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History
-------
The disease is named after [Joannes Cassianus Pompe](/wiki/Joannes_Cassianus_Pompe "Joannes Cassianus Pompe"), who characterized it in 1932\.{{cite journal \|author\=Pompe, J.C. \|title\=Over idiopathische hypertrophie van het hart \|journal\=Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd. \|volume\=76 \|pages\=304–12 \|year\=1932 }}{{EMedicine\|article\|947870\|Genetics of Glycogen\-Storage Disease Type II (Pompe Disease)}} Pompe described accumulation of glycogen in muscle tissue in some cases of a previously unknown disorder. This accumulation was difficult to explain as the enzymes involved in the usual metabolism of glucose and glycogen were all present and functioning.
The basis for the disease remained a puzzle until [Christian de Duve](/wiki/Christian_de_Duve "Christian de Duve")'s discovery of lysosomes in 1955 for which he won the [Nobel Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Prize "Nobel Prize") in 1974\. His co\-worker [Henri G. Hers](/wiki/Henri_G._Hers "Henri G. Hers") realised in 1965 that the deficiency of a lysosomal enzyme (alpha glucosidase) for the breakdown of glycogen could explain the symptoms of Pompe disease. This discovery led to establishing the concept of [lysosomal storage diseases](/wiki/Lysosomal_storage_disease "Lysosomal storage disease"), of which 49 have been described (to date).
Despite recognizing the basis for the disease, treatment proved difficult. Administration of the enzyme lead to its uptake by the liver and not the muscle cells where it is needed. In the early 1990s Dutch scientists [Arnold Reuser](/wiki/Arnold_Reuser "Arnold Reuser") and [Ans van der Ploeg](/wiki/Ans_van_der_Ploeg "Ans van der Ploeg") were able to show that using alpha\-glucosidase containing phosphorylated mannose residues purified from bovine testes increased the enzyme's activity in normal mouse muscles.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Van der Ploeg AT, Kroos MA, Willemsen R, Brons NH, Reuser AJ \|title\=Intravenous administration of phosphorylated acid alpha\-glucosidase leads to uptake of enzyme in heart and skeletal muscle of mice \|journal\=J. Clin. Invest. \|volume\=87 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=513–18 \|date\=February 1991 \|pmid\=1991835 \|pmc\=296338 \|doi\=10\.1172/JCI115025 }}
Later in 1998, [Yuan\-Tsong Chen](/wiki/Yuan-Tsong_Chen "Yuan-Tsong Chen") and colleagues at [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University"), using the enzyme produced in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells demonstrated for the first time that the enzyme can clear the glycogen and improved the muscle function in Pompe disease quail. The results of the work at Duke were impressive with one treated bird recovering to the point of being able to fly again.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Kikuchi T, Yang HW, Pennybacker M, etal \|title\=Clinical and metabolic correction of pompe disease by enzyme therapy in acid maltase\-deficient quail \|journal\=J. Clin. Invest. \|volume\=101 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=827–33 \|date\=February 1998 \|pmid\=9466978 \|pmc\=508631 \|doi\=10\.1172/JCI1722 }}
This was followed by production of clinical grade alpha\-glucosidase in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and in the milk of transgenic rabbits.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Van den Hout H, Reuser AJ, Vulto AG, Loonen MC, Cromme\-Dijkhuis A, Van der Ploeg AT \|title\=Recombinant human alpha\-glucosidase from rabbit milk in Pompe patients \|journal\=Lancet \|volume\=356 \|issue\=9227 \|pages\=397–98 \|date\=July 2000 \|pmid\=10972374 \|doi\=10\.1016/S0140\-6736(00\)02533\-2\|s2cid\=54268990 }} This work eventually culminated in the start of clinical trials with the first clinical trial including four babies receiving enzyme from rabbit milk at [Erasmus MC Sophia Children's Hospital](/wiki/Erasmus_MC_Sophia_Children%27s_Hospital "Erasmus MC Sophia Children's Hospital") and three babies receiving enzyme grown in CHO cells at Duke University in 1999\.
The currently approved Myozyme is manufactured by Genzyme Corp. in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Its development was a complex process. Genzyme first partnered with Pharming Group NV who had managed to produce acid alpha\-glucosidase from the milk of transgenic rabbits. They also partnered with a second group based at Duke University using Chinese hamster ovary cells. In 2001, Genzyme acquired Novazyme which was also working on this enzyme. Genzyme also had its own product (Myozyme) grown in CHO cells under development. In November 2001, Genzyme chief executive [Henri Termeer](/wiki/Henri_Termeer "Henri Termeer") organised a systematic comparison of the various potential drugs in a mouse model of Pompe disease. It was found that the Duke enzyme was the most efficacious, followed by Myozyme. However, due to easier manufacture of Myozyme, work on the other products was discontinued.
Funding for research in this field was in part provided by the Muscular Dystrophy Association and the Acid Maltase Deficiency Association in the US, and by the Association of Glycogen Storage Disease in the UK, as well as the International Pompe Association.
[John Crowley](/wiki/John_Crowley_%28biotech_executive%29 "John Crowley (biotech executive)") became involved in the fund\-raising efforts in 1998 after two of his children were diagnosed with Pompe. He joined the company Novazyme in 1999, which was working on enzyme replacement treatment for Pompe. Novazyme was sold to Genzyme in 2001 for over US$100 million. The 2010 film *[Extraordinary Measures](/wiki/Extraordinary_Measures_%28film%29 "Extraordinary Measures (film)")* is based on Crowley's search for a cure.
As of 2019, many biomedical companies are developing [gene therapy](/wiki/Gene_therapy "Gene therapy") in hopes of helping the body create alpha\-glucosidase on its own.
In 2021, in utero enzyme replacement therapy infusions were provided to the fetus of an Ottawa, Ontario, mother who had had two previous children with Pompe disease. The medical team was a collaboration between Ottawa Hospital, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, the University of California, San Francisco, and Duke University. The child, born in June 2021, is thriving as of November 2022\.{{cite journal \| last1\=Cohen \| first1\=Jennifer L. \| last2\=Chakraborty \| first2\=Pranesh \| last3\=Fung\-Kee\-Fung \| first3\=Karen \| last4\=Schwab \| first4\=Marisa E. \| last5\=Bali \| first5\=Deeksha \| last6\=Young \| first6\=Sarah P. \| last7\=Gelb \| first7\=Michael H. \| last8\=Khaledi \| first8\=Hamid \| last9\=DiBattista \| first9\=Alicia \| last10\=Smallshaw \| first10\=Stacey \| last11\=Moretti \| first11\=Felipe \| last12\=Wong \| first12\=Derek \| last13\=Lacroix \| first13\=Catherine \| last14\=El Demellawy \| first14\=Dina \| last15\=Strickland \| first15\=Kyle C. \| last16\=Lougheed \| first16\=Jane \| last17\=Moon\-Grady \| first17\=Anita \| last18\=Lianoglou \| first18\=Billie R. \| last19\=Harmatz \| first19\=Paul \| last20\=Kishnani \| first20\=Priya S. \| last21\=MacKenzie \| first21\=Tippi C. \| title\=In Utero Enzyme\-Replacement Therapy for Infantile\-Onset Pompe's Disease \| journal\=New England Journal of Medicine \| publisher\=Massachusetts Medical Society \| date\=November 9, 2022 \| volume\=387 \| issue\=23 \| pages\=2150–8 \| issn\=0028\-4793 \| doi\=10\.1056/nejmoa2200587 \| pmid\=36351280 \| s2cid\=253444841 \| doi\-access\=free \| pmc\=10794051 }}{{cite web \| title\=Rare, deadly genetic disease successfully treated in utero for first time \| website\=CTVNews \| date\=November 9, 2022 \| url\=https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/rare\-deadly\-genetic\-disease\-successfully\-treated\-in\-utero\-for\-first\-time\-1\.6146283 \| access\-date\=November 10, 2022}} {{cite news \|last1\=Kolata \|first1\=Gina \|title\=The Disease Took Zara, Then Sara. Could Ayla Be Saved? \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=November 9, 2022 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/09/health/pompe\-disease\-treatment.html \|access\-date\=26 November 2023}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The disease is named after [Joannes Cassianus Pompe](/wiki/Joannes_Cassianus_Pompe \"Joannes Cassianus Pompe\"), who characterized it in 1932\\.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Pompe, J.C. \\|title\\=Over idiopathische hypertrophie van het hart \\|journal\\=Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd. \\|volume\\=76 \\|pages\\=304–12 \\|year\\=1932 }}{{EMedicine\\|article\\|947870\\|Genetics of Glycogen\\-Storage Disease Type II (Pompe Disease)}} Pompe described accumulation of glycogen in muscle tissue in some cases of a previously unknown disorder. This accumulation was difficult to explain as the enzymes involved in the usual metabolism of glucose and glycogen were all present and functioning.",
"The basis for the disease remained a puzzle until [Christian de Duve](/wiki/Christian_de_Duve \"Christian de Duve\")'s discovery of lysosomes in 1955 for which he won the [Nobel Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Prize \"Nobel Prize\") in 1974\\. His co\\-worker [Henri G. Hers](/wiki/Henri_G._Hers \"Henri G. Hers\") realised in 1965 that the deficiency of a lysosomal enzyme (alpha glucosidase) for the breakdown of glycogen could explain the symptoms of Pompe disease. This discovery led to establishing the concept of [lysosomal storage diseases](/wiki/Lysosomal_storage_disease \"Lysosomal storage disease\"), of which 49 have been described (to date).",
"Despite recognizing the basis for the disease, treatment proved difficult. Administration of the enzyme lead to its uptake by the liver and not the muscle cells where it is needed. In the early 1990s Dutch scientists [Arnold Reuser](/wiki/Arnold_Reuser \"Arnold Reuser\") and [Ans van der Ploeg](/wiki/Ans_van_der_Ploeg \"Ans van der Ploeg\") were able to show that using alpha\\-glucosidase containing phosphorylated mannose residues purified from bovine testes increased the enzyme's activity in normal mouse muscles.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Van der Ploeg AT, Kroos MA, Willemsen R, Brons NH, Reuser AJ \\|title\\=Intravenous administration of phosphorylated acid alpha\\-glucosidase leads to uptake of enzyme in heart and skeletal muscle of mice \\|journal\\=J. Clin. Invest. \\|volume\\=87 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=513–18 \\|date\\=February 1991 \\|pmid\\=1991835 \\|pmc\\=296338 \\|doi\\=10\\.1172/JCI115025 }}",
"Later in 1998, [Yuan\\-Tsong Chen](/wiki/Yuan-Tsong_Chen \"Yuan-Tsong Chen\") and colleagues at [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University \"Duke University\"), using the enzyme produced in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells demonstrated for the first time that the enzyme can clear the glycogen and improved the muscle function in Pompe disease quail. The results of the work at Duke were impressive with one treated bird recovering to the point of being able to fly again.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Kikuchi T, Yang HW, Pennybacker M, etal \\|title\\=Clinical and metabolic correction of pompe disease by enzyme therapy in acid maltase\\-deficient quail \\|journal\\=J. Clin. Invest. \\|volume\\=101 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=827–33 \\|date\\=February 1998 \\|pmid\\=9466978 \\|pmc\\=508631 \\|doi\\=10\\.1172/JCI1722 }}",
"This was followed by production of clinical grade alpha\\-glucosidase in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and in the milk of transgenic rabbits.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Van den Hout H, Reuser AJ, Vulto AG, Loonen MC, Cromme\\-Dijkhuis A, Van der Ploeg AT \\|title\\=Recombinant human alpha\\-glucosidase from rabbit milk in Pompe patients \\|journal\\=Lancet \\|volume\\=356 \\|issue\\=9227 \\|pages\\=397–98 \\|date\\=July 2000 \\|pmid\\=10972374 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0140\\-6736(00\\)02533\\-2\\|s2cid\\=54268990 }} This work eventually culminated in the start of clinical trials with the first clinical trial including four babies receiving enzyme from rabbit milk at [Erasmus MC Sophia Children's Hospital](/wiki/Erasmus_MC_Sophia_Children%27s_Hospital \"Erasmus MC Sophia Children's Hospital\") and three babies receiving enzyme grown in CHO cells at Duke University in 1999\\.",
"The currently approved Myozyme is manufactured by Genzyme Corp. in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Its development was a complex process. Genzyme first partnered with Pharming Group NV who had managed to produce acid alpha\\-glucosidase from the milk of transgenic rabbits. They also partnered with a second group based at Duke University using Chinese hamster ovary cells. In 2001, Genzyme acquired Novazyme which was also working on this enzyme. Genzyme also had its own product (Myozyme) grown in CHO cells under development. In November 2001, Genzyme chief executive [Henri Termeer](/wiki/Henri_Termeer \"Henri Termeer\") organised a systematic comparison of the various potential drugs in a mouse model of Pompe disease. It was found that the Duke enzyme was the most efficacious, followed by Myozyme. However, due to easier manufacture of Myozyme, work on the other products was discontinued.",
"Funding for research in this field was in part provided by the Muscular Dystrophy Association and the Acid Maltase Deficiency Association in the US, and by the Association of Glycogen Storage Disease in the UK, as well as the International Pompe Association.",
"[John Crowley](/wiki/John_Crowley_%28biotech_executive%29 \"John Crowley (biotech executive)\") became involved in the fund\\-raising efforts in 1998 after two of his children were diagnosed with Pompe. He joined the company Novazyme in 1999, which was working on enzyme replacement treatment for Pompe. Novazyme was sold to Genzyme in 2001 for over US$100 million. The 2010 film *[Extraordinary Measures](/wiki/Extraordinary_Measures_%28film%29 \"Extraordinary Measures (film)\")* is based on Crowley's search for a cure.",
"As of 2019, many biomedical companies are developing [gene therapy](/wiki/Gene_therapy \"Gene therapy\") in hopes of helping the body create alpha\\-glucosidase on its own.",
"In 2021, in utero enzyme replacement therapy infusions were provided to the fetus of an Ottawa, Ontario, mother who had had two previous children with Pompe disease. The medical team was a collaboration between Ottawa Hospital, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, the University of California, San Francisco, and Duke University. The child, born in June 2021, is thriving as of November 2022\\.{{cite journal \\| last1\\=Cohen \\| first1\\=Jennifer L. \\| last2\\=Chakraborty \\| first2\\=Pranesh \\| last3\\=Fung\\-Kee\\-Fung \\| first3\\=Karen \\| last4\\=Schwab \\| first4\\=Marisa E. \\| last5\\=Bali \\| first5\\=Deeksha \\| last6\\=Young \\| first6\\=Sarah P. \\| last7\\=Gelb \\| first7\\=Michael H. \\| last8\\=Khaledi \\| first8\\=Hamid \\| last9\\=DiBattista \\| first9\\=Alicia \\| last10\\=Smallshaw \\| first10\\=Stacey \\| last11\\=Moretti \\| first11\\=Felipe \\| last12\\=Wong \\| first12\\=Derek \\| last13\\=Lacroix \\| first13\\=Catherine \\| last14\\=El Demellawy \\| first14\\=Dina \\| last15\\=Strickland \\| first15\\=Kyle C. \\| last16\\=Lougheed \\| first16\\=Jane \\| last17\\=Moon\\-Grady \\| first17\\=Anita \\| last18\\=Lianoglou \\| first18\\=Billie R. \\| last19\\=Harmatz \\| first19\\=Paul \\| last20\\=Kishnani \\| first20\\=Priya S. \\| last21\\=MacKenzie \\| first21\\=Tippi C. \\| title\\=In Utero Enzyme\\-Replacement Therapy for Infantile\\-Onset Pompe's Disease \\| journal\\=New England Journal of Medicine \\| publisher\\=Massachusetts Medical Society \\| date\\=November 9, 2022 \\| volume\\=387 \\| issue\\=23 \\| pages\\=2150–8 \\| issn\\=0028\\-4793 \\| doi\\=10\\.1056/nejmoa2200587 \\| pmid\\=36351280 \\| s2cid\\=253444841 \\| doi\\-access\\=free \\| pmc\\=10794051 }}{{cite web \\| title\\=Rare, deadly genetic disease successfully treated in utero for first time \\| website\\=CTVNews \\| date\\=November 9, 2022 \\| url\\=https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/rare\\-deadly\\-genetic\\-disease\\-successfully\\-treated\\-in\\-utero\\-for\\-first\\-time\\-1\\.6146283 \\| access\\-date\\=November 10, 2022}} {{cite news \\|last1\\=Kolata \\|first1\\=Gina \\|title\\=The Disease Took Zara, Then Sara. Could Ayla Be Saved? \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=November 9, 2022 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/09/health/pompe\\-disease\\-treatment.html \\|access\\-date\\=26 November 2023}}",
""
] |
Coaching career
---------------
Upon his retirement from professional baseball, Sullivan began his coaching career as a football coach at Jane Long Middle School in Houston. Sullivan became an assistant football, baseball, and basketball coach at [Bellaire High School](/wiki/Bellaire_High_School_%28Bellaire%2C_Texas%29 "Bellaire High School (Bellaire, Texas)") before moving to [Westbury High School](/wiki/Westbury_High_School_%28Houston%2C_Texas%29 "Westbury High School (Houston, Texas)") where Sullivan was an assistant football coach and the head baseball coach. Sullivan ultimately returned to Bellaire High School as the head football coach. Sullivan also served a scout for the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies "Philadelphia Phillies") where, among other players, he scouted [Nolan Ryan](/wiki/Nolan_Ryan "Nolan Ryan").
Sullivan returned to Baylor in 1969 as the freshman football coach.{{cite web\|title\=2006 Baylor Football Media Guide\|url\=http://grfx.cstv.com/photos/schools/bay/sports/m\-footbl/auto\_pdf/mg06\-sect09\.pdf\|publisher\=Baylor University\|accessdate\=29 April 2012\|archive\-date\=21 February 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221200705/http://grfx.cstv.com/photos/schools/bay/sports/m\-footbl/auto\_pdf/mg06\-sect09\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} In 1972, [Grant Teaff](/wiki/Grant_Teaff "Grant Teaff") promoted Sullivan to recruiting coordinator, a position he held until 1978\.
In 1974, Sullivan became [Baylor Bears baseball](/wiki/Baylor_Bears_baseball "Baylor Bears baseball")'s 17th head coach, a position he would hold for the next 21 seasons. Sullivan endured just three losing seasons over those 21 years, leading Baylor to three [Southwest Conference](/wiki/Southwest_Conference "Southwest Conference") tournament championships and back\-to\-back trips to the [College World Series](/wiki/College_World_Series "College World Series") in [1977](/wiki/1977_College_World_Series "1977 College World Series") and [1978](/wiki/1978_College_World_Series "1978 College World Series"). In addition to 1977 and 1978, Sullivan also led Baylor to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_Baseball_Championship "NCAA Division I Baseball Championship") in [1991](/wiki/1991_NCAA_Division_I_baseball_tournament "1991 NCAA Division I baseball tournament") and [1993](/wiki/1993_NCAA_Division_I_baseball_tournament "1993 NCAA Division I baseball tournament").
Sullivan coached thirty\-one players who were selected in the [Major League Baseball Draft](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_Draft "Major League Baseball Draft"), including four who were selected in the first round: [Jon Perlman](/wiki/Jon_Perlman "Jon Perlman") ([1979](/wiki/1979_Major_League_Baseball_Draft "1979 Major League Baseball Draft")), [Stan Hilton](/wiki/Stan_Hilton "Stan Hilton") ([1983](/wiki/1983_Major_League_Baseball_Draft "1983 Major League Baseball Draft")), [Pat Combs](/wiki/Pat_Combs "Pat Combs") ([1988](/wiki/1988_Major_League_Baseball_Draft "1988 Major League Baseball Draft")), and [Scott Ruffcorn](/wiki/Scott_Ruffcorn "Scott Ruffcorn") ([1991](/wiki/1991_Major_League_Baseball_Draft "1991 Major League Baseball Draft")).
Sullivan coached ten players who went on to play [Major League Baseball](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball "Major League Baseball"): [Steve Macko](/wiki/Steve_Macko "Steve Macko"), Perlman, [Andy Beene](/wiki/Andy_Beene "Andy Beene"), [Fritzie Connally](/wiki/Fritzie_Connally "Fritzie Connally"), [Lee Tunnell](/wiki/Lee_Tunnell "Lee Tunnell"), [Ken Patterson](/wiki/Ken_Patterson "Ken Patterson"), [Blaine Beatty](/wiki/Blaine_Beatty "Blaine Beatty"), Combs, Ruffcorn, and [Dean Crow](/wiki/Dean_Crow "Dean Crow").
On April 17, 2012, [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28baseball_coach%29 "Steve Smith (baseball coach)") broke Sullivan's Baylor all\-sports' record of 649 career victories.{{cite news\|last\=DeVries\|first\=Greg\|title\=Baseball head coach leaving his mark on BU history\|url\=http://baylorlariat.com/2012/04/20/baseball\-head\-coach\-leaving\-his\-mark\-on\-bu\-history/\|accessdate\=5 May 2012\|newspaper\=Baylor Lariat\|date\=April 20, 2012}}
|
[
"Coaching career\n---------------",
"Upon his retirement from professional baseball, Sullivan began his coaching career as a football coach at Jane Long Middle School in Houston. Sullivan became an assistant football, baseball, and basketball coach at [Bellaire High School](/wiki/Bellaire_High_School_%28Bellaire%2C_Texas%29 \"Bellaire High School (Bellaire, Texas)\") before moving to [Westbury High School](/wiki/Westbury_High_School_%28Houston%2C_Texas%29 \"Westbury High School (Houston, Texas)\") where Sullivan was an assistant football coach and the head baseball coach. Sullivan ultimately returned to Bellaire High School as the head football coach. Sullivan also served a scout for the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies \"Philadelphia Phillies\") where, among other players, he scouted [Nolan Ryan](/wiki/Nolan_Ryan \"Nolan Ryan\").",
"Sullivan returned to Baylor in 1969 as the freshman football coach.{{cite web\\|title\\=2006 Baylor Football Media Guide\\|url\\=http://grfx.cstv.com/photos/schools/bay/sports/m\\-footbl/auto\\_pdf/mg06\\-sect09\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=Baylor University\\|accessdate\\=29 April 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221200705/http://grfx.cstv.com/photos/schools/bay/sports/m\\-footbl/auto\\_pdf/mg06\\-sect09\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In 1972, [Grant Teaff](/wiki/Grant_Teaff \"Grant Teaff\") promoted Sullivan to recruiting coordinator, a position he held until 1978\\.",
"In 1974, Sullivan became [Baylor Bears baseball](/wiki/Baylor_Bears_baseball \"Baylor Bears baseball\")'s 17th head coach, a position he would hold for the next 21 seasons. Sullivan endured just three losing seasons over those 21 years, leading Baylor to three [Southwest Conference](/wiki/Southwest_Conference \"Southwest Conference\") tournament championships and back\\-to\\-back trips to the [College World Series](/wiki/College_World_Series \"College World Series\") in [1977](/wiki/1977_College_World_Series \"1977 College World Series\") and [1978](/wiki/1978_College_World_Series \"1978 College World Series\"). In addition to 1977 and 1978, Sullivan also led Baylor to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_Baseball_Championship \"NCAA Division I Baseball Championship\") in [1991](/wiki/1991_NCAA_Division_I_baseball_tournament \"1991 NCAA Division I baseball tournament\") and [1993](/wiki/1993_NCAA_Division_I_baseball_tournament \"1993 NCAA Division I baseball tournament\").",
"Sullivan coached thirty\\-one players who were selected in the [Major League Baseball Draft](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_Draft \"Major League Baseball Draft\"), including four who were selected in the first round: [Jon Perlman](/wiki/Jon_Perlman \"Jon Perlman\") ([1979](/wiki/1979_Major_League_Baseball_Draft \"1979 Major League Baseball Draft\")), [Stan Hilton](/wiki/Stan_Hilton \"Stan Hilton\") ([1983](/wiki/1983_Major_League_Baseball_Draft \"1983 Major League Baseball Draft\")), [Pat Combs](/wiki/Pat_Combs \"Pat Combs\") ([1988](/wiki/1988_Major_League_Baseball_Draft \"1988 Major League Baseball Draft\")), and [Scott Ruffcorn](/wiki/Scott_Ruffcorn \"Scott Ruffcorn\") ([1991](/wiki/1991_Major_League_Baseball_Draft \"1991 Major League Baseball Draft\")).",
"Sullivan coached ten players who went on to play [Major League Baseball](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball \"Major League Baseball\"): [Steve Macko](/wiki/Steve_Macko \"Steve Macko\"), Perlman, [Andy Beene](/wiki/Andy_Beene \"Andy Beene\"), [Fritzie Connally](/wiki/Fritzie_Connally \"Fritzie Connally\"), [Lee Tunnell](/wiki/Lee_Tunnell \"Lee Tunnell\"), [Ken Patterson](/wiki/Ken_Patterson \"Ken Patterson\"), [Blaine Beatty](/wiki/Blaine_Beatty \"Blaine Beatty\"), Combs, Ruffcorn, and [Dean Crow](/wiki/Dean_Crow \"Dean Crow\").",
"On April 17, 2012, [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28baseball_coach%29 \"Steve Smith (baseball coach)\") broke Sullivan's Baylor all\\-sports' record of 649 career victories.{{cite news\\|last\\=DeVries\\|first\\=Greg\\|title\\=Baseball head coach leaving his mark on BU history\\|url\\=http://baylorlariat.com/2012/04/20/baseball\\-head\\-coach\\-leaving\\-his\\-mark\\-on\\-bu\\-history/\\|accessdate\\=5 May 2012\\|newspaper\\=Baylor Lariat\\|date\\=April 20, 2012}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
After touring factory locations in [Mansfield, Ohio](/wiki/Mansfield%2C_Ohio "Mansfield, Ohio") for her father's company, [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong")\-based Zhang Innovations, Daya Zhang and her entourage are abducted by terrorists despite her bodyguard and head of security Bao Yung attempting to fight them off. The kidnappers leave Yung unconscious with a [USB flash drive](/wiki/USB_flash_drive "USB flash drive") addressed to security expert Ray Breslin.
In [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), Breslin crosses paths with Shen Lo, a former Zhang Innovations bodyguard. Both men are after Daya's father Wu Zhang, whose company is responsible for building covert prisons around the world. They meet with Breslin's associates – his girlfriend Abigail, Hush, and Jules – when Yung arrives with the flash drive. It contains a video message from Lester Clark, Jr., Daya's kidnapper and the son of Breslin's former partner; in business with Zhang, [Lester, Sr. betrayed Breslin and was sent to his death](/wiki/Escape_Plan_%28film%29 "Escape Plan (film)").
Breslin reaches out to Trent DeRosa, an associate, and they trace the video to a prison compound in [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia") known as “Devil's Station”. Abigail is also abducted, and Wu, having arrived in Mansfield to meet with police, receives a video call from Lester. Seeking revenge for his father's downfall, Lester demands a $700 million ransom, and executes a hostage. Breslin, DeRosa, Jules, Shen, and Yung depart for Latvia to rescue Daya and Abigail.
When Lester threatens the prisoners and kills a hostage, Wong, Zhang Innovations' technology analyst, agrees to give him access to Zhang's technology. Hush surveils the prison by [drone](/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle "Unmanned aerial vehicle"), and its [thermal imaging camera](/wiki/Thermal_imaging_camera "Thermal imaging camera") reveals Lester has created his own [black site](/wiki/Black_site "Black site"). Breslin infiltrates the compound through the sewers while Shen and Yung approach the outer walls. Alerted to their presence, Lester leaves Daya atop the wall as bait. Realizing Lester is leading them into a trap, Shen tries to hold position and wait for Breslin, but Yung charges recklessly ahead, and he and Shen are subdued by [land mines](/wiki/Land_mine "Land mine") and kidnapped. Lester reveals that the flash drive was a tracker that led his men to Abigail, and deduces that Shen and Daya are in love. He shoots Yung and taunts Breslin by video call before slit Abigail's neck with knife
Breslin proceeds through the compound, killing several of Lester's henchmen. Shen steals a guard's [stun gun](/wiki/Electroshock_weapon "Electroshock weapon") as he is taken to the cells, using it to start a fire; he melts his restraints and subdues the terrorist in the smoke. He frees Daya, but they are confronted by more terrorists. DeRosa arrives, killing the terrorists with [incendiary rounds](/wiki/Dragon%27s_breath_%28ammunition%29 "Dragon's breath (ammunition)"). In the ensuing chaos, Shen kills Lester's remaining henchman Silva in a hand\-to\-hand fight, while rescuing Wong. Trapped in a shootout with Lester in the upper cells, Breslin is wounded and disarmed, but manages to overpower Lester before slit his neck with knife and pushing him off balcony, avenging Abigail.
Returning to Mansfield, Daya coldly greets her father, now aware of the true nature of his business, before leaving with Shen. DeRosa comforts Breslin over Abigail's death, urging him to forgive himself, while at the same time persuading Breslin to join him in South America; claiming that Breslin owes him one and Breslin decides to retire.
During the ending credits, Yung is revealed to have survived but heavily wounded. He is seen crawling and stumbling through the sewers and proceeds to escape by himself.
Breslin wearing security overalls, carrying a semi automatic weapon, drops through a central shaft from the ceiling into the tunnel sewers, just moments after Yung had already been seen arriving into the same tunnel from a side shaft, seemingly stalking Yung.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"After touring factory locations in [Mansfield, Ohio](/wiki/Mansfield%2C_Ohio \"Mansfield, Ohio\") for her father's company, [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\")\\-based Zhang Innovations, Daya Zhang and her entourage are abducted by terrorists despite her bodyguard and head of security Bao Yung attempting to fight them off. The kidnappers leave Yung unconscious with a [USB flash drive](/wiki/USB_flash_drive \"USB flash drive\") addressed to security expert Ray Breslin.",
"In [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), Breslin crosses paths with Shen Lo, a former Zhang Innovations bodyguard. Both men are after Daya's father Wu Zhang, whose company is responsible for building covert prisons around the world. They meet with Breslin's associates – his girlfriend Abigail, Hush, and Jules – when Yung arrives with the flash drive. It contains a video message from Lester Clark, Jr., Daya's kidnapper and the son of Breslin's former partner; in business with Zhang, [Lester, Sr. betrayed Breslin and was sent to his death](/wiki/Escape_Plan_%28film%29 \"Escape Plan (film)\").",
"Breslin reaches out to Trent DeRosa, an associate, and they trace the video to a prison compound in [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\") known as “Devil's Station”. Abigail is also abducted, and Wu, having arrived in Mansfield to meet with police, receives a video call from Lester. Seeking revenge for his father's downfall, Lester demands a $700 million ransom, and executes a hostage. Breslin, DeRosa, Jules, Shen, and Yung depart for Latvia to rescue Daya and Abigail.",
"When Lester threatens the prisoners and kills a hostage, Wong, Zhang Innovations' technology analyst, agrees to give him access to Zhang's technology. Hush surveils the prison by [drone](/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle \"Unmanned aerial vehicle\"), and its [thermal imaging camera](/wiki/Thermal_imaging_camera \"Thermal imaging camera\") reveals Lester has created his own [black site](/wiki/Black_site \"Black site\"). Breslin infiltrates the compound through the sewers while Shen and Yung approach the outer walls. Alerted to their presence, Lester leaves Daya atop the wall as bait. Realizing Lester is leading them into a trap, Shen tries to hold position and wait for Breslin, but Yung charges recklessly ahead, and he and Shen are subdued by [land mines](/wiki/Land_mine \"Land mine\") and kidnapped. Lester reveals that the flash drive was a tracker that led his men to Abigail, and deduces that Shen and Daya are in love. He shoots Yung and taunts Breslin by video call before slit Abigail's neck with knife",
"Breslin proceeds through the compound, killing several of Lester's henchmen. Shen steals a guard's [stun gun](/wiki/Electroshock_weapon \"Electroshock weapon\") as he is taken to the cells, using it to start a fire; he melts his restraints and subdues the terrorist in the smoke. He frees Daya, but they are confronted by more terrorists. DeRosa arrives, killing the terrorists with [incendiary rounds](/wiki/Dragon%27s_breath_%28ammunition%29 \"Dragon's breath (ammunition)\"). In the ensuing chaos, Shen kills Lester's remaining henchman Silva in a hand\\-to\\-hand fight, while rescuing Wong. Trapped in a shootout with Lester in the upper cells, Breslin is wounded and disarmed, but manages to overpower Lester before slit his neck with knife and pushing him off balcony, avenging Abigail.",
"Returning to Mansfield, Daya coldly greets her father, now aware of the true nature of his business, before leaving with Shen. DeRosa comforts Breslin over Abigail's death, urging him to forgive himself, while at the same time persuading Breslin to join him in South America; claiming that Breslin owes him one and Breslin decides to retire.",
"During the ending credits, Yung is revealed to have survived but heavily wounded. He is seen crawling and stumbling through the sewers and proceeds to escape by himself.",
"Breslin wearing security overalls, carrying a semi automatic weapon, drops through a central shaft from the ceiling into the tunnel sewers, just moments after Yung had already been seen arriving into the same tunnel from a side shaft, seemingly stalking Yung.",
""
] |
Global level
------------
### United Nations Member States
In its resolution 64/134, the [UN General Assembly](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly "United Nations General Assembly") decided "to organize under the auspices of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") a world youth conference as the highlight of the Year" and invited "the President of the General Assembly to conduct open\-ended information consultations with Member States with a view of determining the modalities of the conference, which is to be funded by voluntary contributions."
In April 2010, H.E. Mr Jean\-Francis Régis Zinsou, the Permanent Representative of the Republic of [Benin](/wiki/Benin "Benin"), agreed to serve as Facilitator for the consultations on the organization of the conference to be held in 2011\. Consultations of the General Assembly began in May 2010\.
### United Nations System
In addition to the UN conference on youth, the UN is coordinating its efforts to celebrate and promote International Year of Youth. The United Nations Inter\-Agency Network on Youth Development is coordinating the activities of the UN system for the International Year of Youth, with the UN Programme on Youth leading this effort. The United Nations Inter\-Agency Network on Youth Development works to increase the effectiveness of UN work in youth development by strengthening collaboration and exchange among all UN entities working on youth.
Members of the Network adopted the UN Framework Approach for the International Year of Youth{{Cite web\|url\=http://social.un.org/youthyear/unapproach.shtml\|title\=United Nations Framework Approach – International Year of Youth (IYY) August 2010\-2011\|publisher\=United Nations\|access\-date\=2018\-08\-06}} in February 2010, to provide a concrete framework for collective efforts and to set the strategic objectives for the Year. The Framework identifies three key objectives and provides specific actions essential to implement the objectives, which are:
**1\. Create Awareness: increase commitment and investment in youth**
* Increase recognition of youth development as a smart investment by the [public](/wiki/Public_sector "Public sector") and [private sectors](/wiki/Private_sector "Private sector");
* Advocate for the recognition of young people's contributions to national and [community development](/wiki/Community_development "Community development") and to achieving the Millennium Development Goals;
* Promote understanding of inequalities amongst youth and how to effectively address the needs of the most disadvantaged;
* Foster research and knowledge building on youth to better inform youth policies and programmes.
**2\. Mobilize and Engage: increase youth participation and partnerships**
* Institutionalize mechanisms for youth participation in decision\-making processes;
* Support youth\-led organizations and initiatives to enhance their contribution to society;
* Strengthen networks and partnerships among Governments, youth\-led organizations, [academia](/wiki/Academia "Academia"), civil society organizations, the private sector, the media and the UN system, to enhance commitment and support for holistic youth development.
**3\. Connect and Build Bridges: increase intercultural understanding among youth**
* Promote youth interactions, networks and partnerships across cultures;
* Empower and support youth as agents of [social inclusion](/wiki/Social_inclusion "Social inclusion") and peace.
The progress achieved during the Year will lay the foundation for further work in youth development, including the implementation of the World Programme of Action for Youth and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. The Framework has been disseminated to the UN system, including to Regional Commissions and Country Teams. Organizations celebrating the Year are invited to use the Framework to guide their activities.
### History of Youth at the United Nations
In 1965, United Nations Members States first acknowledged that the contribution of young people – defined by the United Nations as those between the ages of 15 and 24 years – is essential for the development of society when they endorsed the "Declaration on the Promotion among Youth of the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and Understanding between Peoples".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.un\-documents.net/a20r2037\.htm\|title\=A/RES/20/2037 \- Declaration on the Promotion Among Youth of the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and Understanding Between Peoples \- UN Documents Cooperation Circles\|website\=www.un\-documents.net\|access\-date\=2018\-08\-06}}
Twenty years later, the General Assembly observed the year 1985 as the "first [International Youth Year](/wiki/International_Youth_Year "International Youth Year"): Participation, Development and Peace". In 1995, Member States strengthened their commitment to young people by adopting the "World Programme of Action for Youth (WPAY)", which provides a policy framework and practical guidelines for national action and international support to improve the situation of young people by increasing their access to opportunities for constructive participation in society.
In 2007, the General Assembly expanded upon the WPAY by adopting additional issue areas, bringing the total to fifteen areas of priority focus which are: education, [employment](/wiki/Employment "Employment"), hunger and poverty, health, [environment](/wiki/Environment_%28biophysical%29 "Environment (biophysical)"), [drug abuse](/wiki/Drug_abuse "Drug abuse"), juvenile delinquency, leisure\-time activities, girls and young women, participation, [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization"), information and communications technologies, [HIV](/wiki/HIV "HIV")/[AIDS](/wiki/AIDS "AIDS"), youth and [conflict](/wiki/Conflict_%28process%29 "Conflict (process)"), and inter\-generational relations.
|
[
"Global level\n------------",
"### United Nations Member States",
"In its resolution 64/134, the [UN General Assembly](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly \"United Nations General Assembly\") decided \"to organize under the auspices of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") a world youth conference as the highlight of the Year\" and invited \"the President of the General Assembly to conduct open\\-ended information consultations with Member States with a view of determining the modalities of the conference, which is to be funded by voluntary contributions.\"",
"In April 2010, H.E. Mr Jean\\-Francis Régis Zinsou, the Permanent Representative of the Republic of [Benin](/wiki/Benin \"Benin\"), agreed to serve as Facilitator for the consultations on the organization of the conference to be held in 2011\\. Consultations of the General Assembly began in May 2010\\.",
"### United Nations System",
"In addition to the UN conference on youth, the UN is coordinating its efforts to celebrate and promote International Year of Youth. The United Nations Inter\\-Agency Network on Youth Development is coordinating the activities of the UN system for the International Year of Youth, with the UN Programme on Youth leading this effort. The United Nations Inter\\-Agency Network on Youth Development works to increase the effectiveness of UN work in youth development by strengthening collaboration and exchange among all UN entities working on youth.",
"Members of the Network adopted the UN Framework Approach for the International Year of Youth{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://social.un.org/youthyear/unapproach.shtml\\|title\\=United Nations Framework Approach – International Year of Youth (IYY) August 2010\\-2011\\|publisher\\=United Nations\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-06}} in February 2010, to provide a concrete framework for collective efforts and to set the strategic objectives for the Year. The Framework identifies three key objectives and provides specific actions essential to implement the objectives, which are:",
"**1\\. Create Awareness: increase commitment and investment in youth**\n* Increase recognition of youth development as a smart investment by the [public](/wiki/Public_sector \"Public sector\") and [private sectors](/wiki/Private_sector \"Private sector\");\n* Advocate for the recognition of young people's contributions to national and [community development](/wiki/Community_development \"Community development\") and to achieving the Millennium Development Goals;\n* Promote understanding of inequalities amongst youth and how to effectively address the needs of the most disadvantaged;\n* Foster research and knowledge building on youth to better inform youth policies and programmes.",
"**2\\. Mobilize and Engage: increase youth participation and partnerships**\n* Institutionalize mechanisms for youth participation in decision\\-making processes;\n* Support youth\\-led organizations and initiatives to enhance their contribution to society;\n* Strengthen networks and partnerships among Governments, youth\\-led organizations, [academia](/wiki/Academia \"Academia\"), civil society organizations, the private sector, the media and the UN system, to enhance commitment and support for holistic youth development.",
"**3\\. Connect and Build Bridges: increase intercultural understanding among youth**\n* Promote youth interactions, networks and partnerships across cultures;\n* Empower and support youth as agents of [social inclusion](/wiki/Social_inclusion \"Social inclusion\") and peace.",
"The progress achieved during the Year will lay the foundation for further work in youth development, including the implementation of the World Programme of Action for Youth and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. The Framework has been disseminated to the UN system, including to Regional Commissions and Country Teams. Organizations celebrating the Year are invited to use the Framework to guide their activities.",
"### History of Youth at the United Nations",
"In 1965, United Nations Members States first acknowledged that the contribution of young people – defined by the United Nations as those between the ages of 15 and 24 years – is essential for the development of society when they endorsed the \"Declaration on the Promotion among Youth of the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and Understanding between Peoples\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.un\\-documents.net/a20r2037\\.htm\\|title\\=A/RES/20/2037 \\- Declaration on the Promotion Among Youth of the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and Understanding Between Peoples \\- UN Documents Cooperation Circles\\|website\\=www.un\\-documents.net\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-06}}",
"Twenty years later, the General Assembly observed the year 1985 as the \"first [International Youth Year](/wiki/International_Youth_Year \"International Youth Year\"): Participation, Development and Peace\". In 1995, Member States strengthened their commitment to young people by adopting the \"World Programme of Action for Youth (WPAY)\", which provides a policy framework and practical guidelines for national action and international support to improve the situation of young people by increasing their access to opportunities for constructive participation in society.",
"In 2007, the General Assembly expanded upon the WPAY by adopting additional issue areas, bringing the total to fifteen areas of priority focus which are: education, [employment](/wiki/Employment \"Employment\"), hunger and poverty, health, [environment](/wiki/Environment_%28biophysical%29 \"Environment (biophysical)\"), [drug abuse](/wiki/Drug_abuse \"Drug abuse\"), juvenile delinquency, leisure\\-time activities, girls and young women, participation, [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\"), information and communications technologies, [HIV](/wiki/HIV \"HIV\")/[AIDS](/wiki/AIDS \"AIDS\"), youth and [conflict](/wiki/Conflict_%28process%29 \"Conflict (process)\"), and inter\\-generational relations.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|right\|250px\|The Château de Noirmoutier by night in 2007](/wiki/Image:Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Noirmoutier_de_nuit.jpg "Château de Noirmoutier de nuit.jpg")
The first traces of the castle appeared in 830 with the construction of a *castrum* by the abbot Hilbold, from the monastery of Saint\-Philbert. It served to defend the monks and the island's population from the [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings "Vikings").
The castle was rebuilt in stone in the 12th century by the feudal power who was trying to stabilise the region, notably by preventing [Norman](/wiki/Normans "Normans") pillaging. The island at that time was under the control of the barons of [La Garnache](/wiki/La_Garnache "La Garnache"). The keep was built by Pierre IV of La Garnache, then an enclosure equipped with towers was built around the lower courtyard.
In the 16th century, the castle was held by the [La Trémoille](/wiki/La_Tr%C3%A9moille "La Trémoille") family, then [viscounts of Thouars](/wiki/Viscounts_of_Thouars "Viscounts of Thouars").
The castle resisted numerous attacks:
* the English in 1342 and 1360, and again in 1386 under the command of the [Earl of Arundel](/wiki/Richard_FitzAlan%2C_11th_Earl_of_Arundel "Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel")
* the Spanish in 1524 and 1588
but in 1674, it was taken by the Dutch troops of Admiral [Cornelis Tromp](/wiki/Cornelis_Tromp "Cornelis Tromp").
The castle was sold in 1720 to [Louis IV Henri de Bourbon\-Condé](/wiki/Louis_Henri%2C_Duc_de_Bourbon "Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon"), who resold it in 1767 to [Louis XV](/wiki/Louis_XV "Louis XV").
During the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution"), the castle was used as a military prison. During the 19th century, it was used as a barracks. In 1871, during the [Paris Commune](/wiki/Paris_Commune "Paris Commune"), insurgents were imprisoned there.
The castle was used to intern German nationals during the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War").{{cite book \|author\=M. Stibbe \|title\=Civilian Internment during the First World War \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|location\=London \|page\=87}}
In 1960, a house was built within the castle grounds by the governor of the island and the castle. Today, the keep houses the Noirmoutier Museum.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|The Château de Noirmoutier by night in 2007](/wiki/Image:Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Noirmoutier_de_nuit.jpg \"Château de Noirmoutier de nuit.jpg\")\nThe first traces of the castle appeared in 830 with the construction of a *castrum* by the abbot Hilbold, from the monastery of Saint\\-Philbert. It served to defend the monks and the island's population from the [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings \"Vikings\").",
"The castle was rebuilt in stone in the 12th century by the feudal power who was trying to stabilise the region, notably by preventing [Norman](/wiki/Normans \"Normans\") pillaging. The island at that time was under the control of the barons of [La Garnache](/wiki/La_Garnache \"La Garnache\"). The keep was built by Pierre IV of La Garnache, then an enclosure equipped with towers was built around the lower courtyard.",
"In the 16th century, the castle was held by the [La Trémoille](/wiki/La_Tr%C3%A9moille \"La Trémoille\") family, then [viscounts of Thouars](/wiki/Viscounts_of_Thouars \"Viscounts of Thouars\").",
"The castle resisted numerous attacks:\n* the English in 1342 and 1360, and again in 1386 under the command of the [Earl of Arundel](/wiki/Richard_FitzAlan%2C_11th_Earl_of_Arundel \"Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel\")\n* the Spanish in 1524 and 1588\nbut in 1674, it was taken by the Dutch troops of Admiral [Cornelis Tromp](/wiki/Cornelis_Tromp \"Cornelis Tromp\").",
"The castle was sold in 1720 to [Louis IV Henri de Bourbon\\-Condé](/wiki/Louis_Henri%2C_Duc_de_Bourbon \"Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon\"), who resold it in 1767 to [Louis XV](/wiki/Louis_XV \"Louis XV\").",
"During the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\"), the castle was used as a military prison. During the 19th century, it was used as a barracks. In 1871, during the [Paris Commune](/wiki/Paris_Commune \"Paris Commune\"), insurgents were imprisoned there.",
"The castle was used to intern German nationals during the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\").{{cite book \\|author\\=M. Stibbe \\|title\\=Civilian Internment during the First World War \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|location\\=London \\|page\\=87}}",
"In 1960, a house was built within the castle grounds by the governor of the island and the castle. Today, the keep houses the Noirmoutier Museum.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Tanny was born into an [Italian](/wiki/Italians "Italians") family in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York"). His father was a tailor.Jonathan Black, *Making the American Body: The Remarkable Saga of the Men and Women whose Feats, Feuds, and Passions Shaped Fitness History* (Lincoln \& London: University of Nebraska Press, 2013\), [p 36](https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q2RAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36). Amid [anti\-Italian sentiment](/wiki/Anti-Italianism "Anti-Italianism") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), some of his family members legally shortened the surname, *Iannidinardo*, to *Ianni*. From this, Victor made a new surname, *Tanny*.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1985\-06\-12\-me\-6136\-story.html \|first\=Burt A. \|last\=Folkart \|title\=Vic Tanny, first big gym chain developer, dies \|newspaper\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|date\=12 June 1985}}
In 1935, while a full\-time school teacher, Tanny opened his first fitness club. Located in his parents' Rochester garage, the gym uniquely had carpeting, bright colors, and background music. In 1939, he closed that gym, which had done poorly, moved west, and, for a teaching degree, attended the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California "University of Southern California").Jonathan Black, *Making the American Body* (U of Nebraska Press, 2013\), [p 37](https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q2RAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37).
Tanny's younger brother, [Armand Tanny](/wiki/Armand_Tanny "Armand Tanny"), had also moved west in 1939\. That year, the two emptied their joint bank account of its $500, borrowed another $200, and opened their first gym, West Coast Tanny, near [Santa Monica Beach](/wiki/Santa_Monica_Beach "Santa Monica Beach"). Two more locations—one in [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California "Long Beach, California"), and one on [Wilshire Boulevard](/wiki/Wilshire_Boulevard "Wilshire Boulevard")—opened in 1941\. The war dwindled gym users, and both new locations soon closed.
During the postwar resurgence in gym users, Tanny's gym entered a new location, a former [USO](/wiki/USO "USO") facility of 7,000 square feet, in Santa Monica, "and it soon became the hub of every famous [Muscle Beach](/wiki/Muscle_Beach "Muscle Beach") regular, including [Reeves](/wiki/Steve_Reeves "Steve Reeves"), [Eiferman](/wiki/George_Eiferman "George Eiferman"), and future gym heavyweight [Joe Gold](/wiki/Joe_Gold "Joe Gold")". Of the Tanny brothers, it was Armand with the physique to compete among the bodybuilding elite.
Vic Tanny aggressively expanded, geographically and [demographically](/wiki/Demographic "Demographic"). Earlier gyms invited mostly three, mutually exclusive types—either bodybuilders, housewives, or celebrities—whereas Tanny's were widely inviting. Some had [bowling alleys](/wiki/Bowling_alley "Bowling alley"), with a new invention, the automatic pin setter. Many had movie screens and ballet classes. Some were Swiss [chalets](/wiki/Chalet "Chalet") with [skating rinks](/wiki/Ice_rink "Ice rink"), or had [palm trees](/wiki/Palm_tree "Palm tree") behind glass walls.
Tanny's vision was, as now understood, "less perspiration than aspiration, and Tanny was anointed the era's dream maker". The hardcover magazine *[Wisdom](/wiki/Wisdom:The_Magazine_of_Knowledge_for_All_America "The Magazine of Knowledge for All America")*, following issues that featured [Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein "Albert Einstein"), [Disney](/wiki/Walt_Disney "Walt Disney"), and [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus "Jesus"), placed Tanny on its December 1961 cover. Yet Tanny's excesses—gilding one gym in real gold, even down to plating the barbells and dumbbells—brought parodies of Tanny and of his gyms to media.
Vic Tanny Centers flourished from the 1950s through the early 1960s, attaining some 100 locations in the U.S. and Canada. Tanny also pioneered the *annual membership*,Jonathan Black, *Making the American Body* (U of Nebraska Press, 2013\), [p 38](https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q2RAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38). and offered a *budget plan* to draw working\-class families. Yet he demanded, of salespersons, sales tactics so aggressive that the [New York State Attorney General](/wiki/New_York_State_Attorney_General "New York State Attorney General") responded by imposing a fair\-practices code on all gyms.
New constraints on business fostered backfire of a Tanny strategy: maximize a location's membership, and offer expected revenue to borrow money to open a new location. In the 1960s, apparently by over\-expansion, poor management, and insufficient [capital](/wiki/Financial_capital "Financial capital"), the franchise entered [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy "Bankruptcy").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/12/us/vic\-tanny\-health\-club\-owner\-and\-body\-builder\-dies\-at\-73\.html \|title\=Vic Tanny, health club owner and body builder, dies at 73 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|date\=12 June 1985}} Tanny's centers closed or sold, some retaining his name. Others joined the [Bally Total Fitness](/wiki/Bally_Total_Fitness "Bally Total Fitness") network.[*International Directory of Company Histories*, Vol. 25](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Bally-Total-Fitness-Holding-Corp-Company-History.html) (St. James Press, 1999\).
During semi\-retirement in Florida, Tanny made a few, unsuccessful attempts to restore his brand.Jonathan Black, *Making the American Body* (U of Nebraska Press, 2013\), [p 39](https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q2RAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39). In 1985, at age 73, after a debilitating stroke, Tanny died of heart failure in [Tampa, Florida](/wiki/Tampa%2C_Florida "Tampa, Florida"). Although the earlier, traditional gyms might have eventually evolved similarly without him, Vic Tanny was a visionary—the other most arguably being [Jack LaLanne](/wiki/Jack_LaLanne "Jack LaLanne")Supposedly, Tanny's friend Jack LaLanne himself credited Tanny's gyms as the first with a modern, inviting style, including amenities such as mirrors and carpets.—who rapidly outmoded them and ushered in today's familiar, modern fitness club.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Tanny was born into an [Italian](/wiki/Italians \"Italians\") family in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\"). His father was a tailor.Jonathan Black, *Making the American Body: The Remarkable Saga of the Men and Women whose Feats, Feuds, and Passions Shaped Fitness History* (Lincoln \\& London: University of Nebraska Press, 2013\\), [p 36](https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q2RAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36). Amid [anti\\-Italian sentiment](/wiki/Anti-Italianism \"Anti-Italianism\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), some of his family members legally shortened the surname, *Iannidinardo*, to *Ianni*. From this, Victor made a new surname, *Tanny*.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1985\\-06\\-12\\-me\\-6136\\-story.html \\|first\\=Burt A. \\|last\\=Folkart \\|title\\=Vic Tanny, first big gym chain developer, dies \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|date\\=12 June 1985}}",
"In 1935, while a full\\-time school teacher, Tanny opened his first fitness club. Located in his parents' Rochester garage, the gym uniquely had carpeting, bright colors, and background music. In 1939, he closed that gym, which had done poorly, moved west, and, for a teaching degree, attended the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California \"University of Southern California\").Jonathan Black, *Making the American Body* (U of Nebraska Press, 2013\\), [p 37](https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q2RAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37).",
"Tanny's younger brother, [Armand Tanny](/wiki/Armand_Tanny \"Armand Tanny\"), had also moved west in 1939\\. That year, the two emptied their joint bank account of its $500, borrowed another $200, and opened their first gym, West Coast Tanny, near [Santa Monica Beach](/wiki/Santa_Monica_Beach \"Santa Monica Beach\"). Two more locations—one in [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California \"Long Beach, California\"), and one on [Wilshire Boulevard](/wiki/Wilshire_Boulevard \"Wilshire Boulevard\")—opened in 1941\\. The war dwindled gym users, and both new locations soon closed.",
"During the postwar resurgence in gym users, Tanny's gym entered a new location, a former [USO](/wiki/USO \"USO\") facility of 7,000 square feet, in Santa Monica, \"and it soon became the hub of every famous [Muscle Beach](/wiki/Muscle_Beach \"Muscle Beach\") regular, including [Reeves](/wiki/Steve_Reeves \"Steve Reeves\"), [Eiferman](/wiki/George_Eiferman \"George Eiferman\"), and future gym heavyweight [Joe Gold](/wiki/Joe_Gold \"Joe Gold\")\". Of the Tanny brothers, it was Armand with the physique to compete among the bodybuilding elite.",
"Vic Tanny aggressively expanded, geographically and [demographically](/wiki/Demographic \"Demographic\"). Earlier gyms invited mostly three, mutually exclusive types—either bodybuilders, housewives, or celebrities—whereas Tanny's were widely inviting. Some had [bowling alleys](/wiki/Bowling_alley \"Bowling alley\"), with a new invention, the automatic pin setter. Many had movie screens and ballet classes. Some were Swiss [chalets](/wiki/Chalet \"Chalet\") with [skating rinks](/wiki/Ice_rink \"Ice rink\"), or had [palm trees](/wiki/Palm_tree \"Palm tree\") behind glass walls.",
"Tanny's vision was, as now understood, \"less perspiration than aspiration, and Tanny was anointed the era's dream maker\". The hardcover magazine *[Wisdom](/wiki/Wisdom:The_Magazine_of_Knowledge_for_All_America \"The Magazine of Knowledge for All America\")*, following issues that featured [Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein \"Albert Einstein\"), [Disney](/wiki/Walt_Disney \"Walt Disney\"), and [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\"), placed Tanny on its December 1961 cover. Yet Tanny's excesses—gilding one gym in real gold, even down to plating the barbells and dumbbells—brought parodies of Tanny and of his gyms to media.",
"Vic Tanny Centers flourished from the 1950s through the early 1960s, attaining some 100 locations in the U.S. and Canada. Tanny also pioneered the *annual membership*,Jonathan Black, *Making the American Body* (U of Nebraska Press, 2013\\), [p 38](https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q2RAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38). and offered a *budget plan* to draw working\\-class families. Yet he demanded, of salespersons, sales tactics so aggressive that the [New York State Attorney General](/wiki/New_York_State_Attorney_General \"New York State Attorney General\") responded by imposing a fair\\-practices code on all gyms.",
"New constraints on business fostered backfire of a Tanny strategy: maximize a location's membership, and offer expected revenue to borrow money to open a new location. In the 1960s, apparently by over\\-expansion, poor management, and insufficient [capital](/wiki/Financial_capital \"Financial capital\"), the franchise entered [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy \"Bankruptcy\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/12/us/vic\\-tanny\\-health\\-club\\-owner\\-and\\-body\\-builder\\-dies\\-at\\-73\\.html \\|title\\=Vic Tanny, health club owner and body builder, dies at 73 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|date\\=12 June 1985}} Tanny's centers closed or sold, some retaining his name. Others joined the [Bally Total Fitness](/wiki/Bally_Total_Fitness \"Bally Total Fitness\") network.[*International Directory of Company Histories*, Vol. 25](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Bally-Total-Fitness-Holding-Corp-Company-History.html) (St. James Press, 1999\\).",
"During semi\\-retirement in Florida, Tanny made a few, unsuccessful attempts to restore his brand.Jonathan Black, *Making the American Body* (U of Nebraska Press, 2013\\), [p 39](https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q2RAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39). In 1985, at age 73, after a debilitating stroke, Tanny died of heart failure in [Tampa, Florida](/wiki/Tampa%2C_Florida \"Tampa, Florida\"). Although the earlier, traditional gyms might have eventually evolved similarly without him, Vic Tanny was a visionary—the other most arguably being [Jack LaLanne](/wiki/Jack_LaLanne \"Jack LaLanne\")Supposedly, Tanny's friend Jack LaLanne himself credited Tanny's gyms as the first with a modern, inviting style, including amenities such as mirrors and carpets.—who rapidly outmoded them and ushered in today's familiar, modern fitness club.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Origins
In 1981, three years into the start of his career, Bates began creating a band called **Humans**. He would continue with the band in parallel to his larger scale work with the big band [Loose Tubes](/wiki/Loose_Tubes "Loose Tubes"), and both bands would share personnel.
By 1983, the band name had morphed into **Human Chain**, a tribute to the number of musicians who had passed through the band. At this point the list of past members was drummer Dave Trigwell, trumpeter [John Eacott](/wiki/John_Eacott "John Eacott"), saxophonist [Mark Lockheart](/wiki/Mark_Lockheart "Mark Lockheart"), double bassists Mick Hutton and Steve Berry, flute player [Eddie Parker](/wiki/Eddie_Parker_%28musician%29 "Eddie Parker (musician)") and guitarist [John Parricelli](/wiki/John_Parricelli "John Parricelli")). Bates has also commented "I also liked the political implications of the name 'Human Chain': these were the Thatcher years and all kinds of people were forming human chains in order to demonstrate peacefully."
### Early albums and varying lineups (1986\-1990\)
By 1986, the project consisted of Bates plus drummer [Steve Arguelles](/wiki/Steve_Arguelles "Steve Arguelles"). It was this lineup which recorded the band's debut album, *Human Chain* which Bates would later describe as "fifteen folky miniatures."
For 1988's *[Cashin’ In](/wiki/Cashin%27_In_%28album%29 "Cashin' In (album)")* album, multi\-instrumentalist [Stuart Hall (musician)](/wiki/Stuart_Hall_%28musician%29 "Stuart Hall (musician)") joined the lineup, expanding the group's instrumentation and sonic potential. Bates remembers that "during performances in this trio formation, Stuart Hall would often make three instrument changes per tune, sometimes playing steel pan and piccolo flute simultaneously whilst unplugging a violin with his foot."
Over the next three years, the lineup continued to alter. Arguelles and Hall both left, saxophonist Steve Buckley arrived and the band also gained a permanent drummer, Martin France . At one point the band featured two bass players, Steve Watts and Tim Harries. Bates admits "Neither of them knew why they were both there. I didn't know either; I was still trying to find a band that could be really powerful without being macho, and could be really experimental without being bollocks."
Following the collapse of [Loose Tubes](/wiki/Loose_Tubes "Loose Tubes") in October 1990, Bates set up [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice "Delightful Precipice") to handle his large ensemble music and "set about sorting out Human Chain."
### Stabilising the lineup (1991\-1992\)
With Steve Watts having already departed, Tim Harries left Human Chain in September 1991 to join [Steeleye Span](/wiki/Steeleye_Span "Steeleye Span"). This left the remaining members (Bates, Buckley and France) without a bass player just before the start of a Human Chain tour of South America. Rather than use another of his Loose Tubes colleagues, Bates opted to audition another bass guitarist \- [Michael Mondesir](/wiki/Michael_Mondesir "Michael Mondesir"), brother of [Jazz Warriors](/wiki/Jazz_Warriors "Jazz Warriors") drummer [Mark Mondesir](/wiki/Mark_Mondesir "Mark Mondesir") and a collaborator with up\-and\-coming British pianist [Jason Rebello](/wiki/Jason_Rebello "Jason Rebello").
Bates recalls: "I drove to Lewisham to hear him playing with (Rebello). It was a really funky band and gave no clues as to what Michael would do to Human Chain's music. By the end of our tour, I knew... and I was very happy! Michael has an infectious fascination with all things rhythmic: he chewed through pieces like "Three Architects Called Gabrielle... Just What I Expected" with an extreme verve and assurance that forced the whole band to perform at a new level of energy." Mondesir has remained Bates’s bass player of choice ever since (and also plays with [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice "Delightful Precipice")).
