\=2015\-03\-28 }} *Aerospace Museum of California.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 57\-0430 \- American Legion Post 4, [Mount Clemens, Michigan](/wiki/Mount_Clemens%2C_Michigan "Mount Clemens, Michigan").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0436 \- Celebrity Row, [Davis\-Monthan AFB](/wiki/Davis-Monthan_AFB "Davis-Monthan AFB") (North Side), [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona"). Under the control of the base, it is stored in a mothball state with the details covered with sheets.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0271 \- [Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum](/wiki/Wings_Over_the_Rockies_Air_and_Space_Museum "Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum") at the former [Lowry AFB](/wiki/Lowry_AFB "Lowry AFB"), [Denver, Colorado](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado "Denver, Colorado").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0273 \- Poinsett Weapons Range, [Sumter, South Carolina](/wiki/Sumter%2C_South_Carolina "Sumter, South Carolina").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0274 \- Peterson AFB, Colorado. Displayed near the AMC Passenger Terminal, formerly displayed near the West Gate.It is fixed with several pillars, making it impossible to take out the landing gear.
* 58\-0281 \- Boeing Park, [Spirit of St. Louis Airport](/wiki/Spirit_of_St._Louis_Airport "Spirit of St. Louis Airport"), [Chesterfield, Missouri](/wiki/Chesterfield%2C_Missouri "Chesterfield, Missouri").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0285 \- [Travis Air Force Base Heritage Center](/wiki/Travis_Air_Force_Base_Heritage_Center "Travis Air Force Base Heritage Center") (Jimmy Doolittle Air \& Space Museum), [Travis AFB](/wiki/Travis_AFB "Travis AFB"), [California](/wiki/California "California")["F\-101 Voodoo/58\-0285\."](http://www.travis.af.mil/units/travisairmuseum.asp) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725212532/http://www.travis.af.mil/units/travisairmuseum.asp \|date\=2011\-07\-25 }} *Travis Air Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 58\-0288 \- [Air Force Flight Test Center Museum](/wiki/Air_Force_Flight_Test_Center_Museum "Air Force Flight Test Center Museum"), [Edwards AFB](/wiki/Edwards_AFB "Edwards AFB"), [California](/wiki/California "California")["F\-101 Voodoo/58\-0288\."](http://afftcmuseum.org/exhibits/edwards-afb-west-gate/) *Air Force Flight Test Center Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 58\-0291 \- K.I.Sawyer Heritage Museum at the former [K.I. Sawyer AFB](/wiki/K.I._Sawyer_AFB "K.I. Sawyer AFB"), [K.I. Sawyer, Michigan](/wiki/K.I._Sawyer%2C_Michigan "K.I. Sawyer, Michigan")["F\-101 Voodoo/58\-0291\."](http://www.kishamuseum.org/f101b.php) *K.I.Sawyer Heritage Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 58\-0300 \- Minnesota ANG Museum, [St. Paul, Minnesota](/wiki/St._Paul%2C_Minnesota "St. Paul, Minnesota")["F\-101 Voodoo/58\-0300\."](http://mnangmuseum.org/exhibits/mcdonnell-voodoo/) *Minnesota ANG Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 58\-0301 \- [Portland International Airport](/wiki/Portland_International_Airport "Portland International Airport")/[Portland Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Portland_Air_National_Guard_Base "Portland Air National Guard Base"), [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0303 \- Glenn L. Martin Aviation Museum, [Baltimore, Maryland](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland "Baltimore, Maryland")["F\-101 Voodoo/58\-0303\."](http://www.mdairmuseum.org/flight-line_files/page22-1005-full.html) *Glenn L. Martin Aviation Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\. The main wings have been removed so that it can be transported by land.
* 58\-0312 \- Veteran's Park, [Rock Springs, Wyoming](/wiki/Rock_Springs%2C_Wyoming "Rock Springs, Wyoming").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0315 \- [Grand Forks AFB](/wiki/Grand_Forks_AFB "Grand Forks AFB"), [North Dakota](/wiki/North_Dakota "North Dakota").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0321 \- [Grissom Air Museum](/wiki/Grissom_Air_Museum "Grissom Air Museum"), [Grissom ARB](/wiki/Grissom_ARB "Grissom ARB") (former [Grissom AFB](/wiki/Grissom_AFB "Grissom AFB")), [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana "Indiana")["F\-101 Voodoo/58\-0321\."](http://www.grissomairmuseum.com/gallery/fighters/plane14) *Grissom Air Museum.* Retrieved: 2 June 2015\.
* 58\-0325 \- [National Museum of the United States Air Force](/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_United_States_Air_Force "National Museum of the United States Air Force"), [Wright\-Patterson AFB](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_AFB "Wright-Patterson AFB"), [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio "Dayton, Ohio")["McDonnell F\-101B Voodoo."](http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/MuseumExhibits/FactSheets/Display/tabid/509/Article/196899/mcdonnell-f-101b-voodoo.aspx) *National Museum of the United States Air Force.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 58\-0329 \- Vietnam Veterans Memorial, [Rogers, Arkansas](/wiki/Rogers%2C_Arkansas "Rogers, Arkansas"). It has become a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0332 \- [Evergreen Aviation \& Space Museum](/wiki/Evergreen_Aviation_%26_Space_Museum "Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum"), [McMinnville, Oregon](/wiki/McMinnville%2C_Oregon "McMinnville, Oregon"). It is currently dismantled and placed outside.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0335 \- [Fairchild AFB](/wiki/Fairchild_AFB "Fairchild AFB"), [Spokane, Washington](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Washington "Spokane, Washington").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0341 \- [Fargo ANGB](/wiki/Fargo_Air_National_Guard_Base "Fargo Air National Guard Base"), [Fargo, North Dakota](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota "Fargo, North Dakota").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 59\-0412 \- Tennessee ANGB, [Chattanooga, Tennessee](/wiki/Chattanooga%2C_Tennessee "Chattanooga, Tennessee").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 59\-0417 \- [Pocatello Regional Airport](/wiki/Pocatello_Regional_Airport "Pocatello Regional Airport"), [Pocatello, Idaho](/wiki/Pocatello%2C_Idaho "Pocatello, Idaho").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 59\-0418 \- [March Field Air Museum](/wiki/March_Field_Air_Museum "March Field Air Museum"), [March ARB](/wiki/March_ARB "March ARB") (former [March AFB](/wiki/March_AFB "March AFB")), [Riverside, California](/wiki/Riverside%2C_California "Riverside, California")["F\-101 Voodoo/59\-0418\."](http://www.marchfield.org/aircraft-exhibits/aircraft/f-101b-voodoo-mcdonnell-douglas/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630015507/http://www.marchfield.org/aircraft\-exhibits/aircraft/f\-101b\-voodoo\-mcdonnell\-douglas \|date\=2015\-06\-30 }} *March Field Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 59\-0421 \- [Texas Air Museum \- Stinson Chapter](/wiki/Texas_Air_Museum_-_Stinson_Chapter "Texas Air Museum - Stinson Chapter"), [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio "San Antonio").
* 59\-0423 \- [Winston Field Airport](/wiki/Winston_Field_Airport "Winston Field Airport"), [Snyder, Texas](/wiki/Snyder%2C_Texas "Snyder, Texas"). The aircraft is in poor condition overall, and there are defects in various parts of the aircraft.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 59\-0426 \- [South Dakota Air and Space Museum](/wiki/South_Dakota_Air_and_Space_Museum "South Dakota Air and Space Museum"), [Ellsworth AFB](/wiki/Ellsworth_AFB "Ellsworth AFB"), [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota "South Dakota")["F\-101 Voodoo/59\-0426\."](http://www.sdairandspacemuseum.com/attractions.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003103234/http://www.sdairandspacemuseum.com/attractions.htm \|date\=2011\-10\-03 }} *South Dakota Air and Space Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 59\-0428 \- [Air Mobility Command Museum](/wiki/Air_Mobility_Command_Museum "Air Mobility Command Museum"), [Dover AFB](/wiki/Dover_AFB "Dover AFB"), [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware "Delaware")["F\-101 Voodoo/59\-0428\."](http://amcmuseum.org/at-the-museum/aircraft/f-101b-voodoo/) *Air Mobility Command Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* [thumb\|F\-101 Voodoo at the [Texas Air Museum](/wiki/Texas_Air_Museum "Texas Air Museum") in [Slaton, Texas](/wiki/Slaton%2C_Texas "Slaton, Texas").](/wiki/File:F-101_at_the_TAM.jpg "F-101 at the TAM.jpg")59\-0429 \- [Texas Air Museum](/wiki/Texas_Air_Museum "Texas Air Museum"), [Slaton, Texas](/wiki/Slaton%2C_Texas "Slaton, Texas")["F\-101 Voodoo/59\-0429\."](http://www.thetexasairmuseum.org/aircraft/staticaircraft/F-101/) *Texas Air Museum.* Retrieved: 2 June 2015\.
* 59\-0430 \- Babe Zaharias Memorial, [Beaumont, Texas](/wiki/Beaumont%2C_Texas "Beaumont, Texas"). It is a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 59\-0462 \- [Strategic Air \& Space Museum](/wiki/Strategic_Air_%26_Space_Museum "Strategic Air & Space Museum"), [Ashland, Nebraska](/wiki/Ashland%2C_Nebraska "Ashland, Nebraska")["F\-101 Voodoo/59\-0462\."](http://sasmuseum.web01.bosmallbusiness.com/aircraft/f-101b-voodoo/) *Strategic Air \& Space Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 59\-0471 \- Historic Aviation Memorial Museum, [Tyler, Texas](/wiki/Tyler%2C_Texas "Tyler, Texas").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}} It is currently being transported to Fort Worth for restoration work.
RF\-101B
* 59\-0483 \- May ANGB, [Reno, Nevada](/wiki/Reno%2C_Nevada "Reno, Nevada").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
JF\-101B
* 56\-0250 \- [Air Force Armament Museum](/wiki/Air_Force_Armament_Museum "Air Force Armament Museum"), [Eglin AFB](/wiki/Eglin_AFB "Eglin AFB"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida")["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0250\."](http://www.afarmamentmuseum.com/outside.shtml) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012072145/http://afarmamentmuseum.com/outside.shtml \|date\=2014\-10\-12 }} *Air Force Armament Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
NF\-101B
* 56\-0235 \- [Yankee Air Museum](/wiki/Yankee_Air_Museum "Yankee Air Museum"), [Belleville, Michigan](/wiki/Belleville%2C_Michigan "Belleville, Michigan")["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0235\."](http://yankeeairmuseum.org/adopt.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521215631/http://yankeeairmuseum.org/adopt.php \|date\=2013\-05\-21 }} *Yankee Air Museum.*It was originally completed and deployed as the F\-101B, but was later converted to the NF\-101B for ejection seat testing. Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 56\-0273 \- [Rantoul National Aviation Center](/wiki/Rantoul_National_Aviation_Center "Rantoul National Aviation Center"), [Rantoul, Illinois](/wiki/Rantoul%2C_Illinois "Rantoul, Illinois"). Formerly on display at [Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum](/wiki/Octave_Chanute_Aerospace_Museum "Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum") at the former [Chanute AFB](/wiki/Chanute_AFB "Chanute AFB"), [Rantoul, Illinois](/wiki/Rantoul%2C_Illinois "Rantoul, Illinois"). When this museum closed, the aircraft was to be sent to [Southern Museum of Flight](/wiki/Southern_Museum_of_Flight "Southern Museum of Flight"), [Birmingham, Alabama](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Alabama "Birmingham, Alabama"). It was seen still on tarmac behind the former Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum in July 2018\.{{cite web\|title\=USAF Serial Number Search (56\-273\)\|url\=http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf\_serials/1956\.html\|access\-date\=2018\-02\-14}}
TF\-101B
* 57\-0287 \- Linear Air Park, [Dyess AFB](/wiki/Dyess_AFB "Dyess AFB"), [Abilene, Texas](/wiki/Abilene%2C_Texas "Abilene, Texas").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
GF\-101B
* 58\-0290 \- Security Police Training Area (north), [Kelly Field](/wiki/Kelly_Field "Kelly Field") (formerly Kelly AFB), [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Texas "San Antonio, Texas").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
F\-101C
* 56\-0009 \- [Sheppard AFB](/wiki/Sheppard_AFB "Sheppard AFB"), [Wichita Falls, Texas](/wiki/Wichita_Falls%2C_Texas "Wichita Falls, Texas").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
RF\-101C
[thumb\|RF\-101C display at the [Museum of Aviation](/wiki/Museum_of_Aviation_%28Warner_Robins%29 "Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)"), [Robins AFB](/wiki/Robins_AFB "Robins AFB")](/wiki/File:18-37-149-RF101.jpg "18-37-149-RF101.jpg")
* 56\-0048 \- [Selfridge Military Air Museum](/wiki/Selfridge_Military_Air_Museum "Selfridge Military Air Museum"), Selfridge ANGB, [Mount Clemens, Michigan](/wiki/Mount_Clemens%2C_Michigan "Mount Clemens, Michigan")["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0048\."](http://www.selfridgeairmuseum.org/RF-101C.htm) *Selfridge Military Air Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 56\-0057 \- [Camp Robinson](/wiki/Robinson_Maneuver_Training_Center "Robinson Maneuver Training Center") National Guard Armory, [North Little Rock, Arkansas](/wiki/North_Little_Rock%2C_Arkansas "North Little Rock, Arkansas").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0068 \- Muse Manor front lawn (north), [Keesler AFB](/wiki/Keesler_AFB "Keesler AFB"), [Biloxi, Mississippi](/wiki/Biloxi%2C_Mississippi "Biloxi, Mississippi").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0099 \- [Shaw AFB](/wiki/Shaw_AFB "Shaw AFB"), [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0112 \- [Gila Bend Municipal Airport](/wiki/Gila_Bend_Municipal_Airport "Gila Bend Municipal Airport") [Gila Bend, Arizona](/wiki/Gila_Bend%2C_Arizona "Gila Bend, Arizona").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0119 \- in storage at the Paul Garber Facility of the [National Air and Space Museum](/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum "National Air and Space Museum") in [Silver Hill, Maryland](/wiki/Silver_Hill%2C_Maryland "Silver Hill, Maryland").["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0119\."](http://airandspace.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?object=nasm_A19810190000) *NASM.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 56\-0125 \- The [Aviation Museum of Kentucky](/wiki/Aviation_Museum_of_Kentucky "Aviation Museum of Kentucky"), [Blue Grass Airport](/wiki/Blue_Grass_Airport "Blue Grass Airport"), [Lexington, Kentucky](/wiki/Lexington%2C_Kentucky "Lexington, Kentucky")["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0125\."](http://www.aviationky.org/visit.asp) *Aviation Museum of Kentucky.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 56\-0130 \- Gila Bend Municipal Airport, [Gila Bend, Arizona](/wiki/Gila_Bend%2C_Arizona "Gila Bend, Arizona").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0135 \- [Maxwell AFB](/wiki/Maxwell_AFB "Maxwell AFB"), [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama "Alabama").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0166 \- [National Museum of the United States Air Force](/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_United_States_Air_Force "National Museum of the United States Air Force"), [Wright\-Patterson AFB](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_AFB "Wright-Patterson AFB"), [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio "Dayton, Ohio")["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0166\."](http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=302) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015085517/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\=302 \|date\=2012\-10\-15 }} *National Museum of the United States Air Force.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 56\-0185 \- Niagara Falls ANGB, [Niagara Falls, New York](/wiki/Niagara_Falls%2C_New_York "Niagara Falls, New York").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0210 \- [Museum of Aviation](/wiki/Museum_of_Aviation_%28Warner_Robins%29 "Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)"), [Robins AFB](/wiki/Robins_AFB "Robins AFB"), [Warner Robins, Georgia](/wiki/Warner_Robins%2C_Georgia "Warner Robins, Georgia")["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0210\."](http://www.museumofaviation.org/RF101.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729035017/http://www.museumofaviation.org/RF101\.php \|date\=2013\-07\-29 }} *Museum of Aviation.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 56\-0214 \- [Pima Air \& Space Museum](/wiki/Pima_Air_%26_Space_Museum "Pima Air & Space Museum"), adjacent to [Davis\-Monthan AFB](/wiki/Davis-Monthan_AFB "Davis-Monthan AFB"), [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona")["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0214\."](http://www.pimaair.org/aircraft-by-name/item/mcdonnell-rf-101c-voodoo) *Pima Air \& Space Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 56\-0217 \- George Robert Hall Airpark, Bobby Chain Airport, [Hattiesburg, Mississippi](/wiki/Hattiesburg%2C_Mississippi "Hattiesburg, Mississippi").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0229 \- [Museum of Aviation](/wiki/Museum_of_Aviation_%28Warner_Robins%29 "Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)"), [Warner Robins AFB](/wiki/Warner_Robins_AFB "Warner Robins AFB"), [Macon, Georgia](/wiki/Macon%2C_Georgia "Macon, Georgia")["F\-101 Voodoo/56\-0229\."](http://www.museumofaviation.org/RF101.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729035017/http://www.museumofaviation.org/RF101\.php \|date\=2013\-07\-29 }} *Museum of Aviation.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\.
* 56\-0231 \- [Little Rock AFB](/wiki/Little_Rock_AFB "Little Rock AFB"), [Jacksonville, Arkansas](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Arkansas "Jacksonville, Arkansas").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
F\-101F
* 56\-0246 \- Air Power Park, [Hampton, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton%2C_Virginia "Hampton, Virginia").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 57\-0342 \- [MAPS Air Museum](/wiki/MAPS_Air_Museum "MAPS Air Museum"), [North Canton, Ohio](/wiki/North_Canton%2C_Ohio "North Canton, Ohio")["F\-101 Voodoo/57\-0342\."](https://sites.google.com/a/mapsairmuseum.org/f101f-57-0342/) *MAPS Air Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 58\-0269 \- James J. Eagan Civic Center, [Florissant, Missouri](/wiki/Florissant%2C_Missouri "Florissant, Missouri").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0276 \- [Museum of Aviation](/wiki/Museum_of_Aviation_%28Warner_Robins%29 "Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)"), [Robins AFB](/wiki/Robins_AFB "Robins AFB"), [Warner Robins, Georgia](/wiki/Warner_Robins%2C_Georgia "Warner Robins, Georgia")["F\-101 Voodoo/58\-0276\."](http://www.museumofaviation.org/F101B.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321071336/http://www.museumofaviation.org/F101B.php \|date\=2013\-03\-21 }} *Museum of Aviation.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\.
* 58\-0311 \- [Devils Lake Municipal Airport](/wiki/Devils_Lake_Municipal_Airport "Devils Lake Municipal Airport"), [Devils Lake, North Dakota](/wiki/Devils_Lake%2C_North_Dakota "Devils Lake, North Dakota"). It is a monument fixed with pillars.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0324 \- Heritage Air Park, [Palmdale, California](/wiki/Palmdale%2C_California "Palmdale, California").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 58\-0338 \- Buffalo Naval and Servicemens Park, [Buffalo, New York](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York "Buffalo, New York").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 59\-0407 \- Proctor City Ball Park, [Proctor, Minnesota](/wiki/Proctor%2C_Minnesota "Proctor, Minnesota"). It is a monument that houses the landing gear and is fixed to a pillar.{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 59\-0413 \- [Empire State Aerosciences Museum](/wiki/Empire_State_Aerosciences_Museum "Empire State Aerosciences Museum"), [Glenville, New York](/wiki/Glenville%2C_New_York "Glenville, New York"){{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 59\-0419 \- [Malmstrom AFB](/wiki/Malmstrom_AFB "Malmstrom AFB"), [Great Falls, Montana](/wiki/Great_Falls%2C_Montana "Great Falls, Montana")["F\-101 Voodoo/59\-0419\."](http://www.malmstrom.af.mil/library/malmstrommuseum/index.asp) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121012337/http://www.malmstrom.af.mil/library/malmstrommuseum/index.asp \|date\=2008\-01\-21 }} *Malmstrom AFB Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\. It is a monument that houses the landing gear and is fixed to a pillar.
RF\-101H
* 56\-0001 \- [Louisville Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Louisville_Air_National_Guard_Base "Louisville Air National Guard Base"), [Louisville International Airport](/wiki/Louisville_International_Airport "Louisville International Airport"), [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky "Louisville, Kentucky").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
* 56\-0011 \- Ebing ANG \- 188th Tactical Fighter Group, [Fort Smith, Arkansas](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas "Fort Smith, Arkansas").{{Cn\|date\=August 2024}}
|
[
"United States\n-------------",
"On display\nF\\-101A\n* 53\\-2418 \\- [Evergreen Air and Space Museum](/wiki/Evergreen_Air_and_Space_Museum \"Evergreen Air and Space Museum\"), [McMinnville, Oregon](/wiki/McMinnville%2C_Oregon \"McMinnville, Oregon\").[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/53\\-2418\\.\"](http://evergreenmuseum.org/blog/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607205323/http://evergreenmuseum.org/blog/ \\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-07 }} *Evergreen Air and Space Museum.* Retrieved: 2 June 2015\\.\n* 53\\-2422 \\- While not displayed as such, the aircraft sits derelict on the southeastern edge of the [Edwards AFB](/wiki/Edwards_Air_Force_Base \"Edwards Air Force Base\") photo range [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), and has been located there since at least 1979\\.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 54\\-1443 \\- In front of Atlantic Heating \\& Cooling, 553 Central Dr, Virginia Beach, VA 23454 as of July 2023\\.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"CF\\-101B\n* 101044 \\- [Peterson Air and Space Museum](/wiki/Peterson_Air_and_Space_Museum \"Peterson Air and Space Museum\"), [Peterson AFB](/wiki/Peterson_AFB \"Peterson AFB\"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\").[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/57\\-0381\\.\"](http://www.petemuseum.org/CF101B.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210064247/http://www.petemuseum.org/CF101B.html \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-10 }} *Peterson Air and Space Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.",
"CF\\-101F\n* 17400 \\- [Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum](/wiki/Valiant_Air_Command_Warbird_Museum \"Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum\"), [Space Coast Regional Airport](/wiki/Space_Coast_Regional_Airport \"Space Coast Regional Airport\"), [Titusville, Florida](/wiki/Titusville%2C_Florida \"Titusville, Florida\").[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/59\\-0400\\.\"](http://www.vacwarbirds.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/DSC0976-F101.jpg) *Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\. The original serial number was 59\\-0400\\.",
"F\\-101B\n[thumb\\|F\\-101B on display at the Strategic Air Command \\& Aerospace Museum in Nebraska](/wiki/File:F-101B_on_display_at_the_Strategic_Air_Command_%26_Aerospace_Museum_in_Nebraska.jpg \"F-101B on display at the Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum in Nebraska.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|F\\-101B at [Fairchild AFB](/wiki/Fairchild_AFB \"Fairchild AFB\")](/wiki/File:F-101B_Fairchild.jpg \"F-101B Fairchild.jpg\")\n* 56\\-0241 \\- [USAF Airman Heritage Museum](/wiki/USAF_Airman_Heritage_Museum \"USAF Airman Heritage Museum\"), [Lackland AFB](/wiki/Lackland_AFB \"Lackland AFB\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0252 \\- [Hill Aerospace Museum](/wiki/Hill_Aerospace_Museum \"Hill Aerospace Museum\"), [Hill AFB](/wiki/Hill_AFB \"Hill AFB\"), [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/57\\-0252\\.\"](http://www.hill.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=5770) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007232717/http://www.hill.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\\=5770 \\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-07 }} *Hill Aerospace Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 57\\-0282 \\- [Pima Air \\& Space Museum](/wiki/Pima_Air_%26_Space_Museum \"Pima Air & Space Museum\"), adjacent to [Davis\\-Monthan AFB](/wiki/Davis-Monthan_AFB \"Davis-Monthan AFB\"), [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/57\\-0282\\.\"](http://www.pimaair.org/aircraft-by-name/item/mcdonnell-f-101b-voodoo) *Pima Air \\& Space Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 57\\-0294 \\- [Washington National Guard Museum](/wiki/Washington_National_Guard_Museum \"Washington National Guard Museum\"), [Camp Murray](/wiki/Camp_Murray \"Camp Murray\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"). It is a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0308 \\- Wilmington Airport Collection, [Wilmington Airport](/wiki/Wilmington_Airport_%28Ohio%29 \"Wilmington Airport (Ohio)\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0374 \\- [Maine Air National Guard](/wiki/Maine_Air_National_Guard \"Maine Air National Guard\"), [Bangor Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Bangor_Air_National_Guard_Base \"Bangor Air National Guard Base\"), [Bangor, Maine](/wiki/Bangor%2C_Maine \"Bangor, Maine\"). It is a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0410 \\- [Combat Air Museum](/wiki/Combat_Air_Museum \"Combat Air Museum\"), [Topeka, Kansas](/wiki/Topeka%2C_Kansas \"Topeka, Kansas\"). N8234, nickname, ‘the Gray Ghost'; previously at [Colorado State University](/wiki/Colorado_State_University \"Colorado State University\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0412 \\- [Castle Air Museum](/wiki/Castle_Air_Museum \"Castle Air Museum\"), [Castle Airport](/wiki/Castle_Airport \"Castle Airport\") (formerly [Castle AFB](/wiki/Castle_AFB \"Castle AFB\")), [Atwater, California](/wiki/Atwater%2C_California \"Atwater, California\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0417 (painted as 56\\-0417\\) \\- Callaway Recreational Complex, [Callaway, Florida](/wiki/Callaway%2C_Florida \"Callaway, Florida\"). It is a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0427 \\- [Aerospace Museum of California](/wiki/Aerospace_Museum_of_California \"Aerospace Museum of California\"), [McClellan Airport](/wiki/McClellan_Airport \"McClellan Airport\") (former [McClellan AFB](/wiki/McClellan_AFB \"McClellan AFB\")), [Sacramento, California](/wiki/Sacramento%2C_California \"Sacramento, California\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/57\\-0427\\.\"](http://www.aerospaceca.org/mcdonnell-f-101b-voodoo/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328234924/http://www.aerospaceca.org/mcdonnell\\-f\\-101b\\-voodoo/ \\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-28 }} *Aerospace Museum of California.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 57\\-0430 \\- American Legion Post 4, [Mount Clemens, Michigan](/wiki/Mount_Clemens%2C_Michigan \"Mount Clemens, Michigan\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0436 \\- Celebrity Row, [Davis\\-Monthan AFB](/wiki/Davis-Monthan_AFB \"Davis-Monthan AFB\") (North Side), [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\"). Under the control of the base, it is stored in a mothball state with the details covered with sheets.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0271 \\- [Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum](/wiki/Wings_Over_the_Rockies_Air_and_Space_Museum \"Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum\") at the former [Lowry AFB](/wiki/Lowry_AFB \"Lowry AFB\"), [Denver, Colorado](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado \"Denver, Colorado\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0273 \\- Poinsett Weapons Range, [Sumter, South Carolina](/wiki/Sumter%2C_South_Carolina \"Sumter, South Carolina\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0274 \\- Peterson AFB, Colorado. Displayed near the AMC Passenger Terminal, formerly displayed near the West Gate.It is fixed with several pillars, making it impossible to take out the landing gear.\n* 58\\-0281 \\- Boeing Park, [Spirit of St. Louis Airport](/wiki/Spirit_of_St._Louis_Airport \"Spirit of St. Louis Airport\"), [Chesterfield, Missouri](/wiki/Chesterfield%2C_Missouri \"Chesterfield, Missouri\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0285 \\- [Travis Air Force Base Heritage Center](/wiki/Travis_Air_Force_Base_Heritage_Center \"Travis Air Force Base Heritage Center\") (Jimmy Doolittle Air \\& Space Museum), [Travis AFB](/wiki/Travis_AFB \"Travis AFB\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/58\\-0285\\.\"](http://www.travis.af.mil/units/travisairmuseum.asp) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725212532/http://www.travis.af.mil/units/travisairmuseum.asp \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-25 }} *Travis Air Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 58\\-0288 \\- [Air Force Flight Test Center Museum](/wiki/Air_Force_Flight_Test_Center_Museum \"Air Force Flight Test Center Museum\"), [Edwards AFB](/wiki/Edwards_AFB \"Edwards AFB\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/58\\-0288\\.\"](http://afftcmuseum.org/exhibits/edwards-afb-west-gate/) *Air Force Flight Test Center Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 58\\-0291 \\- K.I.Sawyer Heritage Museum at the former [K.I. Sawyer AFB](/wiki/K.I._Sawyer_AFB \"K.I. Sawyer AFB\"), [K.I. Sawyer, Michigan](/wiki/K.I._Sawyer%2C_Michigan \"K.I. Sawyer, Michigan\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/58\\-0291\\.\"](http://www.kishamuseum.org/f101b.php) *K.I.Sawyer Heritage Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 58\\-0300 \\- Minnesota ANG Museum, [St. Paul, Minnesota](/wiki/St._Paul%2C_Minnesota \"St. Paul, Minnesota\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/58\\-0300\\.\"](http://mnangmuseum.org/exhibits/mcdonnell-voodoo/) *Minnesota ANG Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 58\\-0301 \\- [Portland International Airport](/wiki/Portland_International_Airport \"Portland International Airport\")/[Portland Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Portland_Air_National_Guard_Base \"Portland Air National Guard Base\"), [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0303 \\- Glenn L. Martin Aviation Museum, [Baltimore, Maryland](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland \"Baltimore, Maryland\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/58\\-0303\\.\"](http://www.mdairmuseum.org/flight-line_files/page22-1005-full.html) *Glenn L. Martin Aviation Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\. The main wings have been removed so that it can be transported by land.\n* 58\\-0312 \\- Veteran's Park, [Rock Springs, Wyoming](/wiki/Rock_Springs%2C_Wyoming \"Rock Springs, Wyoming\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0315 \\- [Grand Forks AFB](/wiki/Grand_Forks_AFB \"Grand Forks AFB\"), [North Dakota](/wiki/North_Dakota \"North Dakota\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0321 \\- [Grissom Air Museum](/wiki/Grissom_Air_Museum \"Grissom Air Museum\"), [Grissom ARB](/wiki/Grissom_ARB \"Grissom ARB\") (former [Grissom AFB](/wiki/Grissom_AFB \"Grissom AFB\")), [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana \"Indiana\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/58\\-0321\\.\"](http://www.grissomairmuseum.com/gallery/fighters/plane14) *Grissom Air Museum.* Retrieved: 2 June 2015\\.\n* 58\\-0325 \\- [National Museum of the United States Air Force](/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_United_States_Air_Force \"National Museum of the United States Air Force\"), [Wright\\-Patterson AFB](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_AFB \"Wright-Patterson AFB\"), [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio \"Dayton, Ohio\")[\"McDonnell F\\-101B Voodoo.\"](http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/MuseumExhibits/FactSheets/Display/tabid/509/Article/196899/mcdonnell-f-101b-voodoo.aspx) *National Museum of the United States Air Force.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 58\\-0329 \\- Vietnam Veterans Memorial, [Rogers, Arkansas](/wiki/Rogers%2C_Arkansas \"Rogers, Arkansas\"). It has become a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0332 \\- [Evergreen Aviation \\& Space Museum](/wiki/Evergreen_Aviation_%26_Space_Museum \"Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum\"), [McMinnville, Oregon](/wiki/McMinnville%2C_Oregon \"McMinnville, Oregon\"). It is currently dismantled and placed outside.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0335 \\- [Fairchild AFB](/wiki/Fairchild_AFB \"Fairchild AFB\"), [Spokane, Washington](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Washington \"Spokane, Washington\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0341 \\- [Fargo ANGB](/wiki/Fargo_Air_National_Guard_Base \"Fargo Air National Guard Base\"), [Fargo, North Dakota](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota \"Fargo, North Dakota\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 59\\-0412 \\- Tennessee ANGB, [Chattanooga, Tennessee](/wiki/Chattanooga%2C_Tennessee \"Chattanooga, Tennessee\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 59\\-0417 \\- [Pocatello Regional Airport](/wiki/Pocatello_Regional_Airport \"Pocatello Regional Airport\"), [Pocatello, Idaho](/wiki/Pocatello%2C_Idaho \"Pocatello, Idaho\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 59\\-0418 \\- [March Field Air Museum](/wiki/March_Field_Air_Museum \"March Field Air Museum\"), [March ARB](/wiki/March_ARB \"March ARB\") (former [March AFB](/wiki/March_AFB \"March AFB\")), [Riverside, California](/wiki/Riverside%2C_California \"Riverside, California\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/59\\-0418\\.\"](http://www.marchfield.org/aircraft-exhibits/aircraft/f-101b-voodoo-mcdonnell-douglas/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630015507/http://www.marchfield.org/aircraft\\-exhibits/aircraft/f\\-101b\\-voodoo\\-mcdonnell\\-douglas \\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-30 }} *March Field Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 59\\-0421 \\- [Texas Air Museum \\- Stinson Chapter](/wiki/Texas_Air_Museum_-_Stinson_Chapter \"Texas Air Museum - Stinson Chapter\"), [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\").\n* 59\\-0423 \\- [Winston Field Airport](/wiki/Winston_Field_Airport \"Winston Field Airport\"), [Snyder, Texas](/wiki/Snyder%2C_Texas \"Snyder, Texas\"). The aircraft is in poor condition overall, and there are defects in various parts of the aircraft.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 59\\-0426 \\- [South Dakota Air and Space Museum](/wiki/South_Dakota_Air_and_Space_Museum \"South Dakota Air and Space Museum\"), [Ellsworth AFB](/wiki/Ellsworth_AFB \"Ellsworth AFB\"), [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota \"South Dakota\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/59\\-0426\\.\"](http://www.sdairandspacemuseum.com/attractions.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003103234/http://www.sdairandspacemuseum.com/attractions.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-10\\-03 }} *South Dakota Air and Space Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 59\\-0428 \\- [Air Mobility Command Museum](/wiki/Air_Mobility_Command_Museum \"Air Mobility Command Museum\"), [Dover AFB](/wiki/Dover_AFB \"Dover AFB\"), [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware \"Delaware\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/59\\-0428\\.\"](http://amcmuseum.org/at-the-museum/aircraft/f-101b-voodoo/) *Air Mobility Command Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* [thumb\\|F\\-101 Voodoo at the [Texas Air Museum](/wiki/Texas_Air_Museum \"Texas Air Museum\") in [Slaton, Texas](/wiki/Slaton%2C_Texas \"Slaton, Texas\").](/wiki/File:F-101_at_the_TAM.jpg \"F-101 at the TAM.jpg\")59\\-0429 \\- [Texas Air Museum](/wiki/Texas_Air_Museum \"Texas Air Museum\"), [Slaton, Texas](/wiki/Slaton%2C_Texas \"Slaton, Texas\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/59\\-0429\\.\"](http://www.thetexasairmuseum.org/aircraft/staticaircraft/F-101/) *Texas Air Museum.* Retrieved: 2 June 2015\\.\n* 59\\-0430 \\- Babe Zaharias Memorial, [Beaumont, Texas](/wiki/Beaumont%2C_Texas \"Beaumont, Texas\"). It is a monument fixed on a pedestal.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 59\\-0462 \\- [Strategic Air \\& Space Museum](/wiki/Strategic_Air_%26_Space_Museum \"Strategic Air & Space Museum\"), [Ashland, Nebraska](/wiki/Ashland%2C_Nebraska \"Ashland, Nebraska\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/59\\-0462\\.\"](http://sasmuseum.web01.bosmallbusiness.com/aircraft/f-101b-voodoo/) *Strategic Air \\& Space Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 59\\-0471 \\- Historic Aviation Memorial Museum, [Tyler, Texas](/wiki/Tyler%2C_Texas \"Tyler, Texas\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}} It is currently being transported to Fort Worth for restoration work.",
"RF\\-101B\n* 59\\-0483 \\- May ANGB, [Reno, Nevada](/wiki/Reno%2C_Nevada \"Reno, Nevada\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"JF\\-101B\n* 56\\-0250 \\- [Air Force Armament Museum](/wiki/Air_Force_Armament_Museum \"Air Force Armament Museum\"), [Eglin AFB](/wiki/Eglin_AFB \"Eglin AFB\"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0250\\.\"](http://www.afarmamentmuseum.com/outside.shtml) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012072145/http://afarmamentmuseum.com/outside.shtml \\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-12 }} *Air Force Armament Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.",
"NF\\-101B\n* 56\\-0235 \\- [Yankee Air Museum](/wiki/Yankee_Air_Museum \"Yankee Air Museum\"), [Belleville, Michigan](/wiki/Belleville%2C_Michigan \"Belleville, Michigan\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0235\\.\"](http://yankeeairmuseum.org/adopt.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521215631/http://yankeeairmuseum.org/adopt.php \\|date\\=2013\\-05\\-21 }} *Yankee Air Museum.*It was originally completed and deployed as the F\\-101B, but was later converted to the NF\\-101B for ejection seat testing. Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 56\\-0273 \\- [Rantoul National Aviation Center](/wiki/Rantoul_National_Aviation_Center \"Rantoul National Aviation Center\"), [Rantoul, Illinois](/wiki/Rantoul%2C_Illinois \"Rantoul, Illinois\"). Formerly on display at [Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum](/wiki/Octave_Chanute_Aerospace_Museum \"Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum\") at the former [Chanute AFB](/wiki/Chanute_AFB \"Chanute AFB\"), [Rantoul, Illinois](/wiki/Rantoul%2C_Illinois \"Rantoul, Illinois\"). When this museum closed, the aircraft was to be sent to [Southern Museum of Flight](/wiki/Southern_Museum_of_Flight \"Southern Museum of Flight\"), [Birmingham, Alabama](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Alabama \"Birmingham, Alabama\"). It was seen still on tarmac behind the former Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum in July 2018\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=USAF Serial Number Search (56\\-273\\)\\|url\\=http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf\\_serials/1956\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-14}}",
"TF\\-101B\n* 57\\-0287 \\- Linear Air Park, [Dyess AFB](/wiki/Dyess_AFB \"Dyess AFB\"), [Abilene, Texas](/wiki/Abilene%2C_Texas \"Abilene, Texas\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"GF\\-101B\n* 58\\-0290 \\- Security Police Training Area (north), [Kelly Field](/wiki/Kelly_Field \"Kelly Field\") (formerly Kelly AFB), [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Texas \"San Antonio, Texas\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"F\\-101C\n* 56\\-0009 \\- [Sheppard AFB](/wiki/Sheppard_AFB \"Sheppard AFB\"), [Wichita Falls, Texas](/wiki/Wichita_Falls%2C_Texas \"Wichita Falls, Texas\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"RF\\-101C\n[thumb\\|RF\\-101C display at the [Museum of Aviation](/wiki/Museum_of_Aviation_%28Warner_Robins%29 \"Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)\"), [Robins AFB](/wiki/Robins_AFB \"Robins AFB\")](/wiki/File:18-37-149-RF101.jpg \"18-37-149-RF101.jpg\")\n* 56\\-0048 \\- [Selfridge Military Air Museum](/wiki/Selfridge_Military_Air_Museum \"Selfridge Military Air Museum\"), Selfridge ANGB, [Mount Clemens, Michigan](/wiki/Mount_Clemens%2C_Michigan \"Mount Clemens, Michigan\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0048\\.\"](http://www.selfridgeairmuseum.org/RF-101C.htm) *Selfridge Military Air Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 56\\-0057 \\- [Camp Robinson](/wiki/Robinson_Maneuver_Training_Center \"Robinson Maneuver Training Center\") National Guard Armory, [North Little Rock, Arkansas](/wiki/North_Little_Rock%2C_Arkansas \"North Little Rock, Arkansas\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0068 \\- Muse Manor front lawn (north), [Keesler AFB](/wiki/Keesler_AFB \"Keesler AFB\"), [Biloxi, Mississippi](/wiki/Biloxi%2C_Mississippi \"Biloxi, Mississippi\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0099 \\- [Shaw AFB](/wiki/Shaw_AFB \"Shaw AFB\"), [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0112 \\- [Gila Bend Municipal Airport](/wiki/Gila_Bend_Municipal_Airport \"Gila Bend Municipal Airport\") [Gila Bend, Arizona](/wiki/Gila_Bend%2C_Arizona \"Gila Bend, Arizona\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0119 \\- in storage at the Paul Garber Facility of the [National Air and Space Museum](/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum \"National Air and Space Museum\") in [Silver Hill, Maryland](/wiki/Silver_Hill%2C_Maryland \"Silver Hill, Maryland\").[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0119\\.\"](http://airandspace.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?object=nasm_A19810190000) *NASM.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 56\\-0125 \\- The [Aviation Museum of Kentucky](/wiki/Aviation_Museum_of_Kentucky \"Aviation Museum of Kentucky\"), [Blue Grass Airport](/wiki/Blue_Grass_Airport \"Blue Grass Airport\"), [Lexington, Kentucky](/wiki/Lexington%2C_Kentucky \"Lexington, Kentucky\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0125\\.\"](http://www.aviationky.org/visit.asp) *Aviation Museum of Kentucky.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 56\\-0130 \\- Gila Bend Municipal Airport, [Gila Bend, Arizona](/wiki/Gila_Bend%2C_Arizona \"Gila Bend, Arizona\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0135 \\- [Maxwell AFB](/wiki/Maxwell_AFB \"Maxwell AFB\"), [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama \"Alabama\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0166 \\- [National Museum of the United States Air Force](/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_United_States_Air_Force \"National Museum of the United States Air Force\"), [Wright\\-Patterson AFB](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_AFB \"Wright-Patterson AFB\"), [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio \"Dayton, Ohio\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0166\\.\"](http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=302) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015085517/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\\=302 \\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-15 }} *National Museum of the United States Air Force.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 56\\-0185 \\- Niagara Falls ANGB, [Niagara Falls, New York](/wiki/Niagara_Falls%2C_New_York \"Niagara Falls, New York\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0210 \\- [Museum of Aviation](/wiki/Museum_of_Aviation_%28Warner_Robins%29 \"Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)\"), [Robins AFB](/wiki/Robins_AFB \"Robins AFB\"), [Warner Robins, Georgia](/wiki/Warner_Robins%2C_Georgia \"Warner Robins, Georgia\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0210\\.\"](http://www.museumofaviation.org/RF101.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729035017/http://www.museumofaviation.org/RF101\\.php \\|date\\=2013\\-07\\-29 }} *Museum of Aviation.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 56\\-0214 \\- [Pima Air \\& Space Museum](/wiki/Pima_Air_%26_Space_Museum \"Pima Air & Space Museum\"), adjacent to [Davis\\-Monthan AFB](/wiki/Davis-Monthan_AFB \"Davis-Monthan AFB\"), [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0214\\.\"](http://www.pimaair.org/aircraft-by-name/item/mcdonnell-rf-101c-voodoo) *Pima Air \\& Space Museum.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 56\\-0217 \\- George Robert Hall Airpark, Bobby Chain Airport, [Hattiesburg, Mississippi](/wiki/Hattiesburg%2C_Mississippi \"Hattiesburg, Mississippi\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0229 \\- [Museum of Aviation](/wiki/Museum_of_Aviation_%28Warner_Robins%29 \"Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)\"), [Warner Robins AFB](/wiki/Warner_Robins_AFB \"Warner Robins AFB\"), [Macon, Georgia](/wiki/Macon%2C_Georgia \"Macon, Georgia\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/56\\-0229\\.\"](http://www.museumofaviation.org/RF101.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729035017/http://www.museumofaviation.org/RF101\\.php \\|date\\=2013\\-07\\-29 }} *Museum of Aviation.* Retrieved: 15 June 2015\\.\n* 56\\-0231 \\- [Little Rock AFB](/wiki/Little_Rock_AFB \"Little Rock AFB\"), [Jacksonville, Arkansas](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Arkansas \"Jacksonville, Arkansas\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"F\\-101F\n* 56\\-0246 \\- Air Power Park, [Hampton, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton%2C_Virginia \"Hampton, Virginia\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 57\\-0342 \\- [MAPS Air Museum](/wiki/MAPS_Air_Museum \"MAPS Air Museum\"), [North Canton, Ohio](/wiki/North_Canton%2C_Ohio \"North Canton, Ohio\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/57\\-0342\\.\"](https://sites.google.com/a/mapsairmuseum.org/f101f-57-0342/) *MAPS Air Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 58\\-0269 \\- James J. Eagan Civic Center, [Florissant, Missouri](/wiki/Florissant%2C_Missouri \"Florissant, Missouri\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0276 \\- [Museum of Aviation](/wiki/Museum_of_Aviation_%28Warner_Robins%29 \"Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)\"), [Robins AFB](/wiki/Robins_AFB \"Robins AFB\"), [Warner Robins, Georgia](/wiki/Warner_Robins%2C_Georgia \"Warner Robins, Georgia\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/58\\-0276\\.\"](http://www.museumofaviation.org/F101B.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321071336/http://www.museumofaviation.org/F101B.php \\|date\\=2013\\-03\\-21 }} *Museum of Aviation.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\.\n* 58\\-0311 \\- [Devils Lake Municipal Airport](/wiki/Devils_Lake_Municipal_Airport \"Devils Lake Municipal Airport\"), [Devils Lake, North Dakota](/wiki/Devils_Lake%2C_North_Dakota \"Devils Lake, North Dakota\"). It is a monument fixed with pillars.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0324 \\- Heritage Air Park, [Palmdale, California](/wiki/Palmdale%2C_California \"Palmdale, California\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 58\\-0338 \\- Buffalo Naval and Servicemens Park, [Buffalo, New York](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York \"Buffalo, New York\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 59\\-0407 \\- Proctor City Ball Park, [Proctor, Minnesota](/wiki/Proctor%2C_Minnesota \"Proctor, Minnesota\"). It is a monument that houses the landing gear and is fixed to a pillar.{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 59\\-0413 \\- [Empire State Aerosciences Museum](/wiki/Empire_State_Aerosciences_Museum \"Empire State Aerosciences Museum\"), [Glenville, New York](/wiki/Glenville%2C_New_York \"Glenville, New York\"){{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 59\\-0419 \\- [Malmstrom AFB](/wiki/Malmstrom_AFB \"Malmstrom AFB\"), [Great Falls, Montana](/wiki/Great_Falls%2C_Montana \"Great Falls, Montana\")[\"F\\-101 Voodoo/59\\-0419\\.\"](http://www.malmstrom.af.mil/library/malmstrommuseum/index.asp) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121012337/http://www.malmstrom.af.mil/library/malmstrommuseum/index.asp \\|date\\=2008\\-01\\-21 }} *Malmstrom AFB Museum.* Retrieved: 19 March 2013\\. It is a monument that houses the landing gear and is fixed to a pillar.",
"RF\\-101H\n* 56\\-0001 \\- [Louisville Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Louisville_Air_National_Guard_Base \"Louisville Air National Guard Base\"), [Louisville International Airport](/wiki/Louisville_International_Airport \"Louisville International Airport\"), [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky \"Louisville, Kentucky\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n* 56\\-0011 \\- Ebing ANG \\- 188th Tactical Fighter Group, [Fort Smith, Arkansas](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas \"Fort Smith, Arkansas\").{{Cn\\|date\\=August 2024}}"
] |
General
-------
[thumb\|left\|DKW F 102 four\-door sedan at the [Audi museum mobile](/wiki/Audi_museum_mobile "Audi museum mobile")](/wiki/File:DKW-F102_Rear.JPG "DKW-F102 Rear.JPG")
The last European built [Auto Union 1000](/wiki/Auto_Union_1000 "Auto Union 1000") and 1000S models were produced in July 1963 and the DKW F102 was presented as a replacement model in September 1963\.
The F102 was initially available as a two\-door sedan from March 1964 with four door cars joining them on the production line in January 1965\.Werner Oswald: *Deutsche Autos 1945–1990*, vol. 4, {{ISBN\|3\-613\-02131\-5}}, p. 421 While the design of its predecessor, the Auto Union 1000, essentially came from the late 1930s, the F102 was a newly designed vehicle with a [unibody](/wiki/Monocoque "Monocoque") and \- in keeping with contemporary taste \- with large glass surfaces and little chrome. The new price of the two\-door sedan was DM 7,200\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.audi.com/corporate/de/unternehmen/historie/modelle/dkw\-f\-102\-limousine\-2\-tuerig\-1964\.html\|title \= Unternehmen}}
The vehicle has a front suspension on double wishbones with [torsion bars](/wiki/Torsion_bar "Torsion bar"). The rigid rear axle hangs on trailing arms and is sprung by a transverse torsion bar. If the compression is uneven, the axle beam twists and acts as a stabilizer. A [Panhard rod](/wiki/Panhard_rod "Panhard rod") is used for lateral guidance.
Since the axle takes up a lot of space, the fuel tank is housed behind it in the floor of the trunk, whilst the spare wheel is located behind the rear seat back.
Like its predecessors, the F102 was equipped with a (then) state\-of\-the\-art three\-cylinder [two\-stroke](/wiki/Two-stroke "Two-stroke") [in\-line engine](/wiki/Straight_engine "Straight engine"). The two\-stroke mixture was generated by the new "fresh oil system" developed jointly with [Bosch](/wiki/Robert_Bosch_GmbH "Robert Bosch GmbH"), which automatically mixes the lubricant with the gasoline from a separate oil tank in the engine compartment, which simplified refueling and reduced oil consumption. The driver could fill up with pure gasoline with no added oil.
### Release and problems
While the [DKW Junior](/wiki/DKW_Junior "DKW Junior") was still the most successful [small car](/wiki/Supermini "Supermini") in West Germany at the time, customers started to find the two\-stroke engine to be inconvenient and generally outdated. This led to F102 not achieving the sales figures that the company had hoped for and caused Auto Union serious economic problems.
The causes of this quite abrupt loss of image included problems with the automatic fresh oil system: After cold winter nights, the oil in the reservoir was so viscous that the engine could not be lubricated, as was the case with prolonged coasting (downhill driving), so that many engines were damaged by piston seizures and galling. Warranty and goodwill services put a strain on the balance sheet and customer confidence.
Another problem, especially of the F102 model, was the fact that the three\-cylinder with 400 cm³ displacement per cylinder had reached the end of its development possibilities and even larger two\-stroke engines were not established in the automotive industry.
In order to reduce the gasoline consumption, which is quite high in everyday operation, DKW resorted to a simple and successful means after a few months of production. Halfway through spring kinematics, the accelerator pedal was subjected to a significantly increased resistance to give the driver a better feeling for the power he was demanding from the engine. Such an accelerator pedal with a pressure point was also later used in the [Trabant 601](/wiki/Trabant_601 "Trabant 601"), whose fuel consumption was also regarded unfavorably high due to the two\-stroke cycle in relation to the engine output.
### End of production
Attempts with a two\-stroke V6 engine failed. The era of two\-stroke engines in West German automobile construction ended with the F102\.{{efn\|name\="TwoStrokeEnd"\|The two\-stroke engine was only available in the \[\[DKW Munga]] off\-road vehicle until December 1968\.}}
By March 1966, 52,753 (or possibly 53,053\) vehicles had been produced. It was the last model developed by Auto Union before the [Volkswagen](/wiki/Volkswagen_Group "Volkswagen Group") take\-over and with the end of production of the DKW F102, which was officially sold as an Auto Union, the DKW brand disappeared from the car market.
Under Volkswagen control, the F102 provided the basis for the later [Audi F103](/wiki/Audi_F103 "Audi F103") models{{efn\|name\="Audi\_revive"\|The "Audi" and later "Audi 72", plus 60, 75, 80, and Super 90}} and revived the [Audi](/wiki/Audi "Audi") brand which had been part of the pre\-war Auto Union concern.
|
[
"General\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|DKW F 102 four\\-door sedan at the [Audi museum mobile](/wiki/Audi_museum_mobile \"Audi museum mobile\")](/wiki/File:DKW-F102_Rear.JPG \"DKW-F102 Rear.JPG\") \nThe last European built [Auto Union 1000](/wiki/Auto_Union_1000 \"Auto Union 1000\") and 1000S models were produced in July 1963 and the DKW F102 was presented as a replacement model in September 1963\\.",
"The F102 was initially available as a two\\-door sedan from March 1964 with four door cars joining them on the production line in January 1965\\.Werner Oswald: *Deutsche Autos 1945–1990*, vol. 4, {{ISBN\\|3\\-613\\-02131\\-5}}, p. 421 While the design of its predecessor, the Auto Union 1000, essentially came from the late 1930s, the F102 was a newly designed vehicle with a [unibody](/wiki/Monocoque \"Monocoque\") and \\- in keeping with contemporary taste \\- with large glass surfaces and little chrome. The new price of the two\\-door sedan was DM 7,200\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.audi.com/corporate/de/unternehmen/historie/modelle/dkw\\-f\\-102\\-limousine\\-2\\-tuerig\\-1964\\.html\\|title \\= Unternehmen}}",
"The vehicle has a front suspension on double wishbones with [torsion bars](/wiki/Torsion_bar \"Torsion bar\"). The rigid rear axle hangs on trailing arms and is sprung by a transverse torsion bar. If the compression is uneven, the axle beam twists and acts as a stabilizer. A [Panhard rod](/wiki/Panhard_rod \"Panhard rod\") is used for lateral guidance.",
"Since the axle takes up a lot of space, the fuel tank is housed behind it in the floor of the trunk, whilst the spare wheel is located behind the rear seat back.",
"Like its predecessors, the F102 was equipped with a (then) state\\-of\\-the\\-art three\\-cylinder [two\\-stroke](/wiki/Two-stroke \"Two-stroke\") [in\\-line engine](/wiki/Straight_engine \"Straight engine\"). The two\\-stroke mixture was generated by the new \"fresh oil system\" developed jointly with [Bosch](/wiki/Robert_Bosch_GmbH \"Robert Bosch GmbH\"), which automatically mixes the lubricant with the gasoline from a separate oil tank in the engine compartment, which simplified refueling and reduced oil consumption. The driver could fill up with pure gasoline with no added oil.",
"### Release and problems",
"While the [DKW Junior](/wiki/DKW_Junior \"DKW Junior\") was still the most successful [small car](/wiki/Supermini \"Supermini\") in West Germany at the time, customers started to find the two\\-stroke engine to be inconvenient and generally outdated. This led to F102 not achieving the sales figures that the company had hoped for and caused Auto Union serious economic problems.",
"The causes of this quite abrupt loss of image included problems with the automatic fresh oil system: After cold winter nights, the oil in the reservoir was so viscous that the engine could not be lubricated, as was the case with prolonged coasting (downhill driving), so that many engines were damaged by piston seizures and galling. Warranty and goodwill services put a strain on the balance sheet and customer confidence.",
"Another problem, especially of the F102 model, was the fact that the three\\-cylinder with 400 cm³ displacement per cylinder had reached the end of its development possibilities and even larger two\\-stroke engines were not established in the automotive industry.",
"In order to reduce the gasoline consumption, which is quite high in everyday operation, DKW resorted to a simple and successful means after a few months of production. Halfway through spring kinematics, the accelerator pedal was subjected to a significantly increased resistance to give the driver a better feeling for the power he was demanding from the engine. Such an accelerator pedal with a pressure point was also later used in the [Trabant 601](/wiki/Trabant_601 \"Trabant 601\"), whose fuel consumption was also regarded unfavorably high due to the two\\-stroke cycle in relation to the engine output.",
"### End of production",
"Attempts with a two\\-stroke V6 engine failed. The era of two\\-stroke engines in West German automobile construction ended with the F102\\.{{efn\\|name\\=\"TwoStrokeEnd\"\\|The two\\-stroke engine was only available in the \\[\\[DKW Munga]] off\\-road vehicle until December 1968\\.}}",
"By March 1966, 52,753 (or possibly 53,053\\) vehicles had been produced. It was the last model developed by Auto Union before the [Volkswagen](/wiki/Volkswagen_Group \"Volkswagen Group\") take\\-over and with the end of production of the DKW F102, which was officially sold as an Auto Union, the DKW brand disappeared from the car market.",
"Under Volkswagen control, the F102 provided the basis for the later [Audi F103](/wiki/Audi_F103 \"Audi F103\") models{{efn\\|name\\=\"Audi\\_revive\"\\|The \"Audi\" and later \"Audi 72\", plus 60, 75, 80, and Super 90}} and revived the [Audi](/wiki/Audi \"Audi\") brand which had been part of the pre\\-war Auto Union concern.",
""
] |
Development
-----------
[thumb\|left\|500px\|14 fetuses showing stages of embryo development in the African elephant](/wiki/File:Elefetusus.jpg "Elefetusus.jpg")
### After implantation
A blastocele is a small cavity on the center of the embryo, and the developing embryonary cells will grow around it. Then, a flat layer cell forms on the exterior of this cavity, and the [zona pellucida](/wiki/Zona_pellucida "Zona pellucida"), the blastocyst's barrier, remains the same size as before. Cells grow increasingly smaller to fit in. This new structure with a cavity in the center and the developing cells around it is known as a [blastocyst](/wiki/Blastocyst "Blastocyst").
The presence of the blastocyst means that two types of cells are forming, an inner\-cell mass growing on the interior of the blastocele and cells growing on the exterior of it. In 24 to 48 hours, the zona pellucida breaches. The cells on the exterior of the blastocyst begin excreting an enzyme which erodes [epithelial](/wiki/Epithelium "Epithelium") uterine lining and creates a site for implantation.
### Placental circulation system
The cells surrounding the blastocyst now destroy cells in the uterine lining, forming small pools of blood, which in turn stimulate the production of capillaries. This is the first stage in the growth of the [placenta](/wiki/Placenta "Placenta"). The inner cell mass of the blastocyst divides rapidly, forming two layers. The top layer becomes the embryo, and cells from there occupy the [amniotic cavity](/wiki/Amniotic_cavity "Amniotic cavity"). At the same time, the bottom layer forms a small sac (if the cells begin developing in an abnormal position, an ectopic gestation may also occur at this point).
Several days later, [chorionic villi](/wiki/Chorionic_villi "Chorionic villi") in the forming placenta anchor the implantation site to the uterus. A system of blood and [blood vessels](/wiki/Blood_vessel "Blood vessel") now develops at the point of the newly forming placenta, growing near the implantation site. The small sac inside the blastocyst begins producing [red blood cells](/wiki/Red_blood_cell "Red blood cell"). For the next 24 hours, [connective tissue](/wiki/Connective_tissue "Connective tissue") develops between the developing placenta and the growing [embryo](/wiki/Embryo "Embryo"). This later develops into the [umbilical cord](/wiki/Umbilical_cord "Umbilical cord").
### Cellular differentiation
Following this, a narrow line of cells appears on the surface on the embryo. Its growth makes the embryo undergo [gastrulation](/wiki/Gastrulation "Gastrulation"), in which the three [primary tissue layers](/wiki/Germ_layer "Germ layer") of the fetus, the [ectoderm](/wiki/Ectoderm "Ectoderm"), [mesoderm](/wiki/Mesoderm "Mesoderm"), and [endoderm](/wiki/Endoderm "Endoderm"), develop. The narrow line of cells begin to form the endoderm and mesoderm. The ectoderm begins to grow rapidly as a result of chemicals being produced by the mesoderm. These three layers give rise to all the various types of tissue in the body.
The endoderm later forms the lining of the [tongue](/wiki/Tongue "Tongue"), [digestive tract](/wiki/Gut_%28anatomy%29 "Gut (anatomy)"), [lungs](/wiki/Lung "Lung"), [bladder](/wiki/Urinary_bladder "Urinary bladder") and several [glands](/wiki/Gland "Gland"). The mesoderm forms [muscle](/wiki/Muscle "Muscle"), [bone](/wiki/Bone "Bone"), and [lymph](/wiki/Lymph "Lymph") tissue, as well as the interior of the lungs, [heart](/wiki/Heart "Heart"), and [reproductive](/wiki/Reproductive_system "Reproductive system") and [excretory systems](/wiki/Excretory_system "Excretory system"). It also gives rise to the [spleen](/wiki/Spleen "Spleen"), and produces blood cells. The ectoderm forms the [skin](/wiki/Skin "Skin"), [nails](/wiki/Nail_%28anatomy%29 "Nail (anatomy)"), [hair](/wiki/Hair "Hair"), [cornea](/wiki/Cornea "Cornea"), lining of the internal and external [ear](/wiki/Ear "Ear"), [nose](/wiki/Nose "Nose"), [sinuses](/wiki/Paranasal_sinuses "Paranasal sinuses"), [mouth](/wiki/Mouth "Mouth"), [anus](/wiki/Anus "Anus"), [teeth](/wiki/Tooth "Tooth"), [pituitary gland](/wiki/Pituitary_gland "Pituitary gland"), [mammary glands](/wiki/Mammary_gland "Mammary gland"), [eyes](/wiki/Eye "Eye"), and all parts of the [nervous system](/wiki/Nervous_system "Nervous system").
Approximately 18 days after fertilization, the embryo has divided to form much of the tissue it will need. It is shaped like a pear, where the head region is larger than the tail. The embryo's nervous system is one of the first organic systems to grow. It begins growing in a concave area known as the [neural groove](/wiki/Neural_groove "Neural groove").
The blood system continues to grow networks which allow the blood to flow around the embryo. Blood cells are already being produced and are flowing through these developing networks. Secondary blood vessels also begin to develop around the placenta, to supply it with more nutrients. Blood cells begin to form on the sac in the center of the embryo, as well as cells which begin to [differentiate](/wiki/Cellular_differentiation "Cellular differentiation") into blood vessels. [Endocardial](/wiki/Endocardium "Endocardium") cells begin to form the [myocardium](/wiki/Cardiac_muscle "Cardiac muscle").
At about 24 days past fertilization, there is a primitive S\-shaped tubule heart which begins beating. The flow of fluids throughout the embryo begins at this stage.
### Gestation periods
{{See also\|List of mammalian gestation durations}}
For [mammals](/wiki/Mammal "Mammal"), the **[gestation](/wiki/Gestation "Gestation") period** is the time in which a [fetus](/wiki/Fetus "Fetus") develops, beginning with fertilization and ending at [birth](/wiki/Birth "Birth").{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=http://www.accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id\=288400\&referURL\=http%3a%2f%2fwww.accessscience.com%2fcontent.aspx%3fid%3d288400 \|title\=Gestation period \|encyclopedia\=McGraw\-Hill's AccessScience Encyclopedia of Science \& Technology Online \|publisher\=McGraw\-Hill \|access\-date\=2016\-11\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113061449/http://www.accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id\=288400\&referURL\=http%3a%2f%2fwww.accessscience.com%2fcontent.aspx%3fid%3d288400 \|archive\-date\=2013\-11\-13 \|url\-status\=dead }} The duration of this period varies between species.
For most species, the amount a [fetus](/wiki/Fetus "Fetus") grows before birth determines the length of the gestation period. Smaller species normally have a shorter gestation period than larger animals.{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/232124/gestation \|title\=gestation \|encyclopedia\=Britannica \- The Online Encyclopedia \|publisher\=Encyclopædia Britannica}} For example, [a cat's gestation](/wiki/Cat%23Reproduction "Cat#Reproduction") normally takes 58–65 days while [an elephant's](/wiki/Elephant%23Birth_and_development "Elephant#Birth and development") takes nearly 2 years (21 months).{{cite web \|url\=http://encarta.msn.com/media\_701500881/average\_animal\_gestation\_periods\_and\_incubation\_times.html \|title\=Average Animal Gestation Periods and Incubation Times \|work\=MSN Encarta \|publisher\=Microsoft\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040907130830/http://encarta.msn.com/media\_701500881/Average\_Animal\_Gestation\_Periods\_and\_Incubation\_Times.html\|archive\-date\=2004\-09\-07\|url\-status\=dead}} However, growth does not necessarily determine the length of gestation for all species, especially for those with a [breeding season](/wiki/Breeding_season "Breeding season"). Species that use a breeding season usually give birth during a specific time of year when food is available.
Various other factors can come into play in determining the duration of gestation. For humans, male fetuses normally gestate several days longer than females and [multiple pregnancies](/wiki/Multiple_birth "Multiple birth") gestate for a shorter period. Ethnicity in humans is also a factor that may lengthen or shorten gestation.{{cite web \|url\=http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/33/1/107 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120716223652/http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/33/1/107 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-16 \|title\=Does gestation vary by ethnic group? A London\-based study of over 122000 pregnancies with spontaneous of labour \|work\=International Journal of Epidemiology}} In dogs, there is a positive correlation between a longer gestation time and fewer members of the litter.{{Cite journal\|last\=Okkens\|first\=A. K.\|display\-authors\=etal\|date\=2001\|title\=Influence of litter size and breed on the duration of gestation in dogs\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11571588\|journal\=Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement\|volume\=57\|pages\=193–197\|pmid\=11787149}} The duration of gestation is usually longer in [placental mammals](/wiki/Placental_mammal "Placental mammal") than in [marsupials](/wiki/Marsupial "Marsupial").{{Cite book \|last1\=Zachos \|first1\=Frank \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=dQd2DwAAQBAJ\&dq\=placental\+marsupial\+urine\+urethra\&pg\=PA64 \|title\=Mammalian Evolution, Diversity and Systematics \|last2\=Asher \|first2\=Robert \|date\=2018\-10\-22 \|publisher\=Walter de Gruyter GmbH \& Co KG \|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-034155\-3 \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Development\n-----------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|500px\\|14 fetuses showing stages of embryo development in the African elephant](/wiki/File:Elefetusus.jpg \"Elefetusus.jpg\")",
"### After implantation",
"A blastocele is a small cavity on the center of the embryo, and the developing embryonary cells will grow around it. Then, a flat layer cell forms on the exterior of this cavity, and the [zona pellucida](/wiki/Zona_pellucida \"Zona pellucida\"), the blastocyst's barrier, remains the same size as before. Cells grow increasingly smaller to fit in. This new structure with a cavity in the center and the developing cells around it is known as a [blastocyst](/wiki/Blastocyst \"Blastocyst\").",
"The presence of the blastocyst means that two types of cells are forming, an inner\\-cell mass growing on the interior of the blastocele and cells growing on the exterior of it. In 24 to 48 hours, the zona pellucida breaches. The cells on the exterior of the blastocyst begin excreting an enzyme which erodes [epithelial](/wiki/Epithelium \"Epithelium\") uterine lining and creates a site for implantation.",
"### Placental circulation system",
"The cells surrounding the blastocyst now destroy cells in the uterine lining, forming small pools of blood, which in turn stimulate the production of capillaries. This is the first stage in the growth of the [placenta](/wiki/Placenta \"Placenta\"). The inner cell mass of the blastocyst divides rapidly, forming two layers. The top layer becomes the embryo, and cells from there occupy the [amniotic cavity](/wiki/Amniotic_cavity \"Amniotic cavity\"). At the same time, the bottom layer forms a small sac (if the cells begin developing in an abnormal position, an ectopic gestation may also occur at this point).",
"Several days later, [chorionic villi](/wiki/Chorionic_villi \"Chorionic villi\") in the forming placenta anchor the implantation site to the uterus. A system of blood and [blood vessels](/wiki/Blood_vessel \"Blood vessel\") now develops at the point of the newly forming placenta, growing near the implantation site. The small sac inside the blastocyst begins producing [red blood cells](/wiki/Red_blood_cell \"Red blood cell\"). For the next 24 hours, [connective tissue](/wiki/Connective_tissue \"Connective tissue\") develops between the developing placenta and the growing [embryo](/wiki/Embryo \"Embryo\"). This later develops into the [umbilical cord](/wiki/Umbilical_cord \"Umbilical cord\").",
"### Cellular differentiation",
"Following this, a narrow line of cells appears on the surface on the embryo. Its growth makes the embryo undergo [gastrulation](/wiki/Gastrulation \"Gastrulation\"), in which the three [primary tissue layers](/wiki/Germ_layer \"Germ layer\") of the fetus, the [ectoderm](/wiki/Ectoderm \"Ectoderm\"), [mesoderm](/wiki/Mesoderm \"Mesoderm\"), and [endoderm](/wiki/Endoderm \"Endoderm\"), develop. The narrow line of cells begin to form the endoderm and mesoderm. The ectoderm begins to grow rapidly as a result of chemicals being produced by the mesoderm. These three layers give rise to all the various types of tissue in the body.",
"The endoderm later forms the lining of the [tongue](/wiki/Tongue \"Tongue\"), [digestive tract](/wiki/Gut_%28anatomy%29 \"Gut (anatomy)\"), [lungs](/wiki/Lung \"Lung\"), [bladder](/wiki/Urinary_bladder \"Urinary bladder\") and several [glands](/wiki/Gland \"Gland\"). The mesoderm forms [muscle](/wiki/Muscle \"Muscle\"), [bone](/wiki/Bone \"Bone\"), and [lymph](/wiki/Lymph \"Lymph\") tissue, as well as the interior of the lungs, [heart](/wiki/Heart \"Heart\"), and [reproductive](/wiki/Reproductive_system \"Reproductive system\") and [excretory systems](/wiki/Excretory_system \"Excretory system\"). It also gives rise to the [spleen](/wiki/Spleen \"Spleen\"), and produces blood cells. The ectoderm forms the [skin](/wiki/Skin \"Skin\"), [nails](/wiki/Nail_%28anatomy%29 \"Nail (anatomy)\"), [hair](/wiki/Hair \"Hair\"), [cornea](/wiki/Cornea \"Cornea\"), lining of the internal and external [ear](/wiki/Ear \"Ear\"), [nose](/wiki/Nose \"Nose\"), [sinuses](/wiki/Paranasal_sinuses \"Paranasal sinuses\"), [mouth](/wiki/Mouth \"Mouth\"), [anus](/wiki/Anus \"Anus\"), [teeth](/wiki/Tooth \"Tooth\"), [pituitary gland](/wiki/Pituitary_gland \"Pituitary gland\"), [mammary glands](/wiki/Mammary_gland \"Mammary gland\"), [eyes](/wiki/Eye \"Eye\"), and all parts of the [nervous system](/wiki/Nervous_system \"Nervous system\").",
"Approximately 18 days after fertilization, the embryo has divided to form much of the tissue it will need. It is shaped like a pear, where the head region is larger than the tail. The embryo's nervous system is one of the first organic systems to grow. It begins growing in a concave area known as the [neural groove](/wiki/Neural_groove \"Neural groove\").",
"The blood system continues to grow networks which allow the blood to flow around the embryo. Blood cells are already being produced and are flowing through these developing networks. Secondary blood vessels also begin to develop around the placenta, to supply it with more nutrients. Blood cells begin to form on the sac in the center of the embryo, as well as cells which begin to [differentiate](/wiki/Cellular_differentiation \"Cellular differentiation\") into blood vessels. [Endocardial](/wiki/Endocardium \"Endocardium\") cells begin to form the [myocardium](/wiki/Cardiac_muscle \"Cardiac muscle\").\nAt about 24 days past fertilization, there is a primitive S\\-shaped tubule heart which begins beating. The flow of fluids throughout the embryo begins at this stage.",
"",
"### Gestation periods",
"{{See also\\|List of mammalian gestation durations}}",
"For [mammals](/wiki/Mammal \"Mammal\"), the **[gestation](/wiki/Gestation \"Gestation\") period** is the time in which a [fetus](/wiki/Fetus \"Fetus\") develops, beginning with fertilization and ending at [birth](/wiki/Birth \"Birth\").{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=http://www.accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id\\=288400\\&referURL\\=http%3a%2f%2fwww.accessscience.com%2fcontent.aspx%3fid%3d288400 \\|title\\=Gestation period \\|encyclopedia\\=McGraw\\-Hill's AccessScience Encyclopedia of Science \\& Technology Online \\|publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113061449/http://www.accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id\\=288400\\&referURL\\=http%3a%2f%2fwww.accessscience.com%2fcontent.aspx%3fid%3d288400 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The duration of this period varies between species.",
"For most species, the amount a [fetus](/wiki/Fetus \"Fetus\") grows before birth determines the length of the gestation period. Smaller species normally have a shorter gestation period than larger animals.{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/232124/gestation \\|title\\=gestation \\|encyclopedia\\=Britannica \\- The Online Encyclopedia \\|publisher\\=Encyclopædia Britannica}} For example, [a cat's gestation](/wiki/Cat%23Reproduction \"Cat#Reproduction\") normally takes 58–65 days while [an elephant's](/wiki/Elephant%23Birth_and_development \"Elephant#Birth and development\") takes nearly 2 years (21 months).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://encarta.msn.com/media\\_701500881/average\\_animal\\_gestation\\_periods\\_and\\_incubation\\_times.html \\|title\\=Average Animal Gestation Periods and Incubation Times \\|work\\=MSN Encarta \\|publisher\\=Microsoft\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040907130830/http://encarta.msn.com/media\\_701500881/Average\\_Animal\\_Gestation\\_Periods\\_and\\_Incubation\\_Times.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2004\\-09\\-07\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, growth does not necessarily determine the length of gestation for all species, especially for those with a [breeding season](/wiki/Breeding_season \"Breeding season\"). Species that use a breeding season usually give birth during a specific time of year when food is available.",
"Various other factors can come into play in determining the duration of gestation. For humans, male fetuses normally gestate several days longer than females and [multiple pregnancies](/wiki/Multiple_birth \"Multiple birth\") gestate for a shorter period. Ethnicity in humans is also a factor that may lengthen or shorten gestation.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/33/1/107 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120716223652/http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/33/1/107 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-16 \\|title\\=Does gestation vary by ethnic group? A London\\-based study of over 122000 pregnancies with spontaneous of labour \\|work\\=International Journal of Epidemiology}} In dogs, there is a positive correlation between a longer gestation time and fewer members of the litter.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Okkens\\|first\\=A. K.\\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|date\\=2001\\|title\\=Influence of litter size and breed on the duration of gestation in dogs\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11571588\\|journal\\=Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement\\|volume\\=57\\|pages\\=193–197\\|pmid\\=11787149}} The duration of gestation is usually longer in [placental mammals](/wiki/Placental_mammal \"Placental mammal\") than in [marsupials](/wiki/Marsupial \"Marsupial\").{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Zachos \\|first1\\=Frank \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=dQd2DwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=placental\\+marsupial\\+urine\\+urethra\\&pg\\=PA64 \\|title\\=Mammalian Evolution, Diversity and Systematics \\|last2\\=Asher \\|first2\\=Robert \\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-22 \\|publisher\\=Walter de Gruyter GmbH \\& Co KG \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-034155\\-3 \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Coaching career
---------------
### High school and college assistant (1970–1982\)
Maestri began his coaching career in the fall of 1970 at [Holy Cross High School](/wiki/Holy_Cross_High_School%2C_New_Orleans "Holy Cross High School, New Orleans") in his hometown of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"). In 10 seasons as coach, he posted a 211–99 record, leading Holy Cross to a state runner\-up finish in the top classification in the Louisiana high school ranks in 1974\. This 1974 team had a final record of 35–6\.
His 1976 team finished with a 32–3 record and was ranked 11th in the nation.
Maestri's teams also finished 1st or 2nd place six times in the [Catholic League](/wiki/New_Orleans_Catholic_League "New Orleans Catholic League").
Maestri spent the 1979–80 season as an assistant coach for Jim Hatfield at [Mississippi State](/wiki/Mississippi_State_University "Mississippi State University"). During his one year with the program, the Bulldogs finished with a 13–14 record and tied for 6th in the [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference "Southeastern Conference").
Maestri spent two seasons at the [University of Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama "University of Alabama") on [Winfrey Sanderson](/wiki/Winfrey_Sanderson "Winfrey Sanderson")'s staff (1980–82\). During his time with the [Crimson Tide](/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide "Alabama Crimson Tide"), Alabama participated in the [NIT](/wiki/National_Invitational_Tournament "National Invitational Tournament") and [NCAA](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association "National Collegiate Athletic Association") tournaments.
[Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama "University of Alabama") finished 24–7 in 1982, winning the [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference "Southeastern Conference") Tournament and advancing to the NCAA East Regional.
### Troy (1982–2013\)
Maestri was named the head coach of the [Troy University](/wiki/Troy_University "Troy University") basketball team in 1982\. When he took over the reins of the Troy basketball program, the Trojans had not posted a winning season in the previous five seasons.
Maestri quickly turned the program into a perennial [Division II](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II "NCAA Division II") powerhouse. He led the Trojans to a [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference "Gulf South Conference") title in the 1990–91 season, where they received an invitation to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II_men%27s_basketball_tournament "NCAA Division II men's basketball tournament"), defeating [Florida Southern](/wiki/Florida_Southern_College "Florida Southern College") 78–73 in the 1st Round before falling to [North Alabama](/wiki/University_of_North_Alabama "University of North Alabama") 86–93 in the 2nd round. He was named Gulf South Coach of the Year for his efforts.
The head coach led Troy State to five NCAA Tournament appearances in 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1993\. Maestri finished with an overall record of 237–131 in Division II.
During the 1987–88 season, the Trojans finished with a 24–10, winning the [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference "Gulf South Conference") title. Troy State made it to the [Elite Eight](/wiki/Elite_Eight "Elite Eight") of the NCAA Tournament before falling 77–72 to [Alaska–Anchorage](/wiki/University_of_Alaska_Anchorage "University of Alaska Anchorage").
Five seasons later, in 1992–93, Maestri helped the Trojans to a 27–5 record and led them to the NCAA Tournament finals, only to fall to [Cal State Bakersfield](/wiki/California_State_University%2C_Bakersfield "California State University, Bakersfield") 85–72\. Maestri was named Southeast Region Coach of the Year by the NCAA following his team's brilliant season.
During Troy's first season at the [Division I](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I "NCAA Division I") level, 1993–94, Maestri's run\-and\-gun style shot the Trojans to a conference title, going undefeated in the [East Coast Conference](/wiki/East_Coast_Conference_%28Division_I%29 "East Coast Conference (Division I)") and winning the conference title. Troy also gained national recognition by leading the nation in three\-pointers made per game while averaging 97\.6 points per contest. For his efforts, Maestri was named East Coast Conference Coach of the Year.
In 1995, [Troy State](/wiki/Troy_State_University "Troy State University") left the East Coast Conference to join the Mid\-Continent Conference (now the [Summit League](/wiki/Summit_League "Summit League")).
During the 1996–97 season, the Trojans were back in contention in the Mid\-Continent Conference, upsetting [Sweet 16](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament%23Regional_semifinals_and_finals "NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament#Regional semifinals and finals") participant [Valparaiso](/wiki/Valparaiso_University "Valparaiso University"), 72–69, on the road in overtime to cap a 17–10 record. Troy claimed third place in the conference that year, with Maestri earning Coach of the Year honors again.
The Trojans left the Mid\-Continent Conference to join the [Atlantic Sun Conference](/wiki/Atlantic_Sun_Conference "Atlantic Sun Conference") in 1998\. Maestri's teams struggled mightily their first two seasons in the Atlantic Sun in 1998 and 1999, but quickly turned their fortunes around the next season. In 2000, Maestri brought the Trojans their first conference title in six years and their first Division I conference title. Though the Trojans won the regular season title that year, they did not win the conference tournament, thus keeping them from getting in the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament").
Two seasons later, in the 2001–02 season, Maestri was once again able to lead his team to another Atlantic Sun regular season title. Once again though, his Trojans failed to win the conference tournament and were once again left out of the NCAA Tournament.
In the 2002–03, Maestri recorded his best season ever in Division I. He coached his team to a 26–6 record and they won the Atlantic Sun regular season and conference tournament titles. During the season, the team defeated a [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference "Southeastern Conference") for the first time ever, defeating [Arkansas](/wiki/University_of_Arkansas "University of Arkansas") 74–66\. The Trojans received their first ever invitation to the NCAA Tournament as a Division I program. They fell to [Xavier](/wiki/Xavier_University "Xavier University") 59–71 in the 1st round.
The very next season, 2003–04, Maestri once again coached [Troy](/wiki/Troy_University "Troy University") to an Atlantic Sun regular season title for the third consecutive time and finished the season with an 18–2 conference record and a 24–7 record overall. To this day the 18 league victories is the highest single\-season total for any Atlantic Sun school. The veteran coach earned A\-Sun Coach of the Year honors. Maestri's Trojans received an invitation to the [NIT](/wiki/National_Invitational_Tournament "National Invitational Tournament"), where they would be defeated in the first round by [Niagara](/wiki/Niagara_University "Niagara University"), 83–87\. The Trojans finished the year second in Division I in scoring at 84\.6 points per game, and ninth in scoring margin, winning by an average of 12\.0 points per game. Troy also led all of college basketball in three\-point field goals made with 346\.
In 2005, Troy joined the [Sun Belt Conference](/wiki/Sun_Belt_Conference "Sun Belt Conference"). Maestri's teams did not finish with a winning record from the 2004–05 season to the 2007–08 season.
Maestri was finally able to coach his team to winning record once again during the 2008–09 season. Troy finished with a 19–13 record and received an invitation to the [CBI](/wiki/College_Basketball_Invitational "College Basketball Invitational") tournament, where they were defeated by the [College of Charleston](/wiki/College_of_Charleston "College of Charleston") in the 1st round, 91–93\. Maestri was awarded the Sun Belt Coach of the Year and was also named Coach of the Year by highly respected CollegeInsider.com following the successful campaign.
During Maestri's 2009–10 campaign, the Trojans finished with a 20–13 record and recorded the programs first\-ever win over in\-state opponent [Auburn](/wiki/Auburn_University "Auburn University"), upsetting the Tigers in [Beard–Eaves Coliseum](/wiki/Beard%E2%80%93Eaves_Coliseum "Beard–Eaves Coliseum") by a score of 81–77\. His team went on to win the Sun Belt regular season title and compete in the [NIT tournament](/wiki/National_Invitation_Tournament "National Invitation Tournament").
He retired from Troy after the 2013 season, finishing with a 501–403 overall record as head coach at Troy.
### Later career (2016–2018\)
Three years after Maestri's retirement from Troy, he joined the [Texas A\&M Aggies men's basketball](/wiki/Texas_A%26M_Aggies_men%27s_basketball "Texas A&M Aggies men's basketball") staff in 2016 as a special assistant to head coach [Billy Kennedy](/wiki/Billy_Kennedy_%28basketball%29 "Billy Kennedy (basketball)"), whom Maestri had mentored since Kennedy was in the eighth grade at Holy Cross High School in Louisiana.{{Cite web\|url\=http://12thman.com/news/2016/5/24/mens\-basketball\-don\-maestri\-joins\-aggie\-basketball\-staff.aspx\|title \= Don Maestri Joins Aggie Basketball Staff}}
|
[
"Coaching career\n---------------",
"### High school and college assistant (1970–1982\\)",
"Maestri began his coaching career in the fall of 1970 at [Holy Cross High School](/wiki/Holy_Cross_High_School%2C_New_Orleans \"Holy Cross High School, New Orleans\") in his hometown of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"). In 10 seasons as coach, he posted a 211–99 record, leading Holy Cross to a state runner\\-up finish in the top classification in the Louisiana high school ranks in 1974\\. This 1974 team had a final record of 35–6\\.",
"His 1976 team finished with a 32–3 record and was ranked 11th in the nation.",
"Maestri's teams also finished 1st or 2nd place six times in the [Catholic League](/wiki/New_Orleans_Catholic_League \"New Orleans Catholic League\").",
"",
"Maestri spent the 1979–80 season as an assistant coach for Jim Hatfield at [Mississippi State](/wiki/Mississippi_State_University \"Mississippi State University\"). During his one year with the program, the Bulldogs finished with a 13–14 record and tied for 6th in the [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference \"Southeastern Conference\").",
"Maestri spent two seasons at the [University of Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama \"University of Alabama\") on [Winfrey Sanderson](/wiki/Winfrey_Sanderson \"Winfrey Sanderson\")'s staff (1980–82\\). During his time with the [Crimson Tide](/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide \"Alabama Crimson Tide\"), Alabama participated in the [NIT](/wiki/National_Invitational_Tournament \"National Invitational Tournament\") and [NCAA](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association \"National Collegiate Athletic Association\") tournaments.",
"[Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama \"University of Alabama\") finished 24–7 in 1982, winning the [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference \"Southeastern Conference\") Tournament and advancing to the NCAA East Regional.",
"### Troy (1982–2013\\)",
"Maestri was named the head coach of the [Troy University](/wiki/Troy_University \"Troy University\") basketball team in 1982\\. When he took over the reins of the Troy basketball program, the Trojans had not posted a winning season in the previous five seasons.",
"Maestri quickly turned the program into a perennial [Division II](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II \"NCAA Division II\") powerhouse. He led the Trojans to a [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference \"Gulf South Conference\") title in the 1990–91 season, where they received an invitation to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"NCAA Division II men's basketball tournament\"), defeating [Florida Southern](/wiki/Florida_Southern_College \"Florida Southern College\") 78–73 in the 1st Round before falling to [North Alabama](/wiki/University_of_North_Alabama \"University of North Alabama\") 86–93 in the 2nd round. He was named Gulf South Coach of the Year for his efforts.",
"The head coach led Troy State to five NCAA Tournament appearances in 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1993\\. Maestri finished with an overall record of 237–131 in Division II.",
"During the 1987–88 season, the Trojans finished with a 24–10, winning the [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference \"Gulf South Conference\") title. Troy State made it to the [Elite Eight](/wiki/Elite_Eight \"Elite Eight\") of the NCAA Tournament before falling 77–72 to [Alaska–Anchorage](/wiki/University_of_Alaska_Anchorage \"University of Alaska Anchorage\").",
"Five seasons later, in 1992–93, Maestri helped the Trojans to a 27–5 record and led them to the NCAA Tournament finals, only to fall to [Cal State Bakersfield](/wiki/California_State_University%2C_Bakersfield \"California State University, Bakersfield\") 85–72\\. Maestri was named Southeast Region Coach of the Year by the NCAA following his team's brilliant season.",
"During Troy's first season at the [Division I](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I \"NCAA Division I\") level, 1993–94, Maestri's run\\-and\\-gun style shot the Trojans to a conference title, going undefeated in the [East Coast Conference](/wiki/East_Coast_Conference_%28Division_I%29 \"East Coast Conference (Division I)\") and winning the conference title. Troy also gained national recognition by leading the nation in three\\-pointers made per game while averaging 97\\.6 points per contest. For his efforts, Maestri was named East Coast Conference Coach of the Year.",
"In 1995, [Troy State](/wiki/Troy_State_University \"Troy State University\") left the East Coast Conference to join the Mid\\-Continent Conference (now the [Summit League](/wiki/Summit_League \"Summit League\")).",
"During the 1996–97 season, the Trojans were back in contention in the Mid\\-Continent Conference, upsetting [Sweet 16](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament%23Regional_semifinals_and_finals \"NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament#Regional semifinals and finals\") participant [Valparaiso](/wiki/Valparaiso_University \"Valparaiso University\"), 72–69, on the road in overtime to cap a 17–10 record. Troy claimed third place in the conference that year, with Maestri earning Coach of the Year honors again.",
"The Trojans left the Mid\\-Continent Conference to join the [Atlantic Sun Conference](/wiki/Atlantic_Sun_Conference \"Atlantic Sun Conference\") in 1998\\. Maestri's teams struggled mightily their first two seasons in the Atlantic Sun in 1998 and 1999, but quickly turned their fortunes around the next season. In 2000, Maestri brought the Trojans their first conference title in six years and their first Division I conference title. Though the Trojans won the regular season title that year, they did not win the conference tournament, thus keeping them from getting in the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\").",
"Two seasons later, in the 2001–02 season, Maestri was once again able to lead his team to another Atlantic Sun regular season title. Once again though, his Trojans failed to win the conference tournament and were once again left out of the NCAA Tournament.",
"In the 2002–03, Maestri recorded his best season ever in Division I. He coached his team to a 26–6 record and they won the Atlantic Sun regular season and conference tournament titles. During the season, the team defeated a [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference \"Southeastern Conference\") for the first time ever, defeating [Arkansas](/wiki/University_of_Arkansas \"University of Arkansas\") 74–66\\. The Trojans received their first ever invitation to the NCAA Tournament as a Division I program. They fell to [Xavier](/wiki/Xavier_University \"Xavier University\") 59–71 in the 1st round.",
"The very next season, 2003–04, Maestri once again coached [Troy](/wiki/Troy_University \"Troy University\") to an Atlantic Sun regular season title for the third consecutive time and finished the season with an 18–2 conference record and a 24–7 record overall. To this day the 18 league victories is the highest single\\-season total for any Atlantic Sun school. The veteran coach earned A\\-Sun Coach of the Year honors. Maestri's Trojans received an invitation to the [NIT](/wiki/National_Invitational_Tournament \"National Invitational Tournament\"), where they would be defeated in the first round by [Niagara](/wiki/Niagara_University \"Niagara University\"), 83–87\\. The Trojans finished the year second in Division I in scoring at 84\\.6 points per game, and ninth in scoring margin, winning by an average of 12\\.0 points per game. Troy also led all of college basketball in three\\-point field goals made with 346\\.",
"In 2005, Troy joined the [Sun Belt Conference](/wiki/Sun_Belt_Conference \"Sun Belt Conference\"). Maestri's teams did not finish with a winning record from the 2004–05 season to the 2007–08 season.",
"Maestri was finally able to coach his team to winning record once again during the 2008–09 season. Troy finished with a 19–13 record and received an invitation to the [CBI](/wiki/College_Basketball_Invitational \"College Basketball Invitational\") tournament, where they were defeated by the [College of Charleston](/wiki/College_of_Charleston \"College of Charleston\") in the 1st round, 91–93\\. Maestri was awarded the Sun Belt Coach of the Year and was also named Coach of the Year by highly respected CollegeInsider.com following the successful campaign.",
"During Maestri's 2009–10 campaign, the Trojans finished with a 20–13 record and recorded the programs first\\-ever win over in\\-state opponent [Auburn](/wiki/Auburn_University \"Auburn University\"), upsetting the Tigers in [Beard–Eaves Coliseum](/wiki/Beard%E2%80%93Eaves_Coliseum \"Beard–Eaves Coliseum\") by a score of 81–77\\. His team went on to win the Sun Belt regular season title and compete in the [NIT tournament](/wiki/National_Invitation_Tournament \"National Invitation Tournament\").",
"He retired from Troy after the 2013 season, finishing with a 501–403 overall record as head coach at Troy.",
"### Later career (2016–2018\\)",
"Three years after Maestri's retirement from Troy, he joined the [Texas A\\&M Aggies men's basketball](/wiki/Texas_A%26M_Aggies_men%27s_basketball \"Texas A&M Aggies men's basketball\") staff in 2016 as a special assistant to head coach [Billy Kennedy](/wiki/Billy_Kennedy_%28basketball%29 \"Billy Kennedy (basketball)\"), whom Maestri had mentored since Kennedy was in the eighth grade at Holy Cross High School in Louisiana.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://12thman.com/news/2016/5/24/mens\\-basketball\\-don\\-maestri\\-joins\\-aggie\\-basketball\\-staff.aspx\\|title \\= Don Maestri Joins Aggie Basketball Staff}}",
""
] |
### Troy (1982–2013\)
Maestri was named the head coach of the [Troy University](/wiki/Troy_University "Troy University") basketball team in 1982\. When he took over the reins of the Troy basketball program, the Trojans had not posted a winning season in the previous five seasons.
Maestri quickly turned the program into a perennial [Division II](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II "NCAA Division II") powerhouse. He led the Trojans to a [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference "Gulf South Conference") title in the 1990–91 season, where they received an invitation to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II_men%27s_basketball_tournament "NCAA Division II men's basketball tournament"), defeating [Florida Southern](/wiki/Florida_Southern_College "Florida Southern College") 78–73 in the 1st Round before falling to [North Alabama](/wiki/University_of_North_Alabama "University of North Alabama") 86–93 in the 2nd round. He was named Gulf South Coach of the Year for his efforts.
The head coach led Troy State to five NCAA Tournament appearances in 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1993\. Maestri finished with an overall record of 237–131 in Division II.
During the 1987–88 season, the Trojans finished with a 24–10, winning the [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference "Gulf South Conference") title. Troy State made it to the [Elite Eight](/wiki/Elite_Eight "Elite Eight") of the NCAA Tournament before falling 77–72 to [Alaska–Anchorage](/wiki/University_of_Alaska_Anchorage "University of Alaska Anchorage").
Five seasons later, in 1992–93, Maestri helped the Trojans to a 27–5 record and led them to the NCAA Tournament finals, only to fall to [Cal State Bakersfield](/wiki/California_State_University%2C_Bakersfield "California State University, Bakersfield") 85–72\. Maestri was named Southeast Region Coach of the Year by the NCAA following his team's brilliant season.
During Troy's first season at the [Division I](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I "NCAA Division I") level, 1993–94, Maestri's run\-and\-gun style shot the Trojans to a conference title, going undefeated in the [East Coast Conference](/wiki/East_Coast_Conference_%28Division_I%29 "East Coast Conference (Division I)") and winning the conference title. Troy also gained national recognition by leading the nation in three\-pointers made per game while averaging 97\.6 points per contest. For his efforts, Maestri was named East Coast Conference Coach of the Year.
In 1995, [Troy State](/wiki/Troy_State_University "Troy State University") left the East Coast Conference to join the Mid\-Continent Conference (now the [Summit League](/wiki/Summit_League "Summit League")).
During the 1996–97 season, the Trojans were back in contention in the Mid\-Continent Conference, upsetting [Sweet 16](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament%23Regional_semifinals_and_finals "NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament#Regional semifinals and finals") participant [Valparaiso](/wiki/Valparaiso_University "Valparaiso University"), 72–69, on the road in overtime to cap a 17–10 record. Troy claimed third place in the conference that year, with Maestri earning Coach of the Year honors again.
The Trojans left the Mid\-Continent Conference to join the [Atlantic Sun Conference](/wiki/Atlantic_Sun_Conference "Atlantic Sun Conference") in 1998\. Maestri's teams struggled mightily their first two seasons in the Atlantic Sun in 1998 and 1999, but quickly turned their fortunes around the next season. In 2000, Maestri brought the Trojans their first conference title in six years and their first Division I conference title. Though the Trojans won the regular season title that year, they did not win the conference tournament, thus keeping them from getting in the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament").
Two seasons later, in the 2001–02 season, Maestri was once again able to lead his team to another Atlantic Sun regular season title. Once again though, his Trojans failed to win the conference tournament and were once again left out of the NCAA Tournament.
In the 2002–03, Maestri recorded his best season ever in Division I. He coached his team to a 26–6 record and they won the Atlantic Sun regular season and conference tournament titles. During the season, the team defeated a [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference "Southeastern Conference") for the first time ever, defeating [Arkansas](/wiki/University_of_Arkansas "University of Arkansas") 74–66\. The Trojans received their first ever invitation to the NCAA Tournament as a Division I program. They fell to [Xavier](/wiki/Xavier_University "Xavier University") 59–71 in the 1st round.
The very next season, 2003–04, Maestri once again coached [Troy](/wiki/Troy_University "Troy University") to an Atlantic Sun regular season title for the third consecutive time and finished the season with an 18–2 conference record and a 24–7 record overall. To this day the 18 league victories is the highest single\-season total for any Atlantic Sun school. The veteran coach earned A\-Sun Coach of the Year honors. Maestri's Trojans received an invitation to the [NIT](/wiki/National_Invitational_Tournament "National Invitational Tournament"), where they would be defeated in the first round by [Niagara](/wiki/Niagara_University "Niagara University"), 83–87\. The Trojans finished the year second in Division I in scoring at 84\.6 points per game, and ninth in scoring margin, winning by an average of 12\.0 points per game. Troy also led all of college basketball in three\-point field goals made with 346\.
In 2005, Troy joined the [Sun Belt Conference](/wiki/Sun_Belt_Conference "Sun Belt Conference"). Maestri's teams did not finish with a winning record from the 2004–05 season to the 2007–08 season.
Maestri was finally able to coach his team to winning record once again during the 2008–09 season. Troy finished with a 19–13 record and received an invitation to the [CBI](/wiki/College_Basketball_Invitational "College Basketball Invitational") tournament, where they were defeated by the [College of Charleston](/wiki/College_of_Charleston "College of Charleston") in the 1st round, 91–93\. Maestri was awarded the Sun Belt Coach of the Year and was also named Coach of the Year by highly respected CollegeInsider.com following the successful campaign.
During Maestri's 2009–10 campaign, the Trojans finished with a 20–13 record and recorded the programs first\-ever win over in\-state opponent [Auburn](/wiki/Auburn_University "Auburn University"), upsetting the Tigers in [Beard–Eaves Coliseum](/wiki/Beard%E2%80%93Eaves_Coliseum "Beard–Eaves Coliseum") by a score of 81–77\. His team went on to win the Sun Belt regular season title and compete in the [NIT tournament](/wiki/National_Invitation_Tournament "National Invitation Tournament").
He retired from Troy after the 2013 season, finishing with a 501–403 overall record as head coach at Troy.
|
[
"### Troy (1982–2013\\)",
"Maestri was named the head coach of the [Troy University](/wiki/Troy_University \"Troy University\") basketball team in 1982\\. When he took over the reins of the Troy basketball program, the Trojans had not posted a winning season in the previous five seasons.",
"Maestri quickly turned the program into a perennial [Division II](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II \"NCAA Division II\") powerhouse. He led the Trojans to a [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference \"Gulf South Conference\") title in the 1990–91 season, where they received an invitation to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"NCAA Division II men's basketball tournament\"), defeating [Florida Southern](/wiki/Florida_Southern_College \"Florida Southern College\") 78–73 in the 1st Round before falling to [North Alabama](/wiki/University_of_North_Alabama \"University of North Alabama\") 86–93 in the 2nd round. He was named Gulf South Coach of the Year for his efforts.",
"The head coach led Troy State to five NCAA Tournament appearances in 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1993\\. Maestri finished with an overall record of 237–131 in Division II.",
"During the 1987–88 season, the Trojans finished with a 24–10, winning the [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference \"Gulf South Conference\") title. Troy State made it to the [Elite Eight](/wiki/Elite_Eight \"Elite Eight\") of the NCAA Tournament before falling 77–72 to [Alaska–Anchorage](/wiki/University_of_Alaska_Anchorage \"University of Alaska Anchorage\").",
"Five seasons later, in 1992–93, Maestri helped the Trojans to a 27–5 record and led them to the NCAA Tournament finals, only to fall to [Cal State Bakersfield](/wiki/California_State_University%2C_Bakersfield \"California State University, Bakersfield\") 85–72\\. Maestri was named Southeast Region Coach of the Year by the NCAA following his team's brilliant season.",
"During Troy's first season at the [Division I](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I \"NCAA Division I\") level, 1993–94, Maestri's run\\-and\\-gun style shot the Trojans to a conference title, going undefeated in the [East Coast Conference](/wiki/East_Coast_Conference_%28Division_I%29 \"East Coast Conference (Division I)\") and winning the conference title. Troy also gained national recognition by leading the nation in three\\-pointers made per game while averaging 97\\.6 points per contest. For his efforts, Maestri was named East Coast Conference Coach of the Year.",
"In 1995, [Troy State](/wiki/Troy_State_University \"Troy State University\") left the East Coast Conference to join the Mid\\-Continent Conference (now the [Summit League](/wiki/Summit_League \"Summit League\")).",
"During the 1996–97 season, the Trojans were back in contention in the Mid\\-Continent Conference, upsetting [Sweet 16](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament%23Regional_semifinals_and_finals \"NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament#Regional semifinals and finals\") participant [Valparaiso](/wiki/Valparaiso_University \"Valparaiso University\"), 72–69, on the road in overtime to cap a 17–10 record. Troy claimed third place in the conference that year, with Maestri earning Coach of the Year honors again.",
"The Trojans left the Mid\\-Continent Conference to join the [Atlantic Sun Conference](/wiki/Atlantic_Sun_Conference \"Atlantic Sun Conference\") in 1998\\. Maestri's teams struggled mightily their first two seasons in the Atlantic Sun in 1998 and 1999, but quickly turned their fortunes around the next season. In 2000, Maestri brought the Trojans their first conference title in six years and their first Division I conference title. Though the Trojans won the regular season title that year, they did not win the conference tournament, thus keeping them from getting in the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\").",
"Two seasons later, in the 2001–02 season, Maestri was once again able to lead his team to another Atlantic Sun regular season title. Once again though, his Trojans failed to win the conference tournament and were once again left out of the NCAA Tournament.",
"In the 2002–03, Maestri recorded his best season ever in Division I. He coached his team to a 26–6 record and they won the Atlantic Sun regular season and conference tournament titles. During the season, the team defeated a [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference \"Southeastern Conference\") for the first time ever, defeating [Arkansas](/wiki/University_of_Arkansas \"University of Arkansas\") 74–66\\. The Trojans received their first ever invitation to the NCAA Tournament as a Division I program. They fell to [Xavier](/wiki/Xavier_University \"Xavier University\") 59–71 in the 1st round.",
"The very next season, 2003–04, Maestri once again coached [Troy](/wiki/Troy_University \"Troy University\") to an Atlantic Sun regular season title for the third consecutive time and finished the season with an 18–2 conference record and a 24–7 record overall. To this day the 18 league victories is the highest single\\-season total for any Atlantic Sun school. The veteran coach earned A\\-Sun Coach of the Year honors. Maestri's Trojans received an invitation to the [NIT](/wiki/National_Invitational_Tournament \"National Invitational Tournament\"), where they would be defeated in the first round by [Niagara](/wiki/Niagara_University \"Niagara University\"), 83–87\\. The Trojans finished the year second in Division I in scoring at 84\\.6 points per game, and ninth in scoring margin, winning by an average of 12\\.0 points per game. Troy also led all of college basketball in three\\-point field goals made with 346\\.",
"In 2005, Troy joined the [Sun Belt Conference](/wiki/Sun_Belt_Conference \"Sun Belt Conference\"). Maestri's teams did not finish with a winning record from the 2004–05 season to the 2007–08 season.",
"Maestri was finally able to coach his team to winning record once again during the 2008–09 season. Troy finished with a 19–13 record and received an invitation to the [CBI](/wiki/College_Basketball_Invitational \"College Basketball Invitational\") tournament, where they were defeated by the [College of Charleston](/wiki/College_of_Charleston \"College of Charleston\") in the 1st round, 91–93\\. Maestri was awarded the Sun Belt Coach of the Year and was also named Coach of the Year by highly respected CollegeInsider.com following the successful campaign.",
"During Maestri's 2009–10 campaign, the Trojans finished with a 20–13 record and recorded the programs first\\-ever win over in\\-state opponent [Auburn](/wiki/Auburn_University \"Auburn University\"), upsetting the Tigers in [Beard–Eaves Coliseum](/wiki/Beard%E2%80%93Eaves_Coliseum \"Beard–Eaves Coliseum\") by a score of 81–77\\. His team went on to win the Sun Belt regular season title and compete in the [NIT tournament](/wiki/National_Invitation_Tournament \"National Invitation Tournament\").",
"He retired from Troy after the 2013 season, finishing with a 501–403 overall record as head coach at Troy.",
""
] |
Boxing career
-------------
Mayweather Sr.'s boxing record was 28–6–1 (18 TKOs), and he won one contest during the [U.S. Championship Tournament in 1977](/wiki/1977_United_States_Boxing_Championships_Series "1977 United States Boxing Championships Series"), against Miguel Barreto.{{boxrec\|id\=15480}} He broke his hand and was knocked out in a fight against [Sugar Ray Leonard](/wiki/Sugar_Ray_Leonard "Sugar Ray Leonard") in 1978\.{{cite news \|last1\=Berkow \|first1\=Ira \|title\=BOXING; Lessons From in the Ring And Inside a Prison Cell \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/24/sports/boxing\-lessons\-from\-in\-the\-ring\-and\-inside\-a\-prison\-cell.html \|access\-date\=27 February 2023 \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=24 March 1998}} Four months later, he was shot in the leg in a family dispute which virtually ended his career.
### Trainer
As a trainer, Mayweather preaches defense and a stiff jab. He taught many of his boxers a defensive technique known as the shoulder roll, in which the fighter uses his front shoulder to deflect blows and limit their impact. He has on many occasions, including HBO's *Mayweather\-Hatton 24/7*, claimed to be Floyd Mayweather Sr., 'The Greatest Dog of All Time'".{{cn\|date\=February 2023}}
Floyd Mayweather Sr. taught Mayweather Jr. to punch when he was still a toddler in [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan "Grand Rapids, Michigan"). His training was disrupted by a five\-and\-a\-half\-year prison sentence on a drug\-dealing conviction, and he resumed training his son 14 fights into his professional career. He had a public falling out with his son in 2000, and his brother [Roger](/wiki/Roger_Mayweather "Roger Mayweather") took over training Mayweather Jr..
He is the former trainer of top light heavyweight [Chad Dawson](/wiki/Chad_Dawson "Chad Dawson"), former two\-division champion [Joan Guzmán](/wiki/Joan_Guzm%C3%A1n "Joan Guzmán") and women's champion [Laila Ali](/wiki/Laila_Ali "Laila Ali"). He is well known for his stint as [Oscar De La Hoya](/wiki/Oscar_De_La_Hoya "Oscar De La Hoya")'s trainer from 2001 through 2006\. He said he would train De La Hoya for his May 5, 2007, fight against his son, but demanded a $2 million fee to do so. After considerable deliberation, De La Hoya opted not to hire Mayweather Sr. and announced on January 30, 2007, he would use [Freddie Roach](/wiki/Freddie_Roach_%28boxing%29 "Freddie Roach (boxing)") instead.
The snub briefly reunited father and son,{{cite web \|last1\=Rafael \|first1\=Dan \|title\=Mayweather Jr. and Sr. reunite \|url\=https://www.espn.com/blog/dan\-rafael/post/\_/id/3857/mayweather\-jr\-and\-sr\-reunite \|website\=ESPN.com \|access\-date\=January 3, 2022 \|date\=May 2, 2013}} with Floyd Sr. turning up at the Mayweather Jr. boxing gym, while Roger (who had been banned from being in the corner at boxing matches for 12 months for starting a riot during Floyd Jr.'s bout against [Zab Judah](/wiki/Zab_Judah "Zab Judah") on April 8, 2006, when he attacked Judah) served six months in jail for a domestic assault. But when Roger was released, the situation became awkward because of the brothers’ rivalry.
Floyd Jr. chose Roger as his trainer and Floyd Sr. left again, claiming that the father\-son relationship was "back to square one" for choosing Roger over his own father again. Floyd Sr. agreed to once again train De La Hoya in anticipation for Mayweather Jr. – De La Hoya II presented by [Golden Boy Promotions](/wiki/Golden_Boy_Promotions "Golden Boy Promotions"). However, due to disagreements with how revenues would be divided amongst the two fighters, the bout was canceled. Mayweather Sr. trained [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester")'s [Ricky Hatton](/wiki/Ricky_Hatton "Ricky Hatton") for seven weeks prior to his bout against [Paulie Malignaggi](/wiki/Paulie_Malignaggi "Paulie Malignaggi") on November 22, 2008, at the [MGM Grand](/wiki/MGM_Grand_Las_Vegas "MGM Grand Las Vegas") in Las Vegas.{{cite web \|title\=Mayweather Sr will train Hatton \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/boxing/7596348\.stm \|website\=BBC \|access\-date\=3 January 2022 \|date\=3 September 2008}}
A proposed March 2010 fight between Mayweather Jr. and Manny Pacquiao fell by the wayside in January 2010 when the camps representing both fighters could not agree on a timeline for drug testing for the fight. The Mayweathers had suggested that Manny Pacquiao was aided by performance\-enhancing drugs. Pacquiao filed a defamation suit against them that was eventually settled in 2012\.{{cite news \|title\=Mayweather, Pacquiao settling defamation case \|url\=https://www.espn.com/boxing/story/\_/id/8425747/floyd\-mayweather\-manny\-pacquiao\-settling\-defamation\-case \|access\-date\=18 May 2023 \|work\=ESPN.com \|date\=25 September 2012 \|language\=en}}
Mayweather trained [UFC](/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship "Ultimate Fighting Championship") fighter [B.J. Penn](/wiki/B.J._Penn "B.J. Penn") for two weeks.[Floyd Mayweather Joins UFC: BJ Penn Shocker](http://ringsidereport.com/?p=6601). Ringside Report (January 8, 2011\). Retrieved on November 28, 2011\.
In May 2013, for the first time in 13 years, Floyd Jr. announced that Floyd Sr. would return as his trainer against Robert Guerrero. While some speculated this was because of the bloody nose Jr. got in an otherwise dominant performance against Miguel Cotto (a change to the more defensive\-oriented
Floyd Sr. over the offensive Roger was seen as logical), Floyd Jr. cited his uncle Roger's health issues, diabetes, and poor vision as rationale for the change. Sr. has remained the trainer of Jr. ever since and trained him to victory in his fight over [Manny Pacquiao](/wiki/Manny_Pacquiao "Manny Pacquiao").[Mayweather Jr. and Sr. reunite – Dan Rafael Blog – ESPN](https://www.espn.com/blog/dan-rafael/post/_/id/3857/mayweather-jr-and-sr-reunite). Espn.go.com (February 5, 2013\). Retrieved on July 27, 2015\.
|
[
"Boxing career\n-------------",
"Mayweather Sr.'s boxing record was 28–6–1 (18 TKOs), and he won one contest during the [U.S. Championship Tournament in 1977](/wiki/1977_United_States_Boxing_Championships_Series \"1977 United States Boxing Championships Series\"), against Miguel Barreto.{{boxrec\\|id\\=15480}} He broke his hand and was knocked out in a fight against [Sugar Ray Leonard](/wiki/Sugar_Ray_Leonard \"Sugar Ray Leonard\") in 1978\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Berkow \\|first1\\=Ira \\|title\\=BOXING; Lessons From in the Ring And Inside a Prison Cell \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/24/sports/boxing\\-lessons\\-from\\-in\\-the\\-ring\\-and\\-inside\\-a\\-prison\\-cell.html \\|access\\-date\\=27 February 2023 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=24 March 1998}} Four months later, he was shot in the leg in a family dispute which virtually ended his career.",
"### Trainer",
"As a trainer, Mayweather preaches defense and a stiff jab. He taught many of his boxers a defensive technique known as the shoulder roll, in which the fighter uses his front shoulder to deflect blows and limit their impact. He has on many occasions, including HBO's *Mayweather\\-Hatton 24/7*, claimed to be Floyd Mayweather Sr., 'The Greatest Dog of All Time'\".{{cn\\|date\\=February 2023}}",
"Floyd Mayweather Sr. taught Mayweather Jr. to punch when he was still a toddler in [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan \"Grand Rapids, Michigan\"). His training was disrupted by a five\\-and\\-a\\-half\\-year prison sentence on a drug\\-dealing conviction, and he resumed training his son 14 fights into his professional career. He had a public falling out with his son in 2000, and his brother [Roger](/wiki/Roger_Mayweather \"Roger Mayweather\") took over training Mayweather Jr..",
"He is the former trainer of top light heavyweight [Chad Dawson](/wiki/Chad_Dawson \"Chad Dawson\"), former two\\-division champion [Joan Guzmán](/wiki/Joan_Guzm%C3%A1n \"Joan Guzmán\") and women's champion [Laila Ali](/wiki/Laila_Ali \"Laila Ali\"). He is well known for his stint as [Oscar De La Hoya](/wiki/Oscar_De_La_Hoya \"Oscar De La Hoya\")'s trainer from 2001 through 2006\\. He said he would train De La Hoya for his May 5, 2007, fight against his son, but demanded a $2 million fee to do so. After considerable deliberation, De La Hoya opted not to hire Mayweather Sr. and announced on January 30, 2007, he would use [Freddie Roach](/wiki/Freddie_Roach_%28boxing%29 \"Freddie Roach (boxing)\") instead.",
"The snub briefly reunited father and son,{{cite web \\|last1\\=Rafael \\|first1\\=Dan \\|title\\=Mayweather Jr. and Sr. reunite \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/blog/dan\\-rafael/post/\\_/id/3857/mayweather\\-jr\\-and\\-sr\\-reunite \\|website\\=ESPN.com \\|access\\-date\\=January 3, 2022 \\|date\\=May 2, 2013}} with Floyd Sr. turning up at the Mayweather Jr. boxing gym, while Roger (who had been banned from being in the corner at boxing matches for 12 months for starting a riot during Floyd Jr.'s bout against [Zab Judah](/wiki/Zab_Judah \"Zab Judah\") on April 8, 2006, when he attacked Judah) served six months in jail for a domestic assault. But when Roger was released, the situation became awkward because of the brothers’ rivalry.",
"Floyd Jr. chose Roger as his trainer and Floyd Sr. left again, claiming that the father\\-son relationship was \"back to square one\" for choosing Roger over his own father again. Floyd Sr. agreed to once again train De La Hoya in anticipation for Mayweather Jr. – De La Hoya II presented by [Golden Boy Promotions](/wiki/Golden_Boy_Promotions \"Golden Boy Promotions\"). However, due to disagreements with how revenues would be divided amongst the two fighters, the bout was canceled. Mayweather Sr. trained [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\")'s [Ricky Hatton](/wiki/Ricky_Hatton \"Ricky Hatton\") for seven weeks prior to his bout against [Paulie Malignaggi](/wiki/Paulie_Malignaggi \"Paulie Malignaggi\") on November 22, 2008, at the [MGM Grand](/wiki/MGM_Grand_Las_Vegas \"MGM Grand Las Vegas\") in Las Vegas.{{cite web \\|title\\=Mayweather Sr will train Hatton \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/boxing/7596348\\.stm \\|website\\=BBC \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2022 \\|date\\=3 September 2008}}",
"A proposed March 2010 fight between Mayweather Jr. and Manny Pacquiao fell by the wayside in January 2010 when the camps representing both fighters could not agree on a timeline for drug testing for the fight. The Mayweathers had suggested that Manny Pacquiao was aided by performance\\-enhancing drugs. Pacquiao filed a defamation suit against them that was eventually settled in 2012\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Mayweather, Pacquiao settling defamation case \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/boxing/story/\\_/id/8425747/floyd\\-mayweather\\-manny\\-pacquiao\\-settling\\-defamation\\-case \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2023 \\|work\\=ESPN.com \\|date\\=25 September 2012 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Mayweather trained [UFC](/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship \"Ultimate Fighting Championship\") fighter [B.J. Penn](/wiki/B.J._Penn \"B.J. Penn\") for two weeks.[Floyd Mayweather Joins UFC: BJ Penn Shocker](http://ringsidereport.com/?p=6601). Ringside Report (January 8, 2011\\). Retrieved on November 28, 2011\\.",
"In May 2013, for the first time in 13 years, Floyd Jr. announced that Floyd Sr. would return as his trainer against Robert Guerrero. While some speculated this was because of the bloody nose Jr. got in an otherwise dominant performance against Miguel Cotto (a change to the more defensive\\-oriented \nFloyd Sr. over the offensive Roger was seen as logical), Floyd Jr. cited his uncle Roger's health issues, diabetes, and poor vision as rationale for the change. Sr. has remained the trainer of Jr. ever since and trained him to victory in his fight over [Manny Pacquiao](/wiki/Manny_Pacquiao \"Manny Pacquiao\").[Mayweather Jr. and Sr. reunite – Dan Rafael Blog – ESPN](https://www.espn.com/blog/dan-rafael/post/_/id/3857/mayweather-jr-and-sr-reunite). Espn.go.com (February 5, 2013\\). Retrieved on July 27, 2015\\.",
""
] |
### Trainer
As a trainer, Mayweather preaches defense and a stiff jab. He taught many of his boxers a defensive technique known as the shoulder roll, in which the fighter uses his front shoulder to deflect blows and limit their impact. He has on many occasions, including HBO's *Mayweather\-Hatton 24/7*, claimed to be Floyd Mayweather Sr., 'The Greatest Dog of All Time'".{{cn\|date\=February 2023}}
Floyd Mayweather Sr. taught Mayweather Jr. to punch when he was still a toddler in [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan "Grand Rapids, Michigan"). His training was disrupted by a five\-and\-a\-half\-year prison sentence on a drug\-dealing conviction, and he resumed training his son 14 fights into his professional career. He had a public falling out with his son in 2000, and his brother [Roger](/wiki/Roger_Mayweather "Roger Mayweather") took over training Mayweather Jr..
He is the former trainer of top light heavyweight [Chad Dawson](/wiki/Chad_Dawson "Chad Dawson"), former two\-division champion [Joan Guzmán](/wiki/Joan_Guzm%C3%A1n "Joan Guzmán") and women's champion [Laila Ali](/wiki/Laila_Ali "Laila Ali"). He is well known for his stint as [Oscar De La Hoya](/wiki/Oscar_De_La_Hoya "Oscar De La Hoya")'s trainer from 2001 through 2006\. He said he would train De La Hoya for his May 5, 2007, fight against his son, but demanded a $2 million fee to do so. After considerable deliberation, De La Hoya opted not to hire Mayweather Sr. and announced on January 30, 2007, he would use [Freddie Roach](/wiki/Freddie_Roach_%28boxing%29 "Freddie Roach (boxing)") instead.
The snub briefly reunited father and son,{{cite web \|last1\=Rafael \|first1\=Dan \|title\=Mayweather Jr. and Sr. reunite \|url\=https://www.espn.com/blog/dan\-rafael/post/\_/id/3857/mayweather\-jr\-and\-sr\-reunite \|website\=ESPN.com \|access\-date\=January 3, 2022 \|date\=May 2, 2013}} with Floyd Sr. turning up at the Mayweather Jr. boxing gym, while Roger (who had been banned from being in the corner at boxing matches for 12 months for starting a riot during Floyd Jr.'s bout against [Zab Judah](/wiki/Zab_Judah "Zab Judah") on April 8, 2006, when he attacked Judah) served six months in jail for a domestic assault. But when Roger was released, the situation became awkward because of the brothers’ rivalry.
Floyd Jr. chose Roger as his trainer and Floyd Sr. left again, claiming that the father\-son relationship was "back to square one" for choosing Roger over his own father again. Floyd Sr. agreed to once again train De La Hoya in anticipation for Mayweather Jr. – De La Hoya II presented by [Golden Boy Promotions](/wiki/Golden_Boy_Promotions "Golden Boy Promotions"). However, due to disagreements with how revenues would be divided amongst the two fighters, the bout was canceled. Mayweather Sr. trained [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester")'s [Ricky Hatton](/wiki/Ricky_Hatton "Ricky Hatton") for seven weeks prior to his bout against [Paulie Malignaggi](/wiki/Paulie_Malignaggi "Paulie Malignaggi") on November 22, 2008, at the [MGM Grand](/wiki/MGM_Grand_Las_Vegas "MGM Grand Las Vegas") in Las Vegas.{{cite web \|title\=Mayweather Sr will train Hatton \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/boxing/7596348\.stm \|website\=BBC \|access\-date\=3 January 2022 \|date\=3 September 2008}}
A proposed March 2010 fight between Mayweather Jr. and Manny Pacquiao fell by the wayside in January 2010 when the camps representing both fighters could not agree on a timeline for drug testing for the fight. The Mayweathers had suggested that Manny Pacquiao was aided by performance\-enhancing drugs. Pacquiao filed a defamation suit against them that was eventually settled in 2012\.{{cite news \|title\=Mayweather, Pacquiao settling defamation case \|url\=https://www.espn.com/boxing/story/\_/id/8425747/floyd\-mayweather\-manny\-pacquiao\-settling\-defamation\-case \|access\-date\=18 May 2023 \|work\=ESPN.com \|date\=25 September 2012 \|language\=en}}
Mayweather trained [UFC](/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship "Ultimate Fighting Championship") fighter [B.J. Penn](/wiki/B.J._Penn "B.J. Penn") for two weeks.[Floyd Mayweather Joins UFC: BJ Penn Shocker](http://ringsidereport.com/?p=6601). Ringside Report (January 8, 2011\). Retrieved on November 28, 2011\.
In May 2013, for the first time in 13 years, Floyd Jr. announced that Floyd Sr. would return as his trainer against Robert Guerrero. While some speculated this was because of the bloody nose Jr. got in an otherwise dominant performance against Miguel Cotto (a change to the more defensive\-oriented
Floyd Sr. over the offensive Roger was seen as logical), Floyd Jr. cited his uncle Roger's health issues, diabetes, and poor vision as rationale for the change. Sr. has remained the trainer of Jr. ever since and trained him to victory in his fight over [Manny Pacquiao](/wiki/Manny_Pacquiao "Manny Pacquiao").[Mayweather Jr. and Sr. reunite – Dan Rafael Blog – ESPN](https://www.espn.com/blog/dan-rafael/post/_/id/3857/mayweather-jr-and-sr-reunite). Espn.go.com (February 5, 2013\). Retrieved on July 27, 2015\.
|
[
"### Trainer",
"As a trainer, Mayweather preaches defense and a stiff jab. He taught many of his boxers a defensive technique known as the shoulder roll, in which the fighter uses his front shoulder to deflect blows and limit their impact. He has on many occasions, including HBO's *Mayweather\\-Hatton 24/7*, claimed to be Floyd Mayweather Sr., 'The Greatest Dog of All Time'\".{{cn\\|date\\=February 2023}}",
"Floyd Mayweather Sr. taught Mayweather Jr. to punch when he was still a toddler in [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan \"Grand Rapids, Michigan\"). His training was disrupted by a five\\-and\\-a\\-half\\-year prison sentence on a drug\\-dealing conviction, and he resumed training his son 14 fights into his professional career. He had a public falling out with his son in 2000, and his brother [Roger](/wiki/Roger_Mayweather \"Roger Mayweather\") took over training Mayweather Jr..",
"He is the former trainer of top light heavyweight [Chad Dawson](/wiki/Chad_Dawson \"Chad Dawson\"), former two\\-division champion [Joan Guzmán](/wiki/Joan_Guzm%C3%A1n \"Joan Guzmán\") and women's champion [Laila Ali](/wiki/Laila_Ali \"Laila Ali\"). He is well known for his stint as [Oscar De La Hoya](/wiki/Oscar_De_La_Hoya \"Oscar De La Hoya\")'s trainer from 2001 through 2006\\. He said he would train De La Hoya for his May 5, 2007, fight against his son, but demanded a $2 million fee to do so. After considerable deliberation, De La Hoya opted not to hire Mayweather Sr. and announced on January 30, 2007, he would use [Freddie Roach](/wiki/Freddie_Roach_%28boxing%29 \"Freddie Roach (boxing)\") instead.",
"The snub briefly reunited father and son,{{cite web \\|last1\\=Rafael \\|first1\\=Dan \\|title\\=Mayweather Jr. and Sr. reunite \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/blog/dan\\-rafael/post/\\_/id/3857/mayweather\\-jr\\-and\\-sr\\-reunite \\|website\\=ESPN.com \\|access\\-date\\=January 3, 2022 \\|date\\=May 2, 2013}} with Floyd Sr. turning up at the Mayweather Jr. boxing gym, while Roger (who had been banned from being in the corner at boxing matches for 12 months for starting a riot during Floyd Jr.'s bout against [Zab Judah](/wiki/Zab_Judah \"Zab Judah\") on April 8, 2006, when he attacked Judah) served six months in jail for a domestic assault. But when Roger was released, the situation became awkward because of the brothers’ rivalry.",
"Floyd Jr. chose Roger as his trainer and Floyd Sr. left again, claiming that the father\\-son relationship was \"back to square one\" for choosing Roger over his own father again. Floyd Sr. agreed to once again train De La Hoya in anticipation for Mayweather Jr. – De La Hoya II presented by [Golden Boy Promotions](/wiki/Golden_Boy_Promotions \"Golden Boy Promotions\"). However, due to disagreements with how revenues would be divided amongst the two fighters, the bout was canceled. Mayweather Sr. trained [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\")'s [Ricky Hatton](/wiki/Ricky_Hatton \"Ricky Hatton\") for seven weeks prior to his bout against [Paulie Malignaggi](/wiki/Paulie_Malignaggi \"Paulie Malignaggi\") on November 22, 2008, at the [MGM Grand](/wiki/MGM_Grand_Las_Vegas \"MGM Grand Las Vegas\") in Las Vegas.{{cite web \\|title\\=Mayweather Sr will train Hatton \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/boxing/7596348\\.stm \\|website\\=BBC \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2022 \\|date\\=3 September 2008}}",
"A proposed March 2010 fight between Mayweather Jr. and Manny Pacquiao fell by the wayside in January 2010 when the camps representing both fighters could not agree on a timeline for drug testing for the fight. The Mayweathers had suggested that Manny Pacquiao was aided by performance\\-enhancing drugs. Pacquiao filed a defamation suit against them that was eventually settled in 2012\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Mayweather, Pacquiao settling defamation case \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/boxing/story/\\_/id/8425747/floyd\\-mayweather\\-manny\\-pacquiao\\-settling\\-defamation\\-case \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2023 \\|work\\=ESPN.com \\|date\\=25 September 2012 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Mayweather trained [UFC](/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship \"Ultimate Fighting Championship\") fighter [B.J. Penn](/wiki/B.J._Penn \"B.J. Penn\") for two weeks.[Floyd Mayweather Joins UFC: BJ Penn Shocker](http://ringsidereport.com/?p=6601). Ringside Report (January 8, 2011\\). Retrieved on November 28, 2011\\.",
"In May 2013, for the first time in 13 years, Floyd Jr. announced that Floyd Sr. would return as his trainer against Robert Guerrero. While some speculated this was because of the bloody nose Jr. got in an otherwise dominant performance against Miguel Cotto (a change to the more defensive\\-oriented \nFloyd Sr. over the offensive Roger was seen as logical), Floyd Jr. cited his uncle Roger's health issues, diabetes, and poor vision as rationale for the change. Sr. has remained the trainer of Jr. ever since and trained him to victory in his fight over [Manny Pacquiao](/wiki/Manny_Pacquiao \"Manny Pacquiao\").[Mayweather Jr. and Sr. reunite – Dan Rafael Blog – ESPN](https://www.espn.com/blog/dan-rafael/post/_/id/3857/mayweather-jr-and-sr-reunite). Espn.go.com (February 5, 2013\\). Retrieved on July 27, 2015\\.",
""
] |
In eukaryotes
-------------
[thumb\|Schematic [karyogram](/wiki/Karyotype "Karyotype") of a [human](/wiki/Human "Human"), showing an overview of the [human genome](/wiki/Human_genome "Human genome") on [G banding](/wiki/G_banding "G banding"), which is a method that includes [Giemsa staining](/wiki/Giemsa_stain "Giemsa stain"), wherein the lighter staining regions are generally more [transcriptionally](/wiki/Transcription_%28biology%29 "Transcription (biology)") active, whereas darker regions are more inactive.{{further\|Karyotype}}](/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png "Human karyotype with bands and sub-bands.png")
The added complexity of generating a eukaryotic cell carries with it an increase in the complexity of transcriptional regulation. Eukaryotes have three RNA polymerases, known as [Pol I](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_I "RNA polymerase I"), [Pol II](/wiki/RNA_Polymerase_II "RNA Polymerase II"), and [Pol III](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_III "RNA polymerase III"). Each polymerase has specific targets and activities, and is regulated by independent mechanisms. There are a number of additional mechanisms through which polymerase activity can be controlled. These mechanisms can be generally grouped into three main areas:
* Control over polymerase access to the gene. This is perhaps the broadest of the three control mechanisms. This includes the functions of [histone](/wiki/Histone%23Function "Histone#Function") remodeling enzymes, transcription factors, enhancers and repressors, and many other complexes
* Productive elongation of the RNA transcript. Once polymerase is bound to a promoter, it requires another set of factors to allow it to escape the promoter complex and begin successfully transcribing RNA.
* Termination of the polymerase. A number of factors which have been found to control how and when termination occurs, which will dictate the fate of the RNA transcript.
All three of these systems work in concert to integrate signals from the cell and change the transcriptional program accordingly.
While in prokaryotic systems the basal transcription state can be thought of as nonrestrictive (that is, “on” in the absence of modifying factors), eukaryotes have a restrictive basal state which requires the recruitment of other factors in order to generate RNA transcripts. This difference is largely due to the compaction of the eukaryotic genome by winding DNA around histones to form higher order structures. This compaction makes the gene promoter inaccessible without the assistance of other factors in the nucleus, and thus chromatin structure is a common site of regulation. Similar to the sigma factors in prokaryotes, the general transcription factors (GTFs) are a set of factors in eukaryotes that are required for all transcription events. These factors are responsible for stabilizing binding interactions and opening the DNA helix to allow the RNA polymerase to access the template, but generally lack specificity for different promoter sites.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Struhl K \| title \= Fundamentally different logic of gene regulation in eukaryotes and prokaryotes \| journal \= Cell \| volume \= 98 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1–4 \| date \= July 1999 \| pmid \= 10412974 \| doi \= 10\.1016/S0092\-8674(00\)80599\-1 \| s2cid \= 12411218 \| doi\-access \= free }} A large part of gene regulation occurs through transcription factors that either recruit or inhibit the binding of the general transcription machinery and/or the polymerase. This can be accomplished through close interactions with core promoter elements, or through the long distance [enhancer](/wiki/Enhancer_%28genetics%29 "Enhancer (genetics)") elements.
Once a polymerase is successfully bound to a DNA template, it often requires the assistance of other proteins in order to leave the stable promoter complex and begin elongating the nascent RNA strand. This process is called promoter escape, and is another step at which regulatory elements can act to accelerate or slow the transcription process. Similarly, protein and nucleic acid factors can associate with the elongation complex and modulate the rate at which the polymerase moves along the DNA template.
### At the level of chromatin state
In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is highly compacted in order to be able to fit it into the nucleus. This is accomplished by winding the DNA around protein octamers called [histones](/wiki/Histones "Histones"), which has consequences for the physical accessibility of parts of the genome at any given time. Significant portions are silenced through histone modifications, and thus are inaccessible to the polymerases or their cofactors. The highest level of transcription regulation occurs through the rearrangement of histones in order to expose or sequester genes, because these processes have the ability to render entire regions of a chromosome inaccessible such as what occurs in imprinting.
Histone rearrangement is facilitated by [post\-translational modifications](/wiki/Posttranslational_modification "Posttranslational modification") to the tails of the core histones. A wide variety of modifications can be made by enzymes such as the [histone acetyltransferases (HATs)](/wiki/Histone_acetyltransferases "Histone acetyltransferases"), [histone methyltransferases (HMTs)](/wiki/Histone_methyltransferase "Histone methyltransferase"), and [histone deacetylases (HDACs)](/wiki/Histone_deacetylase "Histone deacetylase"), among others. These enzymes can add or remove covalent modifications such as methyl groups, acetyl groups, phosphates, and ubiquitin. Histone modifications serve to recruit other proteins which can either increase the compaction of the chromatin and sequester promoter elements, or to increase the spacing between histones and allow the association of transcription factors or polymerase on open DNA.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Calo E, Wysocka J \| title \= Modification of enhancer chromatin: what, how, and why? \| journal \= Mol. Cell \| volume \= 49 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 825–37 \| date \= March 2013 \| pmid \= 23473601 \| pmc \= 3857148 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.molcel.2013\.01\.038 }} For example, H3K27 trimethylation by the [polycomb complex PRC2](/wiki/PRC2 "PRC2") causes chromosomal compaction and gene silencing.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= de Napoles M, Mermoud JE, Wakao R, Tang YA, Endoh M, Appanah R, Nesterova TB, Silva J, Otte AP, Vidal M, Koseki H, Brockdorff N \| title \= Polycomb group proteins Ring1A/B link ubiquitylation of histone H2A to heritable gene silencing and X inactivation \| journal \= Dev. Cell \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 663–76 \| date \= November 2004 \| pmid \= 15525528 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.devcel.2004\.10\.005 \| doi\-access \= free }} These histone modifications may be created by the cell, or inherited in an [epigenetic](/wiki/Epigenetics%23Mechanisms "Epigenetics#Mechanisms") fashion from a parent.