The Bates\-Buckley\-Mondesir\-France lineup of Human Chain toured Chile, Colombia and Argentina in autumn 1991\. They subsequently recorded two pieces ("Three Architects Called Gabrielle" and "Up, Up") for a sampler CD called *Pyrotechnics*. All of the musicians featuring on this album were promised a deal with [Blue Note Records](/wiki/Blue_Note "Blue Note"). For Human Chain, this deal never arrived.
By 1992 Buckley had been replaced by Bates's usual saxophone foil, [Iain Ballamy](/wiki/Iain_Ballamy "Iain Ballamy"), and the long\-term quartet was complete. The band played at a number of festivals in Europe including the [Belfast International Festival](/wiki/Belfast_International_Festival "Belfast International Festival"), the [Delta International Jazz Festival](/wiki/Delta_International_Jazz_Festival "Delta International Jazz Festival") in the Hague in the Netherlands and the [Outside In International Contemporary Music Festival](/wiki/Outside_In_International_Contemporary_Music_Festival "Outside In International Contemporary Music Festival") in Crawley, UK.
Despite the band having achieved a steady and stable lineup, there would not be another Human Chain record. Instead, they would become Bates's most frequent musical outlet both live and on record, releasing all of their recorded output under Bates's name.
### Work as Bates’s main band (1991\-1998\)
Throughout the 1990s, Human Chain would be the band Bates most frequently played and toured with.
In 1993, Human Chain were the central performers on Bates's second album *Summer Fruits (And Unrest)*, playing four tracks as themselves and the remaining seven as the core of [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice "Delightful Precipice").
Also in 1993, Human Chain became involved in the innovative music\-theatre piece 'Out There', conceived and directed by Campbell Graham and written by Simon Black with music by Bates. 'Out There' toured on various dates between 1993 and 1995, performing at The Place, Riverside Studios, Manchester Royal Exchange, Tron Theatre, Glasgow International Jazz Festival. Working with a cast including [Jason Flemyng](/wiki/Jason_Flemyng "Jason Flemyng"), Human Chain provided the live music for the piece and also took on individual acting roles, most notably Bates playing "God" and Iain Ballamy playing "Steve the Prat".
In 1995, Human Chain were again the main performers on Bates's fourth album *Winter Truce (And Homes Blaze)*, this time playing five tracks as themselves and five within [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice "Delightful Precipice").
In 1996, Human Chain performed on Bates's fifth album, the classical/Third Stream\-inspired and predominantly orchestral *Good Evening... Here Is The News*. Human Chain played on four tracks accompanying the [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta "London Sinfonietta") and also performed one track by themselves (the bizarre "City In Euphoria/World In Chaos")
In 1998, Bates released his sixth album *Like Life*, which was connected to his winning of the 1997 Jazzpar Award and featured several new pieces plus revisitations of his back catalogue of compositions. Although most of the album was performed by Bates with the [Danish Radio Jazz Orchestra](/wiki/Danish_Radio_Jazz_Orchestra "Danish Radio Jazz Orchestra"), the other three Human Chain members also contributed as part of an altered lineup of Delightful Precipice.
### Quiet Nights (1998\-circa 2000\)
In 1998, Bates set up a new Anglo\-Swedish band called **Quiet Nights**, which consisted of the four members of Human Chain plus Swedish jazz singer [Josefine Cronsholm](/wiki/Josefine_Cronsholm "Josefine Cronsholm"). This band was to cover an area of jazz which Bates had previously shunned or mocked – songs which had become jazz standards. Bates had anticipated this new project with his infamous 1995 subversion of "New York, New York" (performed by Delightful Precipice and sung by Irish singer [Christine Tobin](/wiki/Christine_Tobin "Christine Tobin")). The Quiet Nights band was to approach the same territory and continue to subvert the original songs, but generally with a much more down\-tempo and peaceful approach.
In a 2008 interview with *All About Jazz*, Bates commented on his conversion to this kind of music as follows:
> "Back in the early 1990s I did a couple of records with a Norwegian singer, [Sidsel Endresen](/wiki/Sidsel_Endresen "Sidsel Endresen"). Doing them opened my ears to the possibilities of using a singer and words. It was almost like having an actor on stage, telling a story, rather than a singer in the traditional sense. Previously, I'd been put off the idea of jazz and singing together because there was certain style of doing that — very over the top, lots of vibrato —while I prefer something quite different, more natural.
Then a few years later, when I did the Jazzpar, and they asked me to put together a contrasting project, the first thing I saw when I went to gigs in Copenhagen was a student jam session. There was this girl who just sang a standard beautifully and then sat down—and all these males improvised for about an hour, all taking turns to solo kind of competitively, while she sat there quietly, like in a trance. Then when they finished she just got up and sang the song again. Something about that amused me and I was impressed by it.
After that, I got more interested in having the power of the human voice in my music. Because people had always said, "Yeah, I like your stuff, but it's kind of complicated, anybody who isn't a musician isn't going to be able to bear to listen to it." Maybe I'm exaggerating, but I got the impression that what I did was perceived as being quite muso orientated, and I found that a singer opened it out to more people."{{cite web \| url\=http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id\=29969\&pg\=3 \| title\=Django Bates: Spring Is Here (A Long Time Coming But Worth The Wait) \| work\=All About Jazz \| date\=14 July 2008 \| accessdate\=20 September 2009}}
Their recordings of these songs made up the seventh Django Bates album, released in 1998 and also called *Quiet Nights*. It featured reinventions of songs including "Somewhere Over The Rainbow", "Solitude" and "Hi\-Li\-Ho".
Quiet Nights would continue to tour and perform during the remainder of the 1990s, although Cronsholm left after the first tour to start a family. She was replaced by another Swedish jazz singer, [Josefine Lindstrand](/wiki/Josefine_Lindstrand "Josefine Lindstrand"), about whom Bates has commented "She's a quite different singer to Josefine Cronholm, more lively and right on the beat compared to the very relaxed thing we'd done on *Quiet Nights* with standards and ballads."
At an unspecified point during this time, Bates claims that Human Chain "*ate*" Quiet Nights. This appears to mean that the Quiet Nights project was reabsorbed into Human Chain activity with Lindstrand becoming a fifth member of the band, although it's not entirely clear whether she is a full member or a longstanding guest collaborator.
### Human Chain in the 21st century
From around 2000 onwards, Bates’ recorded output and live performances became rarer as he adapted to a shrinking British jazz scene. He began to concentrate more on composition, including large\-scale commissions for classical performers and ensembles. However, Human Chain remained Bates's main performance band, and appeared alongside [The Smith Quartet](/wiki/The_Smith_Quartet "The Smith Quartet") at the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale "Venice Biennale") in 2003\.
Human Chain was once again the core band on Bates's eighth album *You Live And Learn (Apparently)*, which was released on his own label Lost Marble Recordings in 2004\. Lindstrand was also a band member on the album which featured additional guest performances by [The Smith Quartet](/wiki/The_Smith_Quartet "The Smith Quartet"), saxophonist [David Sanborn](/wiki/David_Sanborn "David Sanborn") and guitarist [Jim Mullen](/wiki/Jim_Mullen "Jim Mullen"). Human Chain played at the Fuse 2004 music festival in Leeds (curated by Bates) to promote the record.
The band's work has diminished from 2005 onwards following Bates's employment as a professor at the [Rhythmic Music Conservatory](/wiki/Rhythmic_Music_Conservatory "Rhythmic Music Conservatory") in Copenhagen, Denmark. Ballamy, France, Mondesir and Lindstrand have all concentrated on different projects. However, the band remain formally active and reunited to record Bates's ninth album *Spring Is Here (Shall We Dance?)*, which was released in 2008\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Origins",
"In 1981, three years into the start of his career, Bates began creating a band called **Humans**. He would continue with the band in parallel to his larger scale work with the big band [Loose Tubes](/wiki/Loose_Tubes \"Loose Tubes\"), and both bands would share personnel.",
"By 1983, the band name had morphed into **Human Chain**, a tribute to the number of musicians who had passed through the band. At this point the list of past members was drummer Dave Trigwell, trumpeter [John Eacott](/wiki/John_Eacott \"John Eacott\"), saxophonist [Mark Lockheart](/wiki/Mark_Lockheart \"Mark Lockheart\"), double bassists Mick Hutton and Steve Berry, flute player [Eddie Parker](/wiki/Eddie_Parker_%28musician%29 \"Eddie Parker (musician)\") and guitarist [John Parricelli](/wiki/John_Parricelli \"John Parricelli\")). Bates has also commented \"I also liked the political implications of the name 'Human Chain': these were the Thatcher years and all kinds of people were forming human chains in order to demonstrate peacefully.\"",
"### Early albums and varying lineups (1986\\-1990\\)",
"By 1986, the project consisted of Bates plus drummer [Steve Arguelles](/wiki/Steve_Arguelles \"Steve Arguelles\"). It was this lineup which recorded the band's debut album, *Human Chain* which Bates would later describe as \"fifteen folky miniatures.\"",
"For 1988's *[Cashin’ In](/wiki/Cashin%27_In_%28album%29 \"Cashin' In (album)\")* album, multi\\-instrumentalist [Stuart Hall (musician)](/wiki/Stuart_Hall_%28musician%29 \"Stuart Hall (musician)\") joined the lineup, expanding the group's instrumentation and sonic potential. Bates remembers that \"during performances in this trio formation, Stuart Hall would often make three instrument changes per tune, sometimes playing steel pan and piccolo flute simultaneously whilst unplugging a violin with his foot.\"",
"Over the next three years, the lineup continued to alter. Arguelles and Hall both left, saxophonist Steve Buckley arrived and the band also gained a permanent drummer, Martin France . At one point the band featured two bass players, Steve Watts and Tim Harries. Bates admits \"Neither of them knew why they were both there. I didn't know either; I was still trying to find a band that could be really powerful without being macho, and could be really experimental without being bollocks.\"",
"Following the collapse of [Loose Tubes](/wiki/Loose_Tubes \"Loose Tubes\") in October 1990, Bates set up [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice \"Delightful Precipice\") to handle his large ensemble music and \"set about sorting out Human Chain.\"",
"### Stabilising the lineup (1991\\-1992\\)",
"With Steve Watts having already departed, Tim Harries left Human Chain in September 1991 to join [Steeleye Span](/wiki/Steeleye_Span \"Steeleye Span\"). This left the remaining members (Bates, Buckley and France) without a bass player just before the start of a Human Chain tour of South America. Rather than use another of his Loose Tubes colleagues, Bates opted to audition another bass guitarist \\- [Michael Mondesir](/wiki/Michael_Mondesir \"Michael Mondesir\"), brother of [Jazz Warriors](/wiki/Jazz_Warriors \"Jazz Warriors\") drummer [Mark Mondesir](/wiki/Mark_Mondesir \"Mark Mondesir\") and a collaborator with up\\-and\\-coming British pianist [Jason Rebello](/wiki/Jason_Rebello \"Jason Rebello\").",
"Bates recalls: \"I drove to Lewisham to hear him playing with (Rebello). It was a really funky band and gave no clues as to what Michael would do to Human Chain's music. By the end of our tour, I knew... and I was very happy! Michael has an infectious fascination with all things rhythmic: he chewed through pieces like \"Three Architects Called Gabrielle... Just What I Expected\" with an extreme verve and assurance that forced the whole band to perform at a new level of energy.\" Mondesir has remained Bates’s bass player of choice ever since (and also plays with [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice \"Delightful Precipice\")).",
"The Bates\\-Buckley\\-Mondesir\\-France lineup of Human Chain toured Chile, Colombia and Argentina in autumn 1991\\. They subsequently recorded two pieces (\"Three Architects Called Gabrielle\" and \"Up, Up\") for a sampler CD called *Pyrotechnics*. All of the musicians featuring on this album were promised a deal with [Blue Note Records](/wiki/Blue_Note \"Blue Note\"). For Human Chain, this deal never arrived.",
"By 1992 Buckley had been replaced by Bates's usual saxophone foil, [Iain Ballamy](/wiki/Iain_Ballamy \"Iain Ballamy\"), and the long\\-term quartet was complete. The band played at a number of festivals in Europe including the [Belfast International Festival](/wiki/Belfast_International_Festival \"Belfast International Festival\"), the [Delta International Jazz Festival](/wiki/Delta_International_Jazz_Festival \"Delta International Jazz Festival\") in the Hague in the Netherlands and the [Outside In International Contemporary Music Festival](/wiki/Outside_In_International_Contemporary_Music_Festival \"Outside In International Contemporary Music Festival\") in Crawley, UK.",
"Despite the band having achieved a steady and stable lineup, there would not be another Human Chain record. Instead, they would become Bates's most frequent musical outlet both live and on record, releasing all of their recorded output under Bates's name.",
"### Work as Bates’s main band (1991\\-1998\\)",
"Throughout the 1990s, Human Chain would be the band Bates most frequently played and toured with.",
"In 1993, Human Chain were the central performers on Bates's second album *Summer Fruits (And Unrest)*, playing four tracks as themselves and the remaining seven as the core of [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice \"Delightful Precipice\").",
"Also in 1993, Human Chain became involved in the innovative music\\-theatre piece 'Out There', conceived and directed by Campbell Graham and written by Simon Black with music by Bates. 'Out There' toured on various dates between 1993 and 1995, performing at The Place, Riverside Studios, Manchester Royal Exchange, Tron Theatre, Glasgow International Jazz Festival. Working with a cast including [Jason Flemyng](/wiki/Jason_Flemyng \"Jason Flemyng\"), Human Chain provided the live music for the piece and also took on individual acting roles, most notably Bates playing \"God\" and Iain Ballamy playing \"Steve the Prat\".",
"In 1995, Human Chain were again the main performers on Bates's fourth album *Winter Truce (And Homes Blaze)*, this time playing five tracks as themselves and five within [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice \"Delightful Precipice\").",
"In 1996, Human Chain performed on Bates's fifth album, the classical/Third Stream\\-inspired and predominantly orchestral *Good Evening... Here Is The News*. Human Chain played on four tracks accompanying the [London Sinfonietta](/wiki/London_Sinfonietta \"London Sinfonietta\") and also performed one track by themselves (the bizarre \"City In Euphoria/World In Chaos\")",
"In 1998, Bates released his sixth album *Like Life*, which was connected to his winning of the 1997 Jazzpar Award and featured several new pieces plus revisitations of his back catalogue of compositions. Although most of the album was performed by Bates with the [Danish Radio Jazz Orchestra](/wiki/Danish_Radio_Jazz_Orchestra \"Danish Radio Jazz Orchestra\"), the other three Human Chain members also contributed as part of an altered lineup of Delightful Precipice.",
"### Quiet Nights (1998\\-circa 2000\\)",
"In 1998, Bates set up a new Anglo\\-Swedish band called **Quiet Nights**, which consisted of the four members of Human Chain plus Swedish jazz singer [Josefine Cronsholm](/wiki/Josefine_Cronsholm \"Josefine Cronsholm\"). This band was to cover an area of jazz which Bates had previously shunned or mocked – songs which had become jazz standards. Bates had anticipated this new project with his infamous 1995 subversion of \"New York, New York\" (performed by Delightful Precipice and sung by Irish singer [Christine Tobin](/wiki/Christine_Tobin \"Christine Tobin\")). The Quiet Nights band was to approach the same territory and continue to subvert the original songs, but generally with a much more down\\-tempo and peaceful approach.",
"In a 2008 interview with *All About Jazz*, Bates commented on his conversion to this kind of music as follows:",
"",
"> \"Back in the early 1990s I did a couple of records with a Norwegian singer, [Sidsel Endresen](/wiki/Sidsel_Endresen \"Sidsel Endresen\"). Doing them opened my ears to the possibilities of using a singer and words. It was almost like having an actor on stage, telling a story, rather than a singer in the traditional sense. Previously, I'd been put off the idea of jazz and singing together because there was certain style of doing that — very over the top, lots of vibrato —while I prefer something quite different, more natural.",
"Then a few years later, when I did the Jazzpar, and they asked me to put together a contrasting project, the first thing I saw when I went to gigs in Copenhagen was a student jam session. There was this girl who just sang a standard beautifully and then sat down—and all these males improvised for about an hour, all taking turns to solo kind of competitively, while she sat there quietly, like in a trance. Then when they finished she just got up and sang the song again. Something about that amused me and I was impressed by it.\nAfter that, I got more interested in having the power of the human voice in my music. Because people had always said, \"Yeah, I like your stuff, but it's kind of complicated, anybody who isn't a musician isn't going to be able to bear to listen to it.\" Maybe I'm exaggerating, but I got the impression that what I did was perceived as being quite muso orientated, and I found that a singer opened it out to more people.\"{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id\\=29969\\&pg\\=3 \\| title\\=Django Bates: Spring Is Here (A Long Time Coming But Worth The Wait) \\| work\\=All About Jazz \\| date\\=14 July 2008 \\| accessdate\\=20 September 2009}}\nTheir recordings of these songs made up the seventh Django Bates album, released in 1998 and also called *Quiet Nights*. It featured reinventions of songs including \"Somewhere Over The Rainbow\", \"Solitude\" and \"Hi\\-Li\\-Ho\".",
"Quiet Nights would continue to tour and perform during the remainder of the 1990s, although Cronsholm left after the first tour to start a family. She was replaced by another Swedish jazz singer, [Josefine Lindstrand](/wiki/Josefine_Lindstrand \"Josefine Lindstrand\"), about whom Bates has commented \"She's a quite different singer to Josefine Cronholm, more lively and right on the beat compared to the very relaxed thing we'd done on *Quiet Nights* with standards and ballads.\"",
"At an unspecified point during this time, Bates claims that Human Chain \"*ate*\" Quiet Nights. This appears to mean that the Quiet Nights project was reabsorbed into Human Chain activity with Lindstrand becoming a fifth member of the band, although it's not entirely clear whether she is a full member or a longstanding guest collaborator.",
"### Human Chain in the 21st century",
"From around 2000 onwards, Bates’ recorded output and live performances became rarer as he adapted to a shrinking British jazz scene. He began to concentrate more on composition, including large\\-scale commissions for classical performers and ensembles. However, Human Chain remained Bates's main performance band, and appeared alongside [The Smith Quartet](/wiki/The_Smith_Quartet \"The Smith Quartet\") at the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale \"Venice Biennale\") in 2003\\.",
"Human Chain was once again the core band on Bates's eighth album *You Live And Learn (Apparently)*, which was released on his own label Lost Marble Recordings in 2004\\. Lindstrand was also a band member on the album which featured additional guest performances by [The Smith Quartet](/wiki/The_Smith_Quartet \"The Smith Quartet\"), saxophonist [David Sanborn](/wiki/David_Sanborn \"David Sanborn\") and guitarist [Jim Mullen](/wiki/Jim_Mullen \"Jim Mullen\"). Human Chain played at the Fuse 2004 music festival in Leeds (curated by Bates) to promote the record.",
"The band's work has diminished from 2005 onwards following Bates's employment as a professor at the [Rhythmic Music Conservatory](/wiki/Rhythmic_Music_Conservatory \"Rhythmic Music Conservatory\") in Copenhagen, Denmark. Ballamy, France, Mondesir and Lindstrand have all concentrated on different projects. However, the band remain formally active and reunited to record Bates's ninth album *Spring Is Here (Shall We Dance?)*, which was released in 2008\\.",
""
] |
### Stabilising the lineup (1991\-1992\)
With Steve Watts having already departed, Tim Harries left Human Chain in September 1991 to join [Steeleye Span](/wiki/Steeleye_Span "Steeleye Span"). This left the remaining members (Bates, Buckley and France) without a bass player just before the start of a Human Chain tour of South America. Rather than use another of his Loose Tubes colleagues, Bates opted to audition another bass guitarist \- [Michael Mondesir](/wiki/Michael_Mondesir "Michael Mondesir"), brother of [Jazz Warriors](/wiki/Jazz_Warriors "Jazz Warriors") drummer [Mark Mondesir](/wiki/Mark_Mondesir "Mark Mondesir") and a collaborator with up\-and\-coming British pianist [Jason Rebello](/wiki/Jason_Rebello "Jason Rebello").
Bates recalls: "I drove to Lewisham to hear him playing with (Rebello). It was a really funky band and gave no clues as to what Michael would do to Human Chain's music. By the end of our tour, I knew... and I was very happy! Michael has an infectious fascination with all things rhythmic: he chewed through pieces like "Three Architects Called Gabrielle... Just What I Expected" with an extreme verve and assurance that forced the whole band to perform at a new level of energy." Mondesir has remained Bates’s bass player of choice ever since (and also plays with [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice "Delightful Precipice")).
The Bates\-Buckley\-Mondesir\-France lineup of Human Chain toured Chile, Colombia and Argentina in autumn 1991\. They subsequently recorded two pieces ("Three Architects Called Gabrielle" and "Up, Up") for a sampler CD called *Pyrotechnics*. All of the musicians featuring on this album were promised a deal with [Blue Note Records](/wiki/Blue_Note "Blue Note"). For Human Chain, this deal never arrived.
By 1992 Buckley had been replaced by Bates's usual saxophone foil, [Iain Ballamy](/wiki/Iain_Ballamy "Iain Ballamy"), and the long\-term quartet was complete. The band played at a number of festivals in Europe including the [Belfast International Festival](/wiki/Belfast_International_Festival "Belfast International Festival"), the [Delta International Jazz Festival](/wiki/Delta_International_Jazz_Festival "Delta International Jazz Festival") in the Hague in the Netherlands and the [Outside In International Contemporary Music Festival](/wiki/Outside_In_International_Contemporary_Music_Festival "Outside In International Contemporary Music Festival") in Crawley, UK.
Despite the band having achieved a steady and stable lineup, there would not be another Human Chain record. Instead, they would become Bates's most frequent musical outlet both live and on record, releasing all of their recorded output under Bates's name.
|
[
"### Stabilising the lineup (1991\\-1992\\)",
"With Steve Watts having already departed, Tim Harries left Human Chain in September 1991 to join [Steeleye Span](/wiki/Steeleye_Span \"Steeleye Span\"). This left the remaining members (Bates, Buckley and France) without a bass player just before the start of a Human Chain tour of South America. Rather than use another of his Loose Tubes colleagues, Bates opted to audition another bass guitarist \\- [Michael Mondesir](/wiki/Michael_Mondesir \"Michael Mondesir\"), brother of [Jazz Warriors](/wiki/Jazz_Warriors \"Jazz Warriors\") drummer [Mark Mondesir](/wiki/Mark_Mondesir \"Mark Mondesir\") and a collaborator with up\\-and\\-coming British pianist [Jason Rebello](/wiki/Jason_Rebello \"Jason Rebello\").",
"Bates recalls: \"I drove to Lewisham to hear him playing with (Rebello). It was a really funky band and gave no clues as to what Michael would do to Human Chain's music. By the end of our tour, I knew... and I was very happy! Michael has an infectious fascination with all things rhythmic: he chewed through pieces like \"Three Architects Called Gabrielle... Just What I Expected\" with an extreme verve and assurance that forced the whole band to perform at a new level of energy.\" Mondesir has remained Bates’s bass player of choice ever since (and also plays with [Delightful Precipice](/wiki/Delightful_Precipice \"Delightful Precipice\")).",
"The Bates\\-Buckley\\-Mondesir\\-France lineup of Human Chain toured Chile, Colombia and Argentina in autumn 1991\\. They subsequently recorded two pieces (\"Three Architects Called Gabrielle\" and \"Up, Up\") for a sampler CD called *Pyrotechnics*. All of the musicians featuring on this album were promised a deal with [Blue Note Records](/wiki/Blue_Note \"Blue Note\"). For Human Chain, this deal never arrived.",
"By 1992 Buckley had been replaced by Bates's usual saxophone foil, [Iain Ballamy](/wiki/Iain_Ballamy \"Iain Ballamy\"), and the long\\-term quartet was complete. The band played at a number of festivals in Europe including the [Belfast International Festival](/wiki/Belfast_International_Festival \"Belfast International Festival\"), the [Delta International Jazz Festival](/wiki/Delta_International_Jazz_Festival \"Delta International Jazz Festival\") in the Hague in the Netherlands and the [Outside In International Contemporary Music Festival](/wiki/Outside_In_International_Contemporary_Music_Festival \"Outside In International Contemporary Music Festival\") in Crawley, UK.",
"Despite the band having achieved a steady and stable lineup, there would not be another Human Chain record. Instead, they would become Bates's most frequent musical outlet both live and on record, releasing all of their recorded output under Bates's name.",
""
] |
Plot
----
A young [Madeleine Swann](/wiki/Madeleine_Swann "Madeleine Swann") witnesses her mother's murder by terrorist Lyutsifer Safin. Swann's father, [Mr. White](/wiki/List_of_James_Bond_villains%23Eon_Productions_films "List of James Bond villains#Eon Productions films"), had been ordered by [Ernst Stavro Blofeld](/wiki/Ernst_Stavro_Blofeld "Ernst Stavro Blofeld") to assassinate Safin's family. Swann shoots Safin and flees, falling into a frozen lake, but he rescues her.
Years later, after Blofeld's arrest,{{efn\|As depicted in ''\[\[Spectre (2015 film)\|Spectre]]'' (2015\)}} Swann travels to [Matera](/wiki/Matera "Matera") with [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond_%28reboot_series_character%29 "James Bond (reboot series character)"). She persuades Bond to visit his ex\-lover [Vesper Lynd](/wiki/Vesper_Lynd "Vesper Lynd")'s nearby grave, where he survives an explosion orchestrated by [Spectre](/wiki/SPECTRE "SPECTRE") operatives led by Primo, a mercenary with a [bionic eye](/wiki/Visual_prosthesis "Visual prosthesis"). Bond and Swann escape together, but Bond ends their relationship, believing that Swann betrayed him.
Five years later, Spectre agents extract [MI6](/wiki/MI6 "MI6") scientist Valdo Obruchev, who secretly works for Safin, from a [London](/wiki/London "London") laboratory and steal Project Heracles, a programmable DNA\-targeting [nanobot](/wiki/Nanorobotics "Nanorobotics") bioweapon developed under [M](/wiki/M_%28James_Bond%29 "M (James Bond)")'s oversight. Retired and living in [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica "Jamaica"), Bond is contacted by [CIA](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency") ally [Felix Leiter](/wiki/Felix_Leiter "Felix Leiter") and [State Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State "United States Department of State") agent Logan Ash, who ask for Bond's help extracting Obruchev from a Spectre party in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"). Bond declines but later accepts after Nomi, his successor as Agent 007, warns him not to interfere with her own extraction of Obruchev and puts him in contact with M, who refuses to answer his questions about Heracles.
Bond infiltrates the party with Paloma, a Cuban agent assisting Leiter. Blofeld, overseeing the gathering from [Belmarsh](/wiki/HM_Prison_Belmarsh "HM Prison Belmarsh") prison through Primo's bionic eye, disperses a nanobot mist to kill Bond. However, Obruchev has reprogrammed the nanobots under Safin's orders to kill the Spectre members instead. Outmaneuvering Nomi with Paloma's help, Bond brings Obruchev to Ash and Leiter aboard a [trawler](/wiki/Fishing_trawler "Fishing trawler"). Ash is revealed to be a double agent working for Safin, and he shoots Leiter and traps him with Bond below deck, fleeing with Obruchev after triggering explosives to sink the ship. Leiter dies of his wounds, but Bond escapes.
Bond returns to London, seeking to interrogate Blofeld about Obruchev's employer, but Blofeld reportedly only speaks to his psychiatrist, Swann. MI6 arranges for Bond to visit Blofeld alongside Swann. Safin coerces Swann into infecting herself with a nanobot dose to assassinate Blofeld. Meeting Swann in Belmarsh, Bond unknowingly infects himself with Swann's nanobots. Swann becomes too distressed to face Blofeld, and she flees, telling Bond only that she is going "home." Blofeld reveals to Bond that he planned the explosion at Vesper's grave to make Bond believe that Swann betrayed him. Enraged, Bond briefly strangles Blofeld before relenting, unknowingly allowing the nanobots to enter Blofeld's system and kill him.
Bond tracks Swann to her childhood home in Norway, where they reconcile, and he meets her five\-year\-old daughter Mathilde. Swann insists that Mathilde is not his child and shares intelligence that her father gathered about Safin and the island his family owned. The following day, MI6 alerts Bond that Ash is approaching his location. Ash and several armed thugs ambush Bond, Mathilde, and Swann as they flee in their car, pursuing them into a nearby forest. Bond orders Swann and Mathilde to hide while he confronts Ash and his forces. He defeats Ash's men before killing Ash, avenging Leiter's death, but Safin kidnaps Swann and Mathilde.
[Q](/wiki/Q_%28James_Bond%29 "Q (James Bond)") provides Bond and Nomi with a [submersible](/wiki/Submersible "Submersible") [glider](/wiki/Glider_%28aircraft%29 "Glider (aircraft)") to infiltrate Safin's headquarters, a missile base on a [disputed island near Japan](/wiki/Kuril_Islands_dispute "Kuril Islands dispute") that has been converted into a nanobot factory. Bond and Nomi plan to rescue Swann and Mathilde before ordering a missile strike on the facility. Bond confronts Safin, who flees with Mathilde but later releases her, while Swann escapes Primo and reunites with Bond and Mathilde. Nomi kills Obruchev by kicking him into an acid pool,{{Cite web \|title\=NTTD Final Script \|url\=https://deadline.com/wp\-content/uploads/2022/01/No\-Time\-To\-Die\-Read\-The\-Screenplay.pdf \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125210510/https://deadline.com/wp\-content/uploads/2022/01/No\-Time\-To\-Die\-Read\-The\-Screenplay.pdf \|archive\-date\=25 January 2022 \|access\-date\=8 August 2022 \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} then escorts Swann and Mathilde off the island. Bond kills Safin's remaining men, including Primo, and opens the silo doors for missiles launched from [HMS *Dragon*](/wiki/HMS_Dragon_%28D35%29 "HMS Dragon (D35)") to penetrate. Bond rushes back to the control room when the silo doors suddenly begin closing, but is ambushed by Safin, who repeatedly shoots Bond and infects him with a nanobot vial programmed to kill Swann and Mathilde. Bond shoots Safin dead and reopens the silo doors, but realises that if he escapes, the nanobots he is infected with would kill Swann and Mathilde. Bond radios Swann to say goodbye, expressing his love for her and Mathilde, who she confirms is his daughter. The missiles destroy the facility, and Bond dies in the resulting explosion.
Later, at MI6, M, [Moneypenny](/wiki/Miss_Moneypenny "Miss Moneypenny"), Nomi, Q, and [Bill Tanner](/wiki/Bill_Tanner "Bill Tanner") drink to Bond's memory. Driving Mathilde to Matera, Swann begins to tell her about her father, James Bond.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"A young [Madeleine Swann](/wiki/Madeleine_Swann \"Madeleine Swann\") witnesses her mother's murder by terrorist Lyutsifer Safin. Swann's father, [Mr. White](/wiki/List_of_James_Bond_villains%23Eon_Productions_films \"List of James Bond villains#Eon Productions films\"), had been ordered by [Ernst Stavro Blofeld](/wiki/Ernst_Stavro_Blofeld \"Ernst Stavro Blofeld\") to assassinate Safin's family. Swann shoots Safin and flees, falling into a frozen lake, but he rescues her.",
"Years later, after Blofeld's arrest,{{efn\\|As depicted in ''\\[\\[Spectre (2015 film)\\|Spectre]]'' (2015\\)}} Swann travels to [Matera](/wiki/Matera \"Matera\") with [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond_%28reboot_series_character%29 \"James Bond (reboot series character)\"). She persuades Bond to visit his ex\\-lover [Vesper Lynd](/wiki/Vesper_Lynd \"Vesper Lynd\")'s nearby grave, where he survives an explosion orchestrated by [Spectre](/wiki/SPECTRE \"SPECTRE\") operatives led by Primo, a mercenary with a [bionic eye](/wiki/Visual_prosthesis \"Visual prosthesis\"). Bond and Swann escape together, but Bond ends their relationship, believing that Swann betrayed him.",
"Five years later, Spectre agents extract [MI6](/wiki/MI6 \"MI6\") scientist Valdo Obruchev, who secretly works for Safin, from a [London](/wiki/London \"London\") laboratory and steal Project Heracles, a programmable DNA\\-targeting [nanobot](/wiki/Nanorobotics \"Nanorobotics\") bioweapon developed under [M](/wiki/M_%28James_Bond%29 \"M (James Bond)\")'s oversight. Retired and living in [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica \"Jamaica\"), Bond is contacted by [CIA](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency \"Central Intelligence Agency\") ally [Felix Leiter](/wiki/Felix_Leiter \"Felix Leiter\") and [State Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State \"United States Department of State\") agent Logan Ash, who ask for Bond's help extracting Obruchev from a Spectre party in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"). Bond declines but later accepts after Nomi, his successor as Agent 007, warns him not to interfere with her own extraction of Obruchev and puts him in contact with M, who refuses to answer his questions about Heracles.",
"Bond infiltrates the party with Paloma, a Cuban agent assisting Leiter. Blofeld, overseeing the gathering from [Belmarsh](/wiki/HM_Prison_Belmarsh \"HM Prison Belmarsh\") prison through Primo's bionic eye, disperses a nanobot mist to kill Bond. However, Obruchev has reprogrammed the nanobots under Safin's orders to kill the Spectre members instead. Outmaneuvering Nomi with Paloma's help, Bond brings Obruchev to Ash and Leiter aboard a [trawler](/wiki/Fishing_trawler \"Fishing trawler\"). Ash is revealed to be a double agent working for Safin, and he shoots Leiter and traps him with Bond below deck, fleeing with Obruchev after triggering explosives to sink the ship. Leiter dies of his wounds, but Bond escapes.",
"Bond returns to London, seeking to interrogate Blofeld about Obruchev's employer, but Blofeld reportedly only speaks to his psychiatrist, Swann. MI6 arranges for Bond to visit Blofeld alongside Swann. Safin coerces Swann into infecting herself with a nanobot dose to assassinate Blofeld. Meeting Swann in Belmarsh, Bond unknowingly infects himself with Swann's nanobots. Swann becomes too distressed to face Blofeld, and she flees, telling Bond only that she is going \"home.\" Blofeld reveals to Bond that he planned the explosion at Vesper's grave to make Bond believe that Swann betrayed him. Enraged, Bond briefly strangles Blofeld before relenting, unknowingly allowing the nanobots to enter Blofeld's system and kill him.",
"Bond tracks Swann to her childhood home in Norway, where they reconcile, and he meets her five\\-year\\-old daughter Mathilde. Swann insists that Mathilde is not his child and shares intelligence that her father gathered about Safin and the island his family owned. The following day, MI6 alerts Bond that Ash is approaching his location. Ash and several armed thugs ambush Bond, Mathilde, and Swann as they flee in their car, pursuing them into a nearby forest. Bond orders Swann and Mathilde to hide while he confronts Ash and his forces. He defeats Ash's men before killing Ash, avenging Leiter's death, but Safin kidnaps Swann and Mathilde.",
"[Q](/wiki/Q_%28James_Bond%29 \"Q (James Bond)\") provides Bond and Nomi with a [submersible](/wiki/Submersible \"Submersible\") [glider](/wiki/Glider_%28aircraft%29 \"Glider (aircraft)\") to infiltrate Safin's headquarters, a missile base on a [disputed island near Japan](/wiki/Kuril_Islands_dispute \"Kuril Islands dispute\") that has been converted into a nanobot factory. Bond and Nomi plan to rescue Swann and Mathilde before ordering a missile strike on the facility. Bond confronts Safin, who flees with Mathilde but later releases her, while Swann escapes Primo and reunites with Bond and Mathilde. Nomi kills Obruchev by kicking him into an acid pool,{{Cite web \\|title\\=NTTD Final Script \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2022/01/No\\-Time\\-To\\-Die\\-Read\\-The\\-Screenplay.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125210510/https://deadline.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2022/01/No\\-Time\\-To\\-Die\\-Read\\-The\\-Screenplay.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} then escorts Swann and Mathilde off the island. Bond kills Safin's remaining men, including Primo, and opens the silo doors for missiles launched from [HMS *Dragon*](/wiki/HMS_Dragon_%28D35%29 \"HMS Dragon (D35)\") to penetrate. Bond rushes back to the control room when the silo doors suddenly begin closing, but is ambushed by Safin, who repeatedly shoots Bond and infects him with a nanobot vial programmed to kill Swann and Mathilde. Bond shoots Safin dead and reopens the silo doors, but realises that if he escapes, the nanobots he is infected with would kill Swann and Mathilde. Bond radios Swann to say goodbye, expressing his love for her and Mathilde, who she confirms is his daughter. The missiles destroy the facility, and Bond dies in the resulting explosion.",
"Later, at MI6, M, [Moneypenny](/wiki/Miss_Moneypenny \"Miss Moneypenny\"), Nomi, Q, and [Bill Tanner](/wiki/Bill_Tanner \"Bill Tanner\") drink to Bond's memory. Driving Mathilde to Matera, Swann begins to tell her about her father, James Bond.",
""
] |
Overview
--------
Designed to be the first of the planned [Mariner Mark II](/wiki/Mariner_Mark_II "Mariner Mark II") series of spacecraft, CRAF was to closely examine a [comet](/wiki/Comet "Comet") during a part of its [orbit](/wiki/Orbit "Orbit") around the [Sun](/wiki/Sun "Sun"). It was to launch a heavily instrumented penetrator/lander into the comet's [nucleus](/wiki/Comet_nucleus "Comet nucleus") to measure temperatures and chemical composition. CRAF's other instruments would collect data on the comet's nucleus, its [coma](/wiki/Coma_%28cometary%29 "Coma (cometary)"), and its
[dust](/wiki/Cosmic_dust "Cosmic dust") and [ion](/wiki/Ion "Ion") cloud and tail. CRAF was also to provide the first close\-up look at how a comet's coma and its tail of dust and ions form. CRAF and Cassini missions were a collaborative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the federal space agencies of [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") and [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), as well as the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") and the [United States Department of Energy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy "United States Department of Energy").
CRAF was to be launched aboard a [Titan IV](/wiki/Titan_IV "Titan IV")\-[Centaur](/wiki/Centaur_%28rocket_stage%29 "Centaur (rocket stage)") rocket in August 1995, but as of February 1991 the launch date was swapped with Cassini and CRAF's launch was moved back to February 1996\. The new launch profile included a [Venus](/wiki/Venus "Venus") [gravity assist](/wiki/Gravity_assist "Gravity assist"), that added eight months to the planned flight time but offered an increase in payload and better alternatives if the February 1996 [launch window](/wiki/Launch_window "Launch window") were missed. The [trajectory](/wiki/Trajectory "Trajectory") would carry CRAF out to the asteroid belt, where a propulsion maneuver would send the spacecraft back toward Earth for a gravity assist boost. CRAF would fly past the [Earth](/wiki/Earth "Earth") in July 1997 to take up its final flight path. By using gravity assist, NASA can launch spacecraft aboard rockets that have less thrust than would be needed for a direct flight.
The spacecraft was to encounter an [asteroid](/wiki/Asteroid "Asteroid") named [449 Hamburga](/wiki/449_Hamburga "449 Hamburga") in January 1998 en route to the comet. CRAF would take [photographs](/wiki/Photograph "Photograph") and deploy other scientific measurements during the encounter period. Asteroid 449 Hamburga is about {{convert\|88\|km\|mi\|sp\=us}} in diameter and is thought to be a carbonaceous type asteroid.
CRAF's planned cometary target was [Comet Kopff](/wiki/22P/Kopff "22P/Kopff"). This was named for [August Kopff](/wiki/August_Kopff "August Kopff"), who discovered it on August 22, 1906, during an observing session at [Koenigstuhl Observatory](/wiki/Koenigstuhl_Observatory "Koenigstuhl Observatory") near [Heidelberg](/wiki/Heidelberg "Heidelberg"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany").
Ninety\-four years after Kopff's discovery, CRAF would arrive at the [rendezvous](/wiki/wikt:Rendezvous "Rendezvous") point with Comet Kopff — in August 2000\. Comet and spacecraft would be at the distance of [Jupiter](/wiki/Jupiter "Jupiter")'s orbit, and 850 days before closest approach to the Sun, or [perihelion](/wiki/Perihelion "Perihelion"). CRAF would fire its penetrator/lander at the comet in August 2001, then would continue to fly beside Kopff. The spacecraft would take data for a total of two and two\-thirds years, until about 109 days after they pass closest to the Sun and are outward bound again. It was to be the first time a spacecraft would have flown in formation with a comet, though a U.S. spacecraft, [International Cometary Explorer](/wiki/International_Cometary_Explorer "International Cometary Explorer") (ICE), flew by Comet Giacobini\-Zinner in 1985, spacecraft from several countries encountered [Comet Halley](/wiki/Comet_Halley "Comet Halley") in 1986, and the [Giotto](/wiki/Giotto "Giotto") spacecraft flew past Comet Grigg\-Skjellerup in 1992\.
The comet rendezvous would allow study of matter that scientists think is the original, relatively unchanged material left behind when a cloud of dust and gas collapsed to form the [Solar System](/wiki/Solar_System "Solar System") 4\.6 billion years ago. Scientists believe comets now reside in a distant region of the Solar System called the [Oort cloud](/wiki/Oort_cloud "Oort cloud"). Current theory holds that gravitational nudges from stars in the Sun's neighborhood send some comets from the Oort cloud falling toward the Sun.
The CRAF spacecraft would fly extremely close to the comet's nucleus, within {{convert\|10\|km\|mi\|sp\=us}}. The close\-up exploration would take place before the coma and tail begin to build, it would observe the nucleus as it becomes active in the growing sunlight and begins to have its lighter elements boil off and form a coma and tails. Later the spacecraft would move in and out through the coma and down the tail to study their properties and the complex processes occurring in them, and to collect samples of dust for detailed analysis on board the spacecraft.
In December 2002 the spacecraft and the comet would make their closest approach to the Sun. They would then head outward again toward aphelion near Jupiter's orbit. On March 31, 2003, the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby, first primary mission of Mariner Mark II, would end. At that time the *Cassini* mission, with the second Mariner Mark II spacecraft, would be in its Saturnian\-tour phase.
|
[
"Overview\n--------",
"Designed to be the first of the planned [Mariner Mark II](/wiki/Mariner_Mark_II \"Mariner Mark II\") series of spacecraft, CRAF was to closely examine a [comet](/wiki/Comet \"Comet\") during a part of its [orbit](/wiki/Orbit \"Orbit\") around the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\"). It was to launch a heavily instrumented penetrator/lander into the comet's [nucleus](/wiki/Comet_nucleus \"Comet nucleus\") to measure temperatures and chemical composition. CRAF's other instruments would collect data on the comet's nucleus, its [coma](/wiki/Coma_%28cometary%29 \"Coma (cometary)\"), and its \n[dust](/wiki/Cosmic_dust \"Cosmic dust\") and [ion](/wiki/Ion \"Ion\") cloud and tail. CRAF was also to provide the first close\\-up look at how a comet's coma and its tail of dust and ions form. CRAF and Cassini missions were a collaborative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the federal space agencies of [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") and [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), as well as the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") and the [United States Department of Energy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy \"United States Department of Energy\").",
"CRAF was to be launched aboard a [Titan IV](/wiki/Titan_IV \"Titan IV\")\\-[Centaur](/wiki/Centaur_%28rocket_stage%29 \"Centaur (rocket stage)\") rocket in August 1995, but as of February 1991 the launch date was swapped with Cassini and CRAF's launch was moved back to February 1996\\. The new launch profile included a [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\") [gravity assist](/wiki/Gravity_assist \"Gravity assist\"), that added eight months to the planned flight time but offered an increase in payload and better alternatives if the February 1996 [launch window](/wiki/Launch_window \"Launch window\") were missed. The [trajectory](/wiki/Trajectory \"Trajectory\") would carry CRAF out to the asteroid belt, where a propulsion maneuver would send the spacecraft back toward Earth for a gravity assist boost. CRAF would fly past the [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") in July 1997 to take up its final flight path. By using gravity assist, NASA can launch spacecraft aboard rockets that have less thrust than would be needed for a direct flight.",
"The spacecraft was to encounter an [asteroid](/wiki/Asteroid \"Asteroid\") named [449 Hamburga](/wiki/449_Hamburga \"449 Hamburga\") in January 1998 en route to the comet. CRAF would take [photographs](/wiki/Photograph \"Photograph\") and deploy other scientific measurements during the encounter period. Asteroid 449 Hamburga is about {{convert\\|88\\|km\\|mi\\|sp\\=us}} in diameter and is thought to be a carbonaceous type asteroid.",
"CRAF's planned cometary target was [Comet Kopff](/wiki/22P/Kopff \"22P/Kopff\"). This was named for [August Kopff](/wiki/August_Kopff \"August Kopff\"), who discovered it on August 22, 1906, during an observing session at [Koenigstuhl Observatory](/wiki/Koenigstuhl_Observatory \"Koenigstuhl Observatory\") near [Heidelberg](/wiki/Heidelberg \"Heidelberg\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\").",
"Ninety\\-four years after Kopff's discovery, CRAF would arrive at the [rendezvous](/wiki/wikt:Rendezvous \"Rendezvous\") point with Comet Kopff — in August 2000\\. Comet and spacecraft would be at the distance of [Jupiter](/wiki/Jupiter \"Jupiter\")'s orbit, and 850 days before closest approach to the Sun, or [perihelion](/wiki/Perihelion \"Perihelion\"). CRAF would fire its penetrator/lander at the comet in August 2001, then would continue to fly beside Kopff. The spacecraft would take data for a total of two and two\\-thirds years, until about 109 days after they pass closest to the Sun and are outward bound again. It was to be the first time a spacecraft would have flown in formation with a comet, though a U.S. spacecraft, [International Cometary Explorer](/wiki/International_Cometary_Explorer \"International Cometary Explorer\") (ICE), flew by Comet Giacobini\\-Zinner in 1985, spacecraft from several countries encountered [Comet Halley](/wiki/Comet_Halley \"Comet Halley\") in 1986, and the [Giotto](/wiki/Giotto \"Giotto\") spacecraft flew past Comet Grigg\\-Skjellerup in 1992\\.",
"The comet rendezvous would allow study of matter that scientists think is the original, relatively unchanged material left behind when a cloud of dust and gas collapsed to form the [Solar System](/wiki/Solar_System \"Solar System\") 4\\.6 billion years ago. Scientists believe comets now reside in a distant region of the Solar System called the [Oort cloud](/wiki/Oort_cloud \"Oort cloud\"). Current theory holds that gravitational nudges from stars in the Sun's neighborhood send some comets from the Oort cloud falling toward the Sun.",
"The CRAF spacecraft would fly extremely close to the comet's nucleus, within {{convert\\|10\\|km\\|mi\\|sp\\=us}}. The close\\-up exploration would take place before the coma and tail begin to build, it would observe the nucleus as it becomes active in the growing sunlight and begins to have its lighter elements boil off and form a coma and tails. Later the spacecraft would move in and out through the coma and down the tail to study their properties and the complex processes occurring in them, and to collect samples of dust for detailed analysis on board the spacecraft.",
"In December 2002 the spacecraft and the comet would make their closest approach to the Sun. They would then head outward again toward aphelion near Jupiter's orbit. On March 31, 2003, the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby, first primary mission of Mariner Mark II, would end. At that time the *Cassini* mission, with the second Mariner Mark II spacecraft, would be in its Saturnian\\-tour phase.",
""
] |
Course
------
The papacy was under criticism for failing to address abuses, and the college of cardinals was split between moderates and conservatives, as well as along national lines.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.eadt.co.uk/what\-s\-on/suffolk\-turmoil\-and\-rivalry\-as\-they\-met\-to\-choose\-a\-pope\-1\-1990563\|title\=Suffolk: Turmoil and rivalry, as they met to choose a pope\|last\=RUSSELL\|first\=STEVEN\|website\=East Anglian Daily Times\|language\=en\|access\-date\=17 June 2019\|archive\-date\=7 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107160239/https://www.eadt.co.uk/what\-s\-on/suffolk\-turmoil\-and\-rivalry\-as\-they\-met\-to\-choose\-a\-pope\-1\-1990563\|url\-status\=dead}}
The conclave began on 5 September 1559, with 40 cardinals present. Exploiting the fact that the French cardinals had not yet arrived in Rome, the Spanish faction tried to get Carpi elected by acclamation, but this attempt failed because Sforza (one of the factions leaders) opposed Carpi's election and secretly agreed with d'Este that he should lose.
In this situation, the normal procedures were implemented. On 8 September electors signed the electoral capitulation, requiring the pope who was elected to continue reform of the church and the curia and to resume the deliberations of the council of Trent and promote peace between Christian princes. By the end of September seven more cardinals had arrived in Rome.
For a few weeks voting took place routinely, without any result. Most votes went to minor candidates. The Spanish Pacheco and Cueva were regularly given twelve to twenty votes; on 13 September the Frenchman Leonocourt received 18 votes; on 18 September the absent [Cardinal Henry of Portugal](/wiki/Henry%2C_King_of_Portugal "Henry, King of Portugal") was given 15 votes and 5; others voted for at this point included Rebiba, Ghisleri and Saraceni. Rannucio Farnese got 21 votes in the election on the anniversary of his grandfather's election as pope. From 9 September to 16 December 68 fruitless ballots were held.
The front\-runners were still trying for office. However, on 18 September, with the support of Cardinal Farnese, cardinal Carpi put himself up as a candidate again. Over the next few rounds he received 11–16 votes. On 22 September the French tried to get cardinal Tournon selected, but his chances were dashed by Carafa's opposition, who supported the Spaniard Pacheco. In the voting that took place that day, Tournon received a total of 20 votes (including 5 by accession) and Pacheco 19 (including 1 by accession).
A few days later, the French agreed with Sforza, leader of the Spanish faction, to support cardinal Gonzaga and push through his election by acclamation. This plan ended in a fiasco, with Gonzadze, Carafa and part of the Spanish faction objecting to it.
On 25 September Philip II's ambassador Vargas arrived in Rome and under his auspices Sforza, Farnese and Carafa met on 2 October. The ambassador suggested Puteo as a candidate instead of Carpi and Pacheco. Farnese and Carafa refused, however, and the meeting was unsuccessful. Around this time Sforza began to fight on two fronts – promising the French faction to keep agitating in favour of Gonzaga and the Italian party that he would do so in favour of Pacheco and Carpi.
At the end of September and start of October, there was extensive exchange of correspondence between the pro\-Spanish cardinals and Philip II. [Francis II of France](/wiki/Francis_II_of_France "Francis II of France") and [Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor") also sent letters to cardinals recommending Gonzaga's candidacy. This breach of the canonical rule that the conclave be held in secret and without any influence from secular leaders outraged the people of Rome into protest, but du Bellay (dean of the College of Cardinals) rejected the objections.
In the second half of October Carafa broke his alliance with Sforza, as Philip II decided to return the fiefdom Palli Colonnie Marcantonio and ordered the Spanish cardinals to prevent the selection of Gonzaga at all costs. Cardinal d'Este allied himself with Carafa, hoping to win the election, but the vote on 1 December showed this was in vain, with many who had promised to vote for him not doing so. The French also – without much success – tried to get cardinals Tournon and Suau elected.
In the first days of December, in agreement with the French, Carafa again proposed Gonzaga, intending to gain his election by acclamation. However, in the meantime, Carafa received a letter removing the expected guarantees from Philip and he and the French returned to their alliance with the Spanish party. He then committed himself in writing to cardinal Sforza that he would not endorse any candidate opposed by Philip II. As a result, this session, which selected cardinal Gonzaga, nearly ended in cardinal Carpi being chosen by acclamation. The protracted conclave led to increasing concern on the streets of Rome, especially since the camerlengo was forced to reduce troop numbers due to financial problems.
After the overthrow of the French\-backed Gonzaga, Pisani was suggested as a "transitional pope", but to no avail. Their party in early December waned in numbers – on 1 December cardinal Capodiferro died, while on 13 December du Bellay had to leave the conclave due to illness, handing over his duties as dean of the college to cardinal Tournon. Six days later, Saraceni also left the conclave. The French had lost the ability to block the opposing party's candidates, so the Spaniards tried to push through the election of cardinal Pacheco. In the vote on 18 December the Spanish only missed the necessary majority by three votes.
The Christmas festival was imminent and this led the factions' leaders to make peace and conclude a compromise. At a meeting on 22 December leaders of all three parties met to decide upon a candidate acceptable to all sides. The French suggested cardinal Cesi, the Spaniards suggested cardinal Medici, but Carafa remained undecided. The French were eventually persuaded to back cardinal Medici, who was also strongly supported by the Duke of Florence and Vice\-Chancellor Alessandro Farnese. Carafa also finally supported Medici, who promised him an amnesty.
|
[
"Course\n------",
"The papacy was under criticism for failing to address abuses, and the college of cardinals was split between moderates and conservatives, as well as along national lines.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.eadt.co.uk/what\\-s\\-on/suffolk\\-turmoil\\-and\\-rivalry\\-as\\-they\\-met\\-to\\-choose\\-a\\-pope\\-1\\-1990563\\|title\\=Suffolk: Turmoil and rivalry, as they met to choose a pope\\|last\\=RUSSELL\\|first\\=STEVEN\\|website\\=East Anglian Daily Times\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=7 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107160239/https://www.eadt.co.uk/what\\-s\\-on/suffolk\\-turmoil\\-and\\-rivalry\\-as\\-they\\-met\\-to\\-choose\\-a\\-pope\\-1\\-1990563\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The conclave began on 5 September 1559, with 40 cardinals present. Exploiting the fact that the French cardinals had not yet arrived in Rome, the Spanish faction tried to get Carpi elected by acclamation, but this attempt failed because Sforza (one of the factions leaders) opposed Carpi's election and secretly agreed with d'Este that he should lose.",
"In this situation, the normal procedures were implemented. On 8 September electors signed the electoral capitulation, requiring the pope who was elected to continue reform of the church and the curia and to resume the deliberations of the council of Trent and promote peace between Christian princes. By the end of September seven more cardinals had arrived in Rome.",
"For a few weeks voting took place routinely, without any result. Most votes went to minor candidates. The Spanish Pacheco and Cueva were regularly given twelve to twenty votes; on 13 September the Frenchman Leonocourt received 18 votes; on 18 September the absent [Cardinal Henry of Portugal](/wiki/Henry%2C_King_of_Portugal \"Henry, King of Portugal\") was given 15 votes and 5; others voted for at this point included Rebiba, Ghisleri and Saraceni. Rannucio Farnese got 21 votes in the election on the anniversary of his grandfather's election as pope. From 9 September to 16 December 68 fruitless ballots were held.",
"The front\\-runners were still trying for office. However, on 18 September, with the support of Cardinal Farnese, cardinal Carpi put himself up as a candidate again. Over the next few rounds he received 11–16 votes. On 22 September the French tried to get cardinal Tournon selected, but his chances were dashed by Carafa's opposition, who supported the Spaniard Pacheco. In the voting that took place that day, Tournon received a total of 20 votes (including 5 by accession) and Pacheco 19 (including 1 by accession).",
"A few days later, the French agreed with Sforza, leader of the Spanish faction, to support cardinal Gonzaga and push through his election by acclamation. This plan ended in a fiasco, with Gonzadze, Carafa and part of the Spanish faction objecting to it.",
"On 25 September Philip II's ambassador Vargas arrived in Rome and under his auspices Sforza, Farnese and Carafa met on 2 October. The ambassador suggested Puteo as a candidate instead of Carpi and Pacheco. Farnese and Carafa refused, however, and the meeting was unsuccessful. Around this time Sforza began to fight on two fronts – promising the French faction to keep agitating in favour of Gonzaga and the Italian party that he would do so in favour of Pacheco and Carpi.",
"At the end of September and start of October, there was extensive exchange of correspondence between the pro\\-Spanish cardinals and Philip II. [Francis II of France](/wiki/Francis_II_of_France \"Francis II of France\") and [Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor\") also sent letters to cardinals recommending Gonzaga's candidacy. This breach of the canonical rule that the conclave be held in secret and without any influence from secular leaders outraged the people of Rome into protest, but du Bellay (dean of the College of Cardinals) rejected the objections.",
"In the second half of October Carafa broke his alliance with Sforza, as Philip II decided to return the fiefdom Palli Colonnie Marcantonio and ordered the Spanish cardinals to prevent the selection of Gonzaga at all costs. Cardinal d'Este allied himself with Carafa, hoping to win the election, but the vote on 1 December showed this was in vain, with many who had promised to vote for him not doing so. The French also – without much success – tried to get cardinals Tournon and Suau elected.",
"In the first days of December, in agreement with the French, Carafa again proposed Gonzaga, intending to gain his election by acclamation. However, in the meantime, Carafa received a letter removing the expected guarantees from Philip and he and the French returned to their alliance with the Spanish party. He then committed himself in writing to cardinal Sforza that he would not endorse any candidate opposed by Philip II. As a result, this session, which selected cardinal Gonzaga, nearly ended in cardinal Carpi being chosen by acclamation. The protracted conclave led to increasing concern on the streets of Rome, especially since the camerlengo was forced to reduce troop numbers due to financial problems.",
"After the overthrow of the French\\-backed Gonzaga, Pisani was suggested as a \"transitional pope\", but to no avail. Their party in early December waned in numbers – on 1 December cardinal Capodiferro died, while on 13 December du Bellay had to leave the conclave due to illness, handing over his duties as dean of the college to cardinal Tournon. Six days later, Saraceni also left the conclave. The French had lost the ability to block the opposing party's candidates, so the Spaniards tried to push through the election of cardinal Pacheco. In the vote on 18 December the Spanish only missed the necessary majority by three votes.",
"The Christmas festival was imminent and this led the factions' leaders to make peace and conclude a compromise. At a meeting on 22 December leaders of all three parties met to decide upon a candidate acceptable to all sides. The French suggested cardinal Cesi, the Spaniards suggested cardinal Medici, but Carafa remained undecided. The French were eventually persuaded to back cardinal Medici, who was also strongly supported by the Duke of Florence and Vice\\-Chancellor Alessandro Farnese. Carafa also finally supported Medici, who promised him an amnesty.",
""
] |
History
-------
The bill was introduced on July 31, 2013, by Sen. [Richard Durbin](/wiki/Dick_Durbin "Dick Durbin") (D\-IL) and referred to the Judiciary Committee on October 20, 2013\. It is related to the [Justice Safety Valve Act of 2013](/wiki/Justice_Safety_Valve_Act_of_2013 "Justice Safety Valve Act of 2013"), the [Federal Prison Reform Act of 2013](/wiki/Federal_Prison_Reform_Act_of_2013 "Federal Prison Reform Act of 2013") (S. 1783\) and others, in an effort to deal with the over\-crowded, and under\-funded, federal prison system.
Congressmen Bobby Scott (D\-VA) and Raul Labrador (R\-ID) introduced the Smarter Sentencing Act (H.R. 3382\) in the [U.S. House of Representatives](/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives "U.S. House of Representatives"), and it gained cosponsors from both parties. In 2013, House Judiciary Committee Chairman Bob Goodlatte (R\-VA) established a six\-month, bipartisan Over\-Criminalization Task Force to address the scope and size of the federal criminal code and regulations. The Task Force expired in November 2013, but advocates supported a re\-authorization for another six\-month term and asked the chairman to hold a hearing on sentencing laws. The House version of the Act had 18 co\-sponsors by February 2014\. The bill continued to gain momentum in the Senate and House. By June 2014, 25 co\-sponsoring Senators (17 Democrat, 6 Republican and 2 Independent) joined to show their support. The House had 38 co\-sponsors (24 Democrat and 14 Republican).
The bill did not have any further action in the legislative season as was re\-introduced as the **Smarter Sentencing Act of 2015** (or S502\) by [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") [Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senator "United States Senator") of [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah") [Mike Lee](/wiki/Mike_Lee "Mike Lee"). The House of Representatives version, known as HR920, was re\-introduced by [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho "Idaho") [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") [Raul Labrador](/wiki/Raul_Labrador "Raul Labrador") in February 2015\.
The Smarter Sentencing Act of 2015 was a continued effort from the Smarter Sentencing Act of 2013/2014\. The Senate version of 2013/2014, called S 1410, was introduced by [Richard Durbin](/wiki/Dick_Durbin "Dick Durbin") (D\-IL) and [Patrick Leahy](/wiki/Patrick_Leahy "Patrick Leahy") (D\-VT). The [113th Congress](/wiki/113th_Congress "113th Congress") held several hearing and heard testimony through 2013 and 2014 without passage.
A Bi\-partisan Summit on Criminal Justice Reform, met in March 2015 to discuss reforming America's criminal justice system and received national news coverage.{{Cite web\|url\=https://huffingtonpost.com/2015/03/30/bipartisan\-summit\-criminal\-justice\_n\_6971242\.html\|title\=Democrats and Republicans in Congress Actually Found Something to Agree on\|website\=\[\[HuffPost]]\|date\=30 March 2015}} The Senate version (S.502\) had gained 12 Bi\-partisan co\-sponsors by late May 2015; the house version (H.R.920\) had 43 Bi\-partisan co\-sponsors by the same date. By the summer recess, H.R.920 had 52 co\-sponsors and S. 502 had 12\. Both version had been moved to committee for further discussion. The bill's Bi\-Partisan support from both the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") and [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") [parties](/wiki/Political_party "Political party") helped increase its likelihood of moving through committee hearings. Additionally, organizations were behind the bill and actively encouraging its passage.{{Cite web \|url\=http://famm.org/s\-502\-the\-smarter\-sentencing\-act/ \|title\=S. 502 / H.R. 920, the Smarter Sentencing Act \|access\-date\=2015\-05\-21 \|archive\-date\=2015\-05\-29 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529003628/http://famm.org/s\-502\-the\-smarter\-sentencing\-act/ \|url\-status\=dead }} The House and Senate Committees on the Judiciary was the next step in the bill being passed into law. The hearings and testimony that occurred in 2013 in relation to the 2013 version continued to be on record and in support of the 2015 version.
The [United States Sentencing Commission](/wiki/United_States_Sentencing_Commission "United States Sentencing Commission") ( www.ussc.gov) prepared a publication called "Life Sentences in the Federal System" in February 2015\. The document discussed the sentencing guidelines causing life sentences to be issued for various types of offenses. It detailed the costs associated with inmates serving life sentences and detailed the consideration for public safety should modifying the guidelines and reducing the sentences occur.
In October 2015 [Bob Goodlatte](/wiki/Bob_Goodlatte "Bob Goodlatte") (R\-VA)revised it and used the name, H.R. 3713 Sentencing Reform Act of 2015\. Edits include language to define a serious violent felony and reducing the terms on a number of drug offenses. It was proposed to strike ... "mandatory life imprisonment... to ..."not less than 25 years. It also added language making the reforms applicable to past cases. The Senate bill, now named S.2123: [Sentencing Reform and Corrections Act](/wiki/Sentencing_Reform_and_Corrections_Act "Sentencing Reform and Corrections Act") of 2015, was revised by [Charles Grassley](/wiki/Charles_Grassley "Charles Grassley") R\-IA. The committees assigned to this bill passed the act by a vote of 15\-5 and sent it to the House or Senate as a whole for consideration on October 22, 2015\. On November 5, 2015 there was a significant move with the legislation. Both parties and both chambers of Congress agreed to revisions to federal sentencing guidelines and the mandatory minimums. The text of the 140 plus page bill was posted at the Judicial Committee's website,.[http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/10\-01\-15%20Sentencing%20Reform%20and%20Corrections%20Act%20\-%20Bill%20Text.pdf](http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/10-01-15%20Sentencing%20Reform%20and%20Corrections%20Act%20-%20Bill%20Text.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} Sentencing Reform and Corrections Act of 2015\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The bill was introduced on July 31, 2013, by Sen. [Richard Durbin](/wiki/Dick_Durbin \"Dick Durbin\") (D\\-IL) and referred to the Judiciary Committee on October 20, 2013\\. It is related to the [Justice Safety Valve Act of 2013](/wiki/Justice_Safety_Valve_Act_of_2013 \"Justice Safety Valve Act of 2013\"), the [Federal Prison Reform Act of 2013](/wiki/Federal_Prison_Reform_Act_of_2013 \"Federal Prison Reform Act of 2013\") (S. 1783\\) and others, in an effort to deal with the over\\-crowded, and under\\-funded, federal prison system.",
"Congressmen Bobby Scott (D\\-VA) and Raul Labrador (R\\-ID) introduced the Smarter Sentencing Act (H.R. 3382\\) in the [U.S. House of Representatives](/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives \"U.S. House of Representatives\"), and it gained cosponsors from both parties. In 2013, House Judiciary Committee Chairman Bob Goodlatte (R\\-VA) established a six\\-month, bipartisan Over\\-Criminalization Task Force to address the scope and size of the federal criminal code and regulations. The Task Force expired in November 2013, but advocates supported a re\\-authorization for another six\\-month term and asked the chairman to hold a hearing on sentencing laws. The House version of the Act had 18 co\\-sponsors by February 2014\\. The bill continued to gain momentum in the Senate and House. By June 2014, 25 co\\-sponsoring Senators (17 Democrat, 6 Republican and 2 Independent) joined to show their support. The House had 38 co\\-sponsors (24 Democrat and 14 Republican).",
"The bill did not have any further action in the legislative season as was re\\-introduced as the **Smarter Sentencing Act of 2015** (or S502\\) by [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") [Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senator \"United States Senator\") of [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\") [Mike Lee](/wiki/Mike_Lee \"Mike Lee\"). The House of Representatives version, known as HR920, was re\\-introduced by [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho \"Idaho\") [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") [Raul Labrador](/wiki/Raul_Labrador \"Raul Labrador\") in February 2015\\.",
"The Smarter Sentencing Act of 2015 was a continued effort from the Smarter Sentencing Act of 2013/2014\\. The Senate version of 2013/2014, called S 1410, was introduced by [Richard Durbin](/wiki/Dick_Durbin \"Dick Durbin\") (D\\-IL) and [Patrick Leahy](/wiki/Patrick_Leahy \"Patrick Leahy\") (D\\-VT). The [113th Congress](/wiki/113th_Congress \"113th Congress\") held several hearing and heard testimony through 2013 and 2014 without passage.",
"A Bi\\-partisan Summit on Criminal Justice Reform, met in March 2015 to discuss reforming America's criminal justice system and received national news coverage.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://huffingtonpost.com/2015/03/30/bipartisan\\-summit\\-criminal\\-justice\\_n\\_6971242\\.html\\|title\\=Democrats and Republicans in Congress Actually Found Something to Agree on\\|website\\=\\[\\[HuffPost]]\\|date\\=30 March 2015}} The Senate version (S.502\\) had gained 12 Bi\\-partisan co\\-sponsors by late May 2015; the house version (H.R.920\\) had 43 Bi\\-partisan co\\-sponsors by the same date. By the summer recess, H.R.920 had 52 co\\-sponsors and S. 502 had 12\\. Both version had been moved to committee for further discussion. The bill's Bi\\-Partisan support from both the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") and [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") [parties](/wiki/Political_party \"Political party\") helped increase its likelihood of moving through committee hearings. Additionally, organizations were behind the bill and actively encouraging its passage.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://famm.org/s\\-502\\-the\\-smarter\\-sentencing\\-act/ \\|title\\=S. 502 / H.R. 920, the Smarter Sentencing Act \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-29 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529003628/http://famm.org/s\\-502\\-the\\-smarter\\-sentencing\\-act/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The House and Senate Committees on the Judiciary was the next step in the bill being passed into law. The hearings and testimony that occurred in 2013 in relation to the 2013 version continued to be on record and in support of the 2015 version.",
"The [United States Sentencing Commission](/wiki/United_States_Sentencing_Commission \"United States Sentencing Commission\") ( www.ussc.gov) prepared a publication called \"Life Sentences in the Federal System\" in February 2015\\. The document discussed the sentencing guidelines causing life sentences to be issued for various types of offenses. It detailed the costs associated with inmates serving life sentences and detailed the consideration for public safety should modifying the guidelines and reducing the sentences occur.",
"In October 2015 [Bob Goodlatte](/wiki/Bob_Goodlatte \"Bob Goodlatte\") (R\\-VA)revised it and used the name, H.R. 3713 Sentencing Reform Act of 2015\\. Edits include language to define a serious violent felony and reducing the terms on a number of drug offenses. It was proposed to strike ... \"mandatory life imprisonment... to ...\"not less than 25 years. It also added language making the reforms applicable to past cases. The Senate bill, now named S.2123: [Sentencing Reform and Corrections Act](/wiki/Sentencing_Reform_and_Corrections_Act \"Sentencing Reform and Corrections Act\") of 2015, was revised by [Charles Grassley](/wiki/Charles_Grassley \"Charles Grassley\") R\\-IA. The committees assigned to this bill passed the act by a vote of 15\\-5 and sent it to the House or Senate as a whole for consideration on October 22, 2015\\. On November 5, 2015 there was a significant move with the legislation. Both parties and both chambers of Congress agreed to revisions to federal sentencing guidelines and the mandatory minimums. The text of the 140 plus page bill was posted at the Judicial Committee's website,.[http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/10\\-01\\-15%20Sentencing%20Reform%20and%20Corrections%20Act%20\\-%20Bill%20Text.pdf](http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/10-01-15%20Sentencing%20Reform%20and%20Corrections%20Act%20-%20Bill%20Text.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} Sentencing Reform and Corrections Act of 2015\\.",
""
] |
In other media
--------------
[DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics") published a comic book adaptation of *At the Earth's Core* that ran in *Korak, Son of Tarzan* \#46, then moved to *[Weird Worlds](/wiki/Weird_Worlds_%28comics%29 "Weird Worlds (comics)")* \#1–5, then continued with an adaptation of *Pellucidar* in \#6–7\. Another Pellucidar story appeared in *Tarzan Family* \#66\. Dark Horse Comics reprinted this in trade paperback in 2017\.
Pellucidar has appeared in one movie adaptation. The first novel was filmed as *[At the Earth's Core](/wiki/At_the_Earth%27s_Core_%28film%29 "At the Earth's Core (film)")* (1976\), directed by [Kevin Connor](/wiki/Kevin_Connor_%28director%29 "Kevin Connor (director)") with [Doug McClure](/wiki/Doug_McClure "Doug McClure") as David Innes and [Peter Cushing](/wiki/Peter_Cushing "Peter Cushing") as Abner Perry.{{IMDb title\|qid\=Q1199617\|id\=tt0074157\|title\=At the Earth's Core}}
Pellucidar appears in the *[Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle](/wiki/Tarzan%2C_Lord_of_the_Jungle "Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle")* episode "Tarzan at the Earth's Core".
The 1996 pilot of the TV series *[Tarzan: The Epic Adventures](/wiki/Tarzan:The_Epic_Adventures "The Epic Adventures")* also features Pellucidar, as well as the character Jana from the novel *Tarzan at the Earth's Core*. This story also features a race of Mahars who are able to transform into humanoid form. Also, in the 1996 novelization of [*Tarzan: The Epic Adventures*](/wiki/Tarzan:The_Epic_Adventures%23Novel "The Epic Adventures#Novel") by [R. A. Salvatore](/wiki/R._A._Salvatore "R. A. Salvatore"), based on the teleplay for the pilot of the series, Pellucidar is featured in the later part of the story. The story is inspired by *The Return of Tarzan* and *Tarzan at the Earth's Core*.
Pellucidar appears in a few episodes of the [Disney](/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company "The Walt Disney Company") cartoon series *[The Legend of Tarzan](/wiki/The_Legend_of_Tarzan_%28TV_series%29 "The Legend of Tarzan (TV series)")*, loosely inspired by *Tarzan at the Earth's Core*. In the show, however, Pellucidar is merely described as being a region below Africa where dinosaurs still live. None of the characteristics of it described in the novels are seen and the Mahars, Sagoths, Horibs, prehistoric mammals, stone age humans, and characters are not seen in this version of the inner world. In the episode "Tarzan and the Hidden World", Tarzan leads Professor Porter into Pellucidar so he can become famous before his rival, Professor Philander, who has also arrived in Africa. Professor Porter accidentally steals an egg from a [T\-rex](/wiki/Tyrannosaurus "Tyrannosaurus") and the dinosaur retaliates by chasing them. Philander's photographic proof of Pellucidar is ruined by a monkey who took photos with his camera. Pellucidar is mentioned again in "Tarzan and the Beast from Below". The episode revolves around some [Velociraptors](/wiki/Velociraptor "Velociraptor") which escaped from Pellucidar and scare Terk.
Pellucidar is revisited by Tarzan and is the central location of the Dark Horse Comics crossover *Tarzan vs. Predator: At the Earth's Core*, where Tarzan faces off against the alien [Predators](/wiki/Predator_%28franchise%29 "Predator (franchise)") in Pellucidar.
Pellucidar appears in the final episode of *[Tarzan and Jane](/wiki/Tarzan_and_Jane_%28TV_series%29 "Tarzan and Jane (TV series)")* along with [King Kong](/wiki/King_Kong "King Kong").
|
[
"In other media\n--------------",
"[DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\") published a comic book adaptation of *At the Earth's Core* that ran in *Korak, Son of Tarzan* \\#46, then moved to *[Weird Worlds](/wiki/Weird_Worlds_%28comics%29 \"Weird Worlds (comics)\")* \\#1–5, then continued with an adaptation of *Pellucidar* in \\#6–7\\. Another Pellucidar story appeared in *Tarzan Family* \\#66\\. Dark Horse Comics reprinted this in trade paperback in 2017\\.",
"Pellucidar has appeared in one movie adaptation. The first novel was filmed as *[At the Earth's Core](/wiki/At_the_Earth%27s_Core_%28film%29 \"At the Earth's Core (film)\")* (1976\\), directed by [Kevin Connor](/wiki/Kevin_Connor_%28director%29 \"Kevin Connor (director)\") with [Doug McClure](/wiki/Doug_McClure \"Doug McClure\") as David Innes and [Peter Cushing](/wiki/Peter_Cushing \"Peter Cushing\") as Abner Perry.{{IMDb title\\|qid\\=Q1199617\\|id\\=tt0074157\\|title\\=At the Earth's Core}}",
"Pellucidar appears in the *[Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle](/wiki/Tarzan%2C_Lord_of_the_Jungle \"Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle\")* episode \"Tarzan at the Earth's Core\".",
"The 1996 pilot of the TV series *[Tarzan: The Epic Adventures](/wiki/Tarzan:The_Epic_Adventures \"The Epic Adventures\")* also features Pellucidar, as well as the character Jana from the novel *Tarzan at the Earth's Core*. This story also features a race of Mahars who are able to transform into humanoid form. Also, in the 1996 novelization of [*Tarzan: The Epic Adventures*](/wiki/Tarzan:The_Epic_Adventures%23Novel \"The Epic Adventures#Novel\") by [R. A. Salvatore](/wiki/R._A._Salvatore \"R. A. Salvatore\"), based on the teleplay for the pilot of the series, Pellucidar is featured in the later part of the story. The story is inspired by *The Return of Tarzan* and *Tarzan at the Earth's Core*.",
"Pellucidar appears in a few episodes of the [Disney](/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company \"The Walt Disney Company\") cartoon series *[The Legend of Tarzan](/wiki/The_Legend_of_Tarzan_%28TV_series%29 \"The Legend of Tarzan (TV series)\")*, loosely inspired by *Tarzan at the Earth's Core*. In the show, however, Pellucidar is merely described as being a region below Africa where dinosaurs still live. None of the characteristics of it described in the novels are seen and the Mahars, Sagoths, Horibs, prehistoric mammals, stone age humans, and characters are not seen in this version of the inner world. In the episode \"Tarzan and the Hidden World\", Tarzan leads Professor Porter into Pellucidar so he can become famous before his rival, Professor Philander, who has also arrived in Africa. Professor Porter accidentally steals an egg from a [T\\-rex](/wiki/Tyrannosaurus \"Tyrannosaurus\") and the dinosaur retaliates by chasing them. Philander's photographic proof of Pellucidar is ruined by a monkey who took photos with his camera. Pellucidar is mentioned again in \"Tarzan and the Beast from Below\". The episode revolves around some [Velociraptors](/wiki/Velociraptor \"Velociraptor\") which escaped from Pellucidar and scare Terk.",
"Pellucidar is revisited by Tarzan and is the central location of the Dark Horse Comics crossover *Tarzan vs. Predator: At the Earth's Core*, where Tarzan faces off against the alien [Predators](/wiki/Predator_%28franchise%29 \"Predator (franchise)\") in Pellucidar.",
"Pellucidar appears in the final episode of *[Tarzan and Jane](/wiki/Tarzan_and_Jane_%28TV_series%29 \"Tarzan and Jane (TV series)\")* along with [King Kong](/wiki/King_Kong \"King Kong\").",
""
] |
Career
------
In 1973 Jacoby launched his entrepreneurial career in real estate scouting and assembling sites for developing and redeveloping various projects. Jacoby developed multiple retail projects and began a relationship with [Wal\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart "Wal-Mart") in the late 1970s. This relationship lead to the formation of what would eventually become Jacoby Development, Inc. and the development of 40 [Wal\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart "Wal-Mart") anchored shopping centers on the [East Coast](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States "East Coast of the United States") throughout his career.
Describing his feelings as a crisis of consciousness, Jacoby realized that his goal was to build more than just shopping centers; he was interested in creating healthy communities that would last for years to come. A [visionary](/wiki/Visionary "Visionary"), Jacoby began focusing on environmentally\-friendly and long\-term [sustainable development](/wiki/Sustainable_development "Sustainable development") before it became a trend.
In 1997, Jacoby contracted the site of the former [Atlantic Steel](/wiki/Atlantic_Steel "Atlantic Steel") mill in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta%2C_Georgia "Atlanta, Georgia") in partnership with [AIG](/wiki/AIG "AIG") and in 1999 they collectively built [Atlantic Station](/wiki/Atlantic_Station%2C_Atlanta "Atlantic Station, Atlanta"), now widely used as a [case study](/wiki/Case_study "Case study") for successful transformation of a [brownfield site](/wiki/Brownfield_land "Brownfield land") to a [LEED](/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design "Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design") certified campus. [Atlantic Station](/wiki/Atlantic_Station%2C_Atlanta "Atlantic Station, Atlanta") was the first [LEED certified](/wiki/LEED_certified "LEED certified") campus in the U.S. and includes offices, retail, residences, hotel, a major grocery store, restaurants, a movie theater, and more. During the ten years required for creating this livable and workable space, Jacoby took on the cleaning of the former steel mill site, and laid out the [infrastructure](/wiki/Infrastructure "Infrastructure"), including a bridge across I\-75 and I\-85 to connect [Atlantic Station](/wiki/Atlantic_Station%2C_Atlanta "Atlantic Station, Atlanta") with the east side of [Midtown Atlanta](/wiki/Midtown_Atlanta "Midtown Atlanta").
In 2001 Jim acquired the aging Marineland property just south of [St. Augustine, Florida](/wiki/St._Augustine%2C_Florida "St. Augustine, Florida"). Originally built in 1938 to film underwater scenes and movies, Marineland morphed into a [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida") tourist attraction featuring aquatic life exhibits and dolphin shows. After it was damaged by a hurricane, Jacoby acquired the dolphin attraction as well as related real estate and redeveloped the entire park to a modern dolphin facility focused on education and animal/human interaction, and formed an operating partnership with the [Georgia Aquarium](/wiki/Georgia_Aquarium "Georgia Aquarium"). Marineland reopened in 2006 with new programs and experiences available to the public. On [New Year's Day](/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day "New Year's Day"), 2011, Jacoby sold Marineland to the [Georgia Aquarium](/wiki/Georgia_Aquarium "Georgia Aquarium").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.ajc.com/news/business/georgia\-aquarium\-buys\-floridas\-marineland/nQpNR/\|first\=Melissa \|last\=Ruggieri\|work\=The Atlanta Journal\-Constitution\|title\=Georgia Aquarium buys Florida's Marineland\|date\=January 4, 2011}}
A decommissioned [Ford Taurus](/wiki/Ford_Taurus "Ford Taurus") assembly plant in [Hapeville, Georgia](/wiki/Hapeville%2C_Georgia "Hapeville, Georgia") adjacent to the [Hartsfield\-Jackson Atlanta International Airport](/wiki/Hartsfield-Jackson_Atlanta_International_Airport "Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport") the world's busiest airport, was acquired by Jacoby in 2008\. The plant was demolished and the site remediated, and re\-christened [Aerotropolis](/wiki/Aerotropolis "Aerotropolis") Atlanta. The site has been subdivided, and portions have been sold to buyers, including [Porsche](/wiki/Porsche "Porsche") and the [Atlanta Hartsfield\-Jackson International Airport](/wiki/Atlanta_Hartsfield-Jackson_International_Airport "Atlanta Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport"). On November 27, 2012, Porsche broke ground for construction of its new North American Headquarters and driving experience center, located at One Porsche Drive, which will be anchor of the redevelopment.
In 1999, Jacoby acquired a former asphalt production site in Whitemarsh, Maryland. The redevelopment of the site, which included clean\-up of contaminated groundwater and soils has become one of the largest [brownfield](/wiki/Brownfield "Brownfield") redevelopments in the state of [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland"). The site is now home to a [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors") Allison Transmission plant, a [Federal Express](/wiki/Federal_Express "Federal Express") regional distribution center, hotel, bank and building materials supplier.
In 2009 Jacoby acquired the [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia") [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") Plant which is envisioned to become a manufacturing and logistics park due to its accessibility from rail, highways and sea. A portion of this was sold to Katoen Natie, a global logistics provider, bringing an estimated 425 jobs to the Norfolk area.
In February 2009 the landfill gas Live Oak project in Atlanta injected its first bio methane gas into the Atlanta gas light company system. Jacoby initiated this project a few years before the first injection and sold the project to a French company in January 2012\.
The future Azalea Solar Park will be the largest of its kind in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)") and is scheduled to open for production in 2013\. Located in [Washington County, Georgia](/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Georgia "Washington County, Georgia"), the site, acquired in 2012 is currently under development. Upon completion, it will produce 10 [megawatts](/wiki/Megawatts "Megawatts") of power from ground\-mounted [photovoltaic panels](/wiki/Photovoltaic_panels "Photovoltaic panels").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In 1973 Jacoby launched his entrepreneurial career in real estate scouting and assembling sites for developing and redeveloping various projects. Jacoby developed multiple retail projects and began a relationship with [Wal\\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart \"Wal-Mart\") in the late 1970s. This relationship lead to the formation of what would eventually become Jacoby Development, Inc. and the development of 40 [Wal\\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart \"Wal-Mart\") anchored shopping centers on the [East Coast](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States \"East Coast of the United States\") throughout his career.",
"Describing his feelings as a crisis of consciousness, Jacoby realized that his goal was to build more than just shopping centers; he was interested in creating healthy communities that would last for years to come. A [visionary](/wiki/Visionary \"Visionary\"), Jacoby began focusing on environmentally\\-friendly and long\\-term [sustainable development](/wiki/Sustainable_development \"Sustainable development\") before it became a trend.",
"In 1997, Jacoby contracted the site of the former [Atlantic Steel](/wiki/Atlantic_Steel \"Atlantic Steel\") mill in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta%2C_Georgia \"Atlanta, Georgia\") in partnership with [AIG](/wiki/AIG \"AIG\") and in 1999 they collectively built [Atlantic Station](/wiki/Atlantic_Station%2C_Atlanta \"Atlantic Station, Atlanta\"), now widely used as a [case study](/wiki/Case_study \"Case study\") for successful transformation of a [brownfield site](/wiki/Brownfield_land \"Brownfield land\") to a [LEED](/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design \"Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design\") certified campus. [Atlantic Station](/wiki/Atlantic_Station%2C_Atlanta \"Atlantic Station, Atlanta\") was the first [LEED certified](/wiki/LEED_certified \"LEED certified\") campus in the U.S. and includes offices, retail, residences, hotel, a major grocery store, restaurants, a movie theater, and more. During the ten years required for creating this livable and workable space, Jacoby took on the cleaning of the former steel mill site, and laid out the [infrastructure](/wiki/Infrastructure \"Infrastructure\"), including a bridge across I\\-75 and I\\-85 to connect [Atlantic Station](/wiki/Atlantic_Station%2C_Atlanta \"Atlantic Station, Atlanta\") with the east side of [Midtown Atlanta](/wiki/Midtown_Atlanta \"Midtown Atlanta\").",
"In 2001 Jim acquired the aging Marineland property just south of [St. Augustine, Florida](/wiki/St._Augustine%2C_Florida \"St. Augustine, Florida\"). Originally built in 1938 to film underwater scenes and movies, Marineland morphed into a [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\") tourist attraction featuring aquatic life exhibits and dolphin shows. After it was damaged by a hurricane, Jacoby acquired the dolphin attraction as well as related real estate and redeveloped the entire park to a modern dolphin facility focused on education and animal/human interaction, and formed an operating partnership with the [Georgia Aquarium](/wiki/Georgia_Aquarium \"Georgia Aquarium\"). Marineland reopened in 2006 with new programs and experiences available to the public. On [New Year's Day](/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day \"New Year's Day\"), 2011, Jacoby sold Marineland to the [Georgia Aquarium](/wiki/Georgia_Aquarium \"Georgia Aquarium\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ajc.com/news/business/georgia\\-aquarium\\-buys\\-floridas\\-marineland/nQpNR/\\|first\\=Melissa \\|last\\=Ruggieri\\|work\\=The Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution\\|title\\=Georgia Aquarium buys Florida's Marineland\\|date\\=January 4, 2011}}",
"A decommissioned [Ford Taurus](/wiki/Ford_Taurus \"Ford Taurus\") assembly plant in [Hapeville, Georgia](/wiki/Hapeville%2C_Georgia \"Hapeville, Georgia\") adjacent to the [Hartsfield\\-Jackson Atlanta International Airport](/wiki/Hartsfield-Jackson_Atlanta_International_Airport \"Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport\") the world's busiest airport, was acquired by Jacoby in 2008\\. The plant was demolished and the site remediated, and re\\-christened [Aerotropolis](/wiki/Aerotropolis \"Aerotropolis\") Atlanta. The site has been subdivided, and portions have been sold to buyers, including [Porsche](/wiki/Porsche \"Porsche\") and the [Atlanta Hartsfield\\-Jackson International Airport](/wiki/Atlanta_Hartsfield-Jackson_International_Airport \"Atlanta Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport\"). On November 27, 2012, Porsche broke ground for construction of its new North American Headquarters and driving experience center, located at One Porsche Drive, which will be anchor of the redevelopment.",
"In 1999, Jacoby acquired a former asphalt production site in Whitemarsh, Maryland. The redevelopment of the site, which included clean\\-up of contaminated groundwater and soils has become one of the largest [brownfield](/wiki/Brownfield \"Brownfield\") redevelopments in the state of [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\"). The site is now home to a [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\") Allison Transmission plant, a [Federal Express](/wiki/Federal_Express \"Federal Express\") regional distribution center, hotel, bank and building materials supplier.",
"In 2009 Jacoby acquired the [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\") [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") Plant which is envisioned to become a manufacturing and logistics park due to its accessibility from rail, highways and sea. A portion of this was sold to Katoen Natie, a global logistics provider, bringing an estimated 425 jobs to the Norfolk area.",
"In February 2009 the landfill gas Live Oak project in Atlanta injected its first bio methane gas into the Atlanta gas light company system. Jacoby initiated this project a few years before the first injection and sold the project to a French company in January 2012\\.",
"The future Azalea Solar Park will be the largest of its kind in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\") and is scheduled to open for production in 2013\\. Located in [Washington County, Georgia](/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Georgia \"Washington County, Georgia\"), the site, acquired in 2012 is currently under development. Upon completion, it will produce 10 [megawatts](/wiki/Megawatts \"Megawatts\") of power from ground\\-mounted [photovoltaic panels](/wiki/Photovoltaic_panels \"Photovoltaic panels\").",
""
] |
Informal definition
-------------------
Let *F* be a category and suppose it is [fibered over *C*](/wiki/Fibered_category "Fibered category") through the functor p: F \\to C; this means that one can construct pullbacks along morphisms in *C*, up to canonical isomorphisms.
Given an object *U* in *C* and objects *x*, *y* in F(U) \= p^{\-1}(U), for each morphism f: V \\to U in *C*, after fixing pullbacks f^\*x, f^\*y, we let{{harvnb\|Vistoli\|2005\|loc\=§ 3\.7\.}}{{harvnb\|Behrend\|Conrad\|Edidin\|Fulton\|2006\|loc\=Ch. 4\., § 1\.}}
\\underline{\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y)(V \\overset{f}\\to U) \= \[\\operatorname{Hom}(f^\*x, f^\*y)]
be the set of all morphisms from f^\* x to f^\* y; here, the bracket means we canonically identify different Hom sets resulting from different choices of pullbacks. For each g: W \\to V over *U*, define the restriction map from *f* to *g*: \\underline{\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y)(V \\overset{f}\\to U) \\to \\underline{\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y)(W \\overset{f \\circ g}\\to U)
to be the composition
\[\\operatorname{Hom}(f^\* x, f^\*y)] \\overset{g^\*}\\to \[\\operatorname{Hom}(g^\* (f^\* x), g^\* (f^\*y))] \= \[\\operatorname{Hom}((f \\circ g)^\* x, (f \\circ g)^\*y)]
where a canonical isomorphism g^\* \\circ f^\* \\simeq (f \\circ g)^\* is used to get the \= on the right. Then \\underline{\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y) is a [presheaf](/wiki/Presheaf_%28category_theory%29 "Presheaf (category theory)") on the [slice category](/wiki/Slice_category "Slice category") C\_{/U}, the category of all morphisms in *C* with target *U*.
By definition, *F* is a prestack if, for each pair *x*, *y*, \\underline{\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y) is a [sheaf of sets](/wiki/Sheaf_of_sets "Sheaf of sets") with respect to the induced [Grothendieck topology](/wiki/Grothendieck_topology "Grothendieck topology") on C\_{/U}.
This definition can be equivalently phrased as follows.{{harvnb\|Vistoli\|2005\|loc\=Definition 4\.6\.}} First, for each covering family \\{ V\_i \\to U \\}, we "define" the category F(\\{ V\_i \\to U \\}) as a category where: writing p\_1: V\_i \\times\_U V\_j \\to V\_i, \\, p\_{12}: V\_i \\times\_U V\_j \\times\_U V\_k \\to V\_i \\times\_U V\_j, etc.,
1. an object is a set \\{ (x\_i, \\varphi\_{ij}) \\} of pairs consisting of objects x\_i in F(V\_i) and isomorphisms \\varphi\_{ij}: p\_2^\* x\_j \\overset{\\sim}\\to p\_1^\* x\_i that satisfy the cocycle condition: p\_{13}^\* \\varphi\_{ik} \= p\_{12}^\* \\varphi\_{ij} \\circ p\_{23}^\* \\varphi\_{jk}
2. a morphism \\{ (x\_i, \\varphi\_{ij}) \\} \\to \\{ (y\_i, \\psi\_{ij}) \\} consists of \\alpha\_i: x\_i \\to y\_i in F(V\_i) such that\\psi\_{ij} \\circ p\_2^\* \\alpha\_j \= p\_1^\* \\alpha\_i \\circ \\varphi\_{ij}.
An object of this category is called a descent datum. This category is *not well\-defined*; the issue is that the pullbacks are determined only up to canonical isomorphisms; similarly fiber products are defined only up to canonical isomorphisms, despite the notational practice to the contrary. In practice, one simply makes some canonical identifications of pullbacks, their compositions, fiber products, etc.; up to such identifications, the above category is well\-defined (in other words, it is defined up to a canonical equivalence of categories.)
There is an obvious functor F(U) \\to F(\\{ V\_i \\to U \\}) that sends an object to the descent datum that it defines. One can then say: *F* is a prestack if and only if, for each covering family \\{ V\_i \\to U \\}, the functor F(U) \\to F(\\{ V\_i \\to U \\}) is fully faithful. A statement like this is independent of choices of canonical identifications mentioned early.
The essential image of F(U) \\to F(\\{ V\_i \\to U \\}) consists precisely of effective descent data (just the definition of "effective"). Thus, *F* is a stack if and only if, for each covering family \\{ V\_i \\to U \\}, F(U) \\to F(\\{ V\_i \\to U \\}) is an equivalence of categories.
These reformulations of the definitions of prestacks and stacks make intuitive meanings of those concepts very explicit: (1\) "fibered category" means one can construct a pullback (2\) "prestack in groupoids" additionally means "locally isomorphic" implies "isomorphic" (3\) "stack in groupoids" means, in addition to the previous properties, a global object can be constructed from local data subject to cocycle conditions. All these work up *to canonical isomorphisms*.
|
[
"Informal definition\n-------------------",
"Let *F* be a category and suppose it is [fibered over *C*](/wiki/Fibered_category \"Fibered category\") through the functor p: F \\\\to C; this means that one can construct pullbacks along morphisms in *C*, up to canonical isomorphisms.",
"Given an object *U* in *C* and objects *x*, *y* in F(U) \\= p^{\\-1}(U), for each morphism f: V \\\\to U in *C*, after fixing pullbacks f^\\*x, f^\\*y, we let{{harvnb\\|Vistoli\\|2005\\|loc\\=§ 3\\.7\\.}}{{harvnb\\|Behrend\\|Conrad\\|Edidin\\|Fulton\\|2006\\|loc\\=Ch. 4\\., § 1\\.}}\n\\\\underline{\\\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y)(V \\\\overset{f}\\\\to U) \\= \\[\\\\operatorname{Hom}(f^\\*x, f^\\*y)]\nbe the set of all morphisms from f^\\* x to f^\\* y; here, the bracket means we canonically identify different Hom sets resulting from different choices of pullbacks. For each g: W \\\\to V over *U*, define the restriction map from *f* to *g*: \\\\underline{\\\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y)(V \\\\overset{f}\\\\to U) \\\\to \\\\underline{\\\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y)(W \\\\overset{f \\\\circ g}\\\\to U)\nto be the composition\n\\[\\\\operatorname{Hom}(f^\\* x, f^\\*y)] \\\\overset{g^\\*}\\\\to \\[\\\\operatorname{Hom}(g^\\* (f^\\* x), g^\\* (f^\\*y))] \\= \\[\\\\operatorname{Hom}((f \\\\circ g)^\\* x, (f \\\\circ g)^\\*y)]\nwhere a canonical isomorphism g^\\* \\\\circ f^\\* \\\\simeq (f \\\\circ g)^\\* is used to get the \\= on the right. Then \\\\underline{\\\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y) is a [presheaf](/wiki/Presheaf_%28category_theory%29 \"Presheaf (category theory)\") on the [slice category](/wiki/Slice_category \"Slice category\") C\\_{/U}, the category of all morphisms in *C* with target *U*.",
"By definition, *F* is a prestack if, for each pair *x*, *y*, \\\\underline{\\\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y) is a [sheaf of sets](/wiki/Sheaf_of_sets \"Sheaf of sets\") with respect to the induced [Grothendieck topology](/wiki/Grothendieck_topology \"Grothendieck topology\") on C\\_{/U}.",
"This definition can be equivalently phrased as follows.{{harvnb\\|Vistoli\\|2005\\|loc\\=Definition 4\\.6\\.}} First, for each covering family \\\\{ V\\_i \\\\to U \\\\}, we \"define\" the category F(\\\\{ V\\_i \\\\to U \\\\}) as a category where: writing p\\_1: V\\_i \\\\times\\_U V\\_j \\\\to V\\_i, \\\\, p\\_{12}: V\\_i \\\\times\\_U V\\_j \\\\times\\_U V\\_k \\\\to V\\_i \\\\times\\_U V\\_j, etc.,\n1. an object is a set \\\\{ (x\\_i, \\\\varphi\\_{ij}) \\\\} of pairs consisting of objects x\\_i in F(V\\_i) and isomorphisms \\\\varphi\\_{ij}: p\\_2^\\* x\\_j \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to p\\_1^\\* x\\_i that satisfy the cocycle condition: p\\_{13}^\\* \\\\varphi\\_{ik} \\= p\\_{12}^\\* \\\\varphi\\_{ij} \\\\circ p\\_{23}^\\* \\\\varphi\\_{jk}\n2. a morphism \\\\{ (x\\_i, \\\\varphi\\_{ij}) \\\\} \\\\to \\\\{ (y\\_i, \\\\psi\\_{ij}) \\\\} consists of \\\\alpha\\_i: x\\_i \\\\to y\\_i in F(V\\_i) such that\\\\psi\\_{ij} \\\\circ p\\_2^\\* \\\\alpha\\_j \\= p\\_1^\\* \\\\alpha\\_i \\\\circ \\\\varphi\\_{ij}.\nAn object of this category is called a descent datum. This category is *not well\\-defined*; the issue is that the pullbacks are determined only up to canonical isomorphisms; similarly fiber products are defined only up to canonical isomorphisms, despite the notational practice to the contrary. In practice, one simply makes some canonical identifications of pullbacks, their compositions, fiber products, etc.; up to such identifications, the above category is well\\-defined (in other words, it is defined up to a canonical equivalence of categories.)",
"There is an obvious functor F(U) \\\\to F(\\\\{ V\\_i \\\\to U \\\\}) that sends an object to the descent datum that it defines. One can then say: *F* is a prestack if and only if, for each covering family \\\\{ V\\_i \\\\to U \\\\}, the functor F(U) \\\\to F(\\\\{ V\\_i \\\\to U \\\\}) is fully faithful. A statement like this is independent of choices of canonical identifications mentioned early.",
"The essential image of F(U) \\\\to F(\\\\{ V\\_i \\\\to U \\\\}) consists precisely of effective descent data (just the definition of \"effective\"). Thus, *F* is a stack if and only if, for each covering family \\\\{ V\\_i \\\\to U \\\\}, F(U) \\\\to F(\\\\{ V\\_i \\\\to U \\\\}) is an equivalence of categories.",
"These reformulations of the definitions of prestacks and stacks make intuitive meanings of those concepts very explicit: (1\\) \"fibered category\" means one can construct a pullback (2\\) \"prestack in groupoids\" additionally means \"locally isomorphic\" implies \"isomorphic\" (3\\) \"stack in groupoids\" means, in addition to the previous properties, a global object can be constructed from local data subject to cocycle conditions. All these work up *to canonical isomorphisms*.",
""
] |
Morphisms
---------
{{see also\|Morphism of algebraic stacks}}
### Definitions
Given prestacks p: F \\to C, q: G \\to C over the fixed base category *C*, a morphism f: F \\to G is a functor such that (1\) q \\circ f \= p and (2\) it maps cartesian morphisms to cartesian morphisms. Note (2\) is automatic if *G* is fibered in groupoids; e.g., an algebraic stack (since all morphisms are cartesian then.)
If p: F\_S \\to C is the [stack associated to a scheme](/wiki/Stack_associated_to_a_scheme "Stack associated to a scheme") *S* in the base category *C*, then the fiber p^{\-1}(U) \= F\_S(U) is, by construction, the set of all morphisms from *U* to *S* in *C*. Analogously, given a scheme *U* in *C* viewed as a stack (i.e., F\_U) and a category *F* fibered in groupoids over *C*, the [2\-Yoneda lemma](/wiki/2-Yoneda_lemma "2-Yoneda lemma") says: there is a natural equivalence of categories{{harvnb\|Vistoli\|2005\|loc\=§ 3\.6\.2\.}}
\\operatorname{Funct}\_C(U, F) \\overset{\\chi \\mapsto \\chi(1\_U)}\\to F(U)
where \\operatorname{Funct}\_C refers to the relative [functor category](/wiki/Functor_category "Functor category"); the objects are the functors from *U* to *F* over *C* and the morphisms are the base\-preserving natural transformations.{{harvnb\|Vistoli\|2005\|loc\=Definition 3\.33\.}}
### Fiber product
Let f: F \\to B, g: G \\to B be morphisms of prestacks. Then, by definition,{{harvnb\|Behrend\|Conrad\|Edidin\|Fulton\|2006\|loc\=Definition 2\.25\.}} the fiber product F \\times\_{B, f, g} G \= F \\times\_B G is the category where
1. an object is a triple (x, y, \\psi) consisting of an object *x* in *F*, an object *y* in *G*, both over the same object in *C*, and an isomorphism \\psi: f(x) \\overset{\\sim}\\to g(y) in *G* over the identity morphism in *C*, and
2. a morphism (x, y, \\psi) \\to (x', y', \\psi') consists of \\alpha: x \\to x' in *F*, \\beta: y \\to y' in *G*, both over the same morphism in *C*, such that g(\\beta) \\circ \\psi \= \\psi' \\circ f(\\alpha).
It comes with the forgetful functors *p*, *q* from F \\times\_B G to *F* and *G*.
This fiber product behaves like a usual fiber product but up to natural isomorphisms. The meaning of this is the following. Firstly, the obvious square does not commute; instead, for each object (x, y, \\psi) in F \\times\_B G:
\\psi: (f \\circ p)(x, y, \\psi) \= f(x) \\overset{\\sim}\\to g(y) \= (g \\circ q)(x, y, \\psi).
That is, there is an invertible [natural transformation](/wiki/Natural_transformation "Natural transformation") (\= natural isomorphism)
\\Psi: f \\circ p \\overset{\\sim}\\to g \\circ q.
Secondly, it satisfies the strict universal property: given a prestack *H*, morphisms u: H \\to F, v: H \\to G, a natural isomorphism f \\circ u \\overset{\\sim}\\to g \\circ v, there exists a w: H \\to F \\times\_B G together with natural isomorphisms u \\overset{\\sim}\\to p \\circ w and q \\circ w \\overset{\\sim}\\to v such that f \\circ u \\overset{\\sim}\\to g \\circ v is f \\circ p \\circ w \\overset{\\sim}\\to g \\circ q \\circ w. In general, a fiber product of *F* and *G* over *B* is a prestack canonically isomorphic to F \\times\_B G above.
When *B* is the base category *C* (the prestack over itself), *B* is dropped and one simply writes F \\times G. Note, in this case, \\psi in objects are all identities.
**Example**: For each prestack p: X \\to C, there is the diagonal morphism \\Delta: X \\to X \\times X given by x \\mapsto (x, x, 1\_{p(x)}).
**Example**: Given F\_i \\to B\_i, G\_i \\to B\_i, \\, i \= 1, 2, (F\_1 \\times F\_2\) \\times\_{B\_1 \\times B\_2} (G\_1 \\times G\_2\) \\simeq (F\_1 \\times\_{B\_1} G\_1\) \\times (F\_2 \\times\_{B\_2} G\_2\).{{harvnb\|Behrend\|Conrad\|Edidin\|Fulton\|2006\|loc\=Example 2\.29\.}}
**Example**: Given f: F \\to B, g: G \\to B and the diagonal morphism \\Delta: B \\to B \\times B,
F \\times\_B G \\simeq (F \\times G) \\times\_{B \\times B, f \\times g, \\Delta} B;
this isomorphism is constructed simply by hand.
### Representable morphisms
A morphism of prestacks f: X \\to Y is said to be **strongly representable** if, for every morphism S \\to Y from a scheme *S* in *C* viewed as a prestack, the fiber product X \\times\_Y S of prestacks is a scheme in *C*.
In particular, the definition applies to the structure map p: X \\to C (the base category *C* is a prestack over itself via the identity). Then *p* is strongly representable if and only if X \\simeq X \\times\_C C is a scheme in *C*.
The definition applies also to the diagonal morphism \\Delta: X \\to X \\times X. If \\Delta is strongly representable, then every morphism U \\to X from a scheme *U* is strongly representable since U \\times\_X T \\simeq (U \\times T) \\times\_{X \\times X} X is strongly representable for any *T* → *X*.
If f: X \\to Y is a strongly representable morphism, for any S \\to Y, *S* a scheme viewed as a prestack, the projection X \\times\_Y S \\to S is a [morphism of schemes](/wiki/Morphism_of_schemes "Morphism of schemes"); this allows one to transfer many notions of properties on morphisms of schemes to the stack context. Namely, let **P** be a property on morphisms in the base category *C* that is stable under base changes and that is local on the topology of *C* (e.g., [étale topology](/wiki/%C3%89tale_topology "Étale topology") or [smooth topology](/wiki/Smooth_topology_%28algebraic_geometry%29 "Smooth topology (algebraic geometry)")). Then a strongly representable morphism f: X \\to Y of prestacks is said to have the property **P** if, for every morphism T \\to Y, *T* a scheme viewed as a prestack, the induced projection X \\times\_Y T \\to T has the property **P**.
|
[
"Morphisms\n---------",
"{{see also\\|Morphism of algebraic stacks}}",
"### Definitions",
"Given prestacks p: F \\\\to C, q: G \\\\to C over the fixed base category *C*, a morphism f: F \\\\to G is a functor such that (1\\) q \\\\circ f \\= p and (2\\) it maps cartesian morphisms to cartesian morphisms. Note (2\\) is automatic if *G* is fibered in groupoids; e.g., an algebraic stack (since all morphisms are cartesian then.)",
"If p: F\\_S \\\\to C is the [stack associated to a scheme](/wiki/Stack_associated_to_a_scheme \"Stack associated to a scheme\") *S* in the base category *C*, then the fiber p^{\\-1}(U) \\= F\\_S(U) is, by construction, the set of all morphisms from *U* to *S* in *C*. Analogously, given a scheme *U* in *C* viewed as a stack (i.e., F\\_U) and a category *F* fibered in groupoids over *C*, the [2\\-Yoneda lemma](/wiki/2-Yoneda_lemma \"2-Yoneda lemma\") says: there is a natural equivalence of categories{{harvnb\\|Vistoli\\|2005\\|loc\\=§ 3\\.6\\.2\\.}}\n\\\\operatorname{Funct}\\_C(U, F) \\\\overset{\\\\chi \\\\mapsto \\\\chi(1\\_U)}\\\\to F(U)\nwhere \\\\operatorname{Funct}\\_C refers to the relative [functor category](/wiki/Functor_category \"Functor category\"); the objects are the functors from *U* to *F* over *C* and the morphisms are the base\\-preserving natural transformations.{{harvnb\\|Vistoli\\|2005\\|loc\\=Definition 3\\.33\\.}}",
"### Fiber product",
"Let f: F \\\\to B, g: G \\\\to B be morphisms of prestacks. Then, by definition,{{harvnb\\|Behrend\\|Conrad\\|Edidin\\|Fulton\\|2006\\|loc\\=Definition 2\\.25\\.}} the fiber product F \\\\times\\_{B, f, g} G \\= F \\\\times\\_B G is the category where\n1. an object is a triple (x, y, \\\\psi) consisting of an object *x* in *F*, an object *y* in *G*, both over the same object in *C*, and an isomorphism \\\\psi: f(x) \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to g(y) in *G* over the identity morphism in *C*, and\n2. a morphism (x, y, \\\\psi) \\\\to (x', y', \\\\psi') consists of \\\\alpha: x \\\\to x' in *F*, \\\\beta: y \\\\to y' in *G*, both over the same morphism in *C*, such that g(\\\\beta) \\\\circ \\\\psi \\= \\\\psi' \\\\circ f(\\\\alpha).\nIt comes with the forgetful functors *p*, *q* from F \\\\times\\_B G to *F* and *G*.",
"This fiber product behaves like a usual fiber product but up to natural isomorphisms. The meaning of this is the following. Firstly, the obvious square does not commute; instead, for each object (x, y, \\\\psi) in F \\\\times\\_B G:\n\\\\psi: (f \\\\circ p)(x, y, \\\\psi) \\= f(x) \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to g(y) \\= (g \\\\circ q)(x, y, \\\\psi).\nThat is, there is an invertible [natural transformation](/wiki/Natural_transformation \"Natural transformation\") (\\= natural isomorphism)\n\\\\Psi: f \\\\circ p \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to g \\\\circ q.\nSecondly, it satisfies the strict universal property: given a prestack *H*, morphisms u: H \\\\to F, v: H \\\\to G, a natural isomorphism f \\\\circ u \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to g \\\\circ v, there exists a w: H \\\\to F \\\\times\\_B G together with natural isomorphisms u \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to p \\\\circ w and q \\\\circ w \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to v such that f \\\\circ u \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to g \\\\circ v is f \\\\circ p \\\\circ w \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to g \\\\circ q \\\\circ w. In general, a fiber product of *F* and *G* over *B* is a prestack canonically isomorphic to F \\\\times\\_B G above.",
"When *B* is the base category *C* (the prestack over itself), *B* is dropped and one simply writes F \\\\times G. Note, in this case, \\\\psi in objects are all identities.",
"**Example**: For each prestack p: X \\\\to C, there is the diagonal morphism \\\\Delta: X \\\\to X \\\\times X given by x \\\\mapsto (x, x, 1\\_{p(x)}).",
"**Example**: Given F\\_i \\\\to B\\_i, G\\_i \\\\to B\\_i, \\\\, i \\= 1, 2, (F\\_1 \\\\times F\\_2\\) \\\\times\\_{B\\_1 \\\\times B\\_2} (G\\_1 \\\\times G\\_2\\) \\\\simeq (F\\_1 \\\\times\\_{B\\_1} G\\_1\\) \\\\times (F\\_2 \\\\times\\_{B\\_2} G\\_2\\).{{harvnb\\|Behrend\\|Conrad\\|Edidin\\|Fulton\\|2006\\|loc\\=Example 2\\.29\\.}}",
"**Example**: Given f: F \\\\to B, g: G \\\\to B and the diagonal morphism \\\\Delta: B \\\\to B \\\\times B,\nF \\\\times\\_B G \\\\simeq (F \\\\times G) \\\\times\\_{B \\\\times B, f \\\\times g, \\\\Delta} B;\nthis isomorphism is constructed simply by hand.",
"### Representable morphisms",
"A morphism of prestacks f: X \\\\to Y is said to be **strongly representable** if, for every morphism S \\\\to Y from a scheme *S* in *C* viewed as a prestack, the fiber product X \\\\times\\_Y S of prestacks is a scheme in *C*.",
"In particular, the definition applies to the structure map p: X \\\\to C (the base category *C* is a prestack over itself via the identity). Then *p* is strongly representable if and only if X \\\\simeq X \\\\times\\_C C is a scheme in *C*.",
"The definition applies also to the diagonal morphism \\\\Delta: X \\\\to X \\\\times X. If \\\\Delta is strongly representable, then every morphism U \\\\to X from a scheme *U* is strongly representable since U \\\\times\\_X T \\\\simeq (U \\\\times T) \\\\times\\_{X \\\\times X} X is strongly representable for any *T* → *X*.",
"If f: X \\\\to Y is a strongly representable morphism, for any S \\\\to Y, *S* a scheme viewed as a prestack, the projection X \\\\times\\_Y S \\\\to S is a [morphism of schemes](/wiki/Morphism_of_schemes \"Morphism of schemes\"); this allows one to transfer many notions of properties on morphisms of schemes to the stack context. Namely, let **P** be a property on morphisms in the base category *C* that is stable under base changes and that is local on the topology of *C* (e.g., [étale topology](/wiki/%C3%89tale_topology \"Étale topology\") or [smooth topology](/wiki/Smooth_topology_%28algebraic_geometry%29 \"Smooth topology (algebraic geometry)\")). Then a strongly representable morphism f: X \\\\to Y of prestacks is said to have the property **P** if, for every morphism T \\\\to Y, *T* a scheme viewed as a prestack, the induced projection X \\\\times\\_Y T \\\\to T has the property **P**.",
""
] |
Example: the prestack given by an action of an algebraic group
--------------------------------------------------------------
Let *G* be an [algebraic group](/wiki/Algebraic_group "Algebraic group") acting from the right on a scheme *X* of finite type over a field *k*. Then the group action of *G* on *X* determines a prestack (but not a stack) over the category *C* of *k*\-schemes, as follows. Let *F* be the category where
1. an object is a pair (U, x) consisting of a scheme *U* in *C* and *x* in the set X(U)\=\\operatorname{Hom}\_C(U, X),
2. a morphism (U, x) \\to (V, y) consists of an U \\to V in *C* and an element g \\in G(U) such that *xg* \= *y{{'}}* where we wrote y': U \\to V \\overset{y}\\to X.
Through the forgetful functor to *C*, this category *F* is [fibered](/wiki/Fibered_category "Fibered category") in [groupoids](/wiki/Groupoid "Groupoid") and is known as an action groupoid or a transformation groupoid. It may also be called the **quotient prestack** of *X* by *G* and be denoted as \[X/G]^{pre}, since, as it turns out, the stackification of it is the [quotient stack](/wiki/Quotient_stack "Quotient stack") \[X/G]. The construction is a special case of forming [\#The prestack of equivalence classes](/wiki/%23The_prestack_of_equivalence_classes "#The prestack of equivalence classes"); in particular, *F* is a prestack.
When *X* is a point \* \= \\operatorname{Spec}(k) and *G* is affine, the quotient \[\*/G]^{pre}\= BG^{pre} is the classifying prestack of *G* and its stackification is the [classifying stack](/wiki/Classifying_stack "Classifying stack") of *G*.
One viewing *X* as a prestack (in fact a stack), there is the obvious canonical map
\\pi: X \\to F
over *C*; explicitly, each object (U, x: U \\to X) in the prestack *X* goes to itself, and each morphism (U, x) \\to (V, y), satisfying *x* equals U \\to V \\overset{y}\\to X by definition, goes to the identity group element of *G*(*U*).
Then the above canonical map fits into a 2\-[coequalizer](/wiki/Coequalizer "Coequalizer") (a [2\-quotient](/wiki/2-quotient "2-quotient")):
X \\times G \\overset{s}\\underset{t}\\rightrightarrows X \\overset{\\pi}\\to F,
where *t*: (*x*, *g*) → *xg* is the given group action and *s* a projection. It is not 1\-coequalizer since, instead of the equality \\pi \\circ s \= \\pi \\circ t, one has \\pi \\circ s \\overset{\\sim}\\to \\pi \\circ t given by
g: (\\pi \\circ s)(x, g) \= \\pi(x) \\overset{\\sim}\\to (\\pi \\circ t)(x, g) \= \\pi(xg).
|
[
"Example: the prestack given by an action of an algebraic group\n--------------------------------------------------------------",
"Let *G* be an [algebraic group](/wiki/Algebraic_group \"Algebraic group\") acting from the right on a scheme *X* of finite type over a field *k*. Then the group action of *G* on *X* determines a prestack (but not a stack) over the category *C* of *k*\\-schemes, as follows. Let *F* be the category where\n1. an object is a pair (U, x) consisting of a scheme *U* in *C* and *x* in the set X(U)\\=\\\\operatorname{Hom}\\_C(U, X),\n2. a morphism (U, x) \\\\to (V, y) consists of an U \\\\to V in *C* and an element g \\\\in G(U) such that *xg* \\= *y{{'}}* where we wrote y': U \\\\to V \\\\overset{y}\\\\to X.",
"Through the forgetful functor to *C*, this category *F* is [fibered](/wiki/Fibered_category \"Fibered category\") in [groupoids](/wiki/Groupoid \"Groupoid\") and is known as an action groupoid or a transformation groupoid. It may also be called the **quotient prestack** of *X* by *G* and be denoted as \\[X/G]^{pre}, since, as it turns out, the stackification of it is the [quotient stack](/wiki/Quotient_stack \"Quotient stack\") \\[X/G]. The construction is a special case of forming [\\#The prestack of equivalence classes](/wiki/%23The_prestack_of_equivalence_classes \"#The prestack of equivalence classes\"); in particular, *F* is a prestack.",
"When *X* is a point \\* \\= \\\\operatorname{Spec}(k) and *G* is affine, the quotient \\[\\*/G]^{pre}\\= BG^{pre} is the classifying prestack of *G* and its stackification is the [classifying stack](/wiki/Classifying_stack \"Classifying stack\") of *G*.",
"One viewing *X* as a prestack (in fact a stack), there is the obvious canonical map\n\\\\pi: X \\\\to F\nover *C*; explicitly, each object (U, x: U \\\\to X) in the prestack *X* goes to itself, and each morphism (U, x) \\\\to (V, y), satisfying *x* equals U \\\\to V \\\\overset{y}\\\\to X by definition, goes to the identity group element of *G*(*U*).",
"Then the above canonical map fits into a 2\\-[coequalizer](/wiki/Coequalizer \"Coequalizer\") (a [2\\-quotient](/wiki/2-quotient \"2-quotient\")):\nX \\\\times G \\\\overset{s}\\\\underset{t}\\\\rightrightarrows X \\\\overset{\\\\pi}\\\\to F,\nwhere *t*: (*x*, *g*) → *xg* is the given group action and *s* a projection. It is not 1\\-coequalizer since, instead of the equality \\\\pi \\\\circ s \\= \\\\pi \\\\circ t, one has \\\\pi \\\\circ s \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to \\\\pi \\\\circ t given by\ng: (\\\\pi \\\\circ s)(x, g) \\= \\\\pi(x) \\\\overset{\\\\sim}\\\\to (\\\\pi \\\\circ t)(x, g) \\= \\\\pi(xg).",
""
] |
The prestack of equivalence classes
-----------------------------------
Let *X* be a scheme in the base category *C*. By definition, an [equivalence pre\-relation](/wiki/Quotient_by_an_equivalence_relation "Quotient by an equivalence relation") is a morphism R \\to X \\times X in *C* such that, for each scheme *T* in *C*, the function f(T): R(T) \= \\operatorname{Hom}(T, R) \\to X(T) \\times X(T) has the image that is an [equivalence relation](/wiki/Equivalence_relation "Equivalence relation"). The prefix "pre\-" is because we do not require f(T) to be an [injective function](/wiki/Injective_function "Injective function").
**Example**: Let an algebraic group *G* act on a scheme *X* of finite type over a field *k*. Take R \= X \\times\_k G and then for any scheme *T* over *k* let
f(T): R(T) \\to X(T) \\times X(T), \\, (x, g) \\mapsto (x, xg).
By [Yoneda's lemma](/wiki/Yoneda%27s_lemma "Yoneda's lemma"), this determines a morphism *f*, which is clearly an equivalence pre\-relation.
To each given equivalence pre\-relation f: R \\to X \\times X (\+ some more data), there is an associated prestack *F* defined as follows.{{harvnb\|Behrend\|Conrad\|Edidin\|Fulton\|2006\|loc\=Definition 3\.13\.}} Firstly, *F* is a category where: with the notations s \= p\_1 \\circ f, \\, t \= p\_2 \\circ f,
{{Ordered list
\|an object is a pair (T, x) consisting of a scheme ''T'' and a morphism ''x'': ''T'' → ''X'' in ''C''
\|a morphism (T, x) \\to (S, y) consists of a T \\to S and \\delta: T \\to R such that s \\circ \\delta \= x and t \\circ \\delta \= y\|\_T: T \\to S \\overset{y}\\to X
\|the composition of (, \\delta): (T, x) \\to (S, y) followed by (, \\delta'): (S, y) \\to (U, z) consists of T \\to S \\to U and \\delta'': T \\to R obtained as follows: since t \\circ \\delta \= y\|\_T \= s \\circ \\delta'\|\_T, by the universal property, there is an induced map
:(\\delta, \\delta'\|\_T): T \\to R \\times\_{t, s} R.
Then let \\delta'' be T \\to R \\times\_{t, s} R followed by the multiplication
\|the identity morphism for an object (T, x) consists of the identity map ''T'' → ''T'' and δ that is x : T \\to X followed by e: X \\to R; the latter is obtained by factorizing the diagonal morphism through ''f'', possible by reflexivity.}}
Via a forgetful functor, the category *F* is fibered in groupoids. Finally, we check *F* is a prestack;The argument here is Lemma 25\.6\. of [M. Olsson's lecture notes on stacks](https://stacky.net/files/written/Stacks/Stacks.pdf). for that, notice: for objects *x*, *y* in *F*(*U*) and an object f: V \\to U in C\_{/U},
\\begin{align}
\\underline{\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y)(V \\overset{f}\\to U) \&\= \[\\operatorname{Hom}(f^\* x, f^\*y)] \\\\
\&\= \[\\{ \\delta: V \\to R \| s \\circ \\delta \= f^\* x, t \\circ \\delta \= f^\* y\\}] \\\\
\&\= \[\\{ \\delta: V \\to R \| (s, t) \\circ \\delta \= (x, y) \\circ f \\}].
\\end{align}
Now, this means that \\underline{\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y) is the fiber product of (s, t): R \\to X \\times X and (x, y): U \\to X \\times X. Since the fiber product of sheaves is a sheaf, it follows that \\underline{\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y) is a sheaf.
The prestack *F* above may be written as \[X/\\sim\_{R}]^{pre} and the stackification of it is written as \[X/\\sim\_{R}].
Note, when *X* is viewed as a stack, both *X* and \[X/\\sim\_{R}]^{pre} have the same set of objects. On the morphism\-level, while *X* has only identity morphisms as morphisms, the prestack \[X/\\sim\_{R}]^{pre} have additional morphisms \\delta specified by the equivalence pre\-relation *f*.
One importance of this construction is that it provides an atlas for an algebraic space: every [algebraic space](/wiki/Algebraic_space "Algebraic space") is of the form \[U/\\sim\_{R}] for some schemes *U*, *R* and an étale equivalence pre\-relation f: R \\to U \\times U such that, for each *T*, f(T): R(T) \\to U(T) \\times U(T) is an injective function ("étale" means the two possible maps s, t: R \\to U \\times U \\to U are étale.)
Starting from a [Deligne–Mumford stack](/wiki/Deligne%E2%80%93Mumford_stack "Deligne–Mumford stack") \\mathfrak{X}, one can find an equivalence pre\-relation f: R \\to U \\times U for some schemes *R*, *U* so that \\mathfrak{X} is the stackification of the prestack associated to it: \\mathfrak{X} \\simeq \[U/\\sim\_{R}].{{harvnb\|Behrend\|Conrad\|Edidin\|Fulton\|2006\|loc\=Proposition 5\.20\.}} and {{harvnb\|Behrend\|Conrad\|Edidin\|Fulton\|2006\|loc\=Theorem 4\.35\.}}. Editorial note: the reference uses the language of groupoid schemes but a groupoid scheme they use is the same as an equivalence pre\-relation used here; compare Proposition 3\.6\. and the verifications below. This is done as follows. By definition, there is an étale surjective morphism \\pi: U \\to \\mathfrak{X} from some scheme *U*. Since the diagonal is strongly representable, the fiber product U \\times\_{\\mathfrak{X}} U \= R is a scheme (that is, represented by a scheme) and then let
s, t: R \\rightrightarrows U
be the first and second projections. Taking f \= (s, t): R \\to U \\times U, we see f is an equivalence pre\-relation. We finish, roughly, as follows.
1. Extend \\pi: U \\to \\mathfrak{X} to \\pi: \[U/\\sim\_{R}]^{pre} \\to \\mathfrak{X} (nothing changes on the object\-level; we only need to explain how to send \\delta.)