### At the level of cytosine methylation
[thumb\|300px\|DNA methylation is the addition of a [methyl](/wiki/Methyl "Methyl") group to the DNA that happens at [cytosine](/wiki/Cytosine "Cytosine"). The image shows a cytosine single ring base and a methyl group added on to the 5 carbon. In mammals, DNA methylation occurs almost exclusively at a cytosine that is followed by a [guanine](/wiki/Guanine "Guanine").](/wiki/File:DNA_methylation.svg "DNA methylation.svg")
Transcription regulation at about 60% of [promoters](/wiki/Promoter_%28genetics%29 "Promoter (genetics)") is controlled by methylation of cytosines within CpG dinucleotides (where 5’ cytosine is followed by 3’ guanine or [CpG sites](/wiki/CpG_sites "CpG sites")). [5\-methylcytosine](/wiki/5-methylcytosine "5-methylcytosine") (5\-mC) is a [methylated](/wiki/Methylation "Methylation") form of the [DNA](/wiki/DNA "DNA") base [cytosine](/wiki/Cytosine "Cytosine") (see Figure). 5\-mC is an [epigenetic](/wiki/Epigenetics "Epigenetics") marker found predominantly within CpG sites. About 28 million CpG dinucleotides occur in the human genome.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Lövkvist C, Dodd IB, Sneppen K, Haerter JO \|title\=DNA methylation in human epigenomes depends on local topology of CpG sites \|journal\=Nucleic Acids Res \|volume\=44 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=5123–32 \|date\=June 2016 \|pmid\=26932361 \|pmc\=4914085 \|doi\=10\.1093/nar/gkw124 \|url\=}} In most tissues of mammals, on average, 70% to 80% of CpG cytosines are methylated (forming 5\-methylCpG or 5\-mCpG).{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Jabbari K, Bernardi G \|title\=Cytosine methylation and CpG, TpG (CpA) and TpA frequencies \|journal\=Gene \|volume\=333 \|issue\= \|pages\=143–9 \|date\=May 2004 \|pmid\=15177689 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.gene.2004\.02\.043 \|url\=}} Methylated cytosines within 5’cytosine\-guanine 3’ sequences often occur in groups, called [CpG islands](/wiki/CpG_site%23CpG_islands "CpG site#CpG islands"). About 60% of [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28genetics%29 "Promoter (genetics)") sequences have a CpG island while only about 6% of [enhancer](/wiki/Enhancer_%28genetics%29 "Enhancer (genetics)") sequences have a CpG island.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Steinhaus R, Gonzalez T, Seelow D, Robinson PN \|title\=Pervasive and CpG\-dependent promoter\-like characteristics of transcribed enhancers \|journal\=Nucleic Acids Res \|volume\=48 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=5306–5317 \|date\=June 2020 \|pmid\=32338759 \|pmc\=7261191 \|doi\=10\.1093/nar/gkaa223 \|url\=}} CpG islands constitute regulatory sequences, since if CpG islands are methylated in the promoter of a gene this can reduce or silence gene transcription.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Bird A \|title\=DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory \|journal\=Genes Dev \|volume\=16 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=6–21 \|date\=January 2002 \|pmid\=11782440 \|doi\=10\.1101/gad.947102 \|url\=\|doi\-access\=free }}
DNA methylation regulates gene transcription through interaction with [methyl binding domain (MBD) proteins](/wiki/Methyl-CpG-binding_domain "Methyl-CpG-binding domain"), such as [MeCP2](/wiki/MeCP2 "MeCP2"), [MBD1](/wiki/MBD1 "MBD1") and [MBD2](/wiki/Methyl-CpG-binding_domain_protein_2 "Methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 2"). These MBD proteins bind most strongly to highly methylated [CpG islands](/wiki/CpG_site%23CpG_islands "CpG site#CpG islands").{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Du Q, Luu PL, Stirzaker C, Clark SJ \|title\=Methyl\-CpG\-binding domain proteins: readers of the epigenome \|journal\=Epigenomics \|volume\=7 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=1051–73 \|date\=2015 \|pmid\=25927341 \|doi\=10\.2217/epi.15\.39 \|url\=\|doi\-access\=free }} These MBD proteins have both a methyl\-CpG\-binding domain as well as a transcription repression domain. They bind to methylated DNA and guide or direct protein complexes with chromatin remodeling and/or histone modifying activity to methylated CpG islands. MBD proteins generally repress local chromatin such as by catalyzing the introduction of repressive histone marks, or creating an overall repressive chromatin environment through nucleosome remodeling and chromatin reorganization.
[Transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factors "Transcription factors") are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a gene. The binding sequence for a transcription factor in DNA is usually about 10 or 11 nucleotides long. As summarized in 2009, Vaquerizas et al. indicated there are approximately 1,400 different transcription factors encoded in the human genome by genes that constitute about 6% of all human protein encoding genes.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Vaquerizas JM, Kummerfeld SK, Teichmann SA, Luscombe NM \|title\=A census of human transcription factors: function, expression and evolution \|journal\=Nat. Rev. Genet. \|volume\=10 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=252–63 \|date\=April 2009 \|pmid\=19274049 \|doi\=10\.1038/nrg2538 \|s2cid\=3207586 }} About 94% of transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) that are associated with signal\-responsive genes occur in enhancers while only about 6% of such TFBSs occur in promoters.
[EGR1](/wiki/EGR1 "EGR1") protein is a particular transcription factor that is important for regulation of methylation of CpG islands. An [EGR1](/wiki/EGR1 "EGR1") transcription factor binding site is frequently located in enhancer or promoter sequences.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Sun Z, Xu X, He J, Murray A, Sun MA, Wei X, Wang X, McCoig E, Xie E, Jiang X, Li L, Zhu J, Chen J, Morozov A, Pickrell AM, Theus MH, Xie H \|title\=EGR1 recruits TET1 to shape the brain methylome during development and upon neuronal activity \|journal\=Nat Commun \|volume\=10 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=3892 \|date\=August 2019 \|pmid\=31467272 \|pmc\=6715719 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41467\-019\-11905\-3 \|bibcode\=2019NatCo..10\.3892S \|url\=}} There are about 12,000 binding sites for EGR1 in the mammalian genome and about half of EGR1 binding sites are located in promoters and half in enhancers. The binding of EGR1 to its target DNA binding site is insensitive to cytosine methylation in the DNA.
While only small amounts of EGR1 transcription factor protein are detectable in cells that are un\-stimulated, translation of the *EGR1* gene into protein at one hour after stimulation is drastically elevated.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Kubosaki A, Tomaru Y, Tagami M, Arner E, Miura H, Suzuki T, Suzuki M, Suzuki H, Hayashizaki Y \|title\=Genome\-wide investigation of in vivo EGR\-1 binding sites in monocytic differentiation \|journal\=Genome Biol \|volume\=10 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=R41 \|date\=2009 \|pmid\=19374776 \|pmc\=2688932 \|doi\=10\.1186/gb\-2009\-10\-4\-r41 \|url\= \|doi\-access\=free }} Expression of EGR1 transcription factor proteins, in various types of cells, can be stimulated by growth factors, neurotransmitters, hormones, stress and injury. In the brain, when neurons are activated, EGR1 proteins are up\-regulated and they bind to (recruit) the pre\-existing [TET1](/wiki/TET_enzymes "TET enzymes") enzymes which are highly expressed in neurons. [TET enzymes](/wiki/TET_enzymes "TET enzymes") can catalyse demethylation of 5\-methylcytosine. When EGR1 transcription factors bring TET1 enzymes to EGR1 binding sites in promoters, the TET enzymes can [demethylate](/wiki/DNA_demethylation "DNA demethylation") the methylated CpG islands at those promoters. Upon demethylation, these promoters can then initiate transcription of their target genes. Hundreds of genes in neurons are differentially expressed after neuron activation through EGR1 recruitment of TET1 to methylated regulatory sequences in their promoters.
The methylation of promoters is also altered in response to signals. The three mammalian [DNA methyltransferasess](/wiki/DNA_methyltransferase%23Mammalian "DNA methyltransferase#Mammalian") (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) catalyze the addition of methyl groups to cytosines in DNA. While DNMT1 is a “maintenance” methyltransferase, DNMT3A and DNMT3B can carry out new methylations. There are also two [splice](/wiki/Alternative_splicing "Alternative splicing") [protein isoforms](/wiki/Protein_isoform "Protein isoform") produced from the *DNMT3A* gene: DNA methyltransferase proteins DNMT3A1 and DNMT3A2\.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Bayraktar G, Kreutz MR \|title\=Neuronal DNA Methyltransferases: Epigenetic Mediators between Synaptic Activity and Gene Expression? \|journal\=Neuroscientist \|volume\=24 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=171–185 \|date\=April 2018 \|pmid\=28513272 \|pmc\=5846851 \|doi\=10\.1177/1073858417707457 \|url\=}}
The splice isoform DNMT3A2 behaves like the product of a classical immediate\-early gene and, for instance, it is robustly and transiently produced after neuronal activation.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Oliveira AM, Hemstedt TJ, Bading H \|title\=Rescue of aging\-associated decline in Dnmt3a2 expression restores cognitive abilities \|journal\=Nat Neurosci \|volume\=15 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=1111–3 \|date\=July 2012 \|pmid\=22751036 \|doi\=10\.1038/nn.3151 \|s2cid\=10590208 \|url\=}} Where the DNA methyltransferase isoform DNMT3A2 binds and adds methyl groups to cytosines appears to be determined by histone post translational modifications.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Dhayalan A, Rajavelu A, Rathert P, Tamas R, Jurkowska RZ, Ragozin S, Jeltsch A \|title\=The Dnmt3a PWWP domain reads histone 3 lysine 36 trimethylation and guides DNA methylation \|journal\=J Biol Chem \|volume\=285 \|issue\=34 \|pages\=26114–20 \|date\=August 2010 \|pmid\=20547484 \|pmc\=2924014 \|doi\=10\.1074/jbc.M109\.089433 \|url\=\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Manzo M, Wirz J, Ambrosi C, Villaseñor R, Roschitzki B, Baubec T \|title\=Isoform\-specific localization of DNMT3A regulates DNA methylation fidelity at bivalent CpG islands \|journal\=EMBO J \|volume\=36 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=3421–3434 \|date\=December 2017 \|pmid\=29074627 \|pmc\=5709737 \|doi\=10\.15252/embj.201797038 \|url\=}}{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Dukatz M, Holzer K, Choudalakis M, Emperle M, Lungu C, Bashtrykov P, Jeltsch A \|title\=H3K36me2/3 Binding and DNA Binding of the DNA Methyltransferase DNMT3A PWWP Domain Both Contribute to its Chromatin Interaction \|journal\=J Mol Biol \|volume\=431 \|issue\=24 \|pages\=5063–5074 \|date\=December 2019 \|pmid\=31634469 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jmb.2019\.09\.006 \|s2cid\=204832601 \|url\=}}
On the other hand, neural activation causes degradation of DNMT3A1 accompanied by reduced methylation of at least one evaluated targeted promoter.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Bayraktar G, Yuanxiang P, Confettura AD, Gomes GM, Raza SA, Stork O, Tajima S, Suetake I, Karpova A, Yildirim F, Kreutz MR \|title\=Synaptic control of DNA methylation involves activity\-dependent degradation of DNMT3A1 in the nucleus \|journal\=Neuropsychopharmacology \|volume\=45 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=2120–2130 \|date\=November 2020 \|pmid\=32726795 \|pmc\=7547096 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41386\-020\-0780\-2 \|url\=}}
### Through transcription factors and enhancers
#### Transcription factors
[Transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factors "Transcription factors") are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a given gene. There are approximately 1,400 transcription factors in the human genome and they constitute about 6% of all human protein coding genes. The power of transcription factors resides in their ability to activate and/or repress wide repertoires of downstream target genes. The fact that these transcription factors work in a combinatorial fashion means that only a small subset of an organism's genome encodes transcription factors.
Transcription factors function through a wide variety of mechanisms. In one mechanism, CpG methylation influences binding of most transcription factors to DNA—in some cases negatively and in others positively.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Yin Y, Morgunova E, Jolma A, Kaasinen E, Sahu B, Khund\-Sayeed S, Das PK, Kivioja T, Dave K, Zhong F, Nitta KR, Taipale M, Popov A, Ginno PA, Domcke S, Yan J, Schübeler D, Vinson C, Taipale J \|title\=Impact of cytosine methylation on DNA binding specificities of human transcription factors \|journal\=Science \|volume\=356 \|issue\=6337 \|pages\= eaaj2239\|date\=May 2017 \|pmid\=28473536 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.aaj2239 \|s2cid\=206653898 \|pmc\=8009048 }} In addition, often they are at the end of a [signal transduction](/wiki/Signal_transduction "Signal transduction") pathway that functions to change something about the factor, like its subcellular localization or its activity. Post\-translational modifications to transcription factors located in the [cytosol](/wiki/Cytosol "Cytosol") can cause them to translocate to the [nucleus](/wiki/Cell_nucleus "Cell nucleus") where they can interact with their corresponding enhancers. Other transcription factors are already in the nucleus, and are modified to enable the interaction with partner transcription factors. Some post\-translational modifications known to regulate the functional state of transcription factors are [phosphorylation](/wiki/Phosphorylation "Phosphorylation"), [acetylation](/wiki/Acetylation "Acetylation"), [SUMOylation](/wiki/SUMOylation "SUMOylation") and [ubiquitylation](/wiki/Ubiquitin "Ubiquitin").
Transcription factors can be divided in two main categories: [activators](/wiki/Activator_%28genetics%29 "Activator (genetics)") and [repressors](/wiki/Repressor_%28genetics%29 "Repressor (genetics)"). While activators can interact directly or indirectly with the core machinery of transcription through enhancer binding, repressors predominantly recruit co\-repressor complexes leading to transcriptional repression by chromatin condensation of enhancer regions. It may also happen that a repressor may function by allosteric competition against a determined activator to repress gene expression: overlapping DNA\-binding motifs for both activators and repressors induce a physical competition to occupy the site of binding. If the repressor has a higher affinity for its motif than the activator, transcription would be effectively blocked in the presence of the repressor.
Tight regulatory control is achieved by the highly dynamic nature of transcription factors. Again, many different mechanisms exist to control whether a transcription factor is active. These mechanisms include control over protein localization or control over whether the protein can bind DNA.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Whiteside ST, Goodbourn S \| title \= Signal transduction and nuclear targeting: regulation of transcription factor activity by subcellular localisation \| journal \= J. Cell Sci. \| volume \= 104 ( Pt 4\) \| pages \= 949–55 \| date \= April 1993 \| issue \= 4 \| doi \= 10\.1242/jcs.104\.4\.949 \| pmid \= 8314906 }} An example of this is the protein [HSF1](/wiki/HSF1 "HSF1"), which remains bound to [Hsp70](/wiki/Hsp70 "Hsp70") in the cytosol and is only translocated into the nucleus upon cellular stress such as heat shock. Thus the genes under the control of this transcription factor will remain untranscribed unless the cell is subjected to stress.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Vihervaara A, Sistonen L \| title \= HSF1 at a glance \| journal \= J. Cell Sci. \| volume \= 127 \| issue \= Pt 2 \| pages \= 261–6 \| date \= January 2014 \| pmid \= 24421309 \| doi \= 10\.1242/jcs.132605 \| doi\-access \= free }}
#### Enhancers
Enhancers or [cis\-regulatory modules/elements](/wiki/Cis-regulatory_element "Cis-regulatory element") (CRM/CRE) are [non\-coding DNA](/wiki/Non-coding_DNA "Non-coding DNA") sequences containing multiple activator and repressor binding sites. Enhancers range from 200 bp to 1 kb in length and can be either proximal, 5’ upstream to the promoter or within the first intron of the regulated gene, or distal, in introns of neighboring genes or intergenic regions far away from the locus. Through DNA looping, active enhancers contact the promoter dependently of the core DNA binding motif promoter specificity.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Levine M \| title \= Transcriptional enhancers in animal development and evolution \| journal \= Curr. Biol. \| volume \= 20 \| issue \= 17 \| pages \= R754–63 \| date \= September 2010 \| pmid \= 20833320 \| pmc \= 4280268 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cub.2010\.06\.070 }} Promoter\-enhancer dichotomy provides the basis for the functional interaction between transcription factors and transcriptional core machinery to trigger RNA Pol II escape from the promoter. Whereas one could think that there is a 1:1 enhancer\-promoter ratio, studies of the human genome predict that an active promoter interacts with 4 to 5 enhancers. Similarly, enhancers can regulate more than one gene without linkage restriction and are said to “skip” neighboring genes to regulate more distant ones. Even though infrequent, transcriptional regulation can involve elements located in a chromosome different from one where the promoter resides. Proximal enhancers or promoters of neighboring genes can serve as platforms to recruit more distal elements.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= van Arensbergen J, van Steensel B, Bussemaker HJ \| title \= In search of the determinants of enhancer\-promoter interaction specificity \| journal \= Trends Cell Biol. \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 695–702 \| date \= November 2014 \| pmid \= 25160912 \| pmc \= 4252644 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.tcb.2014\.07\.004 }}
#### Enhancer activation and implementation
{{cleanup section\|reason\=Duplication with \[\[Enhancer (genetics)]]. Maybe {{tlx\|main}} will do??\|date\=September 2021}}
[thumb\|left\|500px\| **Enhance function in regulation of transcription in mammals**. An active enhancer regulatory sequence of DNA is enabled to interact with the [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28genetics%29 "Promoter (genetics)") DNA regulatory sequence of its target [gene](/wiki/Gene "Gene") by formation of a chromosome loop. This can initiate [messenger RNA](/wiki/Messenger_RNA "Messenger RNA") (mRNA) synthesis by [RNA polymerase II](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_II "RNA polymerase II") (RNAP II) bound to the promoter at the [transcription start site](/wiki/Transcription_%28biology%29 "Transcription (biology)") of the gene. The loop is stabilized by one architectural protein anchored to the enhancer and one anchored to the promoter and these proteins are joined to form a dimer (red zigzags). Specific regulatory [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factor "Transcription factor") bind to DNA sequence motifs on the enhancer. General transcription factors bind to the promoter. When a transcription factor is activated by a signal (here indicated as [phosphorylation](/wiki/Phosphorylation "Phosphorylation") shown by a small red star on a transcription factor on the enhancer) the enhancer is activated and can now activate its target promoter. The active enhancer is transcribed on each strand of DNA in opposite directions by bound RNAP IIs. Mediator (a complex consisting of about 26 proteins in an interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from the enhancer DNA\-bound transcription factors to the promoter.](/wiki/File:Regulation_of_transcription_in_mammals.jpg "Regulation of transcription in mammals.jpg")
Up\-regulated expression of genes in mammals can be initiated when signals are transmitted to the promoters associated with the genes. [Cis\-regulatory DNA sequences](/wiki/Cis-regulatory_element "Cis-regulatory element") that are located in DNA regions distant from the promoters of genes can have very large effects on gene expression, with some genes undergoing up to 100\-fold increased expression due to such a cis\-regulatory sequence.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Beagan JA, Pastuzyn ED, Fernandez LR, Guo MH, Feng K, Titus KR, Chandrashekar H, Shepherd JD, Phillips\-Cremins JE \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Three\-dimensional genome restructuring across timescales of activity\-induced neuronal gene expression \| journal \= Nature Neuroscience \| volume \= 23 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 707–717 \| date \= June 2020 \| pmid \= 32451484 \| pmc \= 7558717 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41593\-020\-0634\-6 }} These cis\-regulatory sequences include [enhancers](/wiki/Enhancer_%28genetics%29 "Enhancer (genetics)"), [silencers](/wiki/Silencer_%28genetics%29 "Silencer (genetics)"), [insulators](/wiki/Insulator_%28genetics%29 "Insulator (genetics)") and tethering elements.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Verheul TC, van Hijfte L, Perenthaler E, Barakat TS \| title \= The Why of YY1: Mechanisms of Transcriptional Regulation by Yin Yang 1 \| journal \= Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology \| volume \= 8 \| issue \= \| pages \= 592164 \| date \= 2020 \| pmid \= 33102493 \| pmc \= 7554316 \| doi \= 10\.3389/fcell.2020\.592164 \| doi\-access \= free }} Among this constellation of sequences, enhancers and their associated [transcription factor proteins](/wiki/Transcription_factors "Transcription factors") have a leading role in the regulation of gene expression.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Spitz F, Furlong EE \| title \= Transcription factors: from enhancer binding to developmental control \| journal \= Nature Reviews. Genetics \| volume \= 13 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 613–26 \| date \= September 2012 \| pmid \= 22868264 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nrg3207 \| s2cid \= 205485256 }}
[Enhancers](/wiki/Enhancer_%28genetics%29 "Enhancer (genetics)") are sequences of the genome that are major gene\-regulatory elements. Enhancers control cell\-type\-specific gene expression programs, most often by looping through long distances to come in physical proximity with the promoters of their target genes.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Schoenfelder S, Fraser P \| title \= Long\-range enhancer\-promoter contacts in gene expression control \| journal \= Nature Reviews. Genetics \| volume \= 20 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 437–455 \| date \= August 2019 \| pmid \= 31086298 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41576\-019\-0128\-0 \| s2cid \= 152283312 }} In a study of brain cortical neurons, 24,937 loops were found, bringing enhancers to promoters. Multiple enhancers, each often at tens or hundred of thousands of nucleotides distant from their target genes, loop to their target gene promoters and coordinate with each other to control expression of their common target gene.
The schematic illustration in this section shows an enhancer looping around to come into close physical proximity with the promoter of a target gene. The loop is stabilized by a dimer of a connector protein (e.g. dimer of [CTCF](/wiki/CTCF "CTCF") or [YY1](/wiki/YY1 "YY1")), with one member of the dimer anchored to its binding motif on the enhancer and the other member anchored to its binding motif on the promoter (represented by the red zigzags in the illustration).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Weintraub AS, Li CH, Zamudio AV, Sigova AA, Hannett NM, Day DS, Abraham BJ, Cohen MA, Nabet B, Buckley DL, Guo YE, Hnisz D, Jaenisch R, Bradner JE, Gray NS, Young RA \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= YY1 Is a Structural Regulator of Enhancer\-Promoter Loops \| journal \= Cell \| volume \= 171 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 1573–1588\.e28 \| date \= December 2017 \| pmid \= 29224777 \| pmc \= 5785279 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cell.2017\.11\.008 }} Several cell function specific transcription factor proteins (in 2018 Lambert et al. indicated there were about 1,600 transcription factors in a human cell{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lambert SA, Jolma A, Campitelli LF, Das PK, Yin Y, Albu M, Chen X, Taipale J, Hughes TR, Weirauch MT \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= The Human Transcription Factors \| journal \= Cell \| volume \= 172 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 650–665 \| date \= February 2018 \| pmid \= 29425488 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cell.2018\.01\.029 \| doi\-access \= free }}) generally bind to specific motifs on an enhancer{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Grossman SR, Engreitz J, Ray JP, Nguyen TH, Hacohen N, Lander ES \| title \= Positional specificity of different transcription factor classes within enhancers \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 115 \| issue \= 30 \| pages \= E7222–E7230 \| date \= July 2018 \| pmid \= 29987030 \| pmc \= 6065035 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.1804663115 \| bibcode \= 2018PNAS..115E7222G \| doi\-access \= free }} and a small combination of these enhancer\-bound transcription factors, when brought close to a promoter by a DNA loop, govern the level of transcription of the target gene. [Mediator (coactivator)](/wiki/Mediator_%28coactivator%29 "Mediator (coactivator)") (a complex usually consisting of about 26 proteins in an interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from enhancer DNA\-bound transcription factors directly to the RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) enzyme bound to the promoter.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Allen BL, Taatjes DJ \| title \= The Mediator complex: a central integrator of transcription \| journal \= Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 155–66 \| date \= March 2015 \| pmid \= 25693131 \| pmc \= 4963239 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nrm3951 }}
Enhancers, when active, are generally transcribed from both strands of DNA with RNA polymerases acting in two different directions, producing two eRNAs as illustrated in the Figure.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mikhaylichenko O, Bondarenko V, Harnett D, Schor IE, Males M, Viales RR, Furlong EE \| title \= The degree of enhancer or promoter activity is reflected by the levels and directionality of eRNA transcription \| journal \= Genes \& Development \| volume \= 32 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 42–57 \| date \= January 2018 \| pmid \= 29378788 \| pmc \= 5828394 \| doi \= 10\.1101/gad.308619\.117 }} An inactive enhancer may be bound by an inactive transcription factor. Phosphorylation of the transcription factor may activate it and that activated transcription factor may then activate the enhancer to which it is bound (see small red star representing phosphorylation of a transcription factor bound to an enhancer in the illustration).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Li QJ, Yang SH, Maeda Y, Sladek FM, Sharrocks AD, Martins\-Green M \| title \= MAP kinase phosphorylation\-dependent activation of Elk\-1 leads to activation of the co\-activator p300 \| journal \= The EMBO Journal \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 281–91 \| date \= January 2003 \| pmid \= 12514134 \| pmc \= 140103 \| doi \= 10\.1093/emboj/cdg028 }} An activated enhancer begins transcription of its RNA before activating a promoter to initiate transcription of messenger RNA from its target gene.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Carullo NV, Phillips Iii RA, Simon RC, Soto SA, Hinds JE, Salisbury AJ, Revanna JS, Bunner KD, Ianov L, Sultan FA, Savell KE, Gersbach CA, Day JJ \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Enhancer RNAs predict enhancer\-gene regulatory links and are critical for enhancer function in neuronal systems \| journal \= Nucleic Acids Research \| volume \= 48 \| issue \= 17 \| pages \= 9550–9570 \| date \= September 2020 \| pmid \= 32810208 \| pmc \= 7515708 \| doi \= 10\.1093/nar/gkaa671 }}
{{clear}}
#### Regulatory landscape
Transcriptional initiation, termination and regulation are mediated by “DNA looping” which brings together promoters, enhancers, transcription factors and RNA processing factors to accurately regulate gene expression.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mercer TR, Mattick JS \| title \= Understanding the regulatory and transcriptional complexity of the genome through structure \| journal \= Genome Res. \| volume \= 23 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 1081–8 \| date \= July 2013 \| pmid \= 23817049 \| pmc \= 3698501 \| doi \= 10\.1101/gr.156612\.113 }} Chromosome conformation capture (3C) and more recently Hi\-C techniques provided evidence that active chromatin regions are “compacted” in nuclear domains or bodies where transcriptional regulation is enhanced.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Dekker J, Marti\-Renom MA, Mirny LA \| title \= Exploring the three\-dimensional organization of genomes: interpreting chromatin interaction data \| journal \= Nat. Rev. Genet. \| volume \= 14 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 390–403 \| date \= June 2013 \| pmid \= 23657480 \| pmc \= 3874835 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nrg3454 }} The configuration of the genome is essential for enhancer\-promoter proximity. Cell\-fate decisions are mediated upon highly dynamic genomic reorganizations at interphase to modularly switch on or off entire gene regulatory networks through short to long range chromatin rearrangements.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Gómez\-Díaz E, Corces VG \| title \= Architectural proteins: regulators of 3D genome organization in cell fate \| journal \= Trends Cell Biol. \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 703–11 \| date \= November 2014 \| pmid \= 25218583 \| pmc \= 4254322 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.tcb.2014\.08\.003 }} Related studies demonstrate that metazoan genomes are partitioned in structural and functional units around a megabase long called [Topological association domains](/wiki/Topological_association_domain "Topological association domain") (TADs) containing dozens of genes regulated by hundreds of enhancers distributed within large genomic regions containing only non\-coding sequences. The function of TADs is to regroup enhancers and promoters interacting together within a single large functional domain instead of having them spread in different TADs.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Smallwood A, Ren B \| title \= Genome organization and long\-range regulation of gene expression by enhancers \| journal \= Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 387–94 \| date \= June 2013 \| pmid \= 23465541 \| pmc \= 4180870 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.ceb.2013\.02\.005 }} However, studies of mouse development point out that two adjacent TADs may regulate the same gene cluster. The most relevant study on limb evolution shows that the TAD at the 5’ of the HoxD gene cluster in tetrapod genomes drives its expression in the distal limb bud embryos, giving rise to the hand, while the one located at 3’ side does it in the proximal limb bud, giving rise to the arm.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Woltering JM, Noordermeer D, Leleu M, Duboule D \| title \= Conservation and divergence of regulatory strategies at Hox Loci and the origin of tetrapod digits \| journal \= PLOS Biol. \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= e1001773 \| date \= January 2014 \| pmid \= 24465181 \| pmc \= 3897358 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pbio.1001773 \| doi\-access \= free }} Still, it is not known whether TADs are an adaptive strategy to enhance regulatory interactions or an effect of the constrains on these same interactions.
TAD boundaries are often composed by housekeeping genes, tRNAs, other highly expressed sequences and Short Interspersed Elements (SINE). While these genes may take advantage of their border position to be ubiquitously expressed, they are not directly linked with TAD edge formation. The specific molecules identified at boundaries of TADs are called insulators or architectural proteins because they not only block enhancer leaky expression but also ensure an accurate compartmentalization of cis\-regulatory inputs to the targeted promoter. These [insulators](/wiki/Insulator_%28genetics%29 "Insulator (genetics)") are DNA\-binding proteins like CTCF and TFIIIC that help recruiting structural partners such as cohesins and condensins. The localization and binding of architectural proteins to their corresponding binding sites is regulated by post\-translational modifications.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wang H, Maurano MT, Qu H, Varley KE, Gertz J, Pauli F, Lee K, Canfield T, Weaver M, Sandstrom R, Thurman RE, Kaul R, Myers RM, Stamatoyannopoulos JA \|author\-link14\=John Stamatoyannopoulos \| title \= Widespread plasticity in CTCF occupancy linked to DNA methylation \| journal \= Genome Res. \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 1680–8 \| date \= September 2012 \| pmid \= 22955980 \| pmc \= 3431485 \| doi \= 10\.1101/gr.136101\.111 }} DNA binding motifs recognized by architectural proteins are either of high occupancy and at around a megabase of each other or of low occupancy and inside TADs. High occupancy sites are usually conserved and static while intra\-TADs sites are dynamic according to the state of the cell therefore TADs themselves are compartmentalized in subdomains that can be called subTADs from few kb up to a TAD long (19\). When architectural binding sites are at less than 100 kb from each other, Mediator proteins are the architectural proteins cooperate with cohesin. For subTADs larger than 100 kb and TAD boundaries, CTCF is the typical insulator found to interact with cohesion.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Phillips\-Cremins JE, Sauria ME, Sanyal A, Gerasimova TI, Lajoie BR, Bell JS, Ong CT, Hookway TA, Guo C, Sun Y, Bland MJ, Wagstaff W, Dalton S, McDevitt TC, Sen R, Dekker J, Taylor J, Corces VG\|display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Architectural protein subclasses shape 3D organization of genomes during lineage commitment \| journal \= Cell \| volume \= 153 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 1281–95 \| date \= June 2013 \| pmid \= 23706625 \| pmc \= 3712340 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cell.2013\.04\.053 }}
### Of the pre\-initiation complex and promoter escape
In eukaryotes, [ribosomal rRNA](/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA "Ribosomal RNA") and the [tRNAs](/wiki/Transfer_RNA "Transfer RNA") involved in translation are controlled by [RNA polymerase I](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_I "RNA polymerase I") (Pol I) and [RNA polymerase III](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_III "RNA polymerase III") (Pol III) . [RNA Polymerase II](/wiki/RNA_Polymerase_II "RNA Polymerase II") (Pol II) is responsible for the production of [messenger RNA](/wiki/Messenger_RNA "Messenger RNA") (mRNA) within the cell. Particularly for Pol II, much of the regulatory checkpoints in the transcription process occur in the assembly and escape of the [pre\-initiation complex](/wiki/Transcription_preinitiation_complex "Transcription preinitiation complex"). A gene\-specific combination of transcription factors will recruit [TFIID](/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_D "Transcription factor II D") and/or [TFIIA](/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_A "Transcription factor II A") to the core promoter, followed by the association of [TFIIB](/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_B "Transcription factor II B"), creating a stable complex onto which the rest of the [General Transcription Factors (GTFs)](/wiki/General_transcription_factors "General transcription factors") can assemble.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Thomas MC, Chiang CM \| title \= The general transcription machinery and general cofactors \| journal \= Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol. \| volume \= 41 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 105–78 \| date \= 2006 \| pmid \= 16858867 \| doi \= 10\.1080/10409230600648736 \| citeseerx \= 10\.1\.1\.376\.5724 \| s2cid \= 13073440 }} This complex is relatively stable, and can undergo multiple rounds of transcription initiation.{{cite book\|last1\=Voet\|first1\=Donald Voet, Judith G.\|title\=Biochemistry\|date\=2011\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons\|location\=Hoboken, NJ\|isbn\=978\-0470917459\|edition\=4th}}
After the binding of TFIIB and TFIID, Pol II the rest of the GTFs can assemble. This assembly is marked by the post\-translational modification (typically phosphorylation) of the C\-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II through a number of kinases.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Napolitano G, Lania L, Majello B \| title \= RNA polymerase II CTD modifications: how many tales from a single tail \| journal \= J. Cell. Physiol. \| volume \= 229 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 538–44 \| date \= May 2014 \| pmid \= 24122273 \| doi \= 10\.1002/jcp.24483 \| s2cid \= 44613555 }} The CTD is a large, unstructured domain extending from the [RbpI](/wiki/POLR2A "POLR2A") subunit of Pol II, and consists of many repeats of the heptad sequence YSPTSPS. [TFIIH](/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_H "Transcription factor II H"), the helicase that remains associated with Pol II throughout transcription, also contains a subunit with kinase activity which will phosphorylate the serines 5 in the heptad sequence. Similarly, both [CDK8](/wiki/CDK8 "CDK8") (a subunit of the massive multiprotein Mediator complex) and [CDK9](/wiki/CDK9 "CDK9") (a subunit of the [p\-TEFb](/wiki/P-TEFb "P-TEFb") elongation factor), have kinase activity towards other residues on the CTD.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Chapman RD, Conrad M, Eick D \| title \= Role of the mammalian RNA polymerase II C\-terminal domain (CTD) nonconsensus repeats in CTD stability and cell proliferation \| journal \= Mol. Cell. Biol. \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 17 \| pages \= 7665–74 \| date \= September 2005 \| pmid \= 16107713 \| pmc \= 1190292 \| doi \= 10\.1128/MCB.25\.17\.7665\-7674\.2005 }} These phosphorylation events promote the transcription process and serve as sites of recruitment for mRNA processing machinery. All three of these kinases respond to upstream signals, and failure to phosphorylate the CTD can lead to a stalled polymerase at the promoter.
|
[
"In eukaryotes\n-------------",
"[thumb\\|Schematic [karyogram](/wiki/Karyotype \"Karyotype\") of a [human](/wiki/Human \"Human\"), showing an overview of the [human genome](/wiki/Human_genome \"Human genome\") on [G banding](/wiki/G_banding \"G banding\"), which is a method that includes [Giemsa staining](/wiki/Giemsa_stain \"Giemsa stain\"), wherein the lighter staining regions are generally more [transcriptionally](/wiki/Transcription_%28biology%29 \"Transcription (biology)\") active, whereas darker regions are more inactive.{{further\\|Karyotype}}](/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png \"Human karyotype with bands and sub-bands.png\")\nThe added complexity of generating a eukaryotic cell carries with it an increase in the complexity of transcriptional regulation. Eukaryotes have three RNA polymerases, known as [Pol I](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_I \"RNA polymerase I\"), [Pol II](/wiki/RNA_Polymerase_II \"RNA Polymerase II\"), and [Pol III](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_III \"RNA polymerase III\"). Each polymerase has specific targets and activities, and is regulated by independent mechanisms. There are a number of additional mechanisms through which polymerase activity can be controlled. These mechanisms can be generally grouped into three main areas:\n* Control over polymerase access to the gene. This is perhaps the broadest of the three control mechanisms. This includes the functions of [histone](/wiki/Histone%23Function \"Histone#Function\") remodeling enzymes, transcription factors, enhancers and repressors, and many other complexes\n* Productive elongation of the RNA transcript. Once polymerase is bound to a promoter, it requires another set of factors to allow it to escape the promoter complex and begin successfully transcribing RNA.\n* Termination of the polymerase. A number of factors which have been found to control how and when termination occurs, which will dictate the fate of the RNA transcript.\nAll three of these systems work in concert to integrate signals from the cell and change the transcriptional program accordingly.",
"While in prokaryotic systems the basal transcription state can be thought of as nonrestrictive (that is, “on” in the absence of modifying factors), eukaryotes have a restrictive basal state which requires the recruitment of other factors in order to generate RNA transcripts. This difference is largely due to the compaction of the eukaryotic genome by winding DNA around histones to form higher order structures. This compaction makes the gene promoter inaccessible without the assistance of other factors in the nucleus, and thus chromatin structure is a common site of regulation. Similar to the sigma factors in prokaryotes, the general transcription factors (GTFs) are a set of factors in eukaryotes that are required for all transcription events. These factors are responsible for stabilizing binding interactions and opening the DNA helix to allow the RNA polymerase to access the template, but generally lack specificity for different promoter sites.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Struhl K \\| title \\= Fundamentally different logic of gene regulation in eukaryotes and prokaryotes \\| journal \\= Cell \\| volume \\= 98 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1–4 \\| date \\= July 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10412974 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/S0092\\-8674(00\\)80599\\-1 \\| s2cid \\= 12411218 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} A large part of gene regulation occurs through transcription factors that either recruit or inhibit the binding of the general transcription machinery and/or the polymerase. This can be accomplished through close interactions with core promoter elements, or through the long distance [enhancer](/wiki/Enhancer_%28genetics%29 \"Enhancer (genetics)\") elements.",
"Once a polymerase is successfully bound to a DNA template, it often requires the assistance of other proteins in order to leave the stable promoter complex and begin elongating the nascent RNA strand. This process is called promoter escape, and is another step at which regulatory elements can act to accelerate or slow the transcription process. Similarly, protein and nucleic acid factors can associate with the elongation complex and modulate the rate at which the polymerase moves along the DNA template.",
"### At the level of chromatin state",
"In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is highly compacted in order to be able to fit it into the nucleus. This is accomplished by winding the DNA around protein octamers called [histones](/wiki/Histones \"Histones\"), which has consequences for the physical accessibility of parts of the genome at any given time. Significant portions are silenced through histone modifications, and thus are inaccessible to the polymerases or their cofactors. The highest level of transcription regulation occurs through the rearrangement of histones in order to expose or sequester genes, because these processes have the ability to render entire regions of a chromosome inaccessible such as what occurs in imprinting.",
"Histone rearrangement is facilitated by [post\\-translational modifications](/wiki/Posttranslational_modification \"Posttranslational modification\") to the tails of the core histones. A wide variety of modifications can be made by enzymes such as the [histone acetyltransferases (HATs)](/wiki/Histone_acetyltransferases \"Histone acetyltransferases\"), [histone methyltransferases (HMTs)](/wiki/Histone_methyltransferase \"Histone methyltransferase\"), and [histone deacetylases (HDACs)](/wiki/Histone_deacetylase \"Histone deacetylase\"), among others. These enzymes can add or remove covalent modifications such as methyl groups, acetyl groups, phosphates, and ubiquitin. Histone modifications serve to recruit other proteins which can either increase the compaction of the chromatin and sequester promoter elements, or to increase the spacing between histones and allow the association of transcription factors or polymerase on open DNA.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Calo E, Wysocka J \\| title \\= Modification of enhancer chromatin: what, how, and why? \\| journal \\= Mol. Cell \\| volume \\= 49 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 825–37 \\| date \\= March 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23473601 \\| pmc \\= 3857148 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.molcel.2013\\.01\\.038 }} For example, H3K27 trimethylation by the [polycomb complex PRC2](/wiki/PRC2 \"PRC2\") causes chromosomal compaction and gene silencing.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= de Napoles M, Mermoud JE, Wakao R, Tang YA, Endoh M, Appanah R, Nesterova TB, Silva J, Otte AP, Vidal M, Koseki H, Brockdorff N \\| title \\= Polycomb group proteins Ring1A/B link ubiquitylation of histone H2A to heritable gene silencing and X inactivation \\| journal \\= Dev. Cell \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 663–76 \\| date \\= November 2004 \\| pmid \\= 15525528 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.devcel.2004\\.10\\.005 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} These histone modifications may be created by the cell, or inherited in an [epigenetic](/wiki/Epigenetics%23Mechanisms \"Epigenetics#Mechanisms\") fashion from a parent.",
"### At the level of cytosine methylation",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|DNA methylation is the addition of a [methyl](/wiki/Methyl \"Methyl\") group to the DNA that happens at [cytosine](/wiki/Cytosine \"Cytosine\"). The image shows a cytosine single ring base and a methyl group added on to the 5 carbon. In mammals, DNA methylation occurs almost exclusively at a cytosine that is followed by a [guanine](/wiki/Guanine \"Guanine\").](/wiki/File:DNA_methylation.svg \"DNA methylation.svg\")",
"Transcription regulation at about 60% of [promoters](/wiki/Promoter_%28genetics%29 \"Promoter (genetics)\") is controlled by methylation of cytosines within CpG dinucleotides (where 5’ cytosine is followed by 3’ guanine or [CpG sites](/wiki/CpG_sites \"CpG sites\")). [5\\-methylcytosine](/wiki/5-methylcytosine \"5-methylcytosine\") (5\\-mC) is a [methylated](/wiki/Methylation \"Methylation\") form of the [DNA](/wiki/DNA \"DNA\") base [cytosine](/wiki/Cytosine \"Cytosine\") (see Figure). 5\\-mC is an [epigenetic](/wiki/Epigenetics \"Epigenetics\") marker found predominantly within CpG sites. About 28 million CpG dinucleotides occur in the human genome.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Lövkvist C, Dodd IB, Sneppen K, Haerter JO \\|title\\=DNA methylation in human epigenomes depends on local topology of CpG sites \\|journal\\=Nucleic Acids Res \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=5123–32 \\|date\\=June 2016 \\|pmid\\=26932361 \\|pmc\\=4914085 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/nar/gkw124 \\|url\\=}} In most tissues of mammals, on average, 70% to 80% of CpG cytosines are methylated (forming 5\\-methylCpG or 5\\-mCpG).{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Jabbari K, Bernardi G \\|title\\=Cytosine methylation and CpG, TpG (CpA) and TpA frequencies \\|journal\\=Gene \\|volume\\=333 \\|issue\\= \\|pages\\=143–9 \\|date\\=May 2004 \\|pmid\\=15177689 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.gene.2004\\.02\\.043 \\|url\\=}} Methylated cytosines within 5’cytosine\\-guanine 3’ sequences often occur in groups, called [CpG islands](/wiki/CpG_site%23CpG_islands \"CpG site#CpG islands\"). About 60% of [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28genetics%29 \"Promoter (genetics)\") sequences have a CpG island while only about 6% of [enhancer](/wiki/Enhancer_%28genetics%29 \"Enhancer (genetics)\") sequences have a CpG island.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Steinhaus R, Gonzalez T, Seelow D, Robinson PN \\|title\\=Pervasive and CpG\\-dependent promoter\\-like characteristics of transcribed enhancers \\|journal\\=Nucleic Acids Res \\|volume\\=48 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=5306–5317 \\|date\\=June 2020 \\|pmid\\=32338759 \\|pmc\\=7261191 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/nar/gkaa223 \\|url\\=}} CpG islands constitute regulatory sequences, since if CpG islands are methylated in the promoter of a gene this can reduce or silence gene transcription.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Bird A \\|title\\=DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory \\|journal\\=Genes Dev \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=6–21 \\|date\\=January 2002 \\|pmid\\=11782440 \\|doi\\=10\\.1101/gad.947102 \\|url\\=\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"DNA methylation regulates gene transcription through interaction with [methyl binding domain (MBD) proteins](/wiki/Methyl-CpG-binding_domain \"Methyl-CpG-binding domain\"), such as [MeCP2](/wiki/MeCP2 \"MeCP2\"), [MBD1](/wiki/MBD1 \"MBD1\") and [MBD2](/wiki/Methyl-CpG-binding_domain_protein_2 \"Methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 2\"). These MBD proteins bind most strongly to highly methylated [CpG islands](/wiki/CpG_site%23CpG_islands \"CpG site#CpG islands\").{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Du Q, Luu PL, Stirzaker C, Clark SJ \\|title\\=Methyl\\-CpG\\-binding domain proteins: readers of the epigenome \\|journal\\=Epigenomics \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=1051–73 \\|date\\=2015 \\|pmid\\=25927341 \\|doi\\=10\\.2217/epi.15\\.39 \\|url\\=\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} These MBD proteins have both a methyl\\-CpG\\-binding domain as well as a transcription repression domain. They bind to methylated DNA and guide or direct protein complexes with chromatin remodeling and/or histone modifying activity to methylated CpG islands. MBD proteins generally repress local chromatin such as by catalyzing the introduction of repressive histone marks, or creating an overall repressive chromatin environment through nucleosome remodeling and chromatin reorganization.",
"[Transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factors \"Transcription factors\") are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a gene. The binding sequence for a transcription factor in DNA is usually about 10 or 11 nucleotides long. As summarized in 2009, Vaquerizas et al. indicated there are approximately 1,400 different transcription factors encoded in the human genome by genes that constitute about 6% of all human protein encoding genes.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Vaquerizas JM, Kummerfeld SK, Teichmann SA, Luscombe NM \\|title\\=A census of human transcription factors: function, expression and evolution \\|journal\\=Nat. Rev. Genet. \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=252–63 \\|date\\=April 2009 \\|pmid\\=19274049 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nrg2538 \\|s2cid\\=3207586 }} About 94% of transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) that are associated with signal\\-responsive genes occur in enhancers while only about 6% of such TFBSs occur in promoters.",
"[EGR1](/wiki/EGR1 \"EGR1\") protein is a particular transcription factor that is important for regulation of methylation of CpG islands. An [EGR1](/wiki/EGR1 \"EGR1\") transcription factor binding site is frequently located in enhancer or promoter sequences.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Sun Z, Xu X, He J, Murray A, Sun MA, Wei X, Wang X, McCoig E, Xie E, Jiang X, Li L, Zhu J, Chen J, Morozov A, Pickrell AM, Theus MH, Xie H \\|title\\=EGR1 recruits TET1 to shape the brain methylome during development and upon neuronal activity \\|journal\\=Nat Commun \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=3892 \\|date\\=August 2019 \\|pmid\\=31467272 \\|pmc\\=6715719 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41467\\-019\\-11905\\-3 \\|bibcode\\=2019NatCo..10\\.3892S \\|url\\=}} There are about 12,000 binding sites for EGR1 in the mammalian genome and about half of EGR1 binding sites are located in promoters and half in enhancers. The binding of EGR1 to its target DNA binding site is insensitive to cytosine methylation in the DNA.",
"While only small amounts of EGR1 transcription factor protein are detectable in cells that are un\\-stimulated, translation of the *EGR1* gene into protein at one hour after stimulation is drastically elevated.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Kubosaki A, Tomaru Y, Tagami M, Arner E, Miura H, Suzuki T, Suzuki M, Suzuki H, Hayashizaki Y \\|title\\=Genome\\-wide investigation of in vivo EGR\\-1 binding sites in monocytic differentiation \\|journal\\=Genome Biol \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=R41 \\|date\\=2009 \\|pmid\\=19374776 \\|pmc\\=2688932 \\|doi\\=10\\.1186/gb\\-2009\\-10\\-4\\-r41 \\|url\\= \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Expression of EGR1 transcription factor proteins, in various types of cells, can be stimulated by growth factors, neurotransmitters, hormones, stress and injury. In the brain, when neurons are activated, EGR1 proteins are up\\-regulated and they bind to (recruit) the pre\\-existing [TET1](/wiki/TET_enzymes \"TET enzymes\") enzymes which are highly expressed in neurons. [TET enzymes](/wiki/TET_enzymes \"TET enzymes\") can catalyse demethylation of 5\\-methylcytosine. When EGR1 transcription factors bring TET1 enzymes to EGR1 binding sites in promoters, the TET enzymes can [demethylate](/wiki/DNA_demethylation \"DNA demethylation\") the methylated CpG islands at those promoters. Upon demethylation, these promoters can then initiate transcription of their target genes. Hundreds of genes in neurons are differentially expressed after neuron activation through EGR1 recruitment of TET1 to methylated regulatory sequences in their promoters.",
"The methylation of promoters is also altered in response to signals. The three mammalian [DNA methyltransferasess](/wiki/DNA_methyltransferase%23Mammalian \"DNA methyltransferase#Mammalian\") (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) catalyze the addition of methyl groups to cytosines in DNA. While DNMT1 is a “maintenance” methyltransferase, DNMT3A and DNMT3B can carry out new methylations. There are also two [splice](/wiki/Alternative_splicing \"Alternative splicing\") [protein isoforms](/wiki/Protein_isoform \"Protein isoform\") produced from the *DNMT3A* gene: DNA methyltransferase proteins DNMT3A1 and DNMT3A2\\.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Bayraktar G, Kreutz MR \\|title\\=Neuronal DNA Methyltransferases: Epigenetic Mediators between Synaptic Activity and Gene Expression? \\|journal\\=Neuroscientist \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=171–185 \\|date\\=April 2018 \\|pmid\\=28513272 \\|pmc\\=5846851 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1073858417707457 \\|url\\=}}",
"The splice isoform DNMT3A2 behaves like the product of a classical immediate\\-early gene and, for instance, it is robustly and transiently produced after neuronal activation.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Oliveira AM, Hemstedt TJ, Bading H \\|title\\=Rescue of aging\\-associated decline in Dnmt3a2 expression restores cognitive abilities \\|journal\\=Nat Neurosci \\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=1111–3 \\|date\\=July 2012 \\|pmid\\=22751036 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nn.3151 \\|s2cid\\=10590208 \\|url\\=}} Where the DNA methyltransferase isoform DNMT3A2 binds and adds methyl groups to cytosines appears to be determined by histone post translational modifications.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Dhayalan A, Rajavelu A, Rathert P, Tamas R, Jurkowska RZ, Ragozin S, Jeltsch A \\|title\\=The Dnmt3a PWWP domain reads histone 3 lysine 36 trimethylation and guides DNA methylation \\|journal\\=J Biol Chem \\|volume\\=285 \\|issue\\=34 \\|pages\\=26114–20 \\|date\\=August 2010 \\|pmid\\=20547484 \\|pmc\\=2924014 \\|doi\\=10\\.1074/jbc.M109\\.089433 \\|url\\=\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Manzo M, Wirz J, Ambrosi C, Villaseñor R, Roschitzki B, Baubec T \\|title\\=Isoform\\-specific localization of DNMT3A regulates DNA methylation fidelity at bivalent CpG islands \\|journal\\=EMBO J \\|volume\\=36 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=3421–3434 \\|date\\=December 2017 \\|pmid\\=29074627 \\|pmc\\=5709737 \\|doi\\=10\\.15252/embj.201797038 \\|url\\=}}{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Dukatz M, Holzer K, Choudalakis M, Emperle M, Lungu C, Bashtrykov P, Jeltsch A \\|title\\=H3K36me2/3 Binding and DNA Binding of the DNA Methyltransferase DNMT3A PWWP Domain Both Contribute to its Chromatin Interaction \\|journal\\=J Mol Biol \\|volume\\=431 \\|issue\\=24 \\|pages\\=5063–5074 \\|date\\=December 2019 \\|pmid\\=31634469 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jmb.2019\\.09\\.006 \\|s2cid\\=204832601 \\|url\\=}}",
"On the other hand, neural activation causes degradation of DNMT3A1 accompanied by reduced methylation of at least one evaluated targeted promoter.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Bayraktar G, Yuanxiang P, Confettura AD, Gomes GM, Raza SA, Stork O, Tajima S, Suetake I, Karpova A, Yildirim F, Kreutz MR \\|title\\=Synaptic control of DNA methylation involves activity\\-dependent degradation of DNMT3A1 in the nucleus \\|journal\\=Neuropsychopharmacology \\|volume\\=45 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=2120–2130 \\|date\\=November 2020 \\|pmid\\=32726795 \\|pmc\\=7547096 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41386\\-020\\-0780\\-2 \\|url\\=}}",
"### Through transcription factors and enhancers",
"#### Transcription factors",
"[Transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factors \"Transcription factors\") are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a given gene. There are approximately 1,400 transcription factors in the human genome and they constitute about 6% of all human protein coding genes. The power of transcription factors resides in their ability to activate and/or repress wide repertoires of downstream target genes. The fact that these transcription factors work in a combinatorial fashion means that only a small subset of an organism's genome encodes transcription factors.\nTranscription factors function through a wide variety of mechanisms. In one mechanism, CpG methylation influences binding of most transcription factors to DNA—in some cases negatively and in others positively.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Yin Y, Morgunova E, Jolma A, Kaasinen E, Sahu B, Khund\\-Sayeed S, Das PK, Kivioja T, Dave K, Zhong F, Nitta KR, Taipale M, Popov A, Ginno PA, Domcke S, Yan J, Schübeler D, Vinson C, Taipale J \\|title\\=Impact of cytosine methylation on DNA binding specificities of human transcription factors \\|journal\\=Science \\|volume\\=356 \\|issue\\=6337 \\|pages\\= eaaj2239\\|date\\=May 2017 \\|pmid\\=28473536 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.aaj2239 \\|s2cid\\=206653898 \\|pmc\\=8009048 }} In addition, often they are at the end of a [signal transduction](/wiki/Signal_transduction \"Signal transduction\") pathway that functions to change something about the factor, like its subcellular localization or its activity. Post\\-translational modifications to transcription factors located in the [cytosol](/wiki/Cytosol \"Cytosol\") can cause them to translocate to the [nucleus](/wiki/Cell_nucleus \"Cell nucleus\") where they can interact with their corresponding enhancers. Other transcription factors are already in the nucleus, and are modified to enable the interaction with partner transcription factors. Some post\\-translational modifications known to regulate the functional state of transcription factors are [phosphorylation](/wiki/Phosphorylation \"Phosphorylation\"), [acetylation](/wiki/Acetylation \"Acetylation\"), [SUMOylation](/wiki/SUMOylation \"SUMOylation\") and [ubiquitylation](/wiki/Ubiquitin \"Ubiquitin\").\nTranscription factors can be divided in two main categories: [activators](/wiki/Activator_%28genetics%29 \"Activator (genetics)\") and [repressors](/wiki/Repressor_%28genetics%29 \"Repressor (genetics)\"). While activators can interact directly or indirectly with the core machinery of transcription through enhancer binding, repressors predominantly recruit co\\-repressor complexes leading to transcriptional repression by chromatin condensation of enhancer regions. It may also happen that a repressor may function by allosteric competition against a determined activator to repress gene expression: overlapping DNA\\-binding motifs for both activators and repressors induce a physical competition to occupy the site of binding. If the repressor has a higher affinity for its motif than the activator, transcription would be effectively blocked in the presence of the repressor.\nTight regulatory control is achieved by the highly dynamic nature of transcription factors. Again, many different mechanisms exist to control whether a transcription factor is active. These mechanisms include control over protein localization or control over whether the protein can bind DNA.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Whiteside ST, Goodbourn S \\| title \\= Signal transduction and nuclear targeting: regulation of transcription factor activity by subcellular localisation \\| journal \\= J. Cell Sci. \\| volume \\= 104 ( Pt 4\\) \\| pages \\= 949–55 \\| date \\= April 1993 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1242/jcs.104\\.4\\.949 \\| pmid \\= 8314906 }} An example of this is the protein [HSF1](/wiki/HSF1 \"HSF1\"), which remains bound to [Hsp70](/wiki/Hsp70 \"Hsp70\") in the cytosol and is only translocated into the nucleus upon cellular stress such as heat shock. Thus the genes under the control of this transcription factor will remain untranscribed unless the cell is subjected to stress.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Vihervaara A, Sistonen L \\| title \\= HSF1 at a glance \\| journal \\= J. Cell Sci. \\| volume \\= 127 \\| issue \\= Pt 2 \\| pages \\= 261–6 \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24421309 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1242/jcs.132605 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"#### Enhancers",
"Enhancers or [cis\\-regulatory modules/elements](/wiki/Cis-regulatory_element \"Cis-regulatory element\") (CRM/CRE) are [non\\-coding DNA](/wiki/Non-coding_DNA \"Non-coding DNA\") sequences containing multiple activator and repressor binding sites. Enhancers range from 200 bp to 1 kb in length and can be either proximal, 5’ upstream to the promoter or within the first intron of the regulated gene, or distal, in introns of neighboring genes or intergenic regions far away from the locus. Through DNA looping, active enhancers contact the promoter dependently of the core DNA binding motif promoter specificity.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Levine M \\| title \\= Transcriptional enhancers in animal development and evolution \\| journal \\= Curr. Biol. \\| volume \\= 20 \\| issue \\= 17 \\| pages \\= R754–63 \\| date \\= September 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20833320 \\| pmc \\= 4280268 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cub.2010\\.06\\.070 }} Promoter\\-enhancer dichotomy provides the basis for the functional interaction between transcription factors and transcriptional core machinery to trigger RNA Pol II escape from the promoter. Whereas one could think that there is a 1:1 enhancer\\-promoter ratio, studies of the human genome predict that an active promoter interacts with 4 to 5 enhancers. Similarly, enhancers can regulate more than one gene without linkage restriction and are said to “skip” neighboring genes to regulate more distant ones. Even though infrequent, transcriptional regulation can involve elements located in a chromosome different from one where the promoter resides. Proximal enhancers or promoters of neighboring genes can serve as platforms to recruit more distal elements.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= van Arensbergen J, van Steensel B, Bussemaker HJ \\| title \\= In search of the determinants of enhancer\\-promoter interaction specificity \\| journal \\= Trends Cell Biol. \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 695–702 \\| date \\= November 2014 \\| pmid \\= 25160912 \\| pmc \\= 4252644 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.tcb.2014\\.07\\.004 }}",
"#### Enhancer activation and implementation",
"{{cleanup section\\|reason\\=Duplication with \\[\\[Enhancer (genetics)]]. Maybe {{tlx\\|main}} will do??\\|date\\=September 2021}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|500px\\| **Enhance function in regulation of transcription in mammals**. An active enhancer regulatory sequence of DNA is enabled to interact with the [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28genetics%29 \"Promoter (genetics)\") DNA regulatory sequence of its target [gene](/wiki/Gene \"Gene\") by formation of a chromosome loop. This can initiate [messenger RNA](/wiki/Messenger_RNA \"Messenger RNA\") (mRNA) synthesis by [RNA polymerase II](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_II \"RNA polymerase II\") (RNAP II) bound to the promoter at the [transcription start site](/wiki/Transcription_%28biology%29 \"Transcription (biology)\") of the gene. The loop is stabilized by one architectural protein anchored to the enhancer and one anchored to the promoter and these proteins are joined to form a dimer (red zigzags). Specific regulatory [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factor \"Transcription factor\") bind to DNA sequence motifs on the enhancer. General transcription factors bind to the promoter. When a transcription factor is activated by a signal (here indicated as [phosphorylation](/wiki/Phosphorylation \"Phosphorylation\") shown by a small red star on a transcription factor on the enhancer) the enhancer is activated and can now activate its target promoter. The active enhancer is transcribed on each strand of DNA in opposite directions by bound RNAP IIs. Mediator (a complex consisting of about 26 proteins in an interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from the enhancer DNA\\-bound transcription factors to the promoter.](/wiki/File:Regulation_of_transcription_in_mammals.jpg \"Regulation of transcription in mammals.jpg\")",
"Up\\-regulated expression of genes in mammals can be initiated when signals are transmitted to the promoters associated with the genes. [Cis\\-regulatory DNA sequences](/wiki/Cis-regulatory_element \"Cis-regulatory element\") that are located in DNA regions distant from the promoters of genes can have very large effects on gene expression, with some genes undergoing up to 100\\-fold increased expression due to such a cis\\-regulatory sequence.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Beagan JA, Pastuzyn ED, Fernandez LR, Guo MH, Feng K, Titus KR, Chandrashekar H, Shepherd JD, Phillips\\-Cremins JE \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Three\\-dimensional genome restructuring across timescales of activity\\-induced neuronal gene expression \\| journal \\= Nature Neuroscience \\| volume \\= 23 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 707–717 \\| date \\= June 2020 \\| pmid \\= 32451484 \\| pmc \\= 7558717 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41593\\-020\\-0634\\-6 }} These cis\\-regulatory sequences include [enhancers](/wiki/Enhancer_%28genetics%29 \"Enhancer (genetics)\"), [silencers](/wiki/Silencer_%28genetics%29 \"Silencer (genetics)\"), [insulators](/wiki/Insulator_%28genetics%29 \"Insulator (genetics)\") and tethering elements.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Verheul TC, van Hijfte L, Perenthaler E, Barakat TS \\| title \\= The Why of YY1: Mechanisms of Transcriptional Regulation by Yin Yang 1 \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology \\| volume \\= 8 \\| issue \\= \\| pages \\= 592164 \\| date \\= 2020 \\| pmid \\= 33102493 \\| pmc \\= 7554316 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3389/fcell.2020\\.592164 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Among this constellation of sequences, enhancers and their associated [transcription factor proteins](/wiki/Transcription_factors \"Transcription factors\") have a leading role in the regulation of gene expression.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Spitz F, Furlong EE \\| title \\= Transcription factors: from enhancer binding to developmental control \\| journal \\= Nature Reviews. Genetics \\| volume \\= 13 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 613–26 \\| date \\= September 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22868264 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nrg3207 \\| s2cid \\= 205485256 }}",
"[Enhancers](/wiki/Enhancer_%28genetics%29 \"Enhancer (genetics)\") are sequences of the genome that are major gene\\-regulatory elements. Enhancers control cell\\-type\\-specific gene expression programs, most often by looping through long distances to come in physical proximity with the promoters of their target genes.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Schoenfelder S, Fraser P \\| title \\= Long\\-range enhancer\\-promoter contacts in gene expression control \\| journal \\= Nature Reviews. Genetics \\| volume \\= 20 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 437–455 \\| date \\= August 2019 \\| pmid \\= 31086298 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41576\\-019\\-0128\\-0 \\| s2cid \\= 152283312 }} In a study of brain cortical neurons, 24,937 loops were found, bringing enhancers to promoters. Multiple enhancers, each often at tens or hundred of thousands of nucleotides distant from their target genes, loop to their target gene promoters and coordinate with each other to control expression of their common target gene.",
"The schematic illustration in this section shows an enhancer looping around to come into close physical proximity with the promoter of a target gene. The loop is stabilized by a dimer of a connector protein (e.g. dimer of [CTCF](/wiki/CTCF \"CTCF\") or [YY1](/wiki/YY1 \"YY1\")), with one member of the dimer anchored to its binding motif on the enhancer and the other member anchored to its binding motif on the promoter (represented by the red zigzags in the illustration).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Weintraub AS, Li CH, Zamudio AV, Sigova AA, Hannett NM, Day DS, Abraham BJ, Cohen MA, Nabet B, Buckley DL, Guo YE, Hnisz D, Jaenisch R, Bradner JE, Gray NS, Young RA \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= YY1 Is a Structural Regulator of Enhancer\\-Promoter Loops \\| journal \\= Cell \\| volume \\= 171 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 1573–1588\\.e28 \\| date \\= December 2017 \\| pmid \\= 29224777 \\| pmc \\= 5785279 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cell.2017\\.11\\.008 }} Several cell function specific transcription factor proteins (in 2018 Lambert et al. indicated there were about 1,600 transcription factors in a human cell{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lambert SA, Jolma A, Campitelli LF, Das PK, Yin Y, Albu M, Chen X, Taipale J, Hughes TR, Weirauch MT \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= The Human Transcription Factors \\| journal \\= Cell \\| volume \\= 172 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 650–665 \\| date \\= February 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29425488 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cell.2018\\.01\\.029 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}) generally bind to specific motifs on an enhancer{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Grossman SR, Engreitz J, Ray JP, Nguyen TH, Hacohen N, Lander ES \\| title \\= Positional specificity of different transcription factor classes within enhancers \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 115 \\| issue \\= 30 \\| pages \\= E7222–E7230 \\| date \\= July 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29987030 \\| pmc \\= 6065035 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.1804663115 \\| bibcode \\= 2018PNAS..115E7222G \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} and a small combination of these enhancer\\-bound transcription factors, when brought close to a promoter by a DNA loop, govern the level of transcription of the target gene. [Mediator (coactivator)](/wiki/Mediator_%28coactivator%29 \"Mediator (coactivator)\") (a complex usually consisting of about 26 proteins in an interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from enhancer DNA\\-bound transcription factors directly to the RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) enzyme bound to the promoter.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Allen BL, Taatjes DJ \\| title \\= The Mediator complex: a central integrator of transcription \\| journal \\= Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 155–66 \\| date \\= March 2015 \\| pmid \\= 25693131 \\| pmc \\= 4963239 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nrm3951 }}",
"Enhancers, when active, are generally transcribed from both strands of DNA with RNA polymerases acting in two different directions, producing two eRNAs as illustrated in the Figure.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mikhaylichenko O, Bondarenko V, Harnett D, Schor IE, Males M, Viales RR, Furlong EE \\| title \\= The degree of enhancer or promoter activity is reflected by the levels and directionality of eRNA transcription \\| journal \\= Genes \\& Development \\| volume \\= 32 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 42–57 \\| date \\= January 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29378788 \\| pmc \\= 5828394 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1101/gad.308619\\.117 }} An inactive enhancer may be bound by an inactive transcription factor. Phosphorylation of the transcription factor may activate it and that activated transcription factor may then activate the enhancer to which it is bound (see small red star representing phosphorylation of a transcription factor bound to an enhancer in the illustration).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Li QJ, Yang SH, Maeda Y, Sladek FM, Sharrocks AD, Martins\\-Green M \\| title \\= MAP kinase phosphorylation\\-dependent activation of Elk\\-1 leads to activation of the co\\-activator p300 \\| journal \\= The EMBO Journal \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 281–91 \\| date \\= January 2003 \\| pmid \\= 12514134 \\| pmc \\= 140103 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/emboj/cdg028 }} An activated enhancer begins transcription of its RNA before activating a promoter to initiate transcription of messenger RNA from its target gene.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Carullo NV, Phillips Iii RA, Simon RC, Soto SA, Hinds JE, Salisbury AJ, Revanna JS, Bunner KD, Ianov L, Sultan FA, Savell KE, Gersbach CA, Day JJ \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Enhancer RNAs predict enhancer\\-gene regulatory links and are critical for enhancer function in neuronal systems \\| journal \\= Nucleic Acids Research \\| volume \\= 48 \\| issue \\= 17 \\| pages \\= 9550–9570 \\| date \\= September 2020 \\| pmid \\= 32810208 \\| pmc \\= 7515708 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/nar/gkaa671 }}\n{{clear}}",
"#### Regulatory landscape",
"Transcriptional initiation, termination and regulation are mediated by “DNA looping” which brings together promoters, enhancers, transcription factors and RNA processing factors to accurately regulate gene expression.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mercer TR, Mattick JS \\| title \\= Understanding the regulatory and transcriptional complexity of the genome through structure \\| journal \\= Genome Res. \\| volume \\= 23 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 1081–8 \\| date \\= July 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23817049 \\| pmc \\= 3698501 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1101/gr.156612\\.113 }} Chromosome conformation capture (3C) and more recently Hi\\-C techniques provided evidence that active chromatin regions are “compacted” in nuclear domains or bodies where transcriptional regulation is enhanced.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Dekker J, Marti\\-Renom MA, Mirny LA \\| title \\= Exploring the three\\-dimensional organization of genomes: interpreting chromatin interaction data \\| journal \\= Nat. Rev. Genet. \\| volume \\= 14 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 390–403 \\| date \\= June 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23657480 \\| pmc \\= 3874835 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nrg3454 }} The configuration of the genome is essential for enhancer\\-promoter proximity. Cell\\-fate decisions are mediated upon highly dynamic genomic reorganizations at interphase to modularly switch on or off entire gene regulatory networks through short to long range chromatin rearrangements.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Gómez\\-Díaz E, Corces VG \\| title \\= Architectural proteins: regulators of 3D genome organization in cell fate \\| journal \\= Trends Cell Biol. \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 703–11 \\| date \\= November 2014 \\| pmid \\= 25218583 \\| pmc \\= 4254322 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.tcb.2014\\.08\\.003 }} Related studies demonstrate that metazoan genomes are partitioned in structural and functional units around a megabase long called [Topological association domains](/wiki/Topological_association_domain \"Topological association domain\") (TADs) containing dozens of genes regulated by hundreds of enhancers distributed within large genomic regions containing only non\\-coding sequences. The function of TADs is to regroup enhancers and promoters interacting together within a single large functional domain instead of having them spread in different TADs.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Smallwood A, Ren B \\| title \\= Genome organization and long\\-range regulation of gene expression by enhancers \\| journal \\= Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 387–94 \\| date \\= June 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23465541 \\| pmc \\= 4180870 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.ceb.2013\\.02\\.005 }} However, studies of mouse development point out that two adjacent TADs may regulate the same gene cluster. The most relevant study on limb evolution shows that the TAD at the 5’ of the HoxD gene cluster in tetrapod genomes drives its expression in the distal limb bud embryos, giving rise to the hand, while the one located at 3’ side does it in the proximal limb bud, giving rise to the arm.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Woltering JM, Noordermeer D, Leleu M, Duboule D \\| title \\= Conservation and divergence of regulatory strategies at Hox Loci and the origin of tetrapod digits \\| journal \\= PLOS Biol. \\| volume \\= 12 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= e1001773 \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24465181 \\| pmc \\= 3897358 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pbio.1001773 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Still, it is not known whether TADs are an adaptive strategy to enhance regulatory interactions or an effect of the constrains on these same interactions.\nTAD boundaries are often composed by housekeeping genes, tRNAs, other highly expressed sequences and Short Interspersed Elements (SINE). While these genes may take advantage of their border position to be ubiquitously expressed, they are not directly linked with TAD edge formation. The specific molecules identified at boundaries of TADs are called insulators or architectural proteins because they not only block enhancer leaky expression but also ensure an accurate compartmentalization of cis\\-regulatory inputs to the targeted promoter. These [insulators](/wiki/Insulator_%28genetics%29 \"Insulator (genetics)\") are DNA\\-binding proteins like CTCF and TFIIIC that help recruiting structural partners such as cohesins and condensins. The localization and binding of architectural proteins to their corresponding binding sites is regulated by post\\-translational modifications.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wang H, Maurano MT, Qu H, Varley KE, Gertz J, Pauli F, Lee K, Canfield T, Weaver M, Sandstrom R, Thurman RE, Kaul R, Myers RM, Stamatoyannopoulos JA \\|author\\-link14\\=John Stamatoyannopoulos \\| title \\= Widespread plasticity in CTCF occupancy linked to DNA methylation \\| journal \\= Genome Res. \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 1680–8 \\| date \\= September 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22955980 \\| pmc \\= 3431485 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1101/gr.136101\\.111 }} DNA binding motifs recognized by architectural proteins are either of high occupancy and at around a megabase of each other or of low occupancy and inside TADs. High occupancy sites are usually conserved and static while intra\\-TADs sites are dynamic according to the state of the cell therefore TADs themselves are compartmentalized in subdomains that can be called subTADs from few kb up to a TAD long (19\\). When architectural binding sites are at less than 100 kb from each other, Mediator proteins are the architectural proteins cooperate with cohesin. For subTADs larger than 100 kb and TAD boundaries, CTCF is the typical insulator found to interact with cohesion.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Phillips\\-Cremins JE, Sauria ME, Sanyal A, Gerasimova TI, Lajoie BR, Bell JS, Ong CT, Hookway TA, Guo C, Sun Y, Bland MJ, Wagstaff W, Dalton S, McDevitt TC, Sen R, Dekker J, Taylor J, Corces VG\\|display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Architectural protein subclasses shape 3D organization of genomes during lineage commitment \\| journal \\= Cell \\| volume \\= 153 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 1281–95 \\| date \\= June 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23706625 \\| pmc \\= 3712340 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cell.2013\\.04\\.053 }}",
"### Of the pre\\-initiation complex and promoter escape",
"In eukaryotes, [ribosomal rRNA](/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA \"Ribosomal RNA\") and the [tRNAs](/wiki/Transfer_RNA \"Transfer RNA\") involved in translation are controlled by [RNA polymerase I](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_I \"RNA polymerase I\") (Pol I) and [RNA polymerase III](/wiki/RNA_polymerase_III \"RNA polymerase III\") (Pol III) . [RNA Polymerase II](/wiki/RNA_Polymerase_II \"RNA Polymerase II\") (Pol II) is responsible for the production of [messenger RNA](/wiki/Messenger_RNA \"Messenger RNA\") (mRNA) within the cell. Particularly for Pol II, much of the regulatory checkpoints in the transcription process occur in the assembly and escape of the [pre\\-initiation complex](/wiki/Transcription_preinitiation_complex \"Transcription preinitiation complex\"). A gene\\-specific combination of transcription factors will recruit [TFIID](/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_D \"Transcription factor II D\") and/or [TFIIA](/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_A \"Transcription factor II A\") to the core promoter, followed by the association of [TFIIB](/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_B \"Transcription factor II B\"), creating a stable complex onto which the rest of the [General Transcription Factors (GTFs)](/wiki/General_transcription_factors \"General transcription factors\") can assemble.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Thomas MC, Chiang CM \\| title \\= The general transcription machinery and general cofactors \\| journal \\= Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol. \\| volume \\= 41 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 105–78 \\| date \\= 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16858867 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/10409230600648736 \\| citeseerx \\= 10\\.1\\.1\\.376\\.5724 \\| s2cid \\= 13073440 }} This complex is relatively stable, and can undergo multiple rounds of transcription initiation.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Voet\\|first1\\=Donald Voet, Judith G.\\|title\\=Biochemistry\\|date\\=2011\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons\\|location\\=Hoboken, NJ\\|isbn\\=978\\-0470917459\\|edition\\=4th}}\nAfter the binding of TFIIB and TFIID, Pol II the rest of the GTFs can assemble. This assembly is marked by the post\\-translational modification (typically phosphorylation) of the C\\-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II through a number of kinases.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Napolitano G, Lania L, Majello B \\| title \\= RNA polymerase II CTD modifications: how many tales from a single tail \\| journal \\= J. Cell. Physiol. \\| volume \\= 229 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 538–44 \\| date \\= May 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24122273 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/jcp.24483 \\| s2cid \\= 44613555 }} The CTD is a large, unstructured domain extending from the [RbpI](/wiki/POLR2A \"POLR2A\") subunit of Pol II, and consists of many repeats of the heptad sequence YSPTSPS. [TFIIH](/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_H \"Transcription factor II H\"), the helicase that remains associated with Pol II throughout transcription, also contains a subunit with kinase activity which will phosphorylate the serines 5 in the heptad sequence. Similarly, both [CDK8](/wiki/CDK8 \"CDK8\") (a subunit of the massive multiprotein Mediator complex) and [CDK9](/wiki/CDK9 \"CDK9\") (a subunit of the [p\\-TEFb](/wiki/P-TEFb \"P-TEFb\") elongation factor), have kinase activity towards other residues on the CTD.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Chapman RD, Conrad M, Eick D \\| title \\= Role of the mammalian RNA polymerase II C\\-terminal domain (CTD) nonconsensus repeats in CTD stability and cell proliferation \\| journal \\= Mol. Cell. Biol. \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 17 \\| pages \\= 7665–74 \\| date \\= September 2005 \\| pmid \\= 16107713 \\| pmc \\= 1190292 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/MCB.25\\.17\\.7665\\-7674\\.2005 }} These phosphorylation events promote the transcription process and serve as sites of recruitment for mRNA processing machinery. All three of these kinases respond to upstream signals, and failure to phosphorylate the CTD can lead to a stalled polymerase at the promoter.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
**Thilo Martinho**, by his real name **Thilo Herrmann**, was born in [Kiel](/wiki/Kiel "Kiel") in 1960, the son of [Ingeborg Reichelt](/wiki/Ingeborg_Reichelt "Ingeborg Reichelt") and [Hajo Herrmann](/wiki/Hajo_Herrmann "Hajo Herrmann").