2. By the universal property of stackification, \\pi factors through \[U/\\sim\_{R}] \\to \\mathfrak{X}.
3. Check the last map is an isomorphism.
|
[
"The prestack of equivalence classes\n-----------------------------------",
"Let *X* be a scheme in the base category *C*. By definition, an [equivalence pre\\-relation](/wiki/Quotient_by_an_equivalence_relation \"Quotient by an equivalence relation\") is a morphism R \\\\to X \\\\times X in *C* such that, for each scheme *T* in *C*, the function f(T): R(T) \\= \\\\operatorname{Hom}(T, R) \\\\to X(T) \\\\times X(T) has the image that is an [equivalence relation](/wiki/Equivalence_relation \"Equivalence relation\"). The prefix \"pre\\-\" is because we do not require f(T) to be an [injective function](/wiki/Injective_function \"Injective function\").",
"**Example**: Let an algebraic group *G* act on a scheme *X* of finite type over a field *k*. Take R \\= X \\\\times\\_k G and then for any scheme *T* over *k* let\nf(T): R(T) \\\\to X(T) \\\\times X(T), \\\\, (x, g) \\\\mapsto (x, xg).\nBy [Yoneda's lemma](/wiki/Yoneda%27s_lemma \"Yoneda's lemma\"), this determines a morphism *f*, which is clearly an equivalence pre\\-relation.",
"To each given equivalence pre\\-relation f: R \\\\to X \\\\times X (\\+ some more data), there is an associated prestack *F* defined as follows.{{harvnb\\|Behrend\\|Conrad\\|Edidin\\|Fulton\\|2006\\|loc\\=Definition 3\\.13\\.}} Firstly, *F* is a category where: with the notations s \\= p\\_1 \\\\circ f, \\\\, t \\= p\\_2 \\\\circ f,\n{{Ordered list\n\\|an object is a pair (T, x) consisting of a scheme ''T'' and a morphism ''x'': ''T'' → ''X'' in ''C''\n\\|a morphism (T, x) \\\\to (S, y) consists of a T \\\\to S and \\\\delta: T \\\\to R such that s \\\\circ \\\\delta \\= x and t \\\\circ \\\\delta \\= y\\|\\_T: T \\\\to S \\\\overset{y}\\\\to X\n\\|the composition of (, \\\\delta): (T, x) \\\\to (S, y) followed by (, \\\\delta'): (S, y) \\\\to (U, z) consists of T \\\\to S \\\\to U and \\\\delta'': T \\\\to R obtained as follows: since t \\\\circ \\\\delta \\= y\\|\\_T \\= s \\\\circ \\\\delta'\\|\\_T, by the universal property, there is an induced map\n:(\\\\delta, \\\\delta'\\|\\_T): T \\\\to R \\\\times\\_{t, s} R.\nThen let \\\\delta'' be T \\\\to R \\\\times\\_{t, s} R followed by the multiplication\n\\|the identity morphism for an object (T, x) consists of the identity map ''T'' → ''T'' and δ that is x : T \\\\to X followed by e: X \\\\to R; the latter is obtained by factorizing the diagonal morphism through ''f'', possible by reflexivity.}}\nVia a forgetful functor, the category *F* is fibered in groupoids. Finally, we check *F* is a prestack;The argument here is Lemma 25\\.6\\. of [M. Olsson's lecture notes on stacks](https://stacky.net/files/written/Stacks/Stacks.pdf). for that, notice: for objects *x*, *y* in *F*(*U*) and an object f: V \\\\to U in C\\_{/U},\n\\\\begin{align}\n\\\\underline{\\\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y)(V \\\\overset{f}\\\\to U) \\&\\= \\[\\\\operatorname{Hom}(f^\\* x, f^\\*y)] \\\\\\\\\n\\&\\= \\[\\\\{ \\\\delta: V \\\\to R \\| s \\\\circ \\\\delta \\= f^\\* x, t \\\\circ \\\\delta \\= f^\\* y\\\\}] \\\\\\\\\n\\&\\= \\[\\\\{ \\\\delta: V \\\\to R \\| (s, t) \\\\circ \\\\delta \\= (x, y) \\\\circ f \\\\}].\n\\\\end{align}",
"Now, this means that \\\\underline{\\\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y) is the fiber product of (s, t): R \\\\to X \\\\times X and (x, y): U \\\\to X \\\\times X. Since the fiber product of sheaves is a sheaf, it follows that \\\\underline{\\\\operatorname{Hom}}(x, y) is a sheaf.",
"The prestack *F* above may be written as \\[X/\\\\sim\\_{R}]^{pre} and the stackification of it is written as \\[X/\\\\sim\\_{R}].",
"Note, when *X* is viewed as a stack, both *X* and \\[X/\\\\sim\\_{R}]^{pre} have the same set of objects. On the morphism\\-level, while *X* has only identity morphisms as morphisms, the prestack \\[X/\\\\sim\\_{R}]^{pre} have additional morphisms \\\\delta specified by the equivalence pre\\-relation *f*.",
"One importance of this construction is that it provides an atlas for an algebraic space: every [algebraic space](/wiki/Algebraic_space \"Algebraic space\") is of the form \\[U/\\\\sim\\_{R}] for some schemes *U*, *R* and an étale equivalence pre\\-relation f: R \\\\to U \\\\times U such that, for each *T*, f(T): R(T) \\\\to U(T) \\\\times U(T) is an injective function (\"étale\" means the two possible maps s, t: R \\\\to U \\\\times U \\\\to U are étale.)",
"Starting from a [Deligne–Mumford stack](/wiki/Deligne%E2%80%93Mumford_stack \"Deligne–Mumford stack\") \\\\mathfrak{X}, one can find an equivalence pre\\-relation f: R \\\\to U \\\\times U for some schemes *R*, *U* so that \\\\mathfrak{X} is the stackification of the prestack associated to it: \\\\mathfrak{X} \\\\simeq \\[U/\\\\sim\\_{R}].{{harvnb\\|Behrend\\|Conrad\\|Edidin\\|Fulton\\|2006\\|loc\\=Proposition 5\\.20\\.}} and {{harvnb\\|Behrend\\|Conrad\\|Edidin\\|Fulton\\|2006\\|loc\\=Theorem 4\\.35\\.}}. Editorial note: the reference uses the language of groupoid schemes but a groupoid scheme they use is the same as an equivalence pre\\-relation used here; compare Proposition 3\\.6\\. and the verifications below. This is done as follows. By definition, there is an étale surjective morphism \\\\pi: U \\\\to \\\\mathfrak{X} from some scheme *U*. Since the diagonal is strongly representable, the fiber product U \\\\times\\_{\\\\mathfrak{X}} U \\= R is a scheme (that is, represented by a scheme) and then let\ns, t: R \\\\rightrightarrows U\nbe the first and second projections. Taking f \\= (s, t): R \\\\to U \\\\times U, we see f is an equivalence pre\\-relation. We finish, roughly, as follows.\n1. Extend \\\\pi: U \\\\to \\\\mathfrak{X} to \\\\pi: \\[U/\\\\sim\\_{R}]^{pre} \\\\to \\\\mathfrak{X} (nothing changes on the object\\-level; we only need to explain how to send \\\\delta.)\n2. By the universal property of stackification, \\\\pi factors through \\[U/\\\\sim\\_{R}] \\\\to \\\\mathfrak{X}.\n3. Check the last map is an isomorphism.",
""
] |
History
-------
The túath takes its name from the semi\-legendary king [Cairbre mac Néill](/wiki/Cairbre_mac_N%C3%A9ill "Cairbre mac Néill"), third son of [Niall of the Nine Hostages](/wiki/Niall_of_the_Nine_Hostages "Niall of the Nine Hostages"). Cairbre is described as an enemy of [St. Patrick](/wiki/St._Patrick "St. Patrick"). [Tírechán's](/wiki/T%C3%ADrech%C3%A1n "Tírechán") seventh century Life of Patrick states that Cairbre was cursed by the saint, at the hill of Tara, that none of his descendants would be High King. He is most closely associated with [Tailtu](/wiki/Teltown "Teltown") and [Granard](/wiki/Granard "Granard") in the early accounts.
Cairbre was excluded from most later [lists of High Kings](/wiki/List_of_High_Kings_of_Ireland "List of High Kings of Ireland") but remains in the earliest, the [Baile Chuinn Chétchathaig](/wiki/Baile_Chuinn_Ch%C3%A9tchathaig "Baile Chuinn Chétchathaig"). Chiefs of Cenél Cairpre included O'Mulclohy (the {{lang\-ga\|Ó Maolchloiche}}) a name later translated to Stone. Cairbre's descendants at an early date controlled a larger Cairpre Mor grouping which stretched from Sligo to Westmeath, taking in Leitrim and parts of Fermanagh (such as *Tuatha Ratha* or [Magheraboy](/wiki/Magheraboy "Magheraboy")) and Longford (North [Tethbae](/wiki/Tethbae "Tethbae")). It was split in two by the expansion of the [Kingdom of Breifne](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Breifne "Kingdom of Breifne") under the [Uí Briúin](/wiki/U%C3%AD_Bri%C3%BAin "Uí Briúin"). The southern group known as the [Cairpre Gabra](/wiki/Cairpre_Gabra "Cairpre Gabra") settled in [the barony of Granard](/wiki/Granard_%28barony%29 "Granard (barony)") in [County Longford](/wiki/County_Longford "County Longford"). Another branch known as the "{{em\|Uí Cairpri Laigen}}" which settled in [barony of Carbury](/wiki/Carbury_%28County_Kildare_barony%29 "Carbury (County Kildare barony)") in [County Kildare](/wiki/County_Kildare "County Kildare") was probably a later off\-shoot of this group. Cairbre supplied only one High King of Ireland, his grandson, [Túathal Máelgarb Dunadhach](/wiki/T%C3%BAathal_M%C3%A1elgarb "Túathal Máelgarb").
In 561 AD the **[Battle of Cúl Dreimhne](/wiki/Battle_of_C%C3%BAl_Dreimhne "Battle of Cúl Dreimhne")** (also called the Battle of the Book) was fought at Cooladrumman, a townland near Drumcliff in this territory.
This territory, under the shadow of [Benbulbin](/wiki/Benbulbin "Benbulbin") (from the {{lang\-ga\|Binn Ghulbain}}), is where [Conall Gulbain](/wiki/Conall_Gulban "Conall Gulban") set out to conquer Tír Chonaill, modern Donegal. Cairbre Drom Cliabh remained closely associated politically with the [Cenel Conaill](/wiki/Cenel_Conaill "Cenel Conaill") but pressure from the Kingdom of Breifne continued and various kings were imposed by them:
{{ Blockquote
\| text \= 1029 \- \[\[Annals of Tigernach]]: "A great loss of life on Inis Lainne in Cairbre Mór, where forty persons of the nobles of Cairbre were burned alive, including Aodh Ó Ruairc, king of Cairbre, and the superior of Drumcliff.
\|author \= \[\[Annals of the Four Masters\|AFM]]
}}
It may have covered a larger area before the twelfth century when conquered by [Tigernán Ua Ruairc](/wiki/Tigern%C3%A1n_Ua_Ruairc "Tigernán Ua Ruairc") of Breifne. It was then taken over by [Brian Luighnech Ua Conchobhair](/wiki/Brian_Luighnech_Ua_Conchobhair "Brian Luighnech Ua Conchobhair") of the O'Conchobar dynasty sept called the Clann Aindrias or Ó Conchobhair Sligigh in the period of instability following the Norman conquest of Ireland. He was killed in 1181 at Magh\-Diughbha in Crich Coirpre with his brother [Maghnus](/wiki/Maghnus_Ua_Conchobair "Maghnus Ua Conchobair") by the Cenel Conaill.
In 1051 AD Cathal, son of Tighearnain, lord of Breifne, went upon a predatory excursion into Eabha, and demolished Dun\-Feich, where fifty persons were slain, and whence seven hundred cows were carried off.
In 575 AD the [monastery of Drumcliff](/wiki/Drumcliff_monastery%2C_County_Sligo "Drumcliff monastery, County Sligo") was founded by Saint Colmcille.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The túath takes its name from the semi\\-legendary king [Cairbre mac Néill](/wiki/Cairbre_mac_N%C3%A9ill \"Cairbre mac Néill\"), third son of [Niall of the Nine Hostages](/wiki/Niall_of_the_Nine_Hostages \"Niall of the Nine Hostages\"). Cairbre is described as an enemy of [St. Patrick](/wiki/St._Patrick \"St. Patrick\"). [Tírechán's](/wiki/T%C3%ADrech%C3%A1n \"Tírechán\") seventh century Life of Patrick states that Cairbre was cursed by the saint, at the hill of Tara, that none of his descendants would be High King. He is most closely associated with [Tailtu](/wiki/Teltown \"Teltown\") and [Granard](/wiki/Granard \"Granard\") in the early accounts.",
"Cairbre was excluded from most later [lists of High Kings](/wiki/List_of_High_Kings_of_Ireland \"List of High Kings of Ireland\") but remains in the earliest, the [Baile Chuinn Chétchathaig](/wiki/Baile_Chuinn_Ch%C3%A9tchathaig \"Baile Chuinn Chétchathaig\"). Chiefs of Cenél Cairpre included O'Mulclohy (the {{lang\\-ga\\|Ó Maolchloiche}}) a name later translated to Stone. Cairbre's descendants at an early date controlled a larger Cairpre Mor grouping which stretched from Sligo to Westmeath, taking in Leitrim and parts of Fermanagh (such as *Tuatha Ratha* or [Magheraboy](/wiki/Magheraboy \"Magheraboy\")) and Longford (North [Tethbae](/wiki/Tethbae \"Tethbae\")). It was split in two by the expansion of the [Kingdom of Breifne](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Breifne \"Kingdom of Breifne\") under the [Uí Briúin](/wiki/U%C3%AD_Bri%C3%BAin \"Uí Briúin\"). The southern group known as the [Cairpre Gabra](/wiki/Cairpre_Gabra \"Cairpre Gabra\") settled in [the barony of Granard](/wiki/Granard_%28barony%29 \"Granard (barony)\") in [County Longford](/wiki/County_Longford \"County Longford\"). Another branch known as the \"{{em\\|Uí Cairpri Laigen}}\" which settled in [barony of Carbury](/wiki/Carbury_%28County_Kildare_barony%29 \"Carbury (County Kildare barony)\") in [County Kildare](/wiki/County_Kildare \"County Kildare\") was probably a later off\\-shoot of this group. Cairbre supplied only one High King of Ireland, his grandson, [Túathal Máelgarb Dunadhach](/wiki/T%C3%BAathal_M%C3%A1elgarb \"Túathal Máelgarb\").",
"In 561 AD the **[Battle of Cúl Dreimhne](/wiki/Battle_of_C%C3%BAl_Dreimhne \"Battle of Cúl Dreimhne\")** (also called the Battle of the Book) was fought at Cooladrumman, a townland near Drumcliff in this territory.",
"This territory, under the shadow of [Benbulbin](/wiki/Benbulbin \"Benbulbin\") (from the {{lang\\-ga\\|Binn Ghulbain}}), is where [Conall Gulbain](/wiki/Conall_Gulban \"Conall Gulban\") set out to conquer Tír Chonaill, modern Donegal. Cairbre Drom Cliabh remained closely associated politically with the [Cenel Conaill](/wiki/Cenel_Conaill \"Cenel Conaill\") but pressure from the Kingdom of Breifne continued and various kings were imposed by them:",
"{{ Blockquote \n\\| text \\= 1029 \\- \\[\\[Annals of Tigernach]]: \"A great loss of life on Inis Lainne in Cairbre Mór, where forty persons of the nobles of Cairbre were burned alive, including Aodh Ó Ruairc, king of Cairbre, and the superior of Drumcliff.\n\\|author \\= \\[\\[Annals of the Four Masters\\|AFM]]\n}}",
"It may have covered a larger area before the twelfth century when conquered by [Tigernán Ua Ruairc](/wiki/Tigern%C3%A1n_Ua_Ruairc \"Tigernán Ua Ruairc\") of Breifne. It was then taken over by [Brian Luighnech Ua Conchobhair](/wiki/Brian_Luighnech_Ua_Conchobhair \"Brian Luighnech Ua Conchobhair\") of the O'Conchobar dynasty sept called the Clann Aindrias or Ó Conchobhair Sligigh in the period of instability following the Norman conquest of Ireland. He was killed in 1181 at Magh\\-Diughbha in Crich Coirpre with his brother [Maghnus](/wiki/Maghnus_Ua_Conchobair \"Maghnus Ua Conchobair\") by the Cenel Conaill.",
"In 1051 AD Cathal, son of Tighearnain, lord of Breifne, went upon a predatory excursion into Eabha, and demolished Dun\\-Feich, where fifty persons were slain, and whence seven hundred cows were carried off.",
"In 575 AD the [monastery of Drumcliff](/wiki/Drumcliff_monastery%2C_County_Sligo \"Drumcliff monastery, County Sligo\") was founded by Saint Colmcille.",
""
] |
Voyage to the Pacific Northwest coast, 1787–1790
------------------------------------------------
[thumb\|Medal made for Gray and [Kendrick](/wiki/Captain_John_Kendrick "Captain John Kendrick") to take on the voyage](/wiki/File:Columbia_Ship_Coins_1787.jpg "Columbia Ship Coins 1787.jpg")
On September 30, 1787, Robert Gray and [Captain John Kendrick](/wiki/Captain_John_Kendrick "Captain John Kendrick") left [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), to trade along the [north Pacific coast](/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America "History of the west coast of North America").Greely Captain Gray commanded {{ship\|\|Lady Washington}} and Captain Kendrick commanded {{ship\|\|Columbia Rediviva}}. They were sent by Boston merchants including [Charles Bulfinch](/wiki/Charles_Bulfinch "Charles Bulfinch").Kushner Bulfinch and the other financial backers came up with the idea of trading pelts from the northwest coast of North America and taking them directly to China after Bulfinch had read about Captain [Cook's](/wiki/James_Cook "James Cook") success in doing the same. Bulfinch had read Cook's "Journals", published in 1784, that in part discussed his success selling sea otter pelts in [Canton](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou"). Prior to this, other America traders, such as [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28Merchant%29 "Robert Morris (Merchant)"), had also sent ships to trade with China, notably {{ship\|\|Empress of China\|1783\|2}} in 1784, but had had trouble finding goods for which the Chinese would trade. Bulfinch's learning of Cook's pelt\-trading solved this problem, so [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England") sea merchants expected to trade with China profitably. It is uncertain whether Gray was the first American to visit the Northwest Coast, as [Simon Metcalfe](/wiki/Simon_Metcalfe "Simon Metcalfe") of {{ship\|\|Eleanora\|ship\|2}} may have arrived earlier, perhaps as much as a year earlier.{{cite book \|last\= Thrapp \|first\= Dan L. \|title\= Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography: G–O \|date\= 1991 \|publisher\= \[\[University of Nebraska Press]] \|isbn\= 978\-0\-8032\-9419\-6 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=hc35mM0PqSQC\&pg\=PA583 \|page\= 583}}
On the voyage of Kendrick and Gray, the ships' cargo included blankets, knives, iron bars, and other trade goods. Both captains carried official letters from Congress and passports from Massachusetts for their trading voyage. Kendrick and Gray sailed around [Cape Horn](/wiki/Cape_Horn "Cape Horn") at the southern tip of South America, first stopping at the [Cape Verde Islands](/wiki/Cape_Verde_Islands "Cape Verde Islands") and the [Falkland Islands](/wiki/Falkland_Islands "Falkland Islands") in the Atlantic Ocean. In January after passing Cape Horn, the ships encountered a storm that separated the two vessels and damaged *Columbia Rediviva*. The damage forced Kendrick to sail for the nearest port, [Juan Fernandez](/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Islands "Juan Fernández Islands"). Juan Fernandez was a Spanish port under the control of Don Blas Gonzalez commandant of the garrison. There, *Columbia Rediviva* was repaired before sailing for the northwest coast.
Gray reached the northwest coast in August 1788\. He entered [Tillamook Bay](/wiki/Tillamook_Bay "Tillamook Bay") and came ashore for supplies, making his crew the first recorded European Americans to visit the bay. Fighting erupted with the local [Tillamook people](/wiki/Tillamook_people "Tillamook people"), and [Marcus Lopez](/wiki/Marcus_Lopez_%28Black_sailor_in_Oregon_1788%29 "Marcus Lopez (Black sailor in Oregon 1788)"), Gray's black cabin boy and cook from West Africa's Cape Verde Islands,{{Cite web\|last\=Neal\|first\=LeeAnn\|date\=2008\-02\-05\|title\=A short Oregon coast black history lesson\|url\=https://www.oregonlive.com/northcoast/2008/02/an\_oregon\_coast\_black\_history.html\|access\-date\=2021\-08\-29\|website\=oregonlive\|language\=en}} was killed. Gray named the bay Murderer’s Harbor.{{Cite web\|title\=Tillamook Bay\|url\=https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/tillamook\_bay/\|access\-date\=2021\-08\-29\|website\=www.oregonencyclopedia.org\|language\=en}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Tyler\|first\=Jacki Hedlund\|date\=2016\|title\=The Unwanted Sailor \- Exclusions of Black Sailors in the Pacific Northwest and the Atlantic Southeast\|url\=https://www.ohs.org/research\-and\-library/oregon\-historical\-quarterly/joel\-palmer\-award/upload/02\_Tyler\_The\-Unwanted\-Sailor\_OHQ\-117\_4\_Winter\-2016\.pdf\|journal\=Oregon Historical Quarterly\|volume\=117 \|issue\=4\|pages\=510–511\|doi\=10\.1353/ohq.2016\.0020 \|via\=Oregon Historical Society Research Library}}
Further north along the coast, Gray ran aground attempting to enter a river near 46°N latitude.Hittell Here the ship was attacked by natives, with the ship losing one crew member before freeing itself and proceeding north. On September 17, 1788, *Lady Washington* with Gray in command reached [Nootka Sound](/wiki/Nootka_Sound "Nootka Sound").
*Columbia Rediviva* arrived soon after and the two ships wintered at [Nootka Sound](/wiki/Nootka_Sound "Nootka Sound"), near what is now known as [Vancouver Island](/wiki/Vancouver_Island "Vancouver Island"). They were still in the vicinity when [Esteban José Martínez](/wiki/Esteban_Jos%C3%A9_Mart%C3%ADnez_Fern%C3%A1ndez_y_Mart%C3%ADnez_de_la_Sierra "Esteban José Martínez Fernández y Martínez de la Sierra") arrived in early May 1789, to assert Spanish sovereignty. A number of British merchant ships soon arrived, as well, and conflict between the Spanish and British resulted in the [Nootka Crisis](/wiki/Nootka_Crisis "Nootka Crisis"), which almost resulted in war between the two nations. Martínez seized a number of ships, including {{ship\|\|Princess Royal\|1778 sloop\|2}}. The two American ships were left alone, although Martínez captured a third American ship, {{ship\|\|Fair American}}, when it arrived at Nootka Sound in the fall of 1789\. Robert Gray witnessed much of the Nootka Incident.{{cite book \|last\= Pethick \|first\= Derek \|title\= The Nootka Connection: Europe and the Northwest Coast 1790–1795 \|url\= https://archive.org/details/nootkaconnection0000peth \|url\-access\= registration \|date\= 1980 \|publisher\= Douglas \& McIntyre \|location\= Vancouver \|isbn\= 0\-88894\-279\-6 \|pages\= \[https://archive.org/details/nootkaconnection0000peth/page/21 21–22]}}
[thumb\|left\|Gray's men battling [Native Americans](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas") near [Tillamook Bay](/wiki/Tillamook_Bay "Tillamook Bay")](/wiki/File:Lady_Washington_and_Tillamook_battle.png "Lady Washington and Tillamook battle.png")
During their trading along the coastlines of what are now [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia"), Canada, and [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"), [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon"), and California, United States, the two Americans explored many bays and inland waters. In 1788, Gray encountered Captain [John Meares](/wiki/John_Meares "John Meares") of England. Meares subsequently published reports and maps of the Pacific Northwest that included a voyage by Robert Gray through a large, imaginary inland sea between the [Strait of Juan de Fuca](/wiki/Strait_of_Juan_de_Fuca "Strait of Juan de Fuca") and [Dixon Entrance](/wiki/Dixon_Entrance "Dixon Entrance"). When [George Vancouver](/wiki/George_Vancouver "George Vancouver") asked Gray about this in 1792, Gray said he never made such a voyage.{{cite book \|last\= Hayes \|first\= Derek \|title\= Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of exploration and Discovery \|date\= 1999 \|publisher\= Sasquatch Books \|isbn\= 1\-57061\-215\-3 \|page\= 61}}
[thumb\|A royal Hawaiian [Mahiole](/wiki/Mahiole "Mahiole"), or feathered helmet, collected by Gray in 1789](/wiki/File:Mahiole_%28feathered_helmet%29.jpg "Mahiole (feathered helmet).jpg")
In 1788, Gray had attempted to enter a large river, but was unable due to the tides. Later he named this waterway as the Columbia River. At the outset of the voyage, Gray captained *Lady Washington* and Kendrick captained *Columbia Rediviva*, but the captains swapped vessels during the voyage, putting Gray in command of *Columbia Rediviva*. After the switch, Kendrick stayed on the North American coast, trading for pelts and furs, while Gray sailed their existing cargo of pelts to China, stopping off at the [Sandwich Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands "Hawaiian Islands"), now known as Hawaii, en route.
Gray arrived in [Canton](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou") in early 1790 and traded his cargo for large amounts of tea. Gray continued to the west, sailing through the Indian Ocean, around the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope "Cape of Good Hope"), and across the Atlantic, reaching Boston on August 9, 1790\.{{Cite news \| title \= Safe return of the Columbia \| newspaper \= The Herald of Freedom \| volume \= IV \| issue \= XLIII \| pages \= 171 \| date \= August 10, 1790 \| place \= Boston, Massachusetts }} As such, *Columbia Rediviva* became the first American vessel to [circumnavigate](/wiki/Circumnavigation "Circumnavigation") the globe. Although the commercial venture was financially disappointing to investors, Gray was paraded through Boston for the circumnavigation accomplishment.Skinner Accompanying Gray were [Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiians "Native Hawaiians") natives named [Atu](/wiki/Atu_%28Explorer%29 "Atu (Explorer)") (Attoo) and [Opai](/wiki/Opai_%28Explorer%29 "Opai (Explorer)") (Opie), who had taken passage on *Columbia Rediviva*and were the first Hawaiians to visit New England. Gray had Atu paraded through the streets of Boston, dressed in traditional Hawaiian war dress.{{cite book\|last\=Igler\|first\=David\|title\=The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=OySg5ESZD7AC\&pg\=PA79\|date\=9 May 2013\|publisher\=OUP USA\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-991495\-1\|page\=79}}{{cite book\|last\=Brown\|first\=Anatole\|title\=Liminal Encounters and the Missionary Position: New England's Sexual Colonization of the Hawaiian Islands 1778\-1840\|url\=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bec0/00986d6ced442590e2a34b319de8f3d956a8\.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111021434/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bec0/00986d6ced442590e2a34b319de8f3d956a8\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=2019\-11\-11\|oclc\=892538141\|year\=2014\|publisher\=University of Southern Maine\|location\=Portland, ME\|s2cid\=128061290}} Governor [John Hancock](/wiki/John_Hancock "John Hancock") held a reception in honor of Gray and his circumnavigation achievement.
Also on this voyage, Kendrick and Gray were instructed to purchase as much land as they could from native [Indians](/wiki/Amerindians "Amerindians") in the Northwest region. Kendrick made at least five such purchases over the summer of 1791, from [Maquinna](/wiki/Maquinna "Maquinna"), [Wickaninnish](/wiki/Wickaninnish "Wickaninnish"), and other chiefs of the [Nuu\-chah\-nulth](/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth "Nuu-chah-nulth") people. Collectively, these purchases gave Kendrick title to over {{convert\|1000\|sqmi\|sqkm}} of [Vancouver Island](/wiki/Vancouver_Island "Vancouver Island"), including almost the entirety of [Nootka Sound](/wiki/Nootka_Sound "Nootka Sound") and [Clayoquot Sound](/wiki/Clayoquot_Sound "Clayoquot Sound").{{cite book\|last\=Ridley\|first\=Scott\|title\=Morning of Fire: John Kendrick's Daring American Odyssey in the Pacific\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=s\-IKDw\_xNO4C\&pg\=PA232\|year\=2010\|publisher\=Harper Collins\|isbn\=978\-0\-06\-202019\-2\|pages\=232–238}} These purchases occurred while Gray had completed his voyage and since returned.
The success in profits realized by this voyage had the most immediate effect of Gray's setting out for the north Pacific coast again, only six weeks after returning thence. The further effect was that other New England sea merchants began to send vessels of their own to take part in this new trade opportunity, including the dispatch of the brigantine [Hope](/wiki/Hope_%281789_brigantine%29 "Hope (1789 brigantine)") in September 1790, under the command of [Joseph Ingraham](/wiki/Joseph_Ingraham "Joseph Ingraham"), Gray's first mate on his first voyage. Within a few years, many Yankee merchants were involved in the continuous trade of [pelts](/wiki/Fur_trade "Fur trade") to China, and by 1801, 16 American vessels were engaged in this triangular route. These mercantile activities encroached upon territorial claims by other nations to this disputed region, notably those of Spain and Russia, and in the coming years, they would be used in support of American claims to the [Oregon Country](/wiki/Oregon_Country "Oregon Country"), and would contribute to the limiting to California and to [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska"), respectively, of the Spanish and Russian claims.
[thumb\|*Winter Quarters*, established by Capt. Gray and the crew of *Columbia Rediviva* in Adventure Cove in [Clayoquot Sound](/wiki/Clayoquot_Sound "Clayoquot Sound"); painting *circa* 1793, by George Davidson](/wiki/File:Columbia_Winter_Quarters.png "Columbia Winter Quarters.png")
|
[
"Voyage to the Pacific Northwest coast, 1787–1790\n------------------------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|Medal made for Gray and [Kendrick](/wiki/Captain_John_Kendrick \"Captain John Kendrick\") to take on the voyage](/wiki/File:Columbia_Ship_Coins_1787.jpg \"Columbia Ship Coins 1787.jpg\")",
"On September 30, 1787, Robert Gray and [Captain John Kendrick](/wiki/Captain_John_Kendrick \"Captain John Kendrick\") left [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), to trade along the [north Pacific coast](/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America \"History of the west coast of North America\").Greely Captain Gray commanded {{ship\\|\\|Lady Washington}} and Captain Kendrick commanded {{ship\\|\\|Columbia Rediviva}}. They were sent by Boston merchants including [Charles Bulfinch](/wiki/Charles_Bulfinch \"Charles Bulfinch\").Kushner Bulfinch and the other financial backers came up with the idea of trading pelts from the northwest coast of North America and taking them directly to China after Bulfinch had read about Captain [Cook's](/wiki/James_Cook \"James Cook\") success in doing the same. Bulfinch had read Cook's \"Journals\", published in 1784, that in part discussed his success selling sea otter pelts in [Canton](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\"). Prior to this, other America traders, such as [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28Merchant%29 \"Robert Morris (Merchant)\"), had also sent ships to trade with China, notably {{ship\\|\\|Empress of China\\|1783\\|2}} in 1784, but had had trouble finding goods for which the Chinese would trade. Bulfinch's learning of Cook's pelt\\-trading solved this problem, so [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\") sea merchants expected to trade with China profitably. It is uncertain whether Gray was the first American to visit the Northwest Coast, as [Simon Metcalfe](/wiki/Simon_Metcalfe \"Simon Metcalfe\") of {{ship\\|\\|Eleanora\\|ship\\|2}} may have arrived earlier, perhaps as much as a year earlier.{{cite book \\|last\\= Thrapp \\|first\\= Dan L. \\|title\\= Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography: G–O \\|date\\= 1991 \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[University of Nebraska Press]] \\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-8032\\-9419\\-6 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hc35mM0PqSQC\\&pg\\=PA583 \\|page\\= 583}}",
"On the voyage of Kendrick and Gray, the ships' cargo included blankets, knives, iron bars, and other trade goods. Both captains carried official letters from Congress and passports from Massachusetts for their trading voyage. Kendrick and Gray sailed around [Cape Horn](/wiki/Cape_Horn \"Cape Horn\") at the southern tip of South America, first stopping at the [Cape Verde Islands](/wiki/Cape_Verde_Islands \"Cape Verde Islands\") and the [Falkland Islands](/wiki/Falkland_Islands \"Falkland Islands\") in the Atlantic Ocean. In January after passing Cape Horn, the ships encountered a storm that separated the two vessels and damaged *Columbia Rediviva*. The damage forced Kendrick to sail for the nearest port, [Juan Fernandez](/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Islands \"Juan Fernández Islands\"). Juan Fernandez was a Spanish port under the control of Don Blas Gonzalez commandant of the garrison. There, *Columbia Rediviva* was repaired before sailing for the northwest coast.",
"Gray reached the northwest coast in August 1788\\. He entered [Tillamook Bay](/wiki/Tillamook_Bay \"Tillamook Bay\") and came ashore for supplies, making his crew the first recorded European Americans to visit the bay. Fighting erupted with the local [Tillamook people](/wiki/Tillamook_people \"Tillamook people\"), and [Marcus Lopez](/wiki/Marcus_Lopez_%28Black_sailor_in_Oregon_1788%29 \"Marcus Lopez (Black sailor in Oregon 1788)\"), Gray's black cabin boy and cook from West Africa's Cape Verde Islands,{{Cite web\\|last\\=Neal\\|first\\=LeeAnn\\|date\\=2008\\-02\\-05\\|title\\=A short Oregon coast black history lesson\\|url\\=https://www.oregonlive.com/northcoast/2008/02/an\\_oregon\\_coast\\_black\\_history.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-29\\|website\\=oregonlive\\|language\\=en}} was killed. Gray named the bay Murderer’s Harbor.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Tillamook Bay\\|url\\=https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/tillamook\\_bay/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-29\\|website\\=www.oregonencyclopedia.org\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Tyler\\|first\\=Jacki Hedlund\\|date\\=2016\\|title\\=The Unwanted Sailor \\- Exclusions of Black Sailors in the Pacific Northwest and the Atlantic Southeast\\|url\\=https://www.ohs.org/research\\-and\\-library/oregon\\-historical\\-quarterly/joel\\-palmer\\-award/upload/02\\_Tyler\\_The\\-Unwanted\\-Sailor\\_OHQ\\-117\\_4\\_Winter\\-2016\\.pdf\\|journal\\=Oregon Historical Quarterly\\|volume\\=117 \\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=510–511\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/ohq.2016\\.0020 \\|via\\=Oregon Historical Society Research Library}}",
"Further north along the coast, Gray ran aground attempting to enter a river near 46°N latitude.Hittell Here the ship was attacked by natives, with the ship losing one crew member before freeing itself and proceeding north. On September 17, 1788, *Lady Washington* with Gray in command reached [Nootka Sound](/wiki/Nootka_Sound \"Nootka Sound\").",
"*Columbia Rediviva* arrived soon after and the two ships wintered at [Nootka Sound](/wiki/Nootka_Sound \"Nootka Sound\"), near what is now known as [Vancouver Island](/wiki/Vancouver_Island \"Vancouver Island\"). They were still in the vicinity when [Esteban José Martínez](/wiki/Esteban_Jos%C3%A9_Mart%C3%ADnez_Fern%C3%A1ndez_y_Mart%C3%ADnez_de_la_Sierra \"Esteban José Martínez Fernández y Martínez de la Sierra\") arrived in early May 1789, to assert Spanish sovereignty. A number of British merchant ships soon arrived, as well, and conflict between the Spanish and British resulted in the [Nootka Crisis](/wiki/Nootka_Crisis \"Nootka Crisis\"), which almost resulted in war between the two nations. Martínez seized a number of ships, including {{ship\\|\\|Princess Royal\\|1778 sloop\\|2}}. The two American ships were left alone, although Martínez captured a third American ship, {{ship\\|\\|Fair American}}, when it arrived at Nootka Sound in the fall of 1789\\. Robert Gray witnessed much of the Nootka Incident.{{cite book \\|last\\= Pethick \\|first\\= Derek \\|title\\= The Nootka Connection: Europe and the Northwest Coast 1790–1795 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/nootkaconnection0000peth \\|url\\-access\\= registration \\|date\\= 1980 \\|publisher\\= Douglas \\& McIntyre \\|location\\= Vancouver \\|isbn\\= 0\\-88894\\-279\\-6 \\|pages\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/nootkaconnection0000peth/page/21 21–22]}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Gray's men battling [Native Americans](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\") near [Tillamook Bay](/wiki/Tillamook_Bay \"Tillamook Bay\")](/wiki/File:Lady_Washington_and_Tillamook_battle.png \"Lady Washington and Tillamook battle.png\")\nDuring their trading along the coastlines of what are now [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\"), Canada, and [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"), [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\"), and California, United States, the two Americans explored many bays and inland waters. In 1788, Gray encountered Captain [John Meares](/wiki/John_Meares \"John Meares\") of England. Meares subsequently published reports and maps of the Pacific Northwest that included a voyage by Robert Gray through a large, imaginary inland sea between the [Strait of Juan de Fuca](/wiki/Strait_of_Juan_de_Fuca \"Strait of Juan de Fuca\") and [Dixon Entrance](/wiki/Dixon_Entrance \"Dixon Entrance\"). When [George Vancouver](/wiki/George_Vancouver \"George Vancouver\") asked Gray about this in 1792, Gray said he never made such a voyage.{{cite book \\|last\\= Hayes \\|first\\= Derek \\|title\\= Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of exploration and Discovery \\|date\\= 1999 \\|publisher\\= Sasquatch Books \\|isbn\\= 1\\-57061\\-215\\-3 \\|page\\= 61}}",
"[thumb\\|A royal Hawaiian [Mahiole](/wiki/Mahiole \"Mahiole\"), or feathered helmet, collected by Gray in 1789](/wiki/File:Mahiole_%28feathered_helmet%29.jpg \"Mahiole (feathered helmet).jpg\")\nIn 1788, Gray had attempted to enter a large river, but was unable due to the tides. Later he named this waterway as the Columbia River. At the outset of the voyage, Gray captained *Lady Washington* and Kendrick captained *Columbia Rediviva*, but the captains swapped vessels during the voyage, putting Gray in command of *Columbia Rediviva*. After the switch, Kendrick stayed on the North American coast, trading for pelts and furs, while Gray sailed their existing cargo of pelts to China, stopping off at the [Sandwich Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands \"Hawaiian Islands\"), now known as Hawaii, en route.",
"Gray arrived in [Canton](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\") in early 1790 and traded his cargo for large amounts of tea. Gray continued to the west, sailing through the Indian Ocean, around the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope \"Cape of Good Hope\"), and across the Atlantic, reaching Boston on August 9, 1790\\.{{Cite news \\| title \\= Safe return of the Columbia \\| newspaper \\= The Herald of Freedom \\| volume \\= IV \\| issue \\= XLIII \\| pages \\= 171 \\| date \\= August 10, 1790 \\| place \\= Boston, Massachusetts }} As such, *Columbia Rediviva* became the first American vessel to [circumnavigate](/wiki/Circumnavigation \"Circumnavigation\") the globe. Although the commercial venture was financially disappointing to investors, Gray was paraded through Boston for the circumnavigation accomplishment.Skinner Accompanying Gray were [Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiians \"Native Hawaiians\") natives named [Atu](/wiki/Atu_%28Explorer%29 \"Atu (Explorer)\") (Attoo) and [Opai](/wiki/Opai_%28Explorer%29 \"Opai (Explorer)\") (Opie), who had taken passage on *Columbia Rediviva*and were the first Hawaiians to visit New England. Gray had Atu paraded through the streets of Boston, dressed in traditional Hawaiian war dress.{{cite book\\|last\\=Igler\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OySg5ESZD7AC\\&pg\\=PA79\\|date\\=9 May 2013\\|publisher\\=OUP USA\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-991495\\-1\\|page\\=79}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=Anatole\\|title\\=Liminal Encounters and the Missionary Position: New England's Sexual Colonization of the Hawaiian Islands 1778\\-1840\\|url\\=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bec0/00986d6ced442590e2a34b319de8f3d956a8\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111021434/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bec0/00986d6ced442590e2a34b319de8f3d956a8\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-11\\-11\\|oclc\\=892538141\\|year\\=2014\\|publisher\\=University of Southern Maine\\|location\\=Portland, ME\\|s2cid\\=128061290}} Governor [John Hancock](/wiki/John_Hancock \"John Hancock\") held a reception in honor of Gray and his circumnavigation achievement.",
"Also on this voyage, Kendrick and Gray were instructed to purchase as much land as they could from native [Indians](/wiki/Amerindians \"Amerindians\") in the Northwest region. Kendrick made at least five such purchases over the summer of 1791, from [Maquinna](/wiki/Maquinna \"Maquinna\"), [Wickaninnish](/wiki/Wickaninnish \"Wickaninnish\"), and other chiefs of the [Nuu\\-chah\\-nulth](/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth \"Nuu-chah-nulth\") people. Collectively, these purchases gave Kendrick title to over {{convert\\|1000\\|sqmi\\|sqkm}} of [Vancouver Island](/wiki/Vancouver_Island \"Vancouver Island\"), including almost the entirety of [Nootka Sound](/wiki/Nootka_Sound \"Nootka Sound\") and [Clayoquot Sound](/wiki/Clayoquot_Sound \"Clayoquot Sound\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Ridley\\|first\\=Scott\\|title\\=Morning of Fire: John Kendrick's Daring American Odyssey in the Pacific\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=s\\-IKDw\\_xNO4C\\&pg\\=PA232\\|year\\=2010\\|publisher\\=Harper Collins\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-06\\-202019\\-2\\|pages\\=232–238}} These purchases occurred while Gray had completed his voyage and since returned.",
"The success in profits realized by this voyage had the most immediate effect of Gray's setting out for the north Pacific coast again, only six weeks after returning thence. The further effect was that other New England sea merchants began to send vessels of their own to take part in this new trade opportunity, including the dispatch of the brigantine [Hope](/wiki/Hope_%281789_brigantine%29 \"Hope (1789 brigantine)\") in September 1790, under the command of [Joseph Ingraham](/wiki/Joseph_Ingraham \"Joseph Ingraham\"), Gray's first mate on his first voyage. Within a few years, many Yankee merchants were involved in the continuous trade of [pelts](/wiki/Fur_trade \"Fur trade\") to China, and by 1801, 16 American vessels were engaged in this triangular route. These mercantile activities encroached upon territorial claims by other nations to this disputed region, notably those of Spain and Russia, and in the coming years, they would be used in support of American claims to the [Oregon Country](/wiki/Oregon_Country \"Oregon Country\"), and would contribute to the limiting to California and to [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\"), respectively, of the Spanish and Russian claims.",
"[thumb\\|*Winter Quarters*, established by Capt. Gray and the crew of *Columbia Rediviva* in Adventure Cove in [Clayoquot Sound](/wiki/Clayoquot_Sound \"Clayoquot Sound\"); painting *circa* 1793, by George Davidson](/wiki/File:Columbia_Winter_Quarters.png \"Columbia Winter Quarters.png\")",
""
] |
Return to the Pacific Northwest coast, 1790–1793
------------------------------------------------
{{main\|Robert Gray's Columbia River expedition}}
Gray set sail for the northwest coast again in the *Columbia* on September 28, 1790, reaching his destination in 1792\.Flora Gray and Kendrick rejoined each other for a time, after Gray's return to the region. On this voyage, Gray, though he was still a private merchant, was sailing under papers of the United States of America signed by President [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington"). Gray put in at Nootka Sound on June 5, 1791, and wintered at a stockade they built and named [Fort Defiance](/wiki/Fort_Defiance_%28British_Columbia%29 "Fort Defiance (British Columbia)"). Over this winter, the crew built a 45\-ton [sloop](/wiki/Sloop "Sloop") named {{ship\|\|Adventure\|1792 ship\|2}}, which was launched in the spring with Gray’s first mate, [Robert Haswell](/wiki/Robert_Haswell "Robert Haswell"), in charge. He sailed as far north as [Haida Gwaii](/wiki/Haida_Gwaii "Haida Gwaii") during his voyage.
Once April came, Gray and *Columbia Rediviva* sailed south while *Adventure* sailed north. After wintering on [Vancouver Island](/wiki/Vancouver_Island "Vancouver Island"), Gray set sail again on April 2, 1792, when he left the trading post of Clayoquot. As he departed, Gray ordered the destruction of the [Nuu\-chah\-nulth](/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_people "Nuu-chah-nulth people") (Nootka) village of Opitsitah ([Opitsaht](/wiki/Opitsaht "Opitsaht")).within territory of [Tla\-o\-qui\-aht First Nations](/wiki/Tla-o-qui-aht_First_Nations "Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations") (formerly referred to as the Clayoquot), one of the [Nuu\-chah\-nulth First Nations](/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_people "Nuu-chah-nulth people") The attack was a retaliation for insults he thought he had endured and in response to rumors of a plot against his men conceived by some local natives and a Sandwich Islander of his own crew. The plot may have been real, but might have been a misunderstanding.{{cite book \|last\= Clayton \|first\= Daniel Wright \|title\= Islands of Truth: The Imperial Fashioning of Vancouver Island \|date\= 2000 \|publisher\= University of British Columbia (UBC) Press \|isbn\= 0\-7748\-0741\-5 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=bDv6T1lf\-iYC\&pg\=PA137 \|page\= 137}} The village of Opitsaht, which consisted of about 200 houses with much carved work—a "fine village, the Work of Ages", according to Gray's officer [John Boit](/wiki/John_Boit "John Boit"), which was "in a short time totally destroy'd".{{cite book \|last\= Gibson \|first\= James R. \| title\= Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785–1841 \|date\= 1992 \|publisher\= McGill\-Queen's University Press \|isbn\= 0\-7735\-2028\-7 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=lrOpy39\-OhMC \|pages\= 163–164}} Fortunately, it was deserted at the time. John Boit, the keeper of his own ship's log, wrote that Gray had let his passions go too far.[John Boit Describes European\-Indian Violence, 1791–1792](http://www.washington.edu/uwired/outreach/cspn/Website/Classroom%20Materials/Curriculum%20Packets/Indians%20&%20Europeans/Documents/18.html), Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest, University of Washington.{{Cite book \| last \=Morton \| first \=Arthur S \| editor \= Lewis G Thomas \| title \=A History of the Canadian West to 1870–71 \| publisher \=University of Toronto Press \| date \=1973 \| orig\-year\=1939 \| location \=Toronto \| edition \=2nd \| isbn \= 0\-8020\-4033\-0 \| page \=404}} In 2005, descendants of Gray formally apologized for the destruction of Opitsaht.[Fur trader's descendants apologize to B.C. Indians](http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002388380_webdescendants18.html), The Seattle Times Gray ordered several other attacks during the 1792 voyage. In May 1792, Gray ordered an attack on a Chicklisaht Nuu\-chah\-nulth village in Esperanza Inlet or Nasparti Inlet north of Nootka Sound, killing seven and seizing the natives' sea otter furs. The Chicklisaht took their wounded to the Spanish post at Nootka Sound and asked the commandant, Bodega y Quadra, to punish Gray.{{cite book \|last\= Clayton \|first\= Daniel Wright \|title\= Islands of Truth: The Imperial Fashioning of Vancouver Island \|date\= 2000 \|publisher\= University of British Columbia (UBC) Press \|isbn\= 0\-7748\-0741\-5 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=bDv6T1lf\-iYC\&pg\=PA128 \|pages\= 128–129}} This attack came after a breakdown in trading negotiations. The price of sea otter furs had increased dramatically since the late 1780s. Gray was one of a number of captains who decided to use force to acquire furs. Later in 1792, in [Grays Harbor](/wiki/Grays_Harbor "Grays Harbor"), Captain Gray fired on a group of [Chinooks](/wiki/Chinook_people "Chinook people"), killing 20\. Still later, in Clayoquot Sound again, Gray killed or wounded at least 25 natives who were approaching his ship in a war canoe during the night. He battled a group of [Kwakiutls](/wiki/Kwakiutl "Kwakiutl") in late 1792\.
During his 1792 journey aboard *Columbia Rediviva*, Gray noticed muddy waters flowing from shore and decided to investigate whether he might have encountered the "Great River of the West". While waiting for favorable weather, on April 29, Gray spotted a ship and exchanged greetings with her. This ship was {{HMS\|Discovery\|1789\|6}}, commanded by [British](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain") naval officer Captain [George Vancouver](/wiki/George_Vancouver "George Vancouver"). The two captains met and discussed the geography of the coastlines: Gray told Vancouver about the large river he had attempted to enter in 1788, but Vancouver doubted a large river was at that latitude. So Gray continued south, leaving the [Strait of Juan de Fuca](/wiki/Strait_of_Juan_de_Fuca "Strait of Juan de Fuca") on April 30, 1792, trading for more pelts as the ship sailed. On May 7, he took *Columbia Rediviva* into the estuarine bay of [Grays Harbor](/wiki/Grays_Harbor "Grays Harbor"), Washington. (Gray himself actually named this Bullfinch Harbor, but Vancouver's after\-the\-fact choice was the name that stuck.)
### Entering the Columbia
[thumb\|upright\|Sketch of *Columbia Rediviva* on the river bearing her name](/wiki/File:Ship_Columbia_on_river.png "Ship Columbia on river.png")
Afterward, Gray carried on south to what was, he rightly suspected, the mouth of a great river, and looked further for a way into this river. On May 11, his men discovered what he sought, and he ordered a small [sailboat](/wiki/Sailboat "Sailboat") launched to attempt to find a safe passage across the [sand bars](/wiki/Sand_bar "Sand bar") in the process known as sounding. Finally, on the evening of May 11, 1792, Gray's men found a safe [channel](/wiki/Channel_%28geography%29 "Channel (geography)"), so ship and crew sailed into the estuary of the Columbia River.Garibaldi Museum Once there, they sailed upriver and Gray named this large river Columbia after his ship.
After entering the Columbia, they were met by many natives in their [canoes](/wiki/Canoe "Canoe"), while the crew prepared to take on fresh water. The ship and crew traveled about {{convert\|13\|mi\|km\|abbr\=on}} upriverMussulman and traded items such as nails for pelts, [salmon](/wiki/Salmon "Salmon"), and animal meat over a nine\-day period.Oldham In addition to naming the river, Gray also named other landmarks such as Adams Point and Cape Hancock. However, many of these places have since been renamed. The farthest point Gray explored upriver is now known as Grays Bay, and the river that flows into it [Grays River](/wiki/Grays_River_%28Washington%29 "Grays River (Washington)"). These names were not given by Gray, but by [William Broughton](/wiki/William_Robert_Broughton "William Robert Broughton"), George Vancouver's lieutenant, who explored the Columbia in October 1792\. Robert Gray had made a chart of the bay and the mouth of the river and a copy was acquired by Vancouver.{{cite web \|title\= Captain Robert Gray explores Grays Bay and charts the mouth of Grays River in May 1792 \|publisher\= HistoryLink.org \|url\= http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?displaypage\=output.cfm\&file\_id\=5052 \|access\-date\= 2009\-05\-16}}
Gray's success in entering the river would eventually form part of the basis for U.S. territorial claims to the Oregon Country. On May 20, Gray and crew sailed from the Columbia, heading north to rendezvous with their sloop *Adventure* before setting sail for China.Makela
### At Nootka Sound
On July 22, 1792 Gray sailed *Columbia Rediviva* into the Nootka Sound accompanied by *Hope* under Ingraham. [Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra](/wiki/Juan_Francisco_de_la_Bodega_y_Quadra "Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra") was present as the commandant of the Spanish settlement there. Bodega was awaiting the arrival of George Vancouver so the two could implement the first [Nootka Convention](/wiki/Nootka_Convention "Nootka Convention"). Bodega had intended to turn over the entire establishment to Vancouver, but while waiting for Vancouver, he began to change his mind. Over the summer, Bodega had begun to realize that John Meares had not only greatly exaggerated his losses during the Nootka Crisis, but also had operated British trading ships under the flag of Portugal in violation of [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company") regulations. When Gray and Ingraham arrived at Nootka, Vancouver was still en route. Bodega took the opportunity to ask the Americans if they would give him their account of the events of 1789 that led to the Nootka Crisis. Ingraham answered Bodega's letter at length. He wrote, "as I knew every circumstance, Captain Gray desired I would answer and he would sign it jointly."{{cite book \|last\= Tovell \|first\= Freeman M. \|title\= At the Far Reaches of Empire: The Life of Juan Francisco De La Bodega Y Quadra \|publisher\= University of British Columbia Press \|date\= 2008 \|isbn\= 978\-0\-7748\-1367\-9 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=E8\_LXicsIlEC \|pages\= 205–209, 227}}
According to the letter signed by Ingraham and Gray, Meares had made many false claims about the events of 1789\. The Portuguese ships, Ingraham said, were definitely British ships flying Portuguese flags. The "house" that Meares said he built at Nootka Sound, and which was explicitly mentioned in the Nootka Convention, was only a "rough hut", built and torn down in 1788\. By 1789, when the Spanish arrived, "there was no vestige of any house remaining". The Nootka Convention said that Spain had seized buildings and that these must be restored to Britain. Further, Ingraham wrote that Meares had not purchased any land from [Maquinna](/wiki/Maquinna "Maquinna"), as claimed. About the arrest of [James Colnett](/wiki/James_Colnett "James Colnett") by [Esteban José Martínez](/wiki/Esteban_Jos%C3%A9_Mart%C3%ADnez_Fern%C3%A1ndez_y_Mart%C3%ADnez_de_la_Sierra "Esteban José Martínez Fernández y Martínez de la Sierra"), Ingraham and Gray wrote that Colnett had insulted and threatened Martínez, and that Colnett had drawn his sword on Martínez, justifying Colnett's arrest. The letter closed with a statement of friendship: "We sincerely hope, sir, when things are represented with truth, it will rescue our friend Don Estevan J. Martínez from censure... As to the treatment of the Americans by Don Estevan, we have ever testified to it in terms due to such hospitality, and we are again happy to have it in our power to do what we deem justice to his conduct." The Americans were not a neutral party; the United States had only gained its independence from Britain through war a few years before. Also, the Americans were in direct competition with the British, but not the Spanish, for the fur trade of the Northwest coast. It was in their interest to support the Spanish case.
Bodega was pleased to receive Ingraham and Gray's account. Once Vancouver arrived, Bodega used the report, along with other tactics, to force Vancouver into a diplomatic deadlock once negotiations had begun. Were it not for Ingraham and Gray's letter, along with Vancouver's late arrival, and several other factors, Bodega likely would have turned the entire Spanish establishment at Nootka over to the British. Instead, Bodega offered only to turn over the small cove where Meares had built his hut in 1789\. Vancouver could not accept this. In the end, the two agreed to let their governments work it out. As a result, the settlement at Nootka remained Spanish for several years, until under the third Nootka Convention both nations agreed to abandon the port.
While Gray was at Nootka Sound, Bodega provided a small house near his own. Gray stayed there until he left Nootka Sound. In addition, Bodega had *Columbia Rediviva* repaired by the Spanish caulkers, blacksmiths, and carpenters. Bodega also provided fresh food, such as vegetables and hot bread, every day. When Gray and Ingraham left, they were given large amounts of food, such as salmon, pork, eggs, butter, fresh bread, wine, brandy, and large amounts of cabbage and salad. Bodega refused any payment for any of his services. Ingraham wrote in his journal, "Considering the part of the world we were in, I thought this a very handsome present. Not a day passed during our stay in this port, but every ship—without respect to nation or person—received marks of Don Juan's hospitality."