In his early years, he played piano, bass, and drums. When he was 19, he started playing guitar.
Three years later he was on his way in the European club\- and festival\-scene, playing acoustic instrumental [folk\-rock](/wiki/Folk-rock "Folk-rock").
Being unsatisfied by the limited mode of expression of the [steel\-string guitar](/wiki/Steel-string_guitar "Steel-string guitar") and influenced by the Spanish flamenco\-guitarist [Paco de Lucia](/wiki/Paco_de_Lucia "Paco de Lucia") and the Brazilian musician [Egberto Gismonti](/wiki/Egberto_Gismonti "Egberto Gismonti"), he changed to [nylon\-string guitars](/wiki/Nylon-string_guitar "Nylon-string guitar") and became absorbed in the realm of Classic\- and Flamenco\-guitars and moved to Spain, to live for years as Flamenco guitarist in Andalusia.
In 1995, after a brain operation, the result of a genetically caused brain\-bleeding, he ended up sitting in a wheelchair with [hemiplegia](/wiki/Hemiplegia "Hemiplegia"). He was told, that the control of the right half of his body was probably for ever lost.
During the following years he started singing, worked mainly as interpreter of Spanish and [Brazilian music](/wiki/Brazilian_music "Brazilian music") and the [Bossa Nova](/wiki/Bossa_Nova "Bossa Nova"). He wrote [songs](/wiki/Songs "Songs") in English and German. For copyright reasons in 2005 Thilo Herrmann took on the pseudonym Thilo Martinho, and by this name he produced the CD "I am" in 2007\. This album, published on the [label](/wiki/Record_label "Record label") "musaraña records", is the result of a musical pilgrimage between bossa\-nova,
Latin, [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz"), [flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco "Flamenco") and [world music](/wiki/World_music "World music").
"I am" is written in four languages: Spanish, English, Portuguese and German. The song "Wie Das Wasser" is included on this CD. It is a German, [lyrical](/wiki/Lyrics "Lyrics") piece of [Salsa music](/wiki/Salsa_music "Salsa music") in a big band arrangement.
This song, "Wie Das Wasser", won the first prize of the "[World Music](/wiki/World_Music "World Music")" category in the "[Unisong International Song Contest](/wiki/Unisong_International_Song_Contest "Unisong International Song Contest")" 2008 in Los Angeles.[Website Unisong International Songwritingcontest](http://www.unisong.com/Winners12.aspx)
With the same song he was [finalist](/wiki/Finalist "Finalist") in the "[John Lennon Songwriting Contest](/wiki/John_Lennon_Songwriting_Contest "John Lennon Songwriting Contest")" in 2008\.[finalists John Lennon Songwriting Contest 2008](http://www.jlsc.com/winners/2008b/finalists.php)
Thilo Martinho has overcome his disease and is now back in concert\-life and touring. He appears on stage in clubs and theaters.
In 2022 Thilo changed his artist name to "Ziganando" and published digitally his latest album "12" under this new pseudonym.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"**Thilo Martinho**, by his real name **Thilo Herrmann**, was born in [Kiel](/wiki/Kiel \"Kiel\") in 1960, the son of [Ingeborg Reichelt](/wiki/Ingeborg_Reichelt \"Ingeborg Reichelt\") and [Hajo Herrmann](/wiki/Hajo_Herrmann \"Hajo Herrmann\").",
"In his early years, he played piano, bass, and drums. When he was 19, he started playing guitar.",
"Three years later he was on his way in the European club\\- and festival\\-scene, playing acoustic instrumental [folk\\-rock](/wiki/Folk-rock \"Folk-rock\").",
"Being unsatisfied by the limited mode of expression of the [steel\\-string guitar](/wiki/Steel-string_guitar \"Steel-string guitar\") and influenced by the Spanish flamenco\\-guitarist [Paco de Lucia](/wiki/Paco_de_Lucia \"Paco de Lucia\") and the Brazilian musician [Egberto Gismonti](/wiki/Egberto_Gismonti \"Egberto Gismonti\"), he changed to [nylon\\-string guitars](/wiki/Nylon-string_guitar \"Nylon-string guitar\") and became absorbed in the realm of Classic\\- and Flamenco\\-guitars and moved to Spain, to live for years as Flamenco guitarist in Andalusia.",
"In 1995, after a brain operation, the result of a genetically caused brain\\-bleeding, he ended up sitting in a wheelchair with [hemiplegia](/wiki/Hemiplegia \"Hemiplegia\"). He was told, that the control of the right half of his body was probably for ever lost.",
"During the following years he started singing, worked mainly as interpreter of Spanish and [Brazilian music](/wiki/Brazilian_music \"Brazilian music\") and the [Bossa Nova](/wiki/Bossa_Nova \"Bossa Nova\"). He wrote [songs](/wiki/Songs \"Songs\") in English and German. For copyright reasons in 2005 Thilo Herrmann took on the pseudonym Thilo Martinho, and by this name he produced the CD \"I am\" in 2007\\. This album, published on the [label](/wiki/Record_label \"Record label\") \"musaraña records\", is the result of a musical pilgrimage between bossa\\-nova, \nLatin, [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\"), [flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco \"Flamenco\") and [world music](/wiki/World_music \"World music\").",
"\"I am\" is written in four languages: Spanish, English, Portuguese and German. The song \"Wie Das Wasser\" is included on this CD. It is a German, [lyrical](/wiki/Lyrics \"Lyrics\") piece of [Salsa music](/wiki/Salsa_music \"Salsa music\") in a big band arrangement.",
"This song, \"Wie Das Wasser\", won the first prize of the \"[World Music](/wiki/World_Music \"World Music\")\" category in the \"[Unisong International Song Contest](/wiki/Unisong_International_Song_Contest \"Unisong International Song Contest\")\" 2008 in Los Angeles.[Website Unisong International Songwritingcontest](http://www.unisong.com/Winners12.aspx)",
"With the same song he was [finalist](/wiki/Finalist \"Finalist\") in the \"[John Lennon Songwriting Contest](/wiki/John_Lennon_Songwriting_Contest \"John Lennon Songwriting Contest\")\" in 2008\\.[finalists John Lennon Songwriting Contest 2008](http://www.jlsc.com/winners/2008b/finalists.php)",
"Thilo Martinho has overcome his disease and is now back in concert\\-life and touring. He appears on stage in clubs and theaters.",
"In 2022 Thilo changed his artist name to \"Ziganando\" and published digitally his latest album \"12\" under this new pseudonym.",
""
] |
History
-------
On 1 February 1974, the [Indian Railways](/wiki/Indian_Railways "Indian Railways") announced the first railway service between Hyderabad and Visakhapatnam, the Waltair\-Hyderabad Express.
In the early days, the train ran once daily, departing from Visakhapatnam station at 5:20 p.m. and arriving at Hyderabad station at 6:45 a.m. the next morning. During the return journey, the train departed Hyderabad at 5:15 p.m. and arrived at Visakhapatnam station at 5:50 a.m. the next morning. The train was officially renamed Godavari Express as it provided rail connectivity to nine stations across East and West Godavari districts.
It was hauled by a steam locomotive and had 17 coaches. Its highest speed of 50 km/h came between [Samalkot](/wiki/Samalkota "Samalkota") and [Rajahmundry](/wiki/Rajahmundry "Rajahmundry"). A slip service was introduced during 1975, and the train began to run up to [Kakinada](/wiki/Kakinada "Kakinada"). As a result, five more coaches were added. The train entered a Rake Sharing Agreement or RSA with [Simhadri Express](/wiki/Simhadri_Express "Simhadri Express"), which ran between Visakhapatnam and Rajahmundry. However, in 1980, both the slip service and the RSA were canceled as the Simhadri Express was extended to [Bhimavaram](/wiki/Bhimavaram "Bhimavaram") and the Kakinada–[Secunderabad](/wiki/Secunderabad "Secunderabad") [Gowthami Express](/wiki/Gowthami_Express "Gowthami Express") was introduced.
The train later ran with a [diesel locomotive](/wiki/Diesel_locomotive "Diesel locomotive"). By 1990, the train had become popular, and two more coaches were introduced, taking the total to 24\. It became one of the longest trains in India. When the Visakhapatnam–[Vijayawada](/wiki/Vijayawada "Vijayawada") line and the Vijayawada–[Kazipet](/wiki/Kazipet "Kazipet")–Hyderabad lines were electrified, the train started running with the [WAP\-4](/wiki/Indian_locomotive_class_WAP-4 "Indian locomotive class WAP-4") electric locomotive. Soon, the Godavari Express became the first [South Central Railway](/wiki/South_Central_Railway_zone "South Central Railway zone") train to offer 5 air\-conditioned coaches.
In June 1999, the train met with its first accident, derailing at [Ghanpur](/wiki/Ghanpur%2C_Wanaparthy_district "Ghanpur, Wanaparthy district") near [Warangal](/wiki/Warangal "Warangal"). In the year 2000, the Godavari Express became the first train in the South Central railway to run with an air\-conditioned first\-class coach and the first in the Zone to have 6 air\-conditioned coaches. In 2011, on becoming a Superfast train, it was renumbered to 12727 and was hauled by a [WAP\-7](/wiki/Indian_locomotive_class_WAP-7 "Indian locomotive class WAP-7"). Engineers modified the train timings again, and consequently, further reduced the journey time by 15 minutes.
In July and August 2011, passengers of the air\-conditioned coaches were robbed twice, and a hoax call was made regarding a bomb in the sixth coach. As a result, safety was enhanced, and the train started running with a WAP\-7 from end to end. This train then became the first to run with a WAP\-7 between [Visakhapatnam](/wiki/Visakhapatnam "Visakhapatnam") and Vijayawada.{{cite news\|title\=Raised railway fares become operational\|url\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Raised\-railway\-fares\-become\-operational/articleshow/12495473\.cms\|work\=The Times of India\|date\=April 2012 \|accessdate\=2 April 2012}} Hundreds of people from [Vizianagaram](/wiki/Vizianagaram_district "Vizianagaram district") and [Srikakulam](/wiki/Srikakulam_district "Srikakulam district") districts travel to [Secunderabad](/wiki/Secunderabad "Secunderabad") daily through Godavari Express.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"On 1 February 1974, the [Indian Railways](/wiki/Indian_Railways \"Indian Railways\") announced the first railway service between Hyderabad and Visakhapatnam, the Waltair\\-Hyderabad Express.",
"In the early days, the train ran once daily, departing from Visakhapatnam station at 5:20 p.m. and arriving at Hyderabad station at 6:45 a.m. the next morning. During the return journey, the train departed Hyderabad at 5:15 p.m. and arrived at Visakhapatnam station at 5:50 a.m. the next morning. The train was officially renamed Godavari Express as it provided rail connectivity to nine stations across East and West Godavari districts.",
"It was hauled by a steam locomotive and had 17 coaches. Its highest speed of 50 km/h came between [Samalkot](/wiki/Samalkota \"Samalkota\") and [Rajahmundry](/wiki/Rajahmundry \"Rajahmundry\"). A slip service was introduced during 1975, and the train began to run up to [Kakinada](/wiki/Kakinada \"Kakinada\"). As a result, five more coaches were added. The train entered a Rake Sharing Agreement or RSA with [Simhadri Express](/wiki/Simhadri_Express \"Simhadri Express\"), which ran between Visakhapatnam and Rajahmundry. However, in 1980, both the slip service and the RSA were canceled as the Simhadri Express was extended to [Bhimavaram](/wiki/Bhimavaram \"Bhimavaram\") and the Kakinada–[Secunderabad](/wiki/Secunderabad \"Secunderabad\") [Gowthami Express](/wiki/Gowthami_Express \"Gowthami Express\") was introduced.",
"The train later ran with a [diesel locomotive](/wiki/Diesel_locomotive \"Diesel locomotive\"). By 1990, the train had become popular, and two more coaches were introduced, taking the total to 24\\. It became one of the longest trains in India. When the Visakhapatnam–[Vijayawada](/wiki/Vijayawada \"Vijayawada\") line and the Vijayawada–[Kazipet](/wiki/Kazipet \"Kazipet\")–Hyderabad lines were electrified, the train started running with the [WAP\\-4](/wiki/Indian_locomotive_class_WAP-4 \"Indian locomotive class WAP-4\") electric locomotive. Soon, the Godavari Express became the first [South Central Railway](/wiki/South_Central_Railway_zone \"South Central Railway zone\") train to offer 5 air\\-conditioned coaches.",
"In June 1999, the train met with its first accident, derailing at [Ghanpur](/wiki/Ghanpur%2C_Wanaparthy_district \"Ghanpur, Wanaparthy district\") near [Warangal](/wiki/Warangal \"Warangal\"). In the year 2000, the Godavari Express became the first train in the South Central railway to run with an air\\-conditioned first\\-class coach and the first in the Zone to have 6 air\\-conditioned coaches. In 2011, on becoming a Superfast train, it was renumbered to 12727 and was hauled by a [WAP\\-7](/wiki/Indian_locomotive_class_WAP-7 \"Indian locomotive class WAP-7\"). Engineers modified the train timings again, and consequently, further reduced the journey time by 15 minutes.",
"In July and August 2011, passengers of the air\\-conditioned coaches were robbed twice, and a hoax call was made regarding a bomb in the sixth coach. As a result, safety was enhanced, and the train started running with a WAP\\-7 from end to end. This train then became the first to run with a WAP\\-7 between [Visakhapatnam](/wiki/Visakhapatnam \"Visakhapatnam\") and Vijayawada.{{cite news\\|title\\=Raised railway fares become operational\\|url\\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Raised\\-railway\\-fares\\-become\\-operational/articleshow/12495473\\.cms\\|work\\=The Times of India\\|date\\=April 2012 \\|accessdate\\=2 April 2012}} Hundreds of people from [Vizianagaram](/wiki/Vizianagaram_district \"Vizianagaram district\") and [Srikakulam](/wiki/Srikakulam_district \"Srikakulam district\") districts travel to [Secunderabad](/wiki/Secunderabad \"Secunderabad\") daily through Godavari Express.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Giovanni Ricci was born in [Chiusi](/wiki/Chiusi "Chiusi") on 1 November 1498, the son of Pietro Antonio Ricci.{{cite web\|authorlink\=Salvador Miranda (historian) \|last\=Miranda \|first\=Salvador \|title\= RICCI, Giovanni (1498\-1574\)\|url\=https://cardinals.fiu.edu/bios1551\-ii.htm\#Ricci\|work\=The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church \|accessdate\=\|publisher\=\[\[Florida International University]] Libraries\|oclc\=53276621}} Disliking his stepmother, Giovanni Ricci traveled to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") at age 15, seeking the protection of his father's friend Tarugi, a [nobleman](/wiki/Italian_nobility "Italian nobility") from Montepulciano, who could not convince the youth to return to Montepulciano. He later entered the court of Cardinal Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte, the future [Pope Julius III](/wiki/Pope_Julius_III "Pope Julius III"), as assistant to the master of chamber; he became the cardinal's master of chamber upon the death of the old master of chamber. He later entered the service of Cardinal [Alessandro Farnese, *iuniore*](/wiki/Alessandro_Farnese_%28cardinal%29 "Alessandro Farnese (cardinal)"). He was sent on [diplomatic missions](/wiki/Diplomatic_mission "Diplomatic mission") to the [Kingdom of France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France "Kingdom of France") and the [Duchy of Burgundy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy "Duchy of Burgundy"), which he accomplished successfully.
He then entered the ecclesiastical estate and became a [protonotary apostolic](/wiki/Protonotary_apostolic "Protonotary apostolic") *participantium*. In 1542, he became a cleric in the [Apostolic Camera](/wiki/Apostolic_Camera "Apostolic Camera"). He was later to serve as apostolic collector for the [Kingdom of Portugal](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal "Kingdom of Portugal"), and [nuncio](/wiki/Nuncio "Nuncio") to the [Kingdom of France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France "Kingdom of France") and to [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria").
On 25 June 1544, he was elected [Archbishop of Manfredonia](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Manfredonia-Vieste-S._Giovanni_Rotondo "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manfredonia-Vieste-S. Giovanni Rotondo"). From 27 June 1544 to 4 March 1550, he was nuncio to the Kingdom of Portugal (though he was unable to enter [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") until September 1545\.) On 20 February, 1545, he was transferred to the [see of Chiusi](/wiki/Diocese_of_Chiusi-Pienza "Diocese of Chiusi-Pienza"), though he was allowed to retain the title of [archbishop](/wiki/Archbishop "Archbishop") *ad personam*.
Pope Julius III made him a [cardinal priest](/wiki/Cardinal_priest "Cardinal priest") in the [consistory](/wiki/Papal_consistory "Papal consistory") of 20 November 1551\. He received the [red hat](/wiki/Galero "Galero") and the [titular church](/wiki/Titular_church "Titular church") of [San Vitale](/wiki/San_Vitale%2C_Rome "San Vitale, Rome") on 4 December 1551\. He resigned the government of Chiusi sometime before 19 November 1554\.
He was a participant in the [papal conclave of April 1555](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_April_1555 "Papal conclave, April 1555") that elected [Pope Marcellus II](/wiki/Pope_Marcellus_II "Pope Marcellus II"); the [papal conclave of May 1555](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_May_1555 "Papal conclave, May 1555") that elected [Pope Paul IV](/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV "Pope Paul IV"); and the [papal conclave of 1559](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_1559 "Papal conclave, 1559") that elected [Pope Pius IV](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IV "Pope Pius IV").
On 10 November 1561, he became administrator of the [see of Montepulciano](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Montepulciano-Chiusi-Pienza "Roman Catholic Diocese of Montepulciano-Chiusi-Pienza"). He served as [Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals](/wiki/Camerlengo_of_the_Sacred_College_of_Cardinals "Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals") from 30 January 1563 until 1564\.
He participated in the [papal conclave of 1565–66](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_1565%E2%80%931566 "Papal conclave, 1565–1566") that elected [Pope Pius V](/wiki/Pope_Pius_V "Pope Pius V"). On 30 January, 1566, he opted for [Sant'Angelo in Pescheria](/wiki/Sant%27Angelo_in_Pescheria "Sant'Angelo in Pescheria"), a [deaconry](/wiki/Titular_church%23Cardinal-deaconries "Titular church#Cardinal-deaconries") assigned as *titulus*, and then, on 7 October, 1566, for the titular church of [Santa Maria in Trastevere](/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Trastevere "Santa Maria in Trastevere"). He was transferred to the [metropolitan see of Pisa](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Pisa "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Pisa") on 3 September 1567\.
On 3 July 1570, he opted for the order of [cardinal bishops](/wiki/Cardinal_bishop "Cardinal bishop"), taking the [suburbicarian see of Albano](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Suburbicarian_Diocese_of_Albano "Roman Catholic Suburbicarian Diocese of Albano"). He was a participant in the [papal conclave of 1572](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_1572 "Papal conclave, 1572") that elected [Pope Gregory XIII](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII "Pope Gregory XIII"). He opted for the [suburbicarian see of Sabina](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Suburbicarian_Diocese_of_Sabina-Poggio_Mirteto "Roman Catholic Suburbicarian Diocese of Sabina-Poggio Mirteto") on 8 April 1573\.
He died in Rome on 3 May 1574\. He was buried in [San Pietro in Montorio](/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Montorio "San Pietro in Montorio").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Giovanni Ricci was born in [Chiusi](/wiki/Chiusi \"Chiusi\") on 1 November 1498, the son of Pietro Antonio Ricci.{{cite web\\|authorlink\\=Salvador Miranda (historian) \\|last\\=Miranda \\|first\\=Salvador \\|title\\= RICCI, Giovanni (1498\\-1574\\)\\|url\\=https://cardinals.fiu.edu/bios1551\\-ii.htm\\#Ricci\\|work\\=The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church \\|accessdate\\=\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Florida International University]] Libraries\\|oclc\\=53276621}} Disliking his stepmother, Giovanni Ricci traveled to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") at age 15, seeking the protection of his father's friend Tarugi, a [nobleman](/wiki/Italian_nobility \"Italian nobility\") from Montepulciano, who could not convince the youth to return to Montepulciano. He later entered the court of Cardinal Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte, the future [Pope Julius III](/wiki/Pope_Julius_III \"Pope Julius III\"), as assistant to the master of chamber; he became the cardinal's master of chamber upon the death of the old master of chamber. He later entered the service of Cardinal [Alessandro Farnese, *iuniore*](/wiki/Alessandro_Farnese_%28cardinal%29 \"Alessandro Farnese (cardinal)\"). He was sent on [diplomatic missions](/wiki/Diplomatic_mission \"Diplomatic mission\") to the [Kingdom of France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France \"Kingdom of France\") and the [Duchy of Burgundy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy \"Duchy of Burgundy\"), which he accomplished successfully.",
"He then entered the ecclesiastical estate and became a [protonotary apostolic](/wiki/Protonotary_apostolic \"Protonotary apostolic\") *participantium*. In 1542, he became a cleric in the [Apostolic Camera](/wiki/Apostolic_Camera \"Apostolic Camera\"). He was later to serve as apostolic collector for the [Kingdom of Portugal](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal \"Kingdom of Portugal\"), and [nuncio](/wiki/Nuncio \"Nuncio\") to the [Kingdom of France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France \"Kingdom of France\") and to [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\").",
"On 25 June 1544, he was elected [Archbishop of Manfredonia](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Manfredonia-Vieste-S._Giovanni_Rotondo \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manfredonia-Vieste-S. Giovanni Rotondo\"). From 27 June 1544 to 4 March 1550, he was nuncio to the Kingdom of Portugal (though he was unable to enter [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") until September 1545\\.) On 20 February, 1545, he was transferred to the [see of Chiusi](/wiki/Diocese_of_Chiusi-Pienza \"Diocese of Chiusi-Pienza\"), though he was allowed to retain the title of [archbishop](/wiki/Archbishop \"Archbishop\") *ad personam*.",
"Pope Julius III made him a [cardinal priest](/wiki/Cardinal_priest \"Cardinal priest\") in the [consistory](/wiki/Papal_consistory \"Papal consistory\") of 20 November 1551\\. He received the [red hat](/wiki/Galero \"Galero\") and the [titular church](/wiki/Titular_church \"Titular church\") of [San Vitale](/wiki/San_Vitale%2C_Rome \"San Vitale, Rome\") on 4 December 1551\\. He resigned the government of Chiusi sometime before 19 November 1554\\.",
"He was a participant in the [papal conclave of April 1555](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_April_1555 \"Papal conclave, April 1555\") that elected [Pope Marcellus II](/wiki/Pope_Marcellus_II \"Pope Marcellus II\"); the [papal conclave of May 1555](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_May_1555 \"Papal conclave, May 1555\") that elected [Pope Paul IV](/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV \"Pope Paul IV\"); and the [papal conclave of 1559](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_1559 \"Papal conclave, 1559\") that elected [Pope Pius IV](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IV \"Pope Pius IV\").",
"On 10 November 1561, he became administrator of the [see of Montepulciano](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Montepulciano-Chiusi-Pienza \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Montepulciano-Chiusi-Pienza\"). He served as [Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals](/wiki/Camerlengo_of_the_Sacred_College_of_Cardinals \"Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals\") from 30 January 1563 until 1564\\.",
"He participated in the [papal conclave of 1565–66](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_1565%E2%80%931566 \"Papal conclave, 1565–1566\") that elected [Pope Pius V](/wiki/Pope_Pius_V \"Pope Pius V\"). On 30 January, 1566, he opted for [Sant'Angelo in Pescheria](/wiki/Sant%27Angelo_in_Pescheria \"Sant'Angelo in Pescheria\"), a [deaconry](/wiki/Titular_church%23Cardinal-deaconries \"Titular church#Cardinal-deaconries\") assigned as *titulus*, and then, on 7 October, 1566, for the titular church of [Santa Maria in Trastevere](/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Trastevere \"Santa Maria in Trastevere\"). He was transferred to the [metropolitan see of Pisa](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Pisa \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Pisa\") on 3 September 1567\\.",
"On 3 July 1570, he opted for the order of [cardinal bishops](/wiki/Cardinal_bishop \"Cardinal bishop\"), taking the [suburbicarian see of Albano](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Suburbicarian_Diocese_of_Albano \"Roman Catholic Suburbicarian Diocese of Albano\"). He was a participant in the [papal conclave of 1572](/wiki/Papal_conclave%2C_1572 \"Papal conclave, 1572\") that elected [Pope Gregory XIII](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII \"Pope Gregory XIII\"). He opted for the [suburbicarian see of Sabina](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Suburbicarian_Diocese_of_Sabina-Poggio_Mirteto \"Roman Catholic Suburbicarian Diocese of Sabina-Poggio Mirteto\") on 8 April 1573\\.",
"He died in Rome on 3 May 1574\\. He was buried in [San Pietro in Montorio](/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Montorio \"San Pietro in Montorio\").",
""
] |
2013 shootings
--------------
On 9 February 2013 at [Bass Hill](/wiki/Bass_Hill "Bass Hill") another unnamed BFL member was knee\-capped. In an important breakthrough this person became a police informant known as 'Witness A'.
On 19 February two BFL members were arrested. [Michael Odisho](/wiki/Michael_Odisho "Michael Odisho"), 28, and Faoud Ekermawi, 35, were arrested in connection with the shooting in [Winston Hills](/wiki/Winston_Hills "Winston Hills") in October 2012, and the Bass Hill kneecapping in February 2013\. This was a result of information from Witness A.
On 9 March in [Auburn](/wiki/Auburn%2C_New_South_Wales "Auburn, New South Wales"), Maha Hamze, the aunt of BFL leader Bassam Hamzy, was shot eight times in the legs through the front door of her home. 28 cartridge cases were recovered by police. It is believed the shooting was a payback over a demand for a debt recovery fee of $5,000 that the woman's son, Ashkan Rajabi, made to another man's mother. That man asked Bassam Hamzy to collect a $20,000 debt, which was done by Ashkan, who later approached the man's mother at her [Marrickville](/wiki/Marrickville "Marrickville") home demanding the fee.{{cite news \|last1\=Benny\-Morrison \|first1\=Ava \|title\=Row over debt led to Hamzy shooting: court \|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/latest\-news/row\-over\-debt\-led\-to\-hamzy\-shooting\-court/story\-fn3dxiwe\-1227092633937?nk\=ed0cb1b923792184487321063dbabe8a \|access\-date\=28 October 2014 \|work\=\[\[The Australian]]\|agency\=AAP \|publisher\=News Corp Australia \|date\=16 October 2014}} A 28\-year\-old man was charged on 16 May with "shooting Maha Hamze with intent to kill". On 28 October 2014 the man, unnamed for legal reasons, was found guilty in the [District Court of New South Wales](/wiki/District_Court_of_New_South_Wales "District Court of New South Wales") of the attempted murder of Hamze. He was due to be sentenced on 18 December.{{cite news \|last1\=Aird \|first1\=Claire \|title\=Man found guilty of attempted murder of Brothers 4 Life founder Bassam Hamzy's aunt Maha Hamze \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014\-10\-28/man\-guilty\-of\-attempted\-murder\-bassam\-hamzy\-aunt/5847258\|access\-date\=28 October 2014 \|work\=ABC News \|date\=28 October 2014 \|location\=Australia}} In June 2021, [Bilal Hamze was shot dead](/wiki/%232021_shootings "#2021 shootings").
On 25 July 2013 in Dunmore Street, [Wentworthville](/wiki/Wentworthville "Wentworthville"), shots were fired at two people Ashkan Rajabi and Bilal Hamze in a car parked outside a swimming pool.
On 2 August shots were fired at a dwelling in Lignite Place, [Eagle Vale](/wiki/Eagle_Vale "Eagle Vale").{{cite news \|author\=taylor auerbach \|author\-link\=Taylor Auerbach \|date\=1 August 2013 \|title\=Drive by shooting at Eagle Vale house 'targeted' say police \|newspaper\=Daily Telegraph \|url\=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/drive\-by\-shooting\-at\-eagle\-vale\-house\-targeted\-say\-police/news\-story/75733e521168b240f9a1072a1b9c6f66?nk\=b679cd54985c74482b7a2ad5fc67f501\-1525086490}}
Just after midnight on 29 October in Bardo Circuit, [Revesby Heights](/wiki/Revesby_Heights "Revesby Heights"), another BFL member, Mahmoud Hamzy, 27, was shot dead. Mahmoud Hamzy was a cousin of Bassam Hamzy. In the same shooting Omar Ajaj, 24, also a BFL member, was wounded.[Afghan faction splits Brothers 4 Life gang, raising fears of more violence](http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-11-19/afghan-faction-splits-brothers-4-life-gang/5103596). By Sean Rubinsztein\-Dunlop, staff. 20 November 2013\. Retrieved 19 July 2014 Mahmoud's cousin Mohammed Hamzy was also present but escaped through the back door. On 27−28 October 2014, five BFL members were arrested and charged with Hamzys' murder.{{cite press release \|title\=Fifth 'Brothers for Life' member charged with murder \- SCC Homicide Squad \|url\=http://www.police.nsw.gov.au/news/media\_release\_archive?sq\_content\_src\=%2BdXJsPWh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGZWJpenByZC5wb2xpY2UubnN3Lmdvdi5hdSUyRm1lZGlhJTJGNDE4MzcuaHRtbCZhbGw9MQ%3D%3D \|website\=www.police.nsw.gov.au \|publisher\=NSW Police Force \|access\-date\=28 October 2014 \|date\=28 October 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094006/http://www.police.nsw.gov.au/news/media\_release\_archive?sq\_content\_src\=%2BdXJsPWh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGZWJpenByZC5wb2xpY2UubnN3Lmdvdi5hdSUyRm1lZGlhJTJGNDE4MzcuaHRtbCZhbGw9MQ%3D%3D \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }}
Less than a week later on 3 November at Winston Hills, previously arrested BFL member Michael Odisho was shot several times. Before BFL, Odisho was a member of the [Assyrian Kings](/wiki/DLASTHR "DLASTHR") gang.[Brothers For life gang: timeline](http://dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/brothers-for-life-gang-timeline/story-fni0cx12-1226756006679) Yoni Bashan The Sunday Telegraph, 9 November 2013, 13 November 2013[Bikie Michael Odisho's tattoos celebrated guns, and now he's gunned down, Mark Morri](http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/bikie-michael-odishos-tattoos-celebrated-guns-and-now-hes-gunned-down/story-fni0cx12-1226753100623). The Daily Telegraph. 5 November 2013\. Retrieved 19 July 2014
On 4 November in Sunnyholt Road, [Blacktown](/wiki/Blacktown "Blacktown"), a 13\-year\-old girl was wounded by shotgun pellets. Her brother Masood Zakaria, a BFL member, is alleged to have been the target.
On 7 November three BFL Bankstown chapter members, Abdul Abu\-Mahmoud, Hassan Souied and Khalil Khalil, were in a car outside the Chokolatta Cafe in [Bankstown](/wiki/Bankstown "Bankstown") when four members of the gangs' Blacktown chapter allegedly shot at them in a [drive\-by shooting](/wiki/Drive-by_shooting "Drive-by shooting"). Four men were arrested in [Parramatta](/wiki/Parramatta "Parramatta") about 40 minutes after the shooting. On 11 November Sarkhel Rokhzayi, 22, Mobin Marzei and Wahed Karimi, both 18, and Jamil Qaumi, 20, were charged in Burwood Court. A total of 72 charges were laid against the four, including attempted murder and firing a sawn\-off shotgun.{{cite news \|last1\=McClellan \|first1\=Ben \|title\=Brothers 4 Life gang's coded call to attack \|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/brothers\-4\-life\-gangs\-coded\-call\-to\-attack/story\-fni0cx12\-1226757693447 \|access\-date\=28 October 2014 \|work\=The DailyTelegraph \|publisher\=News Corp Australia \|date\=12 November 2013 \|location\=Australia}} Amanda Crowe, 27, was also charged with "wounding with intent to kill" in relation to the Cafe shooting. Other charges laid against her were: "knowingly directing activities" of the B4L, and participating in a criminal group. She was released on {{AUD}}1\.3 million bail, before being re\-arrested at her home in Dulwich Hill in 2014 on 27 October. She had additional charges laid of: the murder of Mahmoud Hamzy; conspiring to murder Mohammed Hamzy; and wounding Ajaj.{{cite news \|last1\=Fife\-Yeomans \|first1\=Janet \|last2\=Lema Samandar \|first2\=Lema \|title\=Did legal clerk Amanda Crowe plot a gangland murder? \|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/national/did\-legal\-clerk\-amanda\-crowe\-plot\-a\-gangland\-murder/story\-fnpn0zn5\-1227104136936 \|access\-date\=28 October 2014 \|work\=The Daily Telegraph \|date\=28 October 2014 \|location\=Australia}} It was alleged in Burwood Local Cort that Crowe drove the white [Nissan Tiida](/wiki/Nissan_Tiida "Nissan Tiida") carrying the three gunmen who killed Mohammed Hamzy.
On 16 December, Joe Antoun, a [standover man](/wiki/Extortion "Extortion"), was shot dead at his home in Jersey Road, [Strathfield](/wiki/Strathfield "Strathfield"). Antoun answered a knock on his front door and was shot several times.[Man shot dead in Sydney suburb of Strathfield after answering knock at front door](http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-12-17/man-shot-dead-in-strathfield-sydney/5160396) ABC.net Updated 17 December 2013\. Retrieved 19 July 2014 Vasko Boskovski, his business partner was killed at [Earlwood](/wiki/Earlwood "Earlwood") months before in a similar shooting. On 27 October 2014, two of four BFL members, already in custody for the killing of Mahmoud Hamzy and the Chokolatta Cafe shooting, were also charged with murder over the Antoun shooting.
|
[
"2013 shootings\n--------------",
"On 9 February 2013 at [Bass Hill](/wiki/Bass_Hill \"Bass Hill\") another unnamed BFL member was knee\\-capped. In an important breakthrough this person became a police informant known as 'Witness A'.",
"On 19 February two BFL members were arrested. [Michael Odisho](/wiki/Michael_Odisho \"Michael Odisho\"), 28, and Faoud Ekermawi, 35, were arrested in connection with the shooting in [Winston Hills](/wiki/Winston_Hills \"Winston Hills\") in October 2012, and the Bass Hill kneecapping in February 2013\\. This was a result of information from Witness A.",
"On 9 March in [Auburn](/wiki/Auburn%2C_New_South_Wales \"Auburn, New South Wales\"), Maha Hamze, the aunt of BFL leader Bassam Hamzy, was shot eight times in the legs through the front door of her home. 28 cartridge cases were recovered by police. It is believed the shooting was a payback over a demand for a debt recovery fee of $5,000 that the woman's son, Ashkan Rajabi, made to another man's mother. That man asked Bassam Hamzy to collect a $20,000 debt, which was done by Ashkan, who later approached the man's mother at her [Marrickville](/wiki/Marrickville \"Marrickville\") home demanding the fee.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Benny\\-Morrison \\|first1\\=Ava \\|title\\=Row over debt led to Hamzy shooting: court \\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/latest\\-news/row\\-over\\-debt\\-led\\-to\\-hamzy\\-shooting\\-court/story\\-fn3dxiwe\\-1227092633937?nk\\=ed0cb1b923792184487321063dbabe8a \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2014 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Australian]]\\|agency\\=AAP \\|publisher\\=News Corp Australia \\|date\\=16 October 2014}} A 28\\-year\\-old man was charged on 16 May with \"shooting Maha Hamze with intent to kill\". On 28 October 2014 the man, unnamed for legal reasons, was found guilty in the [District Court of New South Wales](/wiki/District_Court_of_New_South_Wales \"District Court of New South Wales\") of the attempted murder of Hamze. He was due to be sentenced on 18 December.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Aird \\|first1\\=Claire \\|title\\=Man found guilty of attempted murder of Brothers 4 Life founder Bassam Hamzy's aunt Maha Hamze \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014\\-10\\-28/man\\-guilty\\-of\\-attempted\\-murder\\-bassam\\-hamzy\\-aunt/5847258\\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2014 \\|work\\=ABC News \\|date\\=28 October 2014 \\|location\\=Australia}} In June 2021, [Bilal Hamze was shot dead](/wiki/%232021_shootings \"#2021 shootings\").",
"On 25 July 2013 in Dunmore Street, [Wentworthville](/wiki/Wentworthville \"Wentworthville\"), shots were fired at two people Ashkan Rajabi and Bilal Hamze in a car parked outside a swimming pool.",
"On 2 August shots were fired at a dwelling in Lignite Place, [Eagle Vale](/wiki/Eagle_Vale \"Eagle Vale\").{{cite news \\|author\\=taylor auerbach \\|author\\-link\\=Taylor Auerbach \\|date\\=1 August 2013 \\|title\\=Drive by shooting at Eagle Vale house 'targeted' say police \\|newspaper\\=Daily Telegraph \\|url\\=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/drive\\-by\\-shooting\\-at\\-eagle\\-vale\\-house\\-targeted\\-say\\-police/news\\-story/75733e521168b240f9a1072a1b9c6f66?nk\\=b679cd54985c74482b7a2ad5fc67f501\\-1525086490}}",
"Just after midnight on 29 October in Bardo Circuit, [Revesby Heights](/wiki/Revesby_Heights \"Revesby Heights\"), another BFL member, Mahmoud Hamzy, 27, was shot dead. Mahmoud Hamzy was a cousin of Bassam Hamzy. In the same shooting Omar Ajaj, 24, also a BFL member, was wounded.[Afghan faction splits Brothers 4 Life gang, raising fears of more violence](http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-11-19/afghan-faction-splits-brothers-4-life-gang/5103596). By Sean Rubinsztein\\-Dunlop, staff. 20 November 2013\\. Retrieved 19 July 2014 Mahmoud's cousin Mohammed Hamzy was also present but escaped through the back door. On 27−28 October 2014, five BFL members were arrested and charged with Hamzys' murder.{{cite press release \\|title\\=Fifth 'Brothers for Life' member charged with murder \\- SCC Homicide Squad \\|url\\=http://www.police.nsw.gov.au/news/media\\_release\\_archive?sq\\_content\\_src\\=%2BdXJsPWh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGZWJpenByZC5wb2xpY2UubnN3Lmdvdi5hdSUyRm1lZGlhJTJGNDE4MzcuaHRtbCZhbGw9MQ%3D%3D \\|website\\=www.police.nsw.gov.au \\|publisher\\=NSW Police Force \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2014 \\|date\\=28 October 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094006/http://www.police.nsw.gov.au/news/media\\_release\\_archive?sq\\_content\\_src\\=%2BdXJsPWh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGZWJpenByZC5wb2xpY2UubnN3Lmdvdi5hdSUyRm1lZGlhJTJGNDE4MzcuaHRtbCZhbGw9MQ%3D%3D \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Less than a week later on 3 November at Winston Hills, previously arrested BFL member Michael Odisho was shot several times. Before BFL, Odisho was a member of the [Assyrian Kings](/wiki/DLASTHR \"DLASTHR\") gang.[Brothers For life gang: timeline](http://dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/brothers-for-life-gang-timeline/story-fni0cx12-1226756006679) Yoni Bashan The Sunday Telegraph, 9 November 2013, 13 November 2013[Bikie Michael Odisho's tattoos celebrated guns, and now he's gunned down, Mark Morri](http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/bikie-michael-odishos-tattoos-celebrated-guns-and-now-hes-gunned-down/story-fni0cx12-1226753100623). The Daily Telegraph. 5 November 2013\\. Retrieved 19 July 2014",
"On 4 November in Sunnyholt Road, [Blacktown](/wiki/Blacktown \"Blacktown\"), a 13\\-year\\-old girl was wounded by shotgun pellets. Her brother Masood Zakaria, a BFL member, is alleged to have been the target.",
"On 7 November three BFL Bankstown chapter members, Abdul Abu\\-Mahmoud, Hassan Souied and Khalil Khalil, were in a car outside the Chokolatta Cafe in [Bankstown](/wiki/Bankstown \"Bankstown\") when four members of the gangs' Blacktown chapter allegedly shot at them in a [drive\\-by shooting](/wiki/Drive-by_shooting \"Drive-by shooting\"). Four men were arrested in [Parramatta](/wiki/Parramatta \"Parramatta\") about 40 minutes after the shooting. On 11 November Sarkhel Rokhzayi, 22, Mobin Marzei and Wahed Karimi, both 18, and Jamil Qaumi, 20, were charged in Burwood Court. A total of 72 charges were laid against the four, including attempted murder and firing a sawn\\-off shotgun.{{cite news \\|last1\\=McClellan \\|first1\\=Ben \\|title\\=Brothers 4 Life gang's coded call to attack \\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/brothers\\-4\\-life\\-gangs\\-coded\\-call\\-to\\-attack/story\\-fni0cx12\\-1226757693447 \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2014 \\|work\\=The DailyTelegraph \\|publisher\\=News Corp Australia \\|date\\=12 November 2013 \\|location\\=Australia}} Amanda Crowe, 27, was also charged with \"wounding with intent to kill\" in relation to the Cafe shooting. Other charges laid against her were: \"knowingly directing activities\" of the B4L, and participating in a criminal group. She was released on {{AUD}}1\\.3 million bail, before being re\\-arrested at her home in Dulwich Hill in 2014 on 27 October. She had additional charges laid of: the murder of Mahmoud Hamzy; conspiring to murder Mohammed Hamzy; and wounding Ajaj.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Fife\\-Yeomans \\|first1\\=Janet \\|last2\\=Lema Samandar \\|first2\\=Lema \\|title\\=Did legal clerk Amanda Crowe plot a gangland murder? \\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/national/did\\-legal\\-clerk\\-amanda\\-crowe\\-plot\\-a\\-gangland\\-murder/story\\-fnpn0zn5\\-1227104136936 \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2014 \\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph \\|date\\=28 October 2014 \\|location\\=Australia}} It was alleged in Burwood Local Cort that Crowe drove the white [Nissan Tiida](/wiki/Nissan_Tiida \"Nissan Tiida\") carrying the three gunmen who killed Mohammed Hamzy.",
"On 16 December, Joe Antoun, a [standover man](/wiki/Extortion \"Extortion\"), was shot dead at his home in Jersey Road, [Strathfield](/wiki/Strathfield \"Strathfield\"). Antoun answered a knock on his front door and was shot several times.[Man shot dead in Sydney suburb of Strathfield after answering knock at front door](http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-12-17/man-shot-dead-in-strathfield-sydney/5160396) ABC.net Updated 17 December 2013\\. Retrieved 19 July 2014 Vasko Boskovski, his business partner was killed at [Earlwood](/wiki/Earlwood \"Earlwood\") months before in a similar shooting. On 27 October 2014, two of four BFL members, already in custody for the killing of Mahmoud Hamzy and the Chokolatta Cafe shooting, were also charged with murder over the Antoun shooting.",
""
] |
History
-------
As far as is known, [Scouting](/wiki/Scouting "Scouting") was not introduced to the region during the [khanate period of the pre\-Soviet era](/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia%23Return_of_indigenous_rule "History of Central Asia#Return of indigenous rule").
In 1990 a conference (or Congress) of people interested in Scouting was held in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"). [Viktor Deimund](/wiki/Viktor_Deimund "Viktor Deimund") (now the President of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan) represented [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") at the Congress. The Congress established the *Association of Russian Scouting Renaissance*. The homegrown Scout troops within Kazakhstan joined the membership of the [Ural Scout Region](/wiki/Russian_Association_of_Scouts/Navigators%23After_1990 "Russian Association of Scouts/Navigators#After 1990").
Viktor Deimund and [Oleg Mozheyko](/wiki/Oleg_Mozheyko "Oleg Mozheyko") organized the first Scout Troops in Kazakhstan in 1991\. Republic\-wide newspapers published the first articles on the work of [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar "Pavlodar") Scout troops. Shortly thereafter, hundreds of letters came to Pavlodar from people asking for help to create Scout units. Pavlodar Scout leaders published and sent out Scouting literature, and Scout troops were created in different cities and parts of Kazakhstan.
On December 28, 1992, the Organization of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan was registered in the Ministry of Justice, and in 1993 Scout leader training courses were made available. An All\-Republic Camp ([National Jamboree](/wiki/Jamboree_%28Scouting%29 "Jamboree (Scouting)")) "Jasybay's Arrow" was held in the summer at [Jasybay](/wiki/Jasybay "Jasybay"), a national camp near [Bayanaul National Park](/wiki/Bayanaul_National_Park "Bayanaul National Park"), [Pavlodar Province](/wiki/Pavlodar_Province "Pavlodar Province"), named for a [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakhs "Kazakhs") mythic hero. 1994 saw both the publication of handbook "Scouting for Everybody" and the participation of Kazakhstan Scouts in a [World Scout Committee](/wiki/World_Scout_Committee "World Scout Committee") Informative Council on Scouting in [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea"). During the council, President Deimund discussed the development of Scouting in Kazakhstan with Doctor [Jacques Moreillon](/wiki/Jacques_Moreillon "Jacques Moreillon"), the [Secretary General](/wiki/Secretary_General "Secretary General") of WOSM. Leaders of Kazakh Scouts took part in the international seminar "Scouting: Youth without Borders" in [Morocco](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Nationale_du_Scoutisme_Marocain "Fédération Nationale du Scoutisme Marocain"). In 1995, Kazakhstan's Scouts were represented at the 18th [World Scout Jamboree](/wiki/World_Scout_Jamboree "World Scout Jamboree") in the Netherlands by a small group.
Since 1994 the Organization of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan has received financial and organizational support from the German Scout Association [Bund der Pfadfinderinnen und Pfadfinder](/wiki/Bund_der_Pfadfinderinnen_und_Pfadfinder "Bund der Pfadfinderinnen und Pfadfinder") (BdP), with which they share an exchange program. 20 Guides and Scouts from the BdP travelled to Kazakhstan for the National Camp in 2002\. Every year Guides and Scouts from the OSMK and BdP meet each other in camps or training courses either in Germany or Kazakhstan, helping and learning from each other. In 2006 8 Guides and Scouts from the BdP travelled to Kazakhstan for the National Camp.
In 1999, Kazakhstan held the First International Scout Camp "Kakharman\-99", and in 2003 held WINGS2003, a subcamp for 10 to 14\-year\-olds. On October 5, 2004, the [Internet Access and Training Program](/wiki/Internet_Access_and_Training_Program "Internet Access and Training Program") (IATP) brought together 20 Scouts from Kazakhstan and [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan") for a two\-hour online discussion of their activities from the IATP access sites in five cities in Kazakhstan and three in Uzbekistan, aimed to bring together representatives of the Scouting movements from these countries to promote friendship and cooperation. Scouts from Kazakhstan named as their main challenge a lack of funds, and the difficulty of building a successful fundraising operation.
With the 1991 breakup of the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), it was suggested that the [Türkiye İzcilik Federasyonu](/wiki/T%C3%BCrkiye_%C4%B0zcilik_Federasyonu "Türkiye İzcilik Federasyonu") assist in the creation of Scouting movements in the Turkic [Central Asian](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia") republics of Kazakhstan, [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Scouting_in_Kyrgyzstan "Scouting in Kyrgyzstan"), [Turkmenistan](/wiki/Scouting_in_Turkmenistan "Scouting in Turkmenistan") and [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Scout_Association_of_Uzbekistan "Scout Association of Uzbekistan"), but it is uncertain if this plan ever materialized.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"As far as is known, [Scouting](/wiki/Scouting \"Scouting\") was not introduced to the region during the [khanate period of the pre\\-Soviet era](/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia%23Return_of_indigenous_rule \"History of Central Asia#Return of indigenous rule\").",
"In 1990 a conference (or Congress) of people interested in Scouting was held in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"). [Viktor Deimund](/wiki/Viktor_Deimund \"Viktor Deimund\") (now the President of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan) represented [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") at the Congress. The Congress established the *Association of Russian Scouting Renaissance*. The homegrown Scout troops within Kazakhstan joined the membership of the [Ural Scout Region](/wiki/Russian_Association_of_Scouts/Navigators%23After_1990 \"Russian Association of Scouts/Navigators#After 1990\").",
"Viktor Deimund and [Oleg Mozheyko](/wiki/Oleg_Mozheyko \"Oleg Mozheyko\") organized the first Scout Troops in Kazakhstan in 1991\\. Republic\\-wide newspapers published the first articles on the work of [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar \"Pavlodar\") Scout troops. Shortly thereafter, hundreds of letters came to Pavlodar from people asking for help to create Scout units. Pavlodar Scout leaders published and sent out Scouting literature, and Scout troops were created in different cities and parts of Kazakhstan.",
"On December 28, 1992, the Organization of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan was registered in the Ministry of Justice, and in 1993 Scout leader training courses were made available. An All\\-Republic Camp ([National Jamboree](/wiki/Jamboree_%28Scouting%29 \"Jamboree (Scouting)\")) \"Jasybay's Arrow\" was held in the summer at [Jasybay](/wiki/Jasybay \"Jasybay\"), a national camp near [Bayanaul National Park](/wiki/Bayanaul_National_Park \"Bayanaul National Park\"), [Pavlodar Province](/wiki/Pavlodar_Province \"Pavlodar Province\"), named for a [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakhs \"Kazakhs\") mythic hero. 1994 saw both the publication of handbook \"Scouting for Everybody\" and the participation of Kazakhstan Scouts in a [World Scout Committee](/wiki/World_Scout_Committee \"World Scout Committee\") Informative Council on Scouting in [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\"). During the council, President Deimund discussed the development of Scouting in Kazakhstan with Doctor [Jacques Moreillon](/wiki/Jacques_Moreillon \"Jacques Moreillon\"), the [Secretary General](/wiki/Secretary_General \"Secretary General\") of WOSM. Leaders of Kazakh Scouts took part in the international seminar \"Scouting: Youth without Borders\" in [Morocco](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Nationale_du_Scoutisme_Marocain \"Fédération Nationale du Scoutisme Marocain\"). In 1995, Kazakhstan's Scouts were represented at the 18th [World Scout Jamboree](/wiki/World_Scout_Jamboree \"World Scout Jamboree\") in the Netherlands by a small group.",
"Since 1994 the Organization of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan has received financial and organizational support from the German Scout Association [Bund der Pfadfinderinnen und Pfadfinder](/wiki/Bund_der_Pfadfinderinnen_und_Pfadfinder \"Bund der Pfadfinderinnen und Pfadfinder\") (BdP), with which they share an exchange program. 20 Guides and Scouts from the BdP travelled to Kazakhstan for the National Camp in 2002\\. Every year Guides and Scouts from the OSMK and BdP meet each other in camps or training courses either in Germany or Kazakhstan, helping and learning from each other. In 2006 8 Guides and Scouts from the BdP travelled to Kazakhstan for the National Camp.",
"In 1999, Kazakhstan held the First International Scout Camp \"Kakharman\\-99\", and in 2003 held WINGS2003, a subcamp for 10 to 14\\-year\\-olds. On October 5, 2004, the [Internet Access and Training Program](/wiki/Internet_Access_and_Training_Program \"Internet Access and Training Program\") (IATP) brought together 20 Scouts from Kazakhstan and [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan \"Uzbekistan\") for a two\\-hour online discussion of their activities from the IATP access sites in five cities in Kazakhstan and three in Uzbekistan, aimed to bring together representatives of the Scouting movements from these countries to promote friendship and cooperation. Scouts from Kazakhstan named as their main challenge a lack of funds, and the difficulty of building a successful fundraising operation.",
"With the 1991 breakup of the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), it was suggested that the [Türkiye İzcilik Federasyonu](/wiki/T%C3%BCrkiye_%C4%B0zcilik_Federasyonu \"Türkiye İzcilik Federasyonu\") assist in the creation of Scouting movements in the Turkic [Central Asian](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\") republics of Kazakhstan, [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Scouting_in_Kyrgyzstan \"Scouting in Kyrgyzstan\"), [Turkmenistan](/wiki/Scouting_in_Turkmenistan \"Scouting in Turkmenistan\") and [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Scout_Association_of_Uzbekistan \"Scout Association of Uzbekistan\"), but it is uncertain if this plan ever materialized.",
""
] |
Program and ideals
------------------
Kazakhstan Scouts are expected to hold spiritual values and national loyalty, but the organization does not discriminate by faith or ethnic origin. Scouts are also expected to live up to the Scout Oath and Law and to serve their communities, which they accomplish through such activities as working with handicapped children and cleaning natural areas. The program's goal is to strengthen character and promote healthy minds, bodies and spirits in participants.
The OSMK presently has no property except a headquarters. OSMK favors youth membership and youth involvement through an active strategy to recruit youth members. The adult policy aims at supporting leadership and [recruitment](/wiki/Recruitment "Recruitment") of [volunteers](/wiki/Volunteering "Volunteering").
OSMK is open to girls and boys, women and men, in four age sections:
* Junior Scouts\-ages 7 to 10
* Scouts\-ages 11 to 14
* Senior Scouts\-ages 15 to 17
* Scout leaders are over 18
The [Scout Motto](/wiki/Scout_Motto "Scout Motto") is *Dayyin Bol*, translating as *Be Prepared* in [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language "Kazakh language"), and *Bud' Gotov*, translating likewise in Russian. The noun for a single Scout is *Скаут* in both languages. Kazakh Scouts wear a dark green uniform.
The membership badge of the Organization of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan incorporates elements of the [flag of Kazakhstan](/wiki/Flag_of_Kazakhstan "Flag of Kazakhstan") set inside the [Rub El Hizb](/wiki/Rub_El_Hizb "Rub El Hizb") (۞).
The National Council, composed of eleven members, includes seven women and four men. OSMK has three regularly employed professional staff. The Council Chairman is Victor Georgievich Deimund, and the International Commissioner is Mrs. Ainur Shaikhimova Abylayevna.
|
[
"Program and ideals\n------------------",
"Kazakhstan Scouts are expected to hold spiritual values and national loyalty, but the organization does not discriminate by faith or ethnic origin. Scouts are also expected to live up to the Scout Oath and Law and to serve their communities, which they accomplish through such activities as working with handicapped children and cleaning natural areas. The program's goal is to strengthen character and promote healthy minds, bodies and spirits in participants.",
"The OSMK presently has no property except a headquarters. OSMK favors youth membership and youth involvement through an active strategy to recruit youth members. The adult policy aims at supporting leadership and [recruitment](/wiki/Recruitment \"Recruitment\") of [volunteers](/wiki/Volunteering \"Volunteering\").",
"OSMK is open to girls and boys, women and men, in four age sections:",
"* Junior Scouts\\-ages 7 to 10\n* Scouts\\-ages 11 to 14\n* Senior Scouts\\-ages 15 to 17\n* Scout leaders are over 18",
"The [Scout Motto](/wiki/Scout_Motto \"Scout Motto\") is *Dayyin Bol*, translating as *Be Prepared* in [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language \"Kazakh language\"), and *Bud' Gotov*, translating likewise in Russian. The noun for a single Scout is *Скаут* in both languages. Kazakh Scouts wear a dark green uniform.",
"The membership badge of the Organization of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan incorporates elements of the [flag of Kazakhstan](/wiki/Flag_of_Kazakhstan \"Flag of Kazakhstan\") set inside the [Rub El Hizb](/wiki/Rub_El_Hizb \"Rub El Hizb\") (۞).",
"The National Council, composed of eleven members, includes seven women and four men. OSMK has three regularly employed professional staff. The Council Chairman is Victor Georgievich Deimund, and the International Commissioner is Mrs. Ainur Shaikhimova Abylayevna.",
""
] |
Cruel and unusual punishments
-----------------------------
### General aspects
{{main\|Cruel and unusual punishment}}
The Constitution was amended to prohibit cruel and unusual punishments as part of the [United States Bill of Rights](/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights "United States Bill of Rights") as a result of objections raised by people such as Abraham Holmes and [Patrick Henry](/wiki/Patrick_Henry "Patrick Henry"). While Holmes feared the establishment of the [Inquisition](/wiki/Inquisition "Inquisition") in the United States, Henry was concerned with the application of torture as a way of extracting confessions. They also feared that the [federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States "Federal government of the United States") would misuse its powers to create federal crimes as well as to punish those who committed them under the new Constitution and thus use these powers as a way to oppress the people. Abraham Holmes, a member of the Massachusetts Ratifying Convention for the federal constitution, for example noted in a letter from January 30, 1788, that the new Constitution would give the U.S. Congress the power "to ascertain, point out, and determine, what kind of punishments shall be inflicted on persons convicted of crimes." He added with respect those who would belong to the new government under the new Constitution: "They are nowhere restrained from inventing the most cruel and unheard\-of punishments, and annexing them to crimes; and there is no constitutional check on them, but that [racks](/wiki/Rack_%28torture%29 "Rack (torture)") and [gibbets](/wiki/Gibbeting "Gibbeting") may be amongst the most mild instruments of their discipline."{{cite web \|last1\=Holmes \|first1\=Abrahahm \|title\=The Founders' Constitution Volume 5, Amendment VIII, Document 12, January 30, 1788 letter by Abraham Holmes, Massachusetts Ratifying Convention. In: Elliot, Jonathan, ed. ''The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution as Recommended by the General Convention at Philadelphia in 1787''. . . . 5 vols. 2d ed. 1888\. Reprint. New York: Burt Franklin, n.d. \|url\=https://press\-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendVIIIs12\.html \|publisher\=The University of Chicago Press \|access\-date\=July 19, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223101042/https://press\-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendVIIIs12\.html \|archive\-date\=December 23, 2019 \|date\=January 30, 1788}}
Relying on the history of the Eighth Amendment and its own caselaw the Supreme Court stated in *[Ingraham v. Wright](/wiki/Ingraham_v._Wright "Ingraham v. Wright")* (1977\) that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause was designed to protect those convicted of crimes.{{cite web \|title\=''Ingraham v. Wright'', 430 U.S. 651 (1977\), at 664\-667 \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/430/651/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=September 3, 2020 \|date\=April 19, 1977}} The Supreme Court consequently determined in *Ingraham* that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause limits the criminal process in three ways: "\[F]irst, it limits the kinds of punishment that can be imposed on those convicted of crimes, *e.g., [Estelle v. Gamble](/wiki/Estelle_v._Gamble "Estelle v. Gamble"), supra; [Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles "Trop v. Dulles"), supra;* second, it proscribes punishment grossly disproportionate to the severity of the crime, *e.g., [Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States "Weems v. United States"), supra*; and third, it imposes substantive limits on what can be made criminal and punished as such, *e.g., [Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California "Robinson v. California"), supra*."{{cite web \|title\=''Ingraham v. Wright'', 430 U.S. 651 (1977\), at 667 \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/430/651/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=September 3, 2020 \|date\=April 19, 1977}}
In *[Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber](/wiki/Louisiana_ex_rel._Francis_v._Resweber "Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber")*, {{ussc\|329\|459\|1947}}, the Supreme Court assumed *[arguendo](/wiki/Arguendo "Arguendo")* that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause [applied to the states](/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights "Incorporation of the Bill of Rights") through the [Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution%23Due_Process_Clause "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Due Process Clause"). In *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California "Robinson v. California")*, {{ussc\|370\|660\|1962}}, the Court ruled that it did apply to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. *Robinson* was the first case in which the Supreme Court applied the Eighth Amendment against the state governments through the Fourteenth Amendment. Before *Robinson*, the Eighth Amendment had been applied previously only in cases against the federal government.Federman, Cary. *[The Body and the State: Habeas Corpus and American Jurisprudence](https://books.google.com/books?id=VllckbKwNTAC&dq=Robinson+and+%22applied+the+eighth%22+and+fourteenth&pg=PA99)*, page 99 (SUNY Press 2006\).