In September, most of the ships that had visited Nootka Sound left, including *Columbia Rediviva*, under Gray, along with the sloop *Adventure*. Bodega also left, on *Activa*. Bodega and Gray met shortly after leaving and agreed to sail to [Neah Bay](/wiki/Neah_Bay%2C_Washington "Neah Bay, Washington") where, in the last week of September, Bodega purchased *Adventure* from Gray. After this, Gray took the *Columbia* across the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Port San Juan (today the site of [Port Renfrew, British Columbia](/wiki/Port_Renfrew%2C_British_Columbia "Port Renfrew, British Columbia")), where the final preparations were made for the long voyage across the Pacific. Gray left North America on October 3, 1792, arriving in the Hawaiian Islands on October 29, and in [Macau](/wiki/Macau "Macau") on December 8\.{{cite book \|last\= Pethick \|first\= Derek \|title\= The Nootka Connection: Europe and the Northwest Coast 1790–1795 \|url\= https://archive.org/details/nootkaconnection0000peth \|url\-access\= registration \|date\= 1980 \|publisher\= Douglas \& McIntyre \|location\= Vancouver \|isbn\= 0\-88894\-279\-6 \|pages\= \[https://archive.org/details/nootkaconnection0000peth/page/139 139–140]}}
### Return to Boston
In Canton, Gray again traded his cargo for tea, and then sailed west towards the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Gray returned to Boston in July 1793, after again circumnavigating the globe. On February 3, 1794, he took a wife named Martha Atkins, in a marriage performed in Boston by the Reverend John Eliott. The couple had five children together.
|
[
"Return to the Pacific Northwest coast, 1790–1793\n------------------------------------------------",
"{{main\\|Robert Gray's Columbia River expedition}}",
"Gray set sail for the northwest coast again in the *Columbia* on September 28, 1790, reaching his destination in 1792\\.Flora Gray and Kendrick rejoined each other for a time, after Gray's return to the region. On this voyage, Gray, though he was still a private merchant, was sailing under papers of the United States of America signed by President [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\"). Gray put in at Nootka Sound on June 5, 1791, and wintered at a stockade they built and named [Fort Defiance](/wiki/Fort_Defiance_%28British_Columbia%29 \"Fort Defiance (British Columbia)\"). Over this winter, the crew built a 45\\-ton [sloop](/wiki/Sloop \"Sloop\") named {{ship\\|\\|Adventure\\|1792 ship\\|2}}, which was launched in the spring with Gray’s first mate, [Robert Haswell](/wiki/Robert_Haswell \"Robert Haswell\"), in charge. He sailed as far north as [Haida Gwaii](/wiki/Haida_Gwaii \"Haida Gwaii\") during his voyage.",
"Once April came, Gray and *Columbia Rediviva* sailed south while *Adventure* sailed north. After wintering on [Vancouver Island](/wiki/Vancouver_Island \"Vancouver Island\"), Gray set sail again on April 2, 1792, when he left the trading post of Clayoquot. As he departed, Gray ordered the destruction of the [Nuu\\-chah\\-nulth](/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_people \"Nuu-chah-nulth people\") (Nootka) village of Opitsitah ([Opitsaht](/wiki/Opitsaht \"Opitsaht\")).within territory of [Tla\\-o\\-qui\\-aht First Nations](/wiki/Tla-o-qui-aht_First_Nations \"Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations\") (formerly referred to as the Clayoquot), one of the [Nuu\\-chah\\-nulth First Nations](/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_people \"Nuu-chah-nulth people\") The attack was a retaliation for insults he thought he had endured and in response to rumors of a plot against his men conceived by some local natives and a Sandwich Islander of his own crew. The plot may have been real, but might have been a misunderstanding.{{cite book \\|last\\= Clayton \\|first\\= Daniel Wright \\|title\\= Islands of Truth: The Imperial Fashioning of Vancouver Island \\|date\\= 2000 \\|publisher\\= University of British Columbia (UBC) Press \\|isbn\\= 0\\-7748\\-0741\\-5 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bDv6T1lf\\-iYC\\&pg\\=PA137 \\|page\\= 137}} The village of Opitsaht, which consisted of about 200 houses with much carved work—a \"fine village, the Work of Ages\", according to Gray's officer [John Boit](/wiki/John_Boit \"John Boit\"), which was \"in a short time totally destroy'd\".{{cite book \\|last\\= Gibson \\|first\\= James R. \\| title\\= Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785–1841 \\|date\\= 1992 \\|publisher\\= McGill\\-Queen's University Press \\|isbn\\= 0\\-7735\\-2028\\-7 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lrOpy39\\-OhMC \\|pages\\= 163–164}} Fortunately, it was deserted at the time. John Boit, the keeper of his own ship's log, wrote that Gray had let his passions go too far.[John Boit Describes European\\-Indian Violence, 1791–1792](http://www.washington.edu/uwired/outreach/cspn/Website/Classroom%20Materials/Curriculum%20Packets/Indians%20&%20Europeans/Documents/18.html), Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest, University of Washington.{{Cite book \\| last \\=Morton \\| first \\=Arthur S \\| editor \\= Lewis G Thomas \\| title \\=A History of the Canadian West to 1870–71 \\| publisher \\=University of Toronto Press \\| date \\=1973 \\| orig\\-year\\=1939 \\| location \\=Toronto \\| edition \\=2nd \\| isbn \\= 0\\-8020\\-4033\\-0 \\| page \\=404}} In 2005, descendants of Gray formally apologized for the destruction of Opitsaht.[Fur trader's descendants apologize to B.C. Indians](http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002388380_webdescendants18.html), The Seattle Times Gray ordered several other attacks during the 1792 voyage. In May 1792, Gray ordered an attack on a Chicklisaht Nuu\\-chah\\-nulth village in Esperanza Inlet or Nasparti Inlet north of Nootka Sound, killing seven and seizing the natives' sea otter furs. The Chicklisaht took their wounded to the Spanish post at Nootka Sound and asked the commandant, Bodega y Quadra, to punish Gray.{{cite book \\|last\\= Clayton \\|first\\= Daniel Wright \\|title\\= Islands of Truth: The Imperial Fashioning of Vancouver Island \\|date\\= 2000 \\|publisher\\= University of British Columbia (UBC) Press \\|isbn\\= 0\\-7748\\-0741\\-5 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bDv6T1lf\\-iYC\\&pg\\=PA128 \\|pages\\= 128–129}} This attack came after a breakdown in trading negotiations. The price of sea otter furs had increased dramatically since the late 1780s. Gray was one of a number of captains who decided to use force to acquire furs. Later in 1792, in [Grays Harbor](/wiki/Grays_Harbor \"Grays Harbor\"), Captain Gray fired on a group of [Chinooks](/wiki/Chinook_people \"Chinook people\"), killing 20\\. Still later, in Clayoquot Sound again, Gray killed or wounded at least 25 natives who were approaching his ship in a war canoe during the night. He battled a group of [Kwakiutls](/wiki/Kwakiutl \"Kwakiutl\") in late 1792\\.",
"During his 1792 journey aboard *Columbia Rediviva*, Gray noticed muddy waters flowing from shore and decided to investigate whether he might have encountered the \"Great River of the West\". While waiting for favorable weather, on April 29, Gray spotted a ship and exchanged greetings with her. This ship was {{HMS\\|Discovery\\|1789\\|6}}, commanded by [British](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\") naval officer Captain [George Vancouver](/wiki/George_Vancouver \"George Vancouver\"). The two captains met and discussed the geography of the coastlines: Gray told Vancouver about the large river he had attempted to enter in 1788, but Vancouver doubted a large river was at that latitude. So Gray continued south, leaving the [Strait of Juan de Fuca](/wiki/Strait_of_Juan_de_Fuca \"Strait of Juan de Fuca\") on April 30, 1792, trading for more pelts as the ship sailed. On May 7, he took *Columbia Rediviva* into the estuarine bay of [Grays Harbor](/wiki/Grays_Harbor \"Grays Harbor\"), Washington. (Gray himself actually named this Bullfinch Harbor, but Vancouver's after\\-the\\-fact choice was the name that stuck.)",
"### Entering the Columbia",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Sketch of *Columbia Rediviva* on the river bearing her name](/wiki/File:Ship_Columbia_on_river.png \"Ship Columbia on river.png\")\nAfterward, Gray carried on south to what was, he rightly suspected, the mouth of a great river, and looked further for a way into this river. On May 11, his men discovered what he sought, and he ordered a small [sailboat](/wiki/Sailboat \"Sailboat\") launched to attempt to find a safe passage across the [sand bars](/wiki/Sand_bar \"Sand bar\") in the process known as sounding. Finally, on the evening of May 11, 1792, Gray's men found a safe [channel](/wiki/Channel_%28geography%29 \"Channel (geography)\"), so ship and crew sailed into the estuary of the Columbia River.Garibaldi Museum Once there, they sailed upriver and Gray named this large river Columbia after his ship.",
"After entering the Columbia, they were met by many natives in their [canoes](/wiki/Canoe \"Canoe\"), while the crew prepared to take on fresh water. The ship and crew traveled about {{convert\\|13\\|mi\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} upriverMussulman and traded items such as nails for pelts, [salmon](/wiki/Salmon \"Salmon\"), and animal meat over a nine\\-day period.Oldham In addition to naming the river, Gray also named other landmarks such as Adams Point and Cape Hancock. However, many of these places have since been renamed. The farthest point Gray explored upriver is now known as Grays Bay, and the river that flows into it [Grays River](/wiki/Grays_River_%28Washington%29 \"Grays River (Washington)\"). These names were not given by Gray, but by [William Broughton](/wiki/William_Robert_Broughton \"William Robert Broughton\"), George Vancouver's lieutenant, who explored the Columbia in October 1792\\. Robert Gray had made a chart of the bay and the mouth of the river and a copy was acquired by Vancouver.{{cite web \\|title\\= Captain Robert Gray explores Grays Bay and charts the mouth of Grays River in May 1792 \\|publisher\\= HistoryLink.org \\|url\\= http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?displaypage\\=output.cfm\\&file\\_id\\=5052 \\|access\\-date\\= 2009\\-05\\-16}}",
"Gray's success in entering the river would eventually form part of the basis for U.S. territorial claims to the Oregon Country. On May 20, Gray and crew sailed from the Columbia, heading north to rendezvous with their sloop *Adventure* before setting sail for China.Makela",
"### At Nootka Sound",
"On July 22, 1792 Gray sailed *Columbia Rediviva* into the Nootka Sound accompanied by *Hope* under Ingraham. [Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra](/wiki/Juan_Francisco_de_la_Bodega_y_Quadra \"Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra\") was present as the commandant of the Spanish settlement there. Bodega was awaiting the arrival of George Vancouver so the two could implement the first [Nootka Convention](/wiki/Nootka_Convention \"Nootka Convention\"). Bodega had intended to turn over the entire establishment to Vancouver, but while waiting for Vancouver, he began to change his mind. Over the summer, Bodega had begun to realize that John Meares had not only greatly exaggerated his losses during the Nootka Crisis, but also had operated British trading ships under the flag of Portugal in violation of [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\") regulations. When Gray and Ingraham arrived at Nootka, Vancouver was still en route. Bodega took the opportunity to ask the Americans if they would give him their account of the events of 1789 that led to the Nootka Crisis. Ingraham answered Bodega's letter at length. He wrote, \"as I knew every circumstance, Captain Gray desired I would answer and he would sign it jointly.\"{{cite book \\|last\\= Tovell \\|first\\= Freeman M. \\|title\\= At the Far Reaches of Empire: The Life of Juan Francisco De La Bodega Y Quadra \\|publisher\\= University of British Columbia Press \\|date\\= 2008 \\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-7748\\-1367\\-9 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=E8\\_LXicsIlEC \\|pages\\= 205–209, 227}}",
"According to the letter signed by Ingraham and Gray, Meares had made many false claims about the events of 1789\\. The Portuguese ships, Ingraham said, were definitely British ships flying Portuguese flags. The \"house\" that Meares said he built at Nootka Sound, and which was explicitly mentioned in the Nootka Convention, was only a \"rough hut\", built and torn down in 1788\\. By 1789, when the Spanish arrived, \"there was no vestige of any house remaining\". The Nootka Convention said that Spain had seized buildings and that these must be restored to Britain. Further, Ingraham wrote that Meares had not purchased any land from [Maquinna](/wiki/Maquinna \"Maquinna\"), as claimed. About the arrest of [James Colnett](/wiki/James_Colnett \"James Colnett\") by [Esteban José Martínez](/wiki/Esteban_Jos%C3%A9_Mart%C3%ADnez_Fern%C3%A1ndez_y_Mart%C3%ADnez_de_la_Sierra \"Esteban José Martínez Fernández y Martínez de la Sierra\"), Ingraham and Gray wrote that Colnett had insulted and threatened Martínez, and that Colnett had drawn his sword on Martínez, justifying Colnett's arrest. The letter closed with a statement of friendship: \"We sincerely hope, sir, when things are represented with truth, it will rescue our friend Don Estevan J. Martínez from censure... As to the treatment of the Americans by Don Estevan, we have ever testified to it in terms due to such hospitality, and we are again happy to have it in our power to do what we deem justice to his conduct.\" The Americans were not a neutral party; the United States had only gained its independence from Britain through war a few years before. Also, the Americans were in direct competition with the British, but not the Spanish, for the fur trade of the Northwest coast. It was in their interest to support the Spanish case.",
"Bodega was pleased to receive Ingraham and Gray's account. Once Vancouver arrived, Bodega used the report, along with other tactics, to force Vancouver into a diplomatic deadlock once negotiations had begun. Were it not for Ingraham and Gray's letter, along with Vancouver's late arrival, and several other factors, Bodega likely would have turned the entire Spanish establishment at Nootka over to the British. Instead, Bodega offered only to turn over the small cove where Meares had built his hut in 1789\\. Vancouver could not accept this. In the end, the two agreed to let their governments work it out. As a result, the settlement at Nootka remained Spanish for several years, until under the third Nootka Convention both nations agreed to abandon the port.",
"While Gray was at Nootka Sound, Bodega provided a small house near his own. Gray stayed there until he left Nootka Sound. In addition, Bodega had *Columbia Rediviva* repaired by the Spanish caulkers, blacksmiths, and carpenters. Bodega also provided fresh food, such as vegetables and hot bread, every day. When Gray and Ingraham left, they were given large amounts of food, such as salmon, pork, eggs, butter, fresh bread, wine, brandy, and large amounts of cabbage and salad. Bodega refused any payment for any of his services. Ingraham wrote in his journal, \"Considering the part of the world we were in, I thought this a very handsome present. Not a day passed during our stay in this port, but every ship—without respect to nation or person—received marks of Don Juan's hospitality.\"",
"In September, most of the ships that had visited Nootka Sound left, including *Columbia Rediviva*, under Gray, along with the sloop *Adventure*. Bodega also left, on *Activa*. Bodega and Gray met shortly after leaving and agreed to sail to [Neah Bay](/wiki/Neah_Bay%2C_Washington \"Neah Bay, Washington\") where, in the last week of September, Bodega purchased *Adventure* from Gray. After this, Gray took the *Columbia* across the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Port San Juan (today the site of [Port Renfrew, British Columbia](/wiki/Port_Renfrew%2C_British_Columbia \"Port Renfrew, British Columbia\")), where the final preparations were made for the long voyage across the Pacific. Gray left North America on October 3, 1792, arriving in the Hawaiian Islands on October 29, and in [Macau](/wiki/Macau \"Macau\") on December 8\\.{{cite book \\|last\\= Pethick \\|first\\= Derek \\|title\\= The Nootka Connection: Europe and the Northwest Coast 1790–1795 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/nootkaconnection0000peth \\|url\\-access\\= registration \\|date\\= 1980 \\|publisher\\= Douglas \\& McIntyre \\|location\\= Vancouver \\|isbn\\= 0\\-88894\\-279\\-6 \\|pages\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/nootkaconnection0000peth/page/139 139–140]}}",
"### Return to Boston",
"In Canton, Gray again traded his cargo for tea, and then sailed west towards the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Gray returned to Boston in July 1793, after again circumnavigating the globe. On February 3, 1794, he took a wife named Martha Atkins, in a marriage performed in Boston by the Reverend John Eliott. The couple had five children together.",
""
] |
Games
-----
{{Video game timeline
\| subtitle \= Main series in '''bold'''
\| 1990 \= '''''\[\[Wing Commander (video game)\|Wing Commander]]'''''
\| 1991 \= '''''\[\[Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi]]'''''
\| 1993a \= ''\[\[Wing Commander Academy (video game)\|Wing Commander Academy]]''
\| 1993b \= ''\[\[Wing Commander: Privateer]]''
\| 1994a \= '''''\[\[Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger]]'''''
\| 1994b \= ''\[\[Wing Commander: Armada]]''
\| 1994c \= ''Super Wing Commander''
\| 1996a \= '''''\[\[Wing Commander IV: The Price of Freedom]]'''''
\| 1996b \= ''\[\[Privateer 2: The Darkening]]''
\| 1997 \= '''''\[\[Wing Commander: Prophecy]]'''''
\| 2007 \= ''\[\[Wing Commander Arena]]''
}}
The *Wing Commander* game series began in 1990 with *Wing Commander*. The newest addition to the series, *[Wing Commander Arena](/wiki/Wing_Commander_Arena "Wing Commander Arena")*, was released for the [Xbox Live Arcade](/wiki/Xbox_Live_Arcade "Xbox Live Arcade") service on July 25, 2007\.
### *Wing Commander*
{{main\|Wing Commander (video game)}}
The player begins his tour of duty as a young space fighter pilot on the carrier the TCS *Tiger's Claw*. The player can set this character's name and callsign in the first games in the franchise. As of *Wing Commander 3*, the protagonist is given the canonical name [Christopher "Maverick" Blair](/wiki/Christopher_Blair "Christopher Blair"). Through the player's heroic efforts, the Confederation is able to destroy the Kilrathi's sector headquarters and drive them from the Vega sector. Through the course of the Vega campaign, the player can gain numerous promotions and medals and fly in various squadrons, each featuring a different fighter. The game was notable for its innovative and seldom\-repeated "campaign tree" structure, whereby the "path" the player took on the way to the end would be determined by the player's performance on preceding missions. In\-game cinematics in "newsreel" format reflected the success or failure of the player and the *Claw*.
Originally announced as *Squadron*, the name was changed to *Wingleader* shortly into development; however, trademark issues forced a name change to *Wing Commander* at the last moment. The development team's nickname for the otherwise\-unnamed protagonist was "Bluehair", due to his unusual shade of hair. Perhaps in a nod to this in\-joke, when the character was given an actual name in later installments, Origin chose "Blair", a shortened version of the old nickname. *Wing Commander* was ported to the [Amiga](/wiki/Amiga "Amiga"), [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns "FM Towns"), [SNES](/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System "Super Nintendo Entertainment System"), [Mega\-CD](/wiki/Mega-CD "Mega-CD"), [Amiga CD32](/wiki/Amiga_CD32 "Amiga CD32"), [3DO](/wiki/3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer "3DO Interactive Multiplayer"), [Mac OS](/wiki/Mac_OS "Mac OS"), and [PlayStation Portable](/wiki/PlayStation_Portable "PlayStation Portable") systems, the most ports of any *Wing Commander* game. In the Sega CD port which added voice acting, the player character was given the callsign of "HotShot" to allow him to be addressed by voice.
In 1991, *Wing Commander* won the [Origins Award](/wiki/Origins_Award "Origins Award") for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1990\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.originsgamefair.com/awards/1990 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604122528/http://www.originsgamefair.com/awards/1990 \|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-04 \|title\=Origins Game Fair Awards 1990 \|date\=June 4, 2009 \|access\-date\=2011\-10\-12}}
#### *The Secret Missions*
A new Kilrathi secret weapon destroys the Terran colony of Goddard. In retribution, the Confederation plans a daring raid, Operation [Thor's Hammer](/wiki/Mjolnir "Mjolnir"). *Tiger's Claw* must follow the Kilrathi deep into their own territory and destroy their new super weapon, the dreadnaught *Sivar*.
*The Secret Missions* was ported to the [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns "FM Towns"), [SNES](/wiki/SNES "SNES"), Sony PSP (as part of the [EA Replay](/wiki/EA_Replay "EA Replay") bundle), and was included with *Wing Commander* on the [3DO](/wiki/3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer "3DO Interactive Multiplayer") and [Macintosh](/wiki/Mac_%28computer%29 "Mac (computer)") as part of *Super Wing Commander*.
#### *The Secret Missions 2: Crusade*
When the Confederation is just celebrating a new alliance with the bird\-like native species of the planet Firekka, they learn that entire fleets of Kilrathi ships are leaving from other sectors and heading towards the Firekka system. Concerned, but massively outnumbered, the Confederation ships must retreat, but they soon learn from a Kilrathi [defector](/wiki/Ralgha_nar_Hhallas "Ralgha nar Hhallas") that Firekka has been chosen as the place for a holy Kilrathi ceremony. The Confederation soon develops a plan to disrupt that ceremony in an act of terrorism meant to deliver a blow to enemy morale, and it is up to the pilots of *Tiger's Claw* to ensure the success of the mission.
*The Secret Missions 2: Crusade* was ported to the FM Towns.
#### *Super Wing Commander*
In 1994, a revamped version of the original *Wing Commander*, entitled *Super Wing Commander* (SWC), was released for the 3DO. It featured new graphics, full speech and included a *Secret Missions 1\.5* campaign (between the original campaigns 1 and 2\) with a follow\-up to Thor's Hammer in which the *Claw* destroys the Kilrathi shipyards that constructed the *Sivar*.
*Super Wing Commander* was ported to the Macintosh in 1995\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mobygames.com/game/macintosh/super\-wing\-commander \|title\=Super Wing Commander \|publisher\=Mobygames.com \|access\-date\=2011\-10\-12}}
### *Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi*
{{main\|Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi}}
Shortly after the Firekka campaign, the *Tiger's Claw* attempts to attack the Kilrathi headquarters in the Enigma sector, but is ambushed by new Kilrathi "Strakha" stealth fighters and is lost. No one but Blair sees these fighters, so they are dismissed as an excuse to cover his cowardice. He is scapegoated for the loss of the *Claw*, is demoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28armed_forces%29 "Captain (armed forces)") and transferred to a backwater space station. Ten years later, he is called back into action when he is able to save the Confederation's flagship, the TCS *Concordia*. Meeting many old friends there, he continues the fight against the Kilrathi, finally culminating in the destruction of their sector HQ, thus clearing his name and uncovering a traitor on the Concordia's flight decks, who was the mastermind behind the ambush and destruction of the *Tiger's Claw*.
*Wing Commander II* was ported to the [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns "FM Towns"). In 1992, it won the Origins Award for *Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1991*.
#### *Special Operations 1*
Blair is transferred to the undercover Special Operations division, supporting Kilrathi colonies that are defecting from the Empire. But first he must solve the problem of a mutiny on a Confed cruiser.
#### *Special Operations 2*
Jazz, the traitor from *Wing Commander II*, has fled imprisonment and the Mandarin (the society of traitors) are also able to steal some of the Confederation's newest top\-secret fighters. Blair must hunt them down and face Jazz in one final showdown.
### *Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger*
{{main\|Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger}}
The war is going very badly for the Confederation, far worse than what the public (or the player) generally knows. Battles are lost on all fronts, casualties are mounting, and the Concordia is destroyed. Colonel [Christopher Blair](/wiki/Christopher_Blair "Christopher Blair") (the player from the first games, now with a set name), is transferred to the TCS *Victory*, an old ship from the first days of the war. In a last\-ditch attempt to win the war, Confed has designed the TCS *Behemoth*, a doomsday weapon able to destroy an entire planet. It is Blair's mission to help end this war for good, by destroying the Kilrathi homeworld of Kilrah. Unfortunately the Behemoth is destroyed by Kilrathi forces. The enemy fighters seemed to know exactly about the weakpoints of the weapon. Later on Blair finds out that his old friend Hobbes, a Kilrathi defector, is a sleeper agent and the traitor responsible for the Confed's losses. The last hope of winning the war for the Confederation is a secret weapon, the "Temblor Bomb", using the tectonic instability of Kilrah to destroy the planet. Blair is finally able to attack Kilrah, firing the bomb and destroying the Kilrathi homeworld. With the royal family of Kilrah killed and their homeworld lost, Melek, once attaché to the Kilrathi prince, surrenders before Blair.
*Wing Commander III* was the first game in the series to use [full motion video](/wiki/Full_motion_video "Full motion video") as opposed to animated cutscenes, and texture\-mapped 3D instead of sprite\-based graphics. The game features well\-known actors such as [Mark Hamill](/wiki/Mark_Hamill "Mark Hamill") as Christopher Blair, [John Rhys\-Davies](/wiki/John_Rhys-Davies "John Rhys-Davies") as James "Paladin" Taggart, [Thomas F. Wilson](/wiki/Thomas_F._Wilson "Thomas F. Wilson") as Todd "Maniac" Marshall, [Malcolm McDowell](/wiki/Malcolm_McDowell "Malcolm McDowell") as Admiral Geoffrey Tolwyn, [Josh Lucas](/wiki/Josh_Lucas "Josh Lucas") as "Flash", and [Ginger Lynn](/wiki/Ginger_Lynn "Ginger Lynn") as Chief Technician Rachel Coriolis.
*Wing Commander III* was ported to the [PlayStation](/wiki/PlayStation_%28console%29 "PlayStation (console)"), Macintosh and the 3DO.
### *Wing Commander IV: The Price of Freedom*
{{main\|Wing Commander IV: The Price of Freedom}}
The war with the Kilrathi is over, but not all is well within the Confederation. Skirmishes in the Border Worlds destroy ships regularly. Both Confed and the Union of Border Worlds assign blame to each other and the skirmishes threaten to lead to all\-out war. Blair is soon recalled to active duty and sent to the Border Worlds to confirm Confed's determination. But he finds out that a conspiracy of war\-mongers with members in the highest Confed circles are responsible for the attacks. Defecting to the Border Worlds, Blair must expose the conspiracy to help restore the peace in a galaxy still torn over the events of the Kilrathi\-Terran War.
*The Price of Freedom* retained the storytelling\-style of its predecessor, using live\-action cutscenes with an ensemble cast of actors. Many of the actors from *Wing Commander III* returned to reprise their roles. The story's final sequence was innovative in that dialogue choices made by the player affected the outcome of the hearing. However, only three endings were possible, and two of the outcomes depended on the earlier choices made by the player.
*Wing Commander IV* was ported to the PlayStation and Mac OS. To owners of the original [MS\-DOS](/wiki/MS-DOS "MS-DOS") version, Origin made available a [Windows 95](/wiki/Windows_95 "Windows 95") [DirectX](/wiki/DirectX "DirectX") port, free of charge.
### *Wing Commander: Prophecy*
{{main\|Wing Commander: Prophecy}}
Peace has finally come to the Confederation, or so it seems. Still remaining vigilant, they commission the new megacarrier TCS *Midway*, which is soon needed when Kilrathi worlds are attacked by an enemy whose coming was foretold in ancient Kilrathi prophecies. The insectoid enemy, codenamed the Nephilim, soon begin attacking Confed space and the Midway is called in to stop their advance. As young hotshot pilot [Lance Casey](/wiki/Lance_Casey "Lance Casey"), the player must fight their organic ships to help destroy the wormhole they used to enter Kilrathi space, thereby halting the invasion, at least for a while.
As did *Wing Commander IV*, *Prophecy* incorporated live\-action cutscenes with actors. *Prophecy* was ported to the [Game Boy Advance](/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance "Game Boy Advance").
#### *Wing Commander: Secret Ops*
The Nephilim return, this time much closer to Earth. Transferred to the cruiser TCS *Cerberus*, Casey and his wingmates must repel the invasion once again.
*Secret Ops* was an experiment in game distribution. It was at first only available as a free download. In regular intervals, new episodes were released, each featuring several new missions with the storyline told through in\-game cutscenes. The game was later available in a collection together with *Prophecy*, and sold as *Prophecy Gold*.
### Spin\-offs
#### *Wing Commander Academy*
{{main\|Wing Commander Academy (video game)}}
A game where the player could build their own missions using ships from *Wing Commander II*.
#### *Wing Commander: Privateer*
{{main\|Wing Commander: Privateer}}
Set in the border regions of Confederation space, the player takes control of a privateer (in *Wing Commander*, a "privateer" is a mercenary spacer) who may profit by trading, performing various missions, or pirating. Meanwhile, an ancient alien spaceship has been awakened and is on the loose, attacking ships at random, and the player\-controlled privateer may be the Confederation's only hope in defeating it.
This game featured completely open\-ended gameplay, with the player able to completely ignore the main storyline if they so desired.
##### *Righteous Fire*
When the player's priceless Steltek Gun is stolen, he embarks on a quest that will bring him into conflict with the Luddite\-like Church of Man and their shady leader, Mordecai Jones.
#### *Wing Commander Armada*
{{main\|Wing Commander: Armada}}
*Armada* featured both an action and a strategy game mode and several multiplayer options. The game was ported to the [NEC PC9821](/wiki/PC-9800_series "PC-9800 series") and [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns "FM Towns").
##### *Proving Grounds*
This add\-on for *Armada* added numerous new features such as a new "arcade"\-mode with powerups, radar\-obscuring asteroids, and several new multiplayer options, including [IPX](/wiki/IPX "IPX").
#### *The Kilrathi Saga*
*Kilrathi Saga* was a limited\-edition reissue of the first three *Wing Commander* games (*Wing Commander*, *Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi*, and *Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger*). Origin repaired some of the game's known bugs and adjusted the speed to run on the early [Pentium](/wiki/Pentium_compatible_processor "Pentium compatible processor") processors of the time. At the time of its release only 20,000 copies were published.{{Cite magazine \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fQIAAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA104 \| title\=The Kilrathi Saga \- Maximum PC \| magazine\=Maximum PC \| date\=October 2004 \| page\=104 \| access\-date\=November 30, 2017}}
*Kilrathi Saga* also featured complete digital re\-orchestrations of the original two soundtracks by George Oldziey, but the *Saga* did not include the Secret Missions and Special Operations packs of the first two games. The packs were instead made available for download on the Origin website. Due to the add\-on packs not being on the CDs there is a bug that causes some music to not be played during animated sequences in the add\-ons.
#### *Privateer 2: The Darkening*
{{main\|Privateer 2: The Darkening}}
*Privateer 2* was launched in late 1996 by Erin Roberts.
The game features live\-action video scenes, directed by Steve Hilliker. The cast included [Clive Owen](/wiki/Clive_Owen "Clive Owen"), [Mathilda May](/wiki/Mathilda_May "Mathilda May"), [Jürgen Prochnow](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Prochnow "Jürgen Prochnow"), [John Hurt](/wiki/John_Hurt "John Hurt"), [Christopher Walken](/wiki/Christopher_Walken "Christopher Walken"), [Brian Blessed](/wiki/Brian_Blessed "Brian Blessed") and [Amanda Pays](/wiki/Amanda_Pays "Amanda Pays"). [Dani Behr](/wiki/Dani_Behr "Dani Behr") voiced the onboard computer, also named Dani. The game also featured [David Warner](/wiki/David_Warner_%28actor%29 "David Warner (actor)"), and [Jürgen Prochnow](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Prochnow "Jürgen Prochnow"), who later played Admiral Geoffrey Tolwyn and Commander Paul Gerald, respectively, in the *Wing Commander* feature film. The filming was done at Pinewood Studios in England.
Set in a remote region of the Wing Commander universe in the Tri\-System Confederation (a three system government that has almost three thousand\-year history of its own parallel to the Terran Confederation history), a cargo ship *Canera* is attacked during landing and crashes into Mendra City on planet Crius in the year 2790 of the Tri\-System calendar (the calendar appears to be longer than a Terran year with months that are about 40 days each). One survivor, As Lev Arris, [a man with no memory of who he is](/wiki/Fugue_state "Fugue state") and no record of his existence prior to two weeks before the crash, awakens from his cryo\-sleep and must take on the life of a privateer in the Tri\-System, re\-discovering his past along the way.
#### *Wing Commander Arena*
{{main\| Wing Commander Arena}}
Publisher [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts "Electronic Arts") and developer Gaia Industries revived the *Wing Commander* franchise with a downloadable release on Xbox Live Arcade called *Wing Commander Arena*. Dogfights take place in one of nine environments, and pilots are able to choose from 18 ships. There can be up to 16 players in a single match. The title was released on July 25, 2007\. It is set chronologically after Wing Commander Prophecy Gold, and background information is included in the digital Star\*Soldier manual.
### Canceled games
#### *Alien Commander*
Around 1993, [Warren Spector](/wiki/Warren_Spector "Warren Spector") developed a pitch for a science fiction game called *Alien Commander*, which would be set in the *Wing Commander* universe. A concept document was produced, however the project was scrapped in favour of proceeding with *System Shock*.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/blogs/my\-40\-years\-in\-the\-game\-industry \| title\=40 years and I'm still here }}
#### *Privateer 3*
Origin aborted several attempts to continue the *Privateer* franchise between 1995 and 2003, by either developing a sequel (*Privateer 3*) or an online game (*Privateer* or *Wing Commander Online*). Only one of these was formally announced.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wcnews.com/news/2011/10/12/the\-grand\-daddy\-of\-privateer\-3\-concepts\|publisher\=wcnews.com \|date\=2012\-10\-12\|title\=The Grand Daddy of Privateer 3 Concepts \|quote\=''we have an exciting new Privateer 3 document available! \[...] Historically speaking, this is the first Privateer 3 proposal, put together by the Loose Cannon team during the development of Wing Commander Prophecy in 1997\. This version of the game is very different from the Privateer 3: Retribution story and concept you may be familiar with''. \|access\-date\=2013\-12\-02}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wcnews.com/news/2011/10/11/privateer\-3\-pitch\-document\-restored \|publisher\=wcnews.com \|date\=2011\-10\-11 \|title\=Privateer 3 Pitch Document Restored \|access\-date\=2013\-12\-02}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wcnews.com/news/update/12287 \|publisher\=wcnews.com \|date\=2013\-08\-11 \|title\=Document Archive: Privateer 3 Pitch \|quote\=''This glossy pitch for Privateer 3 was crafted in 2000 for the eyes of Electronic Arts executives. Printed in full color, this massive document was signed by the entire team. Unfortunately, it wasn't enough to convince EA that the team with ten years of space combat experience was a better match for building an online space game than the team responsible for Command and Conquer''.\|access\-date\=2013\-12\-02}} The March 1998 issue of *Computer Games Strategy Plus* featured a cover story on *Privateer 3*. Origin confirmed that development of the game had been canceled shortly after the magazine was published.
#### *Strike Team*
*Wing Commander: Strike Team* was a planned sequel to *Wing Commander: Secret Ops* which focused on multiplayer gameplay. The title was officially announced in an EAUK promotional publication but was canceled early in development.
|
[
"Games\n-----",
"{{Video game timeline\n\\| subtitle \\= Main series in '''bold'''\n\\| 1990 \\= '''''\\[\\[Wing Commander (video game)\\|Wing Commander]]'''''\n\\| 1991 \\= '''''\\[\\[Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi]]'''''\n\\| 1993a \\= ''\\[\\[Wing Commander Academy (video game)\\|Wing Commander Academy]]''\n\\| 1993b \\= ''\\[\\[Wing Commander: Privateer]]''\n\\| 1994a \\= '''''\\[\\[Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger]]'''''\n\\| 1994b \\= ''\\[\\[Wing Commander: Armada]]''\n\\| 1994c \\= ''Super Wing Commander''\n\\| 1996a \\= '''''\\[\\[Wing Commander IV: The Price of Freedom]]'''''\n\\| 1996b \\= ''\\[\\[Privateer 2: The Darkening]]''\n\\| 1997 \\= '''''\\[\\[Wing Commander: Prophecy]]'''''\n\\| 2007 \\= ''\\[\\[Wing Commander Arena]]''\n}}\nThe *Wing Commander* game series began in 1990 with *Wing Commander*. The newest addition to the series, *[Wing Commander Arena](/wiki/Wing_Commander_Arena \"Wing Commander Arena\")*, was released for the [Xbox Live Arcade](/wiki/Xbox_Live_Arcade \"Xbox Live Arcade\") service on July 25, 2007\\.",
"### *Wing Commander*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander (video game)}}\nThe player begins his tour of duty as a young space fighter pilot on the carrier the TCS *Tiger's Claw*. The player can set this character's name and callsign in the first games in the franchise. As of *Wing Commander 3*, the protagonist is given the canonical name [Christopher \"Maverick\" Blair](/wiki/Christopher_Blair \"Christopher Blair\"). Through the player's heroic efforts, the Confederation is able to destroy the Kilrathi's sector headquarters and drive them from the Vega sector. Through the course of the Vega campaign, the player can gain numerous promotions and medals and fly in various squadrons, each featuring a different fighter. The game was notable for its innovative and seldom\\-repeated \"campaign tree\" structure, whereby the \"path\" the player took on the way to the end would be determined by the player's performance on preceding missions. In\\-game cinematics in \"newsreel\" format reflected the success or failure of the player and the *Claw*.",
"Originally announced as *Squadron*, the name was changed to *Wingleader* shortly into development; however, trademark issues forced a name change to *Wing Commander* at the last moment. The development team's nickname for the otherwise\\-unnamed protagonist was \"Bluehair\", due to his unusual shade of hair. Perhaps in a nod to this in\\-joke, when the character was given an actual name in later installments, Origin chose \"Blair\", a shortened version of the old nickname. *Wing Commander* was ported to the [Amiga](/wiki/Amiga \"Amiga\"), [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns \"FM Towns\"), [SNES](/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System \"Super Nintendo Entertainment System\"), [Mega\\-CD](/wiki/Mega-CD \"Mega-CD\"), [Amiga CD32](/wiki/Amiga_CD32 \"Amiga CD32\"), [3DO](/wiki/3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer \"3DO Interactive Multiplayer\"), [Mac OS](/wiki/Mac_OS \"Mac OS\"), and [PlayStation Portable](/wiki/PlayStation_Portable \"PlayStation Portable\") systems, the most ports of any *Wing Commander* game. In the Sega CD port which added voice acting, the player character was given the callsign of \"HotShot\" to allow him to be addressed by voice.",
"In 1991, *Wing Commander* won the [Origins Award](/wiki/Origins_Award \"Origins Award\") for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1990\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.originsgamefair.com/awards/1990 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604122528/http://www.originsgamefair.com/awards/1990 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-04 \\|title\\=Origins Game Fair Awards 1990 \\|date\\=June 4, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-12}}",
"#### *The Secret Missions*",
"A new Kilrathi secret weapon destroys the Terran colony of Goddard. In retribution, the Confederation plans a daring raid, Operation [Thor's Hammer](/wiki/Mjolnir \"Mjolnir\"). *Tiger's Claw* must follow the Kilrathi deep into their own territory and destroy their new super weapon, the dreadnaught *Sivar*.",
"*The Secret Missions* was ported to the [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns \"FM Towns\"), [SNES](/wiki/SNES \"SNES\"), Sony PSP (as part of the [EA Replay](/wiki/EA_Replay \"EA Replay\") bundle), and was included with *Wing Commander* on the [3DO](/wiki/3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer \"3DO Interactive Multiplayer\") and [Macintosh](/wiki/Mac_%28computer%29 \"Mac (computer)\") as part of *Super Wing Commander*.",
"#### *The Secret Missions 2: Crusade*",
"When the Confederation is just celebrating a new alliance with the bird\\-like native species of the planet Firekka, they learn that entire fleets of Kilrathi ships are leaving from other sectors and heading towards the Firekka system. Concerned, but massively outnumbered, the Confederation ships must retreat, but they soon learn from a Kilrathi [defector](/wiki/Ralgha_nar_Hhallas \"Ralgha nar Hhallas\") that Firekka has been chosen as the place for a holy Kilrathi ceremony. The Confederation soon develops a plan to disrupt that ceremony in an act of terrorism meant to deliver a blow to enemy morale, and it is up to the pilots of *Tiger's Claw* to ensure the success of the mission.",
"*The Secret Missions 2: Crusade* was ported to the FM Towns.",
"#### *Super Wing Commander*",
"In 1994, a revamped version of the original *Wing Commander*, entitled *Super Wing Commander* (SWC), was released for the 3DO. It featured new graphics, full speech and included a *Secret Missions 1\\.5* campaign (between the original campaigns 1 and 2\\) with a follow\\-up to Thor's Hammer in which the *Claw* destroys the Kilrathi shipyards that constructed the *Sivar*.",
"*Super Wing Commander* was ported to the Macintosh in 1995\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mobygames.com/game/macintosh/super\\-wing\\-commander \\|title\\=Super Wing Commander \\|publisher\\=Mobygames.com \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-12}}",
"### *Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi}}\nShortly after the Firekka campaign, the *Tiger's Claw* attempts to attack the Kilrathi headquarters in the Enigma sector, but is ambushed by new Kilrathi \"Strakha\" stealth fighters and is lost. No one but Blair sees these fighters, so they are dismissed as an excuse to cover his cowardice. He is scapegoated for the loss of the *Claw*, is demoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28armed_forces%29 \"Captain (armed forces)\") and transferred to a backwater space station. Ten years later, he is called back into action when he is able to save the Confederation's flagship, the TCS *Concordia*. Meeting many old friends there, he continues the fight against the Kilrathi, finally culminating in the destruction of their sector HQ, thus clearing his name and uncovering a traitor on the Concordia's flight decks, who was the mastermind behind the ambush and destruction of the *Tiger's Claw*.",
"*Wing Commander II* was ported to the [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns \"FM Towns\"). In 1992, it won the Origins Award for *Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1991*.",
"#### *Special Operations 1*",
"Blair is transferred to the undercover Special Operations division, supporting Kilrathi colonies that are defecting from the Empire. But first he must solve the problem of a mutiny on a Confed cruiser.",
"#### *Special Operations 2*",
"Jazz, the traitor from *Wing Commander II*, has fled imprisonment and the Mandarin (the society of traitors) are also able to steal some of the Confederation's newest top\\-secret fighters. Blair must hunt them down and face Jazz in one final showdown.",
"### *Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger}}\nThe war is going very badly for the Confederation, far worse than what the public (or the player) generally knows. Battles are lost on all fronts, casualties are mounting, and the Concordia is destroyed. Colonel [Christopher Blair](/wiki/Christopher_Blair \"Christopher Blair\") (the player from the first games, now with a set name), is transferred to the TCS *Victory*, an old ship from the first days of the war. In a last\\-ditch attempt to win the war, Confed has designed the TCS *Behemoth*, a doomsday weapon able to destroy an entire planet. It is Blair's mission to help end this war for good, by destroying the Kilrathi homeworld of Kilrah. Unfortunately the Behemoth is destroyed by Kilrathi forces. The enemy fighters seemed to know exactly about the weakpoints of the weapon. Later on Blair finds out that his old friend Hobbes, a Kilrathi defector, is a sleeper agent and the traitor responsible for the Confed's losses. The last hope of winning the war for the Confederation is a secret weapon, the \"Temblor Bomb\", using the tectonic instability of Kilrah to destroy the planet. Blair is finally able to attack Kilrah, firing the bomb and destroying the Kilrathi homeworld. With the royal family of Kilrah killed and their homeworld lost, Melek, once attaché to the Kilrathi prince, surrenders before Blair.",
"*Wing Commander III* was the first game in the series to use [full motion video](/wiki/Full_motion_video \"Full motion video\") as opposed to animated cutscenes, and texture\\-mapped 3D instead of sprite\\-based graphics. The game features well\\-known actors such as [Mark Hamill](/wiki/Mark_Hamill \"Mark Hamill\") as Christopher Blair, [John Rhys\\-Davies](/wiki/John_Rhys-Davies \"John Rhys-Davies\") as James \"Paladin\" Taggart, [Thomas F. Wilson](/wiki/Thomas_F._Wilson \"Thomas F. Wilson\") as Todd \"Maniac\" Marshall, [Malcolm McDowell](/wiki/Malcolm_McDowell \"Malcolm McDowell\") as Admiral Geoffrey Tolwyn, [Josh Lucas](/wiki/Josh_Lucas \"Josh Lucas\") as \"Flash\", and [Ginger Lynn](/wiki/Ginger_Lynn \"Ginger Lynn\") as Chief Technician Rachel Coriolis.",
"*Wing Commander III* was ported to the [PlayStation](/wiki/PlayStation_%28console%29 \"PlayStation (console)\"), Macintosh and the 3DO.",
"### *Wing Commander IV: The Price of Freedom*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander IV: The Price of Freedom}}\nThe war with the Kilrathi is over, but not all is well within the Confederation. Skirmishes in the Border Worlds destroy ships regularly. Both Confed and the Union of Border Worlds assign blame to each other and the skirmishes threaten to lead to all\\-out war. Blair is soon recalled to active duty and sent to the Border Worlds to confirm Confed's determination. But he finds out that a conspiracy of war\\-mongers with members in the highest Confed circles are responsible for the attacks. Defecting to the Border Worlds, Blair must expose the conspiracy to help restore the peace in a galaxy still torn over the events of the Kilrathi\\-Terran War.",
"*The Price of Freedom* retained the storytelling\\-style of its predecessor, using live\\-action cutscenes with an ensemble cast of actors. Many of the actors from *Wing Commander III* returned to reprise their roles. The story's final sequence was innovative in that dialogue choices made by the player affected the outcome of the hearing. However, only three endings were possible, and two of the outcomes depended on the earlier choices made by the player.",
"*Wing Commander IV* was ported to the PlayStation and Mac OS. To owners of the original [MS\\-DOS](/wiki/MS-DOS \"MS-DOS\") version, Origin made available a [Windows 95](/wiki/Windows_95 \"Windows 95\") [DirectX](/wiki/DirectX \"DirectX\") port, free of charge.",
"### *Wing Commander: Prophecy*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander: Prophecy}}\nPeace has finally come to the Confederation, or so it seems. Still remaining vigilant, they commission the new megacarrier TCS *Midway*, which is soon needed when Kilrathi worlds are attacked by an enemy whose coming was foretold in ancient Kilrathi prophecies. The insectoid enemy, codenamed the Nephilim, soon begin attacking Confed space and the Midway is called in to stop their advance. As young hotshot pilot [Lance Casey](/wiki/Lance_Casey \"Lance Casey\"), the player must fight their organic ships to help destroy the wormhole they used to enter Kilrathi space, thereby halting the invasion, at least for a while.",
"As did *Wing Commander IV*, *Prophecy* incorporated live\\-action cutscenes with actors. *Prophecy* was ported to the [Game Boy Advance](/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance \"Game Boy Advance\").",
"#### *Wing Commander: Secret Ops*",
"The Nephilim return, this time much closer to Earth. Transferred to the cruiser TCS *Cerberus*, Casey and his wingmates must repel the invasion once again.",
"*Secret Ops* was an experiment in game distribution. It was at first only available as a free download. In regular intervals, new episodes were released, each featuring several new missions with the storyline told through in\\-game cutscenes. The game was later available in a collection together with *Prophecy*, and sold as *Prophecy Gold*.",
"### Spin\\-offs",
"#### *Wing Commander Academy*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander Academy (video game)}}\nA game where the player could build their own missions using ships from *Wing Commander II*.",
"#### *Wing Commander: Privateer*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander: Privateer}}\nSet in the border regions of Confederation space, the player takes control of a privateer (in *Wing Commander*, a \"privateer\" is a mercenary spacer) who may profit by trading, performing various missions, or pirating. Meanwhile, an ancient alien spaceship has been awakened and is on the loose, attacking ships at random, and the player\\-controlled privateer may be the Confederation's only hope in defeating it.",
"This game featured completely open\\-ended gameplay, with the player able to completely ignore the main storyline if they so desired.",
"##### *Righteous Fire*",
"When the player's priceless Steltek Gun is stolen, he embarks on a quest that will bring him into conflict with the Luddite\\-like Church of Man and their shady leader, Mordecai Jones.",
"#### *Wing Commander Armada*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander: Armada}}\n*Armada* featured both an action and a strategy game mode and several multiplayer options. The game was ported to the [NEC PC9821](/wiki/PC-9800_series \"PC-9800 series\") and [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns \"FM Towns\").",
"##### *Proving Grounds*",
"This add\\-on for *Armada* added numerous new features such as a new \"arcade\"\\-mode with powerups, radar\\-obscuring asteroids, and several new multiplayer options, including [IPX](/wiki/IPX \"IPX\").",
"#### *The Kilrathi Saga*",
"*Kilrathi Saga* was a limited\\-edition reissue of the first three *Wing Commander* games (*Wing Commander*, *Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi*, and *Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger*). Origin repaired some of the game's known bugs and adjusted the speed to run on the early [Pentium](/wiki/Pentium_compatible_processor \"Pentium compatible processor\") processors of the time. At the time of its release only 20,000 copies were published.{{Cite magazine \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fQIAAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA104 \\| title\\=The Kilrathi Saga \\- Maximum PC \\| magazine\\=Maximum PC \\| date\\=October 2004 \\| page\\=104 \\| access\\-date\\=November 30, 2017}}",
"*Kilrathi Saga* also featured complete digital re\\-orchestrations of the original two soundtracks by George Oldziey, but the *Saga* did not include the Secret Missions and Special Operations packs of the first two games. The packs were instead made available for download on the Origin website. Due to the add\\-on packs not being on the CDs there is a bug that causes some music to not be played during animated sequences in the add\\-ons.",
"#### *Privateer 2: The Darkening*",
"{{main\\|Privateer 2: The Darkening}}\n*Privateer 2* was launched in late 1996 by Erin Roberts.",
"The game features live\\-action video scenes, directed by Steve Hilliker. The cast included [Clive Owen](/wiki/Clive_Owen \"Clive Owen\"), [Mathilda May](/wiki/Mathilda_May \"Mathilda May\"), [Jürgen Prochnow](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Prochnow \"Jürgen Prochnow\"), [John Hurt](/wiki/John_Hurt \"John Hurt\"), [Christopher Walken](/wiki/Christopher_Walken \"Christopher Walken\"), [Brian Blessed](/wiki/Brian_Blessed \"Brian Blessed\") and [Amanda Pays](/wiki/Amanda_Pays \"Amanda Pays\"). [Dani Behr](/wiki/Dani_Behr \"Dani Behr\") voiced the onboard computer, also named Dani. The game also featured [David Warner](/wiki/David_Warner_%28actor%29 \"David Warner (actor)\"), and [Jürgen Prochnow](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Prochnow \"Jürgen Prochnow\"), who later played Admiral Geoffrey Tolwyn and Commander Paul Gerald, respectively, in the *Wing Commander* feature film. The filming was done at Pinewood Studios in England.",
"Set in a remote region of the Wing Commander universe in the Tri\\-System Confederation (a three system government that has almost three thousand\\-year history of its own parallel to the Terran Confederation history), a cargo ship *Canera* is attacked during landing and crashes into Mendra City on planet Crius in the year 2790 of the Tri\\-System calendar (the calendar appears to be longer than a Terran year with months that are about 40 days each). One survivor, As Lev Arris, [a man with no memory of who he is](/wiki/Fugue_state \"Fugue state\") and no record of his existence prior to two weeks before the crash, awakens from his cryo\\-sleep and must take on the life of a privateer in the Tri\\-System, re\\-discovering his past along the way.",
"#### *Wing Commander Arena*",
"{{main\\| Wing Commander Arena}}\nPublisher [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts \"Electronic Arts\") and developer Gaia Industries revived the *Wing Commander* franchise with a downloadable release on Xbox Live Arcade called *Wing Commander Arena*. Dogfights take place in one of nine environments, and pilots are able to choose from 18 ships. There can be up to 16 players in a single match. The title was released on July 25, 2007\\. It is set chronologically after Wing Commander Prophecy Gold, and background information is included in the digital Star\\*Soldier manual.",
"### Canceled games",
"#### *Alien Commander*",
"Around 1993, [Warren Spector](/wiki/Warren_Spector \"Warren Spector\") developed a pitch for a science fiction game called *Alien Commander*, which would be set in the *Wing Commander* universe. A concept document was produced, however the project was scrapped in favour of proceeding with *System Shock*.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/blogs/my\\-40\\-years\\-in\\-the\\-game\\-industry \\| title\\=40 years and I'm still here }}",
"#### *Privateer 3*",
"Origin aborted several attempts to continue the *Privateer* franchise between 1995 and 2003, by either developing a sequel (*Privateer 3*) or an online game (*Privateer* or *Wing Commander Online*). Only one of these was formally announced.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wcnews.com/news/2011/10/12/the\\-grand\\-daddy\\-of\\-privateer\\-3\\-concepts\\|publisher\\=wcnews.com \\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-12\\|title\\=The Grand Daddy of Privateer 3 Concepts \\|quote\\=''we have an exciting new Privateer 3 document available! \\[...] Historically speaking, this is the first Privateer 3 proposal, put together by the Loose Cannon team during the development of Wing Commander Prophecy in 1997\\. This version of the game is very different from the Privateer 3: Retribution story and concept you may be familiar with''. \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-02}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wcnews.com/news/2011/10/11/privateer\\-3\\-pitch\\-document\\-restored \\|publisher\\=wcnews.com \\|date\\=2011\\-10\\-11 \\|title\\=Privateer 3 Pitch Document Restored \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-02}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wcnews.com/news/update/12287 \\|publisher\\=wcnews.com \\|date\\=2013\\-08\\-11 \\|title\\=Document Archive: Privateer 3 Pitch \\|quote\\=''This glossy pitch for Privateer 3 was crafted in 2000 for the eyes of Electronic Arts executives. Printed in full color, this massive document was signed by the entire team. Unfortunately, it wasn't enough to convince EA that the team with ten years of space combat experience was a better match for building an online space game than the team responsible for Command and Conquer''.\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-02}} The March 1998 issue of *Computer Games Strategy Plus* featured a cover story on *Privateer 3*. Origin confirmed that development of the game had been canceled shortly after the magazine was published.",
"#### *Strike Team*",
"*Wing Commander: Strike Team* was a planned sequel to *Wing Commander: Secret Ops* which focused on multiplayer gameplay. The title was officially announced in an EAUK promotional publication but was canceled early in development.",
""
] |
### Spin\-offs
#### *Wing Commander Academy*
{{main\|Wing Commander Academy (video game)}}
A game where the player could build their own missions using ships from *Wing Commander II*.
#### *Wing Commander: Privateer*
{{main\|Wing Commander: Privateer}}
Set in the border regions of Confederation space, the player takes control of a privateer (in *Wing Commander*, a "privateer" is a mercenary spacer) who may profit by trading, performing various missions, or pirating. Meanwhile, an ancient alien spaceship has been awakened and is on the loose, attacking ships at random, and the player\-controlled privateer may be the Confederation's only hope in defeating it.
This game featured completely open\-ended gameplay, with the player able to completely ignore the main storyline if they so desired.
##### *Righteous Fire*
When the player's priceless Steltek Gun is stolen, he embarks on a quest that will bring him into conflict with the Luddite\-like Church of Man and their shady leader, Mordecai Jones.
#### *Wing Commander Armada*
{{main\|Wing Commander: Armada}}
*Armada* featured both an action and a strategy game mode and several multiplayer options. The game was ported to the [NEC PC9821](/wiki/PC-9800_series "PC-9800 series") and [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns "FM Towns").
##### *Proving Grounds*
This add\-on for *Armada* added numerous new features such as a new "arcade"\-mode with powerups, radar\-obscuring asteroids, and several new multiplayer options, including [IPX](/wiki/IPX "IPX").
#### *The Kilrathi Saga*
*Kilrathi Saga* was a limited\-edition reissue of the first three *Wing Commander* games (*Wing Commander*, *Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi*, and *Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger*). Origin repaired some of the game's known bugs and adjusted the speed to run on the early [Pentium](/wiki/Pentium_compatible_processor "Pentium compatible processor") processors of the time. At the time of its release only 20,000 copies were published.{{Cite magazine \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fQIAAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA104 \| title\=The Kilrathi Saga \- Maximum PC \| magazine\=Maximum PC \| date\=October 2004 \| page\=104 \| access\-date\=November 30, 2017}}
*Kilrathi Saga* also featured complete digital re\-orchestrations of the original two soundtracks by George Oldziey, but the *Saga* did not include the Secret Missions and Special Operations packs of the first two games. The packs were instead made available for download on the Origin website. Due to the add\-on packs not being on the CDs there is a bug that causes some music to not be played during animated sequences in the add\-ons.
#### *Privateer 2: The Darkening*
{{main\|Privateer 2: The Darkening}}
*Privateer 2* was launched in late 1996 by Erin Roberts.
The game features live\-action video scenes, directed by Steve Hilliker. The cast included [Clive Owen](/wiki/Clive_Owen "Clive Owen"), [Mathilda May](/wiki/Mathilda_May "Mathilda May"), [Jürgen Prochnow](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Prochnow "Jürgen Prochnow"), [John Hurt](/wiki/John_Hurt "John Hurt"), [Christopher Walken](/wiki/Christopher_Walken "Christopher Walken"), [Brian Blessed](/wiki/Brian_Blessed "Brian Blessed") and [Amanda Pays](/wiki/Amanda_Pays "Amanda Pays"). [Dani Behr](/wiki/Dani_Behr "Dani Behr") voiced the onboard computer, also named Dani. The game also featured [David Warner](/wiki/David_Warner_%28actor%29 "David Warner (actor)"), and [Jürgen Prochnow](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Prochnow "Jürgen Prochnow"), who later played Admiral Geoffrey Tolwyn and Commander Paul Gerald, respectively, in the *Wing Commander* feature film. The filming was done at Pinewood Studios in England.
Set in a remote region of the Wing Commander universe in the Tri\-System Confederation (a three system government that has almost three thousand\-year history of its own parallel to the Terran Confederation history), a cargo ship *Canera* is attacked during landing and crashes into Mendra City on planet Crius in the year 2790 of the Tri\-System calendar (the calendar appears to be longer than a Terran year with months that are about 40 days each). One survivor, As Lev Arris, [a man with no memory of who he is](/wiki/Fugue_state "Fugue state") and no record of his existence prior to two weeks before the crash, awakens from his cryo\-sleep and must take on the life of a privateer in the Tri\-System, re\-discovering his past along the way.
#### *Wing Commander Arena*
{{main\| Wing Commander Arena}}
Publisher [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts "Electronic Arts") and developer Gaia Industries revived the *Wing Commander* franchise with a downloadable release on Xbox Live Arcade called *Wing Commander Arena*. Dogfights take place in one of nine environments, and pilots are able to choose from 18 ships. There can be up to 16 players in a single match. The title was released on July 25, 2007\. It is set chronologically after Wing Commander Prophecy Gold, and background information is included in the digital Star\*Soldier manual.
|
[
"### Spin\\-offs",
"#### *Wing Commander Academy*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander Academy (video game)}}\nA game where the player could build their own missions using ships from *Wing Commander II*.",
"#### *Wing Commander: Privateer*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander: Privateer}}\nSet in the border regions of Confederation space, the player takes control of a privateer (in *Wing Commander*, a \"privateer\" is a mercenary spacer) who may profit by trading, performing various missions, or pirating. Meanwhile, an ancient alien spaceship has been awakened and is on the loose, attacking ships at random, and the player\\-controlled privateer may be the Confederation's only hope in defeating it.",
"This game featured completely open\\-ended gameplay, with the player able to completely ignore the main storyline if they so desired.",
"##### *Righteous Fire*",
"When the player's priceless Steltek Gun is stolen, he embarks on a quest that will bring him into conflict with the Luddite\\-like Church of Man and their shady leader, Mordecai Jones.",
"#### *Wing Commander Armada*",
"{{main\\|Wing Commander: Armada}}\n*Armada* featured both an action and a strategy game mode and several multiplayer options. The game was ported to the [NEC PC9821](/wiki/PC-9800_series \"PC-9800 series\") and [FM Towns](/wiki/FM_Towns \"FM Towns\").",
"##### *Proving Grounds*",
"This add\\-on for *Armada* added numerous new features such as a new \"arcade\"\\-mode with powerups, radar\\-obscuring asteroids, and several new multiplayer options, including [IPX](/wiki/IPX \"IPX\").",
"#### *The Kilrathi Saga*",
"*Kilrathi Saga* was a limited\\-edition reissue of the first three *Wing Commander* games (*Wing Commander*, *Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi*, and *Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger*). Origin repaired some of the game's known bugs and adjusted the speed to run on the early [Pentium](/wiki/Pentium_compatible_processor \"Pentium compatible processor\") processors of the time. At the time of its release only 20,000 copies were published.{{Cite magazine \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fQIAAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA104 \\| title\\=The Kilrathi Saga \\- Maximum PC \\| magazine\\=Maximum PC \\| date\\=October 2004 \\| page\\=104 \\| access\\-date\\=November 30, 2017}}",
"*Kilrathi Saga* also featured complete digital re\\-orchestrations of the original two soundtracks by George Oldziey, but the *Saga* did not include the Secret Missions and Special Operations packs of the first two games. The packs were instead made available for download on the Origin website. Due to the add\\-on packs not being on the CDs there is a bug that causes some music to not be played during animated sequences in the add\\-ons.",
"#### *Privateer 2: The Darkening*",
"{{main\\|Privateer 2: The Darkening}}\n*Privateer 2* was launched in late 1996 by Erin Roberts.",
"The game features live\\-action video scenes, directed by Steve Hilliker. The cast included [Clive Owen](/wiki/Clive_Owen \"Clive Owen\"), [Mathilda May](/wiki/Mathilda_May \"Mathilda May\"), [Jürgen Prochnow](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Prochnow \"Jürgen Prochnow\"), [John Hurt](/wiki/John_Hurt \"John Hurt\"), [Christopher Walken](/wiki/Christopher_Walken \"Christopher Walken\"), [Brian Blessed](/wiki/Brian_Blessed \"Brian Blessed\") and [Amanda Pays](/wiki/Amanda_Pays \"Amanda Pays\"). [Dani Behr](/wiki/Dani_Behr \"Dani Behr\") voiced the onboard computer, also named Dani. The game also featured [David Warner](/wiki/David_Warner_%28actor%29 \"David Warner (actor)\"), and [Jürgen Prochnow](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Prochnow \"Jürgen Prochnow\"), who later played Admiral Geoffrey Tolwyn and Commander Paul Gerald, respectively, in the *Wing Commander* feature film. The filming was done at Pinewood Studios in England.",
"Set in a remote region of the Wing Commander universe in the Tri\\-System Confederation (a three system government that has almost three thousand\\-year history of its own parallel to the Terran Confederation history), a cargo ship *Canera* is attacked during landing and crashes into Mendra City on planet Crius in the year 2790 of the Tri\\-System calendar (the calendar appears to be longer than a Terran year with months that are about 40 days each). One survivor, As Lev Arris, [a man with no memory of who he is](/wiki/Fugue_state \"Fugue state\") and no record of his existence prior to two weeks before the crash, awakens from his cryo\\-sleep and must take on the life of a privateer in the Tri\\-System, re\\-discovering his past along the way.",
"#### *Wing Commander Arena*",
"{{main\\| Wing Commander Arena}}\nPublisher [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts \"Electronic Arts\") and developer Gaia Industries revived the *Wing Commander* franchise with a downloadable release on Xbox Live Arcade called *Wing Commander Arena*. Dogfights take place in one of nine environments, and pilots are able to choose from 18 ships. There can be up to 16 players in a single match. The title was released on July 25, 2007\\. It is set chronologically after Wing Commander Prophecy Gold, and background information is included in the digital Star\\*Soldier manual.",
""
] |
Naval career
------------
As a junior officer Tripovich served in HMA Ships {{HMAS\|Duchess\|D154\|2}}, {{HMAS\|Melbourne\|R21\|2}}, {{HMAS\|Diamantina\|K377\|2}}, {{HMAS\|Vendetta\|D08\|2}}, {{HMAS\|Assail\|P 89\|2}}, {{HMAS\|Torrens\|DE 53\|2}}, and {{HMAS\|Hobart\|D 39\|2}}. He completed the Royal Navy's [Principal Warfare Officer](/wiki/Principal_Warfare_Officer "Principal Warfare Officer")'s Course in 1984 and, specialising in anti\-air warfare, returned to Australia to serve as the Direction Officer aboard {{HMAS\|Sydney\|FFG 03\|6}}.
In January 1986, Tripovich joined the Directorate of Naval User Requirements in Navy Headquarters Australia and was promoted to [lieutenant commander](/wiki/Lieutenant_commander "Lieutenant commander") in July 1986\. He returned to sea in May 1987 as the Direction Officer, Senior Warfare Officer and Operations Officer in {{HMAS\|Brisbane\|D 41\|6}}. He was appointed as the Fleet Direction Officer on the staff of the Maritime Commander Australia in December 1988\. Tripovich was awarded a [Chief of Navy](/wiki/Chief_of_Navy_%28Australia%29 "Chief of Navy (Australia)")’s Commendation that year.
On promotion to [commander](/wiki/Commander%23Australia "Commander#Australia") in May 1990, Tripovich rejoined HMAS *Brisbane* as Executive Officer and saw active service during hostilities in the 1990–91 Persian [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War"). He was awarded the [Conspicuous Service Cross](/wiki/Conspicuous_Service_Cross_%28Australia%29 "Conspicuous Service Cross (Australia)") for his service during the ship's deployment.
Tripovich headed the Navy's [Nulka](/wiki/Nulka "Nulka") Active Missile Decoy program during 1992–93 and attended the [Joint Services Staff College](/wiki/Australian_Defence_College "Australian Defence College") in the first half of 1994\. He commanded {{HMAS\|Canberra\|FFG 02\|6}} from September 1994 to May 1996, and then was Staff Officer to the [Chief of the Defence Force](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Force_%28Australia%29 "Chief of the Defence Force (Australia)") until August 1997\.
On promotion to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28naval%29 "Captain (naval)"), Tripovich became the Director of Maritime Combat Development at [Australian Defence Force Headquarters (ADFHQ)](/wiki/Russell_Offices "Russell Offices") in Canberra. Returning to sea in July 1999, he assumed command of {{HMAS\|Anzac\|FFH 150\|6}}, and again saw active service during [INTERFET](/wiki/INTERFET "INTERFET") operations off East Timor later that year.
Promoted to [commodore](/wiki/Commodore_%28rank%29 "Commodore (rank)") in April 2001, Tripovich was appointed Director General Naval Capability, Performance and Plans in Navy Headquarters. He rejoined the Fleet as Commodore Flotillas in June 2002 and led the Australian Fleet Sea Training Group, which was awarded a Chief of Defence Force Commendation for its collective contribution to the preparation of forces for a wide range of real world operations during his tenure. As Commodore Flotillas he also commanded the Deployable Joint Force Headquarters (Maritime), which provided deployed command staff for most of the major exercises and real world operations in which the RAN was involved, including operations in the Middle East and the Solomon Islands.
In February 2004, Tripovich moved ashore and became Director General Navy Personnel and Training at Navy Headquarters. He was promoted to [rear admiral](/wiki/Rear_admiral "Rear admiral") on 1 July 2005 and became Head of Capability Systems in Australian Defence Headquarters. In the [Queen's Birthday Honours](/wiki/Birthday_Honours "Birthday Honours") of 2005, he was appointed as a [Member of the Order of Australia](/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Australia "Member of the Order of Australia") for "exceptional service to the Royal Australian Navy" in the three appointments that he held as a commodore.[It's an Honour, *Member of the Order of Australia, Matthew John Tripovich*, 13 June 2005](https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/1136057) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181931/http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/honours/honour\_roll/search.cfm?aus\_award\_id\=1136057\&search\_type\=advanced\&showInd\=true \|date\=3 March 2016 }}, retrieved 18 April 2008\.
Citation: "For exceptional service to the Royal Australian Navy as Director General Navy Capability, Performance and Plans, Commodore Flotillas and Director General Navy Personnel and Training."
On 28 September 2007, Tripovich was promoted to [vice admiral](/wiki/Vice_admiral "Vice admiral") and appointed [Chief Capability Development Group](/wiki/Chief_Capability_Development_Group "Chief Capability Development Group"). As a result of his "distinguished service" in this position and that of Capability Systems, he was upgraded to an [Officer of the Order of Australia](/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_Australia "Officer of the Order of Australia") in June 2010\.<http://www.gg.gov.au/res/File/PDFs/honours/qb10/Media%20Notes%20AO(Mil)%20(final).pdf>
<https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/1142623>
For distinguished service as Head Capability Systems and Chief Capability Development Group. He relinquished this post in October 2010 on retirement from the ADF.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.defence.gov.au/leaders/other/johnHarvey/index.htm\|title\=Air Marshal John Harvey, Chief Capability Development Group\|accessdate\=14 October 2010\|work\=Defence Leaders\|publisher\=Department of Defence}}
|
[
"Naval career\n------------",
"As a junior officer Tripovich served in HMA Ships {{HMAS\\|Duchess\\|D154\\|2}}, {{HMAS\\|Melbourne\\|R21\\|2}}, {{HMAS\\|Diamantina\\|K377\\|2}}, {{HMAS\\|Vendetta\\|D08\\|2}}, {{HMAS\\|Assail\\|P 89\\|2}}, {{HMAS\\|Torrens\\|DE 53\\|2}}, and {{HMAS\\|Hobart\\|D 39\\|2}}. He completed the Royal Navy's [Principal Warfare Officer](/wiki/Principal_Warfare_Officer \"Principal Warfare Officer\")'s Course in 1984 and, specialising in anti\\-air warfare, returned to Australia to serve as the Direction Officer aboard {{HMAS\\|Sydney\\|FFG 03\\|6}}.",
"In January 1986, Tripovich joined the Directorate of Naval User Requirements in Navy Headquarters Australia and was promoted to [lieutenant commander](/wiki/Lieutenant_commander \"Lieutenant commander\") in July 1986\\. He returned to sea in May 1987 as the Direction Officer, Senior Warfare Officer and Operations Officer in {{HMAS\\|Brisbane\\|D 41\\|6}}. He was appointed as the Fleet Direction Officer on the staff of the Maritime Commander Australia in December 1988\\. Tripovich was awarded a [Chief of Navy](/wiki/Chief_of_Navy_%28Australia%29 \"Chief of Navy (Australia)\")’s Commendation that year.",
"On promotion to [commander](/wiki/Commander%23Australia \"Commander#Australia\") in May 1990, Tripovich rejoined HMAS *Brisbane* as Executive Officer and saw active service during hostilities in the 1990–91 Persian [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\"). He was awarded the [Conspicuous Service Cross](/wiki/Conspicuous_Service_Cross_%28Australia%29 \"Conspicuous Service Cross (Australia)\") for his service during the ship's deployment.",
"Tripovich headed the Navy's [Nulka](/wiki/Nulka \"Nulka\") Active Missile Decoy program during 1992–93 and attended the [Joint Services Staff College](/wiki/Australian_Defence_College \"Australian Defence College\") in the first half of 1994\\. He commanded {{HMAS\\|Canberra\\|FFG 02\\|6}} from September 1994 to May 1996, and then was Staff Officer to the [Chief of the Defence Force](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Force_%28Australia%29 \"Chief of the Defence Force (Australia)\") until August 1997\\.",
"On promotion to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28naval%29 \"Captain (naval)\"), Tripovich became the Director of Maritime Combat Development at [Australian Defence Force Headquarters (ADFHQ)](/wiki/Russell_Offices \"Russell Offices\") in Canberra. Returning to sea in July 1999, he assumed command of {{HMAS\\|Anzac\\|FFH 150\\|6}}, and again saw active service during [INTERFET](/wiki/INTERFET \"INTERFET\") operations off East Timor later that year.",
"Promoted to [commodore](/wiki/Commodore_%28rank%29 \"Commodore (rank)\") in April 2001, Tripovich was appointed Director General Naval Capability, Performance and Plans in Navy Headquarters. He rejoined the Fleet as Commodore Flotillas in June 2002 and led the Australian Fleet Sea Training Group, which was awarded a Chief of Defence Force Commendation for its collective contribution to the preparation of forces for a wide range of real world operations during his tenure. As Commodore Flotillas he also commanded the Deployable Joint Force Headquarters (Maritime), which provided deployed command staff for most of the major exercises and real world operations in which the RAN was involved, including operations in the Middle East and the Solomon Islands.",
"In February 2004, Tripovich moved ashore and became Director General Navy Personnel and Training at Navy Headquarters. He was promoted to [rear admiral](/wiki/Rear_admiral \"Rear admiral\") on 1 July 2005 and became Head of Capability Systems in Australian Defence Headquarters. In the [Queen's Birthday Honours](/wiki/Birthday_Honours \"Birthday Honours\") of 2005, he was appointed as a [Member of the Order of Australia](/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Australia \"Member of the Order of Australia\") for \"exceptional service to the Royal Australian Navy\" in the three appointments that he held as a commodore.[It's an Honour, *Member of the Order of Australia, Matthew John Tripovich*, 13 June 2005](https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/1136057) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181931/http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/honours/honour\\_roll/search.cfm?aus\\_award\\_id\\=1136057\\&search\\_type\\=advanced\\&showInd\\=true \\|date\\=3 March 2016 }}, retrieved 18 April 2008\\. \nCitation: \"For exceptional service to the Royal Australian Navy as Director General Navy Capability, Performance and Plans, Commodore Flotillas and Director General Navy Personnel and Training.\"",
"On 28 September 2007, Tripovich was promoted to [vice admiral](/wiki/Vice_admiral \"Vice admiral\") and appointed [Chief Capability Development Group](/wiki/Chief_Capability_Development_Group \"Chief Capability Development Group\"). As a result of his \"distinguished service\" in this position and that of Capability Systems, he was upgraded to an [Officer of the Order of Australia](/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_Australia \"Officer of the Order of Australia\") in June 2010\\.<http://www.gg.gov.au/res/File/PDFs/honours/qb10/Media%20Notes%20AO(Mil)%20(final).pdf> \n<https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/1142623>",
"For distinguished service as Head Capability Systems and Chief Capability Development Group. He relinquished this post in October 2010 on retirement from the ADF.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.defence.gov.au/leaders/other/johnHarvey/index.htm\\|title\\=Air Marshal John Harvey, Chief Capability Development Group\\|accessdate\\=14 October 2010\\|work\\=Defence Leaders\\|publisher\\=Department of Defence}}",
""
] |
Career
------
Hess studied mathematics and physics at the [University of Vienna](/wiki/University_of_Vienna "University of Vienna") in [Vienna, Austria](/wiki/Vienna%2C_Austria "Vienna, Austria"), where he received his Ph.D. in 1970 in applied physics and mathematics.{{cite book \|last1\=Arakawa \|first1\=Yasuhiko \|title\=Compound semiconductors 2001 : proceedings of the Twenty\-eighth International Symposium on Compound Semiconductors held in Tokyo, Japan, 1–4 October 2001 \|date\=2002 \|publisher\=IoP Publ. \|location\=Bristol, U.K. \|isbn\=9780750308564 \|page\=vii \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=s64c5E6IAPcC\&pg\=PR7 \|accessdate\=20 October 2017}}
He worked with Karlheinz Seeger on electron transport in semiconductors and subsequently became an assistant.{{cite journal \|last1\=Seeger \|first1\=Karlheinz \|last2\=Hess \|first2\=Karl F. \|title\=Momentum and energy relaxation of warm carriers in semiconductors \|journal\=Zeitschrift für Physik A \|date\=15 March 2005 \|volume\=237 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=252–262 \|doi\=10\.1007/BF01398639 \|bibcode\=1970ZPhy..237\..252S\|s2cid\=122290758 }}
In 1973 Hess went to the University of Illinois at Urbana\-Champaign (UIUC) on a [Fulbright scholarship](/wiki/Fulbright_scholarship "Fulbright scholarship") to work with [John Bardeen](/wiki/John_Bardeen "John Bardeen"). With [Chih\-Tang Sah](/wiki/Chih-Tang_Sah "Chih-Tang Sah") (the co\-inventor of CMOS technology), Hess worked theoretically on electron transport in transistors, to find a solution of the [Boltzmann transport equation](/wiki/Boltzmann_equation "Boltzmann equation") for transistors.
In 1974 Hess returned to the University of Vienna as assistant professor. In 1977 he was offered a position as a visiting associate professor which enabled him to return to UIUC. Hess worked on improving the efficiency of [charge\-coupled devices](/wiki/Charge-coupled_devices "Charge-coupled devices"). He and [Ben G. Streetman](/wiki/Ben_G._Streetman "Ben G. Streetman") developed the concept of "real space transfer" to describe the performance of high\-frequency transistors involving hot‐electron [thermionic emission](/wiki/Thermionic_emission "Thermionic emission").{{cite journal \|last1\=Hess \|first1\=K. \|last2\=Morkoç \|first2\=H. \|last3\=Shichijo \|first3\=H. \|last4\=Streetman \|first4\=B. G. \|title\=Negative differential resistance through real‐space electron transfer \|journal\=Applied Physics Letters \|date\=15 September 1979 \|volume\=35 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=469–471 \|doi\=10\.1063/1\.91172 \|bibcode\=1979ApPhL..35\..469H}}
This work was important to the development of layered semiconductor technology.
In 1980 Hess was appointed to a full professorship for electrical engineering and computer science at UIUC. He also undertook secret research at the [United States Naval Research Laboratory](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory "United States Naval Research Laboratory") from the 1980s onwards.
Hess chaired one of two committees established in 1983 to consider the possible formation of a multidisciplinary research facility at the University of Illinois.{{rp\|7}} In the fall of 1987, [William T. Greenough](/wiki/William_T._Greenough "William T. Greenough") and Karl Hess became associate directors of the [Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology](/wiki/Beckman_Institute_for_Advanced_Science_and_Technology "Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology") at UIUC.{{rp\|xviii, 38, 92}} Hess later served as Co\-chair of the Molecular and Electronic Nanostructures initiative at the Beckman Institute.{{cite news \|last1\=Bell \|first1\=Trudy E. \|title\=The Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology 'Two heads are better than one' is an adage honored by this research institute, where multidisciplinary collaboration is an art \|url\=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the\-beckman\-institute\-for\-advanced\-science\-and\-technology \|access\-date\=20 October 2017 \|work\=IEEE Spectrum \|date\=1 Nov 1999}}
Hess became "a leading theoretician in the realm of semiconductor transistors". His models of the behavior of transistors and integrated circuits enabled researchers to understand how they worked at fundamental levels and find ways to improve them.
His work on simulation of the behavior of electrons in semiconductors led to the [full\-band Monte Carlo method](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods_for_electron_transport "Monte Carlo methods for electron transport") of simulation. This approach incorporated both the Boltzmann equation and aspects of quantum mechanics, using supercomputers to model electrons both as particles and as waves.
He also developed simulations for the behavior of electrons in [optoelectronics](/wiki/Optoelectronics "Optoelectronics"), modeling [quantum well laser diodes](/wiki/Quantum_well_laser "Quantum well laser"), tiny lasers used in bar\-code scanners, CD players, and fiber\-optic technology. Hess's algorithms were used for design software called MINILASE, enabling engineers to more quickly and accurately predict the effects of design modifications.
From the 1990s onwards, Hess focused on nanotechnology and quantum informatics, including quantum transport in mesoscopic systems.{{cite book \|last1\=Hess \|first1\=K. \|last2\=Leburton \|first2\=J. P. \|last3\=Ravaioli \|first3\=U. \|title\=Computational Electronics Semiconductor Transport and Device Simulation \|date\=1991 \|publisher\=Springer US \|location\=Boston, MA \|isbn\=978\-1\-4757\-2124\-9}}
Around 1995, a conversation with nanolithographer Joseph W. Lyding suggested to Hess that using deuterium to passivate the surfaces of integrated circuits had the potential to increase the speed or the lifetime of the circuit. Hess and Isik Kizilyalli compared the degradation of CMOS transistor wafers prepared with either deuterium or hydrogen, and found that use of deuterium substantially increased transistor lifetimes.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hess \|first1\=K. \|last2\=Register \|first2\=L. F. \|last3\=Tuttle \|first3\=B. \|last4\=Lyding \|first4\=J. \|last5\=Kizilyalli \|first5\=I. C. \|title\=Impact of nanostructure research on conventional solid\-state electronics: The giant isotope effect in hydrogen desorption and CMOS lifetime \|journal\=Physica E: Low\-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures \|date\=October 1998 \|volume\=3 \|issue\=1–3 \|pages\=1–7 \|doi\=10\.1016/S1386\-9477(98\)00211\-2 \|bibcode\=1998PhyE....3\....1H}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Kizilyalli \|first1\=I. C. \|last2\=Lyding \|first2\=J. W. \|last3\=Hess \|first3\=K. \|title\=Deuterium post\-metal annealing of MOSFET's for improved hot carrier reliability \|journal\=IEEE Electron Device Letters \|date\=March 1997 \|volume\=18 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=81–83 \|doi\=10\.1109/55\.556087 \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3253329 \|accessdate\=23 October 2017 \|bibcode\=1997IEDL...18\...81K\|s2cid\=13207342 }}
In 1996, Hess was named to the Swanlund Chair of Electrical and Computer and Computer Engineering at the University of Illinois.
Hess has written extensively about [hidden variables](/wiki/Hidden-variable_theory "Hidden-variable theory"), a theoretical idea in quantum mechanics that has been hotly contested by many scientists since [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein "Albert Einstein") and [Niels Bohr](/wiki/Niels_Bohr "Niels Bohr").
Was quantum mechanics complete as a theory, or were not\-yet\-understood "hidden variables" required to explain phenomena such as "[spooky action at a distance](/wiki/Action_at_a_distance "Action at a distance")"?{{cite news \|title\=What is spooky action at a distance? \|url\=https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist\-explains/2017/03/economist\-explains\-13 \|accessdate\=20 October 2017 \|work\=The Economist \|date\=March 16, 2017}}
In the 1960s, [John Stewart Bell](/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell "John Stewart Bell") predicted that the question of hidden variables could be experimentally tested: the outcome of specific experiments based on the hypothetical [Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen](/wiki/EPR_paradox "EPR paradox") (EPR) paradox should differ depending on whether or not hidden variables did or did not exist.
Hess and mathematician Walter Philipp controversially claim that [Bell's theorem](/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem "Bell's theorem") is flawed. They argue that Bell's test can be made to fail by modeling temporal information. With this addition, existing experimental findings can be explained without resorting to hidden variables or "action at a distance".{{cite journal \|last1\=Hess \|first1\=K. \|last2\=Philipp \|first2\=W. \|title\=Bell's theorem and the problem of decidability between the views of Einstein and Bohr \|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|date\=27 November 2001 \|volume\=98 \|issue\=25 \|pages\=14228–14233 \|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.251525098 \|pmid\=11724942 \|bibcode\=2001PNAS...9814228H \|pmc\=64664\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Ball \|first1\=Philip \|title\=Exorcising Einstein's spooks Is there another layer of reality beyond quantum physics? \|journal\=Nature \|date\=29 November 2001 \|doi\=10\.1038/news011129\-15 \|url\=http://www.nature.com/news/2001/011129/full/news011129\-15\.html \|accessdate\=20 October 2017}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Hess \|first1\=K. \|last2\=Philipp \|first2\=W. \|title\=A possible loophole in the theorem of Bell \|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|date\=27 November 2001 \|volume\=98 \|issue\=25 \|pages\=14224–14227 \|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.251524998 \|pmid\=11724941 \|pmc\=64663 \|bibcode\=2001PNAS...9814224H\|doi\-access\=free }}
Others have argued that Hess and Philipp's formulation does not depend on new time parameters, but rather on a violation of the assumption of [locality](/wiki/Principle_of_locality "Principle of locality") required by Bell.{{cite journal \|last1\=Gill \|first1\=R. D. \|last2\=Weihs \|first2\=G. \|last3\=Zeilinger \|first3\=A. \|last4\=Zukowski \|first4\=M. \|title\=No time loophole in Bell's theorem: The Hess\-Philipp model is nonlocal \|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|date\=31 October 2002 \|volume\=99 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=14632–14635 \|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.182536499 \|pmid\=12411576 \|pmc\=137470 \|arxiv\=quant\-ph/0208187 \|bibcode\=2002PNAS...9914632G\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Scheidl \|first1\=T. \|last2\=Ursin \|first2\=R. \|last3\=Kofler \|first3\=J. \|last4\=Ramelow \|first4\=S. \|last5\=Ma \|first5\=X.\-S. \|last6\=Herbst \|first6\=T. \|last7\=Ratschbacher \|first7\=L. \|last8\=Fedrizzi \|first8\=A. \|last9\=Langford \|first9\=N. K. \|last10\=Jennewein \|first10\=T. \|last11\=Zeilinger \|first11\=A. \|title\=Violation of local realism with freedom of choice \|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|date\=1 November 2010 \|volume\=107 \|issue\=46 \|pages\=19708–19713 \|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.1002780107 \|pmid\=21041665 \|pmc\=2993398 \|bibcode\=2010PNAS..10719708S\|doi\-access\=free }}
Hess officially retired from the University of Illinois at Urbana\-Champaign in May 2004, but remains the Swanlund Professor Emeritus.
After his retirement, Hess was nominated to the [National Science Board](/wiki/National_Science_Board "National Science Board") (NSB) of the [National Science Foundation](/wiki/National_Science_Foundation "National Science Foundation") (NSF) by President [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush"), serving from 2006 to 2008\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Hess studied mathematics and physics at the [University of Vienna](/wiki/University_of_Vienna \"University of Vienna\") in [Vienna, Austria](/wiki/Vienna%2C_Austria \"Vienna, Austria\"), where he received his Ph.D. in 1970 in applied physics and mathematics.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Arakawa \\|first1\\=Yasuhiko \\|title\\=Compound semiconductors 2001 : proceedings of the Twenty\\-eighth International Symposium on Compound Semiconductors held in Tokyo, Japan, 1–4 October 2001 \\|date\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=IoP Publ. \\|location\\=Bristol, U.K. \\|isbn\\=9780750308564 \\|page\\=vii \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=s64c5E6IAPcC\\&pg\\=PR7 \\|accessdate\\=20 October 2017}} \nHe worked with Karlheinz Seeger on electron transport in semiconductors and subsequently became an assistant.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Seeger \\|first1\\=Karlheinz \\|last2\\=Hess \\|first2\\=Karl F. \\|title\\=Momentum and energy relaxation of warm carriers in semiconductors \\|journal\\=Zeitschrift für Physik A \\|date\\=15 March 2005 \\|volume\\=237 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=252–262 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/BF01398639 \\|bibcode\\=1970ZPhy..237\\..252S\\|s2cid\\=122290758 }}",
"In 1973 Hess went to the University of Illinois at Urbana\\-Champaign (UIUC) on a [Fulbright scholarship](/wiki/Fulbright_scholarship \"Fulbright scholarship\") to work with [John Bardeen](/wiki/John_Bardeen \"John Bardeen\"). With [Chih\\-Tang Sah](/wiki/Chih-Tang_Sah \"Chih-Tang Sah\") (the co\\-inventor of CMOS technology), Hess worked theoretically on electron transport in transistors, to find a solution of the [Boltzmann transport equation](/wiki/Boltzmann_equation \"Boltzmann equation\") for transistors.",
"In 1974 Hess returned to the University of Vienna as assistant professor. In 1977 he was offered a position as a visiting associate professor which enabled him to return to UIUC. Hess worked on improving the efficiency of [charge\\-coupled devices](/wiki/Charge-coupled_devices \"Charge-coupled devices\"). He and [Ben G. Streetman](/wiki/Ben_G._Streetman \"Ben G. Streetman\") developed the concept of \"real space transfer\" to describe the performance of high\\-frequency transistors involving hot‐electron [thermionic emission](/wiki/Thermionic_emission \"Thermionic emission\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hess \\|first1\\=K. \\|last2\\=Morkoç \\|first2\\=H. \\|last3\\=Shichijo \\|first3\\=H. \\|last4\\=Streetman \\|first4\\=B. G. \\|title\\=Negative differential resistance through real‐space electron transfer \\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters \\|date\\=15 September 1979 \\|volume\\=35 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=469–471 \\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.91172 \\|bibcode\\=1979ApPhL..35\\..469H}}\nThis work was important to the development of layered semiconductor technology.",
"In 1980 Hess was appointed to a full professorship for electrical engineering and computer science at UIUC. He also undertook secret research at the [United States Naval Research Laboratory](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory \"United States Naval Research Laboratory\") from the 1980s onwards.",
"Hess chaired one of two committees established in 1983 to consider the possible formation of a multidisciplinary research facility at the University of Illinois.{{rp\\|7}} In the fall of 1987, [William T. Greenough](/wiki/William_T._Greenough \"William T. Greenough\") and Karl Hess became associate directors of the [Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology](/wiki/Beckman_Institute_for_Advanced_Science_and_Technology \"Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology\") at UIUC.{{rp\\|xviii, 38, 92}} Hess later served as Co\\-chair of the Molecular and Electronic Nanostructures initiative at the Beckman Institute.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Bell \\|first1\\=Trudy E. \\|title\\=The Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology 'Two heads are better than one' is an adage honored by this research institute, where multidisciplinary collaboration is an art \\|url\\=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the\\-beckman\\-institute\\-for\\-advanced\\-science\\-and\\-technology \\|access\\-date\\=20 October 2017 \\|work\\=IEEE Spectrum \\|date\\=1 Nov 1999}}",
"Hess became \"a leading theoretician in the realm of semiconductor transistors\". His models of the behavior of transistors and integrated circuits enabled researchers to understand how they worked at fundamental levels and find ways to improve them.\nHis work on simulation of the behavior of electrons in semiconductors led to the [full\\-band Monte Carlo method](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods_for_electron_transport \"Monte Carlo methods for electron transport\") of simulation. This approach incorporated both the Boltzmann equation and aspects of quantum mechanics, using supercomputers to model electrons both as particles and as waves.\nHe also developed simulations for the behavior of electrons in [optoelectronics](/wiki/Optoelectronics \"Optoelectronics\"), modeling [quantum well laser diodes](/wiki/Quantum_well_laser \"Quantum well laser\"), tiny lasers used in bar\\-code scanners, CD players, and fiber\\-optic technology. Hess's algorithms were used for design software called MINILASE, enabling engineers to more quickly and accurately predict the effects of design modifications.",
"From the 1990s onwards, Hess focused on nanotechnology and quantum informatics, including quantum transport in mesoscopic systems.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Hess \\|first1\\=K. \\|last2\\=Leburton \\|first2\\=J. P. \\|last3\\=Ravaioli \\|first3\\=U. \\|title\\=Computational Electronics Semiconductor Transport and Device Simulation \\|date\\=1991 \\|publisher\\=Springer US \\|location\\=Boston, MA \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4757\\-2124\\-9}}\nAround 1995, a conversation with nanolithographer Joseph W. Lyding suggested to Hess that using deuterium to passivate the surfaces of integrated circuits had the potential to increase the speed or the lifetime of the circuit. Hess and Isik Kizilyalli compared the degradation of CMOS transistor wafers prepared with either deuterium or hydrogen, and found that use of deuterium substantially increased transistor lifetimes.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hess \\|first1\\=K. \\|last2\\=Register \\|first2\\=L. F. \\|last3\\=Tuttle \\|first3\\=B. \\|last4\\=Lyding \\|first4\\=J. \\|last5\\=Kizilyalli \\|first5\\=I. C. \\|title\\=Impact of nanostructure research on conventional solid\\-state electronics: The giant isotope effect in hydrogen desorption and CMOS lifetime \\|journal\\=Physica E: Low\\-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures \\|date\\=October 1998 \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\=1–3 \\|pages\\=1–7 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S1386\\-9477(98\\)00211\\-2 \\|bibcode\\=1998PhyE....3\\....1H}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Kizilyalli \\|first1\\=I. C. \\|last2\\=Lyding \\|first2\\=J. W. \\|last3\\=Hess \\|first3\\=K. \\|title\\=Deuterium post\\-metal annealing of MOSFET's for improved hot carrier reliability \\|journal\\=IEEE Electron Device Letters \\|date\\=March 1997 \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=81–83 \\|doi\\=10\\.1109/55\\.556087 \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3253329 \\|accessdate\\=23 October 2017 \\|bibcode\\=1997IEDL...18\\...81K\\|s2cid\\=13207342 }}\nIn 1996, Hess was named to the Swanlund Chair of Electrical and Computer and Computer Engineering at the University of Illinois.",
"Hess has written extensively about [hidden variables](/wiki/Hidden-variable_theory \"Hidden-variable theory\"), a theoretical idea in quantum mechanics that has been hotly contested by many scientists since [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein \"Albert Einstein\") and [Niels Bohr](/wiki/Niels_Bohr \"Niels Bohr\"). \nWas quantum mechanics complete as a theory, or were not\\-yet\\-understood \"hidden variables\" required to explain phenomena such as \"[spooky action at a distance](/wiki/Action_at_a_distance \"Action at a distance\")\"?{{cite news \\|title\\=What is spooky action at a distance? \\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist\\-explains/2017/03/economist\\-explains\\-13 \\|accessdate\\=20 October 2017 \\|work\\=The Economist \\|date\\=March 16, 2017}} \nIn the 1960s, [John Stewart Bell](/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell \"John Stewart Bell\") predicted that the question of hidden variables could be experimentally tested: the outcome of specific experiments based on the hypothetical [Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen](/wiki/EPR_paradox \"EPR paradox\") (EPR) paradox should differ depending on whether or not hidden variables did or did not exist. \nHess and mathematician Walter Philipp controversially claim that [Bell's theorem](/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem \"Bell's theorem\") is flawed. They argue that Bell's test can be made to fail by modeling temporal information. With this addition, existing experimental findings can be explained without resorting to hidden variables or \"action at a distance\".{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hess \\|first1\\=K. \\|last2\\=Philipp \\|first2\\=W. \\|title\\=Bell's theorem and the problem of decidability between the views of Einstein and Bohr \\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \\|date\\=27 November 2001 \\|volume\\=98 \\|issue\\=25 \\|pages\\=14228–14233 \\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.251525098 \\|pmid\\=11724942 \\|bibcode\\=2001PNAS...9814228H \\|pmc\\=64664\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Ball \\|first1\\=Philip \\|title\\=Exorcising Einstein's spooks Is there another layer of reality beyond quantum physics? \\|journal\\=Nature \\|date\\=29 November 2001 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/news011129\\-15 \\|url\\=http://www.nature.com/news/2001/011129/full/news011129\\-15\\.html \\|accessdate\\=20 October 2017}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hess \\|first1\\=K. \\|last2\\=Philipp \\|first2\\=W. \\|title\\=A possible loophole in the theorem of Bell \\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \\|date\\=27 November 2001 \\|volume\\=98 \\|issue\\=25 \\|pages\\=14224–14227 \\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.251524998 \\|pmid\\=11724941 \\|pmc\\=64663 \\|bibcode\\=2001PNAS...9814224H\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}\nOthers have argued that Hess and Philipp's formulation does not depend on new time parameters, but rather on a violation of the assumption of [locality](/wiki/Principle_of_locality \"Principle of locality\") required by Bell.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Gill \\|first1\\=R. D. \\|last2\\=Weihs \\|first2\\=G. \\|last3\\=Zeilinger \\|first3\\=A. \\|last4\\=Zukowski \\|first4\\=M. \\|title\\=No time loophole in Bell's theorem: The Hess\\-Philipp model is nonlocal \\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \\|date\\=31 October 2002 \\|volume\\=99 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=14632–14635 \\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.182536499 \\|pmid\\=12411576 \\|pmc\\=137470 \\|arxiv\\=quant\\-ph/0208187 \\|bibcode\\=2002PNAS...9914632G\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Scheidl \\|first1\\=T. \\|last2\\=Ursin \\|first2\\=R. \\|last3\\=Kofler \\|first3\\=J. \\|last4\\=Ramelow \\|first4\\=S. \\|last5\\=Ma \\|first5\\=X.\\-S. \\|last6\\=Herbst \\|first6\\=T. \\|last7\\=Ratschbacher \\|first7\\=L. \\|last8\\=Fedrizzi \\|first8\\=A. \\|last9\\=Langford \\|first9\\=N. K. \\|last10\\=Jennewein \\|first10\\=T. \\|last11\\=Zeilinger \\|first11\\=A. \\|title\\=Violation of local realism with freedom of choice \\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \\|date\\=1 November 2010 \\|volume\\=107 \\|issue\\=46 \\|pages\\=19708–19713 \\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.1002780107 \\|pmid\\=21041665 \\|pmc\\=2993398 \\|bibcode\\=2010PNAS..10719708S\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"Hess officially retired from the University of Illinois at Urbana\\-Champaign in May 2004, but remains the Swanlund Professor Emeritus.\nAfter his retirement, Hess was nominated to the [National Science Board](/wiki/National_Science_Board \"National Science Board\") (NSB) of the [National Science Foundation](/wiki/National_Science_Foundation \"National Science Foundation\") (NSF) by President [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\"), serving from 2006 to 2008\\.",
""
] |
Durkheim and theory
-------------------
Throughout his career, Durkheim was concerned primarily with three goals. First, to establish sociology as a new academic discipline. Second, to analyse how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the modern era, when things such as shared religious and ethnic background could no longer be assumed. To that end he wrote much about the effect of laws, religion, education and similar forces on society and [social integration](/wiki/Social_integration "Social integration").{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=102}} Lastly, Durkheim was concerned with the practical implications of [scientific knowledge](/wiki/Scientific_knowledge "Scientific knowledge"). The importance of social integration is expressed throughout Durkheim's work:{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=136}}Durkheim, Emile. 2011 \[1925]. *Moral Education*, translated by E. K. Wilson and H. Schnurer. Mineola, NY: [Dover Publications](/wiki/Dover_Publications "Dover Publications"). {{ISBN\|9780486424989}}. [p. 102](https://books.google.com/books?id=JJooAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA102).
{{Blockquote\|For if society lacks the unity that derives from the fact that the relationships between its parts are exactly regulated, that unity resulting from the harmonious articulation of its various functions assured by effective discipline and if, in addition, society lacks the unity based upon the commitment of men's wills to a common objective, then it is no more than a pile of sand that the least jolt or the slightest puff will suffice to scatter.\|title\=\|source\=''Moral Education'' (1925\)\|author\=}}
### Establishing sociology
Durkheim authored some of the most programmatic statements on what sociology is and how it should be practiced. His concern was to establish sociology as a science.{{harvp\|Popolo\|2011\|loc\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=vMALg\_p5zHsC\&pg\=PA97 pp. 97–]}} Arguing for a place for sociology among other sciences, he wrote, "sociology is, then, not an auxiliary of any other science; it is itself a distinct and autonomous science."{{harvp\|Brinton\|Nee\|2001\|loc\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=71e\_jsQpzg0C\&pg\=PR11 pp. 11–]}}
To give sociology a place in the academic world and to ensure that it is a legitimate science, it must have an object that is clear and distinct from philosophy or psychology, and its own [methodology](/wiki/Methodology "Methodology"). He argued that "there is in every society a certain group of phenomena which may be differentiated from those studied by the other natural sciences."[Durkheim, Émile. 2007 \[1895](/wiki/%23CITEREFDurkheim2007 "#CITEREFDurkheim2007")]. "[The Rules of Sociological Method](https://books.google.com/books?id=EUQT47IqVdgC&pg=PA101)." Pp. 95–102 in *[Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings](/wiki/iarchive:Classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95 "Classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95")*, edited by S. Appelrouth and L. D. Edles. Thousand Oaks, CA: [Pine Forge Press](/wiki/SAGE_Publishing "SAGE Publishing"). {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7619\-2793\-8}}.{{Rp\|95}}
In the [Tarde\-Durkheim debate](/wiki/Tarde-Durkheim_debate "Tarde-Durkheim debate") of 1903, the "anthropological view" of [Gabriel Tarde](/wiki/Gabriel_Tarde "Gabriel Tarde") was ridiculed and hastily dismissed.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2022}}
A fundamental aim of sociology is to discover structural "[social facts](/wiki/Social_fact "Social fact")".Durkheim, Émile. 1938 \[1895]. *[The Rules of Sociological Method](/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method "The Rules of Sociological Method")*, translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H. Mueller, edited by G. E. G. Catlin.{{Rp\|13}} The establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline is among Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies. Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism or [structural functionalism](/wiki/Structural_functionalism "Structural functionalism").{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=103}}
### Social facts
{{Main\|Social fact}}
{{blockquote\|A social fact is every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint; or again, every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestations.\|''The Rules of Sociological Method''\|title\=\|source\=}}
Durkheim's work revolved around the study of social facts, a term he coined to describe phenomena that have an existence in and of themselves, are not bound to the actions of individuals, but have a coercive influence upon them.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=105\-06}} Durkheim argued that social facts have, *[sui generis](/wiki/Sui_generis "Sui generis")*, an independent existence greater and more objective than the actions of the individuals that compose society.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=106}} Only such social facts can explain the observed social phenomena. Being exterior to the individual person, social facts may thus also exercise [coercive power](/wiki/Social_control "Social control") on the various people composing society, as it can sometimes be observed in the case of formal laws and regulations, but also in situations implying the presence of informal rules, such as religious rituals or family norms.Durkheim, Émile. 1994 \[1895]. "Social facts." Pp. 433–40 in *Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science*, edited by M. Martin and [L. C. McIntyre](/wiki/Lee_C._McIntyre "Lee C. McIntyre"). Boston: [MIT Press](/wiki/MIT_Press "MIT Press"). {{ISBN\|978\-0\-262\-13296\-1}}. p. 433–34\. Unlike the facts studied in [natural sciences](/wiki/Natural_science "Natural science"), a *social* fact thus refers to a specific category of phenomena: "the determining cause of a social fact must be sought among the antecedent social facts and not among the states of the individual consciousness."{{citation needed\|date\=May 2020}}
Such facts are endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they may control individual behaviors. According to Durkheim, these phenomena cannot be reduced to [biological](/wiki/Biology "Biology") or [psychological](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology") grounds. Social facts can be material (i.e. physical objects ) or immaterial (i.e. meanings, sentiments, etc.). Though the latter cannot be seen or touched, they are external and coercive, thus becoming real and gaining "[facticity](/wiki/Facticity "Facticity")". Physical objects, too, can represent both material and immaterial social facts. For example, a flag is a physical social fact that is often ingrained with various immaterial social facts (e.g. its meaning and importance).
Many social facts, however, have no material form. Even the most "individualistic" or "subjective" phenomena, such as love, freedom, or suicide, were regarded by Durkheim as *objective* social facts. Individuals composing society do not directly cause suicide: suicide, as a social fact, exists independently in society, and is caused by other social facts—such as rules governing [behavior](/wiki/Behavior "Behavior") and group attachment—whether an individual likes it or not.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=107}} Whether a person "leaves" a society does not alter the *fact* that this society will *still contain* suicides. Suicide, like other immaterial social facts, exists independently of the will of an individual, cannot be eliminated, and is as influential—coercive—as physical laws like gravity. Sociology's task therefore consists of discovering the qualities and characteristics of such social facts, which can be discovered through a [quantitative](/wiki/Quantitative_research "Quantitative research") or experimental approach (Durkheim extensively relied on [statistics](/wiki/Social_statistics "Social statistics")).{{harvp\|Hassard\|1995\|loc\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=EjI6Rd\-NreYC\&dq\=Durkheim\+suicide\+sociological\+positivism\&pg\=PA15 p. 15]}}: "Suicide…is indeed the paradigm case of Durkheim's positivism: it remains the exemplar of the sociological application of statistics."
### Society, collective consciousness, and culture
\[\[File:Emile Durkheim, Division du travail social maitrier.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Cover of the French edition of *The Division of Labour in Society]]Regarding the society itself, like [social institutions](/wiki/Social_institution "Social institution") in general, Durkheim saw it as a set of social facts.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2020}} Even more than "what society is," Durkheim was interested in answering "how is a society created" and "what holds a society together." In* [The Division of Labour in Society](/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society "The Division of Labour in Society")*, Durkheim attempts to answer the latter question.{{harvp\|Calhoun\|2002\|loc\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=6mq\-H3EcUx8C\&pg\=PA106 p. 106]}}*
#### Collective consciousness
Durkheim assumes that humans are inherently [egoistic](/wiki/Egotism "Egotism"), while "[collective consciousness](/wiki/Collective_consciousness "Collective consciousness")" (i.e. [norms](/wiki/Norm_%28sociology%29 "Norm (sociology)"), [beliefs](/wiki/Belief "Belief"), and [values](/wiki/Value_%28ethics%29 "Value (ethics)")) forms the moral basis of the society, resulting in [social integration](/wiki/Social_integration "Social integration").Kim, Sung Ho. 2007\. "[Max Weber](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/)." *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy")*. Retrieved 17 February 2010\. Collective consciousness *is therefore of key importance to the society; its requisite function without which the society cannot survive.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=108}} This consciousness produces the society and holds it together, while, at the same time, individuals produce collective consciousness through their interactions. Through collective consciousness human beings become aware of one another as social beings, not just animals.
> The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of a society forms a determinate system with a life of its own. It can be termed the collective or common consciousness.{{cite book\|author1\=Kenneth Allan\|author2\=Kenneth D. Allan\|title\=Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World\|date\=2 November 2005\|publisher\=Pine Forge Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4129\-0572\-5\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/explorationsincl00alla/page/108 108]\|url\=https://archive.org/details/explorationsincl00alla/page/108}}
In particular, the [emotional](/wiki/Emotion "Emotion") part of the collective consciousness overrides our [egoism](/wiki/Egoism "Egoism"): as we are emotionally bound to [culture](/wiki/Culture "Culture"), we act socially because we recognize it is the responsible, moral way to act.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=109}} A key to forming society is [social interaction](/wiki/Social_interaction "Social interaction"), and Durkheim believes that human beings, when in a group, will inevitably act in such a way that a society is formed.{{cite journal \| url\=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10\.1177/09767479211057745 \| doi\=10\.1177/09767479211057745 \| title\=An Open Letter to Emile Durkheim \| journal\=Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India \| date\=December 2021 \| volume\=70 \| issue\=2 \| pages\=256–263 \| last1\=Guha \| first1\=Abhijit \| s2cid\=245132986 }}*
#### Culture
Groups, when interacting, create their own culture and attach powerful emotions to it, thus making [culture](/wiki/Culture "Culture") *another key social fact.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=110}} Durkheim was one of the first scholars to consider the question of culture so intensely. Durkheim was interested in [cultural diversity](/wiki/Cultural_diversity "Cultural diversity"), and how the existence of diversity nonetheless fails to destroy a society. To that, Durkheim answered that any apparent cultural diversity is overridden by a larger, common, and more generalized cultural system, and the [law](/wiki/Law "Law").{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=111, 127}}*
In a [socio\-evolutionary](/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution "Sociocultural evolution") approach, Durkheim described the evolution of societies from [mechanical solidarity](/wiki/Mechanical_solidarity "Mechanical solidarity") to [organic solidarity](/wiki/Organic_solidarity "Organic solidarity") (one rising from mutual need).{{harvp\|Sztompka\|2002\|p\=500}}{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=125}} As societies become more complex, evolving from mechanical to organic solidarity, the [division of labour](/wiki/Division_of_labour "Division of labour") is counteracting and replacing to collective consciousness.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=137}} In the simpler societies, people are connected to others due to personal ties and traditions; in the larger, modern society they are connected due to increased reliance on others with regard to them performing their specialized tasks needed for the modern, highly complex society to survive. In mechanical solidarity, people are self\-sufficient, there is little integration, and thus there is the need for use of force and repression to keep society together.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2023\|reason\=Provided source does not appear to actually suggest that Durkheim considered societies of 'mechanical' solidarity less integrated \- in fact Durkheim implies the opposite. Sztompka also does not seem to express such a view here, but this could be my reading.}} Also, in such societies, people have much fewer options in life.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=123}}{{Clarify\|date\=July 2023}} In organic solidarity, people are much more integrated and interdependent, and specialization and cooperation are extensive.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2023\|reason\=See reason given in "citation needed" tag two sentences prior.}} Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity is based first on [population growth](/wiki/Population_growth "Population growth") and increasing [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density"), second on increasing "morality density" (development of more complex [social interactions](/wiki/Social_interaction "Social interaction")) and thirdly, on the increasing specialization in workplace. One of the ways mechanical and organic societies differ is the function of law: in mechanical society the law is focused on its [punitive](/wiki/Punishment "Punishment") aspect, and aims to reinforce the cohesion of the community, often by making the punishment public and extreme; whereas in the organic society the law focuses on repairing the damage done and is more focused on individuals than the community.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=123–24}}
One of the main features of the modern, organic society is the importance, [sacredness](/wiki/Sacredness "Sacredness") even, given to the concept—social fact—of the [individual](/wiki/Individual "Individual").{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=132–33}} The individual, rather than the collective, becomes the focus of rights and responsibilities, the center of public and private rituals holding the society together—a function once performed by the religion. To stress the importance of this concept, Durkheim talked of the "cult of the individual":Durkheim, Émile. 1974 \[1953]. *[Sociology and Philosophy](https://books.google.com/books?id=oCBNzbCG2N0C&q=editions:7biAPRA5u8AC)*, translated by [D. F. Pocock](/wiki/David_Francis_Pocock "David Francis Pocock"), with introduction by J. G. Peristiany. Toronto: [Free Press](/wiki/Free_Press_%28publisher%29 "Free Press (publisher)"). {{ISBN\|978\-0\-02\-908580\-6}}. {{LCCN\|74\-19680}}.
> Thus very far from there being the antagonism between the individual and society which is often claimed, moral individualism, the cult of the individual, is in fact the product of society itself. It is society that instituted it and made of man the god whose servant it is.
Durkheim saw the [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") and [growth](/wiki/Population_growth "Population growth") as key factors in the evolution of the societies and advent of [modernity](/wiki/Modernity "Modernity").{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=125, 134}} As the number of people in a given area increase, so does the number of interactions, and the society becomes more complex. Growing [competition](/wiki/Competition "Competition") between the more numerous people also leads to further division of labour. In time, the importance of the state, the law and the individual increases, while that of the religion and moral solidarity decreases.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=134}}
In another example of evolution of culture, Durkheim pointed to [fashion](/wiki/Fashion "Fashion"), although in this case he noted a more [cyclical](/wiki/Social_cycle "Social cycle") phenomenon.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=113}} According to Durkheim, fashion serves to differentiate between [lower classes](/wiki/Working_class "Working class") and [upper classes](/wiki/Upper_class "Upper class"), but because lower classes want to look like the upper classes, they will eventually adapt the upper class fashion, depreciating it, and forcing the upper class to adopt a new fashion.
### Social pathology and crime
{{Criminology and penology\|Major theorists}}
As the society, Durkheim noted there are several possible [pathologies](/wiki/Pathology "Pathology") that could lead to a breakdown of [social integration](/wiki/Social_integration "Social integration") and disintegration of the society: the two most important ones are [anomie](/wiki/Anomie "Anomie") *and* forced division of labour*; lesser ones include the lack of coordination and suicide.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=128, 130}} To Durkheim,* anomie *refers to a lack of social norms; where too rapid of population growth reduces the amount of interaction between various groups, which in turn leads to a breakdown of understanding (i.e. norms, values, etc.).{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=128, 129, 137}}* Forced division of labour*, on the other hand, refers to a situation in which those who hold power, driven by their desire for [profit](/wiki/Profit_%28economics%29 "Profit (economics)") ([greed](/wiki/Greed "Greed")), results in people doing work that they are unsuited for.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=129}} Such people are unhappy, and their desire to change the system can destabilize the society.*
Durkheim's views on crime were a departure from conventional notions. He believed that crime is "bound up with the fundamental conditions of all [social life](/wiki/Social_relation "Social relation")" and serves a social function.{{Rp\|101}} He states that crime implies "not only that the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes."{{Rp\|101}} Examining the [trial of Socrates](/wiki/Trial_of_Socrates "Trial of Socrates"), he argues that "his crime, namely, the independence of his thought, rendered a service not only to humanity but to his country" as "it served to prepare a new morality and faith that the Athenians needed."{{Rp\|101}} As such, his crime "was a useful prelude to reforms."{{Rp\|102}} In this sense, he saw crime as being able to release certain social tensions and so have a cleansing or purging effect in society.{{Rp\|101}}
>
The authority which the moral conscience enjoys must not be excessive; otherwise, no\-one would dare to criticize it, and it would too easily congeal into an immutable form. To make progress, individual originality must be able to express itself…\[even] the originality of the criminal…shall also be possible.
#### Deviance
Durkheim thought [deviance](/wiki/Deviance_%28sociology%29%23Deviance "Deviance (sociology)#Deviance") to be an essential component of a functional society.{{cite book\|url\=https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction\-sociology\-2e\|title\=Introduction to Sociology\|publisher\=OpenStax\|isbn\=978\-1\-947172\-11\-1\|edition\=2\|pages\=138\|access\-date\=7 April 2018}} He believed that deviance had three possible effects on society:"[7\.2 Explaining Deviance](https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/7-2-explaining-deviance/)." *Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World*. [University of Minnesota Libraries](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Libraries "University of Minnesota Libraries") (2016\). {{ISBN\|978\-1\-946135\-24\-7}}.
Deviance challenges the perspective and thoughts of the general population, leading to social change by pointing out a flaw in society.
Deviant acts may support existing social norms and beliefs by evoking the population to discipline the actors.
Reactions to deviant activity could increase camaraderie and social support among the population affected by the activity.
Durkheim's thoughts on deviance contributed to [Robert Merton's Strain Theory](/wiki/Strain_theory_%28sociology%29%23Merton%27s_theory "Strain theory (sociology)#Merton's theory").
#### Suicide
{{main\|Suicide (Durkheim book)}}
In 1. 1. 1. Suicide *(1897\), Durkheim explores the differing suicide rates among [Protestants](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") and Catholics, arguing that stronger [social control](/wiki/Social_control "Social control") among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. According to Durkheim, Catholic society has normal levels of [integration](/wiki/Social_integration "Social integration") while Protestant society has low levels. Overall, Durkheim treated [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") as a [social fact](/wiki/Social_fact "Social fact"), explaining variations in its rate on a macro level, considering society\-scale phenomena such as lack of connections between people (group attachment) and lack of regulations of behavior, rather than individuals' feelings and motivations.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=131}}*
Durkheim believed there was more to suicide than extremely personal individual life circumstances such as loss of a job, divorce, or bankruptcy. Instead, Durkheim explained suicide as a symptom of collective social deviance, like alcoholism or homicide.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Mueller \|first1\=Anna S. \|last2\=Abrutyn \|first2\=Seth \|last3\=Pescosolido \|first3\=Bernice \|last4\=Diefendorf \|first4\=Sarah \|date\=2021 \|title\=The Social Roots of Suicide: Theorizing How the External Social World Matters to Suicide and Suicide Prevention \|journal\=Frontiers in Psychology \|volume\=12 \|pages\=621569 \|doi\=10\.3389/fpsyg.2021\.621569 \|issn\=1664\-1078 \|pmc\=8044307 \|pmid\=33868089 \|doi\-access\=free }}
He created a [normative theory](/wiki/Normative_statement "Normative statement") of suicide focusing on the conditions of group life. Proposing four different types of suicide, which include [*egoistic*](/wiki/Egoism "Egoism"), [*altruistic*](/wiki/Altruism "Altruism"), [*anomic*](/wiki/Anomie "Anomie"), and [*fatalistic*](/wiki/Fatalism "Fatalism"), Durkheim began his theory by plotting social regulation on the x\-axis of his chart, and social integration on the y\-axis:
* Egoistic suicide *corresponds to a low level of social integration. When one is not well integrated into a social group it can lead to a feeling that they have not made a difference in anyone's lives.*
* Altruistic suicide *corresponds to too much social integration. This occurs when a group dominates the life of an individual to a degree where they feel meaningless to society.*
* Anomic suicide *occurs when one has an insufficient amount of social regulation. This stems from the sociological term* anomie*, meaning a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises from the inability to reasonably expect life to be predictable.*
* Fatalistic suicide *results from too much social regulation. An example of this would be when one follows the same routine day after day. This leads to a belief that there is nothing good to look forward to. Durkheim suggested this was the most popular form of suicide for prisoners.*
This study has been extensively discussed by later scholars and several major criticisms have emerged. First, Durkheim took most of his data from earlier researchers, notably [Adolph Wagner](/wiki/Adolph_Wagner "Adolph Wagner") and [Henry Morselli](/wiki/Henry_Morselli "Henry Morselli"),{{harvp\|Stark\|Bainbridge\|1996\|loc\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=lm0DLM\_T8zsC\&pg\=PA32 p. 32]}} who were much more careful in generalizing from their own data. Second, later researchers found that the Protestant–Catholic differences in suicide seemed to be limited to [German\-speaking Europe](/wiki/German-speaking_Europe "German-speaking Europe") and thus may have always been the [spurious reflection](/wiki/Spurious_relationship "Spurious relationship") of other factors.{{harvp\|Pope\|Danigelis\|1981}} Durkheim's study of suicide has been criticized as an example of the [logical error](/wiki/Fallacy "Fallacy") termed the [ecological fallacy](/wiki/Ecological_fallacy "Ecological fallacy").Freedman, David A. 2002\. *[The Ecological Fallacy](https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~census/ecofall.txt)*. Berkeley: Dept. of Statistics, [University of California](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley "University of California, Berkeley").{{harvp\|Selvin\|1965}} However, diverging views have contested whether Durkheim's work really contained an ecological fallacy.{{harvp\|van Poppel\|Day\|1996\|p\=500}} More recent authors such as Berk (2006\) have also questioned the [micro–macro relations](/wiki/Structure_and_agency "Structure and agency") underlying Durkheim's work.{{harvp\|Berk\|2006\|pp\=78–79}} Some, such as [Inkeles](/wiki/Alex_Inkeles "Alex Inkeles") (1959\),{{harvp\|Inkeles\|1959}} Johnson (1965\),{{harvp\|Johnson\|1965}} and Gibbs (1968\),{{harvp\|Gibbs\|Martin\|1958}} have claimed that Durkheim's only intent was to explain suicide sociologically *within a [holistic](/wiki/Holism "Holism") perspective, emphasizing that "he intended his theory to explain variation among [social environments](/wiki/Social_environment "Social environment") in the incidence of suicide, not the suicides of particular individuals."{{harvp\|Berk\|2006\|p\=60}}*
Despite its limitations, Durkheim's work on suicide has influenced proponents of [control theory](/wiki/Control_theory_%28sociology%29 "Control theory (sociology)"), and is often mentioned as a classic sociological study. The book pioneered modern [social research](/wiki/Social_research "Social research") and served to distinguish social science from [psychology](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology") and [political philosophy](/wiki/Political_philosophy "Political philosophy").{{Rp\|\|at\=ch.1}}
### Religion
In [The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life](/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life "The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life") *(1912\), Durkheim's first purpose was to identify the social origin and function of religion as he felt that religion was a source of camaraderie and solidarity. His second purpose was to identify links between certain religions in different cultures, finding a common denominator. He wanted to understand the empirical, social aspect of religion that is common to all religions and goes beyond the concepts of [spirituality](/wiki/Spirituality "Spirituality") and [God](/wiki/God "God").{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=112\-15}}*
Durkheim defined religion *as:Durkheim, Emile. 1964 \[1915]. *[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_427)*, translated by J. W. Swain. London: [George Allen \& Unwin](/wiki/George_Allen_%26_Unwin "George Allen & Unwin"). – via [Project Gutenberg](/wiki/Project_Gutenberg "Project Gutenberg") (2012\). [p. 47](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_47).
> "a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, i.e., things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite in one single [moral community](/wiki/Moral_community "Moral community") called a [Church](/wiki/Church_body "Church body"), all those who adhere to them."
In this definition, Durkheim avoids references to [supernatural](/wiki/Supernatural "Supernatural") or God.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=115}} Durkheim rejected earlier definitions by Tylor that religion was "belief in supernatural beings," finding that primitive societies such as the Australian aborigines (following the ethnologies of Spencer and Gillen, largely discredited later) did not divide reality into "natural" vs. "supernatural" realms, but rather into realms of the "sacred" and the "profane," which were not moral categories, since both could include what was good or evil.{{harvp\|Pals\|2006\|pp\=95\-100, 112, 113}} Durkheim argues we are left with the following three concepts:{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=116, 118, 120, 137}}*
The [sacred](/wiki/Sacred "Sacred"): ideas and sentiments kindled by the spectacle of society and which inspire awe, spiritual devotion or respect;
The [beliefs](/wiki/Belief "Belief") \& [practices](/wiki/Ritual "Ritual"): creating an emotional state of * + [collective effervescence](/wiki/Collective_effervescence "Collective effervescence")*, investing symbols with sacred importance;
The [moral community](/wiki/Moral_community "Moral community"): a group of people sharing a common moral philosophy.*
Out of those three concepts, Durkheim focused on the sacred,{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=116}}{{harvp\|Lukes\|1985\|p\=25}} noting that it is at the very core of a religion:Durkheim, Emile. 1964 \[1915]. *[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm)*, translated by J. W. Swain. London: [George Allen \& Unwin](/wiki/George_Allen_%26_Unwin "George Allen & Unwin"). – via [Project Gutenberg](/wiki/Project_Gutenberg "Project Gutenberg") (2012\).{{Rp\|322}}
> They are only collective forces [hypostasized](/wiki/Hypostasis_%28philosophy_and_religion%29 "Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)"), that is to say, moral forces; they are made up of the ideas and sentiments awakened in us by the spectacle of society, and not of sensations coming from the physical world.Durkheim 1915, [p. 322](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_322): "They are not homogeneous with the visible things among which we place them. They may well take from these things the outward and material forms in which they are represented, but they owe none of their efficacy to them. They are not united by external bonds to the different supports upon which they alight; they have no roots there; according to an expression we have already used and which serves best for characterizing them, *they are added to them*. So there are no objects which are predestined to receive them, to the exclusion of all others; even the most insignificant and vulgar may do so; accidental circumstances decide which are the chosen ones."
Durkheim saw religion as the most fundamental [social institution](/wiki/Social_institution "Social institution") of humankind, and one that gave rise to other social forms.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|pp\=112\-13}} It was religion that gave humanity the strongest sense of [collective consciousness](/wiki/Collective_consciousness "Collective consciousness").{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=114}} Durkheim saw religion as a force that emerged in the early [hunter\-gatherer](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer "Hunter-gatherer") societies, as the emotions collective effervescence run high in the growing groups, forcing them to act in a new ways, and giving them a sense of some hidden force driving them. Over time, as emotions became symbolized and interactions ritualized, religion became more organized, giving a rise to the division between the sacred and the profane. However, Durkheim also believed that [religion](/wiki/Religion "Religion") was becoming less important, as it was being gradually superseded by [science](/wiki/Science "Science") and the cult of an individual.{{harvp\|Allan\|2005\|p\=112}}
> Thus there is something eternal in religion which is destined to survive all the particular symbols in which religious thought has successively enveloped itself.{{Rp\|427}}
However, even if the religion was losing its importance for Durkheim, it still laid the foundation of modern society and the interactions that governed it. And despite the advent of alternative forces, Durkheim argued that no replacement for the force of religion had yet been created. He expressed his doubt about modernity, seeing the modern times as "a period of transition and moral mediocrity."
Durkheim also argued that our primary categories for understanding the world have their origins in religion. It is religion, Durkheim writes, that gave rise to most if not all other social constructs, including the larger society. Durkheim argued that categories are produced by the society, and thus are collective creations. Thus as people create societies, they also create categories, but at the same time, they do so unconsciously, and the categories are prior to any individual's experience. In this way Durkheim attempted to bridge the divide between seeing [categories](/wiki/Category_of_being "Category of being") as constructed out of human experience and as logically prior to that experience.{{harvp\|McKinnon\|2014}} Our understanding of the world is shaped by [social facts](/wiki/Social_fact "Social fact"); for example the notion of [time](/wiki/Time "Time") is defined by being measured through a [calendar](/wiki/Calendar "Calendar"), which in turn was created to allow us to keep track of our social gatherings and rituals; those in turn on their most basic level originated from religion. In the end, even the most logical and rational pursuit of science can trace its origins to religion. Durkheim states that, "Religion gave birth to all that is essential in the society."
In his work, Durkheim focused on * [totemism](/wiki/Totem "Totem")*, the religion of the [Aboriginal Australians](/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians "Aboriginal Australians") and [Native Americans](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas"). Durkheim saw this religion as the most ancient religion, and focused on it as he believed its simplicity would ease the discussion of the essential elements of religion. As such, he wrote:{{Rp\|220}}
> Now the totem is the flag of the clan. It is therefore natural that the impressions aroused by the clan in individual minds—impressions of dependence and of increased vitality—should fix themselves to the idea of the totem rather than that of the clan: for the clan is too complex a reality to be represented clearly in all its complex unity by such rudimentary intelligences.
Durkheim's work on religion was criticized on both empirical and theoretical grounds by specialists in the field. The most important critique came from Durkheim's contemporary, [Arnold van Gennep](/wiki/Arnold_van_Gennep "Arnold van Gennep"), an expert on religion and ritual, and also on Australian belief systems. Van Gennep argued that Durkheim's views of primitive peoples and simple societies were "entirely erroneous". Van Gennep further argued that Durkheim demonstrated a lack of critical stance towards his sources, collected by traders and priests, naively accepting their veracity, and that Durkheim interpreted freely from dubious data. At the conceptual level, van Gennep pointed out Durkheim's tendency to press ethnography into a prefabricated theoretical scheme.{{harvp\|Thomassen\|2012}}*
Despite such critiques, Durkheim's work on religion has been widely praised for its theoretical insight and whose arguments and propositions, according to Robert Alun Jones, "have stimulated the interest and excitement of several generations of sociologists irrespective of theoretical 'school' or field of specialization."Jones, Robert Alun. 1986\. "[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912\)](http://durkheim.uchicago.edu/Summaries/forms.html)." Pp. 115–55 in *Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works*. Beverly Hills, CA: [SAGE Publications](/wiki/SAGE_Publishing "SAGE Publishing"). – via *The Durkheim Pages*, [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago "University of Chicago"). [s. 7 "Critical Remarks"](http://durkheim.uchicago.edu/Summaries/forms.html#pgfId=5658).
### Sociology of knowledge
While Durkheim's work deals with a number of subjects, including suicide, [the family](/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family "Sociology of the family"), [social structures](/wiki/Social_structure "Social structure"), and [social institutions](/wiki/Institution "Institution"), a large part of his work deals with the [sociology of knowledge](/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge "Sociology of knowledge").
While publishing short articles on the subject earlier in his career,For example, the essay *De quelques formes primitives de classification* (1902\), written with [Marcel Mauss](/wiki/Marcel_Mauss "Marcel Mauss"). Durkheim's definitive statement concerning the sociology of knowledge comes in his 1912 magnum opus*,* [The Elementary Forms of Religious Life](/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_Religious_Life "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life")*. This book has as its goal not only the elucidation of the social origins and function of religion, but also the social origins and impact of society on language and logical thought. Durkheim worked largely out of a Kantian framework and sought to understand how the concepts and categories of logical thought could arise out of social life. He argued, for example, that the categories of space and time were not [*a priori*](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori "A priori and a posteriori"). Rather, the category of space depends on a society's social grouping and geographical use of space, and a group's social rhythm that determines our understanding of time.Durkheim, Emile. 2003 \[1912]. *Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse* (5th ed.). [Presses Universitaires de France](/wiki/Presses_Universitaires_de_France "Presses Universitaires de France"). {{p.\|628}}. In this Durkheim sought to combine elements of [rationalism](/wiki/Rationalism "Rationalism") and [empiricism](/wiki/Empiricism "Empiricism"), arguing that certain aspects of logical thought common to all humans did exist, but that they were products of collective life (thus contradicting the* [tabula rasa](/wiki/Tabula_rasa "Tabula rasa") *empiricist understanding whereby categories are acquired by individual experience alone), and that they were not universal [*a* *prioris*](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori "A priori and a posteriori") (as [Kant](/wiki/Kant "Kant") argued) since the content of the categories differed from society to society.See Durkheim (1912\) p. [14–17](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_14), [19–22](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_19).*
#### Collective representations
Another key elements to Durkheim's theory of knowledge outlined in Elementary Forms *is the concept of {{Lang\-fr\|représentations collectives\|label\=none}} ("[collective representations](/wiki/Collective_representations "Collective representations")").* {{Lang\-fr\|Représentations collectives\|label\=none}} *are the symbols and images that come to represent the ideas, beliefs, and values elaborated by a collectivity and are not reducible to individual constituents. They can include words, slogans, ideas, or any number of material items that can serve as a symbol, such as a cross, a rock, a temple, a feather etc. As Durkheim elaborates,* {{Lang\-fr\|représentations collectives\|label\=none}} *are created through intense social interaction and are products of collective activity. As such, these representations have the particular, and somewhat contradictory, aspect that they exist externally to the individual—since they are created and controlled not by the individual but by society as a whole—yet, simultaneously within each individual of the society, by virtue of that individual's participation within society.Durkheim, Emile. (1964\). *The elementary forms of the religious life.* London: Allen \& Unwin.*
Arguably the most important "{{Lang\-fr\|représentations collectives\|label\=none}}" is [language](/wiki/Language "Language"), which according to Durkheim is a product of collective action. And because language is a collective action, language contains within it a history of accumulated knowledge and experience that no individual would be capable of creating on their own:{{Rp\|435}}
> If concepts were only general ideas, they would not enrich knowledge a great deal, for, as we have already pointed out, the general contains nothing more than the particular. But if before all else they are collective representations, they add to that which we can learn by our own personal experience all that wisdom and science which the group has accumulated in the course of centuries. Thinking by concepts, is not merely seeing reality on its most general side, but it is projecting a light upon the sensation which illuminates it, penetrates it and transforms it.