Justice [Potter Stewart](/wiki/Potter_Stewart "Potter Stewart")'s opinion for the *Robinson* Court held that "infliction of cruel and unusual punishment is in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments." The framers of the Fourteenth Amendment, such as [John Bingham](/wiki/John_Bingham "John Bingham"), had discussed this subject:
{{blockquote\|Many instances of State injustice and oppression have already occurred in the State legislation of this Union, of flagrant violations of the guarantied privileges of citizens of the United States, for which the national Government furnished and could furnish by law no remedy whatever. Contrary to the express letter of your Constitution, "cruel and unusual punishments" have been inflicted under State laws within this Union upon citizens, not only for crimes committed, but for sacred duty done, for which and against which the Government of the United States had provided no remedy and could provide none.''\[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwcglink.html\#anchor39 Congressional Globe]'', 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2542 (1866\) quoted in ''\[\[Furman v. Georgia]]'', {{ussc\|408\|238\|1972}} (concurring opinion of Justice \[\[William O. Douglas\|Douglas]]). The same words of John Bingham had been quoted in Justice \[\[Hugo Black\|Black's]] dissent in ''\[\[Adamson v. California]]'', {{ussc\|332\|46\|1947}}; Black and three other dissenting justices had unsuccessfully urged in ''Adamson'' that the Eighth Amendment and the rest of the Bill of Rights be applied against the states.}}
In *[Furman v. Georgia](/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia "Furman v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|408\|238\|1972}}, [Justice Brennan](/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr. "William J. Brennan Jr.") wrote, "There are, then, four principles by which we may determine whether a particular punishment is 'cruel and unusual'."
* The "essential predicate" is "that a punishment must not by its severity be degrading to human dignity," especially [torture](/wiki/Torture "Torture").
* "A severe punishment that is obviously inflicted in wholly arbitrary fashion."
* "A severe punishment that is clearly and totally rejected throughout society."
* "A severe punishment that is patently unnecessary."
Justice Brennan added: "The function of these principles, after all, is simply to provide \[the] means by which a court can determine whether \[the] challenged punishment comports with human dignity. They are, therefore, interrelated, and, in most cases, it will be their convergence that will justify the conclusion that a punishment is 'cruel and unusual'. The test, then, will ordinarily be a cumulative one: if a punishment is unusually severe, if there is a strong probability that it is inflicted arbitrarily, if it is substantially rejected by contemporary society, and if there is no reason to believe that it serves any penal purpose more effectively than some less severe punishment, then the continued infliction of that punishment violates the command of the Clause that the State may not inflict inhuman and uncivilized punishments upon those convicted of crimes."
Justice Brennan also wrote that he expected no state would pass a law obviously violating any one of these principles, so court decisions regarding the Eighth Amendment would involve a "cumulative" analysis of the implication of each of the four principles. In this way, the United States Supreme Court "set the standard that a punishment would be cruel and unusual \[if] it was too severe for the crime, \[if] it was arbitrary, if it offended society's sense of justice, or if it was not more effective than a less severe penalty."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.internationaljusticeproject.org/seminal.cfm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030428095926/http://www.internationaljusticeproject.org/seminal.cfm\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=April 28, 2003\|author\=the International Justice Project\|title\=Seminal Cases—Brief Bank \& General Resources—the International Justice Project\|access\-date\=January 7, 2012}}
The plurality of the Supreme Court in *Furman v. Georgia* stated that the Eighth Amendment is not static, but that its meaning is interpreted in a flexible and dynamic manner to accord with, in the words of *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles "Trop v. Dulles")*, {{ussc\|356\|86\|1958}}, at page 101, "the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society." Punishments including capital punishment must therefore not be "excessive". The "excessiveness" of a punishment can be measured by two different aspects, which are independent of each other. The first aspect is whether the punishment involves the unnecessary and wanton infliction of pain. The second aspect is that the punishment must not be grossly out of proportion to the severity of the crime.{{cite web \|title\=''Gregg v. Georgia'', 428 U.S. 153 (1976\), at 169\-173 \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/428/153/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=July 2, 1976}} In *[Miller v. Alabama](/wiki/Miller_v._Alabama "Miller v. Alabama")*, 567 U.S. 460 (2012\), the Court explained that the Eighth Amendment "guarantees individuals the right not to be subjected to excessive sanctions", and that "punishment for crime should be graduated and proportioned to both the offender and the offense."{{cite web \|title\=''Miller v. Alabama'', 567 U.S. 460 (2012\), at 469 (citation and quotation marks omitted)\|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/460/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=October 25, 2020 \|date\=June 25, 2012}} The Supreme Court has also looked to "the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society" when addressing the prohibition on cruel and unusual punishments.
Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion "Concurring opinion") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\): "The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution") provides that "\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law." This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment."{{cite web \|author1\=\[\[Antonin Scalia]] \|title\=Concurring in the denial of certiori, Callins v. Collins, 510 U.S. 1141 (1994\)\|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93\-7054\.ZA.html\|publisher\=\[\[Legal Information Institute]] of \[\[Cornell Law School]]\|access\-date\=June 12, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612063822/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93\-7054\.ZA.html \|archive\-date\=June 12, 2024\|date\=February 22, 1994}} A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\. The Supreme Court held in *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe "Bucklew v. Precythe")* (2019\) that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States "Death penalty in the United States") because "the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed".*Bucklew v. Precythe*, 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1122 (2019\); discussed in: "[Whether the Food and Drug Administration Has Jurisdiction over Articles Intended for Use in Lawful Executions](https://www.justice.gov/olc/opinion/file/1162686/download)", Department of Justice [Office of Legal Counsel](/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel "Office of Legal Counsel") memorandum opinion of May 3, 2019, p. 16\. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201106033213/https://www.justice.gov/olc/opinion/file/1162686/download) from the original on November 6, 2020\. The Court also explicitly said: "The Constitution allows capital punishment. \[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \[...] The same Constitution that permits States to authorize capital punishment also allows them to outlaw it. \[...] While the Eighth Amendment doesn't forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'."{{cite web \|title\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\-8151/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 12, 2020 \|date\=March 31, 2019}} The Court also explained in *Bucklew* that “what unites the punishments the Eighth Amendment was understood to forbid, and distinguishes them from those it was understood to allow, is that the former were long disused (unusual) forms of punishment that intensified the sentence of death with a (cruel) superadd\[ition] of terror, pain, or disgrace."{{cite web \|title\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\) (internal quotations omitted). \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\-8151/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=October 25, 2020 \|date\=March 31, 2019}}
### Specific aspects
According to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States"), the Eighth Amendment forbids some punishments entirely, and forbids some other punishments that are excessive when compared to the crime, or compared to the [competence](/wiki/Competence_%28law%29 "Competence (law)") of the perpetrator. This will be discussed in the sections below.
#### Punishments forbidden regardless of the crime
In *[Wilkerson v. Utah](/wiki/Wilkerson_v._Utah "Wilkerson v. Utah")*, {{ussc\|99\|130\|1878}}, the Supreme Court commented that [drawing and quartering](/wiki/Hanged%2C_drawn_and_quartered "Hanged, drawn and quartered"), public [dissection](/wiki/Dissection "Dissection"), [burning alive](/wiki/Death_by_burning "Death by burning"), or [disembowelment](/wiki/Disembowelment "Disembowelment") constituted cruel and unusual punishment.*Wilkinson*, at 135–136\.{{efn\|The plurality opinion in ''\[\[Baze v. Rees]]'', {{Ussc\|553\|35\|2008}} written by Chief Justice \[\[John Roberts]] states: "This Court has never invalidated a State’s chosen procedure for carrying out a sentence of death as the infliction of cruel and unusual punishment. In ''\[\[Wilkerson v. Utah]]'', 99 U. S. 130 (1879\), we upheld a sentence to death by firing squad imposed by a territorial court, rejecting the argument that such a sentence constituted cruel and unusual punishment. ''Id.'', at 134–135\. We noted there the difficulty of “defin\[ing] with exactness the extent of the constitutional provision which provides that cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted.” ''Id.'', at 135–136\. Rather than undertake such an effort, the ''Wilkerson'' Court simply noted that “it is safe to affirm that punishments of \[\[torture]], . . . and all others in the same line of unnecessary cruelty, are forbidden” by the Eighth Amendment. ''Id.'', at 136\. By way of example, the Court cited cases from England in which “\[\[wikt:terror\|terror]], \[\[pain]], or disgrace were sometimes superadded” to the sentence, such as where the condemned was “\[\[disembowelment\|embowelled alive]], \[\[Decapitation\|beheaded]], and \[\[Hanged, drawn and quartered\|quartered]],” or instances of “\[\[Dissection\|public dissection]] in murder, and \[\[Death by burning\|burning alive]].” ''Id.'', at 135\. In contrast, we observed that the firing squad was routinely used as a method of execution for military officers. ''Id.'', at 137\. What each of the forbidden punishments had in common was the deliberate infliction of pain for the sake of pain—“superadd\[ing]” pain to the death sentence through torture and the like.
We carried these principles further in ''\[\[Electric chair\#First execution\|In re Kemmler]]'', 136 U. S. 436 (1890\). There we rejected an opportunity to incorporate the Eighth Amendment against the States in a challenge to the first execution by electrocution, to be carried out by the State of New York. ''Id.'', at 449\. In passing over that question, however, we observed that “\[p]unishments are cruel when they involve torture or a lingering death; but the punishment of death is not cruel within the meaning of that word as used in the Constitution. It implies there something inhuman and barbarous, something more than the mere extinguishment of life.” Id., at 447\. We noted that the New York statute adopting electrocution as a method of execution “was passed in the effort to devise a more humane method of reaching the result.” ''Ibid''."{{cite web \|title\=Baze v. Rees, 553 U.S. 35 (2008\) \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/553/35/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=April 16, 2008}}}} Relying on Eighth Amendment case law Justice [William O. Douglas](/wiki/William_O._Douglas "William O. Douglas") stated in his *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California "Robinson v. California")*, {{ussc\|370\|660\|1962}} concurrence opinion that "historic punishments that were cruel and unusual included "[burning at the stake](/wiki/Death_by_burning "Death by burning"), [crucifixion](/wiki/Crucifixion "Crucifixion"), [breaking on the wheel](/wiki/Breaking_wheel "Breaking wheel")" (*In re Kemmler*, 136 U. S. 436, 136 U. S. 446\), [quartering](/wiki/Dismemberment "Dismemberment"), [the rack](/wiki/Rack_%28torture%29 "Rack (torture)") and [thumbscrew](/wiki/Thumbscrew_%28torture%29 "Thumbscrew (torture)") (see *[Chambers v. Florida](/wiki/Chambers_v._Florida "Chambers v. Florida")*, 309 U. S. 227, 309 U. S. 237\), and, in some circumstances, even [solitary confinement](/wiki/Solitary_confinement "Solitary confinement") (see In re Medley, 134 U. S. 160, 134 U. S. 167\-168\)."{{cite web \|title\=''Robinson v. California'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962\), at page 675\|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/370/660/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=July 20, 2020 \|date\=June 25, 1962}} In *[Thompson v. Oklahoma](/wiki/Thompson_v._Oklahoma "Thompson v. Oklahoma")*, {{ussc\|487\|815\|1988}}, the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty constituted cruel and unusual punishment if the defendant is under age 16 when the crime was committed. Furthermore, in *[Roper v. Simmons](/wiki/Roper_v._Simmons "Roper v. Simmons")*, {{ussc\|543\|551\|2005}}, the Court barred the executing of people who were under age 18 when the crime was committed. In *[Atkins v. Virginia](/wiki/Atkins_v._Virginia "Atkins v. Virginia")*, {{ussc\|536\|304\|2002}}, the Court declared that executing people who are [mentally handicapped](/wiki/Developmental_disability "Developmental disability") constituted cruel and unusual punishment.
#### Punishments forbidden for certain crimes
The case of *[Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States "Weems v. United States")*, {{ussc\|217\|349\|1910}}, marked the first time the Supreme Court exercised [judicial review](/wiki/Judicial_review "Judicial review") to overturn a criminal sentence as cruel and unusual.Melusky, Anthony and Pesto, Keith. *[Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Rights and Liberties Under the Law](https://books.google.com/books?id=NU_Mo7leji8C&dq=Weems+and+%22cadena+temporal%22&pg=PA87)*, page 87 (ABC\-CLIO 2003\). The Court overturned a punishment called [cadena temporal](/wiki/Cadena_temporal "Cadena temporal"), which mandated "hard and painful labor", shackling for the duration of incarceration, and permanent civil disabilities. This case is often viewed as establishing a principle of proportionality under the Eighth Amendment.Finkel, Norman. *[Commonsense Justice: Jurors' Notions of the Law](https://books.google.com/books?id=-B8EIq-ZnFsC&dq=Weems+and+proportionality&pg=PA138)*, page 138 (Harvard University Press 2001\). However, others have written that "it is hard to view *Weems* as announcing a constitutional requirement of proportionality."The quoted sentence is from the opinion of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in the later case of *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")*, {{ussc\|501\|957\|1991}}.
In *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles "Trop v. Dulles")*, {{ussc\|356\|86\|1958}}, the Supreme Court held that punishing a natural\-born citizen for a crime by revoking his citizenship is unconstitutional, being "more primitive than [torture](/wiki/Torture "Torture")" because it involved the "total destruction of the individual's status in organized society".
In *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California "Robinson v. California")*, {{ussc\|370\|660\|1962}}, the Court decided a California law authorizing a 90\-day jail sentence for "be\[ing] [addicted](/wiki/Substance_use_disorder "Substance use disorder") to the use of [narcotics](/wiki/Narcotic "Narcotic")" violated the Eighth Amendment, as narcotics addiction "is apparently an illness", and California was attempting to punish people based on the state of this illness, rather than for any specific act. The Court wrote:
{{blockquote\|To be sure, imprisonment for ninety days is not, in the abstract, a punishment which is either cruel or unusual. But the question cannot be considered in the abstract. Even one day in prison would be a cruel and unusual punishment for the 'crime' of having a common cold.}}
However, in *[Powell v. Texas](/wiki/Powell_v._Texas "Powell v. Texas")*, {{ussc\|392\|514\|1968}}, the Court upheld a statute barring [public intoxication](/wiki/Public_intoxication "Public intoxication") by distinguishing *Robinson* on the basis that *Powell* dealt with a person who was drunk *in public*, not merely for being addicted to alcohol.{{cite book\|last\=Dressler\|first\=Joshua\|title\=Understanding Criminal Law\|publisher\=\[\[LexisNexis]]\|year\=2009\|edition\=Fifth\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/underst\_dre\_2009\_00\_4100/page/98 98]\|chapter\=9\.04 (B)\|isbn\=978\-1\-4224\-2987\-7\|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/details/underst\_dre\_2009\_00\_4100/page/98}}
Traditionally, the length of a prison sentence was not subject to scrutiny under the Eighth Amendment, regardless of the crime for which the sentence was imposed. It was not until the case of *[Solem v. Helm](/wiki/Solem_v._Helm "Solem v. Helm")*, {{ussc\|463\|277\|1983}}, that the Supreme Court held that incarceration, standing alone, could constitute cruel and unusual punishment if it were "disproportionate" in duration to the offense. The Court outlined three factors that were to be considered in determining if a sentence is excessive: "(i) the gravity of the offense and the harshness of the penalty; (ii) the sentences imposed on other criminals in the same jurisdiction; and (iii) the sentences imposed for commission of the same crime in other jurisdictions." The Court held that in the circumstances of the case before it and the factors to consider, a sentence of [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment "Life imprisonment") without parole for cashing a $100 check on a closed account was cruel and unusual.
However, in *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")*, {{ussc\|501\|957\|1991}}, a fractured Court retreated from the *Solem* test and held that for non\-capital sentences, the Eighth Amendment constrains only the length of prison terms by a "gross disproportionality principle". Under this principle, the Court sustained a mandatory sentence of life without parole imposed for possession of 672 grams (1\.5 pounds) or more of cocaine. The Court acknowledged that a punishment could be cruel but not unusual, and therefore not prohibited by the Constitution.Miller, Wilbur. *[The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America](https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&pg=PA416)*, p. 416 (SAGE 2012\).Ryan, Meghan. "[Does the Eighth Amendment Punishments Clause Prohibit Only Punishments that Are Both Cruel and Unusual?](http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=lawreview) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219015152/http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=1090\&context\=lawreview \|date\=December 19, 2013 }}", *Washington University Law Review*, Volume 87, p. 567 (2010\). Additionally, in *Harmelin*, Justice [Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia"), joined by Chief Justice [Rehnquist](/wiki/William_Rehnquist "William Rehnquist"), said "the Eighth Amendment contains no proportionality guarantee," and that "what was 'cruel and unusual' under the Eighth Amendment was to be determined without reference to the particular offense." Scalia wrote "If 'cruel and unusual punishments' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous." Moreover, "There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions \[outlawing disproportional punishments], yet chose not to replicate them."
In *[Graham v. Florida](/wiki/Graham_v._Florida "Graham v. Florida")*, 560 U.S. [48](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/560/48/) (2010\), the Supreme Court declared that a life sentence without any chance of parole, for a crime other than murder, is cruel and unusual punishment for a [minor](/wiki/Minor_%28law%29 "Minor (law)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/05/analysis\-a\-limited\-break\-for\-juveniles/\#more\-20246\|title\=Analysis: A limited break for juveniles\|last\=Denniston\|first\=Lyle\|date\=May 17, 2010\|publisher\=\[\[SCOTUSblog]]\|access\-date\=May 17, 2010}}{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.law.com/jsp/nlj/PubArticleNLJ.jsp?id\=1202458312706\&src\=EMC\-Email\&et\=editorial\&bu\=National%20Law%20Journal\&pt\=NLJ.com%20\-Legal%20Times%20Afternoon%20Update\&cn\=20100517lt\&kw\=Justices%20Rule%20on%20Prison%20Time%20for%20Juveniles%2C%20Sex%20Offenders\|title\=Justices rule on prison time for juveniles, sex offenders\|last\=Mauro\|first\=Tony\|author2\=Coyle, Marcia\|date\=May 17, 2010\|magazine\=\[\[The National Law Journal]]\|access\-date\=May 17, 2010}} Two years later, in *[Miller v. Alabama](/wiki/Miller_v._Alabama "Miller v. Alabama")*, {{ussc\|567\|460\|2012}}, the Court went further, holding that mandatory life sentences without parole cannot be imposed on minors, even for homicide.{{cite web \|title\=''Miller v. Alabama'', 567 U.S. 460 (2012\) \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/460/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 12, 2020 \|date\=June 25, 2012}}
##### Death penalty for rape
In *[Coker v. Georgia](/wiki/Coker_v._Georgia "Coker v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|433\|584\|1977}}, the Court declared that the death penalty was unconstitutionally excessive for rape of a woman and, by implication, for any crime where a death does not occur. The majority in *Coker* stated that "death is indeed a disproportionate penalty for the crime of raping an adult woman." The dissent countered that the majority "takes too little account of the profound suffering the crime imposes upon the victims and their loved ones". The dissent also characterized the majority as "[myopic](/wiki/Myopia%23Society_and_culture "Myopia#Society and culture")" for considering legal history of only "the past five years".
In *[Kennedy v. Louisiana](/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana "Kennedy v. Louisiana")*, {{ussc\|554\|407\|2008}}, the Court extended the reasoning of *Coker* by ruling that the death penalty was excessive for child rape "where the victim's life was not taken".{{cite news\|last\=Greenhouse \|first\=Linda \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html \|title\=Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape \|newspaper\=New York Times \|date\=June 26, 2008 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2023}} The Supreme Court failed to note a federal law, which applies to military court\-martial proceedings, providing for the death penalty in cases of child rape.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/02/washington/02scotus.html \|title\=In Court Ruling on Executions, a Factual Flaw\|access\-date\=July 2, 2008\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|first\=Linda \|last\=Greenhouse\|date\=July 2, 2008\|author\-link\=Linda Greenhouse}} On October 1, 2008, the Court declined to reconsider its opinion in this case, but did amend the majority and dissenting opinions to acknowledge that federal law. Justice Scalia (joined by Chief Justice [Roberts](/wiki/John_Roberts "John Roberts")) wrote in dissent that "the proposed Eighth Amendment would have been laughed to scorn if it had read 'no criminal penalty shall be imposed which the Supreme Court deems unacceptable'."{{cite web\|url\=https://supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\-343Scalia.pdf\|title\=Statement of Justice Scalia, with whom the Chief Justice joins, respecting the denial of rehearing\|last\=Scalia\|first\=Antonin\|date\=October 1, 2008\|access\-date\=April 7, 2009\|publisher\=Supreme Court of the United States\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702233128/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\-343Scalia.pdf\|archive\-date\=July 2, 2018}}
#### Special procedures for death penalty cases
Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion "Concurring opinion") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\): "The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution") provides that "\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law." This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment." A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\. The Supreme Court in *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe "Bucklew v. Precythe")* (2019\) explicitly said: "The Constitution allows capital punishment. \[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \[...] While the Eighth Amendment doesn’t forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'."{{cite web \|title\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\-8151/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 12, 2020 \|date\=March 31, 2019}} The Supreme Court also held in *Bucklew* that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States "Death penalty in the United States") because "the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed".
The first significant general challenge to capital punishment{{Cite web\|url\=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the\-supreme\-courts\-evolving\-record\-on\-capital\-punishment\|title\=The Supreme Court's evolving record on capital punishment \- National Constitution Center\|publisher\=\[\[National Constitution Center]]\|first\=Scott \|last\=Bomboy\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-26\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403162304/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the\-supreme\-courts\-evolving\-record\-on\-capital\-punishment\|archive\-date\=April 3, 2019\|date\= July 28, 2014}} that reached the Supreme Court was the case of *[Furman v. Georgia](/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia "Furman v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|408\|238\|1972}}. The Supreme Court overturned the death sentences of Furman for murder, as well as two other defendants for rape. Of the five justices voting to overturn the death penalty, two found that capital punishment was unconstitutionally cruel and unusual, while three found that the statutes at issue were implemented in a random and capricious fashion, discriminating against blacks and the poor. *Furman v. Georgia* did not hold—even though it is sometimes claimed that it did—that capital punishment is *[per se](/wiki/wikt:Per_se "Per se")* unconstitutional.Million, Joelle. *[Racial Issues in Criminal Justice: The Case of African Americans](https://books.google.com/books?id=4jrTbqgd5s8C&dq=Furman+and+%22per+se%22+and+unconstitutional&pg=PA180)*, page 180 (Greenwood 2003\).
States with capital punishment rewrote their laws to address the Supreme Court's decision, and the Court then revisited the issue in a murder case: *[Gregg v. Georgia](/wiki/Gregg_v._Georgia "Gregg v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|428\|153\|1976}}. In *Gregg*, the Court ruled that Georgia's revised death penalty laws passed Eighth Amendment scrutiny: the statutes provided a bifurcated trial in which guilt and sentence were determined separately; and, the statutes provided for "specific jury findings" followed by state supreme court review comparing each death sentence "with the sentences imposed on similarly situated defendants to ensure that the sentence of death in a particular case is not disproportionate." Because of the *Gregg* decision, executions resumed in 1977\.
Some states have passed laws imposing mandatory death penalties in certain cases. The Supreme Court found these laws unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment, in the murder case of *[Woodson v. North Carolina](/wiki/Woodson_v._North_Carolina "Woodson v. North Carolina")*, {{ussc\|428\|280\|1976}}, because these laws remove discretion from the trial judge to make an individualized determination in each case.Palmer, Louis. *[The Death Penalty: An American Citizen's Guide to Understanding Federal and State Laws](https://archive.org/details/deathpenaltyamer00palm/page/15)*, page 14 (McFarland 1998\). Other statutes specifying factors for courts to use in making their decisions have been upheld. Some have not: in *[Godfrey v. Georgia](/wiki/Godfrey_v._Georgia "Godfrey v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|446\|420\|1980}}, the Supreme Court overturned a sentence based upon a finding that a murder was "outrageously or wantonly vile, horrible, and inhuman", as it deemed that any murder may be reasonably characterized in this manner. Similarly, in *[Maynard v. Cartwright](/wiki/Maynard_v._Cartwright "Maynard v. Cartwright")*, {{ussc\|486\|356\|1988}}, the Court found that an "especially heinous, atrocious or cruel" standard in a homicide case was too vague. However, the meaning of this language depends on how lower courts interpret it. In *[Walton v. Arizona](/wiki/Walton_v._Arizona "Walton v. Arizona")*, {{ussc\|497\|639\|1990}}, the Court found that the phrase "especially heinous, cruel, or depraved" was not vague in a murder case, because the state supreme court had expounded on its meaning.*Walton* was overruled on other grounds by *[Ring v. Arizona](/wiki/Ring_v._Arizona "Ring v. Arizona")*, {{ussc\|536\|584\|2002}}
The Court has generally held that death penalty cases require extra procedural protections. As the Court said in *[Herrera v. Collins](/wiki/Herrera_v._Collins "Herrera v. Collins")*, {{ussc\|506\|390\|1993}}, which involved the murder of a police officer, "the Eighth Amendment requires increased reliability of the process{{nbsp}}..."
#### Punishments specifically allowed
In *[Wilkerson v. Utah](/wiki/Wilkerson_v._Utah "Wilkerson v. Utah")*, {{ussc\|99\|130\|1878}}*Wilkerson v. Utah*, 99 U.S. 130, 25 L. Ed. 345, 9 Otto 130, 1878 U.S. LEXIS 1517 (1878\) the Court stated that [death by firing squad](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad "Execution by firing squad") is not cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment.{{cite book\|author1\=Howard Gillman \|author2\=Mark A. Graber \|author3\=Keith E. Whittington \|title\=American Constitutionalism Volume II: Rights and Liberties \|chapter\=7: The Republican Era—Criminal Justice / Punishments / Capital Punishment, Supplementary Material: ''Wilkerson v. State of Utah'', 99 U.S. 130 (1878\) \|url\=https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199751358/instructor/chapter\_7/wilkerson\_v\_state\_of\_utah.pdf \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817145247/https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199751358/instructor/chapter\_7/wilkerson\_v\_state\_of\_utah.pdf \|archive\-date\=August 17, 2020\|year\=2013}}
In *[Rummel v. Estelle](/wiki/Rummel_v._Estelle "Rummel v. Estelle")*, {{ussc\|445\|263\|1980}},*Rummel v. Estelle*, 445 U.S. 263, 100 S. Ct. 1133, 63 L. Ed. 2d 382, 1980 U.S. LEXIS 90 (1980\) the Court upheld a life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed per Texas's [three strikes law](/wiki/Three_strikes_law "Three strikes law") for fraud crimes totaling $230\.{{cite web \|title\=''Rummel v. Estelle'' \|url\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Rummel\_v\_Estelle.html \|publisher\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \|access\-date\=August 18, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200818051640/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Rummel\_v\_Estelle.html \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2020 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite journal\|title\=''Rummel v. Estelle'': Leaving the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause in {{as written\|Consit\|utional \[sic]}} Limbo \|journal\=Valparaiso University Law Review \|volume\=15 \|number\=1 \|pages\=201–227 \|date\=Fall 1980 \|url\=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0adc/4f0078f1e4e82dea94d600a01f9eebe2e608\.pdf \|publisher\=Valpraiso University \|s2cid\=53060925 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2020 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218094706/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0adc/4f0078f1e4e82dea94d600a01f9eebe2e608\.pdf \|archive\-date\=February 18, 2019}} Noteworthy are pages 201, 212–214 and 226–227 for a proportionality test under the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause. A few months later, Rummel challenged his sentence for ineffective assistance of counsel, his appeal was upheld, and as part of a plea bargain Rummel pled guilty to theft and was released for time served.{{cite web\|url\=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi\-bin/getcase.pl?court\=US\&vol\=463\&invol\=277\#tt8\|title\=''Solem v. Helm''\|work\=Findlaw}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Bedford \|first1\=Edward J. \|journal\=Washington and Lee Law Review \|volume\=38 \|issue\=1 \|title\=''Rummel v. Estelle'': Can Non\-Capital Punishment Still Be Cruel and Unusual \|pages\=243–256 \|url\=https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=2410\&context\=wlulr \|publisher\=Washington and Lee University School of Law \|access\-date\=August 18, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818154629/https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=2410\&context\=wlulr \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2020\|date\=January 1, 1981}} (article 18\) See footnote 104 at page 253\.
In *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")*, {{ussc\|501\|957\|1991}},*Harmelin v. Michigan*, 501 U.S. 957, 111 S. Ct. 2680, 115 L. Ed. 2d 836, 1991 U.S. LEXIS 3816 (1991\) the Court upheld a life sentence without the possibility of parole for possession of 672 grams (1\.5 pounds) of cocaine.{{cite web \|title\=''Harmelin v. Michigan'' \|url\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Harmelin\_v\_Michigan.html \|publisher\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \|access\-date\=August 19, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819051316/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Harmelin\_v\_Michigan.html \|archive\-date\=August 19, 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=''Harmelin v. Michigan'' \|url\=https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal\-law/criminal\-law\-keyed\-to\-kadish/defining\-criminal\-conduct\-the\-elements\-of\-just\-punishment/harmelin\-v\-michigan/\|website\=Casebriefs \- Law Cases \& Case Briefs for Students \|publisher\=\[\[Bloomberg Law]] \|access\-date\=August 19, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819052312/https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal\-law/criminal\-law\-keyed\-to\-kadish/defining\-criminal\-conduct\-the\-elements\-of\-just\-punishment/harmelin\-v\-michigan/\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2020}}
In *[Lockyer v. Andrade](/wiki/Lockyer_v._Andrade "Lockyer v. Andrade")*, {{ussc\|538\|63\|2003}},*Lockyer v. Andrade*, 583 U.S. 63, 123 S. Ct. 1166, 155 L. Ed. 2d 144 (2003\) the Court upheld a 50 years to life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed under California's [three strikes law](/wiki/Three_strikes_law "Three strikes law") when the defendant was convicted of shoplifting videotapes worth a total of about $150\.{{cite web \|title\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'' \|url\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Lockyer\_v\_Andrade.html \|publisher\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161107/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Lockyer\_v\_Andrade.html \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'' (01\-1127\), ''Washington State Dept. of Social \& Health Services v. Guardianship Estate of Keffeler'' (01\-1420\) \|url\=https://www.wiggin.com/publication/lockyer\-v\-andrade\-01\-1127\-washington\-state\-dept\-of\-social\-health\-services\-v\-guardianship\-estate\-of\-keffeler\-01\-1420/ \|publisher\=Wiggin and Dana LLP \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161618/https://www.wiggin.com/publication/lockyer\-v\-andrade\-01\-1127\-washington\-state\-dept\-of\-social\-health\-services\-v\-guardianship\-estate\-of\-keffeler\-01\-1420/ \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=March 6, 2003}}{{cite web \|last1\=Peña \|first1\=Maria \|title\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'', 538 U.S. 63 (2003\) \|url\=https://prezi.com/xiljqmw0pker/lockyer\-v\-andrade/ \|publisher\=Prezi Inc. \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820163023/https://prezi.com/xiljqmw0pker/lockyer\-v\-andrade/ \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=October 31, 2011}}
In *[Baze v. Rees](/wiki/Baze_v._Rees "Baze v. Rees")*, {{Ussc\|553\|35\|2008}} *Baze v. Rees*, 553 U.S. 35, 128 S. Ct. 1520, 170 L. Ed. 2d 420 (2008\) the Court upheld Kentucky's execution protocol using a three\-drug cocktail.{{cite web \|author1\=Eric Finkelstein \|author2\=Michael Zuckerman \|author3\=Richard Beaulieu \|title\=LII Supreme Court Bulletin ''Baze v. Rees'' \|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/07\-5439 \|publisher\=\[\[Legal Information Institute]] of the \[\[Cornell Law School]] at \[\[Cornell University]] \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713042030/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/07\-5439 \|archive\-date\=July 13, 2020}}{{cite news \|last1\=Greenhouse \|first1\=Linda \|title\=Supreme Court Allows Lethal Injection for Execution \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd\-scotus.html \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=April 17, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920214049/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd\-scotus.html \|archive\-date\=September 20, 2019}}{{cite web \|title\=''Baze v. Rees'' \|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/07\-5439 \|publisher\=\[\[Legal Information Institute]] of the \[\[Cornell Law School]] at \[\[Cornell University]] \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529001609/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/07\-5439 \|archive\-date\=May 29, 2020\|date\=April 16, 2008}}
In *[Glossip v. Gross](/wiki/Glossip_v._Gross "Glossip v. Gross")* {{ussc\|576\|863\|year\=2015}} [*Glossip v. Gross*](https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-7955), 576 U.S. 863, 135 S. Ct. 2726, 191 L. Ed. 2d 148, 2015 WL 341665 (2015\). [Archived version.](https://web.archive.org/web/20220806105337/https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-7955) the Court upheld the use of [lethal injections](/wiki/Lethal_injection "Lethal injection") using the drug [midazolam](/wiki/Midazolam "Midazolam").{{cite news\|last1\=Liptak \|first1\=Adam \|title\=Supreme Court Allows Use of Execution Drug \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme\-court\-execution\-drug.html \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=June 29, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527181419/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme\-court\-execution\-drug.html \|archive\-date\=May 27, 2020}}{{cite news \|last1\=Barnes \|first1\=Robert \|title\=Supreme Court upholds lethal injection procedure \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\_law/supreme\-court\-upholds\-lethal\-injection\-procedure/2015/06/29/2b5cee6e\-1b3c\-11e5\-93b7\-5eddc056ad8a\_story.html \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200820190516/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\_law/supreme\-court\-upholds\-lethal\-injection\-procedure/2015/06/29/2b5cee6e\-1b3c\-11e5\-93b7\-5eddc056ad8a\_story.html \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=June 29, 2015 \|url\-status\=live }}
Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion "Concurring opinion") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\): "The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution") provides that "\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law." This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment." A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\. In *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe "Bucklew v. Precythe")*, {{ussc\|volume\=587\|year\=2019}} *Bucklew v. Precythe*, 587 U.S. \_\_\_, 139 S. Ct. 582, 202 L. Ed. 2d 401 (2019\) the Court ruled that when a convict sentenced to death challenges the State's method of execution due to claims of excessive pain, the convict must show that other alternative methods of execution exist and clearly demonstrate they would cause less pain than the state\-determined one.{{cite web\|url\=https://nytimes.com/2019/04/01/us/politics/supreme\-court\-death\-penalty.html\|title\=Rancor and Raw Emotion Surface in Supreme Court Death Penalty Ruling\|first\=Adam\|last\=Liptak\|date\=April 1, 2019\|access\-date\=July 15, 2020\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715193711/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/01/us/politics/supreme\-court\-death\-penalty.html\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2020}}{{cite news \|last1\=Barnes \|first1\=Robert \|title\=Divided Supreme Court rules against death\-row inmate with rare condition \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\_law/divided\-supreme\-court\-rules\-against\-death\-row\-inmate\-with\-rare\-condition/2019/04/01/ff523fdc\-5489\-11e9\-8ef3\-fbd41a2ce4d5\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 1, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200820192303/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\_law/divided\-supreme\-court\-rules\-against\-death\-row\-inmate\-with\-rare\-condition/2019/04/01/ff523fdc\-5489\-11e9\-8ef3\-fbd41a2ce4d5\_story.html \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|url\-status\=live }} The Supreme Court also held in *Bucklew* that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States "Death penalty in the United States") because "the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed". The Court also explicitly said: "The Constitution allows capital punishment. \[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \[...] Of course, that doesn't mean the American people must continue to use the death penalty. The same Constitution that permits States to authorize capital punishment also allows them to outlaw it. But it does mean that the judiciary bears no license to end a debate reserved for the people and their representatives. While the Eighth Amendment doesn’t forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'."{{cite web \|title\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\-8151/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 12, 2020 \|date\=March 31, 2019}}
#### Evolving standards of decency
In *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles "Trop v. Dulles")*, {{ussc\|356\|86\|1958}}, Chief Justice [Earl Warren](/wiki/Earl_Warren "Earl Warren") said: "The \[Eighth] Amendment must draw its meaning from the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society." Subsequently, the Court has looked to societal developments, as well as looking to its own independent judgment, in determining what are those "evolving standards of decency".{{cite web\|title\=''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U. S. \_\_\_\_ (2008\) Supreme Court Case No. 07\-343\. Note: For the evolving standards of decency see in general the slip opinion pages 1\-5 and in special the opinion of the court pages 8\-10\.\|url\=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\-343\.2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126054259/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\-343\.pdf\|archive\-date\=January 26, 2020\|date\=June 25, 2008}} In *[Kennedy v. Louisiana](/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana "Kennedy v. Louisiana")* (2008\) the Supreme Court stated: "Evolving standards of decency must embrace and express respect for the dignity of the person, and the punishment of criminals must conform to that rule."{{cite web\|title\=''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U.S. 407 (2008\), Opinion of the Court, Part IV, section A \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/554/407/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=August 22, 2020}}{{cite web \|first\=David F. \|last\=Forte \|title\=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution: Amendment VIII Cruel and Unusual Punishment \|url\=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/\#!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel\-and\-unusual\-punishment \|publisher\=\[\[The Heritage Foundation]] \|access\-date\=August 22, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200822232208/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/%23!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel\-and\-unusual\-punishment \|archive\-date\=August 22, 2020 \|url\-status\=live}}
[Originalists](/wiki/Originalism "Originalism"), like Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia"), argue that societies may rot instead of maturing and may decrease in virtue or wisdom instead of increasing. Thus, they say, the framers wanted the amendment understood as it was written and ratified, instead of morphing as times change, and in any event legislators are more competent than judges to take the pulse of the public as to changing standards of decency.{{cite web\|last\=Roberts \|first\=Jane \|url\=http://m.therepublic.com/view/story/scalia\-judges/scalia\-judges \|title\=Scalia Defends U.S. Judiciary \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219062522/http://m.therepublic.com/view/story/scalia\-judges/scalia\-judges \|archive\-date\=December 19, 2013 \|agency\=\[\[Scripps Howard News Service]] \|date\=December 17, 2013}}
The "evolving standards" test has been subject to scholarly criticism. For example, law professor John Stinneford asserts that the "evolving standards" test misinterprets the Eighth Amendment:
{{blockquote\|The Framers of the Bill of Rights understood the word "unusual" to mean "contrary to long usage." Recognition of the word's original meaning will precisely invert the "evolving standards of decency" test, and ask the Court to compare challenged punishments with the longstanding principles and precedents of the common law, rather than shifting and nebulous notions of "societal consensus" and contemporary "standards of decency.Stinneford, John. \[https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1015344 "The Original Meaning of 'Unusual': The Eighth Amendment as a Bar to Cruel Innovation"], ''Northwestern University Law Review'', Vol. 102, No. 4 (2008\).}}
On the other hand, law professor Dennis Baker defends the evolving standards of decency test as advancing the moral purpose of the Eighth Amendment to ban the inflicting of unjust, oppressive, or disproportional punishments by a state on its citizens.{{cite journal\|ssrn\=1300356\|title\=Constitutionalizing the Harm Principle \|journal\=Criminal Justice Ethics \|volume\=27 \|number\=2 \|page\=3 \|first\=Dennis J. \|last\=Baker \|date\=November 12, 2008\|doi\=10\.1080/0731129X.2008\.9992238 \|s2cid\=144865297 \|access\-date\=July 19, 2020\|url\=https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1300356\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308041059/https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1300356\|archive\-date\=March 8, 2016}}
#### Proportionality
{{See also\|Felony murder and the death penalty in the United States}}
The Supreme Court has applied evolving standards not only to say what punishments are inherently cruel, but also to say what punishments that are not inherently cruel are nevertheless "grossly disproportionate" to the offense in question. An example can be seen in *[Jackson v. Bishop](/wiki/Jackson_v._Bishop "Jackson v. Bishop")**Jackson v. Bishop*, 404 F. 2d 571 (8th Cir. 1968\) an [Eighth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit") decision outlawing corporal punishment in the Arkansas prison system: "The scope of the Amendment is not static{{nbsp}}...\[D]isproportion, both among punishments and between punishment and crime, is a factor to be considered{{nbsp}}..."[*Jackson v. Bishop*, 404 F. 2d 571—Court of Appeals, 8th Circuit 1968](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1484662314280825855&q=bishop&hl=en&as_sdt=4,85,87,92,97,113,128,148,150,155,160,256,257,273,274,284,285,319,320,336,337,347,348,382). Relying on and citing its early cases *O{{'}}Neil v. Vermont*, {{ussc\|144\|323\|1892}}*O{{'}}Neil v. Vermont*, 144 U.S. 323, 12 S.Ct. 693, 36 L.Ed. 450 (1892\) and *[Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States "Weems v. United States")**Weems v. United States*, 217 U.S. 349, 30 S. Ct. 544 (1910\) the Supreme Court concluded in *[Enmund v. Florida](/wiki/Enmund_v._Florida "Enmund v. Florida")**Enmund v. Florida*, 458 U.S. 782, 102 S. Ct. 3368, 73 L. Ed. 2d 1140 (1982\) that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause is partly a prohibition of all punishments which, by their excessive length or severity, are greatly disproportioned to the offenses charged.{{cite web \|title\=''Enmund v. Florida'', 458 U.S. 782 (1982\), at 788\. \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/458/782/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 22, 2020 \|date\=July 2, 1982}}
Law professor John Stinneford asserts that the Eighth Amendment forbids punishments that are very disproportionate to the offense, even if the punishment by itself is not intrinsically barbaric, but he argues that "proportionality is to be measured primarily in terms of prior practice" according to the word *unusual* in the amendment, instead of being measured according to shifting and nebulous evolving standards.{{cite journal\|first\=John F. \|last\=Stinneford \|url\=https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1660642 \|title\=Rethinking Proportionality under the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause \|volume\=97 \|number\=4 \|journal\=Virginia Law Review \|pages\=899, 926–61 \|date\=February 18, 2011}} Stinneford writes (emphasis added):
> \[E]ven if one stacked up all of Oates's punishments together—the fine, the whippings, the imprisonment, the pillorying, and the defrockment—their cumulative effect was less harsh as an absolute matter than some punishments considered acceptable at the time, such as drawing and quartering or burning at the stake. ***If*** the punishments inflicted on Oates were unacceptably cruel, this could only be because they were disproportionate to the crime of perjury.
But, says Stinneford, punishment is unacceptable only if it is "***both*** cruel and 'contrary to long usage'". Id. at 977 (emphasis added).
```
Stinneford argues that the word
```
*unusual* in the Eighth Amendment has a very different meaning in comparison to those who use [originalism to interpret the U.S. Constitution](/wiki/Originalism "Originalism"). He writes: "But in reality, the word 'unusual' in the Eighth Amendment did not originally mean 'rare'– it meant 'contrary to long usage', or 'new'. A punishment is cruel and unusual if it is 'cruel in light of long usage' – that is, cruel in comparison to longstanding prior practice or tradition."{{cite web\|first\=John F. \|last\=Stinneford \|title\=Interpretation: The Eighth Amendment \- Against Cruel Innovation: The Original Meaning of the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause, and Why It Matters Today\|url\=https://constitutioncenter.org/the\-constitution/amendments/amendment\-viii/clauses/103 \|publisher\=The \[\[National Constitution Center]]\|access\-date\=August 25, 2023}} Stinneford writes:
> In response to the non\-originalist approach to the Constitution, some judges and scholars – most prominently Justices Scalia and Thomas – have argued for a very narrow approach to original meaning that is almost willfully indifferent to current societal needs. ... My own research into the original meaning of the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause shows that [Justice Scalia's](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") and [Thomas's](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas "Clarence Thomas") approach has a fatal flaw: It ignores the meaning of the word "unusual". ... \[T]he word "unusual" in the Eighth Amendment did not originally mean "rare"– it meant "contrary to long usage", or "new". A punishment is cruel and unusual if it is "cruel in light of long usage" – that is, cruel in comparison to longstanding prior practice or tradition.
Similarly, law professor [John Bessler](/wiki/John_Bessler "John Bessler") points to "[An Essay on Crimes and Punishments](/wiki/An_Essay_on_Crimes_and_Punishments "An Essay on Crimes and Punishments")", written by [Cesare Beccaria](/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria "Cesare Beccaria") in the 1760s, which advocated proportionate punishments; many of the Founding Fathers, including [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") and [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison "James Madison"), read Beccaria's treatise and were influenced by it.Bessler, John D. ["Revisiting Beccaria's Vision: The Enlightenment, America's Death Penalty, and the Abolition Movement"](http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njlsp/v4/n2/1/index.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321171845/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njlsp/v4/n2/1/index.htm \|date\=March 21, 2012 }}, *Northwestern Journal of Law \& Social Policy*, Volume 4, Issue 2, Article 1 (2009\)John D. Bessler, *The Birth of American Law: An Italian Philosopher and the American Revolution* (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press)
Thus, Stinneford and Bessler disagree with the view of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")* where they denied that the Punishments Clause contains any proportionality principle.*[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")*, {{ussc\|501\|957\|1991}}. Scalia wrote: "If 'cruel and unusual punishments' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous." Moreover, "There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions \[outlawing disproportional punishments], yet chose not to replicate them." With Scalia and Rehnquist, [Richard Epstein](/wiki/Richard_Allen_Epstein "Richard Allen Epstein") argues that the amendment does not refer broadly to the imposition of penalties, but rather refers more narrowly to the penalties themselves; Epstein says judges who favor the broad view tend to omit the letter "s" at the end of the word "punishments".Epstein, Richard. ["The Constitution's Vanishing Act"](http://www.hoover.org/research/constitutions-vanishing-act), *Defining Ideas* (December 16, 2013\).
|
[
"Cruel and unusual punishments\n-----------------------------",
"### General aspects",
"{{main\\|Cruel and unusual punishment}}",
"The Constitution was amended to prohibit cruel and unusual punishments as part of the [United States Bill of Rights](/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights \"United States Bill of Rights\") as a result of objections raised by people such as Abraham Holmes and [Patrick Henry](/wiki/Patrick_Henry \"Patrick Henry\"). While Holmes feared the establishment of the [Inquisition](/wiki/Inquisition \"Inquisition\") in the United States, Henry was concerned with the application of torture as a way of extracting confessions. They also feared that the [federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States \"Federal government of the United States\") would misuse its powers to create federal crimes as well as to punish those who committed them under the new Constitution and thus use these powers as a way to oppress the people. Abraham Holmes, a member of the Massachusetts Ratifying Convention for the federal constitution, for example noted in a letter from January 30, 1788, that the new Constitution would give the U.S. Congress the power \"to ascertain, point out, and determine, what kind of punishments shall be inflicted on persons convicted of crimes.\" He added with respect those who would belong to the new government under the new Constitution: \"They are nowhere restrained from inventing the most cruel and unheard\\-of punishments, and annexing them to crimes; and there is no constitutional check on them, but that [racks](/wiki/Rack_%28torture%29 \"Rack (torture)\") and [gibbets](/wiki/Gibbeting \"Gibbeting\") may be amongst the most mild instruments of their discipline.\"{{cite web \\|last1\\=Holmes \\|first1\\=Abrahahm \\|title\\=The Founders' Constitution Volume 5, Amendment VIII, Document 12, January 30, 1788 letter by Abraham Holmes, Massachusetts Ratifying Convention. In: Elliot, Jonathan, ed. ''The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution as Recommended by the General Convention at Philadelphia in 1787''. . . . 5 vols. 2d ed. 1888\\. Reprint. New York: Burt Franklin, n.d. \\|url\\=https://press\\-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendVIIIs12\\.html \\|publisher\\=The University of Chicago Press \\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223101042/https://press\\-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendVIIIs12\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 23, 2019 \\|date\\=January 30, 1788}}",
"Relying on the history of the Eighth Amendment and its own caselaw the Supreme Court stated in *[Ingraham v. Wright](/wiki/Ingraham_v._Wright \"Ingraham v. Wright\")* (1977\\) that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause was designed to protect those convicted of crimes.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Ingraham v. Wright'', 430 U.S. 651 (1977\\), at 664\\-667 \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/430/651/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=September 3, 2020 \\|date\\=April 19, 1977}} The Supreme Court consequently determined in *Ingraham* that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause limits the criminal process in three ways: \"\\[F]irst, it limits the kinds of punishment that can be imposed on those convicted of crimes, *e.g., [Estelle v. Gamble](/wiki/Estelle_v._Gamble \"Estelle v. Gamble\"), supra; [Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles \"Trop v. Dulles\"), supra;* second, it proscribes punishment grossly disproportionate to the severity of the crime, *e.g., [Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States \"Weems v. United States\"), supra*; and third, it imposes substantive limits on what can be made criminal and punished as such, *e.g., [Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California \"Robinson v. California\"), supra*.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Ingraham v. Wright'', 430 U.S. 651 (1977\\), at 667 \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/430/651/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=September 3, 2020 \\|date\\=April 19, 1977}}",
"In *[Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber](/wiki/Louisiana_ex_rel._Francis_v._Resweber \"Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber\")*, {{ussc\\|329\\|459\\|1947}}, the Supreme Court assumed *[arguendo](/wiki/Arguendo \"Arguendo\")* that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause [applied to the states](/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights \"Incorporation of the Bill of Rights\") through the [Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution%23Due_Process_Clause \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Due Process Clause\"). In *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California \"Robinson v. California\")*, {{ussc\\|370\\|660\\|1962}}, the Court ruled that it did apply to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. *Robinson* was the first case in which the Supreme Court applied the Eighth Amendment against the state governments through the Fourteenth Amendment. Before *Robinson*, the Eighth Amendment had been applied previously only in cases against the federal government.Federman, Cary. *[The Body and the State: Habeas Corpus and American Jurisprudence](https://books.google.com/books?id=VllckbKwNTAC&dq=Robinson+and+%22applied+the+eighth%22+and+fourteenth&pg=PA99)*, page 99 (SUNY Press 2006\\).",
"Justice [Potter Stewart](/wiki/Potter_Stewart \"Potter Stewart\")'s opinion for the *Robinson* Court held that \"infliction of cruel and unusual punishment is in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments.\" The framers of the Fourteenth Amendment, such as [John Bingham](/wiki/John_Bingham \"John Bingham\"), had discussed this subject:\n{{blockquote\\|Many instances of State injustice and oppression have already occurred in the State legislation of this Union, of flagrant violations of the guarantied privileges of citizens of the United States, for which the national Government furnished and could furnish by law no remedy whatever. Contrary to the express letter of your Constitution, \"cruel and unusual punishments\" have been inflicted under State laws within this Union upon citizens, not only for crimes committed, but for sacred duty done, for which and against which the Government of the United States had provided no remedy and could provide none.''\\[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwcglink.html\\#anchor39 Congressional Globe]'', 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2542 (1866\\) quoted in ''\\[\\[Furman v. Georgia]]'', {{ussc\\|408\\|238\\|1972}} (concurring opinion of Justice \\[\\[William O. Douglas\\|Douglas]]). The same words of John Bingham had been quoted in Justice \\[\\[Hugo Black\\|Black's]] dissent in ''\\[\\[Adamson v. California]]'', {{ussc\\|332\\|46\\|1947}}; Black and three other dissenting justices had unsuccessfully urged in ''Adamson'' that the Eighth Amendment and the rest of the Bill of Rights be applied against the states.}}",
"In *[Furman v. Georgia](/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia \"Furman v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|408\\|238\\|1972}}, [Justice Brennan](/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr. \"William J. Brennan Jr.\") wrote, \"There are, then, four principles by which we may determine whether a particular punishment is 'cruel and unusual'.\"\n* The \"essential predicate\" is \"that a punishment must not by its severity be degrading to human dignity,\" especially [torture](/wiki/Torture \"Torture\").\n* \"A severe punishment that is obviously inflicted in wholly arbitrary fashion.\"\n* \"A severe punishment that is clearly and totally rejected throughout society.\"\n* \"A severe punishment that is patently unnecessary.\"",
"Justice Brennan added: \"The function of these principles, after all, is simply to provide \\[the] means by which a court can determine whether \\[the] challenged punishment comports with human dignity. They are, therefore, interrelated, and, in most cases, it will be their convergence that will justify the conclusion that a punishment is 'cruel and unusual'. The test, then, will ordinarily be a cumulative one: if a punishment is unusually severe, if there is a strong probability that it is inflicted arbitrarily, if it is substantially rejected by contemporary society, and if there is no reason to believe that it serves any penal purpose more effectively than some less severe punishment, then the continued infliction of that punishment violates the command of the Clause that the State may not inflict inhuman and uncivilized punishments upon those convicted of crimes.\"",
"Justice Brennan also wrote that he expected no state would pass a law obviously violating any one of these principles, so court decisions regarding the Eighth Amendment would involve a \"cumulative\" analysis of the implication of each of the four principles. In this way, the United States Supreme Court \"set the standard that a punishment would be cruel and unusual \\[if] it was too severe for the crime, \\[if] it was arbitrary, if it offended society's sense of justice, or if it was not more effective than a less severe penalty.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.internationaljusticeproject.org/seminal.cfm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030428095926/http://www.internationaljusticeproject.org/seminal.cfm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=April 28, 2003\\|author\\=the International Justice Project\\|title\\=Seminal Cases—Brief Bank \\& General Resources—the International Justice Project\\|access\\-date\\=January 7, 2012}}",
"The plurality of the Supreme Court in *Furman v. Georgia* stated that the Eighth Amendment is not static, but that its meaning is interpreted in a flexible and dynamic manner to accord with, in the words of *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles \"Trop v. Dulles\")*, {{ussc\\|356\\|86\\|1958}}, at page 101, \"the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society.\" Punishments including capital punishment must therefore not be \"excessive\". The \"excessiveness\" of a punishment can be measured by two different aspects, which are independent of each other. The first aspect is whether the punishment involves the unnecessary and wanton infliction of pain. The second aspect is that the punishment must not be grossly out of proportion to the severity of the crime.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Gregg v. Georgia'', 428 U.S. 153 (1976\\), at 169\\-173 \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/428/153/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=July 2, 1976}} In *[Miller v. Alabama](/wiki/Miller_v._Alabama \"Miller v. Alabama\")*, 567 U.S. 460 (2012\\), the Court explained that the Eighth Amendment \"guarantees individuals the right not to be subjected to excessive sanctions\", and that \"punishment for crime should be graduated and proportioned to both the offender and the offense.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Miller v. Alabama'', 567 U.S. 460 (2012\\), at 469 (citation and quotation marks omitted)\\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/460/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=October 25, 2020 \\|date\\=June 25, 2012}} The Supreme Court has also looked to \"the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society\" when addressing the prohibition on cruel and unusual punishments.",
"Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion \"Concurring opinion\") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\\): \"The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") provides that \"\\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law.\" This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the \"cruel and unusual punishments\" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.\"{{cite web \\|author1\\=\\[\\[Antonin Scalia]] \\|title\\=Concurring in the denial of certiori, Callins v. Collins, 510 U.S. 1141 (1994\\)\\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93\\-7054\\.ZA.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Legal Information Institute]] of \\[\\[Cornell Law School]]\\|access\\-date\\=June 12, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612063822/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93\\-7054\\.ZA.html \\|archive\\-date\\=June 12, 2024\\|date\\=February 22, 1994}} A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\\. The Supreme Court held in *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe \"Bucklew v. Precythe\")* (2019\\) that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States \"Death penalty in the United States\") because \"the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed\".*Bucklew v. Precythe*, 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1122 (2019\\); discussed in: \"[Whether the Food and Drug Administration Has Jurisdiction over Articles Intended for Use in Lawful Executions](https://www.justice.gov/olc/opinion/file/1162686/download)\", Department of Justice [Office of Legal Counsel](/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel \"Office of Legal Counsel\") memorandum opinion of May 3, 2019, p. 16\\. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201106033213/https://www.justice.gov/olc/opinion/file/1162686/download) from the original on November 6, 2020\\. The Court also explicitly said: \"The Constitution allows capital punishment. \\[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \\[...] The same Constitution that permits States to authorize capital punishment also allows them to outlaw it. \\[...] While the Eighth Amendment doesn't forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\\-8151/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020 \\|date\\=March 31, 2019}} The Court also explained in *Bucklew* that “what unites the punishments the Eighth Amendment was understood to forbid, and distinguishes them from those it was understood to allow, is that the former were long disused (unusual) forms of punishment that intensified the sentence of death with a (cruel) superadd\\[ition] of terror, pain, or disgrace.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\\) (internal quotations omitted). \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\\-8151/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=October 25, 2020 \\|date\\=March 31, 2019}}",
"### Specific aspects",
"According to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\"), the Eighth Amendment forbids some punishments entirely, and forbids some other punishments that are excessive when compared to the crime, or compared to the [competence](/wiki/Competence_%28law%29 \"Competence (law)\") of the perpetrator. This will be discussed in the sections below.",
"#### Punishments forbidden regardless of the crime",
"In *[Wilkerson v. Utah](/wiki/Wilkerson_v._Utah \"Wilkerson v. Utah\")*, {{ussc\\|99\\|130\\|1878}}, the Supreme Court commented that [drawing and quartering](/wiki/Hanged%2C_drawn_and_quartered \"Hanged, drawn and quartered\"), public [dissection](/wiki/Dissection \"Dissection\"), [burning alive](/wiki/Death_by_burning \"Death by burning\"), or [disembowelment](/wiki/Disembowelment \"Disembowelment\") constituted cruel and unusual punishment.*Wilkinson*, at 135–136\\.{{efn\\|The plurality opinion in ''\\[\\[Baze v. Rees]]'', {{Ussc\\|553\\|35\\|2008}} written by Chief Justice \\[\\[John Roberts]] states: \"This Court has never invalidated a State’s chosen procedure for carrying out a sentence of death as the infliction of cruel and unusual punishment. In ''\\[\\[Wilkerson v. Utah]]'', 99 U. S. 130 (1879\\), we upheld a sentence to death by firing squad imposed by a territorial court, rejecting the argument that such a sentence constituted cruel and unusual punishment. ''Id.'', at 134–135\\. We noted there the difficulty of “defin\\[ing] with exactness the extent of the constitutional provision which provides that cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted.” ''Id.'', at 135–136\\. Rather than undertake such an effort, the ''Wilkerson'' Court simply noted that “it is safe to affirm that punishments of \\[\\[torture]], . . . and all others in the same line of unnecessary cruelty, are forbidden” by the Eighth Amendment. ''Id.'', at 136\\. By way of example, the Court cited cases from England in which “\\[\\[wikt:terror\\|terror]], \\[\\[pain]], or disgrace were sometimes superadded” to the sentence, such as where the condemned was “\\[\\[disembowelment\\|embowelled alive]], \\[\\[Decapitation\\|beheaded]], and \\[\\[Hanged, drawn and quartered\\|quartered]],” or instances of “\\[\\[Dissection\\|public dissection]] in murder, and \\[\\[Death by burning\\|burning alive]].” ''Id.'', at 135\\. In contrast, we observed that the firing squad was routinely used as a method of execution for military officers. ''Id.'', at 137\\. What each of the forbidden punishments had in common was the deliberate infliction of pain for the sake of pain—“superadd\\[ing]” pain to the death sentence through torture and the like. \n \n We carried these principles further in ''\\[\\[Electric chair\\#First execution\\|In re Kemmler]]'', 136 U. S. 436 (1890\\). There we rejected an opportunity to incorporate the Eighth Amendment against the States in a challenge to the first execution by electrocution, to be carried out by the State of New York. ''Id.'', at 449\\. In passing over that question, however, we observed that “\\[p]unishments are cruel when they involve torture or a lingering death; but the punishment of death is not cruel within the meaning of that word as used in the Constitution. It implies there something inhuman and barbarous, something more than the mere extinguishment of life.” Id., at 447\\. We noted that the New York statute adopting electrocution as a method of execution “was passed in the effort to devise a more humane method of reaching the result.” ''Ibid''.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=Baze v. Rees, 553 U.S. 35 (2008\\) \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/553/35/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=April 16, 2008}}}} Relying on Eighth Amendment case law Justice [William O. Douglas](/wiki/William_O._Douglas \"William O. Douglas\") stated in his *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California \"Robinson v. California\")*, {{ussc\\|370\\|660\\|1962}} concurrence opinion that \"historic punishments that were cruel and unusual included \"[burning at the stake](/wiki/Death_by_burning \"Death by burning\"), [crucifixion](/wiki/Crucifixion \"Crucifixion\"), [breaking on the wheel](/wiki/Breaking_wheel \"Breaking wheel\")\" (*In re Kemmler*, 136 U. S. 436, 136 U. S. 446\\), [quartering](/wiki/Dismemberment \"Dismemberment\"), [the rack](/wiki/Rack_%28torture%29 \"Rack (torture)\") and [thumbscrew](/wiki/Thumbscrew_%28torture%29 \"Thumbscrew (torture)\") (see *[Chambers v. Florida](/wiki/Chambers_v._Florida \"Chambers v. Florida\")*, 309 U. S. 227, 309 U. S. 237\\), and, in some circumstances, even [solitary confinement](/wiki/Solitary_confinement \"Solitary confinement\") (see In re Medley, 134 U. S. 160, 134 U. S. 167\\-168\\).\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Robinson v. California'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962\\), at page 675\\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/370/660/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2020 \\|date\\=June 25, 1962}} In *[Thompson v. Oklahoma](/wiki/Thompson_v._Oklahoma \"Thompson v. Oklahoma\")*, {{ussc\\|487\\|815\\|1988}}, the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty constituted cruel and unusual punishment if the defendant is under age 16 when the crime was committed. Furthermore, in *[Roper v. Simmons](/wiki/Roper_v._Simmons \"Roper v. Simmons\")*, {{ussc\\|543\\|551\\|2005}}, the Court barred the executing of people who were under age 18 when the crime was committed. In *[Atkins v. Virginia](/wiki/Atkins_v._Virginia \"Atkins v. Virginia\")*, {{ussc\\|536\\|304\\|2002}}, the Court declared that executing people who are [mentally handicapped](/wiki/Developmental_disability \"Developmental disability\") constituted cruel and unusual punishment.",
"#### Punishments forbidden for certain crimes",
"The case of *[Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States \"Weems v. United States\")*, {{ussc\\|217\\|349\\|1910}}, marked the first time the Supreme Court exercised [judicial review](/wiki/Judicial_review \"Judicial review\") to overturn a criminal sentence as cruel and unusual.Melusky, Anthony and Pesto, Keith. *[Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Rights and Liberties Under the Law](https://books.google.com/books?id=NU_Mo7leji8C&dq=Weems+and+%22cadena+temporal%22&pg=PA87)*, page 87 (ABC\\-CLIO 2003\\). The Court overturned a punishment called [cadena temporal](/wiki/Cadena_temporal \"Cadena temporal\"), which mandated \"hard and painful labor\", shackling for the duration of incarceration, and permanent civil disabilities. This case is often viewed as establishing a principle of proportionality under the Eighth Amendment.Finkel, Norman. *[Commonsense Justice: Jurors' Notions of the Law](https://books.google.com/books?id=-B8EIq-ZnFsC&dq=Weems+and+proportionality&pg=PA138)*, page 138 (Harvard University Press 2001\\). However, others have written that \"it is hard to view *Weems* as announcing a constitutional requirement of proportionality.\"The quoted sentence is from the opinion of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in the later case of *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")*, {{ussc\\|501\\|957\\|1991}}.",
"In *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles \"Trop v. Dulles\")*, {{ussc\\|356\\|86\\|1958}}, the Supreme Court held that punishing a natural\\-born citizen for a crime by revoking his citizenship is unconstitutional, being \"more primitive than [torture](/wiki/Torture \"Torture\")\" because it involved the \"total destruction of the individual's status in organized society\".",
"In *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California \"Robinson v. California\")*, {{ussc\\|370\\|660\\|1962}}, the Court decided a California law authorizing a 90\\-day jail sentence for \"be\\[ing] [addicted](/wiki/Substance_use_disorder \"Substance use disorder\") to the use of [narcotics](/wiki/Narcotic \"Narcotic\")\" violated the Eighth Amendment, as narcotics addiction \"is apparently an illness\", and California was attempting to punish people based on the state of this illness, rather than for any specific act. The Court wrote:\n{{blockquote\\|To be sure, imprisonment for ninety days is not, in the abstract, a punishment which is either cruel or unusual. But the question cannot be considered in the abstract. Even one day in prison would be a cruel and unusual punishment for the 'crime' of having a common cold.}}",
"However, in *[Powell v. Texas](/wiki/Powell_v._Texas \"Powell v. Texas\")*, {{ussc\\|392\\|514\\|1968}}, the Court upheld a statute barring [public intoxication](/wiki/Public_intoxication \"Public intoxication\") by distinguishing *Robinson* on the basis that *Powell* dealt with a person who was drunk *in public*, not merely for being addicted to alcohol.{{cite book\\|last\\=Dressler\\|first\\=Joshua\\|title\\=Understanding Criminal Law\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[LexisNexis]]\\|year\\=2009\\|edition\\=Fifth\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/underst\\_dre\\_2009\\_00\\_4100/page/98 98]\\|chapter\\=9\\.04 (B)\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4224\\-2987\\-7\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/details/underst\\_dre\\_2009\\_00\\_4100/page/98}}",
"Traditionally, the length of a prison sentence was not subject to scrutiny under the Eighth Amendment, regardless of the crime for which the sentence was imposed. It was not until the case of *[Solem v. Helm](/wiki/Solem_v._Helm \"Solem v. Helm\")*, {{ussc\\|463\\|277\\|1983}}, that the Supreme Court held that incarceration, standing alone, could constitute cruel and unusual punishment if it were \"disproportionate\" in duration to the offense. The Court outlined three factors that were to be considered in determining if a sentence is excessive: \"(i) the gravity of the offense and the harshness of the penalty; (ii) the sentences imposed on other criminals in the same jurisdiction; and (iii) the sentences imposed for commission of the same crime in other jurisdictions.\" The Court held that in the circumstances of the case before it and the factors to consider, a sentence of [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment \"Life imprisonment\") without parole for cashing a $100 check on a closed account was cruel and unusual.",
"However, in *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")*, {{ussc\\|501\\|957\\|1991}}, a fractured Court retreated from the *Solem* test and held that for non\\-capital sentences, the Eighth Amendment constrains only the length of prison terms by a \"gross disproportionality principle\". Under this principle, the Court sustained a mandatory sentence of life without parole imposed for possession of 672 grams (1\\.5 pounds) or more of cocaine. The Court acknowledged that a punishment could be cruel but not unusual, and therefore not prohibited by the Constitution.Miller, Wilbur. *[The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America](https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&pg=PA416)*, p. 416 (SAGE 2012\\).Ryan, Meghan. \"[Does the Eighth Amendment Punishments Clause Prohibit Only Punishments that Are Both Cruel and Unusual?](http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=lawreview) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219015152/http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=1090\\&context\\=lawreview \\|date\\=December 19, 2013 }}\", *Washington University Law Review*, Volume 87, p. 567 (2010\\). Additionally, in *Harmelin*, Justice [Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\"), joined by Chief Justice [Rehnquist](/wiki/William_Rehnquist \"William Rehnquist\"), said \"the Eighth Amendment contains no proportionality guarantee,\" and that \"what was 'cruel and unusual' under the Eighth Amendment was to be determined without reference to the particular offense.\" Scalia wrote \"If 'cruel and unusual punishments' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous.\" Moreover, \"There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions \\[outlawing disproportional punishments], yet chose not to replicate them.\"",
"In *[Graham v. Florida](/wiki/Graham_v._Florida \"Graham v. Florida\")*, 560 U.S. [48](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/560/48/) (2010\\), the Supreme Court declared that a life sentence without any chance of parole, for a crime other than murder, is cruel and unusual punishment for a [minor](/wiki/Minor_%28law%29 \"Minor (law)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/05/analysis\\-a\\-limited\\-break\\-for\\-juveniles/\\#more\\-20246\\|title\\=Analysis: A limited break for juveniles\\|last\\=Denniston\\|first\\=Lyle\\|date\\=May 17, 2010\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[SCOTUSblog]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2010}}{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.law.com/jsp/nlj/PubArticleNLJ.jsp?id\\=1202458312706\\&src\\=EMC\\-Email\\&et\\=editorial\\&bu\\=National%20Law%20Journal\\&pt\\=NLJ.com%20\\-Legal%20Times%20Afternoon%20Update\\&cn\\=20100517lt\\&kw\\=Justices%20Rule%20on%20Prison%20Time%20for%20Juveniles%2C%20Sex%20Offenders\\|title\\=Justices rule on prison time for juveniles, sex offenders\\|last\\=Mauro\\|first\\=Tony\\|author2\\=Coyle, Marcia\\|date\\=May 17, 2010\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[The National Law Journal]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2010}} Two years later, in *[Miller v. Alabama](/wiki/Miller_v._Alabama \"Miller v. Alabama\")*, {{ussc\\|567\\|460\\|2012}}, the Court went further, holding that mandatory life sentences without parole cannot be imposed on minors, even for homicide.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Miller v. Alabama'', 567 U.S. 460 (2012\\) \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/460/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020 \\|date\\=June 25, 2012}}",
"##### Death penalty for rape",
"In *[Coker v. Georgia](/wiki/Coker_v._Georgia \"Coker v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|433\\|584\\|1977}}, the Court declared that the death penalty was unconstitutionally excessive for rape of a woman and, by implication, for any crime where a death does not occur. The majority in *Coker* stated that \"death is indeed a disproportionate penalty for the crime of raping an adult woman.\" The dissent countered that the majority \"takes too little account of the profound suffering the crime imposes upon the victims and their loved ones\". The dissent also characterized the majority as \"[myopic](/wiki/Myopia%23Society_and_culture \"Myopia#Society and culture\")\" for considering legal history of only \"the past five years\".",
"In *[Kennedy v. Louisiana](/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana \"Kennedy v. Louisiana\")*, {{ussc\\|554\\|407\\|2008}}, the Court extended the reasoning of *Coker* by ruling that the death penalty was excessive for child rape \"where the victim's life was not taken\".{{cite news\\|last\\=Greenhouse \\|first\\=Linda \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html \\|title\\=Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape \\|newspaper\\=New York Times \\|date\\=June 26, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2023}} The Supreme Court failed to note a federal law, which applies to military court\\-martial proceedings, providing for the death penalty in cases of child rape.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/02/washington/02scotus.html \\|title\\=In Court Ruling on Executions, a Factual Flaw\\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2008\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|first\\=Linda \\|last\\=Greenhouse\\|date\\=July 2, 2008\\|author\\-link\\=Linda Greenhouse}} On October 1, 2008, the Court declined to reconsider its opinion in this case, but did amend the majority and dissenting opinions to acknowledge that federal law. Justice Scalia (joined by Chief Justice [Roberts](/wiki/John_Roberts \"John Roberts\")) wrote in dissent that \"the proposed Eighth Amendment would have been laughed to scorn if it had read 'no criminal penalty shall be imposed which the Supreme Court deems unacceptable'.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\\-343Scalia.pdf\\|title\\=Statement of Justice Scalia, with whom the Chief Justice joins, respecting the denial of rehearing\\|last\\=Scalia\\|first\\=Antonin\\|date\\=October 1, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=April 7, 2009\\|publisher\\=Supreme Court of the United States\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702233128/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\\-343Scalia.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=July 2, 2018}}",
"#### Special procedures for death penalty cases",
"Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion \"Concurring opinion\") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\\): \"The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") provides that \"\\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law.\" This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the \"cruel and unusual punishments\" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.\" A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\\. The Supreme Court in *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe \"Bucklew v. Precythe\")* (2019\\) explicitly said: \"The Constitution allows capital punishment. \\[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \\[...] While the Eighth Amendment doesn’t forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\\-8151/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020 \\|date\\=March 31, 2019}} The Supreme Court also held in *Bucklew* that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States \"Death penalty in the United States\") because \"the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed\".",
"The first significant general challenge to capital punishment{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the\\-supreme\\-courts\\-evolving\\-record\\-on\\-capital\\-punishment\\|title\\=The Supreme Court's evolving record on capital punishment \\- National Constitution Center\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Constitution Center]]\\|first\\=Scott \\|last\\=Bomboy\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-26\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403162304/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the\\-supreme\\-courts\\-evolving\\-record\\-on\\-capital\\-punishment\\|archive\\-date\\=April 3, 2019\\|date\\= July 28, 2014}} that reached the Supreme Court was the case of *[Furman v. Georgia](/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia \"Furman v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|408\\|238\\|1972}}. The Supreme Court overturned the death sentences of Furman for murder, as well as two other defendants for rape. Of the five justices voting to overturn the death penalty, two found that capital punishment was unconstitutionally cruel and unusual, while three found that the statutes at issue were implemented in a random and capricious fashion, discriminating against blacks and the poor. *Furman v. Georgia* did not hold—even though it is sometimes claimed that it did—that capital punishment is *[per se](/wiki/wikt:Per_se \"Per se\")* unconstitutional.Million, Joelle. *[Racial Issues in Criminal Justice: The Case of African Americans](https://books.google.com/books?id=4jrTbqgd5s8C&dq=Furman+and+%22per+se%22+and+unconstitutional&pg=PA180)*, page 180 (Greenwood 2003\\).",
"States with capital punishment rewrote their laws to address the Supreme Court's decision, and the Court then revisited the issue in a murder case: *[Gregg v. Georgia](/wiki/Gregg_v._Georgia \"Gregg v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|428\\|153\\|1976}}. In *Gregg*, the Court ruled that Georgia's revised death penalty laws passed Eighth Amendment scrutiny: the statutes provided a bifurcated trial in which guilt and sentence were determined separately; and, the statutes provided for \"specific jury findings\" followed by state supreme court review comparing each death sentence \"with the sentences imposed on similarly situated defendants to ensure that the sentence of death in a particular case is not disproportionate.\" Because of the *Gregg* decision, executions resumed in 1977\\.",
"Some states have passed laws imposing mandatory death penalties in certain cases. The Supreme Court found these laws unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment, in the murder case of *[Woodson v. North Carolina](/wiki/Woodson_v._North_Carolina \"Woodson v. North Carolina\")*, {{ussc\\|428\\|280\\|1976}}, because these laws remove discretion from the trial judge to make an individualized determination in each case.Palmer, Louis. *[The Death Penalty: An American Citizen's Guide to Understanding Federal and State Laws](https://archive.org/details/deathpenaltyamer00palm/page/15)*, page 14 (McFarland 1998\\). Other statutes specifying factors for courts to use in making their decisions have been upheld. Some have not: in *[Godfrey v. Georgia](/wiki/Godfrey_v._Georgia \"Godfrey v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|446\\|420\\|1980}}, the Supreme Court overturned a sentence based upon a finding that a murder was \"outrageously or wantonly vile, horrible, and inhuman\", as it deemed that any murder may be reasonably characterized in this manner. Similarly, in *[Maynard v. Cartwright](/wiki/Maynard_v._Cartwright \"Maynard v. Cartwright\")*, {{ussc\\|486\\|356\\|1988}}, the Court found that an \"especially heinous, atrocious or cruel\" standard in a homicide case was too vague. However, the meaning of this language depends on how lower courts interpret it. In *[Walton v. Arizona](/wiki/Walton_v._Arizona \"Walton v. Arizona\")*, {{ussc\\|497\\|639\\|1990}}, the Court found that the phrase \"especially heinous, cruel, or depraved\" was not vague in a murder case, because the state supreme court had expounded on its meaning.*Walton* was overruled on other grounds by *[Ring v. Arizona](/wiki/Ring_v._Arizona \"Ring v. Arizona\")*, {{ussc\\|536\\|584\\|2002}}",
"The Court has generally held that death penalty cases require extra procedural protections. As the Court said in *[Herrera v. Collins](/wiki/Herrera_v._Collins \"Herrera v. Collins\")*, {{ussc\\|506\\|390\\|1993}}, which involved the murder of a police officer, \"the Eighth Amendment requires increased reliability of the process{{nbsp}}...\"",
"#### Punishments specifically allowed",
"In *[Wilkerson v. Utah](/wiki/Wilkerson_v._Utah \"Wilkerson v. Utah\")*, {{ussc\\|99\\|130\\|1878}}*Wilkerson v. Utah*, 99 U.S. 130, 25 L. Ed. 345, 9 Otto 130, 1878 U.S. LEXIS 1517 (1878\\) the Court stated that [death by firing squad](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad \"Execution by firing squad\") is not cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Howard Gillman \\|author2\\=Mark A. Graber \\|author3\\=Keith E. Whittington \\|title\\=American Constitutionalism Volume II: Rights and Liberties \\|chapter\\=7: The Republican Era—Criminal Justice / Punishments / Capital Punishment, Supplementary Material: ''Wilkerson v. State of Utah'', 99 U.S. 130 (1878\\) \\|url\\=https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199751358/instructor/chapter\\_7/wilkerson\\_v\\_state\\_of\\_utah.pdf \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817145247/https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199751358/instructor/chapter\\_7/wilkerson\\_v\\_state\\_of\\_utah.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=August 17, 2020\\|year\\=2013}}",
"In *[Rummel v. Estelle](/wiki/Rummel_v._Estelle \"Rummel v. Estelle\")*, {{ussc\\|445\\|263\\|1980}},*Rummel v. Estelle*, 445 U.S. 263, 100 S. Ct. 1133, 63 L. Ed. 2d 382, 1980 U.S. LEXIS 90 (1980\\) the Court upheld a life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed per Texas's [three strikes law](/wiki/Three_strikes_law \"Three strikes law\") for fraud crimes totaling $230\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Rummel v. Estelle'' \\|url\\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Rummel\\_v\\_Estelle.html \\|publisher\\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200818051640/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Rummel\\_v\\_Estelle.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite journal\\|title\\=''Rummel v. Estelle'': Leaving the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause in {{as written\\|Consit\\|utional \\[sic]}} Limbo \\|journal\\=Valparaiso University Law Review \\|volume\\=15 \\|number\\=1 \\|pages\\=201–227 \\|date\\=Fall 1980 \\|url\\=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0adc/4f0078f1e4e82dea94d600a01f9eebe2e608\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=Valpraiso University \\|s2cid\\=53060925 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218094706/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0adc/4f0078f1e4e82dea94d600a01f9eebe2e608\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=February 18, 2019}} Noteworthy are pages 201, 212–214 and 226–227 for a proportionality test under the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause. A few months later, Rummel challenged his sentence for ineffective assistance of counsel, his appeal was upheld, and as part of a plea bargain Rummel pled guilty to theft and was released for time served.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi\\-bin/getcase.pl?court\\=US\\&vol\\=463\\&invol\\=277\\#tt8\\|title\\=''Solem v. Helm''\\|work\\=Findlaw}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Bedford \\|first1\\=Edward J. \\|journal\\=Washington and Lee Law Review \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=1 \\|title\\=''Rummel v. Estelle'': Can Non\\-Capital Punishment Still Be Cruel and Unusual \\|pages\\=243–256 \\|url\\=https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=2410\\&context\\=wlulr \\|publisher\\=Washington and Lee University School of Law \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818154629/https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=2410\\&context\\=wlulr \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2020\\|date\\=January 1, 1981}} (article 18\\) See footnote 104 at page 253\\.",
"In *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")*, {{ussc\\|501\\|957\\|1991}},*Harmelin v. Michigan*, 501 U.S. 957, 111 S. Ct. 2680, 115 L. Ed. 2d 836, 1991 U.S. LEXIS 3816 (1991\\) the Court upheld a life sentence without the possibility of parole for possession of 672 grams (1\\.5 pounds) of cocaine.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Harmelin v. Michigan'' \\|url\\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Harmelin\\_v\\_Michigan.html \\|publisher\\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \\|access\\-date\\=August 19, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819051316/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Harmelin\\_v\\_Michigan.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=''Harmelin v. Michigan'' \\|url\\=https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal\\-law/criminal\\-law\\-keyed\\-to\\-kadish/defining\\-criminal\\-conduct\\-the\\-elements\\-of\\-just\\-punishment/harmelin\\-v\\-michigan/\\|website\\=Casebriefs \\- Law Cases \\& Case Briefs for Students \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg Law]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 19, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819052312/https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal\\-law/criminal\\-law\\-keyed\\-to\\-kadish/defining\\-criminal\\-conduct\\-the\\-elements\\-of\\-just\\-punishment/harmelin\\-v\\-michigan/\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2020}}",
"In *[Lockyer v. Andrade](/wiki/Lockyer_v._Andrade \"Lockyer v. Andrade\")*, {{ussc\\|538\\|63\\|2003}},*Lockyer v. Andrade*, 583 U.S. 63, 123 S. Ct. 1166, 155 L. Ed. 2d 144 (2003\\) the Court upheld a 50 years to life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed under California's [three strikes law](/wiki/Three_strikes_law \"Three strikes law\") when the defendant was convicted of shoplifting videotapes worth a total of about $150\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'' \\|url\\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Lockyer\\_v\\_Andrade.html \\|publisher\\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161107/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Lockyer\\_v\\_Andrade.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'' (01\\-1127\\), ''Washington State Dept. of Social \\& Health Services v. Guardianship Estate of Keffeler'' (01\\-1420\\) \\|url\\=https://www.wiggin.com/publication/lockyer\\-v\\-andrade\\-01\\-1127\\-washington\\-state\\-dept\\-of\\-social\\-health\\-services\\-v\\-guardianship\\-estate\\-of\\-keffeler\\-01\\-1420/ \\|publisher\\=Wiggin and Dana LLP \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161618/https://www.wiggin.com/publication/lockyer\\-v\\-andrade\\-01\\-1127\\-washington\\-state\\-dept\\-of\\-social\\-health\\-services\\-v\\-guardianship\\-estate\\-of\\-keffeler\\-01\\-1420/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=March 6, 2003}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Peña \\|first1\\=Maria \\|title\\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'', 538 U.S. 63 (2003\\) \\|url\\=https://prezi.com/xiljqmw0pker/lockyer\\-v\\-andrade/ \\|publisher\\=Prezi Inc. \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820163023/https://prezi.com/xiljqmw0pker/lockyer\\-v\\-andrade/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=October 31, 2011}}",
"In *[Baze v. Rees](/wiki/Baze_v._Rees \"Baze v. Rees\")*, {{Ussc\\|553\\|35\\|2008}} *Baze v. Rees*, 553 U.S. 35, 128 S. Ct. 1520, 170 L. Ed. 2d 420 (2008\\) the Court upheld Kentucky's execution protocol using a three\\-drug cocktail.{{cite web \\|author1\\=Eric Finkelstein \\|author2\\=Michael Zuckerman \\|author3\\=Richard Beaulieu \\|title\\=LII Supreme Court Bulletin ''Baze v. Rees'' \\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/07\\-5439 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Legal Information Institute]] of the \\[\\[Cornell Law School]] at \\[\\[Cornell University]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713042030/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/07\\-5439 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 13, 2020}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Greenhouse \\|first1\\=Linda \\|title\\=Supreme Court Allows Lethal Injection for Execution \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd\\-scotus.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=April 17, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920214049/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd\\-scotus.html \\|archive\\-date\\=September 20, 2019}}{{cite web \\|title\\=''Baze v. Rees'' \\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/07\\-5439 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Legal Information Institute]] of the \\[\\[Cornell Law School]] at \\[\\[Cornell University]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529001609/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/07\\-5439 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 29, 2020\\|date\\=April 16, 2008}}",
"In *[Glossip v. Gross](/wiki/Glossip_v._Gross \"Glossip v. Gross\")* {{ussc\\|576\\|863\\|year\\=2015}} [*Glossip v. Gross*](https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-7955), 576 U.S. 863, 135 S. Ct. 2726, 191 L. Ed. 2d 148, 2015 WL 341665 (2015\\). [Archived version.](https://web.archive.org/web/20220806105337/https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-7955) the Court upheld the use of [lethal injections](/wiki/Lethal_injection \"Lethal injection\") using the drug [midazolam](/wiki/Midazolam \"Midazolam\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Liptak \\|first1\\=Adam \\|title\\=Supreme Court Allows Use of Execution Drug \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme\\-court\\-execution\\-drug.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=June 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527181419/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme\\-court\\-execution\\-drug.html \\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2020}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Barnes \\|first1\\=Robert \\|title\\=Supreme Court upholds lethal injection procedure \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\\_law/supreme\\-court\\-upholds\\-lethal\\-injection\\-procedure/2015/06/29/2b5cee6e\\-1b3c\\-11e5\\-93b7\\-5eddc056ad8a\\_story.html \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200820190516/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\\_law/supreme\\-court\\-upholds\\-lethal\\-injection\\-procedure/2015/06/29/2b5cee6e\\-1b3c\\-11e5\\-93b7\\-5eddc056ad8a\\_story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=June 29, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion \"Concurring opinion\") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\\): \"The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") provides that \"\\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law.\" This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the \"cruel and unusual punishments\" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.\" A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\\. In *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe \"Bucklew v. Precythe\")*, {{ussc\\|volume\\=587\\|year\\=2019}} *Bucklew v. Precythe*, 587 U.S. \\_\\_\\_, 139 S. Ct. 582, 202 L. Ed. 2d 401 (2019\\) the Court ruled that when a convict sentenced to death challenges the State's method of execution due to claims of excessive pain, the convict must show that other alternative methods of execution exist and clearly demonstrate they would cause less pain than the state\\-determined one.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://nytimes.com/2019/04/01/us/politics/supreme\\-court\\-death\\-penalty.html\\|title\\=Rancor and Raw Emotion Surface in Supreme Court Death Penalty Ruling\\|first\\=Adam\\|last\\=Liptak\\|date\\=April 1, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715193711/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/01/us/politics/supreme\\-court\\-death\\-penalty.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2020}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Barnes \\|first1\\=Robert \\|title\\=Divided Supreme Court rules against death\\-row inmate with rare condition \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\\_law/divided\\-supreme\\-court\\-rules\\-against\\-death\\-row\\-inmate\\-with\\-rare\\-condition/2019/04/01/ff523fdc\\-5489\\-11e9\\-8ef3\\-fbd41a2ce4d5\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 1, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200820192303/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\\_law/divided\\-supreme\\-court\\-rules\\-against\\-death\\-row\\-inmate\\-with\\-rare\\-condition/2019/04/01/ff523fdc\\-5489\\-11e9\\-8ef3\\-fbd41a2ce4d5\\_story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Supreme Court also held in *Bucklew* that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States \"Death penalty in the United States\") because \"the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed\". The Court also explicitly said: \"The Constitution allows capital punishment. \\[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \\[...] Of course, that doesn't mean the American people must continue to use the death penalty. The same Constitution that permits States to authorize capital punishment also allows them to outlaw it. But it does mean that the judiciary bears no license to end a debate reserved for the people and their representatives. While the Eighth Amendment doesn’t forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\\-8151/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020 \\|date\\=March 31, 2019}}",
"#### Evolving standards of decency",
"In *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles \"Trop v. Dulles\")*, {{ussc\\|356\\|86\\|1958}}, Chief Justice [Earl Warren](/wiki/Earl_Warren \"Earl Warren\") said: \"The \\[Eighth] Amendment must draw its meaning from the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society.\" Subsequently, the Court has looked to societal developments, as well as looking to its own independent judgment, in determining what are those \"evolving standards of decency\".{{cite web\\|title\\=''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U. S. \\_\\_\\_\\_ (2008\\) Supreme Court Case No. 07\\-343\\. Note: For the evolving standards of decency see in general the slip opinion pages 1\\-5 and in special the opinion of the court pages 8\\-10\\.\\|url\\=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\\-343\\.2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126054259/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\\-343\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=January 26, 2020\\|date\\=June 25, 2008}} In *[Kennedy v. Louisiana](/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana \"Kennedy v. Louisiana\")* (2008\\) the Supreme Court stated: \"Evolving standards of decency must embrace and express respect for the dignity of the person, and the punishment of criminals must conform to that rule.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U.S. 407 (2008\\), Opinion of the Court, Part IV, section A \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/554/407/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=August 22, 2020}}{{cite web \\|first\\=David F. \\|last\\=Forte \\|title\\=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution: Amendment VIII Cruel and Unusual Punishment \\|url\\=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/\\#!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel\\-and\\-unusual\\-punishment \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Heritage Foundation]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 22, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200822232208/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/%23!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel\\-and\\-unusual\\-punishment \\|archive\\-date\\=August 22, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[Originalists](/wiki/Originalism \"Originalism\"), like Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\"), argue that societies may rot instead of maturing and may decrease in virtue or wisdom instead of increasing. Thus, they say, the framers wanted the amendment understood as it was written and ratified, instead of morphing as times change, and in any event legislators are more competent than judges to take the pulse of the public as to changing standards of decency.{{cite web\\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=Jane \\|url\\=http://m.therepublic.com/view/story/scalia\\-judges/scalia\\-judges \\|title\\=Scalia Defends U.S. Judiciary \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219062522/http://m.therepublic.com/view/story/scalia\\-judges/scalia\\-judges \\|archive\\-date\\=December 19, 2013 \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Scripps Howard News Service]] \\|date\\=December 17, 2013}}",
"The \"evolving standards\" test has been subject to scholarly criticism. For example, law professor John Stinneford asserts that the \"evolving standards\" test misinterprets the Eighth Amendment:\n{{blockquote\\|The Framers of the Bill of Rights understood the word \"unusual\" to mean \"contrary to long usage.\" Recognition of the word's original meaning will precisely invert the \"evolving standards of decency\" test, and ask the Court to compare challenged punishments with the longstanding principles and precedents of the common law, rather than shifting and nebulous notions of \"societal consensus\" and contemporary \"standards of decency.Stinneford, John. \\[https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1015344 \"The Original Meaning of 'Unusual': The Eighth Amendment as a Bar to Cruel Innovation\"], ''Northwestern University Law Review'', Vol. 102, No. 4 (2008\\).}}",
"On the other hand, law professor Dennis Baker defends the evolving standards of decency test as advancing the moral purpose of the Eighth Amendment to ban the inflicting of unjust, oppressive, or disproportional punishments by a state on its citizens.{{cite journal\\|ssrn\\=1300356\\|title\\=Constitutionalizing the Harm Principle \\|journal\\=Criminal Justice Ethics \\|volume\\=27 \\|number\\=2 \\|page\\=3 \\|first\\=Dennis J. \\|last\\=Baker \\|date\\=November 12, 2008\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/0731129X.2008\\.9992238 \\|s2cid\\=144865297 \\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2020\\|url\\=https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1300356\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308041059/https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1300356\\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2016}}",
"#### Proportionality",
"{{See also\\|Felony murder and the death penalty in the United States}}",
"The Supreme Court has applied evolving standards not only to say what punishments are inherently cruel, but also to say what punishments that are not inherently cruel are nevertheless \"grossly disproportionate\" to the offense in question. An example can be seen in *[Jackson v. Bishop](/wiki/Jackson_v._Bishop \"Jackson v. Bishop\")**Jackson v. Bishop*, 404 F. 2d 571 (8th Cir. 1968\\) an [Eighth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit\") decision outlawing corporal punishment in the Arkansas prison system: \"The scope of the Amendment is not static{{nbsp}}...\\[D]isproportion, both among punishments and between punishment and crime, is a factor to be considered{{nbsp}}...\"[*Jackson v. Bishop*, 404 F. 2d 571—Court of Appeals, 8th Circuit 1968](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1484662314280825855&q=bishop&hl=en&as_sdt=4,85,87,92,97,113,128,148,150,155,160,256,257,273,274,284,285,319,320,336,337,347,348,382). Relying on and citing its early cases *O{{'}}Neil v. Vermont*, {{ussc\\|144\\|323\\|1892}}*O{{'}}Neil v. Vermont*, 144 U.S. 323, 12 S.Ct. 693, 36 L.Ed. 450 (1892\\) and *[Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States \"Weems v. United States\")**Weems v. United States*, 217 U.S. 349, 30 S. Ct. 544 (1910\\) the Supreme Court concluded in *[Enmund v. Florida](/wiki/Enmund_v._Florida \"Enmund v. Florida\")**Enmund v. Florida*, 458 U.S. 782, 102 S. Ct. 3368, 73 L. Ed. 2d 1140 (1982\\) that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause is partly a prohibition of all punishments which, by their excessive length or severity, are greatly disproportioned to the offenses charged.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Enmund v. Florida'', 458 U.S. 782 (1982\\), at 788\\. \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/458/782/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2020 \\|date\\=July 2, 1982}}",
"Law professor John Stinneford asserts that the Eighth Amendment forbids punishments that are very disproportionate to the offense, even if the punishment by itself is not intrinsically barbaric, but he argues that \"proportionality is to be measured primarily in terms of prior practice\" according to the word *unusual* in the amendment, instead of being measured according to shifting and nebulous evolving standards.{{cite journal\\|first\\=John F. \\|last\\=Stinneford \\|url\\=https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1660642 \\|title\\=Rethinking Proportionality under the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause \\|volume\\=97 \\|number\\=4 \\|journal\\=Virginia Law Review \\|pages\\=899, 926–61 \\|date\\=February 18, 2011}} Stinneford writes (emphasis added):",
"> \\[E]ven if one stacked up all of Oates's punishments together—the fine, the whippings, the imprisonment, the pillorying, and the defrockment—their cumulative effect was less harsh as an absolute matter than some punishments considered acceptable at the time, such as drawing and quartering or burning at the stake. ***If*** the punishments inflicted on Oates were unacceptably cruel, this could only be because they were disproportionate to the crime of perjury.",
"",
"But, says Stinneford, punishment is unacceptable only if it is \"***both*** cruel and 'contrary to long usage'\". Id. at 977 (emphasis added).\n```\nStinneford argues that the word \n```",
"*unusual* in the Eighth Amendment has a very different meaning in comparison to those who use [originalism to interpret the U.S. Constitution](/wiki/Originalism \"Originalism\"). He writes: \"But in reality, the word 'unusual' in the Eighth Amendment did not originally mean 'rare'– it meant 'contrary to long usage', or 'new'. A punishment is cruel and unusual if it is 'cruel in light of long usage' – that is, cruel in comparison to longstanding prior practice or tradition.\"{{cite web\\|first\\=John F. \\|last\\=Stinneford \\|title\\=Interpretation: The Eighth Amendment \\- Against Cruel Innovation: The Original Meaning of the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause, and Why It Matters Today\\|url\\=https://constitutioncenter.org/the\\-constitution/amendments/amendment\\-viii/clauses/103 \\|publisher\\=The \\[\\[National Constitution Center]]\\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2023}} Stinneford writes:\n> In response to the non\\-originalist approach to the Constitution, some judges and scholars – most prominently Justices Scalia and Thomas – have argued for a very narrow approach to original meaning that is almost willfully indifferent to current societal needs. ... My own research into the original meaning of the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause shows that [Justice Scalia's](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") and [Thomas's](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas \"Clarence Thomas\") approach has a fatal flaw: It ignores the meaning of the word \"unusual\". ... \\[T]he word \"unusual\" in the Eighth Amendment did not originally mean \"rare\"– it meant \"contrary to long usage\", or \"new\". A punishment is cruel and unusual if it is \"cruel in light of long usage\" – that is, cruel in comparison to longstanding prior practice or tradition.",
"Similarly, law professor [John Bessler](/wiki/John_Bessler \"John Bessler\") points to \"[An Essay on Crimes and Punishments](/wiki/An_Essay_on_Crimes_and_Punishments \"An Essay on Crimes and Punishments\")\", written by [Cesare Beccaria](/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria \"Cesare Beccaria\") in the 1760s, which advocated proportionate punishments; many of the Founding Fathers, including [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\") and [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison \"James Madison\"), read Beccaria's treatise and were influenced by it.Bessler, John D. [\"Revisiting Beccaria's Vision: The Enlightenment, America's Death Penalty, and the Abolition Movement\"](http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njlsp/v4/n2/1/index.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321171845/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njlsp/v4/n2/1/index.htm \\|date\\=March 21, 2012 }}, *Northwestern Journal of Law \\& Social Policy*, Volume 4, Issue 2, Article 1 (2009\\)John D. Bessler, *The Birth of American Law: An Italian Philosopher and the American Revolution* (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press)",
"Thus, Stinneford and Bessler disagree with the view of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")* where they denied that the Punishments Clause contains any proportionality principle.*[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")*, {{ussc\\|501\\|957\\|1991}}. Scalia wrote: \"If 'cruel and unusual punishments' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous.\" Moreover, \"There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions \\[outlawing disproportional punishments], yet chose not to replicate them.\" With Scalia and Rehnquist, [Richard Epstein](/wiki/Richard_Allen_Epstein \"Richard Allen Epstein\") argues that the amendment does not refer broadly to the imposition of penalties, but rather refers more narrowly to the penalties themselves; Epstein says judges who favor the broad view tend to omit the letter \"s\" at the end of the word \"punishments\".Epstein, Richard. [\"The Constitution's Vanishing Act\"](http://www.hoover.org/research/constitutions-vanishing-act), *Defining Ideas* (December 16, 2013\\).",
""
] |
### Specific aspects
According to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States"), the Eighth Amendment forbids some punishments entirely, and forbids some other punishments that are excessive when compared to the crime, or compared to the [competence](/wiki/Competence_%28law%29 "Competence (law)") of the perpetrator. This will be discussed in the sections below.
#### Punishments forbidden regardless of the crime
In *[Wilkerson v. Utah](/wiki/Wilkerson_v._Utah "Wilkerson v. Utah")*, {{ussc\|99\|130\|1878}}, the Supreme Court commented that [drawing and quartering](/wiki/Hanged%2C_drawn_and_quartered "Hanged, drawn and quartered"), public [dissection](/wiki/Dissection "Dissection"), [burning alive](/wiki/Death_by_burning "Death by burning"), or [disembowelment](/wiki/Disembowelment "Disembowelment") constituted cruel and unusual punishment.*Wilkinson*, at 135–136\.{{efn\|The plurality opinion in ''\[\[Baze v. Rees]]'', {{Ussc\|553\|35\|2008}} written by Chief Justice \[\[John Roberts]] states: "This Court has never invalidated a State’s chosen procedure for carrying out a sentence of death as the infliction of cruel and unusual punishment. In ''\[\[Wilkerson v. Utah]]'', 99 U. S. 130 (1879\), we upheld a sentence to death by firing squad imposed by a territorial court, rejecting the argument that such a sentence constituted cruel and unusual punishment. ''Id.'', at 134–135\. We noted there the difficulty of “defin\[ing] with exactness the extent of the constitutional provision which provides that cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted.” ''Id.'', at 135–136\. Rather than undertake such an effort, the ''Wilkerson'' Court simply noted that “it is safe to affirm that punishments of \[\[torture]], . . . and all others in the same line of unnecessary cruelty, are forbidden” by the Eighth Amendment. ''Id.'', at 136\. By way of example, the Court cited cases from England in which “\[\[wikt:terror\|terror]], \[\[pain]], or disgrace were sometimes superadded” to the sentence, such as where the condemned was “\[\[disembowelment\|embowelled alive]], \[\[Decapitation\|beheaded]], and \[\[Hanged, drawn and quartered\|quartered]],” or instances of “\[\[Dissection\|public dissection]] in murder, and \[\[Death by burning\|burning alive]].” ''Id.'', at 135\. In contrast, we observed that the firing squad was routinely used as a method of execution for military officers. ''Id.'', at 137\. What each of the forbidden punishments had in common was the deliberate infliction of pain for the sake of pain—“superadd\[ing]” pain to the death sentence through torture and the like.
We carried these principles further in ''\[\[Electric chair\#First execution\|In re Kemmler]]'', 136 U. S. 436 (1890\). There we rejected an opportunity to incorporate the Eighth Amendment against the States in a challenge to the first execution by electrocution, to be carried out by the State of New York. ''Id.'', at 449\. In passing over that question, however, we observed that “\[p]unishments are cruel when they involve torture or a lingering death; but the punishment of death is not cruel within the meaning of that word as used in the Constitution. It implies there something inhuman and barbarous, something more than the mere extinguishment of life.” Id., at 447\. We noted that the New York statute adopting electrocution as a method of execution “was passed in the effort to devise a more humane method of reaching the result.” ''Ibid''."{{cite web \|title\=Baze v. Rees, 553 U.S. 35 (2008\) \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/553/35/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=April 16, 2008}}}} Relying on Eighth Amendment case law Justice [William O. Douglas](/wiki/William_O._Douglas "William O. Douglas") stated in his *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California "Robinson v. California")*, {{ussc\|370\|660\|1962}} concurrence opinion that "historic punishments that were cruel and unusual included "[burning at the stake](/wiki/Death_by_burning "Death by burning"), [crucifixion](/wiki/Crucifixion "Crucifixion"), [breaking on the wheel](/wiki/Breaking_wheel "Breaking wheel")" (*In re Kemmler*, 136 U. S. 436, 136 U. S. 446\), [quartering](/wiki/Dismemberment "Dismemberment"), [the rack](/wiki/Rack_%28torture%29 "Rack (torture)") and [thumbscrew](/wiki/Thumbscrew_%28torture%29 "Thumbscrew (torture)") (see *[Chambers v. Florida](/wiki/Chambers_v._Florida "Chambers v. Florida")*, 309 U. S. 227, 309 U. S. 237\), and, in some circumstances, even [solitary confinement](/wiki/Solitary_confinement "Solitary confinement") (see In re Medley, 134 U. S. 160, 134 U. S. 167\-168\)."{{cite web \|title\=''Robinson v. California'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962\), at page 675\|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/370/660/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=July 20, 2020 \|date\=June 25, 1962}} In *[Thompson v. Oklahoma](/wiki/Thompson_v._Oklahoma "Thompson v. Oklahoma")*, {{ussc\|487\|815\|1988}}, the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty constituted cruel and unusual punishment if the defendant is under age 16 when the crime was committed. Furthermore, in *[Roper v. Simmons](/wiki/Roper_v._Simmons "Roper v. Simmons")*, {{ussc\|543\|551\|2005}}, the Court barred the executing of people who were under age 18 when the crime was committed. In *[Atkins v. Virginia](/wiki/Atkins_v._Virginia "Atkins v. Virginia")*, {{ussc\|536\|304\|2002}}, the Court declared that executing people who are [mentally handicapped](/wiki/Developmental_disability "Developmental disability") constituted cruel and unusual punishment.
#### Punishments forbidden for certain crimes
The case of *[Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States "Weems v. United States")*, {{ussc\|217\|349\|1910}}, marked the first time the Supreme Court exercised [judicial review](/wiki/Judicial_review "Judicial review") to overturn a criminal sentence as cruel and unusual.Melusky, Anthony and Pesto, Keith. *[Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Rights and Liberties Under the Law](https://books.google.com/books?id=NU_Mo7leji8C&dq=Weems+and+%22cadena+temporal%22&pg=PA87)*, page 87 (ABC\-CLIO 2003\). The Court overturned a punishment called [cadena temporal](/wiki/Cadena_temporal "Cadena temporal"), which mandated "hard and painful labor", shackling for the duration of incarceration, and permanent civil disabilities. This case is often viewed as establishing a principle of proportionality under the Eighth Amendment.Finkel, Norman. *[Commonsense Justice: Jurors' Notions of the Law](https://books.google.com/books?id=-B8EIq-ZnFsC&dq=Weems+and+proportionality&pg=PA138)*, page 138 (Harvard University Press 2001\). However, others have written that "it is hard to view *Weems* as announcing a constitutional requirement of proportionality."The quoted sentence is from the opinion of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in the later case of *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")*, {{ussc\|501\|957\|1991}}.
In *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles "Trop v. Dulles")*, {{ussc\|356\|86\|1958}}, the Supreme Court held that punishing a natural\-born citizen for a crime by revoking his citizenship is unconstitutional, being "more primitive than [torture](/wiki/Torture "Torture")" because it involved the "total destruction of the individual's status in organized society".
In *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California "Robinson v. California")*, {{ussc\|370\|660\|1962}}, the Court decided a California law authorizing a 90\-day jail sentence for "be\[ing] [addicted](/wiki/Substance_use_disorder "Substance use disorder") to the use of [narcotics](/wiki/Narcotic "Narcotic")" violated the Eighth Amendment, as narcotics addiction "is apparently an illness", and California was attempting to punish people based on the state of this illness, rather than for any specific act. The Court wrote:
{{blockquote\|To be sure, imprisonment for ninety days is not, in the abstract, a punishment which is either cruel or unusual. But the question cannot be considered in the abstract. Even one day in prison would be a cruel and unusual punishment for the 'crime' of having a common cold.}}
However, in *[Powell v. Texas](/wiki/Powell_v._Texas "Powell v. Texas")*, {{ussc\|392\|514\|1968}}, the Court upheld a statute barring [public intoxication](/wiki/Public_intoxication "Public intoxication") by distinguishing *Robinson* on the basis that *Powell* dealt with a person who was drunk *in public*, not merely for being addicted to alcohol.{{cite book\|last\=Dressler\|first\=Joshua\|title\=Understanding Criminal Law\|publisher\=\[\[LexisNexis]]\|year\=2009\|edition\=Fifth\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/underst\_dre\_2009\_00\_4100/page/98 98]\|chapter\=9\.04 (B)\|isbn\=978\-1\-4224\-2987\-7\|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/details/underst\_dre\_2009\_00\_4100/page/98}}
Traditionally, the length of a prison sentence was not subject to scrutiny under the Eighth Amendment, regardless of the crime for which the sentence was imposed. It was not until the case of *[Solem v. Helm](/wiki/Solem_v._Helm "Solem v. Helm")*, {{ussc\|463\|277\|1983}}, that the Supreme Court held that incarceration, standing alone, could constitute cruel and unusual punishment if it were "disproportionate" in duration to the offense. The Court outlined three factors that were to be considered in determining if a sentence is excessive: "(i) the gravity of the offense and the harshness of the penalty; (ii) the sentences imposed on other criminals in the same jurisdiction; and (iii) the sentences imposed for commission of the same crime in other jurisdictions." The Court held that in the circumstances of the case before it and the factors to consider, a sentence of [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment "Life imprisonment") without parole for cashing a $100 check on a closed account was cruel and unusual.
However, in *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")*, {{ussc\|501\|957\|1991}}, a fractured Court retreated from the *Solem* test and held that for non\-capital sentences, the Eighth Amendment constrains only the length of prison terms by a "gross disproportionality principle". Under this principle, the Court sustained a mandatory sentence of life without parole imposed for possession of 672 grams (1\.5 pounds) or more of cocaine. The Court acknowledged that a punishment could be cruel but not unusual, and therefore not prohibited by the Constitution.Miller, Wilbur. *[The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America](https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&pg=PA416)*, p. 416 (SAGE 2012\).Ryan, Meghan. "[Does the Eighth Amendment Punishments Clause Prohibit Only Punishments that Are Both Cruel and Unusual?](http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=lawreview) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219015152/http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=1090\&context\=lawreview \|date\=December 19, 2013 }}", *Washington University Law Review*, Volume 87, p. 567 (2010\). Additionally, in *Harmelin*, Justice [Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia"), joined by Chief Justice [Rehnquist](/wiki/William_Rehnquist "William Rehnquist"), said "the Eighth Amendment contains no proportionality guarantee," and that "what was 'cruel and unusual' under the Eighth Amendment was to be determined without reference to the particular offense." Scalia wrote "If 'cruel and unusual punishments' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous." Moreover, "There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions \[outlawing disproportional punishments], yet chose not to replicate them."
In *[Graham v. Florida](/wiki/Graham_v._Florida "Graham v. Florida")*, 560 U.S. [48](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/560/48/) (2010\), the Supreme Court declared that a life sentence without any chance of parole, for a crime other than murder, is cruel and unusual punishment for a [minor](/wiki/Minor_%28law%29 "Minor (law)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/05/analysis\-a\-limited\-break\-for\-juveniles/\#more\-20246\|title\=Analysis: A limited break for juveniles\|last\=Denniston\|first\=Lyle\|date\=May 17, 2010\|publisher\=\[\[SCOTUSblog]]\|access\-date\=May 17, 2010}}{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.law.com/jsp/nlj/PubArticleNLJ.jsp?id\=1202458312706\&src\=EMC\-Email\&et\=editorial\&bu\=National%20Law%20Journal\&pt\=NLJ.com%20\-Legal%20Times%20Afternoon%20Update\&cn\=20100517lt\&kw\=Justices%20Rule%20on%20Prison%20Time%20for%20Juveniles%2C%20Sex%20Offenders\|title\=Justices rule on prison time for juveniles, sex offenders\|last\=Mauro\|first\=Tony\|author2\=Coyle, Marcia\|date\=May 17, 2010\|magazine\=\[\[The National Law Journal]]\|access\-date\=May 17, 2010}} Two years later, in *[Miller v. Alabama](/wiki/Miller_v._Alabama "Miller v. Alabama")*, {{ussc\|567\|460\|2012}}, the Court went further, holding that mandatory life sentences without parole cannot be imposed on minors, even for homicide.{{cite web \|title\=''Miller v. Alabama'', 567 U.S. 460 (2012\) \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/460/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 12, 2020 \|date\=June 25, 2012}}
##### Death penalty for rape
In *[Coker v. Georgia](/wiki/Coker_v._Georgia "Coker v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|433\|584\|1977}}, the Court declared that the death penalty was unconstitutionally excessive for rape of a woman and, by implication, for any crime where a death does not occur. The majority in *Coker* stated that "death is indeed a disproportionate penalty for the crime of raping an adult woman." The dissent countered that the majority "takes too little account of the profound suffering the crime imposes upon the victims and their loved ones". The dissent also characterized the majority as "[myopic](/wiki/Myopia%23Society_and_culture "Myopia#Society and culture")" for considering legal history of only "the past five years".
In *[Kennedy v. Louisiana](/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana "Kennedy v. Louisiana")*, {{ussc\|554\|407\|2008}}, the Court extended the reasoning of *Coker* by ruling that the death penalty was excessive for child rape "where the victim's life was not taken".{{cite news\|last\=Greenhouse \|first\=Linda \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html \|title\=Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape \|newspaper\=New York Times \|date\=June 26, 2008 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2023}} The Supreme Court failed to note a federal law, which applies to military court\-martial proceedings, providing for the death penalty in cases of child rape.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/02/washington/02scotus.html \|title\=In Court Ruling on Executions, a Factual Flaw\|access\-date\=July 2, 2008\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|first\=Linda \|last\=Greenhouse\|date\=July 2, 2008\|author\-link\=Linda Greenhouse}} On October 1, 2008, the Court declined to reconsider its opinion in this case, but did amend the majority and dissenting opinions to acknowledge that federal law. Justice Scalia (joined by Chief Justice [Roberts](/wiki/John_Roberts "John Roberts")) wrote in dissent that "the proposed Eighth Amendment would have been laughed to scorn if it had read 'no criminal penalty shall be imposed which the Supreme Court deems unacceptable'."{{cite web\|url\=https://supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\-343Scalia.pdf\|title\=Statement of Justice Scalia, with whom the Chief Justice joins, respecting the denial of rehearing\|last\=Scalia\|first\=Antonin\|date\=October 1, 2008\|access\-date\=April 7, 2009\|publisher\=Supreme Court of the United States\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702233128/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\-343Scalia.pdf\|archive\-date\=July 2, 2018}}
#### Special procedures for death penalty cases
Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion "Concurring opinion") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\): "The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution") provides that "\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law." This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment." A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\. The Supreme Court in *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe "Bucklew v. Precythe")* (2019\) explicitly said: "The Constitution allows capital punishment. \[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \[...] While the Eighth Amendment doesn’t forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'."{{cite web \|title\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\-8151/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 12, 2020 \|date\=March 31, 2019}} The Supreme Court also held in *Bucklew* that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States "Death penalty in the United States") because "the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed".
The first significant general challenge to capital punishment{{Cite web\|url\=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the\-supreme\-courts\-evolving\-record\-on\-capital\-punishment\|title\=The Supreme Court's evolving record on capital punishment \- National Constitution Center\|publisher\=\[\[National Constitution Center]]\|first\=Scott \|last\=Bomboy\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-26\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403162304/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the\-supreme\-courts\-evolving\-record\-on\-capital\-punishment\|archive\-date\=April 3, 2019\|date\= July 28, 2014}} that reached the Supreme Court was the case of *[Furman v. Georgia](/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia "Furman v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|408\|238\|1972}}. The Supreme Court overturned the death sentences of Furman for murder, as well as two other defendants for rape. Of the five justices voting to overturn the death penalty, two found that capital punishment was unconstitutionally cruel and unusual, while three found that the statutes at issue were implemented in a random and capricious fashion, discriminating against blacks and the poor. *Furman v. Georgia* did not hold—even though it is sometimes claimed that it did—that capital punishment is *[per se](/wiki/wikt:Per_se "Per se")* unconstitutional.Million, Joelle. *[Racial Issues in Criminal Justice: The Case of African Americans](https://books.google.com/books?id=4jrTbqgd5s8C&dq=Furman+and+%22per+se%22+and+unconstitutional&pg=PA180)*, page 180 (Greenwood 2003\).
States with capital punishment rewrote their laws to address the Supreme Court's decision, and the Court then revisited the issue in a murder case: *[Gregg v. Georgia](/wiki/Gregg_v._Georgia "Gregg v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|428\|153\|1976}}. In *Gregg*, the Court ruled that Georgia's revised death penalty laws passed Eighth Amendment scrutiny: the statutes provided a bifurcated trial in which guilt and sentence were determined separately; and, the statutes provided for "specific jury findings" followed by state supreme court review comparing each death sentence "with the sentences imposed on similarly situated defendants to ensure that the sentence of death in a particular case is not disproportionate." Because of the *Gregg* decision, executions resumed in 1977\.
Some states have passed laws imposing mandatory death penalties in certain cases. The Supreme Court found these laws unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment, in the murder case of *[Woodson v. North Carolina](/wiki/Woodson_v._North_Carolina "Woodson v. North Carolina")*, {{ussc\|428\|280\|1976}}, because these laws remove discretion from the trial judge to make an individualized determination in each case.Palmer, Louis. *[The Death Penalty: An American Citizen's Guide to Understanding Federal and State Laws](https://archive.org/details/deathpenaltyamer00palm/page/15)*, page 14 (McFarland 1998\). Other statutes specifying factors for courts to use in making their decisions have been upheld. Some have not: in *[Godfrey v. Georgia](/wiki/Godfrey_v._Georgia "Godfrey v. Georgia")*, {{ussc\|446\|420\|1980}}, the Supreme Court overturned a sentence based upon a finding that a murder was "outrageously or wantonly vile, horrible, and inhuman", as it deemed that any murder may be reasonably characterized in this manner. Similarly, in *[Maynard v. Cartwright](/wiki/Maynard_v._Cartwright "Maynard v. Cartwright")*, {{ussc\|486\|356\|1988}}, the Court found that an "especially heinous, atrocious or cruel" standard in a homicide case was too vague. However, the meaning of this language depends on how lower courts interpret it. In *[Walton v. Arizona](/wiki/Walton_v._Arizona "Walton v. Arizona")*, {{ussc\|497\|639\|1990}}, the Court found that the phrase "especially heinous, cruel, or depraved" was not vague in a murder case, because the state supreme court had expounded on its meaning.*Walton* was overruled on other grounds by *[Ring v. Arizona](/wiki/Ring_v._Arizona "Ring v. Arizona")*, {{ussc\|536\|584\|2002}}
The Court has generally held that death penalty cases require extra procedural protections. As the Court said in *[Herrera v. Collins](/wiki/Herrera_v._Collins "Herrera v. Collins")*, {{ussc\|506\|390\|1993}}, which involved the murder of a police officer, "the Eighth Amendment requires increased reliability of the process{{nbsp}}..."
#### Punishments specifically allowed
In *[Wilkerson v. Utah](/wiki/Wilkerson_v._Utah "Wilkerson v. Utah")*, {{ussc\|99\|130\|1878}}*Wilkerson v. Utah*, 99 U.S. 130, 25 L. Ed. 345, 9 Otto 130, 1878 U.S. LEXIS 1517 (1878\) the Court stated that [death by firing squad](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad "Execution by firing squad") is not cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment.{{cite book\|author1\=Howard Gillman \|author2\=Mark A. Graber \|author3\=Keith E. Whittington \|title\=American Constitutionalism Volume II: Rights and Liberties \|chapter\=7: The Republican Era—Criminal Justice / Punishments / Capital Punishment, Supplementary Material: ''Wilkerson v. State of Utah'', 99 U.S. 130 (1878\) \|url\=https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199751358/instructor/chapter\_7/wilkerson\_v\_state\_of\_utah.pdf \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817145247/https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199751358/instructor/chapter\_7/wilkerson\_v\_state\_of\_utah.pdf \|archive\-date\=August 17, 2020\|year\=2013}}
In *[Rummel v. Estelle](/wiki/Rummel_v._Estelle "Rummel v. Estelle")*, {{ussc\|445\|263\|1980}},*Rummel v. Estelle*, 445 U.S. 263, 100 S. Ct. 1133, 63 L. Ed. 2d 382, 1980 U.S. LEXIS 90 (1980\) the Court upheld a life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed per Texas's [three strikes law](/wiki/Three_strikes_law "Three strikes law") for fraud crimes totaling $230\.{{cite web \|title\=''Rummel v. Estelle'' \|url\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Rummel\_v\_Estelle.html \|publisher\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \|access\-date\=August 18, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200818051640/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Rummel\_v\_Estelle.html \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2020 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite journal\|title\=''Rummel v. Estelle'': Leaving the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause in {{as written\|Consit\|utional \[sic]}} Limbo \|journal\=Valparaiso University Law Review \|volume\=15 \|number\=1 \|pages\=201–227 \|date\=Fall 1980 \|url\=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0adc/4f0078f1e4e82dea94d600a01f9eebe2e608\.pdf \|publisher\=Valpraiso University \|s2cid\=53060925 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2020 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218094706/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0adc/4f0078f1e4e82dea94d600a01f9eebe2e608\.pdf \|archive\-date\=February 18, 2019}} Noteworthy are pages 201, 212–214 and 226–227 for a proportionality test under the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause. A few months later, Rummel challenged his sentence for ineffective assistance of counsel, his appeal was upheld, and as part of a plea bargain Rummel pled guilty to theft and was released for time served.{{cite web\|url\=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi\-bin/getcase.pl?court\=US\&vol\=463\&invol\=277\#tt8\|title\=''Solem v. Helm''\|work\=Findlaw}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Bedford \|first1\=Edward J. \|journal\=Washington and Lee Law Review \|volume\=38 \|issue\=1 \|title\=''Rummel v. Estelle'': Can Non\-Capital Punishment Still Be Cruel and Unusual \|pages\=243–256 \|url\=https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=2410\&context\=wlulr \|publisher\=Washington and Lee University School of Law \|access\-date\=August 18, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818154629/https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=2410\&context\=wlulr \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2020\|date\=January 1, 1981}} (article 18\) See footnote 104 at page 253\.
In *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")*, {{ussc\|501\|957\|1991}},*Harmelin v. Michigan*, 501 U.S. 957, 111 S. Ct. 2680, 115 L. Ed. 2d 836, 1991 U.S. LEXIS 3816 (1991\) the Court upheld a life sentence without the possibility of parole for possession of 672 grams (1\.5 pounds) of cocaine.{{cite web \|title\=''Harmelin v. Michigan'' \|url\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Harmelin\_v\_Michigan.html \|publisher\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \|access\-date\=August 19, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819051316/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Harmelin\_v\_Michigan.html \|archive\-date\=August 19, 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=''Harmelin v. Michigan'' \|url\=https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal\-law/criminal\-law\-keyed\-to\-kadish/defining\-criminal\-conduct\-the\-elements\-of\-just\-punishment/harmelin\-v\-michigan/\|website\=Casebriefs \- Law Cases \& Case Briefs for Students \|publisher\=\[\[Bloomberg Law]] \|access\-date\=August 19, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819052312/https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal\-law/criminal\-law\-keyed\-to\-kadish/defining\-criminal\-conduct\-the\-elements\-of\-just\-punishment/harmelin\-v\-michigan/\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2020}}
In *[Lockyer v. Andrade](/wiki/Lockyer_v._Andrade "Lockyer v. Andrade")*, {{ussc\|538\|63\|2003}},*Lockyer v. Andrade*, 583 U.S. 63, 123 S. Ct. 1166, 155 L. Ed. 2d 144 (2003\) the Court upheld a 50 years to life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed under California's [three strikes law](/wiki/Three_strikes_law "Three strikes law") when the defendant was convicted of shoplifting videotapes worth a total of about $150\.{{cite web \|title\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'' \|url\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Lockyer\_v\_Andrade.html \|publisher\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161107/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\-Supreme\-Court/Lockyer\_v\_Andrade.html \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'' (01\-1127\), ''Washington State Dept. of Social \& Health Services v. Guardianship Estate of Keffeler'' (01\-1420\) \|url\=https://www.wiggin.com/publication/lockyer\-v\-andrade\-01\-1127\-washington\-state\-dept\-of\-social\-health\-services\-v\-guardianship\-estate\-of\-keffeler\-01\-1420/ \|publisher\=Wiggin and Dana LLP \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161618/https://www.wiggin.com/publication/lockyer\-v\-andrade\-01\-1127\-washington\-state\-dept\-of\-social\-health\-services\-v\-guardianship\-estate\-of\-keffeler\-01\-1420/ \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=March 6, 2003}}{{cite web \|last1\=Peña \|first1\=Maria \|title\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'', 538 U.S. 63 (2003\) \|url\=https://prezi.com/xiljqmw0pker/lockyer\-v\-andrade/ \|publisher\=Prezi Inc. \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820163023/https://prezi.com/xiljqmw0pker/lockyer\-v\-andrade/ \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=October 31, 2011}}
In *[Baze v. Rees](/wiki/Baze_v._Rees "Baze v. Rees")*, {{Ussc\|553\|35\|2008}} *Baze v. Rees*, 553 U.S. 35, 128 S. Ct. 1520, 170 L. Ed. 2d 420 (2008\) the Court upheld Kentucky's execution protocol using a three\-drug cocktail.{{cite web \|author1\=Eric Finkelstein \|author2\=Michael Zuckerman \|author3\=Richard Beaulieu \|title\=LII Supreme Court Bulletin ''Baze v. Rees'' \|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/07\-5439 \|publisher\=\[\[Legal Information Institute]] of the \[\[Cornell Law School]] at \[\[Cornell University]] \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713042030/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/07\-5439 \|archive\-date\=July 13, 2020}}{{cite news \|last1\=Greenhouse \|first1\=Linda \|title\=Supreme Court Allows Lethal Injection for Execution \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd\-scotus.html \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=April 17, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920214049/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd\-scotus.html \|archive\-date\=September 20, 2019}}{{cite web \|title\=''Baze v. Rees'' \|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/07\-5439 \|publisher\=\[\[Legal Information Institute]] of the \[\[Cornell Law School]] at \[\[Cornell University]] \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529001609/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/07\-5439 \|archive\-date\=May 29, 2020\|date\=April 16, 2008}}
In *[Glossip v. Gross](/wiki/Glossip_v._Gross "Glossip v. Gross")* {{ussc\|576\|863\|year\=2015}} [*Glossip v. Gross*](https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-7955), 576 U.S. 863, 135 S. Ct. 2726, 191 L. Ed. 2d 148, 2015 WL 341665 (2015\). [Archived version.](https://web.archive.org/web/20220806105337/https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-7955) the Court upheld the use of [lethal injections](/wiki/Lethal_injection "Lethal injection") using the drug [midazolam](/wiki/Midazolam "Midazolam").{{cite news\|last1\=Liptak \|first1\=Adam \|title\=Supreme Court Allows Use of Execution Drug \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme\-court\-execution\-drug.html \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=June 29, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527181419/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme\-court\-execution\-drug.html \|archive\-date\=May 27, 2020}}{{cite news \|last1\=Barnes \|first1\=Robert \|title\=Supreme Court upholds lethal injection procedure \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\_law/supreme\-court\-upholds\-lethal\-injection\-procedure/2015/06/29/2b5cee6e\-1b3c\-11e5\-93b7\-5eddc056ad8a\_story.html \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200820190516/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\_law/supreme\-court\-upholds\-lethal\-injection\-procedure/2015/06/29/2b5cee6e\-1b3c\-11e5\-93b7\-5eddc056ad8a\_story.html \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|date\=June 29, 2015 \|url\-status\=live }}
Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion "Concurring opinion") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\): "The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution") provides that "\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law." This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment." A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\. In *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe "Bucklew v. Precythe")*, {{ussc\|volume\=587\|year\=2019}} *Bucklew v. Precythe*, 587 U.S. \_\_\_, 139 S. Ct. 582, 202 L. Ed. 2d 401 (2019\) the Court ruled that when a convict sentenced to death challenges the State's method of execution due to claims of excessive pain, the convict must show that other alternative methods of execution exist and clearly demonstrate they would cause less pain than the state\-determined one.{{cite web\|url\=https://nytimes.com/2019/04/01/us/politics/supreme\-court\-death\-penalty.html\|title\=Rancor and Raw Emotion Surface in Supreme Court Death Penalty Ruling\|first\=Adam\|last\=Liptak\|date\=April 1, 2019\|access\-date\=July 15, 2020\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715193711/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/01/us/politics/supreme\-court\-death\-penalty.html\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2020}}{{cite news \|last1\=Barnes \|first1\=Robert \|title\=Divided Supreme Court rules against death\-row inmate with rare condition \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\_law/divided\-supreme\-court\-rules\-against\-death\-row\-inmate\-with\-rare\-condition/2019/04/01/ff523fdc\-5489\-11e9\-8ef3\-fbd41a2ce4d5\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 1, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200820192303/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\_law/divided\-supreme\-court\-rules\-against\-death\-row\-inmate\-with\-rare\-condition/2019/04/01/ff523fdc\-5489\-11e9\-8ef3\-fbd41a2ce4d5\_story.html \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2020 \|url\-status\=live }} The Supreme Court also held in *Bucklew* that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States "Death penalty in the United States") because "the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed". The Court also explicitly said: "The Constitution allows capital punishment. \[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \[...] Of course, that doesn't mean the American people must continue to use the death penalty. The same Constitution that permits States to authorize capital punishment also allows them to outlaw it. But it does mean that the judiciary bears no license to end a debate reserved for the people and their representatives. While the Eighth Amendment doesn’t forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'."{{cite web \|title\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\-8151/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 12, 2020 \|date\=March 31, 2019}}
#### Evolving standards of decency
In *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles "Trop v. Dulles")*, {{ussc\|356\|86\|1958}}, Chief Justice [Earl Warren](/wiki/Earl_Warren "Earl Warren") said: "The \[Eighth] Amendment must draw its meaning from the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society." Subsequently, the Court has looked to societal developments, as well as looking to its own independent judgment, in determining what are those "evolving standards of decency".{{cite web\|title\=''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U. S. \_\_\_\_ (2008\) Supreme Court Case No. 07\-343\. Note: For the evolving standards of decency see in general the slip opinion pages 1\-5 and in special the opinion of the court pages 8\-10\.\|url\=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\-343\.2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126054259/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\-343\.pdf\|archive\-date\=January 26, 2020\|date\=June 25, 2008}} In *[Kennedy v. Louisiana](/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana "Kennedy v. Louisiana")* (2008\) the Supreme Court stated: "Evolving standards of decency must embrace and express respect for the dignity of the person, and the punishment of criminals must conform to that rule."{{cite web\|title\=''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U.S. 407 (2008\), Opinion of the Court, Part IV, section A \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/554/407/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=August 22, 2020}}{{cite web \|first\=David F. \|last\=Forte \|title\=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution: Amendment VIII Cruel and Unusual Punishment \|url\=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/\#!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel\-and\-unusual\-punishment \|publisher\=\[\[The Heritage Foundation]] \|access\-date\=August 22, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200822232208/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/%23!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel\-and\-unusual\-punishment \|archive\-date\=August 22, 2020 \|url\-status\=live}}
[Originalists](/wiki/Originalism "Originalism"), like Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia"), argue that societies may rot instead of maturing and may decrease in virtue or wisdom instead of increasing. Thus, they say, the framers wanted the amendment understood as it was written and ratified, instead of morphing as times change, and in any event legislators are more competent than judges to take the pulse of the public as to changing standards of decency.{{cite web\|last\=Roberts \|first\=Jane \|url\=http://m.therepublic.com/view/story/scalia\-judges/scalia\-judges \|title\=Scalia Defends U.S. Judiciary \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219062522/http://m.therepublic.com/view/story/scalia\-judges/scalia\-judges \|archive\-date\=December 19, 2013 \|agency\=\[\[Scripps Howard News Service]] \|date\=December 17, 2013}}
The "evolving standards" test has been subject to scholarly criticism. For example, law professor John Stinneford asserts that the "evolving standards" test misinterprets the Eighth Amendment:
{{blockquote\|The Framers of the Bill of Rights understood the word "unusual" to mean "contrary to long usage." Recognition of the word's original meaning will precisely invert the "evolving standards of decency" test, and ask the Court to compare challenged punishments with the longstanding principles and precedents of the common law, rather than shifting and nebulous notions of "societal consensus" and contemporary "standards of decency.Stinneford, John. \[https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1015344 "The Original Meaning of 'Unusual': The Eighth Amendment as a Bar to Cruel Innovation"], ''Northwestern University Law Review'', Vol. 102, No. 4 (2008\).}}
On the other hand, law professor Dennis Baker defends the evolving standards of decency test as advancing the moral purpose of the Eighth Amendment to ban the inflicting of unjust, oppressive, or disproportional punishments by a state on its citizens.{{cite journal\|ssrn\=1300356\|title\=Constitutionalizing the Harm Principle \|journal\=Criminal Justice Ethics \|volume\=27 \|number\=2 \|page\=3 \|first\=Dennis J. \|last\=Baker \|date\=November 12, 2008\|doi\=10\.1080/0731129X.2008\.9992238 \|s2cid\=144865297 \|access\-date\=July 19, 2020\|url\=https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1300356\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308041059/https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1300356\|archive\-date\=March 8, 2016}}
#### Proportionality
{{See also\|Felony murder and the death penalty in the United States}}
The Supreme Court has applied evolving standards not only to say what punishments are inherently cruel, but also to say what punishments that are not inherently cruel are nevertheless "grossly disproportionate" to the offense in question. An example can be seen in *[Jackson v. Bishop](/wiki/Jackson_v._Bishop "Jackson v. Bishop")**Jackson v. Bishop*, 404 F. 2d 571 (8th Cir. 1968\) an [Eighth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit") decision outlawing corporal punishment in the Arkansas prison system: "The scope of the Amendment is not static{{nbsp}}...\[D]isproportion, both among punishments and between punishment and crime, is a factor to be considered{{nbsp}}..."[*Jackson v. Bishop*, 404 F. 2d 571—Court of Appeals, 8th Circuit 1968](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1484662314280825855&q=bishop&hl=en&as_sdt=4,85,87,92,97,113,128,148,150,155,160,256,257,273,274,284,285,319,320,336,337,347,348,382). Relying on and citing its early cases *O{{'}}Neil v. Vermont*, {{ussc\|144\|323\|1892}}*O{{'}}Neil v. Vermont*, 144 U.S. 323, 12 S.Ct. 693, 36 L.Ed. 450 (1892\) and *[Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States "Weems v. United States")**Weems v. United States*, 217 U.S. 349, 30 S. Ct. 544 (1910\) the Supreme Court concluded in *[Enmund v. Florida](/wiki/Enmund_v._Florida "Enmund v. Florida")**Enmund v. Florida*, 458 U.S. 782, 102 S. Ct. 3368, 73 L. Ed. 2d 1140 (1982\) that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause is partly a prohibition of all punishments which, by their excessive length or severity, are greatly disproportioned to the offenses charged.{{cite web \|title\=''Enmund v. Florida'', 458 U.S. 782 (1982\), at 788\. \|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/458/782/ \|publisher\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \|access\-date\=December 22, 2020 \|date\=July 2, 1982}}
Law professor John Stinneford asserts that the Eighth Amendment forbids punishments that are very disproportionate to the offense, even if the punishment by itself is not intrinsically barbaric, but he argues that "proportionality is to be measured primarily in terms of prior practice" according to the word *unusual* in the amendment, instead of being measured according to shifting and nebulous evolving standards.{{cite journal\|first\=John F. \|last\=Stinneford \|url\=https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1660642 \|title\=Rethinking Proportionality under the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause \|volume\=97 \|number\=4 \|journal\=Virginia Law Review \|pages\=899, 926–61 \|date\=February 18, 2011}} Stinneford writes (emphasis added):
> \[E]ven if one stacked up all of Oates's punishments together—the fine, the whippings, the imprisonment, the pillorying, and the defrockment—their cumulative effect was less harsh as an absolute matter than some punishments considered acceptable at the time, such as drawing and quartering or burning at the stake. ***If*** the punishments inflicted on Oates were unacceptably cruel, this could only be because they were disproportionate to the crime of perjury.