As such, language, as a social product, literally structures and shapes our experience of reality. This discursive approach to language and society was developed by later French philosophers, such as [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault "Michel Foucault").
### Morality
{{Quote frame \|quote\=How many times, indeed, it \[crime] is only an anticipation of future morality \- a step toward what will be! \|author\=Émile Durkheim \|source\=''\[\[The Division of Labour in Society\#DivisionofLabourinSociety\|''Division of Labour in Society'']]''{{cite journal\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=T. Anthony\|title\=Durkheim, Deviance and Development: Opportunities Lost and Regained\|journal\=Social Forces\|date\=June 1981\|volume\=59\|issue\=Special Issue\|pages\=1009–1024\|doi\=10\.2307/2577978\|jstor\=2577978}}\|align\=right\|1\|width\=240px}}
Durkheim defines morality as "a system of rules for conduct".Durkheim, Émile. 2004\. *Sociologie et Philosophie*. Paris: [Presses Universitaires de France](/wiki/Presses_Universitaires_de_France "Presses Universitaires de France"). {{p.\|50}}. His analysis of morality is influenced by [Immanuel Kant](/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant") and his notion of duty. While Durkheim was influenced by Kant, he was critical of aspects of the latter's moral theory and developed his own positions.
Durkheim agrees with Kant that within morality, there is an element of obligation, "a moral authority which, by manifesting itself in certain precepts particularly important to it, confers upon \[moral rules] an obligatory character."{{Rp\|38}} Morality tells us how to act from a position of superiority. There exists a certain, pre\-established moral norm to which we must conform. It is through this view that Durkheim makes a first critique of Kant in saying that moral duties originate in society, and are not to be found in some universal moral concept such as the [categorical imperative](/wiki/Categorical_imperative "Categorical imperative"). Durkheim also argues that morality is characterized not just by this obligation, but is also something that is desired by the individual. The individual believes that by adhering to morality, they are serving the common [Good](/wiki/Summum_bonum "Summum bonum"), and for this reason, the individual submits voluntarily to the moral commandment.{{Rp\|54}}
However, in order to accomplish its aims, morality must be legitimate in the eyes of those to whom it speaks. As Durkheim argues, this moral authority is primarily to be located in religion, which is why in any religion one finds a code of morality. For Durkheim, it is only society that has the resources, the respect, and the power to cultivate within an individual both the obligatory and the desirous aspects of morality.{{Rp\|73}}
Influence and legacy
--------------------
Durkheim has had an important impact on the development of anthropology and sociology as disciplines. The establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline, in particular, is among Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies. Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism, or [structural functionalism](/wiki/Structural_functionalism "Structural functionalism"). Scholars inspired by Durkheim include [Marcel Mauss](/wiki/Marcel_Mauss "Marcel Mauss"), [Maurice Halbwachs](/wiki/Maurice_Halbwachs "Maurice Halbwachs"), [Célestin Bouglé](/wiki/C%C3%A9lestin_Bougl%C3%A9 "Célestin Bouglé"), [Gustave Belot](/wiki/Gustave_Belot "Gustave Belot"), [Alfred Radcliffe\-Brown](/wiki/Alfred_Radcliffe-Brown "Alfred Radcliffe-Brown"), [Talcott Parsons](/wiki/Talcott_Parsons "Talcott Parsons"), [Robert K. Merton](/wiki/Robert_K._Merton "Robert K. Merton"), [Jean Piaget](/wiki/Jean_Piaget "Jean Piaget"), [Claude Lévi\-Strauss](/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss "Claude Lévi-Strauss"), [Ferdinand de Saussure](/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure "Ferdinand de Saussure"), [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault "Michel Foucault"), [Clifford Geertz](/wiki/Clifford_Geertz "Clifford Geertz"), [Peter Berger](/wiki/Peter_L._Berger "Peter L. Berger"), social reformer Patrick Hunout, and others.
More recently, Durkheim has influenced sociologists such as [Steven Lukes](/wiki/Steven_Lukes "Steven Lukes"), [Robert N. Bellah](/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah "Robert N. Bellah"), and [Pierre Bourdieu](/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu "Pierre Bourdieu"). His description of [collective consciousness](/wiki/Collective_consciousness "Collective consciousness") *also influenced [Ziya Gökalp](/wiki/Ziya_G%C3%B6kalp "Ziya Gökalp"), the founder of Turkish sociology{{harvp\|Nefes\|2013}} who replaced Durkheim's concept of society with nation.{{cite journal \|last1\=Kieser \|first1\=Hans\-Lukas \|title\=Europe's Seminal Proto\-Fascist? Historically Approaching Ziya Gökalp, Mentor of Turkish Nationalism \|journal\=Die Welt des Islams \|date\=29 April 2021 \|volume\=61 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=411–447 \|doi\=10\.1163/15700607\-61020008 \|s2cid\=241148959 \|url\=https://brill.com/view/journals/wdi/61/4/article\-p411\_411\.xml \|issn\=1570\-0607}} An ideologue who provided the intellectual justification for the Ottoman Empire's [wars of aggression](/wiki/Wars_of_aggression "Wars of aggression") and massive [demographic engineering](/wiki/Demographic_engineering "Demographic engineering")—including the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide "Armenian genocide")—he could be considered to pervert Durkheim's ideas.{{cite journal \|last1\=Smith \|first1\=David Norman \|title\=Ziya Gökalp and Emile Durkheim: sociology as an apology for chauvinism? \|journal\=Durkheimian Studies / Études Durkheimiennes \|date\=1995 \|volume\=1 \|pages\=45–50 \|jstor\=44708513 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44708513 \|issn\=1362\-024X}} [Randall Collins](/wiki/Randall_Collins "Randall Collins") has developed a theory of what he calls* interaction ritual chains*, a synthesis of Durkheim's work on religion with that of [Erving Goffman](/wiki/Erving_Goffman "Erving Goffman")'s [micro\-sociology](/wiki/Microsociology "Microsociology"). Goffman himself was also influenced by Durkheim in his development of the* interaction order*.*
Outside of sociology, Durkheim has influenced philosophers, including [Henri Bergson](/wiki/Henri_Bergson "Henri Bergson") and [Emmanuel Levinas](/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas "Emmanuel Levinas"), and his ideas can be identified, inexplicitly, in the work of certain [structuralist](/wiki/Structuralism "Structuralism") theorists of the 1960s, such as [Alain Badiou](/wiki/Alain_Badiou "Alain Badiou"), [Louis Althusser](/wiki/Louis_Althusser "Louis Althusser"), and [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault "Michel Foucault").{{harvp\|Bourdieu\|Passeron\|1967\|pp\=167–68}}: "For, speaking more generally, all the social sciences now live in the house of Durkheimism, unbeknownst to them, as it were, because they walked into it backwards."
### Durkheim contra Searle
Much of Durkheim's work remains unacknowledged in philosophy, despite its direct relevance. As proof, one can look to [John Searle](/wiki/John_Searle "John Searle"), whose book, The Construction of Social Reality*, elaborates a theory of social facts and collective representations that Searle believed to be a landmark work that would bridge the gap between [analytic](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy "Analytic philosophy") and [continental philosophy](/wiki/Continental_philosophy "Continental philosophy"). [Neil Gross](/wiki/Neil_Gross "Neil Gross"), however, demonstrates how Searle's views on society are more or less a reconstitution of Durkheim's theories of social facts, social institutions, collective representations, and the like. Searle's ideas are thus open to the same criticisms as Durkheim's.{{harvp\|Gross\|2006}} Searle responded by arguing that Durkheim's work was worse than he had originally believed, and, admitting that he had not read much of Durkheim's work: "Because Durkheim's account seemed so impoverished I did not read any further in his work."{{harvp\|Searle\|2006}} [Stephen Lukes](/wiki/Steven_Lukes "Steven Lukes"), however, responded to Searle's reply to Gross, refuting, point by point, the allegations that Searle makes against Durkheim, essentially upholding the argument of Gross, that Searle's work bears great resemblance to that of Durkheim. Lukes attributes Searle's miscomprehension of Durkheim's work to the fact that Searle, quite simply, never read Durkheim.{{Citation\|last\=Lukes\|first\=Steven\|title\=Searle versus Durkheim\|date\=2007\|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1007/978\-1\-4020\-6104\-2\_9\|work\=Intentional Acts and Institutional Facts: Essays on John Searle's Social Ontology\|pages\=191–202\|editor\-last\=Tsohatzidis\|editor\-first\=Savas L.\|series\=Theory and Decision Library\|place\=Dordrecht\|publisher\=Springer Netherlands\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-1\-4020\-6104\-2\_9\|isbn\=978\-1\-4020\-6104\-2\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-05}}*
### Gilbert pro Durkheim
[Margaret Gilbert](/wiki/Margaret_Gilbert "Margaret Gilbert"), a contemporary British philosopher of social phenomena, has offered a close, sympathetic reading of Durkheim's discussion of social facts in the first chapter and the prefaces of [The Rules of Sociological Method](/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method "The Rules of Sociological Method")*. In her 1989 book,* On Social Facts*—the title of which may represent an homage to Durkheim, alluding to his "{{Lang\-fr\|faits sociaux\|label\=none}}"—Gilbert argues that some of his statements that may seem to be philosophically untenable are important and fruitful.[Gilbert, Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_Gilbert "Margaret Gilbert"). 1989\. *On Social Facts*. chap. 4, s.2\.*
Selected works
--------------
"Montesquieu's contributions to the formation of social science" (1892\)
* + [The Division of Labour in Society](/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society "The Division of Labour in Society") *(1893\)*
* [The Rules of Sociological Method](/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method "The Rules of Sociological Method") *(1895\)*
* [Suicide](/wiki/Suicide_%28Durkheim_book%29 "Suicide (Durkheim book)") *(1897\)*
* The Prohibition of Incest and its Origins *(1897\), in* [L'Année Sociologique](/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique "L'Année Sociologique") *1:1–70*
* Sociology and its Scientific Domain *(1900\), translation of an Italian text entitled "La sociologia e il suo dominio scientifico"*
* Primitive Classification *(1903\), in collaboration with [Marcel Mauss](/wiki/Marcel_Mauss "Marcel Mauss")*
* [The Elementary Forms of Religious Life](/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_Religious_Life "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life") *(1912\)Durkheim, Emile. 1964 \[1912]. *[The Elementary Forms of Religious Life](/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_Religious_Life "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life").* London: [Allen \& Unwin](/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin "Allen & Unwin").*
* Who Wanted War? *(1914\), in collaboration with [Ernest Denis](/wiki/Ernest_Denis "Ernest Denis")*
* Germany Above All *(1915\)*
**Published posthumously**{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://www.iep.utm.edu/durkheim/\|title\=Émile Durkheim (1858—1917\)\|encyclopedia\=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\|first\=Paul\|last\=Carls\|access\-date\=15 November 2017}}{{cite book\|last\=Thompson\|first\=Kenneth\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fWK7Jedj26EC\&pg\=PT148\|title\=Readings from Emile Durkheim\|date\=2012\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=9781134951260\|page\=148\|access\-date\=15 November 2017}}
* Education and Sociology *(1922\)*
* Sociology and Philosophy *(1924\)*
* Moral Education *(1925\)*
* Socialism *(1928\)*
* Pragmatism and Sociology *(1955\)*
References
----------
### Notes
{{Reflist\|group\=lower\-roman}}
### Citations
{{reflist\|25em}}
### Bibliography
{{refbegin\|40em}}
{{cite book \|last\=Allan \|first\=Kenneth \|year\=2005 \|title\=Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World \|publisher\=Pine Forge Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-4129\-0572\-5 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/explorationsincl00alla }}
{{cite journal \|last\=Berk \|first\=Bernard B. \|year\=2006 \|title\=Macro\-micro relationships in Durkheim's analysis of egoistic suicide \|journal\=\[\[Sociological Theory (journal)\|Sociological Theory]] \|volume\=24 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=58–80 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.0735\-2751\.2006\.00264\.x \|s2cid\=144703762 }}
{{cite book \|last1\=Bottomore \|first1\=Tom \|author\-link1\=Thomas Bottomore \|last2\=Nisbet \|first2\=Robert \|author\-link2\=Robert Nisbet \|year\=1978 \|title\=A History of Sociological Analysis \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofsociolo0000bott \|url\-access\=registration \|publisher\=Basic Books \|isbn\=978\-0\-465\-03023\-1 }}
{{cite journal \|last1\=Bourdieu \|first1\=Pierre \|author\-link1\=Pierre Bourdieu \|first2\=Jean\-Claude \|last2\=Passeron \|year\=1967 \|title\=Sociology and philosophy in France since 1945: death and resurrection of a philosophy without subject \|journal\=Social Research \|volume\=34 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=162–212 \|jstor\=40969868 }}
{{cite book \|last1\=Brinton \|first1\=Mary C. \|first2\=Victor \|last2\=Nee \|year\=2001 \|title\=The New Institutionalism in Sociology \|publisher\=Stanford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8047\-4276\-4 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Calhoun \|first\=Craig J. \|year\=2002 \|title\=Classical Sociological Theory \|publisher\=Wiley\-Blackwell \|isbn\=978\-0\-631\-21348\-2 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Collins \|first\=Randall \|year\=1975 \|title\=Conflict Sociology: Toward an Explanatory Science \|url\=https://archive.org/details/conflictsociolog0000coll \|url\-access\=registration \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Academic Press \|isbn\=9780121813505 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Durkheim \|first\=Émile \|year\=1974 \|orig\-year\=1953 \|title\=Sociology and Philosophy \|others\=Translated by D. F. Pocock; with an introduction by J. G. Peristiany \|location\=Toronto \|publisher\=The Free Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-02\-908580\-6 \|lccn\=74\-19680 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Durkheim \|first\=Émile \|year\=1982 \|chapter\=Preface to the second edition \|pages\=34–47 \|title\=The Rules of Sociological Method and Selected Texts on Sociology and its Method \|others\=Edited with an introduction by Steven Lukes; translated by W. D. Halls \|publisher\=The Free Press \|location\=New York \|isbn\=978\-0\-02\-907940\-9 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Durkheim \|first\=Émile \|year\=1994 \|chapter\=Social facts \|pages\=433–440 \|editor1\-last\=Martin \|editor1\-first\=Michael \|editor2\-first\=Lee C. \|editor2\-last\=McIntyre \|title\=Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science \|location\=Boston, MA \|publisher\=MIT Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-13296\-1 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Durkheim \|first\=Émile \|year\=2007 \|chapter\=The rules of sociological method (1895\) \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95 95–102] \|editor1\-first\=Scott \|editor1\-last\=Appelrouth \|editor2\-first\=Laura Desfor \|editor2\-last\=Edles \|title\=Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EUQT47IqVdgC\&pg\=PA101 \|publisher\=Pine Forge Press \|location\=Thousand Oaks, CA \|isbn\=978\-0\-7619\-2793\-8 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Durkheim \|first\=Émile \|year\=2009 \|orig\-year\=1953 \|title\=Sociology and philosophy \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|series\=Routledge Revivals \|others\=Translated by D. F. Pocock, with an introduction by J. G. Peristiany \|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-55770\-2 }}
{{cite journal \|last1\=Gibbs \|first1\=Jack P. \|first2\=Walter T. \|last2\=Martin \|year\=1958 \|title\=A theory of status integration and its relationship to suicide \|journal\=\[\[American Sociological Review]] \|volume\=23 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=140–147 \|jstor\=2088997 \|doi\=10\.2307/2088997}}
{{cite journal \|last\=Gross \|first\=Neil \|author\-link\=Neil Gross \|year\=2006 \|title\=Comment on Searle \|journal\=Anthropological Theory \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=45–56 \|doi\=10\.1177/1463499606061734 \|s2cid\=144798682 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Hassard \|first\=John \|year\=1995 \|title\=Sociology and Organization Theory: Positivism, Paradigms and Postmodernity \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|series\=Cambridge Studies in Management \|volume\=20 \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-48458\-9 }}
{{cite journal \|last\=Hayward \|first\=J. E. S. \|year\=1960a \|title\=Solidarist Syndicalism: Durkheim and DuGuit, part I \|journal\=\[\[The Sociological Review]] \|volume\=8 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=17–36 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1467\-954X.1960\.tb02608\.x \|s2cid\=151998089 }}
{{cite journal \|last\=Hayward \|first\=J. E. S. \|year\=1960b \|title\=Solidarist Syndicalism: Durkheim and DuGuit, part II \|journal\=\[\[The Sociological Review]] \|volume\=8 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=185–202 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1467\-954X.1960\.tb01034\.x \|s2cid\=144318188 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Inkeles \|first\=A. \|year\=1959 \|chapter\=Personality and social structure \|pages\=249–276 \|title\=Sociological Today \|editor\=R. K. Merton \|editor2\=L. Broom \|editor3\=L. S. Cottrell \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Basic Books }}
{{cite journal \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Barclay D. \|year\=1965 \|title\=Durkheim's one cause of suicide \|journal\=\[\[American Sociological Review]] \|volume\=30 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=875–886 \|jstor\=2090966 \|doi\=10\.2307/2090966\|pmid\=5846308 \|s2cid\=43242167 }}
{{cite book \|last1\=Jones \|first1\=Robert Alun \|first2\=Rand J. \|last2\=Spiro \|year\=1995 \|chapter\=Contextualization, cognitive flexibility, and hypertext: the convergence of interpretive theory, cognitive psychology, and advanced information technologies \|editor\=Susan Leigh Star \|title\=The Cultures of Computing \|series\=Sociological Review Monographs \|publisher\=Wiley\-Blackwell \|isbn\=978\-0\-631\-19282\-4 \|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/details/culturesofcomput00susa \|url\-access\=registration \|url\=https://archive.org/details/culturesofcomput00susa }}
{{cite book \|last\=Lukes \|first\=Steven \|author\-link\=Steven Lukes \|year\=1985 \|title\=\[\[Émile Durkheim: His Life and Work\|Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work, a Historical and Critical Study]] \|publisher\=Stanford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8047\-1283\-5 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Lukes \|first\=Steven \|title\=Intentional Acts and Institutional Facts \|author\-link\=Steven Lukes \|year\=2007 \|chapter\=Searle versus Durkheim \|pages\=191–202 \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-1\-4020\-6104\-2\_9 \|editor\=Savas Tsohatzidis \|publisher\=Springer \|location\=Dordrecht \|isbn\=978\-1\-4020\-6103\-5 \|chapter\-url\=https://www.scribd.com/doc/17634357/Intentional\-Acts\-and\-Institutional\-Facts\-Essays\-on\-John\-Searles\-Social\-Ontology\-Theory\-and\-Decision\-Library\-a }}{{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
{{cite journal \|last\=McKinnon \|first\=A. \|year\=2014 \|title\=Elementary forms of the metaphorical life: tropes at work in Durkheim's theory of the religious \|journal\=\[\[Journal of Classical Sociology]] \|volume\=14 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=203–221 \|url\=http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3284/1/elementary\_metaphors\_of\_the\_religious\_life\_author\_version\_doc.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3284/1/elementary\_metaphors\_of\_the\_religious\_life\_author\_version\_doc.pdf \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-09 \|url\-status\=live \|doi\=10\.1177/1468795x13494130\|hdl\=2164/3284 \|s2cid\=144074274 \|hdl\-access\=free }}
{{cite book \|last\=Meštrović \|first\=Stjepan \|author\-link\=Stjepan Meštrović \|year\=1993 \|orig\-year\=1988 \|title\=Émile Durkheim and the Reformation of Sociology \|location\=Lanham, MD \|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield \|isbn\=978\-0\-8476\-7867\-9 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Morrison \|first\=Ken \|year\=2006 \|title\=Marx, Durkheim, Weber: Formations of Modern Social Thought \|url\=https://archive.org/details/marxdurkheimwebe0000morr \|url\-access\=registration \|edition\=2nd \|location\=London \|publisher\=SAGE \|isbn\=978\-0\-7619\-7055\-2 }}
{{cite journal \|last\=Nefes \|first\=Türkay Salim \|year\=2013 \|title\=Ziya Gökalp's adaptation of Emile Durkheim's sociology in his formulation of the modern Turkish nation \|journal\=International Sociology \|volume\=28 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=335–350 \|doi\= 10\.1177/0268580913479811 \|s2cid\=143694790 }}
{{cite book\| last \= Pals \| first \= Daniel L. \|year \= 2006\|chapter \= Society as Sacred, Emile Durkheim\|pages \= 85–117 \|title\=Eight Theories of Religion \| publisher\=Oxford University Press \| isbn\=0\-19\-516570\-5}}
{{cite book \|last\=Pickering \|first\=W. S. F. \|year\=2001 \|chapter\=The enigma of Durkheim's Jewishness \|pages\=62–87 \|title\=Critical Assessments of Leading Sociologists \|others\=In conjunction with the British Centre for Durkheimian Studies \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-0\-4152\-0561\-0 \|volume\=1 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Pickering \|first\=W. S. F. \|editor\=W. S. F. Pickering \|editor2\=Massimo Rosati \|year\=2012 \|chapter\=Reflections on the death of Émile Durkheim \|pages\=11–28 \|title\=Suffering and Evil: The Durkheimian Legacy. Essays in Commemoration of the 90th Anniversary of Durkheim's Death \|publisher\=Berghahn Books \|location\=New York \|isbn\=978\-0857456458 \|edition\=1st paperback }}
{{cite book \|last\=Poggi \|first\=Gianfranco \|year\=2000 \|title\=Durkheim \|location\=Oxford \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-878087\-8 }}
{{cite journal \|last1\=Pope \|first1\=Whitney \|first2\=Nick \|last2\=Danigelis \|year\=1981 \|title\=Sociology's "one law" \|journal\=Social Forces \|volume\=60 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=496–514 \|doi\=10\.1093/sf/60\.2\.495 \|jstor\=2578447 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Popolo \|first\=Damian \|year\=2011 \|title\=A New Science of International Relations: Modernity, Complexity and the Kosovo Conflict \|publisher\=Ashgate Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-4094\-1226\-7 }}
{{cite journal \|last\=Searle \|first\=John \|year\=2006 \|title\=Durkheim versus Searle and the waves of thought: reply to Gross \|journal\=Anthropological Theory \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=57–69 \|doi\=10\.1177/1463499606061735 \|s2cid\=144144906 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Selvin \|first\=Hanan C. \|year\=1965 \|chapter\=Durkheim's ''Suicide'': further thoughts on a methodological classic \|editor\=Robert A. Nisbet \|title\=Émile Durkheim \|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/details/emiledurkheim0000nisb \|chapter\-url\-access\=registration \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/emiledurkheim0000nisb/page/113 113–136] \|location\=Englewood Cliffs, NJ \|publisher\=Prentice Hall }}
{{cite book \|last1\=Stark \|first1\=Rodney \|first2\=William Sims \|last2\=Bainbridge \|year\=1996 \|title\=Religion, Deviance and Social Control \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=9780415915298 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Strenski \|first\=Ivan \|year\=1997 \|title\=Durkheim and the Jews of France \|location\=Chicago, IL \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-77735\-1 }}
{{cite book \|last\=Sztompka \|first\=Piotr \|author\-link\=Piotr Sztompka \|year\=2002 \|title\=Socjologia \|publisher\=Znak \|isbn\=978\-83\-240\-0218\-4 }}
{{cite journal \|last\=Thomassen \|first\=Bjørn \|author\-link\=Bjorn Thomassen\|year\=2012 \|title\=Émile Durkheim between Gabriel Tarde and Arnold van Gennep: founding moments of sociology and anthropology \|journal\=Social Anthropology \|volume\=20 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=231–249 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1469\-8676\.2012\.00204\.x }}
{{cite book \|last\=Thompson \|first\=Kenneth \|year\=2002 \|title\=Émile Durkheim \|edition\=2nd \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-28530\-8 }}
{{cite journal \|last1\=van Poppel \|first1\=Frans \|first2\=Lincoln H. \|last2\=Day \|year\=1996 \|title\=AtTest of Durkheim's theory of suicide – without committing the "ecological fallacy" \|journal\=American Sociological Review \|volume\=61 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=500–507 \|jstor\=2096361 \|doi\=10\.2307/2096361}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
---------------
{{refbegin\|40em}}
[Bellah, Robert N.](/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah "Robert N. Bellah") (ed.) (1973\). * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + Emile Durkheim: On Morality and Society, Selected Writings*. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press ({{ISBN\|978\-0\-226\-17336\-8}}).
[Cotterrell, Roger](/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell "Roger Cotterrell") (1999\).*
* Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. *Edinburgh University Press / Stanford University Press ({{ISBN\|0\-8047\-3808\-4}}, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8047\-3808\-8}}).
[Cotterrell, Roger](/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell "Roger Cotterrell") (ed.) (2010\).*
* Emile Durkheim: Justice, Morality and Politics. *Ashgate ({{ISBN\|978\-0\-7546\-2711\-1}}).
Douglas, Jack D. (1973\).*
* The Social Meanings of Suicide. *Princeton University Press ({{ISBN\|978\-0\-691\-02812\-5}}).
Eitzen, Stanley D. and Maxine Baca Zinn (1997\).*
* Social Problems *(11th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon ({{ISBN\|0\-205\-54796\-6}}).
[Giddens, Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_Giddens "Anthony Giddens") (ed.) (1972\).*
* Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings*. London: Cambridge University Press ({{ISBN\|0\-521\-09712\-6}}, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-521\-09712\-3}}).
Giddens, Anthony (ed.) (1986\).*
* Durkheim on Politics and the State*. Cambridge: Polity Press ({{ISBN\|0\-7456\-0131\-6}}).
Henslin, James M. (1996\).*
* Essentials of Sociology: A Down\-to\-Earth Approach*. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon ({{ISBN\|0\-205\-17480\-9}}, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-205\-17480\-5}}).
Jones, Susan Stedman (2001\).*
* Durkheim Reconsidered*. Polity ({{ISBN\|0\-7456\-1616\-X}}, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7456\-1616\-2}}).
[Lemert, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Lemert "Charles Lemert") (2006\).*
* Durkheim's Ghosts: Cultural Logics and Social Things*. Cambridge University Press ({{ISBN\|0\-521\-84266\-2}}, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-521\-84266\-2}}).
Leroux, Robert,*
* Histoire et sociologie en France. De l'histoire\-science à la sociologie durkheimienne*, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1998\.
[Lockwood, David](/wiki/David_Lockwood_%28sociologist%29 "David Lockwood (sociologist)") (1992\).*
* Solidarity and Schism: "The Problem of Disorder" in Durkheimian and Marxist Sociology*. Oxford: Clarendon Press ({{ISBN\|0\-19\-827717\-2}}, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-19\-827717\-0}}).
Macionis, John J. (1991\). Sociology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. {{ISBN\|0\-13\-820358\-X}}.
{{cite book \| last \= Osipova \| first \= Elena \| editor \= Igor Kon \| editor\-link \= Igor Kon \| others \= Translated by H. Campbell Creighton \| title \= A History of Classical Sociology \| chapter\-url \= http://su\-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6547\_Kon\_History\_of\_Classical\_Sociology.zip \| chapter\-format \= DOC, DjVu \| year \= 1989 \| publisher \= \[\[Progress Publishers]] \| location \= \[\[Moscow]] \| pages \= 206–254 \| chapter \= Emile Durkheim's Sociology \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514104128/http://su\-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6547\_Kon\_History\_of\_Classical\_Sociology.zip \| archive\-date \= 14 May 2011 }}
Pickering, W. S. F. (2000\).*
+ - Durkheim and Representations*, Routledge ({{ISBN\|0\-415\-19090\-8}}).
Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1979\).*
* Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education*, Routledge \& Kegan Paul ({{ISBN\|0\-7100\-0321\-8}}).
Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1975\).*
* Durkheim on Religion*, Routledge \& Kegan Paul ({{ISBN\|0\-7100\-8108\-1}}).
Siegel, Larry J (2007\).*
* Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies *(7th ed.) Wadsworth/Thomson Learning ({{ISBN\|0\-495\-00572\-X}}, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-495\-00572\-8}}).
Tekiner, Deniz (2002\). "German Idealist Foundations of Durkheim's Sociology and Teleology of Knowledge",*
* Theory and Science'', III, 1, [Online publication](http://theoryandscience.icaap.org/content/vol003.001/tekiner.html).
{{refend}}
|
[
"Durkheim and theory\n-------------------",
"Throughout his career, Durkheim was concerned primarily with three goals. First, to establish sociology as a new academic discipline. Second, to analyse how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the modern era, when things such as shared religious and ethnic background could no longer be assumed. To that end he wrote much about the effect of laws, religion, education and similar forces on society and [social integration](/wiki/Social_integration \"Social integration\").{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=102}} Lastly, Durkheim was concerned with the practical implications of [scientific knowledge](/wiki/Scientific_knowledge \"Scientific knowledge\"). The importance of social integration is expressed throughout Durkheim's work:{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=136}}Durkheim, Emile. 2011 \\[1925]. *Moral Education*, translated by E. K. Wilson and H. Schnurer. Mineola, NY: [Dover Publications](/wiki/Dover_Publications \"Dover Publications\"). {{ISBN\\|9780486424989}}. [p. 102](https://books.google.com/books?id=JJooAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA102).",
"{{Blockquote\\|For if society lacks the unity that derives from the fact that the relationships between its parts are exactly regulated, that unity resulting from the harmonious articulation of its various functions assured by effective discipline and if, in addition, society lacks the unity based upon the commitment of men's wills to a common objective, then it is no more than a pile of sand that the least jolt or the slightest puff will suffice to scatter.\\|title\\=\\|source\\=''Moral Education'' (1925\\)\\|author\\=}}",
"### Establishing sociology",
"Durkheim authored some of the most programmatic statements on what sociology is and how it should be practiced. His concern was to establish sociology as a science.{{harvp\\|Popolo\\|2011\\|loc\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vMALg\\_p5zHsC\\&pg\\=PA97 pp. 97–]}} Arguing for a place for sociology among other sciences, he wrote, \"sociology is, then, not an auxiliary of any other science; it is itself a distinct and autonomous science.\"{{harvp\\|Brinton\\|Nee\\|2001\\|loc\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=71e\\_jsQpzg0C\\&pg\\=PR11 pp. 11–]}}",
"To give sociology a place in the academic world and to ensure that it is a legitimate science, it must have an object that is clear and distinct from philosophy or psychology, and its own [methodology](/wiki/Methodology \"Methodology\"). He argued that \"there is in every society a certain group of phenomena which may be differentiated from those studied by the other natural sciences.\"[Durkheim, Émile. 2007 \\[1895](/wiki/%23CITEREFDurkheim2007 \"#CITEREFDurkheim2007\")]. \"[The Rules of Sociological Method](https://books.google.com/books?id=EUQT47IqVdgC&pg=PA101).\" Pp. 95–102 in *[Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings](/wiki/iarchive:Classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95 \"Classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95\")*, edited by S. Appelrouth and L. D. Edles. Thousand Oaks, CA: [Pine Forge Press](/wiki/SAGE_Publishing \"SAGE Publishing\"). {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7619\\-2793\\-8}}.{{Rp\\|95}}",
"In the [Tarde\\-Durkheim debate](/wiki/Tarde-Durkheim_debate \"Tarde-Durkheim debate\") of 1903, the \"anthropological view\" of [Gabriel Tarde](/wiki/Gabriel_Tarde \"Gabriel Tarde\") was ridiculed and hastily dismissed.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2022}}",
"A fundamental aim of sociology is to discover structural \"[social facts](/wiki/Social_fact \"Social fact\")\".Durkheim, Émile. 1938 \\[1895]. *[The Rules of Sociological Method](/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method \"The Rules of Sociological Method\")*, translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H. Mueller, edited by G. E. G. Catlin.{{Rp\\|13}} The establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline is among Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies. Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism or [structural functionalism](/wiki/Structural_functionalism \"Structural functionalism\").{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=103}}",
"### Social facts",
"{{Main\\|Social fact}}",
"{{blockquote\\|A social fact is every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint; or again, every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestations.\\|''The Rules of Sociological Method''\\|title\\=\\|source\\=}}",
"Durkheim's work revolved around the study of social facts, a term he coined to describe phenomena that have an existence in and of themselves, are not bound to the actions of individuals, but have a coercive influence upon them.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=105\\-06}} Durkheim argued that social facts have, *[sui generis](/wiki/Sui_generis \"Sui generis\")*, an independent existence greater and more objective than the actions of the individuals that compose society.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=106}} Only such social facts can explain the observed social phenomena. Being exterior to the individual person, social facts may thus also exercise [coercive power](/wiki/Social_control \"Social control\") on the various people composing society, as it can sometimes be observed in the case of formal laws and regulations, but also in situations implying the presence of informal rules, such as religious rituals or family norms.Durkheim, Émile. 1994 \\[1895]. \"Social facts.\" Pp. 433–40 in *Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science*, edited by M. Martin and [L. C. McIntyre](/wiki/Lee_C._McIntyre \"Lee C. McIntyre\"). Boston: [MIT Press](/wiki/MIT_Press \"MIT Press\"). {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-262\\-13296\\-1}}. p. 433–34\\. Unlike the facts studied in [natural sciences](/wiki/Natural_science \"Natural science\"), a *social* fact thus refers to a specific category of phenomena: \"the determining cause of a social fact must be sought among the antecedent social facts and not among the states of the individual consciousness.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}}",
"Such facts are endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they may control individual behaviors. According to Durkheim, these phenomena cannot be reduced to [biological](/wiki/Biology \"Biology\") or [psychological](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\") grounds. Social facts can be material (i.e. physical objects ) or immaterial (i.e. meanings, sentiments, etc.). Though the latter cannot be seen or touched, they are external and coercive, thus becoming real and gaining \"[facticity](/wiki/Facticity \"Facticity\")\". Physical objects, too, can represent both material and immaterial social facts. For example, a flag is a physical social fact that is often ingrained with various immaterial social facts (e.g. its meaning and importance).",
"Many social facts, however, have no material form. Even the most \"individualistic\" or \"subjective\" phenomena, such as love, freedom, or suicide, were regarded by Durkheim as *objective* social facts. Individuals composing society do not directly cause suicide: suicide, as a social fact, exists independently in society, and is caused by other social facts—such as rules governing [behavior](/wiki/Behavior \"Behavior\") and group attachment—whether an individual likes it or not.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=107}} Whether a person \"leaves\" a society does not alter the *fact* that this society will *still contain* suicides. Suicide, like other immaterial social facts, exists independently of the will of an individual, cannot be eliminated, and is as influential—coercive—as physical laws like gravity. Sociology's task therefore consists of discovering the qualities and characteristics of such social facts, which can be discovered through a [quantitative](/wiki/Quantitative_research \"Quantitative research\") or experimental approach (Durkheim extensively relied on [statistics](/wiki/Social_statistics \"Social statistics\")).{{harvp\\|Hassard\\|1995\\|loc\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EjI6Rd\\-NreYC\\&dq\\=Durkheim\\+suicide\\+sociological\\+positivism\\&pg\\=PA15 p. 15]}}: \"Suicide…is indeed the paradigm case of Durkheim's positivism: it remains the exemplar of the sociological application of statistics.\"",
"### Society, collective consciousness, and culture",
"\\[\\[File:Emile Durkheim, Division du travail social maitrier.jpg\\|thumb\\|right\\|Cover of the French edition of *The Division of Labour in Society]]Regarding the society itself, like [social institutions](/wiki/Social_institution \"Social institution\") in general, Durkheim saw it as a set of social facts.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}} Even more than \"what society is,\" Durkheim was interested in answering \"how is a society created\" and \"what holds a society together.\" In* [The Division of Labour in Society](/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society \"The Division of Labour in Society\")*, Durkheim attempts to answer the latter question.{{harvp\\|Calhoun\\|2002\\|loc\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6mq\\-H3EcUx8C\\&pg\\=PA106 p. 106]}}*",
"#### Collective consciousness",
"Durkheim assumes that humans are inherently [egoistic](/wiki/Egotism \"Egotism\"), while \"[collective consciousness](/wiki/Collective_consciousness \"Collective consciousness\")\" (i.e. [norms](/wiki/Norm_%28sociology%29 \"Norm (sociology)\"), [beliefs](/wiki/Belief \"Belief\"), and [values](/wiki/Value_%28ethics%29 \"Value (ethics)\")) forms the moral basis of the society, resulting in [social integration](/wiki/Social_integration \"Social integration\").Kim, Sung Ho. 2007\\. \"[Max Weber](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/).\" *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy \"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\")*. Retrieved 17 February 2010\\. Collective consciousness *is therefore of key importance to the society; its requisite function without which the society cannot survive.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=108}} This consciousness produces the society and holds it together, while, at the same time, individuals produce collective consciousness through their interactions. Through collective consciousness human beings become aware of one another as social beings, not just animals.\n> The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of a society forms a determinate system with a life of its own. It can be termed the collective or common consciousness.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Kenneth Allan\\|author2\\=Kenneth D. Allan\\|title\\=Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World\\|date\\=2 November 2005\\|publisher\\=Pine Forge Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4129\\-0572\\-5\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/explorationsincl00alla/page/108 108]\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/explorationsincl00alla/page/108}}",
"In particular, the [emotional](/wiki/Emotion \"Emotion\") part of the collective consciousness overrides our [egoism](/wiki/Egoism \"Egoism\"): as we are emotionally bound to [culture](/wiki/Culture \"Culture\"), we act socially because we recognize it is the responsible, moral way to act.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=109}} A key to forming society is [social interaction](/wiki/Social_interaction \"Social interaction\"), and Durkheim believes that human beings, when in a group, will inevitably act in such a way that a society is formed.{{cite journal \\| url\\=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10\\.1177/09767479211057745 \\| doi\\=10\\.1177/09767479211057745 \\| title\\=An Open Letter to Emile Durkheim \\| journal\\=Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India \\| date\\=December 2021 \\| volume\\=70 \\| issue\\=2 \\| pages\\=256–263 \\| last1\\=Guha \\| first1\\=Abhijit \\| s2cid\\=245132986 }}*",
"#### Culture",
"Groups, when interacting, create their own culture and attach powerful emotions to it, thus making [culture](/wiki/Culture \"Culture\") *another key social fact.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=110}} Durkheim was one of the first scholars to consider the question of culture so intensely. Durkheim was interested in [cultural diversity](/wiki/Cultural_diversity \"Cultural diversity\"), and how the existence of diversity nonetheless fails to destroy a society. To that, Durkheim answered that any apparent cultural diversity is overridden by a larger, common, and more generalized cultural system, and the [law](/wiki/Law \"Law\").{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=111, 127}}*",
"In a [socio\\-evolutionary](/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution \"Sociocultural evolution\") approach, Durkheim described the evolution of societies from [mechanical solidarity](/wiki/Mechanical_solidarity \"Mechanical solidarity\") to [organic solidarity](/wiki/Organic_solidarity \"Organic solidarity\") (one rising from mutual need).{{harvp\\|Sztompka\\|2002\\|p\\=500}}{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=125}} As societies become more complex, evolving from mechanical to organic solidarity, the [division of labour](/wiki/Division_of_labour \"Division of labour\") is counteracting and replacing to collective consciousness.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=137}} In the simpler societies, people are connected to others due to personal ties and traditions; in the larger, modern society they are connected due to increased reliance on others with regard to them performing their specialized tasks needed for the modern, highly complex society to survive. In mechanical solidarity, people are self\\-sufficient, there is little integration, and thus there is the need for use of force and repression to keep society together.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2023\\|reason\\=Provided source does not appear to actually suggest that Durkheim considered societies of 'mechanical' solidarity less integrated \\- in fact Durkheim implies the opposite. Sztompka also does not seem to express such a view here, but this could be my reading.}} Also, in such societies, people have much fewer options in life.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=123}}{{Clarify\\|date\\=July 2023}} In organic solidarity, people are much more integrated and interdependent, and specialization and cooperation are extensive.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2023\\|reason\\=See reason given in \"citation needed\" tag two sentences prior.}} Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity is based first on [population growth](/wiki/Population_growth \"Population growth\") and increasing [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\"), second on increasing \"morality density\" (development of more complex [social interactions](/wiki/Social_interaction \"Social interaction\")) and thirdly, on the increasing specialization in workplace. One of the ways mechanical and organic societies differ is the function of law: in mechanical society the law is focused on its [punitive](/wiki/Punishment \"Punishment\") aspect, and aims to reinforce the cohesion of the community, often by making the punishment public and extreme; whereas in the organic society the law focuses on repairing the damage done and is more focused on individuals than the community.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=123–24}}\nOne of the main features of the modern, organic society is the importance, [sacredness](/wiki/Sacredness \"Sacredness\") even, given to the concept—social fact—of the [individual](/wiki/Individual \"Individual\").{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=132–33}} The individual, rather than the collective, becomes the focus of rights and responsibilities, the center of public and private rituals holding the society together—a function once performed by the religion. To stress the importance of this concept, Durkheim talked of the \"cult of the individual\":Durkheim, Émile. 1974 \\[1953]. *[Sociology and Philosophy](https://books.google.com/books?id=oCBNzbCG2N0C&q=editions:7biAPRA5u8AC)*, translated by [D. F. Pocock](/wiki/David_Francis_Pocock \"David Francis Pocock\"), with introduction by J. G. Peristiany. Toronto: [Free Press](/wiki/Free_Press_%28publisher%29 \"Free Press (publisher)\"). {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-02\\-908580\\-6}}. {{LCCN\\|74\\-19680}}.\n> Thus very far from there being the antagonism between the individual and society which is often claimed, moral individualism, the cult of the individual, is in fact the product of society itself. It is society that instituted it and made of man the god whose servant it is.",
"Durkheim saw the [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") and [growth](/wiki/Population_growth \"Population growth\") as key factors in the evolution of the societies and advent of [modernity](/wiki/Modernity \"Modernity\").{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=125, 134}} As the number of people in a given area increase, so does the number of interactions, and the society becomes more complex. Growing [competition](/wiki/Competition \"Competition\") between the more numerous people also leads to further division of labour. In time, the importance of the state, the law and the individual increases, while that of the religion and moral solidarity decreases.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=134}}\nIn another example of evolution of culture, Durkheim pointed to [fashion](/wiki/Fashion \"Fashion\"), although in this case he noted a more [cyclical](/wiki/Social_cycle \"Social cycle\") phenomenon.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=113}} According to Durkheim, fashion serves to differentiate between [lower classes](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\") and [upper classes](/wiki/Upper_class \"Upper class\"), but because lower classes want to look like the upper classes, they will eventually adapt the upper class fashion, depreciating it, and forcing the upper class to adopt a new fashion.\n### Social pathology and crime",
"{{Criminology and penology\\|Major theorists}}\nAs the society, Durkheim noted there are several possible [pathologies](/wiki/Pathology \"Pathology\") that could lead to a breakdown of [social integration](/wiki/Social_integration \"Social integration\") and disintegration of the society: the two most important ones are [anomie](/wiki/Anomie \"Anomie\") *and* forced division of labour*; lesser ones include the lack of coordination and suicide.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=128, 130}} To Durkheim,* anomie *refers to a lack of social norms; where too rapid of population growth reduces the amount of interaction between various groups, which in turn leads to a breakdown of understanding (i.e. norms, values, etc.).{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=128, 129, 137}}* Forced division of labour*, on the other hand, refers to a situation in which those who hold power, driven by their desire for [profit](/wiki/Profit_%28economics%29 \"Profit (economics)\") ([greed](/wiki/Greed \"Greed\")), results in people doing work that they are unsuited for.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=129}} Such people are unhappy, and their desire to change the system can destabilize the society.*",
"Durkheim's views on crime were a departure from conventional notions. He believed that crime is \"bound up with the fundamental conditions of all [social life](/wiki/Social_relation \"Social relation\")\" and serves a social function.{{Rp\\|101}} He states that crime implies \"not only that the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes.\"{{Rp\\|101}} Examining the [trial of Socrates](/wiki/Trial_of_Socrates \"Trial of Socrates\"), he argues that \"his crime, namely, the independence of his thought, rendered a service not only to humanity but to his country\" as \"it served to prepare a new morality and faith that the Athenians needed.\"{{Rp\\|101}} As such, his crime \"was a useful prelude to reforms.\"{{Rp\\|102}} In this sense, he saw crime as being able to release certain social tensions and so have a cleansing or purging effect in society.{{Rp\\|101}} \n>",
"The authority which the moral conscience enjoys must not be excessive; otherwise, no\\-one would dare to criticize it, and it would too easily congeal into an immutable form. To make progress, individual originality must be able to express itself…\\[even] the originality of the criminal…shall also be possible. \n#### Deviance",
"Durkheim thought [deviance](/wiki/Deviance_%28sociology%29%23Deviance \"Deviance (sociology)#Deviance\") to be an essential component of a functional society.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction\\-sociology\\-2e\\|title\\=Introduction to Sociology\\|publisher\\=OpenStax\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-947172\\-11\\-1\\|edition\\=2\\|pages\\=138\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2018}} He believed that deviance had three possible effects on society:\"[7\\.2 Explaining Deviance](https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/7-2-explaining-deviance/).\" *Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World*. [University of Minnesota Libraries](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Libraries \"University of Minnesota Libraries\") (2016\\). {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-946135\\-24\\-7}}.\n Deviance challenges the perspective and thoughts of the general population, leading to social change by pointing out a flaw in society.\n Deviant acts may support existing social norms and beliefs by evoking the population to discipline the actors.\n Reactions to deviant activity could increase camaraderie and social support among the population affected by the activity.\nDurkheim's thoughts on deviance contributed to [Robert Merton's Strain Theory](/wiki/Strain_theory_%28sociology%29%23Merton%27s_theory \"Strain theory (sociology)#Merton's theory\").\n#### Suicide",
"{{main\\|Suicide (Durkheim book)}}\nIn 1. 1. 1. Suicide *(1897\\), Durkheim explores the differing suicide rates among [Protestants](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") and Catholics, arguing that stronger [social control](/wiki/Social_control \"Social control\") among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. According to Durkheim, Catholic society has normal levels of [integration](/wiki/Social_integration \"Social integration\") while Protestant society has low levels. Overall, Durkheim treated [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") as a [social fact](/wiki/Social_fact \"Social fact\"), explaining variations in its rate on a macro level, considering society\\-scale phenomena such as lack of connections between people (group attachment) and lack of regulations of behavior, rather than individuals' feelings and motivations.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=131}}*",
"Durkheim believed there was more to suicide than extremely personal individual life circumstances such as loss of a job, divorce, or bankruptcy. Instead, Durkheim explained suicide as a symptom of collective social deviance, like alcoholism or homicide.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Mueller \\|first1\\=Anna S. \\|last2\\=Abrutyn \\|first2\\=Seth \\|last3\\=Pescosolido \\|first3\\=Bernice \\|last4\\=Diefendorf \\|first4\\=Sarah \\|date\\=2021 \\|title\\=The Social Roots of Suicide: Theorizing How the External Social World Matters to Suicide and Suicide Prevention \\|journal\\=Frontiers in Psychology \\|volume\\=12 \\|pages\\=621569 \\|doi\\=10\\.3389/fpsyg.2021\\.621569 \\|issn\\=1664\\-1078 \\|pmc\\=8044307 \\|pmid\\=33868089 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}\nHe created a [normative theory](/wiki/Normative_statement \"Normative statement\") of suicide focusing on the conditions of group life. Proposing four different types of suicide, which include [*egoistic*](/wiki/Egoism \"Egoism\"), [*altruistic*](/wiki/Altruism \"Altruism\"), [*anomic*](/wiki/Anomie \"Anomie\"), and [*fatalistic*](/wiki/Fatalism \"Fatalism\"), Durkheim began his theory by plotting social regulation on the x\\-axis of his chart, and social integration on the y\\-axis:\n* Egoistic suicide *corresponds to a low level of social integration. When one is not well integrated into a social group it can lead to a feeling that they have not made a difference in anyone's lives.*\n* Altruistic suicide *corresponds to too much social integration. This occurs when a group dominates the life of an individual to a degree where they feel meaningless to society.*\n* Anomic suicide *occurs when one has an insufficient amount of social regulation. This stems from the sociological term* anomie*, meaning a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises from the inability to reasonably expect life to be predictable.*\n* Fatalistic suicide *results from too much social regulation. An example of this would be when one follows the same routine day after day. This leads to a belief that there is nothing good to look forward to. Durkheim suggested this was the most popular form of suicide for prisoners.*",
"This study has been extensively discussed by later scholars and several major criticisms have emerged. First, Durkheim took most of his data from earlier researchers, notably [Adolph Wagner](/wiki/Adolph_Wagner \"Adolph Wagner\") and [Henry Morselli](/wiki/Henry_Morselli \"Henry Morselli\"),{{harvp\\|Stark\\|Bainbridge\\|1996\\|loc\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lm0DLM\\_T8zsC\\&pg\\=PA32 p. 32]}} who were much more careful in generalizing from their own data. Second, later researchers found that the Protestant–Catholic differences in suicide seemed to be limited to [German\\-speaking Europe](/wiki/German-speaking_Europe \"German-speaking Europe\") and thus may have always been the [spurious reflection](/wiki/Spurious_relationship \"Spurious relationship\") of other factors.{{harvp\\|Pope\\|Danigelis\\|1981}} Durkheim's study of suicide has been criticized as an example of the [logical error](/wiki/Fallacy \"Fallacy\") termed the [ecological fallacy](/wiki/Ecological_fallacy \"Ecological fallacy\").Freedman, David A. 2002\\. *[The Ecological Fallacy](https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~census/ecofall.txt)*. Berkeley: Dept. of Statistics, [University of California](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley \"University of California, Berkeley\").{{harvp\\|Selvin\\|1965}} However, diverging views have contested whether Durkheim's work really contained an ecological fallacy.{{harvp\\|van Poppel\\|Day\\|1996\\|p\\=500}} More recent authors such as Berk (2006\\) have also questioned the [micro–macro relations](/wiki/Structure_and_agency \"Structure and agency\") underlying Durkheim's work.{{harvp\\|Berk\\|2006\\|pp\\=78–79}} Some, such as [Inkeles](/wiki/Alex_Inkeles \"Alex Inkeles\") (1959\\),{{harvp\\|Inkeles\\|1959}} Johnson (1965\\),{{harvp\\|Johnson\\|1965}} and Gibbs (1968\\),{{harvp\\|Gibbs\\|Martin\\|1958}} have claimed that Durkheim's only intent was to explain suicide sociologically *within a [holistic](/wiki/Holism \"Holism\") perspective, emphasizing that \"he intended his theory to explain variation among [social environments](/wiki/Social_environment \"Social environment\") in the incidence of suicide, not the suicides of particular individuals.\"{{harvp\\|Berk\\|2006\\|p\\=60}}*",
"Despite its limitations, Durkheim's work on suicide has influenced proponents of [control theory](/wiki/Control_theory_%28sociology%29 \"Control theory (sociology)\"), and is often mentioned as a classic sociological study. The book pioneered modern [social research](/wiki/Social_research \"Social research\") and served to distinguish social science from [psychology](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\") and [political philosophy](/wiki/Political_philosophy \"Political philosophy\").{{Rp\\|\\|at\\=ch.1}}\n### Religion",
"In [The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life](/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life \"The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life\") *(1912\\), Durkheim's first purpose was to identify the social origin and function of religion as he felt that religion was a source of camaraderie and solidarity. His second purpose was to identify links between certain religions in different cultures, finding a common denominator. He wanted to understand the empirical, social aspect of religion that is common to all religions and goes beyond the concepts of [spirituality](/wiki/Spirituality \"Spirituality\") and [God](/wiki/God \"God\").{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=112\\-15}}*",
"Durkheim defined religion *as:Durkheim, Emile. 1964 \\[1915]. *[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_427)*, translated by J. W. Swain. London: [George Allen \\& Unwin](/wiki/George_Allen_%26_Unwin \"George Allen & Unwin\"). – via [Project Gutenberg](/wiki/Project_Gutenberg \"Project Gutenberg\") (2012\\). [p. 47](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_47). \n> \"a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, i.e., things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite in one single [moral community](/wiki/Moral_community \"Moral community\") called a [Church](/wiki/Church_body \"Church body\"), all those who adhere to them.\"",
"In this definition, Durkheim avoids references to [supernatural](/wiki/Supernatural \"Supernatural\") or God.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=115}} Durkheim rejected earlier definitions by Tylor that religion was \"belief in supernatural beings,\" finding that primitive societies such as the Australian aborigines (following the ethnologies of Spencer and Gillen, largely discredited later) did not divide reality into \"natural\" vs. \"supernatural\" realms, but rather into realms of the \"sacred\" and the \"profane,\" which were not moral categories, since both could include what was good or evil.{{harvp\\|Pals\\|2006\\|pp\\=95\\-100, 112, 113}} Durkheim argues we are left with the following three concepts:{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=116, 118, 120, 137}}*",
"The [sacred](/wiki/Sacred \"Sacred\"): ideas and sentiments kindled by the spectacle of society and which inspire awe, spiritual devotion or respect;\n The [beliefs](/wiki/Belief \"Belief\") \\& [practices](/wiki/Ritual \"Ritual\"): creating an emotional state of * + [collective effervescence](/wiki/Collective_effervescence \"Collective effervescence\")*, investing symbols with sacred importance;\n\t The [moral community](/wiki/Moral_community \"Moral community\"): a group of people sharing a common moral philosophy.*",
"Out of those three concepts, Durkheim focused on the sacred,{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=116}}{{harvp\\|Lukes\\|1985\\|p\\=25}} noting that it is at the very core of a religion:Durkheim, Emile. 1964 \\[1915]. *[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm)*, translated by J. W. Swain. London: [George Allen \\& Unwin](/wiki/George_Allen_%26_Unwin \"George Allen & Unwin\"). – via [Project Gutenberg](/wiki/Project_Gutenberg \"Project Gutenberg\") (2012\\).{{Rp\\|322}}\n> They are only collective forces [hypostasized](/wiki/Hypostasis_%28philosophy_and_religion%29 \"Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)\"), that is to say, moral forces; they are made up of the ideas and sentiments awakened in us by the spectacle of society, and not of sensations coming from the physical world.Durkheim 1915, [p. 322](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_322): \"They are not homogeneous with the visible things among which we place them. They may well take from these things the outward and material forms in which they are represented, but they owe none of their efficacy to them. They are not united by external bonds to the different supports upon which they alight; they have no roots there; according to an expression we have already used and which serves best for characterizing them, *they are added to them*. So there are no objects which are predestined to receive them, to the exclusion of all others; even the most insignificant and vulgar may do so; accidental circumstances decide which are the chosen ones.\"",
"Durkheim saw religion as the most fundamental [social institution](/wiki/Social_institution \"Social institution\") of humankind, and one that gave rise to other social forms.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|pp\\=112\\-13}} It was religion that gave humanity the strongest sense of [collective consciousness](/wiki/Collective_consciousness \"Collective consciousness\").{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=114}} Durkheim saw religion as a force that emerged in the early [hunter\\-gatherer](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer \"Hunter-gatherer\") societies, as the emotions collective effervescence run high in the growing groups, forcing them to act in a new ways, and giving them a sense of some hidden force driving them. Over time, as emotions became symbolized and interactions ritualized, religion became more organized, giving a rise to the division between the sacred and the profane. However, Durkheim also believed that [religion](/wiki/Religion \"Religion\") was becoming less important, as it was being gradually superseded by [science](/wiki/Science \"Science\") and the cult of an individual.{{harvp\\|Allan\\|2005\\|p\\=112}}\n> Thus there is something eternal in religion which is destined to survive all the particular symbols in which religious thought has successively enveloped itself.{{Rp\\|427}}",
"However, even if the religion was losing its importance for Durkheim, it still laid the foundation of modern society and the interactions that governed it. And despite the advent of alternative forces, Durkheim argued that no replacement for the force of religion had yet been created. He expressed his doubt about modernity, seeing the modern times as \"a period of transition and moral mediocrity.\"\nDurkheim also argued that our primary categories for understanding the world have their origins in religion. It is religion, Durkheim writes, that gave rise to most if not all other social constructs, including the larger society. Durkheim argued that categories are produced by the society, and thus are collective creations. Thus as people create societies, they also create categories, but at the same time, they do so unconsciously, and the categories are prior to any individual's experience. In this way Durkheim attempted to bridge the divide between seeing [categories](/wiki/Category_of_being \"Category of being\") as constructed out of human experience and as logically prior to that experience.{{harvp\\|McKinnon\\|2014}} Our understanding of the world is shaped by [social facts](/wiki/Social_fact \"Social fact\"); for example the notion of [time](/wiki/Time \"Time\") is defined by being measured through a [calendar](/wiki/Calendar \"Calendar\"), which in turn was created to allow us to keep track of our social gatherings and rituals; those in turn on their most basic level originated from religion. In the end, even the most logical and rational pursuit of science can trace its origins to religion. Durkheim states that, \"Religion gave birth to all that is essential in the society.\"\nIn his work, Durkheim focused on * [totemism](/wiki/Totem \"Totem\")*, the religion of the [Aboriginal Australians](/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians \"Aboriginal Australians\") and [Native Americans](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\"). Durkheim saw this religion as the most ancient religion, and focused on it as he believed its simplicity would ease the discussion of the essential elements of religion. As such, he wrote:{{Rp\\|220}}\n> Now the totem is the flag of the clan. It is therefore natural that the impressions aroused by the clan in individual minds—impressions of dependence and of increased vitality—should fix themselves to the idea of the totem rather than that of the clan: for the clan is too complex a reality to be represented clearly in all its complex unity by such rudimentary intelligences.",
"Durkheim's work on religion was criticized on both empirical and theoretical grounds by specialists in the field. The most important critique came from Durkheim's contemporary, [Arnold van Gennep](/wiki/Arnold_van_Gennep \"Arnold van Gennep\"), an expert on religion and ritual, and also on Australian belief systems. Van Gennep argued that Durkheim's views of primitive peoples and simple societies were \"entirely erroneous\". Van Gennep further argued that Durkheim demonstrated a lack of critical stance towards his sources, collected by traders and priests, naively accepting their veracity, and that Durkheim interpreted freely from dubious data. At the conceptual level, van Gennep pointed out Durkheim's tendency to press ethnography into a prefabricated theoretical scheme.{{harvp\\|Thomassen\\|2012}}*",
"Despite such critiques, Durkheim's work on religion has been widely praised for its theoretical insight and whose arguments and propositions, according to Robert Alun Jones, \"have stimulated the interest and excitement of several generations of sociologists irrespective of theoretical 'school' or field of specialization.\"Jones, Robert Alun. 1986\\. \"[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912\\)](http://durkheim.uchicago.edu/Summaries/forms.html).\" Pp. 115–55 in *Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works*. Beverly Hills, CA: [SAGE Publications](/wiki/SAGE_Publishing \"SAGE Publishing\"). – via *The Durkheim Pages*, [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago \"University of Chicago\"). [s. 7 \"Critical Remarks\"](http://durkheim.uchicago.edu/Summaries/forms.html#pgfId=5658).\n### Sociology of knowledge",
"While Durkheim's work deals with a number of subjects, including suicide, [the family](/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family \"Sociology of the family\"), [social structures](/wiki/Social_structure \"Social structure\"), and [social institutions](/wiki/Institution \"Institution\"), a large part of his work deals with the [sociology of knowledge](/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge \"Sociology of knowledge\").\nWhile publishing short articles on the subject earlier in his career,For example, the essay *De quelques formes primitives de classification* (1902\\), written with [Marcel Mauss](/wiki/Marcel_Mauss \"Marcel Mauss\"). Durkheim's definitive statement concerning the sociology of knowledge comes in his 1912 magnum opus*,* [The Elementary Forms of Religious Life](/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_Religious_Life \"The Elementary Forms of Religious Life\")*. This book has as its goal not only the elucidation of the social origins and function of religion, but also the social origins and impact of society on language and logical thought. Durkheim worked largely out of a Kantian framework and sought to understand how the concepts and categories of logical thought could arise out of social life. He argued, for example, that the categories of space and time were not [*a priori*](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\"). Rather, the category of space depends on a society's social grouping and geographical use of space, and a group's social rhythm that determines our understanding of time.Durkheim, Emile. 2003 \\[1912]. *Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse* (5th ed.). [Presses Universitaires de France](/wiki/Presses_Universitaires_de_France \"Presses Universitaires de France\"). {{p.\\|628}}. In this Durkheim sought to combine elements of [rationalism](/wiki/Rationalism \"Rationalism\") and [empiricism](/wiki/Empiricism \"Empiricism\"), arguing that certain aspects of logical thought common to all humans did exist, but that they were products of collective life (thus contradicting the* [tabula rasa](/wiki/Tabula_rasa \"Tabula rasa\") *empiricist understanding whereby categories are acquired by individual experience alone), and that they were not universal [*a* *prioris*](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\") (as [Kant](/wiki/Kant \"Kant\") argued) since the content of the categories differed from society to society.See Durkheim (1912\\) p. [14–17](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_14), [19–22](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_19).*",