But, says Stinneford, punishment is unacceptable only if it is "***both*** cruel and 'contrary to long usage'". Id. at 977 (emphasis added).
```
Stinneford argues that the word
```
*unusual* in the Eighth Amendment has a very different meaning in comparison to those who use [originalism to interpret the U.S. Constitution](/wiki/Originalism "Originalism"). He writes: "But in reality, the word 'unusual' in the Eighth Amendment did not originally mean 'rare'– it meant 'contrary to long usage', or 'new'. A punishment is cruel and unusual if it is 'cruel in light of long usage' – that is, cruel in comparison to longstanding prior practice or tradition."{{cite web\|first\=John F. \|last\=Stinneford \|title\=Interpretation: The Eighth Amendment \- Against Cruel Innovation: The Original Meaning of the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause, and Why It Matters Today\|url\=https://constitutioncenter.org/the\-constitution/amendments/amendment\-viii/clauses/103 \|publisher\=The \[\[National Constitution Center]]\|access\-date\=August 25, 2023}} Stinneford writes:
> In response to the non\-originalist approach to the Constitution, some judges and scholars – most prominently Justices Scalia and Thomas – have argued for a very narrow approach to original meaning that is almost willfully indifferent to current societal needs. ... My own research into the original meaning of the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause shows that [Justice Scalia's](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") and [Thomas's](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas "Clarence Thomas") approach has a fatal flaw: It ignores the meaning of the word "unusual". ... \[T]he word "unusual" in the Eighth Amendment did not originally mean "rare"– it meant "contrary to long usage", or "new". A punishment is cruel and unusual if it is "cruel in light of long usage" – that is, cruel in comparison to longstanding prior practice or tradition.
Similarly, law professor [John Bessler](/wiki/John_Bessler "John Bessler") points to "[An Essay on Crimes and Punishments](/wiki/An_Essay_on_Crimes_and_Punishments "An Essay on Crimes and Punishments")", written by [Cesare Beccaria](/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria "Cesare Beccaria") in the 1760s, which advocated proportionate punishments; many of the Founding Fathers, including [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") and [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison "James Madison"), read Beccaria's treatise and were influenced by it.Bessler, John D. ["Revisiting Beccaria's Vision: The Enlightenment, America's Death Penalty, and the Abolition Movement"](http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njlsp/v4/n2/1/index.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321171845/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njlsp/v4/n2/1/index.htm \|date\=March 21, 2012 }}, *Northwestern Journal of Law \& Social Policy*, Volume 4, Issue 2, Article 1 (2009\)John D. Bessler, *The Birth of American Law: An Italian Philosopher and the American Revolution* (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press)
Thus, Stinneford and Bessler disagree with the view of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")* where they denied that the Punishments Clause contains any proportionality principle.*[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan "Harmelin v. Michigan")*, {{ussc\|501\|957\|1991}}. Scalia wrote: "If 'cruel and unusual punishments' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous." Moreover, "There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions \[outlawing disproportional punishments], yet chose not to replicate them." With Scalia and Rehnquist, [Richard Epstein](/wiki/Richard_Allen_Epstein "Richard Allen Epstein") argues that the amendment does not refer broadly to the imposition of penalties, but rather refers more narrowly to the penalties themselves; Epstein says judges who favor the broad view tend to omit the letter "s" at the end of the word "punishments".Epstein, Richard. ["The Constitution's Vanishing Act"](http://www.hoover.org/research/constitutions-vanishing-act), *Defining Ideas* (December 16, 2013\).
|
[
"### Specific aspects",
"According to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\"), the Eighth Amendment forbids some punishments entirely, and forbids some other punishments that are excessive when compared to the crime, or compared to the [competence](/wiki/Competence_%28law%29 \"Competence (law)\") of the perpetrator. This will be discussed in the sections below.",
"#### Punishments forbidden regardless of the crime",
"In *[Wilkerson v. Utah](/wiki/Wilkerson_v._Utah \"Wilkerson v. Utah\")*, {{ussc\\|99\\|130\\|1878}}, the Supreme Court commented that [drawing and quartering](/wiki/Hanged%2C_drawn_and_quartered \"Hanged, drawn and quartered\"), public [dissection](/wiki/Dissection \"Dissection\"), [burning alive](/wiki/Death_by_burning \"Death by burning\"), or [disembowelment](/wiki/Disembowelment \"Disembowelment\") constituted cruel and unusual punishment.*Wilkinson*, at 135–136\\.{{efn\\|The plurality opinion in ''\\[\\[Baze v. Rees]]'', {{Ussc\\|553\\|35\\|2008}} written by Chief Justice \\[\\[John Roberts]] states: \"This Court has never invalidated a State’s chosen procedure for carrying out a sentence of death as the infliction of cruel and unusual punishment. In ''\\[\\[Wilkerson v. Utah]]'', 99 U. S. 130 (1879\\), we upheld a sentence to death by firing squad imposed by a territorial court, rejecting the argument that such a sentence constituted cruel and unusual punishment. ''Id.'', at 134–135\\. We noted there the difficulty of “defin\\[ing] with exactness the extent of the constitutional provision which provides that cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted.” ''Id.'', at 135–136\\. Rather than undertake such an effort, the ''Wilkerson'' Court simply noted that “it is safe to affirm that punishments of \\[\\[torture]], . . . and all others in the same line of unnecessary cruelty, are forbidden” by the Eighth Amendment. ''Id.'', at 136\\. By way of example, the Court cited cases from England in which “\\[\\[wikt:terror\\|terror]], \\[\\[pain]], or disgrace were sometimes superadded” to the sentence, such as where the condemned was “\\[\\[disembowelment\\|embowelled alive]], \\[\\[Decapitation\\|beheaded]], and \\[\\[Hanged, drawn and quartered\\|quartered]],” or instances of “\\[\\[Dissection\\|public dissection]] in murder, and \\[\\[Death by burning\\|burning alive]].” ''Id.'', at 135\\. In contrast, we observed that the firing squad was routinely used as a method of execution for military officers. ''Id.'', at 137\\. What each of the forbidden punishments had in common was the deliberate infliction of pain for the sake of pain—“superadd\\[ing]” pain to the death sentence through torture and the like. \n \n We carried these principles further in ''\\[\\[Electric chair\\#First execution\\|In re Kemmler]]'', 136 U. S. 436 (1890\\). There we rejected an opportunity to incorporate the Eighth Amendment against the States in a challenge to the first execution by electrocution, to be carried out by the State of New York. ''Id.'', at 449\\. In passing over that question, however, we observed that “\\[p]unishments are cruel when they involve torture or a lingering death; but the punishment of death is not cruel within the meaning of that word as used in the Constitution. It implies there something inhuman and barbarous, something more than the mere extinguishment of life.” Id., at 447\\. We noted that the New York statute adopting electrocution as a method of execution “was passed in the effort to devise a more humane method of reaching the result.” ''Ibid''.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=Baze v. Rees, 553 U.S. 35 (2008\\) \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/553/35/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=April 16, 2008}}}} Relying on Eighth Amendment case law Justice [William O. Douglas](/wiki/William_O._Douglas \"William O. Douglas\") stated in his *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California \"Robinson v. California\")*, {{ussc\\|370\\|660\\|1962}} concurrence opinion that \"historic punishments that were cruel and unusual included \"[burning at the stake](/wiki/Death_by_burning \"Death by burning\"), [crucifixion](/wiki/Crucifixion \"Crucifixion\"), [breaking on the wheel](/wiki/Breaking_wheel \"Breaking wheel\")\" (*In re Kemmler*, 136 U. S. 436, 136 U. S. 446\\), [quartering](/wiki/Dismemberment \"Dismemberment\"), [the rack](/wiki/Rack_%28torture%29 \"Rack (torture)\") and [thumbscrew](/wiki/Thumbscrew_%28torture%29 \"Thumbscrew (torture)\") (see *[Chambers v. Florida](/wiki/Chambers_v._Florida \"Chambers v. Florida\")*, 309 U. S. 227, 309 U. S. 237\\), and, in some circumstances, even [solitary confinement](/wiki/Solitary_confinement \"Solitary confinement\") (see In re Medley, 134 U. S. 160, 134 U. S. 167\\-168\\).\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Robinson v. California'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962\\), at page 675\\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/370/660/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2020 \\|date\\=June 25, 1962}} In *[Thompson v. Oklahoma](/wiki/Thompson_v._Oklahoma \"Thompson v. Oklahoma\")*, {{ussc\\|487\\|815\\|1988}}, the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty constituted cruel and unusual punishment if the defendant is under age 16 when the crime was committed. Furthermore, in *[Roper v. Simmons](/wiki/Roper_v._Simmons \"Roper v. Simmons\")*, {{ussc\\|543\\|551\\|2005}}, the Court barred the executing of people who were under age 18 when the crime was committed. In *[Atkins v. Virginia](/wiki/Atkins_v._Virginia \"Atkins v. Virginia\")*, {{ussc\\|536\\|304\\|2002}}, the Court declared that executing people who are [mentally handicapped](/wiki/Developmental_disability \"Developmental disability\") constituted cruel and unusual punishment.",
"#### Punishments forbidden for certain crimes",
"The case of *[Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States \"Weems v. United States\")*, {{ussc\\|217\\|349\\|1910}}, marked the first time the Supreme Court exercised [judicial review](/wiki/Judicial_review \"Judicial review\") to overturn a criminal sentence as cruel and unusual.Melusky, Anthony and Pesto, Keith. *[Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Rights and Liberties Under the Law](https://books.google.com/books?id=NU_Mo7leji8C&dq=Weems+and+%22cadena+temporal%22&pg=PA87)*, page 87 (ABC\\-CLIO 2003\\). The Court overturned a punishment called [cadena temporal](/wiki/Cadena_temporal \"Cadena temporal\"), which mandated \"hard and painful labor\", shackling for the duration of incarceration, and permanent civil disabilities. This case is often viewed as establishing a principle of proportionality under the Eighth Amendment.Finkel, Norman. *[Commonsense Justice: Jurors' Notions of the Law](https://books.google.com/books?id=-B8EIq-ZnFsC&dq=Weems+and+proportionality&pg=PA138)*, page 138 (Harvard University Press 2001\\). However, others have written that \"it is hard to view *Weems* as announcing a constitutional requirement of proportionality.\"The quoted sentence is from the opinion of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in the later case of *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")*, {{ussc\\|501\\|957\\|1991}}.",
"In *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles \"Trop v. Dulles\")*, {{ussc\\|356\\|86\\|1958}}, the Supreme Court held that punishing a natural\\-born citizen for a crime by revoking his citizenship is unconstitutional, being \"more primitive than [torture](/wiki/Torture \"Torture\")\" because it involved the \"total destruction of the individual's status in organized society\".",
"In *[Robinson v. California](/wiki/Robinson_v._California \"Robinson v. California\")*, {{ussc\\|370\\|660\\|1962}}, the Court decided a California law authorizing a 90\\-day jail sentence for \"be\\[ing] [addicted](/wiki/Substance_use_disorder \"Substance use disorder\") to the use of [narcotics](/wiki/Narcotic \"Narcotic\")\" violated the Eighth Amendment, as narcotics addiction \"is apparently an illness\", and California was attempting to punish people based on the state of this illness, rather than for any specific act. The Court wrote:\n{{blockquote\\|To be sure, imprisonment for ninety days is not, in the abstract, a punishment which is either cruel or unusual. But the question cannot be considered in the abstract. Even one day in prison would be a cruel and unusual punishment for the 'crime' of having a common cold.}}",
"However, in *[Powell v. Texas](/wiki/Powell_v._Texas \"Powell v. Texas\")*, {{ussc\\|392\\|514\\|1968}}, the Court upheld a statute barring [public intoxication](/wiki/Public_intoxication \"Public intoxication\") by distinguishing *Robinson* on the basis that *Powell* dealt with a person who was drunk *in public*, not merely for being addicted to alcohol.{{cite book\\|last\\=Dressler\\|first\\=Joshua\\|title\\=Understanding Criminal Law\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[LexisNexis]]\\|year\\=2009\\|edition\\=Fifth\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/underst\\_dre\\_2009\\_00\\_4100/page/98 98]\\|chapter\\=9\\.04 (B)\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4224\\-2987\\-7\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/details/underst\\_dre\\_2009\\_00\\_4100/page/98}}",
"Traditionally, the length of a prison sentence was not subject to scrutiny under the Eighth Amendment, regardless of the crime for which the sentence was imposed. It was not until the case of *[Solem v. Helm](/wiki/Solem_v._Helm \"Solem v. Helm\")*, {{ussc\\|463\\|277\\|1983}}, that the Supreme Court held that incarceration, standing alone, could constitute cruel and unusual punishment if it were \"disproportionate\" in duration to the offense. The Court outlined three factors that were to be considered in determining if a sentence is excessive: \"(i) the gravity of the offense and the harshness of the penalty; (ii) the sentences imposed on other criminals in the same jurisdiction; and (iii) the sentences imposed for commission of the same crime in other jurisdictions.\" The Court held that in the circumstances of the case before it and the factors to consider, a sentence of [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment \"Life imprisonment\") without parole for cashing a $100 check on a closed account was cruel and unusual.",
"However, in *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")*, {{ussc\\|501\\|957\\|1991}}, a fractured Court retreated from the *Solem* test and held that for non\\-capital sentences, the Eighth Amendment constrains only the length of prison terms by a \"gross disproportionality principle\". Under this principle, the Court sustained a mandatory sentence of life without parole imposed for possession of 672 grams (1\\.5 pounds) or more of cocaine. The Court acknowledged that a punishment could be cruel but not unusual, and therefore not prohibited by the Constitution.Miller, Wilbur. *[The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America](https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&pg=PA416)*, p. 416 (SAGE 2012\\).Ryan, Meghan. \"[Does the Eighth Amendment Punishments Clause Prohibit Only Punishments that Are Both Cruel and Unusual?](http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=lawreview) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219015152/http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=1090\\&context\\=lawreview \\|date\\=December 19, 2013 }}\", *Washington University Law Review*, Volume 87, p. 567 (2010\\). Additionally, in *Harmelin*, Justice [Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\"), joined by Chief Justice [Rehnquist](/wiki/William_Rehnquist \"William Rehnquist\"), said \"the Eighth Amendment contains no proportionality guarantee,\" and that \"what was 'cruel and unusual' under the Eighth Amendment was to be determined without reference to the particular offense.\" Scalia wrote \"If 'cruel and unusual punishments' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous.\" Moreover, \"There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions \\[outlawing disproportional punishments], yet chose not to replicate them.\"",
"In *[Graham v. Florida](/wiki/Graham_v._Florida \"Graham v. Florida\")*, 560 U.S. [48](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/560/48/) (2010\\), the Supreme Court declared that a life sentence without any chance of parole, for a crime other than murder, is cruel and unusual punishment for a [minor](/wiki/Minor_%28law%29 \"Minor (law)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/05/analysis\\-a\\-limited\\-break\\-for\\-juveniles/\\#more\\-20246\\|title\\=Analysis: A limited break for juveniles\\|last\\=Denniston\\|first\\=Lyle\\|date\\=May 17, 2010\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[SCOTUSblog]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2010}}{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.law.com/jsp/nlj/PubArticleNLJ.jsp?id\\=1202458312706\\&src\\=EMC\\-Email\\&et\\=editorial\\&bu\\=National%20Law%20Journal\\&pt\\=NLJ.com%20\\-Legal%20Times%20Afternoon%20Update\\&cn\\=20100517lt\\&kw\\=Justices%20Rule%20on%20Prison%20Time%20for%20Juveniles%2C%20Sex%20Offenders\\|title\\=Justices rule on prison time for juveniles, sex offenders\\|last\\=Mauro\\|first\\=Tony\\|author2\\=Coyle, Marcia\\|date\\=May 17, 2010\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[The National Law Journal]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2010}} Two years later, in *[Miller v. Alabama](/wiki/Miller_v._Alabama \"Miller v. Alabama\")*, {{ussc\\|567\\|460\\|2012}}, the Court went further, holding that mandatory life sentences without parole cannot be imposed on minors, even for homicide.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Miller v. Alabama'', 567 U.S. 460 (2012\\) \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/460/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020 \\|date\\=June 25, 2012}}",
"##### Death penalty for rape",
"In *[Coker v. Georgia](/wiki/Coker_v._Georgia \"Coker v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|433\\|584\\|1977}}, the Court declared that the death penalty was unconstitutionally excessive for rape of a woman and, by implication, for any crime where a death does not occur. The majority in *Coker* stated that \"death is indeed a disproportionate penalty for the crime of raping an adult woman.\" The dissent countered that the majority \"takes too little account of the profound suffering the crime imposes upon the victims and their loved ones\". The dissent also characterized the majority as \"[myopic](/wiki/Myopia%23Society_and_culture \"Myopia#Society and culture\")\" for considering legal history of only \"the past five years\".",
"In *[Kennedy v. Louisiana](/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana \"Kennedy v. Louisiana\")*, {{ussc\\|554\\|407\\|2008}}, the Court extended the reasoning of *Coker* by ruling that the death penalty was excessive for child rape \"where the victim's life was not taken\".{{cite news\\|last\\=Greenhouse \\|first\\=Linda \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html \\|title\\=Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape \\|newspaper\\=New York Times \\|date\\=June 26, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2023}} The Supreme Court failed to note a federal law, which applies to military court\\-martial proceedings, providing for the death penalty in cases of child rape.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/02/washington/02scotus.html \\|title\\=In Court Ruling on Executions, a Factual Flaw\\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2008\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|first\\=Linda \\|last\\=Greenhouse\\|date\\=July 2, 2008\\|author\\-link\\=Linda Greenhouse}} On October 1, 2008, the Court declined to reconsider its opinion in this case, but did amend the majority and dissenting opinions to acknowledge that federal law. Justice Scalia (joined by Chief Justice [Roberts](/wiki/John_Roberts \"John Roberts\")) wrote in dissent that \"the proposed Eighth Amendment would have been laughed to scorn if it had read 'no criminal penalty shall be imposed which the Supreme Court deems unacceptable'.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\\-343Scalia.pdf\\|title\\=Statement of Justice Scalia, with whom the Chief Justice joins, respecting the denial of rehearing\\|last\\=Scalia\\|first\\=Antonin\\|date\\=October 1, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=April 7, 2009\\|publisher\\=Supreme Court of the United States\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702233128/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\\-343Scalia.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=July 2, 2018}}",
"#### Special procedures for death penalty cases",
"Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion \"Concurring opinion\") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\\): \"The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") provides that \"\\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law.\" This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the \"cruel and unusual punishments\" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.\" A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\\. The Supreme Court in *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe \"Bucklew v. Precythe\")* (2019\\) explicitly said: \"The Constitution allows capital punishment. \\[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \\[...] While the Eighth Amendment doesn’t forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\\-8151/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020 \\|date\\=March 31, 2019}} The Supreme Court also held in *Bucklew* that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States \"Death penalty in the United States\") because \"the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed\".",
"The first significant general challenge to capital punishment{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the\\-supreme\\-courts\\-evolving\\-record\\-on\\-capital\\-punishment\\|title\\=The Supreme Court's evolving record on capital punishment \\- National Constitution Center\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Constitution Center]]\\|first\\=Scott \\|last\\=Bomboy\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-26\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403162304/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the\\-supreme\\-courts\\-evolving\\-record\\-on\\-capital\\-punishment\\|archive\\-date\\=April 3, 2019\\|date\\= July 28, 2014}} that reached the Supreme Court was the case of *[Furman v. Georgia](/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia \"Furman v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|408\\|238\\|1972}}. The Supreme Court overturned the death sentences of Furman for murder, as well as two other defendants for rape. Of the five justices voting to overturn the death penalty, two found that capital punishment was unconstitutionally cruel and unusual, while three found that the statutes at issue were implemented in a random and capricious fashion, discriminating against blacks and the poor. *Furman v. Georgia* did not hold—even though it is sometimes claimed that it did—that capital punishment is *[per se](/wiki/wikt:Per_se \"Per se\")* unconstitutional.Million, Joelle. *[Racial Issues in Criminal Justice: The Case of African Americans](https://books.google.com/books?id=4jrTbqgd5s8C&dq=Furman+and+%22per+se%22+and+unconstitutional&pg=PA180)*, page 180 (Greenwood 2003\\).",
"States with capital punishment rewrote their laws to address the Supreme Court's decision, and the Court then revisited the issue in a murder case: *[Gregg v. Georgia](/wiki/Gregg_v._Georgia \"Gregg v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|428\\|153\\|1976}}. In *Gregg*, the Court ruled that Georgia's revised death penalty laws passed Eighth Amendment scrutiny: the statutes provided a bifurcated trial in which guilt and sentence were determined separately; and, the statutes provided for \"specific jury findings\" followed by state supreme court review comparing each death sentence \"with the sentences imposed on similarly situated defendants to ensure that the sentence of death in a particular case is not disproportionate.\" Because of the *Gregg* decision, executions resumed in 1977\\.",
"Some states have passed laws imposing mandatory death penalties in certain cases. The Supreme Court found these laws unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment, in the murder case of *[Woodson v. North Carolina](/wiki/Woodson_v._North_Carolina \"Woodson v. North Carolina\")*, {{ussc\\|428\\|280\\|1976}}, because these laws remove discretion from the trial judge to make an individualized determination in each case.Palmer, Louis. *[The Death Penalty: An American Citizen's Guide to Understanding Federal and State Laws](https://archive.org/details/deathpenaltyamer00palm/page/15)*, page 14 (McFarland 1998\\). Other statutes specifying factors for courts to use in making their decisions have been upheld. Some have not: in *[Godfrey v. Georgia](/wiki/Godfrey_v._Georgia \"Godfrey v. Georgia\")*, {{ussc\\|446\\|420\\|1980}}, the Supreme Court overturned a sentence based upon a finding that a murder was \"outrageously or wantonly vile, horrible, and inhuman\", as it deemed that any murder may be reasonably characterized in this manner. Similarly, in *[Maynard v. Cartwright](/wiki/Maynard_v._Cartwright \"Maynard v. Cartwright\")*, {{ussc\\|486\\|356\\|1988}}, the Court found that an \"especially heinous, atrocious or cruel\" standard in a homicide case was too vague. However, the meaning of this language depends on how lower courts interpret it. In *[Walton v. Arizona](/wiki/Walton_v._Arizona \"Walton v. Arizona\")*, {{ussc\\|497\\|639\\|1990}}, the Court found that the phrase \"especially heinous, cruel, or depraved\" was not vague in a murder case, because the state supreme court had expounded on its meaning.*Walton* was overruled on other grounds by *[Ring v. Arizona](/wiki/Ring_v._Arizona \"Ring v. Arizona\")*, {{ussc\\|536\\|584\\|2002}}",
"The Court has generally held that death penalty cases require extra procedural protections. As the Court said in *[Herrera v. Collins](/wiki/Herrera_v._Collins \"Herrera v. Collins\")*, {{ussc\\|506\\|390\\|1993}}, which involved the murder of a police officer, \"the Eighth Amendment requires increased reliability of the process{{nbsp}}...\"",
"#### Punishments specifically allowed",
"In *[Wilkerson v. Utah](/wiki/Wilkerson_v._Utah \"Wilkerson v. Utah\")*, {{ussc\\|99\\|130\\|1878}}*Wilkerson v. Utah*, 99 U.S. 130, 25 L. Ed. 345, 9 Otto 130, 1878 U.S. LEXIS 1517 (1878\\) the Court stated that [death by firing squad](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad \"Execution by firing squad\") is not cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Howard Gillman \\|author2\\=Mark A. Graber \\|author3\\=Keith E. Whittington \\|title\\=American Constitutionalism Volume II: Rights and Liberties \\|chapter\\=7: The Republican Era—Criminal Justice / Punishments / Capital Punishment, Supplementary Material: ''Wilkerson v. State of Utah'', 99 U.S. 130 (1878\\) \\|url\\=https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199751358/instructor/chapter\\_7/wilkerson\\_v\\_state\\_of\\_utah.pdf \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817145247/https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199751358/instructor/chapter\\_7/wilkerson\\_v\\_state\\_of\\_utah.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=August 17, 2020\\|year\\=2013}}",
"In *[Rummel v. Estelle](/wiki/Rummel_v._Estelle \"Rummel v. Estelle\")*, {{ussc\\|445\\|263\\|1980}},*Rummel v. Estelle*, 445 U.S. 263, 100 S. Ct. 1133, 63 L. Ed. 2d 382, 1980 U.S. LEXIS 90 (1980\\) the Court upheld a life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed per Texas's [three strikes law](/wiki/Three_strikes_law \"Three strikes law\") for fraud crimes totaling $230\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Rummel v. Estelle'' \\|url\\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Rummel\\_v\\_Estelle.html \\|publisher\\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200818051640/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Rummel\\_v\\_Estelle.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite journal\\|title\\=''Rummel v. Estelle'': Leaving the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause in {{as written\\|Consit\\|utional \\[sic]}} Limbo \\|journal\\=Valparaiso University Law Review \\|volume\\=15 \\|number\\=1 \\|pages\\=201–227 \\|date\\=Fall 1980 \\|url\\=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0adc/4f0078f1e4e82dea94d600a01f9eebe2e608\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=Valpraiso University \\|s2cid\\=53060925 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218094706/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0adc/4f0078f1e4e82dea94d600a01f9eebe2e608\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=February 18, 2019}} Noteworthy are pages 201, 212–214 and 226–227 for a proportionality test under the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause. A few months later, Rummel challenged his sentence for ineffective assistance of counsel, his appeal was upheld, and as part of a plea bargain Rummel pled guilty to theft and was released for time served.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi\\-bin/getcase.pl?court\\=US\\&vol\\=463\\&invol\\=277\\#tt8\\|title\\=''Solem v. Helm''\\|work\\=Findlaw}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Bedford \\|first1\\=Edward J. \\|journal\\=Washington and Lee Law Review \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=1 \\|title\\=''Rummel v. Estelle'': Can Non\\-Capital Punishment Still Be Cruel and Unusual \\|pages\\=243–256 \\|url\\=https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=2410\\&context\\=wlulr \\|publisher\\=Washington and Lee University School of Law \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818154629/https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=2410\\&context\\=wlulr \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2020\\|date\\=January 1, 1981}} (article 18\\) See footnote 104 at page 253\\.",
"In *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")*, {{ussc\\|501\\|957\\|1991}},*Harmelin v. Michigan*, 501 U.S. 957, 111 S. Ct. 2680, 115 L. Ed. 2d 836, 1991 U.S. LEXIS 3816 (1991\\) the Court upheld a life sentence without the possibility of parole for possession of 672 grams (1\\.5 pounds) of cocaine.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Harmelin v. Michigan'' \\|url\\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Harmelin\\_v\\_Michigan.html \\|publisher\\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \\|access\\-date\\=August 19, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819051316/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Harmelin\\_v\\_Michigan.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=''Harmelin v. Michigan'' \\|url\\=https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal\\-law/criminal\\-law\\-keyed\\-to\\-kadish/defining\\-criminal\\-conduct\\-the\\-elements\\-of\\-just\\-punishment/harmelin\\-v\\-michigan/\\|website\\=Casebriefs \\- Law Cases \\& Case Briefs for Students \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg Law]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 19, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819052312/https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal\\-law/criminal\\-law\\-keyed\\-to\\-kadish/defining\\-criminal\\-conduct\\-the\\-elements\\-of\\-just\\-punishment/harmelin\\-v\\-michigan/\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2020}}",
"In *[Lockyer v. Andrade](/wiki/Lockyer_v._Andrade \"Lockyer v. Andrade\")*, {{ussc\\|538\\|63\\|2003}},*Lockyer v. Andrade*, 583 U.S. 63, 123 S. Ct. 1166, 155 L. Ed. 2d 144 (2003\\) the Court upheld a 50 years to life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed under California's [three strikes law](/wiki/Three_strikes_law \"Three strikes law\") when the defendant was convicted of shoplifting videotapes worth a total of about $150\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'' \\|url\\=https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Lockyer\\_v\\_Andrade.html \\|publisher\\=LawPipe Online Legal Research Tool \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161107/https://www.lawpipe.com/U.S.\\-Supreme\\-Court/Lockyer\\_v\\_Andrade.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'' (01\\-1127\\), ''Washington State Dept. of Social \\& Health Services v. Guardianship Estate of Keffeler'' (01\\-1420\\) \\|url\\=https://www.wiggin.com/publication/lockyer\\-v\\-andrade\\-01\\-1127\\-washington\\-state\\-dept\\-of\\-social\\-health\\-services\\-v\\-guardianship\\-estate\\-of\\-keffeler\\-01\\-1420/ \\|publisher\\=Wiggin and Dana LLP \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161618/https://www.wiggin.com/publication/lockyer\\-v\\-andrade\\-01\\-1127\\-washington\\-state\\-dept\\-of\\-social\\-health\\-services\\-v\\-guardianship\\-estate\\-of\\-keffeler\\-01\\-1420/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=March 6, 2003}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Peña \\|first1\\=Maria \\|title\\=''Lockyer v. Andrade'', 538 U.S. 63 (2003\\) \\|url\\=https://prezi.com/xiljqmw0pker/lockyer\\-v\\-andrade/ \\|publisher\\=Prezi Inc. \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820163023/https://prezi.com/xiljqmw0pker/lockyer\\-v\\-andrade/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=October 31, 2011}}",
"In *[Baze v. Rees](/wiki/Baze_v._Rees \"Baze v. Rees\")*, {{Ussc\\|553\\|35\\|2008}} *Baze v. Rees*, 553 U.S. 35, 128 S. Ct. 1520, 170 L. Ed. 2d 420 (2008\\) the Court upheld Kentucky's execution protocol using a three\\-drug cocktail.{{cite web \\|author1\\=Eric Finkelstein \\|author2\\=Michael Zuckerman \\|author3\\=Richard Beaulieu \\|title\\=LII Supreme Court Bulletin ''Baze v. Rees'' \\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/07\\-5439 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Legal Information Institute]] of the \\[\\[Cornell Law School]] at \\[\\[Cornell University]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713042030/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/07\\-5439 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 13, 2020}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Greenhouse \\|first1\\=Linda \\|title\\=Supreme Court Allows Lethal Injection for Execution \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd\\-scotus.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=April 17, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920214049/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd\\-scotus.html \\|archive\\-date\\=September 20, 2019}}{{cite web \\|title\\=''Baze v. Rees'' \\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/07\\-5439 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Legal Information Institute]] of the \\[\\[Cornell Law School]] at \\[\\[Cornell University]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529001609/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/07\\-5439 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 29, 2020\\|date\\=April 16, 2008}}",
"In *[Glossip v. Gross](/wiki/Glossip_v._Gross \"Glossip v. Gross\")* {{ussc\\|576\\|863\\|year\\=2015}} [*Glossip v. Gross*](https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-7955), 576 U.S. 863, 135 S. Ct. 2726, 191 L. Ed. 2d 148, 2015 WL 341665 (2015\\). [Archived version.](https://web.archive.org/web/20220806105337/https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-7955) the Court upheld the use of [lethal injections](/wiki/Lethal_injection \"Lethal injection\") using the drug [midazolam](/wiki/Midazolam \"Midazolam\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Liptak \\|first1\\=Adam \\|title\\=Supreme Court Allows Use of Execution Drug \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme\\-court\\-execution\\-drug.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=June 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527181419/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme\\-court\\-execution\\-drug.html \\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2020}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Barnes \\|first1\\=Robert \\|title\\=Supreme Court upholds lethal injection procedure \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\\_law/supreme\\-court\\-upholds\\-lethal\\-injection\\-procedure/2015/06/29/2b5cee6e\\-1b3c\\-11e5\\-93b7\\-5eddc056ad8a\\_story.html \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200820190516/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\\_law/supreme\\-court\\-upholds\\-lethal\\-injection\\-procedure/2015/06/29/2b5cee6e\\-1b3c\\-11e5\\-93b7\\-5eddc056ad8a\\_story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|date\\=June 29, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") noted in a [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion \"Concurring opinion\") in *Callins v. Collins* (1994\\): \"The [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") provides that \"\\[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital . . . crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, . . . nor be deprived of life . . . without due process of law.\" This clearly permits the death penalty to be imposed, and establishes beyond doubt that the death penalty is not one of the \"cruel and unusual punishments\" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.\" A similar observation was made by the Supreme Court in 2019\\. In *[Bucklew v. Precythe](/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe \"Bucklew v. Precythe\")*, {{ussc\\|volume\\=587\\|year\\=2019}} *Bucklew v. Precythe*, 587 U.S. \\_\\_\\_, 139 S. Ct. 582, 202 L. Ed. 2d 401 (2019\\) the Court ruled that when a convict sentenced to death challenges the State's method of execution due to claims of excessive pain, the convict must show that other alternative methods of execution exist and clearly demonstrate they would cause less pain than the state\\-determined one.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://nytimes.com/2019/04/01/us/politics/supreme\\-court\\-death\\-penalty.html\\|title\\=Rancor and Raw Emotion Surface in Supreme Court Death Penalty Ruling\\|first\\=Adam\\|last\\=Liptak\\|date\\=April 1, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715193711/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/01/us/politics/supreme\\-court\\-death\\-penalty.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2020}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Barnes \\|first1\\=Robert \\|title\\=Divided Supreme Court rules against death\\-row inmate with rare condition \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\\_law/divided\\-supreme\\-court\\-rules\\-against\\-death\\-row\\-inmate\\-with\\-rare\\-condition/2019/04/01/ff523fdc\\-5489\\-11e9\\-8ef3\\-fbd41a2ce4d5\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 1, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200820192303/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts\\_law/divided\\-supreme\\-court\\-rules\\-against\\-death\\-row\\-inmate\\-with\\-rare\\-condition/2019/04/01/ff523fdc\\-5489\\-11e9\\-8ef3\\-fbd41a2ce4d5\\_story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Supreme Court also held in *Bucklew* that the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") expressly allows the [death penalty in the United States](/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States \"Death penalty in the United States\") because \"the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a 'capital' crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed\". The Court also explicitly said: \"The Constitution allows capital punishment. \\[...] Nor did the later addition of the Eighth Amendment outlaw the practice. \\[...] Of course, that doesn't mean the American people must continue to use the death penalty. The same Constitution that permits States to authorize capital punishment also allows them to outlaw it. But it does mean that the judiciary bears no license to end a debate reserved for the people and their representatives. While the Eighth Amendment doesn’t forbid capital punishment, it does speak to how States may carry out that punishment, prohibiting methods that are 'cruel and unusual'.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=''Bucklew v. Precythe'', 139 S. Ct. 1112, 1124 (2019\\) (internal quotations omitted). Opinion of the Court, Part II A. \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/17\\-8151/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020 \\|date\\=March 31, 2019}}",
"#### Evolving standards of decency",
"In *[Trop v. Dulles](/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles \"Trop v. Dulles\")*, {{ussc\\|356\\|86\\|1958}}, Chief Justice [Earl Warren](/wiki/Earl_Warren \"Earl Warren\") said: \"The \\[Eighth] Amendment must draw its meaning from the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society.\" Subsequently, the Court has looked to societal developments, as well as looking to its own independent judgment, in determining what are those \"evolving standards of decency\".{{cite web\\|title\\=''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U. S. \\_\\_\\_\\_ (2008\\) Supreme Court Case No. 07\\-343\\. Note: For the evolving standards of decency see in general the slip opinion pages 1\\-5 and in special the opinion of the court pages 8\\-10\\.\\|url\\=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\\-343\\.2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126054259/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07\\-343\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=January 26, 2020\\|date\\=June 25, 2008}} In *[Kennedy v. Louisiana](/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana \"Kennedy v. Louisiana\")* (2008\\) the Supreme Court stated: \"Evolving standards of decency must embrace and express respect for the dignity of the person, and the punishment of criminals must conform to that rule.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U.S. 407 (2008\\), Opinion of the Court, Part IV, section A \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/554/407/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=August 22, 2020}}{{cite web \\|first\\=David F. \\|last\\=Forte \\|title\\=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution: Amendment VIII Cruel and Unusual Punishment \\|url\\=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/\\#!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel\\-and\\-unusual\\-punishment \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Heritage Foundation]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 22, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200822232208/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/%23!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel\\-and\\-unusual\\-punishment \\|archive\\-date\\=August 22, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[Originalists](/wiki/Originalism \"Originalism\"), like Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\"), argue that societies may rot instead of maturing and may decrease in virtue or wisdom instead of increasing. Thus, they say, the framers wanted the amendment understood as it was written and ratified, instead of morphing as times change, and in any event legislators are more competent than judges to take the pulse of the public as to changing standards of decency.{{cite web\\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=Jane \\|url\\=http://m.therepublic.com/view/story/scalia\\-judges/scalia\\-judges \\|title\\=Scalia Defends U.S. Judiciary \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219062522/http://m.therepublic.com/view/story/scalia\\-judges/scalia\\-judges \\|archive\\-date\\=December 19, 2013 \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Scripps Howard News Service]] \\|date\\=December 17, 2013}}",
"The \"evolving standards\" test has been subject to scholarly criticism. For example, law professor John Stinneford asserts that the \"evolving standards\" test misinterprets the Eighth Amendment:\n{{blockquote\\|The Framers of the Bill of Rights understood the word \"unusual\" to mean \"contrary to long usage.\" Recognition of the word's original meaning will precisely invert the \"evolving standards of decency\" test, and ask the Court to compare challenged punishments with the longstanding principles and precedents of the common law, rather than shifting and nebulous notions of \"societal consensus\" and contemporary \"standards of decency.Stinneford, John. \\[https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1015344 \"The Original Meaning of 'Unusual': The Eighth Amendment as a Bar to Cruel Innovation\"], ''Northwestern University Law Review'', Vol. 102, No. 4 (2008\\).}}",
"On the other hand, law professor Dennis Baker defends the evolving standards of decency test as advancing the moral purpose of the Eighth Amendment to ban the inflicting of unjust, oppressive, or disproportional punishments by a state on its citizens.{{cite journal\\|ssrn\\=1300356\\|title\\=Constitutionalizing the Harm Principle \\|journal\\=Criminal Justice Ethics \\|volume\\=27 \\|number\\=2 \\|page\\=3 \\|first\\=Dennis J. \\|last\\=Baker \\|date\\=November 12, 2008\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/0731129X.2008\\.9992238 \\|s2cid\\=144865297 \\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2020\\|url\\=https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1300356\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308041059/https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1300356\\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2016}}",
"#### Proportionality",
"{{See also\\|Felony murder and the death penalty in the United States}}",
"The Supreme Court has applied evolving standards not only to say what punishments are inherently cruel, but also to say what punishments that are not inherently cruel are nevertheless \"grossly disproportionate\" to the offense in question. An example can be seen in *[Jackson v. Bishop](/wiki/Jackson_v._Bishop \"Jackson v. Bishop\")**Jackson v. Bishop*, 404 F. 2d 571 (8th Cir. 1968\\) an [Eighth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit\") decision outlawing corporal punishment in the Arkansas prison system: \"The scope of the Amendment is not static{{nbsp}}...\\[D]isproportion, both among punishments and between punishment and crime, is a factor to be considered{{nbsp}}...\"[*Jackson v. Bishop*, 404 F. 2d 571—Court of Appeals, 8th Circuit 1968](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1484662314280825855&q=bishop&hl=en&as_sdt=4,85,87,92,97,113,128,148,150,155,160,256,257,273,274,284,285,319,320,336,337,347,348,382). Relying on and citing its early cases *O{{'}}Neil v. Vermont*, {{ussc\\|144\\|323\\|1892}}*O{{'}}Neil v. Vermont*, 144 U.S. 323, 12 S.Ct. 693, 36 L.Ed. 450 (1892\\) and *[Weems v. United States](/wiki/Weems_v._United_States \"Weems v. United States\")**Weems v. United States*, 217 U.S. 349, 30 S. Ct. 544 (1910\\) the Supreme Court concluded in *[Enmund v. Florida](/wiki/Enmund_v._Florida \"Enmund v. Florida\")**Enmund v. Florida*, 458 U.S. 782, 102 S. Ct. 3368, 73 L. Ed. 2d 1140 (1982\\) that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause is partly a prohibition of all punishments which, by their excessive length or severity, are greatly disproportioned to the offenses charged.{{cite web \\|title\\=''Enmund v. Florida'', 458 U.S. 782 (1982\\), at 788\\. \\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/458/782/ \\|publisher\\=Justia US Supreme Court Center \\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2020 \\|date\\=July 2, 1982}}",
"Law professor John Stinneford asserts that the Eighth Amendment forbids punishments that are very disproportionate to the offense, even if the punishment by itself is not intrinsically barbaric, but he argues that \"proportionality is to be measured primarily in terms of prior practice\" according to the word *unusual* in the amendment, instead of being measured according to shifting and nebulous evolving standards.{{cite journal\\|first\\=John F. \\|last\\=Stinneford \\|url\\=https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1660642 \\|title\\=Rethinking Proportionality under the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause \\|volume\\=97 \\|number\\=4 \\|journal\\=Virginia Law Review \\|pages\\=899, 926–61 \\|date\\=February 18, 2011}} Stinneford writes (emphasis added):",
"> \\[E]ven if one stacked up all of Oates's punishments together—the fine, the whippings, the imprisonment, the pillorying, and the defrockment—their cumulative effect was less harsh as an absolute matter than some punishments considered acceptable at the time, such as drawing and quartering or burning at the stake. ***If*** the punishments inflicted on Oates were unacceptably cruel, this could only be because they were disproportionate to the crime of perjury.",
"",
"But, says Stinneford, punishment is unacceptable only if it is \"***both*** cruel and 'contrary to long usage'\". Id. at 977 (emphasis added).\n```\nStinneford argues that the word \n```",
"*unusual* in the Eighth Amendment has a very different meaning in comparison to those who use [originalism to interpret the U.S. Constitution](/wiki/Originalism \"Originalism\"). He writes: \"But in reality, the word 'unusual' in the Eighth Amendment did not originally mean 'rare'– it meant 'contrary to long usage', or 'new'. A punishment is cruel and unusual if it is 'cruel in light of long usage' – that is, cruel in comparison to longstanding prior practice or tradition.\"{{cite web\\|first\\=John F. \\|last\\=Stinneford \\|title\\=Interpretation: The Eighth Amendment \\- Against Cruel Innovation: The Original Meaning of the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause, and Why It Matters Today\\|url\\=https://constitutioncenter.org/the\\-constitution/amendments/amendment\\-viii/clauses/103 \\|publisher\\=The \\[\\[National Constitution Center]]\\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2023}} Stinneford writes:\n> In response to the non\\-originalist approach to the Constitution, some judges and scholars – most prominently Justices Scalia and Thomas – have argued for a very narrow approach to original meaning that is almost willfully indifferent to current societal needs. ... My own research into the original meaning of the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause shows that [Justice Scalia's](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") and [Thomas's](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas \"Clarence Thomas\") approach has a fatal flaw: It ignores the meaning of the word \"unusual\". ... \\[T]he word \"unusual\" in the Eighth Amendment did not originally mean \"rare\"– it meant \"contrary to long usage\", or \"new\". A punishment is cruel and unusual if it is \"cruel in light of long usage\" – that is, cruel in comparison to longstanding prior practice or tradition.",
"Similarly, law professor [John Bessler](/wiki/John_Bessler \"John Bessler\") points to \"[An Essay on Crimes and Punishments](/wiki/An_Essay_on_Crimes_and_Punishments \"An Essay on Crimes and Punishments\")\", written by [Cesare Beccaria](/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria \"Cesare Beccaria\") in the 1760s, which advocated proportionate punishments; many of the Founding Fathers, including [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\") and [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison \"James Madison\"), read Beccaria's treatise and were influenced by it.Bessler, John D. [\"Revisiting Beccaria's Vision: The Enlightenment, America's Death Penalty, and the Abolition Movement\"](http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njlsp/v4/n2/1/index.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321171845/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njlsp/v4/n2/1/index.htm \\|date\\=March 21, 2012 }}, *Northwestern Journal of Law \\& Social Policy*, Volume 4, Issue 2, Article 1 (2009\\)John D. Bessler, *The Birth of American Law: An Italian Philosopher and the American Revolution* (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press)",
"Thus, Stinneford and Bessler disagree with the view of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in *[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")* where they denied that the Punishments Clause contains any proportionality principle.*[Harmelin v. Michigan](/wiki/Harmelin_v._Michigan \"Harmelin v. Michigan\")*, {{ussc\\|501\\|957\\|1991}}. Scalia wrote: \"If 'cruel and unusual punishments' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous.\" Moreover, \"There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions \\[outlawing disproportional punishments], yet chose not to replicate them.\" With Scalia and Rehnquist, [Richard Epstein](/wiki/Richard_Allen_Epstein \"Richard Allen Epstein\") argues that the amendment does not refer broadly to the imposition of penalties, but rather refers more narrowly to the penalties themselves; Epstein says judges who favor the broad view tend to omit the letter \"s\" at the end of the word \"punishments\".Epstein, Richard. [\"The Constitution's Vanishing Act\"](http://www.hoover.org/research/constitutions-vanishing-act), *Defining Ideas* (December 16, 2013\\).",
""
] |
Plot
----
{{see also\|List of Dragon Ball GT episodes}}
### Black Star Dragon Balls/Baby Saga
Five years after the 28th {{nihongo\|World Martial Arts Tournament\|天下一武道会\|Tenkaichi Budōkai\|lit. "The Number One Martial Arts Association Under the Heavens"}} (10 years in the [Funimation](/wiki/Crunchyroll_LLC "Crunchyroll LLC") dub),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.funimation.com/shows/dragon\-ball\-gt/home\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720053757/http://www.funimation.com/shows/dragon\-ball\-gt/home\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 20, 2014\|title\=Dragon Ball GT\|website\=Funimation\|access\-date\=August 24, 2016\|df\=mdy\-all}} [Goku](/wiki/Goku "Goku") is accidentally turned back into a child by {{nihongo4\|Ultimate Shenron\|究極神龍\|Kyūkyoku Shenron}}, a much more powerful version of Shenron created by the Nameless Namekian (before he split into Kami and Demon King Piccolo) who can grant any single wish, regardless of any restrictions placed on the other dragons, summoned from the {{nihongo\|Black Star Dragon Balls\|究極のドラゴンボール\|Kyūkyoku no Doragon Bōru\|lit. "Ultimate Dragon Ball"}} by his old enemy [Emperor Pilaf](/wiki/Pilaf_%28Dragon_Ball%29 "Pilaf (Dragon Ball)"). He is then forced to travel across the universe to retrieve them, accompanied by his granddaughter [Pan](/wiki/Pan_%28Dragon_Ball%29 "Pan (Dragon Ball)") and [Trunks](/wiki/Trunks_%28Dragon_Ball%29 "Trunks (Dragon Ball)") as, if he does not retrieve them within a year, the Earth will explode. The trio goes through various adventures in their journey to find the Black Star Dragon Balls, until they encounter the artificial Tuffle parasite, [Baby](/wiki/Baby_%28Dragon_Ball%29 "Baby (Dragon Ball)"), who intends to destroy the Saiyan race as his revenge for their [extermination](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide") of the Tuffles many years ago.
After turning practically all of the Earth's population, including the Saiyans, into Neo\-Tuffles, Baby decides to convert [Vegeta](/wiki/Vegeta "Vegeta")'s body into his own and use it to kill Goku. Goku fights him and is quickly defeated, but, after having his tail regenerated by Kibito Kai and Old Kai, transforms and achieves the power of {{nihongo\|Super Saiyan 4\|スーパーサイヤ人４\|Sūpā Saiya\-jin Fō}}. In this new form, Goku easily overpowers Baby before destroying the evil Tuffle by propelling him into the sun with a {{nihongo\|10x Kamehameha\|１０倍かめはめ波\|Jūbai Kamehameha\|lit. "10\-Fold Turtle Destruction Wave"}}. [Piccolo](/wiki/Piccolo_%28Dragon_Ball%29 "Piccolo (Dragon Ball)") then sacrifices himself to permanently destroy Ultimate Shenron and the Black Star Dragon Balls when the Earth explodes after Goku and the others help the people of Earth evacuate to Planet Plant, which Baby had wished back into existence using the Black Star Dragon Balls.
### Super Android 17 Saga
A year after Baby's defeat, Dr. Myuu (Baby's creator) and [Dr. Gero](/wiki/Dr._Gero "Dr. Gero") (creator of the [Red Ribbon Army](/wiki/Red_Ribbon_Army "Red Ribbon Army") androids) create an evil replica of {{Nihongo4\|Android 17\|人造人間17号\|Jinzōningen Jū Nana Gō\|lit. "Artificial Human \#17"}} in Hell, and have it control the original [Android 17](/wiki/Android_17 "Android 17") so that a portal from Hell to Earth opens up, leading to a mass invasion of the planet by revived villains. The original Android 17 attempts to mentally manipulate [Android 18](/wiki/Android_18 "Android 18") as well, but [Krillin](/wiki/Krillin "Krillin") intervenes. Enraged, 17 murders Krillin by shooting an energy beam through his heart. The two Android 17s then fuse into {{nihongo4\|Super 17\|超１７号\|Chō Jū Nana\-Gō}}, who vows to destroy all of humanity and avenge the Red Ribbon Army's defeat at the hands of Goku. Super 17 seems impervious to all of Goku's attacks, but when 18 attacks him to avenge Krillin's death, Goku takes advantage of the distraction to penetrate through Super 17 with his {{nihongo\|Super Dragon Fist\|超龍拳\|Chō Ryūken}} technique, then unleashes a {{nihongo\|Rapid\-Fire Kamehameha\|続かめはめ波\|Renzoku Kamehameha\|lit. "Continuous Turtle Destruction Wave"}} that completely eradicates him.
### Shadow Dragons Saga
The Dragon Balls are collected to revive those killed by Super 17, including Krillin. However, an evil black dragon emerges and then splits into seven [Shadow Dragons](/wiki/List_of_Dragon_Ball_characters%23Shadow_Dragons "List of Dragon Ball characters#Shadow Dragons"), who set out to punish humanity for their constant misuse of the Dragon Balls by destroying the Earth. All but the most powerful and evil, Syn Shenron, are defeated by Goku and Pan. Syn Shenron appears to be losing until he absorbs the Dragon Balls and gains tremendous power, transforming into Omega Shenron and surpassing even Super Saiyan 4 Goku's power. Goku is about to sacrifice himself to destroy the evil one\-star dragon, but Vegeta intervenes and gains the Super Saiyan 4 transformation with help from [Bulma](/wiki/Bulma "Bulma")'s newest invention, the Blutz Wave Generator. Goku and Vegeta merge using the Fusion Dance technique to create [Super Gogeta 4](/wiki/List_of_Dragon_Ball_characters%23Gogeta "List of Dragon Ball characters#Gogeta"), who uses his immense power to beat Omega Shenron to a pulp. However, after being too confident in his ability to defeat Omega Shenron, he uses up too much time in an attempt to embarrass him. Gogeta then defuses and Goku and Vegeta revert to their base forms because Omega Shenron destroyed the Blutz Wave Generator. Eventually, using the energy of every living being in the universe, Goku creates the incredibly powerful {{nihongo\|Super Ultra Spirit Bomb\|超ウルトラ元気玉\|Chō Urutora Genki\-dama\|lit. "Super Ultra Energy Sphere"}} and uses it to destroy Omega Shenron once and for all.
Afterward, the real and original [Shenron](/wiki/Shenlong_%28Dragon_Ball%29 "Shenlong (Dragon Ball)") appears from the restored Dragon Balls to grant Goku and his friends one last wish, which they use to revive everyone killed by Super 17 and the Shadow Dragons, and then proceeds to disappear – along with Goku and the Dragon Balls. Several decades later, Goku's great\-great\-grandson, Goku Jr., competes in the 64th World Martial Arts Tournament against Vegeta's descendant, Vegeta Jr., as the now\-elderly Pan cheers him on. Pan then sees a rejuvenated adult Goku and tries to approach him, but he quickly disappears into the crowd. Goku then leaves the World Martial Arts Tournament with a flashback covering all the events of his timeline. After the flashback ends, Goku then catches his Power Pole and rides off on his Flying Nimbus cloud, bringing the story of *Dragon Ball* to an end.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"{{see also\\|List of Dragon Ball GT episodes}}",
"### Black Star Dragon Balls/Baby Saga",
"Five years after the 28th {{nihongo\\|World Martial Arts Tournament\\|天下一武道会\\|Tenkaichi Budōkai\\|lit. \"The Number One Martial Arts Association Under the Heavens\"}} (10 years in the [Funimation](/wiki/Crunchyroll_LLC \"Crunchyroll LLC\") dub),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.funimation.com/shows/dragon\\-ball\\-gt/home\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720053757/http://www.funimation.com/shows/dragon\\-ball\\-gt/home\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 20, 2014\\|title\\=Dragon Ball GT\\|website\\=Funimation\\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2016\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}} [Goku](/wiki/Goku \"Goku\") is accidentally turned back into a child by {{nihongo4\\|Ultimate Shenron\\|究極神龍\\|Kyūkyoku Shenron}}, a much more powerful version of Shenron created by the Nameless Namekian (before he split into Kami and Demon King Piccolo) who can grant any single wish, regardless of any restrictions placed on the other dragons, summoned from the {{nihongo\\|Black Star Dragon Balls\\|究極のドラゴンボール\\|Kyūkyoku no Doragon Bōru\\|lit. \"Ultimate Dragon Ball\"}} by his old enemy [Emperor Pilaf](/wiki/Pilaf_%28Dragon_Ball%29 \"Pilaf (Dragon Ball)\"). He is then forced to travel across the universe to retrieve them, accompanied by his granddaughter [Pan](/wiki/Pan_%28Dragon_Ball%29 \"Pan (Dragon Ball)\") and [Trunks](/wiki/Trunks_%28Dragon_Ball%29 \"Trunks (Dragon Ball)\") as, if he does not retrieve them within a year, the Earth will explode. The trio goes through various adventures in their journey to find the Black Star Dragon Balls, until they encounter the artificial Tuffle parasite, [Baby](/wiki/Baby_%28Dragon_Ball%29 \"Baby (Dragon Ball)\"), who intends to destroy the Saiyan race as his revenge for their [extermination](/wiki/Genocide \"Genocide\") of the Tuffles many years ago.",
"After turning practically all of the Earth's population, including the Saiyans, into Neo\\-Tuffles, Baby decides to convert [Vegeta](/wiki/Vegeta \"Vegeta\")'s body into his own and use it to kill Goku. Goku fights him and is quickly defeated, but, after having his tail regenerated by Kibito Kai and Old Kai, transforms and achieves the power of {{nihongo\\|Super Saiyan 4\\|スーパーサイヤ人４\\|Sūpā Saiya\\-jin Fō}}. In this new form, Goku easily overpowers Baby before destroying the evil Tuffle by propelling him into the sun with a {{nihongo\\|10x Kamehameha\\|１０倍かめはめ波\\|Jūbai Kamehameha\\|lit. \"10\\-Fold Turtle Destruction Wave\"}}. [Piccolo](/wiki/Piccolo_%28Dragon_Ball%29 \"Piccolo (Dragon Ball)\") then sacrifices himself to permanently destroy Ultimate Shenron and the Black Star Dragon Balls when the Earth explodes after Goku and the others help the people of Earth evacuate to Planet Plant, which Baby had wished back into existence using the Black Star Dragon Balls.",
"### Super Android 17 Saga",
"A year after Baby's defeat, Dr. Myuu (Baby's creator) and [Dr. Gero](/wiki/Dr._Gero \"Dr. Gero\") (creator of the [Red Ribbon Army](/wiki/Red_Ribbon_Army \"Red Ribbon Army\") androids) create an evil replica of {{Nihongo4\\|Android 17\\|人造人間17号\\|Jinzōningen Jū Nana Gō\\|lit. \"Artificial Human \\#17\"}} in Hell, and have it control the original [Android 17](/wiki/Android_17 \"Android 17\") so that a portal from Hell to Earth opens up, leading to a mass invasion of the planet by revived villains. The original Android 17 attempts to mentally manipulate [Android 18](/wiki/Android_18 \"Android 18\") as well, but [Krillin](/wiki/Krillin \"Krillin\") intervenes. Enraged, 17 murders Krillin by shooting an energy beam through his heart. The two Android 17s then fuse into {{nihongo4\\|Super 17\\|超１７号\\|Chō Jū Nana\\-Gō}}, who vows to destroy all of humanity and avenge the Red Ribbon Army's defeat at the hands of Goku. Super 17 seems impervious to all of Goku's attacks, but when 18 attacks him to avenge Krillin's death, Goku takes advantage of the distraction to penetrate through Super 17 with his {{nihongo\\|Super Dragon Fist\\|超龍拳\\|Chō Ryūken}} technique, then unleashes a {{nihongo\\|Rapid\\-Fire Kamehameha\\|続かめはめ波\\|Renzoku Kamehameha\\|lit. \"Continuous Turtle Destruction Wave\"}} that completely eradicates him.",
"### Shadow Dragons Saga",
"The Dragon Balls are collected to revive those killed by Super 17, including Krillin. However, an evil black dragon emerges and then splits into seven [Shadow Dragons](/wiki/List_of_Dragon_Ball_characters%23Shadow_Dragons \"List of Dragon Ball characters#Shadow Dragons\"), who set out to punish humanity for their constant misuse of the Dragon Balls by destroying the Earth. All but the most powerful and evil, Syn Shenron, are defeated by Goku and Pan. Syn Shenron appears to be losing until he absorbs the Dragon Balls and gains tremendous power, transforming into Omega Shenron and surpassing even Super Saiyan 4 Goku's power. Goku is about to sacrifice himself to destroy the evil one\\-star dragon, but Vegeta intervenes and gains the Super Saiyan 4 transformation with help from [Bulma](/wiki/Bulma \"Bulma\")'s newest invention, the Blutz Wave Generator. Goku and Vegeta merge using the Fusion Dance technique to create [Super Gogeta 4](/wiki/List_of_Dragon_Ball_characters%23Gogeta \"List of Dragon Ball characters#Gogeta\"), who uses his immense power to beat Omega Shenron to a pulp. However, after being too confident in his ability to defeat Omega Shenron, he uses up too much time in an attempt to embarrass him. Gogeta then defuses and Goku and Vegeta revert to their base forms because Omega Shenron destroyed the Blutz Wave Generator. Eventually, using the energy of every living being in the universe, Goku creates the incredibly powerful {{nihongo\\|Super Ultra Spirit Bomb\\|超ウルトラ元気玉\\|Chō Urutora Genki\\-dama\\|lit. \"Super Ultra Energy Sphere\"}} and uses it to destroy Omega Shenron once and for all.",
"Afterward, the real and original [Shenron](/wiki/Shenlong_%28Dragon_Ball%29 \"Shenlong (Dragon Ball)\") appears from the restored Dragon Balls to grant Goku and his friends one last wish, which they use to revive everyone killed by Super 17 and the Shadow Dragons, and then proceeds to disappear – along with Goku and the Dragon Balls. Several decades later, Goku's great\\-great\\-grandson, Goku Jr., competes in the 64th World Martial Arts Tournament against Vegeta's descendant, Vegeta Jr., as the now\\-elderly Pan cheers him on. Pan then sees a rejuvenated adult Goku and tries to approach him, but he quickly disappears into the crowd. Goku then leaves the World Martial Arts Tournament with a flashback covering all the events of his timeline. After the flashback ends, Goku then catches his Power Pole and rides off on his Flying Nimbus cloud, bringing the story of *Dragon Ball* to an end.",
""
] |
Characters
----------
{{see also\|List of Dragon Ball characters}}
### Main characters
#### Son Goku
{{main\|Goku}}
Goku is descended from an alien warrior race known as the Saiyans, who sent him, originally named Kakarot, to Earth to prepare it for conquest.{{gnr\|ch\|197}} In the first episode, Goku is transformed back into a child by an accidental wish made by the [Pilaf Gang](/wiki/List_of_Dragon_Ball_characters%23Pilaf_Gang "List of Dragon Ball characters#Pilaf Gang") using the Black Star Dragon Balls, setting in motion the events of the entire series.{{cite episode\|title\=The Mysterious Dragon Balls Activate!! Goku Becomes A Child!?\|airdate\=February 7, 1996\|number\=1\|series\=Dragon Ball GT}} The Black Star Dragon Balls were then scattered around the whole universe in different planets after the wish making, and due to the lethal side effect of these Black Star Dragon Balls, the Earth was set to be destroyed in a year if the Balls were not collected within that period of time. Goku, his granddaughter [Pan](/wiki/Pan_%28Dragon_Ball%29 "Pan (Dragon Ball)"), and the son of Vegeta, Trunks, travel the universe to search for the Black Star Dragon Balls and return them to Earth to prevent its destruction. After acquiring the Super Saiyan 4 transformation, Goku battles the evil Tuffle [Baby](/wiki/Baby_%28Dragon_Ball%29 "Baby (Dragon Ball)"), [Super 17](/wiki/%23Super_17 "#Super 17"), and the evil Shadow Dragons. His final challenge is against [Omega Shenron](/wiki/List_of_Dragon_Ball_characters%23Shadow_Dragons "List of Dragon Ball characters#Shadow Dragons"), whom he destroys using the Spirit Bomb.{{cite episode\|title\=A Miraculous Come\-From\-Behind Victory!! Goku Saves The Universe\|airdate\=November 12, 1997\|number\=63\|series\=Dragon Ball GT}} Goku leaves with the original form of Shenron, but not before saying his goodbyes to his friends on Earth. He then appears 100 years later at the next World Martial Arts Tournament as an adult, where he watches a battle between Goku Jr., his descendant, and Vegeta Jr., Vegeta's descendant. An elderly Pan sees him, but he quickly departs.{{cite episode\|title\=Goodbye, Goku... 'Til the Day We Meet Again\|airdate\=November 19, 1997\|number\=64\|series\=Dragon Ball GT}} Goku is the main protagonist of *Dragon Ball GT,* and the overall main protagonist of the *Dragon Ball* franchise.
#### Pan
{{Nihongo4\|Pan\|パン}} is the granddaughter of Goku and Chi\-Chi and daughter of Gohan and Videl,{{gnr\|ch\|518}} as such her ancestry comes from both humans and the extraterrestrials called the Saiyans. Pan appears as a young child in the final installments of the original manga and *Dragon Ball Z* anime series and is featured as one of the protagonists of the *Dragon Ball GT* anime series and its television special [*A Hero's Legacy*](/wiki/Dragon_Ball_GT:A_Hero%27s_Legacy "A Hero's Legacy"). According to *Dragon Ball GT* producer Kōzō Morishita, Pan's role in the GT series was intended to be a strong but [constantly imperiled character](/wiki/Damsel_in_distress "Damsel in distress") who had to be rescued by Goku, essentially a “heroine who makes Goku a hero”.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kanzenshuu.com/translations/dragon\-ball\-gt\-dragon\-book\-gt\-back\-then\-kozo\-morishita\-interview/\|title\=Dragon Ball GT DVD Box: Dragon Box GT "Dragon Book"\|publisher\=Animation Collective and Pony Canyon\|date\=2005\-06\-15\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-11\|archive\-date\=January 22, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122134845/https://www.kanzenshuu.com/translations/dragon\-ball\-gt\-dragon\-book\-gt\-back\-then\-kozo\-morishita\-interview/\|url\-status\=live}}
In Japanese media she is voiced by [Yūko Minaguchi](/wiki/Y%C5%ABko_Minaguchi "Yūko Minaguchi").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013\-04\-08/n\-carolina\-animazement\-to\-host\-madhouse\-co\-founder\-masao\-murayama\|title\=N. Carolina's Animazement to Host Madhouse Co\-Founder Masao Murayama\|publisher\=\[\[Anime News Network]]\|date\=2013\-04\-08\|access\-date\=2015\-03\-07\|archive\-date\=October 20, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020074113/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013\-04\-08/n\-carolina\-animazement\-to\-host\-madhouse\-co\-founder\-masao\-murayama\|url\-status\=live}} In the North American versions of *Dragon Ball GT*, she is voiced by [Elise Baughman](/wiki/Elise_Baughman "Elise Baughman") in the Funimation dub (who also voices her in *Dragon Ball Kai*) and by [Caitlynne Medrek](/wiki/Caitlynne_Medrek "Caitlynne Medrek") in the Blue Water dub. Sharon Mann voices the older version of the character in AB Groupe's English dub of the GT TV special, which was recorded in France. In the English version of *[Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout](/wiki/Dragon_Ball_GT:Final_Bout "Final Bout")*, she is voiced by [Julie Maddalena](/wiki/Julie_Maddalena "Julie Maddalena").
#### Trunks
{{main\|Trunks (Dragon Ball)}}
In *Dragon Ball GT*, Trunks' second incarnation has become the president of Capsule Corporation,{{Cite web\|url\=http://dragonballgt.com/characters/trunks\|title\=Dragon Ball GT {{!}} Trunks\|website\=Dragon Ball GT\|publisher\=Funimation\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=February 25, 2017\|quote\=Trunks is the current President of the Capsule Corporation, but don't let his new digs fool you.\|archive\-date\=December 24, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224234630/http://www.dragonballgt.com/characters/trunks\|url\-status\=dead}} but does not take the job seriously. During his time on Imecka, Trunks battles with Ledgic, but he is defeated, who after which, Goku fights him. Trunks later encounters more powerful threats, such as Luud, and General Rilldo. He is then later briefly controlled by Baby during the Baby arc, but is able to free himself from control, but not before Baby implants a mind\-control seed. {{cite book\|last\=Peckham\|first\=Eric Mylonas\|title\=Dragonball GT : Transformation\|year\=2005\|publisher\=Prima Games\|isbn\=9780761546788\|chapter\=T}} Trunks travels through space with [Pan](/wiki/%23Pan "#Pan") and a de\-aged Goku in search of the Black Star Dragon Balls during the first half of the series, though his prominence in the series is reduced following the Baby arc. He also plays a very big part of giving energy to Goku to help him fight Omega Shenron.
### Supporting characters
#### Vegeta
{{main\|Vegeta}}
In the Baby arc, Vegeta is confronted by a [Baby](/wiki/%23Baby "#Baby")\-possessed [Gohan](/wiki/Gohan "Gohan"). Baby possessed Vegeta during their battle despite strong resistance by Vegeta,{{cite episode\|title\=The Attack on Vegeta" / "Ambitions Achieved!? Vegeta Possessed\|date\=November 6, 1996\|number\=27\|series\=Dragon Ball GT}} and the resulting Baby/Vegeta fusion battles Goku.{{cite episode\|title\=The Fall of The Saiyans" / "The Situation is Even Worse!? Super Saiyan 3 Fails!!\|date\=November 27, 1996\|number\=29\|series\=Dragon Ball GT}}{{cite episode\|title\=Goku's Ascension" / "The Strongest Form! Son Goku Becomes A Super Saiyan 4!!\|date\=January 29, 1997\|series\=Dragon Ball GT}} Vegeta is later split from Baby's body before Baby is destroyed.{{cite episode\|title\=Baby Put To Rest" / "The Finale! At Last, Bebi Is Annihilated\|date\=February 26, 1997\|number\=39\|series\=Dragon Ball GT}} Later, he fights Super Android \#17, but again, he is knocked out and nearly killed.{{cite episode\|title\=17 Times 2" / "The Ultimate Android! The Two \#17s Unite\|number\=44\|date\=April 30, 1997\|series\=Dragon Ball GT}} When Omega Shenron wreaks havoc, he fights with Goku as a Super Saiyan 4 but the two eventually revert to normal.{{cite episode\|title\=Super Saiyan 4 Vegeta" / "Friend Or Foe?... Giant Ape Vegeta on the Rampage\|series\=Dragon Ball GT\|number\=59\|date\=September 17, 1997}}{{cite episode\|title\=Universal Allies" / "A Miraculous Come\-From\-Behind Victory!! Goku Saves The Universe\|date\=November 12, 1997\|series\=Dragon Ball GT\|number\=63}} Afterwards, Vegeta says a farewell to Goku, who leaves the duty of protecting Earth in Vegeta's hands before he flies off into the sky on Shenron.{{cite episode\|title\=Until We Meet Again" / "Goodbye, Goku... 'Till the Day We Meet Again\|date\=November 19, 1997\|series\=Dragon Ball GT\|number\=64}}
#### Giru
{{Nihongo4\|Giru\|ギル}} is a character that first appears in the 3rd episode of *Dragon Ball GT*. Originally known as T2006 or DB4649T2006RS, Giru is a Machine Mutant, fully mechanical beings with organic properties: they can mold, contort, and reshape themselves like organic lifeforms, absorb and integrate metallic and mechanical materials into their being, as well as restructure themselves. He is encountered by [Goku](/wiki/%23Son_Goku "#Son Goku"), [Pan](/wiki/%23Pan "#Pan") and [Trunks](/wiki/%23Trunks "#Trunks") on Imecka. Giru consumes their Dragon Radar for energy in an act of desperation for survival, inadvertently integrating the Dragon Radar's functionality into his software. Giru joins Goku's group and accompanies them to various planets in the galaxy on their quest to find the Black Star Dragon Balls. Giru would become good friends with Pan in the series; however, he is frequently the recipient of abuse, both verbal and physical, at the hands of Pan, which makes him somewhat fearful of her. Giru plays a pivotal role during the group's encounter with his creator [Doctor Myuu](/wiki/%23Doctor_Myuu "#Doctor Myuu") as well as the parasitic [Baby](/wiki/%23Baby "#Baby") on the planet M\-2, and aids them in their subsequent struggle against the villains. During the Shadow Dragons arc, Giru accompanies Goku and Pan to search for the seven Shadow Dragons using his built\-in Dragon Radar functionality to track the creatures. He is voiced by [Shinobu Satouchi](/wiki/Shinobu_Satouchi "Shinobu Satouchi") in Japanese media and by [Sonny Strait](/wiki/Sonny_Strait "Sonny Strait") in the Funimation anime dub.
#### Uub {{anchor\|Uub\|Oob}}
{{Nihongo4\|Oob\|ウーブ\|Ūbu}}, known as Uub in the English anime dub, is the human reincarnation of the evil [Majin Buu](/wiki/Majin_Buu "Majin Buu"). After Buu was destroyed, Goku asked for him to be reincarnated as a good person, so they may battle again.{{gnr\|ch\|518}} Goku eventually senses Uub's hidden power and seeks him out ten years later, when Uub attends the tournament to gain money for his village.{{gnr\|ch\|518}} Goku ends up deciding to train him to be a future defender of Earth and as an opponent that he can battle.{{gnr\|ch\|519}} During the Baby arc he would merge with the {{nihongo4\|benevolent incarnation of Majin Buu\|魔人ブウ(善)\|''Majin Bū (Zen)''}}, (lit. "Demon Person Buu (Good)"), and become {{nihongo4\|Super Oob\|スーパーウーブ\|Sūpā Ūbu}} ("Majuub" in the English dub), a being powerful enough to face threats such as [Baby](/wiki/%23Baby "#Baby"), [Super 17](/wiki/%23Super_17 "#Super 17"), and [Omega Shenron](/wiki/%23Shadow_Dragons "#Shadow Dragons"). After fusing with Buu, he experiences a slight alteration of his physical appearance and gains a massive boost in power as well as new abilities such as Buu's signature ability to turn enemies into candy.
He is voiced by [Atsushi Kisaichi](/wiki/Atsushi_Kisaichi "Atsushi Kisaichi") in Japanese, by Scott Roberts and Brendan Hunter in the English Blue Water dub, and by [Sean Teague](/wiki/Sean_Teague "Sean Teague") in the Funimation dub.
### Major antagonists
#### Doctor Myuu
{{Nihongo4\|Doctor Myuu\|ドクター・ミュー\|Dokutā Myū}} is a recurring character that first appears in the 13th episode of *Dragon Ball GT*. A brilliant but mad Machine Mutant scientist, he is assisted by his enforcer {{Nihongo4\|General Rilldo\|リルド将軍\|Rirudo Shōgun}} and intends to gather the Black Star Dragon Balls to complete what appears to be his ultimate creation, [Baby](/wiki/%23Baby "#Baby"). His plans are eventually foiled by Goku, Pan, and Trunks after they arrive on the planet M\-2 and defeat most of his minions. Myuu escapes and evades Goku and his companions after Baby's apparent defeat, only to be killed when Baby suddenly emerges from his body. It is then revealed that Baby was the one who created and programmed Dr. Myuu, and not the other way around. He later joins forces with [Doctor Gero](/wiki/Red_Ribbon_Army%23Doctor_Gero "Red Ribbon Army#Doctor Gero") while in Hell to create a duplicate of [Android 17](/wiki/Android_17 "Android 17") using Myuu's machine mutant technology, who then manipulates the original Android 17 into converging their power together to open a rift between Earth and Hell, enabling him and his co\-creators to escape. Android 17 and his Hell Fighter duplicate eventually fuse to become Super 17, who subsequently turns on and murders both Gero and Myuu. He is voiced by [Kazuyuki Sogabe](/wiki/Kazuyuki_Sogabe "Kazuyuki Sogabe") in Japanese media and [Duncan Brannan](/wiki/Duncan_Brannan "Duncan Brannan") in the Funimation anime dub.
#### Baby
{{Nihongo4\|Baby\|ベビー\|Bebī}} is a character that first appears in the 22nd episode of *Dragon Ball GT*. He is a parasitic [alien](/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life "Extraterrestrial life") created by combining the DNA of the king of the {{Nihongo4\|Tuffles\|ツフル人\|Tsufuru\-jin}} with a cybernetic body. Baby desires to exterminate all of the Saiyans to avenge the extinction of his people and the loss of their homeworld to the Saiyans. Baby is first reactivated from a sleep state by [Doctor Myuu](/wiki/%23Doctor_Myuu "#Doctor Myuu"); he attempts to fight Goku, Trunks, and Pan but is easily defeated. To boost his power, Baby infects various people with his DNA and begins gathering energy from them. After a second defeat at the hands of the three Saiyans, Baby infects Trunks and travels to Earth with his unsuspecting host. On Earth, he battles Goten and Gohan, infects them both, and eventually infects Vegeta to make him his primary host. Goku, Trunks, and Pan return to Earth to find the entire population is now under Baby's control. Baby defeats Goku, then he uses the Black Star Dragon Balls to restore the planet Tuffle and transport the Earth population to it. During this time, Baby evolves into an even more powerful form and defeats and eats Uub after his chocolate beam is reflected back. Goku returns for a rematch, but is swiftly defeated. This causes Goku to transform into a Golden Great Ape and then into a Super Saiyan 4\. Baby then has Bulma, also under his control, fire a radiation beam at him from her Blutz Wave Generator which enables him to transform into a Golden Great Ape as well. After a lengthy battle, Goku emerges victorious with the help of Uub, who weakens Baby from inside him, and Trunks, Gohan, and Goten, who were freed from Baby's control by Kibito Kai. Baby separates from Vegeta and attempts to escape in a spaceship, vowing to return to destroy the Saiyans. Goku blasts the spaceship with a *10x Kamehameha* attack, sending it into the sun and obliterating Baby. The character made his manga debut in the first chapter of *[Dragon Ball Heroes: Victory Mission](/wiki/Dragon_Ball_Heroes%23Manga "Dragon Ball Heroes#Manga")* in October 2012\. Baby is voiced by [Yusuke Numata](/wiki/Yusuke_Numata "Yusuke Numata") in Japanese media and by [Mike McFarland](/wiki/Mike_McFarland "Mike McFarland") in the Funimation anime dub.
#### Super 17
In the "Super 17" arc, [Doctor Gero](/wiki/Red_Ribbon_Army%23Doctor_Gero "Red Ribbon Army#Doctor Gero") and [Doctor Myuu](/wiki/%23Doctor_Myuu "#Doctor Myuu") create a machine mutant copy of Android 17 by the name of Hell Fighter 17, who is capable of mentally controlling Red Ribbon Androids like 17 and 18\.{{cite episode\|title\=The Villains Of Hell!! The Revival of Cell and Frieza\|date\=April 23, 1997\|series\=''Dragon Ball GT''\|number\=43}} Android 17 is compelled into fusing with his machine mutant replica and become the villainous Super 17\. Super 17 is capable of absorbing an opponent's incoming attacks, but he is unable to move and absorb energy at the same time.{{cite episode\|title\=A Grand Turnabout! Goku's and \#18's Combo Attack Explodes\|date\=June 4, 1997\|series\=''Dragon Ball GT''\|number\=47}} Sometime after Goku kills Super 17 using the *Super Dragon Fist* while the latter is distracted by 18, the original Android 17 is eventually revived with the Dragon Balls during the series finale.{{cite episode\|title\="Goodbye, Goku... 'Till the Day We Meet Again"\|series\=''Dragon Ball GT''\|date\=November 19, 1997\|number\=64}} He is voiced by [Shigeru Nakahara](/wiki/Shigeru_Nakahara "Shigeru Nakahara") in Japanese media and [Chuck Huber](/wiki/Chuck_Huber "Chuck Huber") in the Funimation anime dub.
#### Shadow Dragons
The Shadow Dragons, known as {{nihongo4\|Evil Dragons\|邪悪龍\|Jaakuryū}} in the original Japanese, are a group of evil beings born from the evil energy caused by overuse of the Dragon Balls in *Dragon Ball GT*. They are named after the One\-Star through Seven\-Star Dragon Balls; {{nihongo4\|One\-Star Dragon\|一星龍\|Īshinron\|Chinese: Yī Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\|Two\-Star Dragon\|二星龍\|Ryanshinron\|Chinese: Èr Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\|Three\-Star Dragon\|三星龍\|Sanshinron\|Chinese: Sān Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\|Four\-Star Dragon\|四星龍\|Sūshinron\|Chinese: Sì Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\|Five\-Star Dragon\|五星龍\|Ūshinron\|Chinese: Wǔ Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\|Six\-Star Dragon\|六星龍\|Ryūshinron\|Chinese: Liù Xīng Lóng}}, and {{nihongo4\|Seven\-Star Dragon\|七星龍\|Chīshinron\|Chinese: Qī Xīng Lóng}}. In the English dubs, their names are changed to Syn Shenron, Haze Shenron, Eis Shenron, Nuova Shenron, Rage Shenron, Oceanus Shenron, and Naturon Shenron respectively.
When attempting to undo the damage caused by [Super 17](/wiki/%23Super_17 "#Super 17"), a cigar\-smoking {{nihongo4\|Black Smoke Shenlong\|黒煙の龍\|Kokuen no Ryū\|lit. "Black Smoke Dragon"}}, named Black Smoke Shenron in the Funimation dub, is summoned from the Dragon Balls instead of the regular Shenron. He is a dragon who is formed from all the negative energy accumulated from the selfish wishes granted throughout the series using the Dragon Balls. Summoned from the same Earth Dragon Balls, he splits into seven Evil Dragons who each take the form of a tainted Dragon Ball, spreading out all over the world and proceeding to cause chaos, causing the heroes to defeat each one. Goku, Pan, and Giru manage to defeat the other dragons before encountering Eis and Nuova Shenron. Being much more honorable than his brethren, Nuova helps Goku and turns on Eis. Syn Shenron, the most powerful of the Shadow Dragons, kills Nuova before absorbing both his Dragon Ball and the others as well to increase his power and become Omega Shenron, {{nihongo4\|Super One\-Star Dragon\|超一星龍\|Sūpā Īshinron}} in Japanese, with access to all of the abilities of his brethren. After a long battle, he is killed by Goku's Super *Genki\-Dama*, and the Dragon Balls are purified.
The Shadow Dragons make their manga debut in the Jaaku Missions Saga of *[Dragon Ball Heroes: Victory Mission](/wiki/Dragon_Ball_Heroes%23Manga "Dragon Ball Heroes#Manga")*. When confronted by the Dragon Ball Heroes, Black Smoke Shenron creates Shadow GT Goku (シャドウ悟空, Shadō Gokū) to combat them. Shadow GT Goku is a replication of GT Goku created by Black Smoke Shenron as his primary method of fighting.
[Daisuke Gōri](/wiki/Daisuke_G%C5%8Dri "Daisuke Gōri") voices Black Smoke Shenron in Japanese, and Christopher Sabat voices him in the Funimation dub. Syn/Omega Shenron is voiced by [Hidekatsu Shibata](/wiki/Hidekatsu_Shibata "Hidekatsu Shibata") in Japanese. Bob Carter and [Christopher R. Sabat](/wiki/Christopher_R._Sabat "Christopher R. Sabat") respectively voice Syn Shenron and Omega Shenron in the Funimation dub, while Victor Atelevich voices them both in the Blue Water dub.
|
[
"Characters\n----------",
"{{see also\\|List of Dragon Ball characters}}\n### Main characters",
"#### Son Goku",
"{{main\\|Goku}}\nGoku is descended from an alien warrior race known as the Saiyans, who sent him, originally named Kakarot, to Earth to prepare it for conquest.{{gnr\\|ch\\|197}} In the first episode, Goku is transformed back into a child by an accidental wish made by the [Pilaf Gang](/wiki/List_of_Dragon_Ball_characters%23Pilaf_Gang \"List of Dragon Ball characters#Pilaf Gang\") using the Black Star Dragon Balls, setting in motion the events of the entire series.{{cite episode\\|title\\=The Mysterious Dragon Balls Activate!! Goku Becomes A Child!?\\|airdate\\=February 7, 1996\\|number\\=1\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT}} The Black Star Dragon Balls were then scattered around the whole universe in different planets after the wish making, and due to the lethal side effect of these Black Star Dragon Balls, the Earth was set to be destroyed in a year if the Balls were not collected within that period of time. Goku, his granddaughter [Pan](/wiki/Pan_%28Dragon_Ball%29 \"Pan (Dragon Ball)\"), and the son of Vegeta, Trunks, travel the universe to search for the Black Star Dragon Balls and return them to Earth to prevent its destruction. After acquiring the Super Saiyan 4 transformation, Goku battles the evil Tuffle [Baby](/wiki/Baby_%28Dragon_Ball%29 \"Baby (Dragon Ball)\"), [Super 17](/wiki/%23Super_17 \"#Super 17\"), and the evil Shadow Dragons. His final challenge is against [Omega Shenron](/wiki/List_of_Dragon_Ball_characters%23Shadow_Dragons \"List of Dragon Ball characters#Shadow Dragons\"), whom he destroys using the Spirit Bomb.{{cite episode\\|title\\=A Miraculous Come\\-From\\-Behind Victory!! Goku Saves The Universe\\|airdate\\=November 12, 1997\\|number\\=63\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT}} Goku leaves with the original form of Shenron, but not before saying his goodbyes to his friends on Earth. He then appears 100 years later at the next World Martial Arts Tournament as an adult, where he watches a battle between Goku Jr., his descendant, and Vegeta Jr., Vegeta's descendant. An elderly Pan sees him, but he quickly departs.{{cite episode\\|title\\=Goodbye, Goku... 'Til the Day We Meet Again\\|airdate\\=November 19, 1997\\|number\\=64\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT}} Goku is the main protagonist of *Dragon Ball GT,* and the overall main protagonist of the *Dragon Ball* franchise.",
"#### Pan",
"{{Nihongo4\\|Pan\\|パン}} is the granddaughter of Goku and Chi\\-Chi and daughter of Gohan and Videl,{{gnr\\|ch\\|518}} as such her ancestry comes from both humans and the extraterrestrials called the Saiyans. Pan appears as a young child in the final installments of the original manga and *Dragon Ball Z* anime series and is featured as one of the protagonists of the *Dragon Ball GT* anime series and its television special [*A Hero's Legacy*](/wiki/Dragon_Ball_GT:A_Hero%27s_Legacy \"A Hero's Legacy\"). According to *Dragon Ball GT* producer Kōzō Morishita, Pan's role in the GT series was intended to be a strong but [constantly imperiled character](/wiki/Damsel_in_distress \"Damsel in distress\") who had to be rescued by Goku, essentially a “heroine who makes Goku a hero”.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kanzenshuu.com/translations/dragon\\-ball\\-gt\\-dragon\\-book\\-gt\\-back\\-then\\-kozo\\-morishita\\-interview/\\|title\\=Dragon Ball GT DVD Box: Dragon Box GT \"Dragon Book\"\\|publisher\\=Animation Collective and Pony Canyon\\|date\\=2005\\-06\\-15\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-11\\|archive\\-date\\=January 22, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122134845/https://www.kanzenshuu.com/translations/dragon\\-ball\\-gt\\-dragon\\-book\\-gt\\-back\\-then\\-kozo\\-morishita\\-interview/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In Japanese media she is voiced by [Yūko Minaguchi](/wiki/Y%C5%ABko_Minaguchi \"Yūko Minaguchi\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013\\-04\\-08/n\\-carolina\\-animazement\\-to\\-host\\-madhouse\\-co\\-founder\\-masao\\-murayama\\|title\\=N. Carolina's Animazement to Host Madhouse Co\\-Founder Masao Murayama\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Anime News Network]]\\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-08\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-03\\-07\\|archive\\-date\\=October 20, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020074113/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013\\-04\\-08/n\\-carolina\\-animazement\\-to\\-host\\-madhouse\\-co\\-founder\\-masao\\-murayama\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the North American versions of *Dragon Ball GT*, she is voiced by [Elise Baughman](/wiki/Elise_Baughman \"Elise Baughman\") in the Funimation dub (who also voices her in *Dragon Ball Kai*) and by [Caitlynne Medrek](/wiki/Caitlynne_Medrek \"Caitlynne Medrek\") in the Blue Water dub. Sharon Mann voices the older version of the character in AB Groupe's English dub of the GT TV special, which was recorded in France. In the English version of *[Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout](/wiki/Dragon_Ball_GT:Final_Bout \"Final Bout\")*, she is voiced by [Julie Maddalena](/wiki/Julie_Maddalena \"Julie Maddalena\").",
"#### Trunks",
"{{main\\|Trunks (Dragon Ball)}}\nIn *Dragon Ball GT*, Trunks' second incarnation has become the president of Capsule Corporation,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://dragonballgt.com/characters/trunks\\|title\\=Dragon Ball GT {{!}} Trunks\\|website\\=Dragon Ball GT\\|publisher\\=Funimation\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2017\\|quote\\=Trunks is the current President of the Capsule Corporation, but don't let his new digs fool you.\\|archive\\-date\\=December 24, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224234630/http://www.dragonballgt.com/characters/trunks\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} but does not take the job seriously. During his time on Imecka, Trunks battles with Ledgic, but he is defeated, who after which, Goku fights him. Trunks later encounters more powerful threats, such as Luud, and General Rilldo. He is then later briefly controlled by Baby during the Baby arc, but is able to free himself from control, but not before Baby implants a mind\\-control seed. {{cite book\\|last\\=Peckham\\|first\\=Eric Mylonas\\|title\\=Dragonball GT : Transformation\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Prima Games\\|isbn\\=9780761546788\\|chapter\\=T}} Trunks travels through space with [Pan](/wiki/%23Pan \"#Pan\") and a de\\-aged Goku in search of the Black Star Dragon Balls during the first half of the series, though his prominence in the series is reduced following the Baby arc. He also plays a very big part of giving energy to Goku to help him fight Omega Shenron.",
"### Supporting characters",
"#### Vegeta",
"{{main\\|Vegeta}}\nIn the Baby arc, Vegeta is confronted by a [Baby](/wiki/%23Baby \"#Baby\")\\-possessed [Gohan](/wiki/Gohan \"Gohan\"). Baby possessed Vegeta during their battle despite strong resistance by Vegeta,{{cite episode\\|title\\=The Attack on Vegeta\" / \"Ambitions Achieved!? Vegeta Possessed\\|date\\=November 6, 1996\\|number\\=27\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT}} and the resulting Baby/Vegeta fusion battles Goku.{{cite episode\\|title\\=The Fall of The Saiyans\" / \"The Situation is Even Worse!? Super Saiyan 3 Fails!!\\|date\\=November 27, 1996\\|number\\=29\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT}}{{cite episode\\|title\\=Goku's Ascension\" / \"The Strongest Form! Son Goku Becomes A Super Saiyan 4!!\\|date\\=January 29, 1997\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT}} Vegeta is later split from Baby's body before Baby is destroyed.{{cite episode\\|title\\=Baby Put To Rest\" / \"The Finale! At Last, Bebi Is Annihilated\\|date\\=February 26, 1997\\|number\\=39\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT}} Later, he fights Super Android \\#17, but again, he is knocked out and nearly killed.{{cite episode\\|title\\=17 Times 2\" / \"The Ultimate Android! The Two \\#17s Unite\\|number\\=44\\|date\\=April 30, 1997\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT}} When Omega Shenron wreaks havoc, he fights with Goku as a Super Saiyan 4 but the two eventually revert to normal.{{cite episode\\|title\\=Super Saiyan 4 Vegeta\" / \"Friend Or Foe?... Giant Ape Vegeta on the Rampage\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT\\|number\\=59\\|date\\=September 17, 1997}}{{cite episode\\|title\\=Universal Allies\" / \"A Miraculous Come\\-From\\-Behind Victory!! Goku Saves The Universe\\|date\\=November 12, 1997\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT\\|number\\=63}} Afterwards, Vegeta says a farewell to Goku, who leaves the duty of protecting Earth in Vegeta's hands before he flies off into the sky on Shenron.{{cite episode\\|title\\=Until We Meet Again\" / \"Goodbye, Goku... 'Till the Day We Meet Again\\|date\\=November 19, 1997\\|series\\=Dragon Ball GT\\|number\\=64}}",
"#### Giru",
"{{Nihongo4\\|Giru\\|ギル}} is a character that first appears in the 3rd episode of *Dragon Ball GT*. Originally known as T2006 or DB4649T2006RS, Giru is a Machine Mutant, fully mechanical beings with organic properties: they can mold, contort, and reshape themselves like organic lifeforms, absorb and integrate metallic and mechanical materials into their being, as well as restructure themselves. He is encountered by [Goku](/wiki/%23Son_Goku \"#Son Goku\"), [Pan](/wiki/%23Pan \"#Pan\") and [Trunks](/wiki/%23Trunks \"#Trunks\") on Imecka. Giru consumes their Dragon Radar for energy in an act of desperation for survival, inadvertently integrating the Dragon Radar's functionality into his software. Giru joins Goku's group and accompanies them to various planets in the galaxy on their quest to find the Black Star Dragon Balls. Giru would become good friends with Pan in the series; however, he is frequently the recipient of abuse, both verbal and physical, at the hands of Pan, which makes him somewhat fearful of her. Giru plays a pivotal role during the group's encounter with his creator [Doctor Myuu](/wiki/%23Doctor_Myuu \"#Doctor Myuu\") as well as the parasitic [Baby](/wiki/%23Baby \"#Baby\") on the planet M\\-2, and aids them in their subsequent struggle against the villains. During the Shadow Dragons arc, Giru accompanies Goku and Pan to search for the seven Shadow Dragons using his built\\-in Dragon Radar functionality to track the creatures. He is voiced by [Shinobu Satouchi](/wiki/Shinobu_Satouchi \"Shinobu Satouchi\") in Japanese media and by [Sonny Strait](/wiki/Sonny_Strait \"Sonny Strait\") in the Funimation anime dub.",
"#### Uub {{anchor\\|Uub\\|Oob}}",
"{{Nihongo4\\|Oob\\|ウーブ\\|Ūbu}}, known as Uub in the English anime dub, is the human reincarnation of the evil [Majin Buu](/wiki/Majin_Buu \"Majin Buu\"). After Buu was destroyed, Goku asked for him to be reincarnated as a good person, so they may battle again.{{gnr\\|ch\\|518}} Goku eventually senses Uub's hidden power and seeks him out ten years later, when Uub attends the tournament to gain money for his village.{{gnr\\|ch\\|518}} Goku ends up deciding to train him to be a future defender of Earth and as an opponent that he can battle.{{gnr\\|ch\\|519}} During the Baby arc he would merge with the {{nihongo4\\|benevolent incarnation of Majin Buu\\|魔人ブウ(善)\\|''Majin Bū (Zen)''}}, (lit. \"Demon Person Buu (Good)\"), and become {{nihongo4\\|Super Oob\\|スーパーウーブ\\|Sūpā Ūbu}} (\"Majuub\" in the English dub), a being powerful enough to face threats such as [Baby](/wiki/%23Baby \"#Baby\"), [Super 17](/wiki/%23Super_17 \"#Super 17\"), and [Omega Shenron](/wiki/%23Shadow_Dragons \"#Shadow Dragons\"). After fusing with Buu, he experiences a slight alteration of his physical appearance and gains a massive boost in power as well as new abilities such as Buu's signature ability to turn enemies into candy.",
"He is voiced by [Atsushi Kisaichi](/wiki/Atsushi_Kisaichi \"Atsushi Kisaichi\") in Japanese, by Scott Roberts and Brendan Hunter in the English Blue Water dub, and by [Sean Teague](/wiki/Sean_Teague \"Sean Teague\") in the Funimation dub.",
"### Major antagonists",
"#### Doctor Myuu",
"{{Nihongo4\\|Doctor Myuu\\|ドクター・ミュー\\|Dokutā Myū}} is a recurring character that first appears in the 13th episode of *Dragon Ball GT*. A brilliant but mad Machine Mutant scientist, he is assisted by his enforcer {{Nihongo4\\|General Rilldo\\|リルド将軍\\|Rirudo Shōgun}} and intends to gather the Black Star Dragon Balls to complete what appears to be his ultimate creation, [Baby](/wiki/%23Baby \"#Baby\"). His plans are eventually foiled by Goku, Pan, and Trunks after they arrive on the planet M\\-2 and defeat most of his minions. Myuu escapes and evades Goku and his companions after Baby's apparent defeat, only to be killed when Baby suddenly emerges from his body. It is then revealed that Baby was the one who created and programmed Dr. Myuu, and not the other way around. He later joins forces with [Doctor Gero](/wiki/Red_Ribbon_Army%23Doctor_Gero \"Red Ribbon Army#Doctor Gero\") while in Hell to create a duplicate of [Android 17](/wiki/Android_17 \"Android 17\") using Myuu's machine mutant technology, who then manipulates the original Android 17 into converging their power together to open a rift between Earth and Hell, enabling him and his co\\-creators to escape. Android 17 and his Hell Fighter duplicate eventually fuse to become Super 17, who subsequently turns on and murders both Gero and Myuu. He is voiced by [Kazuyuki Sogabe](/wiki/Kazuyuki_Sogabe \"Kazuyuki Sogabe\") in Japanese media and [Duncan Brannan](/wiki/Duncan_Brannan \"Duncan Brannan\") in the Funimation anime dub.",
"#### Baby",
"{{Nihongo4\\|Baby\\|ベビー\\|Bebī}} is a character that first appears in the 22nd episode of *Dragon Ball GT*. He is a parasitic [alien](/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life \"Extraterrestrial life\") created by combining the DNA of the king of the {{Nihongo4\\|Tuffles\\|ツフル人\\|Tsufuru\\-jin}} with a cybernetic body. Baby desires to exterminate all of the Saiyans to avenge the extinction of his people and the loss of their homeworld to the Saiyans. Baby is first reactivated from a sleep state by [Doctor Myuu](/wiki/%23Doctor_Myuu \"#Doctor Myuu\"); he attempts to fight Goku, Trunks, and Pan but is easily defeated. To boost his power, Baby infects various people with his DNA and begins gathering energy from them. After a second defeat at the hands of the three Saiyans, Baby infects Trunks and travels to Earth with his unsuspecting host. On Earth, he battles Goten and Gohan, infects them both, and eventually infects Vegeta to make him his primary host. Goku, Trunks, and Pan return to Earth to find the entire population is now under Baby's control. Baby defeats Goku, then he uses the Black Star Dragon Balls to restore the planet Tuffle and transport the Earth population to it. During this time, Baby evolves into an even more powerful form and defeats and eats Uub after his chocolate beam is reflected back. Goku returns for a rematch, but is swiftly defeated. This causes Goku to transform into a Golden Great Ape and then into a Super Saiyan 4\\. Baby then has Bulma, also under his control, fire a radiation beam at him from her Blutz Wave Generator which enables him to transform into a Golden Great Ape as well. After a lengthy battle, Goku emerges victorious with the help of Uub, who weakens Baby from inside him, and Trunks, Gohan, and Goten, who were freed from Baby's control by Kibito Kai. Baby separates from Vegeta and attempts to escape in a spaceship, vowing to return to destroy the Saiyans. Goku blasts the spaceship with a *10x Kamehameha* attack, sending it into the sun and obliterating Baby. The character made his manga debut in the first chapter of *[Dragon Ball Heroes: Victory Mission](/wiki/Dragon_Ball_Heroes%23Manga \"Dragon Ball Heroes#Manga\")* in October 2012\\. Baby is voiced by [Yusuke Numata](/wiki/Yusuke_Numata \"Yusuke Numata\") in Japanese media and by [Mike McFarland](/wiki/Mike_McFarland \"Mike McFarland\") in the Funimation anime dub.",
"#### Super 17",
"In the \"Super 17\" arc, [Doctor Gero](/wiki/Red_Ribbon_Army%23Doctor_Gero \"Red Ribbon Army#Doctor Gero\") and [Doctor Myuu](/wiki/%23Doctor_Myuu \"#Doctor Myuu\") create a machine mutant copy of Android 17 by the name of Hell Fighter 17, who is capable of mentally controlling Red Ribbon Androids like 17 and 18\\.{{cite episode\\|title\\=The Villains Of Hell!! The Revival of Cell and Frieza\\|date\\=April 23, 1997\\|series\\=''Dragon Ball GT''\\|number\\=43}} Android 17 is compelled into fusing with his machine mutant replica and become the villainous Super 17\\. Super 17 is capable of absorbing an opponent's incoming attacks, but he is unable to move and absorb energy at the same time.{{cite episode\\|title\\=A Grand Turnabout! Goku's and \\#18's Combo Attack Explodes\\|date\\=June 4, 1997\\|series\\=''Dragon Ball GT''\\|number\\=47}} Sometime after Goku kills Super 17 using the *Super Dragon Fist* while the latter is distracted by 18, the original Android 17 is eventually revived with the Dragon Balls during the series finale.{{cite episode\\|title\\=\"Goodbye, Goku... 'Till the Day We Meet Again\"\\|series\\=''Dragon Ball GT''\\|date\\=November 19, 1997\\|number\\=64}} He is voiced by [Shigeru Nakahara](/wiki/Shigeru_Nakahara \"Shigeru Nakahara\") in Japanese media and [Chuck Huber](/wiki/Chuck_Huber \"Chuck Huber\") in the Funimation anime dub.",
"#### Shadow Dragons",
"The Shadow Dragons, known as {{nihongo4\\|Evil Dragons\\|邪悪龍\\|Jaakuryū}} in the original Japanese, are a group of evil beings born from the evil energy caused by overuse of the Dragon Balls in *Dragon Ball GT*. They are named after the One\\-Star through Seven\\-Star Dragon Balls; {{nihongo4\\|One\\-Star Dragon\\|一星龍\\|Īshinron\\|Chinese: Yī Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\\|Two\\-Star Dragon\\|二星龍\\|Ryanshinron\\|Chinese: Èr Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\\|Three\\-Star Dragon\\|三星龍\\|Sanshinron\\|Chinese: Sān Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\\|Four\\-Star Dragon\\|四星龍\\|Sūshinron\\|Chinese: Sì Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\\|Five\\-Star Dragon\\|五星龍\\|Ūshinron\\|Chinese: Wǔ Xīng Lóng}}, {{nihongo4\\|Six\\-Star Dragon\\|六星龍\\|Ryūshinron\\|Chinese: Liù Xīng Lóng}}, and {{nihongo4\\|Seven\\-Star Dragon\\|七星龍\\|Chīshinron\\|Chinese: Qī Xīng Lóng}}. In the English dubs, their names are changed to Syn Shenron, Haze Shenron, Eis Shenron, Nuova Shenron, Rage Shenron, Oceanus Shenron, and Naturon Shenron respectively.",
"When attempting to undo the damage caused by [Super 17](/wiki/%23Super_17 \"#Super 17\"), a cigar\\-smoking {{nihongo4\\|Black Smoke Shenlong\\|黒煙の龍\\|Kokuen no Ryū\\|lit. \"Black Smoke Dragon\"}}, named Black Smoke Shenron in the Funimation dub, is summoned from the Dragon Balls instead of the regular Shenron. He is a dragon who is formed from all the negative energy accumulated from the selfish wishes granted throughout the series using the Dragon Balls. Summoned from the same Earth Dragon Balls, he splits into seven Evil Dragons who each take the form of a tainted Dragon Ball, spreading out all over the world and proceeding to cause chaos, causing the heroes to defeat each one. Goku, Pan, and Giru manage to defeat the other dragons before encountering Eis and Nuova Shenron. Being much more honorable than his brethren, Nuova helps Goku and turns on Eis. Syn Shenron, the most powerful of the Shadow Dragons, kills Nuova before absorbing both his Dragon Ball and the others as well to increase his power and become Omega Shenron, {{nihongo4\\|Super One\\-Star Dragon\\|超一星龍\\|Sūpā Īshinron}} in Japanese, with access to all of the abilities of his brethren. After a long battle, he is killed by Goku's Super *Genki\\-Dama*, and the Dragon Balls are purified.",
"The Shadow Dragons make their manga debut in the Jaaku Missions Saga of *[Dragon Ball Heroes: Victory Mission](/wiki/Dragon_Ball_Heroes%23Manga \"Dragon Ball Heroes#Manga\")*. When confronted by the Dragon Ball Heroes, Black Smoke Shenron creates Shadow GT Goku (シャドウ悟空, Shadō Gokū) to combat them. Shadow GT Goku is a replication of GT Goku created by Black Smoke Shenron as his primary method of fighting.",
"[Daisuke Gōri](/wiki/Daisuke_G%C5%8Dri \"Daisuke Gōri\") voices Black Smoke Shenron in Japanese, and Christopher Sabat voices him in the Funimation dub. Syn/Omega Shenron is voiced by [Hidekatsu Shibata](/wiki/Hidekatsu_Shibata \"Hidekatsu Shibata\") in Japanese. Bob Carter and [Christopher R. Sabat](/wiki/Christopher_R._Sabat \"Christopher R. Sabat\") respectively voice Syn Shenron and Omega Shenron in the Funimation dub, while Victor Atelevich voices them both in the Blue Water dub.",
""
] |
Reign as Imperial Opposition Pope
---------------------------------
During the next four years, the Emperor and the Pope reconciled but then quarreled again, and, facing a rebellion among the German nobles, Emperor Henry threatened to depose Pope Gregory. Carrying out his threats, Henry summoned his German and Transpadine partisans to a Synod at [Brixen](/wiki/Brixen "Brixen") in June 1080, which drew up a new decree purporting to depose Pope Gregory VII,[Herbert Edward John Cowdrey](/wiki/Herbert_Edward_John_Cowdrey "Herbert Edward John Cowdrey"), *Pope Gregory VII, 1073–1085*, (Oxford University Press, 1998\), 201–202\. and which Henry himself also signed, and then proceeded to elect Guibert, the excommunicated Archbishop of Ravenna, as pope in opposition to Pope Gregory, whom the Synod considered deposed; Guibert took the name Clement III.Richard P. McBrien, *Lives of the Popes*, (HarperCollins, 2000\), 424–425\. On the choice of name and for related bibliography: Lila Yawn, "Clement's New Clothes. The Destruction of Old S. Clemente in Rome, the Eleventh\-Century Frescoes, and the Cult of (Anti)Pope Clement III," *Reti Medievali Rivista*, 13 (apr. 2012\), pp. 20–21, available at: \<[http://www.rmojs.unina.it/index.php/rm/article/view/urn%3Anbn%3Ait%3Aunina\-3357](http://www.rmojs.unina.it/index.php/rm/article/view/urn%3Anbn%3Ait%3Aunina-3357) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011121511/http://www.rmojs.unina.it/index.php/rm/article/view/urn:nbn:it:unina\-3357 \|date\=11 October 2021 }}\>. Henry recognized Guibert as pope, swearing that he would lead him to Rome, and there receive from his hands the imperial crown.Herbert Edward John Cowdrey, 227–228\.
With [Rudolph of Swabia](/wiki/Rudolph_of_Swabia "Rudolph of Swabia"), leader of the rebellious nobles, having fallen mortally wounded at the [Battle of Mersburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Mersburg "Battle of Mersburg") in 1080, Henry could concentrate all his forces against Gregory.[Oestereich, Thomas. "Pope St. Gregory VII." The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06791c.htm) Vol. 6\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909\. 2 August 2021 {{PD\-notice}} In 1081, he marched on Rome, but failed to force his way into the city, which he finally accomplished only in 1084\.
Henry entered Rome on 21 March 1084, and succeeded in gaining possession of the greater part of the city. Gregory took refuge in [Castel Sant'Angelo](/wiki/Castel_Sant%27Angelo "Castel Sant'Angelo"). On 24 March, Guibert was enthroned as pope in the church of [St. John Lateran](/wiki/St._John_Lateran "St. John Lateran") as Clement III, and on 31 March he crowned Henry IV as Emperor at St. Peter's.["Clement III", *A Dictionary of Popes*, 2 ed., (J. N. D. Kelly and Michael J. Walsh, eds.) OUP](https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095617129) {{ISBN\|9780199295814}}
However, with news of the approach of the [Norman](/wiki/Normans "Normans") army of Gregory's ally, [Robert Guiscard](/wiki/Robert_Guiscard "Robert Guiscard"), [Duke of Apulia and Calabria](/wiki/Duke_of_Apulia_and_Calabria "Duke of Apulia and Calabria"), Henry and Guibert abandoned Rome, and, in revenge for [Matilda of Tuscany](/wiki/Matilda_of_Tuscany "Matilda of Tuscany")'s support of Gregory, Henry ravaged her possessions in [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany"). Guibert withdrew to Ravenna, where he still held the title of archbishop. His influence, after Henry IV's withdrawal from Italy, was largely concentrated in Ravenna and a few other districts of Northern Italy, but he also retained some support in Rome.
Gregory was liberated, but the people were incensed by the excesses of his Norman allies, and he was compelled to leave Rome. He withdrew to [Monte Cassino](/wiki/Monte_Cassino "Monte Cassino"), and later to the castle of [Salerno](/wiki/Salerno "Salerno") by the sea, in 1084, where he died in the following year, 25 May 1085\.
The German [episcopate](/wiki/Episcopate "Episcopate") stood divided. While bishops of Gregory VII's party held a Synod in [Quedlinburg](/wiki/Quedlinburg "Quedlinburg"), at which they denounced and condemned Guibert, partisans of Henry held a rival Synod at [Mainz](/wiki/Mainz "Mainz") in 1085, where they approved the deposition of Gregory and the elevation of Guibert. This conflict continued even after the death of Gregory, during the entire reigns of whose successors, [Pope Victor III](/wiki/Pope_Victor_III "Pope Victor III"), [Pope Urban II](/wiki/Pope_Urban_II "Pope Urban II"), and [Pope Paschal II](/wiki/Pope_Paschal_II "Pope Paschal II"), Guibert continued to be regarded as pope by Henry and his party.
Victor III, who was elected after a prolonged vacancy caused by the critical position of the Church in Rome, was compelled, eight days after his coronation in St. Peter's on 3 May 1087, to flee Rome before the partisans of Guibert. The latter were in turn assailed by the troops of Countess Matilda, and entrenched themselves in the Pantheon. However, at the threats of the emperor, Victor was obliged to flee once more.[Kirsch, Johann Peter. "Matilda of Canossa." The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10049b.htm) Vol. 10\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911\. 2 August 2021 {{PD\-notice}}
The succeeding pope, Urban II (1088–1099\), spent most of the first half of his pontificate in exile, in southern Italy and in France. Late in 1093 he managed to obtain a foothold in Rome, with help from the Frangipane family, and gradually expanded his power there.S. Cerrini, "Urbano II, beato," in *Enciclopedia dei papi*, Roma 2000, vol. 2, pp. 222–225; Matthias Thumser, "Die Frangipane. Abriß der Geschichte einer Adelsfamilie im hochmittelalterlichen Rom," *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken*, 71 (1991\), pp. 112–115; Patrizia Carmassi, "Die hochmittelalterlichen Fresken der Unterkirche von San Clemente in Rom als programmatische Selbsdarstellung des Reformspapsttums. Neue Einsichten zur Bestimmung des Entstehungskontexts," in *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken*, 81 (2001\), pp. 50–51;
By 1089, Clement III was back in Rome, where in June, he held a Synod declaring invalid the decree of excommunication launched against Henry, and various charges were made against the supporters of Urban II, the pope of the anti\-imperial party.
Still, by the mid\-nineties his power and authority began to wane. The greater part of the city of Rome was captured by an army under Count [Hugh of Vermandois](/wiki/Hugh_I%2C_Count_of_Vermandois "Hugh I, Count of Vermandois"), brother of the [King of France](/wiki/King_of_France "King of France"). The party of Guibert retained only the Castle of Sant' Angelo, and even this in 1098 fell into the hands of Vermandois.
In 1099, he repaired to [Albano](/wiki/Albano_Laziale "Albano Laziale") after the accession of Paschal II (1099–1118\), hoping again to become master of Rome, but Norman troops compelled him to withdraw. He reached [Civita Castellana](/wiki/Civita_Castellana "Civita Castellana"), where he died 8 September 1100\. His followers elected a successor to Guibert, the [Antipope Theodoric](/wiki/Antipope_Theodoric "Antipope Theodoric"), who, however, was not a serious threat to the popes of the anti\-imperial line, now considered canonical.
|
[
"Reign as Imperial Opposition Pope\n---------------------------------",
"During the next four years, the Emperor and the Pope reconciled but then quarreled again, and, facing a rebellion among the German nobles, Emperor Henry threatened to depose Pope Gregory. Carrying out his threats, Henry summoned his German and Transpadine partisans to a Synod at [Brixen](/wiki/Brixen \"Brixen\") in June 1080, which drew up a new decree purporting to depose Pope Gregory VII,[Herbert Edward John Cowdrey](/wiki/Herbert_Edward_John_Cowdrey \"Herbert Edward John Cowdrey\"), *Pope Gregory VII, 1073–1085*, (Oxford University Press, 1998\\), 201–202\\. and which Henry himself also signed, and then proceeded to elect Guibert, the excommunicated Archbishop of Ravenna, as pope in opposition to Pope Gregory, whom the Synod considered deposed; Guibert took the name Clement III.Richard P. McBrien, *Lives of the Popes*, (HarperCollins, 2000\\), 424–425\\. On the choice of name and for related bibliography: Lila Yawn, \"Clement's New Clothes. The Destruction of Old S. Clemente in Rome, the Eleventh\\-Century Frescoes, and the Cult of (Anti)Pope Clement III,\" *Reti Medievali Rivista*, 13 (apr. 2012\\), pp. 20–21, available at: \\<[http://www.rmojs.unina.it/index.php/rm/article/view/urn%3Anbn%3Ait%3Aunina\\-3357](http://www.rmojs.unina.it/index.php/rm/article/view/urn%3Anbn%3Ait%3Aunina-3357) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011121511/http://www.rmojs.unina.it/index.php/rm/article/view/urn:nbn:it:unina\\-3357 \\|date\\=11 October 2021 }}\\>. Henry recognized Guibert as pope, swearing that he would lead him to Rome, and there receive from his hands the imperial crown.Herbert Edward John Cowdrey, 227–228\\.",
"With [Rudolph of Swabia](/wiki/Rudolph_of_Swabia \"Rudolph of Swabia\"), leader of the rebellious nobles, having fallen mortally wounded at the [Battle of Mersburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Mersburg \"Battle of Mersburg\") in 1080, Henry could concentrate all his forces against Gregory.[Oestereich, Thomas. \"Pope St. Gregory VII.\" The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06791c.htm) Vol. 6\\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909\\. 2 August 2021 {{PD\\-notice}} In 1081, he marched on Rome, but failed to force his way into the city, which he finally accomplished only in 1084\\.",
"Henry entered Rome on 21 March 1084, and succeeded in gaining possession of the greater part of the city. Gregory took refuge in [Castel Sant'Angelo](/wiki/Castel_Sant%27Angelo \"Castel Sant'Angelo\"). On 24 March, Guibert was enthroned as pope in the church of [St. John Lateran](/wiki/St._John_Lateran \"St. John Lateran\") as Clement III, and on 31 March he crowned Henry IV as Emperor at St. Peter's.[\"Clement III\", *A Dictionary of Popes*, 2 ed., (J. N. D. Kelly and Michael J. Walsh, eds.) OUP](https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095617129) {{ISBN\\|9780199295814}}",
"However, with news of the approach of the [Norman](/wiki/Normans \"Normans\") army of Gregory's ally, [Robert Guiscard](/wiki/Robert_Guiscard \"Robert Guiscard\"), [Duke of Apulia and Calabria](/wiki/Duke_of_Apulia_and_Calabria \"Duke of Apulia and Calabria\"), Henry and Guibert abandoned Rome, and, in revenge for [Matilda of Tuscany](/wiki/Matilda_of_Tuscany \"Matilda of Tuscany\")'s support of Gregory, Henry ravaged her possessions in [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\"). Guibert withdrew to Ravenna, where he still held the title of archbishop. His influence, after Henry IV's withdrawal from Italy, was largely concentrated in Ravenna and a few other districts of Northern Italy, but he also retained some support in Rome.",
"Gregory was liberated, but the people were incensed by the excesses of his Norman allies, and he was compelled to leave Rome. He withdrew to [Monte Cassino](/wiki/Monte_Cassino \"Monte Cassino\"), and later to the castle of [Salerno](/wiki/Salerno \"Salerno\") by the sea, in 1084, where he died in the following year, 25 May 1085\\.",
"The German [episcopate](/wiki/Episcopate \"Episcopate\") stood divided. While bishops of Gregory VII's party held a Synod in [Quedlinburg](/wiki/Quedlinburg \"Quedlinburg\"), at which they denounced and condemned Guibert, partisans of Henry held a rival Synod at [Mainz](/wiki/Mainz \"Mainz\") in 1085, where they approved the deposition of Gregory and the elevation of Guibert. This conflict continued even after the death of Gregory, during the entire reigns of whose successors, [Pope Victor III](/wiki/Pope_Victor_III \"Pope Victor III\"), [Pope Urban II](/wiki/Pope_Urban_II \"Pope Urban II\"), and [Pope Paschal II](/wiki/Pope_Paschal_II \"Pope Paschal II\"), Guibert continued to be regarded as pope by Henry and his party.",
"Victor III, who was elected after a prolonged vacancy caused by the critical position of the Church in Rome, was compelled, eight days after his coronation in St. Peter's on 3 May 1087, to flee Rome before the partisans of Guibert. The latter were in turn assailed by the troops of Countess Matilda, and entrenched themselves in the Pantheon. However, at the threats of the emperor, Victor was obliged to flee once more.[Kirsch, Johann Peter. \"Matilda of Canossa.\" The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10049b.htm) Vol. 10\\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911\\. 2 August 2021 {{PD\\-notice}}",
"The succeeding pope, Urban II (1088–1099\\), spent most of the first half of his pontificate in exile, in southern Italy and in France. Late in 1093 he managed to obtain a foothold in Rome, with help from the Frangipane family, and gradually expanded his power there.S. Cerrini, \"Urbano II, beato,\" in *Enciclopedia dei papi*, Roma 2000, vol. 2, pp. 222–225; Matthias Thumser, \"Die Frangipane. Abriß der Geschichte einer Adelsfamilie im hochmittelalterlichen Rom,\" *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken*, 71 (1991\\), pp. 112–115; Patrizia Carmassi, \"Die hochmittelalterlichen Fresken der Unterkirche von San Clemente in Rom als programmatische Selbsdarstellung des Reformspapsttums. Neue Einsichten zur Bestimmung des Entstehungskontexts,\" in *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken*, 81 (2001\\), pp. 50–51;",
"By 1089, Clement III was back in Rome, where in June, he held a Synod declaring invalid the decree of excommunication launched against Henry, and various charges were made against the supporters of Urban II, the pope of the anti\\-imperial party.\nStill, by the mid\\-nineties his power and authority began to wane. The greater part of the city of Rome was captured by an army under Count [Hugh of Vermandois](/wiki/Hugh_I%2C_Count_of_Vermandois \"Hugh I, Count of Vermandois\"), brother of the [King of France](/wiki/King_of_France \"King of France\"). The party of Guibert retained only the Castle of Sant' Angelo, and even this in 1098 fell into the hands of Vermandois.",
"In 1099, he repaired to [Albano](/wiki/Albano_Laziale \"Albano Laziale\") after the accession of Paschal II (1099–1118\\), hoping again to become master of Rome, but Norman troops compelled him to withdraw. He reached [Civita Castellana](/wiki/Civita_Castellana \"Civita Castellana\"), where he died 8 September 1100\\. His followers elected a successor to Guibert, the [Antipope Theodoric](/wiki/Antipope_Theodoric \"Antipope Theodoric\"), who, however, was not a serious threat to the popes of the anti\\-imperial line, now considered canonical.",
""
] |
Appeals and exonerations
------------------------
On 26 July 1973, the [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_%28England_and_Wales%29 "Court of Appeal (England and Wales)") rejected an appeal by the boys' legal representatives.
Colin Lattimore's father, insistent that his son was innocent, wrote many letters, including to [the Queen](/wiki/Elizabeth_II "Elizabeth II"), [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom") and [Home Secretary](/wiki/Home_Secretary "Home Secretary"). His [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)"), [Carol Johnson](/wiki/Carol_Johnson_%28British_politician%29 "Carol Johnson (British politician)"), wrote to the [Home Office](/wiki/Home_Office "Home Office").
The [general election in February 1974](/wiki/February_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election "February 1974 United Kingdom general election") brought [Roy Jenkins](/wiki/Roy_Jenkins "Roy Jenkins") and [Alex Lyon](/wiki/Alex_Lyon_%28politician%29 "Alex Lyon (politician)"), both of whom were committed to reviewing [miscarriages of justice](/wiki/Miscarriages_of_justice "Miscarriages of justice"), into the Home Office. The new Member of Parliament for Lewisham was [Christopher Price](/wiki/Christopher_Price_%28politician%29 "Christopher Price (politician)"), MP, who had been working for [Thames Television](/wiki/Thames_Television "Thames Television") and became Principal of [Leeds Metropolitan University](/wiki/Leeds_Metropolitan_University "Leeds Metropolitan University") after leaving [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom") .{{citation needed\|date\=December 2020}} The [National Council for Civil Liberties](/wiki/National_Council_for_Civil_Liberties "National Council for Civil Liberties") had also become interested in the case and contacted one of the leading pathologists in the country, Professor [Donald Teare](/wiki/Donald_Teare "Donald Teare").
A 30\-minute documentary about the case, in which Teare placed Confait's death between 6:30 p.m. and 10:30 p.m., was screened on [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_channel%29 "ITV (TV channel)") in November 1974\. Another contemporary pathologist, Professor [Keith Simpson](/wiki/Keith_Simpson_%28pathologist%29 "Keith Simpson (pathologist)"), was brought in, and he broadly agreed with Professor Teare.{{cite book\|title\=The Murder Guide to London: Detailed Accounts of the Capital's Most Gruesome and Bizarre Murders\|last\=Lane\|first\=Brian\|date\=1992\|pages\=28–29\|publisher\=Magpie\|location\=London\|isbn\=1\-85813\-064\-6}}
During spring 1974, the Lord Chief Justice [Lord Widgery](/wiki/John_Widgery%2C_Baron_Widgery "John Widgery, Baron Widgery"), gave his opinion that this case could properly be referred back to the [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_%28England_and_Wales%29 "Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"). On 18 June 1975, Roy Jenkins announced in Parliament that he was referring the case to the Appeal Court.
On 17 October 1975, the convictions of all three boys were thrown out by the Court of Appeal. [Lord Scarman](/wiki/Leslie_Scarman%2C_Baron_Scarman "Leslie Scarman, Baron Scarman") criticised the police for their handling of the case and declared all three young men "innocent" in his final verdict.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2022}} The Home Secretary then ordered a further police enquiry into Confait's murder. No arrests resulted from the enquiry, and the case remained unsolved.
|
[
"Appeals and exonerations\n------------------------",
"On 26 July 1973, the [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_%28England_and_Wales%29 \"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)\") rejected an appeal by the boys' legal representatives.",
"Colin Lattimore's father, insistent that his son was innocent, wrote many letters, including to [the Queen](/wiki/Elizabeth_II \"Elizabeth II\"), [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\") and [Home Secretary](/wiki/Home_Secretary \"Home Secretary\"). His [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\"), [Carol Johnson](/wiki/Carol_Johnson_%28British_politician%29 \"Carol Johnson (British politician)\"), wrote to the [Home Office](/wiki/Home_Office \"Home Office\").",
"The [general election in February 1974](/wiki/February_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election \"February 1974 United Kingdom general election\") brought [Roy Jenkins](/wiki/Roy_Jenkins \"Roy Jenkins\") and [Alex Lyon](/wiki/Alex_Lyon_%28politician%29 \"Alex Lyon (politician)\"), both of whom were committed to reviewing [miscarriages of justice](/wiki/Miscarriages_of_justice \"Miscarriages of justice\"), into the Home Office. The new Member of Parliament for Lewisham was [Christopher Price](/wiki/Christopher_Price_%28politician%29 \"Christopher Price (politician)\"), MP, who had been working for [Thames Television](/wiki/Thames_Television \"Thames Television\") and became Principal of [Leeds Metropolitan University](/wiki/Leeds_Metropolitan_University \"Leeds Metropolitan University\") after leaving [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Parliament of the United Kingdom\") .{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2020}} The [National Council for Civil Liberties](/wiki/National_Council_for_Civil_Liberties \"National Council for Civil Liberties\") had also become interested in the case and contacted one of the leading pathologists in the country, Professor [Donald Teare](/wiki/Donald_Teare \"Donald Teare\").",
"A 30\\-minute documentary about the case, in which Teare placed Confait's death between 6:30 p.m. and 10:30 p.m., was screened on [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_channel%29 \"ITV (TV channel)\") in November 1974\\. Another contemporary pathologist, Professor [Keith Simpson](/wiki/Keith_Simpson_%28pathologist%29 \"Keith Simpson (pathologist)\"), was brought in, and he broadly agreed with Professor Teare.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Murder Guide to London: Detailed Accounts of the Capital's Most Gruesome and Bizarre Murders\\|last\\=Lane\\|first\\=Brian\\|date\\=1992\\|pages\\=28–29\\|publisher\\=Magpie\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=1\\-85813\\-064\\-6}}",
"During spring 1974, the Lord Chief Justice [Lord Widgery](/wiki/John_Widgery%2C_Baron_Widgery \"John Widgery, Baron Widgery\"), gave his opinion that this case could properly be referred back to the [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_%28England_and_Wales%29 \"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)\"). On 18 June 1975, Roy Jenkins announced in Parliament that he was referring the case to the Appeal Court.",
"On 17 October 1975, the convictions of all three boys were thrown out by the Court of Appeal. [Lord Scarman](/wiki/Leslie_Scarman%2C_Baron_Scarman \"Leslie Scarman, Baron Scarman\") criticised the police for their handling of the case and declared all three young men \"innocent\" in his final verdict.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}} The Home Secretary then ordered a further police enquiry into Confait's murder. No arrests resulted from the enquiry, and the case remained unsolved.",
""
] |
Mixed martial arts career
-------------------------
### Early career
Keslar made his professional debut in early 2006 and compiled a record of 5–1 before being signed by Strikeforce.[http://www.mynuvotv.com/show/cast?name\=fightfactory{{dead link\|date\=April 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.mynuvotv.com/show/cast?name=fightfactory{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})
### Strikeforce
Keslar made his promotional debut against [Chris Cope](/wiki/Chris_Cope "Chris Cope") on June 26, 2010, at [Strikeforce: Fedor vs. Werdum](/wiki/Strikeforce:Fedor_vs._Werdum "Fedor vs. Werdum") and lost via TKO in the second round.
He made his return at [Strikeforce: Diaz vs. Noons II](/wiki/Strikeforce:Diaz_vs._Noons_II "Diaz vs. Noons II") on October 9, 2010, against Josh McDonald and lost via unanimous decision.
Keslar's next appearance for the promotion was on January 29, 2011, at [Strikeforce: Diaz vs. Cyborg](/wiki/Strikeforce:Diaz_vs._Cyborg "Diaz vs. Cyborg") against Eric Lawson. Keslar won via [armbar](/wiki/Armbar "Armbar") submission in the first round.
### Bellator MMA
After his last appearance in Strikeforce, Keslar compiled a record of 3\-0 and was signed by [Bellator](/wiki/Bellator_MMA "Bellator MMA"). He made his promotional debut on September 20, 2013, at [Bellator 100](/wiki/Bellator_100 "Bellator 100") against Luis Melo and won via split decision.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmajunkie.com/news/2013/09/bellator\-100\-live\-results\-and\-fight\-recaps\|title\=Bellator 100 results: Lima scores another knockout over Saunders\|publisher\=MMAjunkie.com\|author\=MMAjunkie.com staff\|date\=September 20, 2013\|accessdate\=October 17, 2013}}
Keslar faced controversial fighter [War Machine](/wiki/War_Machine_%28mixed_martial_artist%29 "War Machine (mixed martial artist)") at [Bellator 104](/wiki/Bellator_104 "Bellator 104") on October 18, 2013\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmajunkie.com/news/2013/09/bellator\-104\-lineup\-set\-features\-hawn\-vs\-weedman\-keslar\-vs\-war\-machine\|title\=Bellator 104 lineup set, features Hawn vs. Weedman, Keslar vs. War Machine\|publisher\=MMAjunkie.com\|author\=MMAjunkie.com staff\|date\=September 30, 2013\|accessdate\=October 17, 2013}} He won the fight via technical submission in the first round.
Keslar faced [Rick Hawn](/wiki/Rick_Hawn "Rick Hawn") in the Bellator Season Nine Welterweight Tournament Final. He lost the fight via knockout in the third round.
Keslar faced [Karo Parisyan](/wiki/Karo_Parisyan "Karo Parisyan") on April 11, 2014, at [Bellator 116](/wiki/Bellator_116 "Bellator 116"). Despite winning the first round, he lost the fight via knockout in the second round.
Keslar faced [Jesse Juarez](/wiki/Jesse_Juarez "Jesse Juarez") on September 19, 2014, at [Bellator 125](/wiki/Bellator_125 "Bellator 125").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/events/Bellator\-MMA\-Bellator\-125\-39519\|title\=Bellator MMA \- Bellator 125\|publisher\=sherdog.com}} He lost the fight via unanimous decision.
### League S\-70
Keslar faced [Alexey Kunchenko](/wiki/Alexey_Kunchenko "Alexey Kunchenko") on August 29, 2015, at League S\-70: Russia vs. World.{{cite web\|url\=http://news.sportbox.ru/Vidy\_sporta/edinoborstva/spbnews\_NI553963\_S\_70\_privezet\_v\_Sochi\_Mamonta\_i\_veteranov\_Bellator\|title\=Russian super star vs. world\|publisher\=news.sportbox.ru\|date\=August 20, 2015}} He lost via KO (punches).{{cite web\|url\=http://ru.euronews.com/newswires/3064687\-newswire/\|title\=Russian super star vs. world\|publisher\=euronews.com\|date\=August 29, 2015}}
### Coach activity
Ron Keslar is head jiu\-jitsu coach at [American Kickboxing Academy](/wiki/American_Kickboxing_Academy "American Kickboxing Academy"){{cite web \| url\=https://www.americankickboxingacademy.com/instructors\-coaches \| title\=Instructors\-Coaches }}
|
[
"Mixed martial arts career\n-------------------------",
"### Early career",
"Keslar made his professional debut in early 2006 and compiled a record of 5–1 before being signed by Strikeforce.[http://www.mynuvotv.com/show/cast?name\\=fightfactory{{dead link\\|date\\=April 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.mynuvotv.com/show/cast?name=fightfactory{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})",
"### Strikeforce",
"Keslar made his promotional debut against [Chris Cope](/wiki/Chris_Cope \"Chris Cope\") on June 26, 2010, at [Strikeforce: Fedor vs. Werdum](/wiki/Strikeforce:Fedor_vs._Werdum \"Fedor vs. Werdum\") and lost via TKO in the second round.",
"He made his return at [Strikeforce: Diaz vs. Noons II](/wiki/Strikeforce:Diaz_vs._Noons_II \"Diaz vs. Noons II\") on October 9, 2010, against Josh McDonald and lost via unanimous decision.",
"Keslar's next appearance for the promotion was on January 29, 2011, at [Strikeforce: Diaz vs. Cyborg](/wiki/Strikeforce:Diaz_vs._Cyborg \"Diaz vs. Cyborg\") against Eric Lawson. Keslar won via [armbar](/wiki/Armbar \"Armbar\") submission in the first round.",
"### Bellator MMA",
"After his last appearance in Strikeforce, Keslar compiled a record of 3\\-0 and was signed by [Bellator](/wiki/Bellator_MMA \"Bellator MMA\"). He made his promotional debut on September 20, 2013, at [Bellator 100](/wiki/Bellator_100 \"Bellator 100\") against Luis Melo and won via split decision.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmajunkie.com/news/2013/09/bellator\\-100\\-live\\-results\\-and\\-fight\\-recaps\\|title\\=Bellator 100 results: Lima scores another knockout over Saunders\\|publisher\\=MMAjunkie.com\\|author\\=MMAjunkie.com staff\\|date\\=September 20, 2013\\|accessdate\\=October 17, 2013}}",
"Keslar faced controversial fighter [War Machine](/wiki/War_Machine_%28mixed_martial_artist%29 \"War Machine (mixed martial artist)\") at [Bellator 104](/wiki/Bellator_104 \"Bellator 104\") on October 18, 2013\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmajunkie.com/news/2013/09/bellator\\-104\\-lineup\\-set\\-features\\-hawn\\-vs\\-weedman\\-keslar\\-vs\\-war\\-machine\\|title\\=Bellator 104 lineup set, features Hawn vs. Weedman, Keslar vs. War Machine\\|publisher\\=MMAjunkie.com\\|author\\=MMAjunkie.com staff\\|date\\=September 30, 2013\\|accessdate\\=October 17, 2013}} He won the fight via technical submission in the first round.",
"Keslar faced [Rick Hawn](/wiki/Rick_Hawn \"Rick Hawn\") in the Bellator Season Nine Welterweight Tournament Final. He lost the fight via knockout in the third round.",
"Keslar faced [Karo Parisyan](/wiki/Karo_Parisyan \"Karo Parisyan\") on April 11, 2014, at [Bellator 116](/wiki/Bellator_116 \"Bellator 116\"). Despite winning the first round, he lost the fight via knockout in the second round.",
"Keslar faced [Jesse Juarez](/wiki/Jesse_Juarez \"Jesse Juarez\") on September 19, 2014, at [Bellator 125](/wiki/Bellator_125 \"Bellator 125\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/events/Bellator\\-MMA\\-Bellator\\-125\\-39519\\|title\\=Bellator MMA \\- Bellator 125\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com}} He lost the fight via unanimous decision.",
"### League S\\-70",
"Keslar faced [Alexey Kunchenko](/wiki/Alexey_Kunchenko \"Alexey Kunchenko\") on August 29, 2015, at League S\\-70: Russia vs. World.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.sportbox.ru/Vidy\\_sporta/edinoborstva/spbnews\\_NI553963\\_S\\_70\\_privezet\\_v\\_Sochi\\_Mamonta\\_i\\_veteranov\\_Bellator\\|title\\=Russian super star vs. world\\|publisher\\=news.sportbox.ru\\|date\\=August 20, 2015}} He lost via KO (punches).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ru.euronews.com/newswires/3064687\\-newswire/\\|title\\=Russian super star vs. world\\|publisher\\=euronews.com\\|date\\=August 29, 2015}}",
"### Coach activity",
"Ron Keslar is head jiu\\-jitsu coach at [American Kickboxing Academy](/wiki/American_Kickboxing_Academy \"American Kickboxing Academy\"){{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.americankickboxingacademy.com/instructors\\-coaches \\| title\\=Instructors\\-Coaches }}",
""
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.