"#### Collective representations",
"Another key elements to Durkheim's theory of knowledge outlined in Elementary Forms *is the concept of {{Lang\\-fr\\|représentations collectives\\|label\\=none}} (\"[collective representations](/wiki/Collective_representations \"Collective representations\")\").* {{Lang\\-fr\\|Représentations collectives\\|label\\=none}} *are the symbols and images that come to represent the ideas, beliefs, and values elaborated by a collectivity and are not reducible to individual constituents. They can include words, slogans, ideas, or any number of material items that can serve as a symbol, such as a cross, a rock, a temple, a feather etc. As Durkheim elaborates,* {{Lang\\-fr\\|représentations collectives\\|label\\=none}} *are created through intense social interaction and are products of collective activity. As such, these representations have the particular, and somewhat contradictory, aspect that they exist externally to the individual—since they are created and controlled not by the individual but by society as a whole—yet, simultaneously within each individual of the society, by virtue of that individual's participation within society.Durkheim, Emile. (1964\\). *The elementary forms of the religious life.* London: Allen \\& Unwin.*",
"Arguably the most important \"{{Lang\\-fr\\|représentations collectives\\|label\\=none}}\" is [language](/wiki/Language \"Language\"), which according to Durkheim is a product of collective action. And because language is a collective action, language contains within it a history of accumulated knowledge and experience that no individual would be capable of creating on their own:{{Rp\\|435}}\n> If concepts were only general ideas, they would not enrich knowledge a great deal, for, as we have already pointed out, the general contains nothing more than the particular. But if before all else they are collective representations, they add to that which we can learn by our own personal experience all that wisdom and science which the group has accumulated in the course of centuries. Thinking by concepts, is not merely seeing reality on its most general side, but it is projecting a light upon the sensation which illuminates it, penetrates it and transforms it.",
"As such, language, as a social product, literally structures and shapes our experience of reality. This discursive approach to language and society was developed by later French philosophers, such as [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault \"Michel Foucault\").\n### Morality",
"{{Quote frame \\|quote\\=How many times, indeed, it \\[crime] is only an anticipation of future morality \\- a step toward what will be! \\|author\\=Émile Durkheim \\|source\\=''\\[\\[The Division of Labour in Society\\#DivisionofLabourinSociety\\|''Division of Labour in Society'']]''{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=T. Anthony\\|title\\=Durkheim, Deviance and Development: Opportunities Lost and Regained\\|journal\\=Social Forces\\|date\\=June 1981\\|volume\\=59\\|issue\\=Special Issue\\|pages\\=1009–1024\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2577978\\|jstor\\=2577978}}\\|align\\=right\\|1\\|width\\=240px}}\nDurkheim defines morality as \"a system of rules for conduct\".Durkheim, Émile. 2004\\. *Sociologie et Philosophie*. Paris: [Presses Universitaires de France](/wiki/Presses_Universitaires_de_France \"Presses Universitaires de France\"). {{p.\\|50}}. His analysis of morality is influenced by [Immanuel Kant](/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel Kant\") and his notion of duty. While Durkheim was influenced by Kant, he was critical of aspects of the latter's moral theory and developed his own positions.\nDurkheim agrees with Kant that within morality, there is an element of obligation, \"a moral authority which, by manifesting itself in certain precepts particularly important to it, confers upon \\[moral rules] an obligatory character.\"{{Rp\\|38}} Morality tells us how to act from a position of superiority. There exists a certain, pre\\-established moral norm to which we must conform. It is through this view that Durkheim makes a first critique of Kant in saying that moral duties originate in society, and are not to be found in some universal moral concept such as the [categorical imperative](/wiki/Categorical_imperative \"Categorical imperative\"). Durkheim also argues that morality is characterized not just by this obligation, but is also something that is desired by the individual. The individual believes that by adhering to morality, they are serving the common [Good](/wiki/Summum_bonum \"Summum bonum\"), and for this reason, the individual submits voluntarily to the moral commandment.{{Rp\\|54}}\nHowever, in order to accomplish its aims, morality must be legitimate in the eyes of those to whom it speaks. As Durkheim argues, this moral authority is primarily to be located in religion, which is why in any religion one finds a code of morality. For Durkheim, it is only society that has the resources, the respect, and the power to cultivate within an individual both the obligatory and the desirous aspects of morality.{{Rp\\|73}}\nInfluence and legacy\n--------------------",
"Durkheim has had an important impact on the development of anthropology and sociology as disciplines. The establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline, in particular, is among Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies. Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism, or [structural functionalism](/wiki/Structural_functionalism \"Structural functionalism\"). Scholars inspired by Durkheim include [Marcel Mauss](/wiki/Marcel_Mauss \"Marcel Mauss\"), [Maurice Halbwachs](/wiki/Maurice_Halbwachs \"Maurice Halbwachs\"), [Célestin Bouglé](/wiki/C%C3%A9lestin_Bougl%C3%A9 \"Célestin Bouglé\"), [Gustave Belot](/wiki/Gustave_Belot \"Gustave Belot\"), [Alfred Radcliffe\\-Brown](/wiki/Alfred_Radcliffe-Brown \"Alfred Radcliffe-Brown\"), [Talcott Parsons](/wiki/Talcott_Parsons \"Talcott Parsons\"), [Robert K. Merton](/wiki/Robert_K._Merton \"Robert K. Merton\"), [Jean Piaget](/wiki/Jean_Piaget \"Jean Piaget\"), [Claude Lévi\\-Strauss](/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss \"Claude Lévi-Strauss\"), [Ferdinand de Saussure](/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure \"Ferdinand de Saussure\"), [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault \"Michel Foucault\"), [Clifford Geertz](/wiki/Clifford_Geertz \"Clifford Geertz\"), [Peter Berger](/wiki/Peter_L._Berger \"Peter L. Berger\"), social reformer Patrick Hunout, and others.\nMore recently, Durkheim has influenced sociologists such as [Steven Lukes](/wiki/Steven_Lukes \"Steven Lukes\"), [Robert N. Bellah](/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah \"Robert N. Bellah\"), and [Pierre Bourdieu](/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu \"Pierre Bourdieu\"). His description of [collective consciousness](/wiki/Collective_consciousness \"Collective consciousness\") *also influenced [Ziya Gökalp](/wiki/Ziya_G%C3%B6kalp \"Ziya Gökalp\"), the founder of Turkish sociology{{harvp\\|Nefes\\|2013}} who replaced Durkheim's concept of society with nation.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Kieser \\|first1\\=Hans\\-Lukas \\|title\\=Europe's Seminal Proto\\-Fascist? Historically Approaching Ziya Gökalp, Mentor of Turkish Nationalism \\|journal\\=Die Welt des Islams \\|date\\=29 April 2021 \\|volume\\=61 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=411–447 \\|doi\\=10\\.1163/15700607\\-61020008 \\|s2cid\\=241148959 \\|url\\=https://brill.com/view/journals/wdi/61/4/article\\-p411\\_411\\.xml \\|issn\\=1570\\-0607}} An ideologue who provided the intellectual justification for the Ottoman Empire's [wars of aggression](/wiki/Wars_of_aggression \"Wars of aggression\") and massive [demographic engineering](/wiki/Demographic_engineering \"Demographic engineering\")—including the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide \"Armenian genocide\")—he could be considered to pervert Durkheim's ideas.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Smith \\|first1\\=David Norman \\|title\\=Ziya Gökalp and Emile Durkheim: sociology as an apology for chauvinism? \\|journal\\=Durkheimian Studies / Études Durkheimiennes \\|date\\=1995 \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=45–50 \\|jstor\\=44708513 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44708513 \\|issn\\=1362\\-024X}} [Randall Collins](/wiki/Randall_Collins \"Randall Collins\") has developed a theory of what he calls* interaction ritual chains*, a synthesis of Durkheim's work on religion with that of [Erving Goffman](/wiki/Erving_Goffman \"Erving Goffman\")'s [micro\\-sociology](/wiki/Microsociology \"Microsociology\"). Goffman himself was also influenced by Durkheim in his development of the* interaction order*.*",
"Outside of sociology, Durkheim has influenced philosophers, including [Henri Bergson](/wiki/Henri_Bergson \"Henri Bergson\") and [Emmanuel Levinas](/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas \"Emmanuel Levinas\"), and his ideas can be identified, inexplicitly, in the work of certain [structuralist](/wiki/Structuralism \"Structuralism\") theorists of the 1960s, such as [Alain Badiou](/wiki/Alain_Badiou \"Alain Badiou\"), [Louis Althusser](/wiki/Louis_Althusser \"Louis Althusser\"), and [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault \"Michel Foucault\").{{harvp\\|Bourdieu\\|Passeron\\|1967\\|pp\\=167–68}}: \"For, speaking more generally, all the social sciences now live in the house of Durkheimism, unbeknownst to them, as it were, because they walked into it backwards.\"\n### Durkheim contra Searle",
"Much of Durkheim's work remains unacknowledged in philosophy, despite its direct relevance. As proof, one can look to [John Searle](/wiki/John_Searle \"John Searle\"), whose book, The Construction of Social Reality*, elaborates a theory of social facts and collective representations that Searle believed to be a landmark work that would bridge the gap between [analytic](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy \"Analytic philosophy\") and [continental philosophy](/wiki/Continental_philosophy \"Continental philosophy\"). [Neil Gross](/wiki/Neil_Gross \"Neil Gross\"), however, demonstrates how Searle's views on society are more or less a reconstitution of Durkheim's theories of social facts, social institutions, collective representations, and the like. Searle's ideas are thus open to the same criticisms as Durkheim's.{{harvp\\|Gross\\|2006}} Searle responded by arguing that Durkheim's work was worse than he had originally believed, and, admitting that he had not read much of Durkheim's work: \"Because Durkheim's account seemed so impoverished I did not read any further in his work.\"{{harvp\\|Searle\\|2006}} [Stephen Lukes](/wiki/Steven_Lukes \"Steven Lukes\"), however, responded to Searle's reply to Gross, refuting, point by point, the allegations that Searle makes against Durkheim, essentially upholding the argument of Gross, that Searle's work bears great resemblance to that of Durkheim. Lukes attributes Searle's miscomprehension of Durkheim's work to the fact that Searle, quite simply, never read Durkheim.{{Citation\\|last\\=Lukes\\|first\\=Steven\\|title\\=Searle versus Durkheim\\|date\\=2007\\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-4020\\-6104\\-2\\_9\\|work\\=Intentional Acts and Institutional Facts: Essays on John Searle's Social Ontology\\|pages\\=191–202\\|editor\\-last\\=Tsohatzidis\\|editor\\-first\\=Savas L.\\|series\\=Theory and Decision Library\\|place\\=Dordrecht\\|publisher\\=Springer Netherlands\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-4020\\-6104\\-2\\_9\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4020\\-6104\\-2\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-05}}*",
"### Gilbert pro Durkheim",
"[Margaret Gilbert](/wiki/Margaret_Gilbert \"Margaret Gilbert\"), a contemporary British philosopher of social phenomena, has offered a close, sympathetic reading of Durkheim's discussion of social facts in the first chapter and the prefaces of [The Rules of Sociological Method](/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method \"The Rules of Sociological Method\")*. In her 1989 book,* On Social Facts*—the title of which may represent an homage to Durkheim, alluding to his \"{{Lang\\-fr\\|faits sociaux\\|label\\=none}}\"—Gilbert argues that some of his statements that may seem to be philosophically untenable are important and fruitful.[Gilbert, Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_Gilbert \"Margaret Gilbert\"). 1989\\. *On Social Facts*. chap. 4, s.2\\.*",
"Selected works\n--------------",
"\"Montesquieu's contributions to the formation of social science\" (1892\\)\n * + [The Division of Labour in Society](/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society \"The Division of Labour in Society\") *(1893\\)*\n* [The Rules of Sociological Method](/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method \"The Rules of Sociological Method\") *(1895\\)*\n* [Suicide](/wiki/Suicide_%28Durkheim_book%29 \"Suicide (Durkheim book)\") *(1897\\)*\n* The Prohibition of Incest and its Origins *(1897\\), in* [L'Année Sociologique](/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique \"L'Année Sociologique\") *1:1–70*\n* Sociology and its Scientific Domain *(1900\\), translation of an Italian text entitled \"La sociologia e il suo dominio scientifico\"*\n* Primitive Classification *(1903\\), in collaboration with [Marcel Mauss](/wiki/Marcel_Mauss \"Marcel Mauss\")*\n* [The Elementary Forms of Religious Life](/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_Religious_Life \"The Elementary Forms of Religious Life\") *(1912\\)Durkheim, Emile. 1964 \\[1912]. *[The Elementary Forms of Religious Life](/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_Religious_Life \"The Elementary Forms of Religious Life\").* London: [Allen \\& Unwin](/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin \"Allen & Unwin\").*\n* Who Wanted War? *(1914\\), in collaboration with [Ernest Denis](/wiki/Ernest_Denis \"Ernest Denis\")*\n* Germany Above All *(1915\\)*",
"**Published posthumously**{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://www.iep.utm.edu/durkheim/\\|title\\=Émile Durkheim (1858—1917\\)\\|encyclopedia\\=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\\|first\\=Paul\\|last\\=Carls\\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2017}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Thompson\\|first\\=Kenneth\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fWK7Jedj26EC\\&pg\\=PT148\\|title\\=Readings from Emile Durkheim\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=9781134951260\\|page\\=148\\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2017}}\n* Education and Sociology *(1922\\)*\n* Sociology and Philosophy *(1924\\)*\n* Moral Education *(1925\\)*\n* Socialism *(1928\\)*\n* Pragmatism and Sociology *(1955\\)*",
"References\n----------",
"### Notes",
"{{Reflist\\|group\\=lower\\-roman}}\n### Citations",
"{{reflist\\|25em}}\n### Bibliography",
"{{refbegin\\|40em}}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Allan \\|first\\=Kenneth \\|year\\=2005 \\|title\\=Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World \\|publisher\\=Pine Forge Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4129\\-0572\\-5 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/explorationsincl00alla }}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=Berk \\|first\\=Bernard B. \\|year\\=2006 \\|title\\=Macro\\-micro relationships in Durkheim's analysis of egoistic suicide \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Sociological Theory (journal)\\|Sociological Theory]] \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=58–80 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.0735\\-2751\\.2006\\.00264\\.x \\|s2cid\\=144703762 }}\n{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bottomore \\|first1\\=Tom \\|author\\-link1\\=Thomas Bottomore \\|last2\\=Nisbet \\|first2\\=Robert \\|author\\-link2\\=Robert Nisbet \\|year\\=1978 \\|title\\=A History of Sociological Analysis \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofsociolo0000bott \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|publisher\\=Basic Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-465\\-03023\\-1 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bourdieu \\|first1\\=Pierre \\|author\\-link1\\=Pierre Bourdieu \\|first2\\=Jean\\-Claude \\|last2\\=Passeron \\|year\\=1967 \\|title\\=Sociology and philosophy in France since 1945: death and resurrection of a philosophy without subject \\|journal\\=Social Research \\|volume\\=34 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=162–212 \\|jstor\\=40969868 }}\n{{cite book \\|last1\\=Brinton \\|first1\\=Mary C. \\|first2\\=Victor \\|last2\\=Nee \\|year\\=2001 \\|title\\=The New Institutionalism in Sociology \\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8047\\-4276\\-4 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Calhoun \\|first\\=Craig J. \\|year\\=2002 \\|title\\=Classical Sociological Theory \\|publisher\\=Wiley\\-Blackwell \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-631\\-21348\\-2 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Collins \\|first\\=Randall \\|year\\=1975 \\|title\\=Conflict Sociology: Toward an Explanatory Science \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/conflictsociolog0000coll \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Academic Press \\|isbn\\=9780121813505 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Durkheim \\|first\\=Émile \\|year\\=1974 \\|orig\\-year\\=1953 \\|title\\=Sociology and Philosophy \\|others\\=Translated by D. F. Pocock; with an introduction by J. G. Peristiany \\|location\\=Toronto \\|publisher\\=The Free Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-02\\-908580\\-6 \\|lccn\\=74\\-19680 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Durkheim \\|first\\=Émile \\|year\\=1982 \\|chapter\\=Preface to the second edition \\|pages\\=34–47 \\|title\\=The Rules of Sociological Method and Selected Texts on Sociology and its Method \\|others\\=Edited with an introduction by Steven Lukes; translated by W. D. Halls \\|publisher\\=The Free Press \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-02\\-907940\\-9 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Durkheim \\|first\\=Émile \\|year\\=1994 \\|chapter\\=Social facts \\|pages\\=433–440 \\|editor1\\-last\\=Martin \\|editor1\\-first\\=Michael \\|editor2\\-first\\=Lee C. \\|editor2\\-last\\=McIntyre \\|title\\=Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science \\|location\\=Boston, MA \\|publisher\\=MIT Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-13296\\-1 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Durkheim \\|first\\=Émile \\|year\\=2007 \\|chapter\\=The rules of sociological method (1895\\) \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95 95–102] \\|editor1\\-first\\=Scott \\|editor1\\-last\\=Appelrouth \\|editor2\\-first\\=Laura Desfor \\|editor2\\-last\\=Edles \\|title\\=Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EUQT47IqVdgC\\&pg\\=PA101 \\|publisher\\=Pine Forge Press \\|location\\=Thousand Oaks, CA \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7619\\-2793\\-8 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Durkheim \\|first\\=Émile \\|year\\=2009 \\|orig\\-year\\=1953 \\|title\\=Sociology and philosophy \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|series\\=Routledge Revivals \\|others\\=Translated by D. F. Pocock, with an introduction by J. G. Peristiany \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-55770\\-2 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Gibbs \\|first1\\=Jack P. \\|first2\\=Walter T. \\|last2\\=Martin \\|year\\=1958 \\|title\\=A theory of status integration and its relationship to suicide \\|journal\\=\\[\\[American Sociological Review]] \\|volume\\=23 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=140–147 \\|jstor\\=2088997 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2088997}}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=Gross \\|first\\=Neil \\|author\\-link\\=Neil Gross \\|year\\=2006 \\|title\\=Comment on Searle \\|journal\\=Anthropological Theory \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=45–56 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1463499606061734 \\|s2cid\\=144798682 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Hassard \\|first\\=John \\|year\\=1995 \\|title\\=Sociology and Organization Theory: Positivism, Paradigms and Postmodernity \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|series\\=Cambridge Studies in Management \\|volume\\=20 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-48458\\-9 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=Hayward \\|first\\=J. E. S. \\|year\\=1960a \\|title\\=Solidarist Syndicalism: Durkheim and DuGuit, part I \\|journal\\=\\[\\[The Sociological Review]] \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=17–36 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1467\\-954X.1960\\.tb02608\\.x \\|s2cid\\=151998089 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=Hayward \\|first\\=J. E. S. \\|year\\=1960b \\|title\\=Solidarist Syndicalism: Durkheim and DuGuit, part II \\|journal\\=\\[\\[The Sociological Review]] \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=185–202 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1467\\-954X.1960\\.tb01034\\.x \\|s2cid\\=144318188 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Inkeles \\|first\\=A. \\|year\\=1959 \\|chapter\\=Personality and social structure \\|pages\\=249–276 \\|title\\=Sociological Today \\|editor\\=R. K. Merton \\|editor2\\=L. Broom \\|editor3\\=L. S. Cottrell \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Basic Books }}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Barclay D. \\|year\\=1965 \\|title\\=Durkheim's one cause of suicide \\|journal\\=\\[\\[American Sociological Review]] \\|volume\\=30 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=875–886 \\|jstor\\=2090966 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2090966\\|pmid\\=5846308 \\|s2cid\\=43242167 }}\n{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jones \\|first1\\=Robert Alun \\|first2\\=Rand J. \\|last2\\=Spiro \\|year\\=1995 \\|chapter\\=Contextualization, cognitive flexibility, and hypertext: the convergence of interpretive theory, cognitive psychology, and advanced information technologies \\|editor\\=Susan Leigh Star \\|title\\=The Cultures of Computing \\|series\\=Sociological Review Monographs \\|publisher\\=Wiley\\-Blackwell \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-631\\-19282\\-4 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/details/culturesofcomput00susa \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/culturesofcomput00susa }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Lukes \\|first\\=Steven \\|author\\-link\\=Steven Lukes \\|year\\=1985 \\|title\\=\\[\\[Émile Durkheim: His Life and Work\\|Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work, a Historical and Critical Study]] \\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8047\\-1283\\-5 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Lukes \\|first\\=Steven \\|title\\=Intentional Acts and Institutional Facts \\|author\\-link\\=Steven Lukes \\|year\\=2007 \\|chapter\\=Searle versus Durkheim \\|pages\\=191–202 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-4020\\-6104\\-2\\_9 \\|editor\\=Savas Tsohatzidis \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|location\\=Dordrecht \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4020\\-6103\\-5 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.scribd.com/doc/17634357/Intentional\\-Acts\\-and\\-Institutional\\-Facts\\-Essays\\-on\\-John\\-Searles\\-Social\\-Ontology\\-Theory\\-and\\-Decision\\-Library\\-a }}{{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=McKinnon \\|first\\=A. \\|year\\=2014 \\|title\\=Elementary forms of the metaphorical life: tropes at work in Durkheim's theory of the religious \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Classical Sociology]] \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=203–221 \\|url\\=http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3284/1/elementary\\_metaphors\\_of\\_the\\_religious\\_life\\_author\\_version\\_doc.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3284/1/elementary\\_metaphors\\_of\\_the\\_religious\\_life\\_author\\_version\\_doc.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1468795x13494130\\|hdl\\=2164/3284 \\|s2cid\\=144074274 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Meštrović \\|first\\=Stjepan \\|author\\-link\\=Stjepan Meštrović \\|year\\=1993 \\|orig\\-year\\=1988 \\|title\\=Émile Durkheim and the Reformation of Sociology \\|location\\=Lanham, MD \\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8476\\-7867\\-9 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Morrison \\|first\\=Ken \\|year\\=2006 \\|title\\=Marx, Durkheim, Weber: Formations of Modern Social Thought \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/marxdurkheimwebe0000morr \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|edition\\=2nd \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=SAGE \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7619\\-7055\\-2 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=Nefes \\|first\\=Türkay Salim \\|year\\=2013 \\|title\\=Ziya Gökalp's adaptation of Emile Durkheim's sociology in his formulation of the modern Turkish nation \\|journal\\=International Sociology \\|volume\\=28 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=335–350 \\|doi\\= 10\\.1177/0268580913479811 \\|s2cid\\=143694790 }}\n{{cite book\\| last \\= Pals \\| first \\= Daniel L. \\|year \\= 2006\\|chapter \\= Society as Sacred, Emile Durkheim\\|pages \\= 85–117 \\|title\\=Eight Theories of Religion \\| publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\| isbn\\=0\\-19\\-516570\\-5}}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Pickering \\|first\\=W. S. F. \\|year\\=2001 \\|chapter\\=The enigma of Durkheim's Jewishness \\|pages\\=62–87 \\|title\\=Critical Assessments of Leading Sociologists \\|others\\=In conjunction with the British Centre for Durkheimian Studies \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-4152\\-0561\\-0 \\|volume\\=1 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Pickering \\|first\\=W. S. F. \\|editor\\=W. S. F. Pickering \\|editor2\\=Massimo Rosati \\|year\\=2012 \\|chapter\\=Reflections on the death of Émile Durkheim \\|pages\\=11–28 \\|title\\=Suffering and Evil: The Durkheimian Legacy. Essays in Commemoration of the 90th Anniversary of Durkheim's Death \\|publisher\\=Berghahn Books \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-0857456458 \\|edition\\=1st paperback }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Poggi \\|first\\=Gianfranco \\|year\\=2000 \\|title\\=Durkheim \\|location\\=Oxford \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-878087\\-8 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Pope \\|first1\\=Whitney \\|first2\\=Nick \\|last2\\=Danigelis \\|year\\=1981 \\|title\\=Sociology's \"one law\" \\|journal\\=Social Forces \\|volume\\=60 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=496–514 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/sf/60\\.2\\.495 \\|jstor\\=2578447 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Popolo \\|first\\=Damian \\|year\\=2011 \\|title\\=A New Science of International Relations: Modernity, Complexity and the Kosovo Conflict \\|publisher\\=Ashgate Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4094\\-1226\\-7 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=Searle \\|first\\=John \\|year\\=2006 \\|title\\=Durkheim versus Searle and the waves of thought: reply to Gross \\|journal\\=Anthropological Theory \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=57–69 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1463499606061735 \\|s2cid\\=144144906 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Selvin \\|first\\=Hanan C. \\|year\\=1965 \\|chapter\\=Durkheim's ''Suicide'': further thoughts on a methodological classic \\|editor\\=Robert A. Nisbet \\|title\\=Émile Durkheim \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/details/emiledurkheim0000nisb \\|chapter\\-url\\-access\\=registration \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/emiledurkheim0000nisb/page/113 113–136] \\|location\\=Englewood Cliffs, NJ \\|publisher\\=Prentice Hall }}\n{{cite book \\|last1\\=Stark \\|first1\\=Rodney \\|first2\\=William Sims \\|last2\\=Bainbridge \\|year\\=1996 \\|title\\=Religion, Deviance and Social Control \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=9780415915298 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Strenski \\|first\\=Ivan \\|year\\=1997 \\|title\\=Durkheim and the Jews of France \\|location\\=Chicago, IL \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-77735\\-1 }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Sztompka \\|first\\=Piotr \\|author\\-link\\=Piotr Sztompka \\|year\\=2002 \\|title\\=Socjologia \\|publisher\\=Znak \\|isbn\\=978\\-83\\-240\\-0218\\-4 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last\\=Thomassen \\|first\\=Bjørn \\|author\\-link\\=Bjorn Thomassen\\|year\\=2012 \\|title\\=Émile Durkheim between Gabriel Tarde and Arnold van Gennep: founding moments of sociology and anthropology \\|journal\\=Social Anthropology \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=231–249 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1469\\-8676\\.2012\\.00204\\.x }}\n{{cite book \\|last\\=Thompson \\|first\\=Kenneth \\|year\\=2002 \\|title\\=Émile Durkheim \\|edition\\=2nd \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-28530\\-8 }}\n{{cite journal \\|last1\\=van Poppel \\|first1\\=Frans \\|first2\\=Lincoln H. \\|last2\\=Day \\|year\\=1996 \\|title\\=AtTest of Durkheim's theory of suicide – without committing the \"ecological fallacy\" \\|journal\\=American Sociological Review \\|volume\\=61 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=500–507 \\|jstor\\=2096361 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2096361}}\n{{refend}}\nFurther reading\n---------------",
"{{refbegin\\|40em}}\n [Bellah, Robert N.](/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah \"Robert N. Bellah\") (ed.) (1973\\). * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + Emile Durkheim: On Morality and Society, Selected Writings*. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press ({{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-226\\-17336\\-8}}).\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t [Cotterrell, Roger](/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell \"Roger Cotterrell\") (1999\\).*\n* Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. *Edinburgh University Press / Stanford University Press ({{ISBN\\|0\\-8047\\-3808\\-4}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8047\\-3808\\-8}}).\n [Cotterrell, Roger](/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell \"Roger Cotterrell\") (ed.) (2010\\).*\n* Emile Durkheim: Justice, Morality and Politics. *Ashgate ({{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7546\\-2711\\-1}}).\n Douglas, Jack D. (1973\\).*\n* The Social Meanings of Suicide. *Princeton University Press ({{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-691\\-02812\\-5}}).\n Eitzen, Stanley D. and Maxine Baca Zinn (1997\\).*\n* Social Problems *(11th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon ({{ISBN\\|0\\-205\\-54796\\-6}}).\n [Giddens, Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_Giddens \"Anthony Giddens\") (ed.) (1972\\).*\n* Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings*. London: Cambridge University Press ({{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-09712\\-6}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-521\\-09712\\-3}}).\nGiddens, Anthony (ed.) (1986\\).*\n* Durkheim on Politics and the State*. Cambridge: Polity Press ({{ISBN\\|0\\-7456\\-0131\\-6}}).\n Henslin, James M. (1996\\).*\n* Essentials of Sociology: A Down\\-to\\-Earth Approach*. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon ({{ISBN\\|0\\-205\\-17480\\-9}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-205\\-17480\\-5}}).\n Jones, Susan Stedman (2001\\).*\n* Durkheim Reconsidered*. Polity ({{ISBN\\|0\\-7456\\-1616\\-X}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7456\\-1616\\-2}}).\n [Lemert, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Lemert \"Charles Lemert\") (2006\\).*\n* Durkheim's Ghosts: Cultural Logics and Social Things*. Cambridge University Press ({{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-84266\\-2}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-521\\-84266\\-2}}).\n Leroux, Robert,*\n* Histoire et sociologie en France. De l'histoire\\-science à la sociologie durkheimienne*, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1998\\.\n [Lockwood, David](/wiki/David_Lockwood_%28sociologist%29 \"David Lockwood (sociologist)\") (1992\\).*\n* Solidarity and Schism: \"The Problem of Disorder\" in Durkheimian and Marxist Sociology*. Oxford: Clarendon Press ({{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-827717\\-2}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-19\\-827717\\-0}}).\n Macionis, John J. (1991\\). Sociology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. {{ISBN\\|0\\-13\\-820358\\-X}}.\n {{cite book \\| last \\= Osipova \\| first \\= Elena \\| editor \\= Igor Kon \\| editor\\-link \\= Igor Kon \\| others \\= Translated by H. Campbell Creighton \\| title \\= A History of Classical Sociology \\| chapter\\-url \\= http://su\\-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6547\\_Kon\\_History\\_of\\_Classical\\_Sociology.zip \\| chapter\\-format \\= DOC, DjVu \\| year \\= 1989 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Progress Publishers]] \\| location \\= \\[\\[Moscow]] \\| pages \\= 206–254 \\| chapter \\= Emile Durkheim's Sociology \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514104128/http://su\\-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6547\\_Kon\\_History\\_of\\_Classical\\_Sociology.zip \\| archive\\-date \\= 14 May 2011 }}\n Pickering, W. S. F. (2000\\).* \n\t+ - Durkheim and Representations*, Routledge ({{ISBN\\|0\\-415\\-19090\\-8}}).\n\t\t Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1979\\).*\n* Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education*, Routledge \\& Kegan Paul ({{ISBN\\|0\\-7100\\-0321\\-8}}).\n Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1975\\).*\n* Durkheim on Religion*, Routledge \\& Kegan Paul ({{ISBN\\|0\\-7100\\-8108\\-1}}).\n Siegel, Larry J (2007\\).*\n* Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies *(7th ed.) Wadsworth/Thomson Learning ({{ISBN\\|0\\-495\\-00572\\-X}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-495\\-00572\\-8}}).\n Tekiner, Deniz (2002\\). \"German Idealist Foundations of Durkheim's Sociology and Teleology of Knowledge\",*\n* Theory and Science'', III, 1, [Online publication](http://theoryandscience.icaap.org/content/vol003.001/tekiner.html).\n{{refend}}"
] |
History
-------
Maryborough Post Office was constructed on the site of the second government camp associated with the Maryborough gold fields, and replaced an earlier stone post office building constructed in 1858\. Plans for the new building were prepared by architect [John Hudson Marsden](/wiki/John_Hudson_Marsden "John Hudson Marsden") of the [Department of Public Works](/wiki/Public_Works_Department_%28Victoria%29 "Public Works Department (Victoria)"), with construction occurring between 1877\-78\. The clock tower was not originally part of the design, but had presumably been added by 1879 when tenders were called for the supply of the clock. The clock's bell was cast in [Castlemaine](/wiki/Castlemaine%2C_Victoria "Castlemaine, Victoria") by William J. Horwood. The building was originally designed to house the court house and post office, and was built by Peter Cunningham at a cost of £9,126, far surpassing any other building in the town. The postal authorities took over the large court room in 1894, for use as the postal chamber, following the construction of a new court house adjoining the post office. The post office building forms part of Maryborough's civic precinct, comprising the post office (1877\), court house and town hall (1893\) and war memorial, forming three sides of the town square.
McLandress Square was developed in front of the building {{circa}} 1880s, with [Maryborough Town Hall](/wiki/Maryborough_Town_Hall "Maryborough Town Hall") built on an adjoining site in 1888\. [Maryborough Court House](/wiki/Maryborough_Court_House "Maryborough Court House") was built on another adjoining site in 1892\-93, at which time the court house was removed from the post office building. The former court room chamber was converted to a new postal hall in 1893\-94\.
Signage was added to the facade above the main entrance at some stage between 1917 and 1940\. A war memorial was constructed in McLandress Square and general improvements to the private garden area undertaken in 1926\. Some rear areas of the office building were refurbished with strapped plaster ceilings {{circa}} 1920s.
Further works took place {{circa}} 1940s\-1960s. A freestanding brick amenities building and bike shed was constructed behind post office and the rear yard terraced and concrete\-paved. A small single\-storey rear addition at the southwest corner of the building was possibly constructed at this time, as was a small porch and a single toilet block on the southern side of the building. The construction of the toilet block necessitated the bricking in of a single window in the projecting wing behind it and the creation of a door opening providing access from the offices. Bollards were installed in the driveway in front of the main entrance. Private letter boxes were installed in lieu of the former post office loggia windows. External fixtures and fittings included oil tanks for heating, fluorescent light fittings and possibly two freestanding structures to the south of the building for public telephones and private bicycles \[since demolished]. Internal alterations to the post office included widening of openings between the large rear rooms to the southwest of the former court room and the general refurbishment of these spaces. It would appear that the dividing walls between the offices along the southern side of the court room were demolished and new stud\-framed walls were constructed to re\-partition the offices. A glazed timber screen was installed between these offices and the back rooms and a door opening was created between the offices and the new toilet block to the south. General internal refurbishment included fluorescent light fittings, vinyl floor coverings, replacement of door hardware and furniture, overpainting of joinery, and fireplaces were generally either infilled or fitted with oil heaters and textured brick surrounds.
Alterations to the quarters in the 1960s included the infill of the rear verandah, installation of a toilet in the laundry wing, refurbishment of the kitchen and bathroom, installation of oil heaters and brick surrounds to living room and front bedroom (first floor sitting room), overpainting of joinery, wallpapering of some rooms and possibly replacement of some original ceilings with sheet plaster ceilings and stepped plaster cornices. large detached automated telephone exchange building was constructed on the site to the rear of the post office at an unknown date. The date of the electrification of the clock is also unknown.
A freestanding brick garage was constructed between quarters and telephone exchange {{circa}} 1970s. Additional private letter boxes were installed in mail room window openings, north elevation, at some stage prior to 1998\.
The 1990s saw construction of disabled access ramps to the main entrance and private letter box loggias, which also included construction of a new verandah over the private letter boxes in the north elevation. A canopy was built between the 1960s toilet block and rear sorting room. Signage was installed within the entrance porch. A general interior refurbishment for [Australia Post](/wiki/Australia_Post "Australia Post") included new cabinetry joinery and fittings throughout the main postal hall and installation of a coved perspex canopy over the panelled timber entrance screen, as well as a new kitchenette in the lunch room.
A timber\-framed lean\-to at the rear of the original post office and residence was built for storage of crates at some stage post\-2002\. Repairs to first floor ceilings in linen cupboard and passage of residence were undertaken {{circa}} 2006\-07\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Maryborough Post Office was constructed on the site of the second government camp associated with the Maryborough gold fields, and replaced an earlier stone post office building constructed in 1858\\. Plans for the new building were prepared by architect [John Hudson Marsden](/wiki/John_Hudson_Marsden \"John Hudson Marsden\") of the [Department of Public Works](/wiki/Public_Works_Department_%28Victoria%29 \"Public Works Department (Victoria)\"), with construction occurring between 1877\\-78\\. The clock tower was not originally part of the design, but had presumably been added by 1879 when tenders were called for the supply of the clock. The clock's bell was cast in [Castlemaine](/wiki/Castlemaine%2C_Victoria \"Castlemaine, Victoria\") by William J. Horwood. The building was originally designed to house the court house and post office, and was built by Peter Cunningham at a cost of £9,126, far surpassing any other building in the town. The postal authorities took over the large court room in 1894, for use as the postal chamber, following the construction of a new court house adjoining the post office. The post office building forms part of Maryborough's civic precinct, comprising the post office (1877\\), court house and town hall (1893\\) and war memorial, forming three sides of the town square.",
"McLandress Square was developed in front of the building {{circa}} 1880s, with [Maryborough Town Hall](/wiki/Maryborough_Town_Hall \"Maryborough Town Hall\") built on an adjoining site in 1888\\. [Maryborough Court House](/wiki/Maryborough_Court_House \"Maryborough Court House\") was built on another adjoining site in 1892\\-93, at which time the court house was removed from the post office building. The former court room chamber was converted to a new postal hall in 1893\\-94\\.",
"Signage was added to the facade above the main entrance at some stage between 1917 and 1940\\. A war memorial was constructed in McLandress Square and general improvements to the private garden area undertaken in 1926\\. Some rear areas of the office building were refurbished with strapped plaster ceilings {{circa}} 1920s.",
"Further works took place {{circa}} 1940s\\-1960s. A freestanding brick amenities building and bike shed was constructed behind post office and the rear yard terraced and concrete\\-paved. A small single\\-storey rear addition at the southwest corner of the building was possibly constructed at this time, as was a small porch and a single toilet block on the southern side of the building. The construction of the toilet block necessitated the bricking in of a single window in the projecting wing behind it and the creation of a door opening providing access from the offices. Bollards were installed in the driveway in front of the main entrance. Private letter boxes were installed in lieu of the former post office loggia windows. External fixtures and fittings included oil tanks for heating, fluorescent light fittings and possibly two freestanding structures to the south of the building for public telephones and private bicycles \\[since demolished]. Internal alterations to the post office included widening of openings between the large rear rooms to the southwest of the former court room and the general refurbishment of these spaces. It would appear that the dividing walls between the offices along the southern side of the court room were demolished and new stud\\-framed walls were constructed to re\\-partition the offices. A glazed timber screen was installed between these offices and the back rooms and a door opening was created between the offices and the new toilet block to the south. General internal refurbishment included fluorescent light fittings, vinyl floor coverings, replacement of door hardware and furniture, overpainting of joinery, and fireplaces were generally either infilled or fitted with oil heaters and textured brick surrounds.",
"Alterations to the quarters in the 1960s included the infill of the rear verandah, installation of a toilet in the laundry wing, refurbishment of the kitchen and bathroom, installation of oil heaters and brick surrounds to living room and front bedroom (first floor sitting room), overpainting of joinery, wallpapering of some rooms and possibly replacement of some original ceilings with sheet plaster ceilings and stepped plaster cornices. large detached automated telephone exchange building was constructed on the site to the rear of the post office at an unknown date. The date of the electrification of the clock is also unknown.",
"A freestanding brick garage was constructed between quarters and telephone exchange {{circa}} 1970s. Additional private letter boxes were installed in mail room window openings, north elevation, at some stage prior to 1998\\.",
"The 1990s saw construction of disabled access ramps to the main entrance and private letter box loggias, which also included construction of a new verandah over the private letter boxes in the north elevation. A canopy was built between the 1960s toilet block and rear sorting room. Signage was installed within the entrance porch. A general interior refurbishment for [Australia Post](/wiki/Australia_Post \"Australia Post\") included new cabinetry joinery and fittings throughout the main postal hall and installation of a coved perspex canopy over the panelled timber entrance screen, as well as a new kitchenette in the lunch room.",
"A timber\\-framed lean\\-to at the rear of the original post office and residence was built for storage of crates at some stage post\\-2002\\. Repairs to first floor ceilings in linen cupboard and passage of residence were undertaken {{circa}} 2006\\-07\\.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
Maryborough Post Office is at 69 Clarendon Street, Maryborough, comprising the whole of Lot 2 LP222543\.
Maryborough Post Office was built in 1876\-77 as a combined court house and post office. The post office is in the Italianate palazzo style and features two three arch [colonnades](/wiki/Colonnade "Colonnade") and a clock tower.
The large site is located at the centre of an unusually concentrated administrative precinct linked by a shared town square, McLandress Square, with flanking town hall and court house buildings, both imposing Victorian\-era designs. The precinct is sited one street west of Maryborough's principal commercial and retail area, on axis with Nolan Street. Prior to the establishment in 1924 of a war memorial at the centre of the square, the post office site originally extended to Clarendon Street and contained a circular cast iron [fountain](/wiki/Fountain "Fountain") and circular drive. While the fountain was replaced with a [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite") and bronze memorial surrounded by lawn, the [driveway](/wiki/Driveway "Driveway") form remains in an approximate state, albeit with asphalt surface and formalised parking [bays](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 "Bay (architecture)") along both sides. To the north of the residence, and divided from the carpark by a corrugated steel fence, are the remains of the post master's private garden. The garden is further subdivided in line with the rear corner of the building to form a rear service garden which contains a 1970s brick garage, rotary clothes line and early brick, [weatherboard](/wiki/Weatherboard "Weatherboard") and [lattice](/wiki/Latticework "Latticework") outbuilding; the original use of this building is uncertain. The rear yard of the post office has been concrete\-paved and is accessed from Wellington Street via a concrete driveway along the northern side of the 1960s telephone exchange. It contains a 1940s\-60s brick amenities block and recent covered area between the amenities block and the post office delivery area.
Maryborough Post Office is an imposing asymmetrical Italianate composition with astylar palazzo detailing and [arcades](/wiki/Arcade_%28architecture%29 "Arcade (architecture)"). The two storey complex comprises a multiple\-pavilion building of rendered brick construction on bluestone base with distinct sections relating to the residence, post office and former court and sub\-treasury functions. The principal elevation is marked by a four\-stage clock tower with flagpole, balustraded top, dentilled [cornices](/wiki/Cornice "Cornice") and slate\-louvered paired openings.
Architecturally, the principal elevation is divided in two by the central clock tower. A double\-height gabled section to the south relates to the original court chamber and is fronted by a projecting triple\-arcaded [porch](/wiki/Porch "Porch") with balustraded top marking the original court room entrance, now the principal post office entrance. To the south of this is a single\-storey single\-fronted wing with parapeted [hipped roof](/wiki/Hipped_roof "Hipped roof") extending back the full depth of the former court room; this section now contains the postal manager's office and associated offices, but is believed to have originally contained the sub\-treasury or Colonial offices. This wing returns across the rear of the court chamber and now provides ancillary offices, delivery area and lunch room. To the north of the clock tower is a two\-storey wing containing the original post and telegraph office at ground floor level and quarters above. The wing is screened by a single\-storey triple\-arcaded porch with balustraded top to the front elevation and non\-original [verandah](/wiki/Veranda "Veranda") and access ramp to the north. The quarters entrance is set back from the façade and is via a parapeted projecting side porch and cast iron verandah at the mid\-point of the north side elevation. At this point the quarters occupy both ground and first floor levels.
The elevations are encircled by ribbons of superimposed moulded string courses which rise to [archivolts](/wiki/Archivolt "Archivolt") where broken by semi\-circular arched window heads. The [eaves](/wiki/Eaves "Eaves") [overhang](/wiki/Overhang_%28architecture%29 "Overhang (architecture)") and [gable](/wiki/Gable "Gable") front are further marked by moulded [brackets](/wiki/Bracket_%28architecture%29 "Bracket (architecture)") which read as a dentilled cornice. The pattern of fenestration is generally applied in a regular mode between floor levels with triple groupings of window openings at first floor level reflecting the triple\-arched arcades below.
### Condition and integrity
Externally, Maryborough Post Office's ability to demonstrate its original design is exceptionally good with regard to the architectural conception, principle materials and detail despite a small number of alterations and additions. These changes have been largely confined to the rear of the building with the exception of disabled access ramping, installation of private letter boxes and the construction of a small verandah area to the north elevation. Accretions such as later fencing, paving, signage and [lighting](/wiki/Lighting "Lighting") are generally superficial and reversible and have not diminished the overall integrity or level of significance of the place. Where repairs or conservation works have been carried out, they have generally replaced like with like, maintaining the architectural integrity of the original. The building exterior appears to have been generally well maintained, however, there is a substantial section of fallen first floor cornice moulding at the rear of the quarters.
Internally, cumulative works throughout the post office and court sections of the complex and alterations to the original program and internal planning have diminished the broader legibility of the former operations of the place and integrity of original finishes. Such works include the installation of floor linings, replacement ceilings, mechanical ducting, joinery, false partitions, lighting and over painting of timber components. Having said this, such alterations are considered to be cosmetic and essentially conceal the original fabric and presentation of the key plan. For instance, the main postal hall retains its double height volume and [clerestory](/wiki/Clerestory "Clerestory") highlights, but has been diminished in aesthetic terms by the installation of standardised slat wall joinery and counters.
Notwithstanding the above, externally and internally the building appears to be in relatively sound condition, well maintained and with minimal defects visible. Apart from minor cracks and the fallen rear section of cornice, the render sections and embellishments of the façade are sound. Internally, a number of the original ceilings have been replaced with plasterboard. Very few, if any of the original fittings and furniture remain although original timber\-framed windows and panel doors were evident, as were the strong room and panelled timber ventilation ducts.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"Maryborough Post Office is at 69 Clarendon Street, Maryborough, comprising the whole of Lot 2 LP222543\\.",
"Maryborough Post Office was built in 1876\\-77 as a combined court house and post office. The post office is in the Italianate palazzo style and features two three arch [colonnades](/wiki/Colonnade \"Colonnade\") and a clock tower.",
"The large site is located at the centre of an unusually concentrated administrative precinct linked by a shared town square, McLandress Square, with flanking town hall and court house buildings, both imposing Victorian\\-era designs. The precinct is sited one street west of Maryborough's principal commercial and retail area, on axis with Nolan Street. Prior to the establishment in 1924 of a war memorial at the centre of the square, the post office site originally extended to Clarendon Street and contained a circular cast iron [fountain](/wiki/Fountain \"Fountain\") and circular drive. While the fountain was replaced with a [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\") and bronze memorial surrounded by lawn, the [driveway](/wiki/Driveway \"Driveway\") form remains in an approximate state, albeit with asphalt surface and formalised parking [bays](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 \"Bay (architecture)\") along both sides. To the north of the residence, and divided from the carpark by a corrugated steel fence, are the remains of the post master's private garden. The garden is further subdivided in line with the rear corner of the building to form a rear service garden which contains a 1970s brick garage, rotary clothes line and early brick, [weatherboard](/wiki/Weatherboard \"Weatherboard\") and [lattice](/wiki/Latticework \"Latticework\") outbuilding; the original use of this building is uncertain. The rear yard of the post office has been concrete\\-paved and is accessed from Wellington Street via a concrete driveway along the northern side of the 1960s telephone exchange. It contains a 1940s\\-60s brick amenities block and recent covered area between the amenities block and the post office delivery area.",
"Maryborough Post Office is an imposing asymmetrical Italianate composition with astylar palazzo detailing and [arcades](/wiki/Arcade_%28architecture%29 \"Arcade (architecture)\"). The two storey complex comprises a multiple\\-pavilion building of rendered brick construction on bluestone base with distinct sections relating to the residence, post office and former court and sub\\-treasury functions. The principal elevation is marked by a four\\-stage clock tower with flagpole, balustraded top, dentilled [cornices](/wiki/Cornice \"Cornice\") and slate\\-louvered paired openings.",
"Architecturally, the principal elevation is divided in two by the central clock tower. A double\\-height gabled section to the south relates to the original court chamber and is fronted by a projecting triple\\-arcaded [porch](/wiki/Porch \"Porch\") with balustraded top marking the original court room entrance, now the principal post office entrance. To the south of this is a single\\-storey single\\-fronted wing with parapeted [hipped roof](/wiki/Hipped_roof \"Hipped roof\") extending back the full depth of the former court room; this section now contains the postal manager's office and associated offices, but is believed to have originally contained the sub\\-treasury or Colonial offices. This wing returns across the rear of the court chamber and now provides ancillary offices, delivery area and lunch room. To the north of the clock tower is a two\\-storey wing containing the original post and telegraph office at ground floor level and quarters above. The wing is screened by a single\\-storey triple\\-arcaded porch with balustraded top to the front elevation and non\\-original [verandah](/wiki/Veranda \"Veranda\") and access ramp to the north. The quarters entrance is set back from the façade and is via a parapeted projecting side porch and cast iron verandah at the mid\\-point of the north side elevation. At this point the quarters occupy both ground and first floor levels.",
"The elevations are encircled by ribbons of superimposed moulded string courses which rise to [archivolts](/wiki/Archivolt \"Archivolt\") where broken by semi\\-circular arched window heads. The [eaves](/wiki/Eaves \"Eaves\") [overhang](/wiki/Overhang_%28architecture%29 \"Overhang (architecture)\") and [gable](/wiki/Gable \"Gable\") front are further marked by moulded [brackets](/wiki/Bracket_%28architecture%29 \"Bracket (architecture)\") which read as a dentilled cornice. The pattern of fenestration is generally applied in a regular mode between floor levels with triple groupings of window openings at first floor level reflecting the triple\\-arched arcades below.",
"### Condition and integrity",
"Externally, Maryborough Post Office's ability to demonstrate its original design is exceptionally good with regard to the architectural conception, principle materials and detail despite a small number of alterations and additions. These changes have been largely confined to the rear of the building with the exception of disabled access ramping, installation of private letter boxes and the construction of a small verandah area to the north elevation. Accretions such as later fencing, paving, signage and [lighting](/wiki/Lighting \"Lighting\") are generally superficial and reversible and have not diminished the overall integrity or level of significance of the place. Where repairs or conservation works have been carried out, they have generally replaced like with like, maintaining the architectural integrity of the original. The building exterior appears to have been generally well maintained, however, there is a substantial section of fallen first floor cornice moulding at the rear of the quarters.",
"Internally, cumulative works throughout the post office and court sections of the complex and alterations to the original program and internal planning have diminished the broader legibility of the former operations of the place and integrity of original finishes. Such works include the installation of floor linings, replacement ceilings, mechanical ducting, joinery, false partitions, lighting and over painting of timber components. Having said this, such alterations are considered to be cosmetic and essentially conceal the original fabric and presentation of the key plan. For instance, the main postal hall retains its double height volume and [clerestory](/wiki/Clerestory \"Clerestory\") highlights, but has been diminished in aesthetic terms by the installation of standardised slat wall joinery and counters.",
"Notwithstanding the above, externally and internally the building appears to be in relatively sound condition, well maintained and with minimal defects visible. Apart from minor cracks and the fallen rear section of cornice, the render sections and embellishments of the façade are sound. Internally, a number of the original ceilings have been replaced with plasterboard. Very few, if any of the original fittings and furniture remain although original timber\\-framed windows and panel doors were evident, as were the strong room and panelled timber ventilation ducts.",
""
] |
Career
------
### 1969–1974: Mainhorse and Refugee
Moraz returned to England in 1969 when he auditioned potential players for a new [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock "Progressive rock") band, [Mainhorse](/wiki/Mainhorse "Mainhorse"). He wished for a drummer who could play like [John Bonham](/wiki/John_Bonham "John Bonham"), [Buddy Rich](/wiki/Buddy_Rich "Buddy Rich"), odd [time signatures](/wiki/Time_signature "Time signature") and the blues, and tried out "like 250 drummers" in the process.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.goldminemag.com/article/qa\-prog\-voyager\-patrick\-moraz\-talks\-about\-his\-time\-with\-yes\-and\-the\-moody\-blues\|title\=Q\&A: Prog voyager Patrick Moraz talks about his time with Yes and the Moody Blues\|first\=Todd\|last\=Whitesel\|date\=21 April 2010\|website\=Goldmine\|access\-date\=23 May 2016 \|archiveurl\=http://web.archive.org/web/20160624152224/http://www.goldminemag.com/article/qa\-prog\-voyager\-patrick\-moraz\-talks\-about\-his\-time\-with\-yes\-and\-the\-moody\-blues \|archivedate\=June 24, 2016}} He settled with a line\-up of Jean Ristori on vocals and bass, Bryson Graham on drums, and Peter Lockett on vocals and guitar. They signed with [Polydor Records](/wiki/Polydor_Records "Polydor Records") and recorded their only studio album, *Mainhorse* (1971\), at [De Lane Lea Studios](/wiki/De_Lane_Lea_Studios "De Lane Lea Studios"), later purchased by [Ian Gillan](/wiki/Ian_Gillan "Ian Gillan") of [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple "Deep Purple") in [Kingsway](/wiki/Kingsway%2C_London "Kingsway, London"), London. The album was not a commercial success, but the group secured work by performing at gigs in Germany.{{sfn\|Welch\|2008\|page\=153}} Moraz took up further work as a film composer on *[The Salamander](/wiki/The_Salamander_%281971_film%29 "The Salamander (1971 film)")* (1971\).
After touring Japan and Hong Kong as a musical director for a Brazilian ballet, Moraz returned to Switzerland in 1973\.{{sfn\|Welch\|2008\|page\=153}} He recorded further film music for *[The Invitation](/wiki/The_Invitation_%281973_film%29 "The Invitation (1973 film)")* (1973\) and *[The Middle of the World](/wiki/The_Middle_of_the_World_%281974_film%29 "The Middle of the World (1974 film)")* (1974\). In the summer, Moraz received a call from [Lee Jackson](/wiki/Lee_Jackson_%28bassist%29 "Lee Jackson (bassist)"), guitarist and singer of [Jackson Heights](/wiki/Jackson_Heights_%28band%29 "Jackson Heights (band)"), asking him if he was interested in joining Jackson Heights.{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\|editor\=\[\[Colin Larkin (writer)\|Colin Larkin]]\|publisher\=\[\[Guinness Publishing]]\|date\=1992\|edition\=First \|isbn\=0\-85112\-939\-0\|page\=2066}} Moraz had jammed with Jackson's previous band, [The Nice](/wiki/The_Nice "The Nice"), in 1969 when they played in Switzerland. Moraz refused, and counter\-offered that they form a new band with former Nice member [Brian Davison](/wiki/Brian_Davison_%28drummer%29 "Brian Davison (drummer)") on drums. The band, [Refugee](/wiki/Refugee_%28band%29 "Refugee (band)"), signed with [Charisma Records](/wiki/Charisma_Records "Charisma Records") and released *[Refugee](/wiki/Refugee_%28Refugee_album%29 "Refugee (Refugee album)")* (1974\), written and arranged by Moraz and Jackson. The group developed a tight sound by practising for at least eight hours each day. Refugee supported the album with a tour.{{sfn\|Welch\|2008\|page\=153}}
### 1974–1978: Yes and start of solo career
Upon his arrival from [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva") working on a film score for [Gerard Depardieu](/wiki/Gerard_Depardieu "Gerard Depardieu"),{{Cite web\|url\=http://dmme.net/interviews/moraz\|title\=Interview with PATRICK MORAZ\|first\=Dmitry M.\|last\=Epstein\|publisher\=DMME.net\|date\=December 2000\|access\-date\=23 May 2016}} Moraz was asked to join [Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28band%29 "Yes (band)"), following the departure of [Rick Wakeman](/wiki/Rick_Wakeman "Rick Wakeman") in May 1974\. The band had begun work on *[Relayer](/wiki/Relayer "Relayer")* (1974\), their seventh album, in [Virginia Water](/wiki/Virginia_Water "Virginia Water"), Surrey, and sought potential replacements.{{sfn\|Welch\|2008\|page\=153}} Moraz had seen the band perform during their tour of Switzerland in 1969\.{{Cite web \|last\=Prasad \|first\=Anil \|title\=Patrick Moraz: Future Memories \|url\=http://www.innerviews.org/inner/moraz.html \|publisher\=Innerviews \|date\=2007 \|access\-date\=23 May 2016}} After a try\-out with Greek musician [Vangelis](/wiki/Vangelis "Vangelis"), which proved unsuccessful following musical union issues and his unwillingness to travel, music reporter [Chris Welch](/wiki/Chris_Welch "Chris Welch") suggested to the band's manager, [Brian Lane](/wiki/Brian_Lane_%28manager%29 "Brian Lane (manager)"), that they ask Moraz. Though he regretted splitting with his Refugee bandmates, Moraz accepted the position as it was an opportunity that he thought would benefit his career,{{sfn\|Welch\|2008\|page\=154}} though he once said, "I felt it was time to leave".{{sfn\|Morse\|1996\|page\=50}} Moraz's audition occurred in the first week of August 1974{{sfn\|Welch\|2008\|page\=155}} with Vangelis's keyboards, which were still set up in the rehearsal room.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.hit\-channel.com/interviewpatrick\-moraz\-soloyesthe\-moody\-blues/65590\|title\=Interview: Patrick Moraz (Solo, YES, The Moody Blues)\|first\=Από\|last\=Thodoris\|date\=18 June 2014 \|publisher\=Hit\-Channel\|access\-date\=26 May 2016}} After tuning up, Moraz watched the band play the middle section of "Sound Chaser", which he said was "Absolutely unbelievable. To experience that – the truest surround experience I had ever encountered as an observer and listener". He was then asked to come up with an opening to it, and what he played ended up on the album.{{sfn\|Morse\|1996\|page\=53}}
After his successful audition, Moraz learned their repertoire across seven albums for the *Relayer* tour, which began in November 1974\. When the tour ended in August 1975, Yes took an extended break so each member could produce a solo album. Charisma Records released Moraz's first album as a solo artist, which, due to its title consisting of a symbol which does not appear on standard keyboards, has since become commonly known as *[The Story of I](/wiki/The_Story_of_I "The Story of I")* (1976\). Since working with the Brazilian ballet, he became interested in percussion and travelled to [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"), Chile and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") for inspiration, and arrived in Brazil where he gathered "a very, very strong unit of 16 percussionists" to play on his album. Moraz invited synthesizer inventor [Bob Moog](/wiki/Bob_Moog "Bob Moog") to contribute sounds on the album; Moog accepted the task, and worked with him for several weeks. During this time Moraz also played on [Steve Howe](/wiki/Steve_Howe_%28musician%29 "Steve Howe (musician)")'s album *[Beginnings](/wiki/Beginnings_%28Steve_Howe_album%29 "Beginnings (Steve Howe album)")* (1975\) and [Chris Squire](/wiki/Chris_Squire "Chris Squire")'s album *[Fish Out of Water](/wiki/Fish_Out_of_Water_%28Chris_Squire_album%29 "Fish Out of Water (Chris Squire album)")* (1975\). Moraz travelled to Brazil and incorporated Brazilian rhythms and musicians on *The Story of I*, giving it a [world music](/wiki/World_music "World music") flavour. Afterward he reconvened with Yes for their 1976 North American tour, where the band headlined several large concerts.
After the 1976 tour, Yes retreated from UK tax collectors to [Montreux](/wiki/Montreux "Montreux"), Switzerland, to record their next album, *[Going for the One](/wiki/Going_for_the_One "Going for the One")* (1977\). Some of the material had already been worked out by the time of their arrival; this included contributions to "Awaken", "[Wonderous Stories](/wiki/Wonderous_Stories "Wonderous Stories")" and "Parallels" from Moraz. However, during the early sessions, Moraz was told to leave in order to allow Wakeman to return to the band. Moraz spoke about his departure: "Even though, at the time, the split 'was not made to appear acrimonious', I suffered extremely and extensively. To be 'asked to leave' so suddenly put me in a lot of turmoil and disturbance ... I was never compensated for anything. I never ever got paid for any of my tour participation in the ... tour of 1976 ... I was entitled to a 20% cut from what the band was getting." In 2014, Chris Squire would suggest that a lack of a musical bond between Moraz and Steve Howe was the main artistic reason for Moraz and Yes parting company.["Chris Squire: the hands that built prog"](https://www.loudersound.com/features/big-generator), article by Mark Blake in *TeamRock*, 13 August 2014
Moraz continued with his solo career and Charisma released his second album, *[Out in the Sun](/wiki/Out_in_the_Sun "Out in the Sun")* (1977\), which he wanted to sound "completely different and more liberated".{{cite web \|last\=Shasho \|first\=Ray \|title\=Patrick Moraz Interview: The Extraordinary Keyboardist \& Composer/ Prior Member of 'YES' \& 'The Moody Blues' \|url\=http://www.classicrockmusicwriter.com/2014/09/patrick\-moraz\-interview\-extraordinary.html \|publisher\=Classic Rock Music Writer \|date\=15 September 2014 \|access\-date\=23 May 2016}} He then moved to Brazil for a year and a half, and prepared material for his third album. He wanted to title the album "Primitivization", but the record company chose to release it as *Patrick Moraz* (1978\). During his time in Brazil, Moraz joined a Brazilian rock band, [Vimana](/wiki/V%C3%ADmana_%28banda%29 "Vímana (banda)"), with [Lobão](/wiki/Lob%C3%A3o_%28musician%29 "Lobão (musician)") and [Lulu Santos](/wiki/Lulu_Santos "Lulu Santos") and [Ritchie](/wiki/Ritchie "Ritchie"). He also recorded the keyboards in one of the most iconic songs of Brazilian music, "Avohai" by [Zé Ramalho](/wiki/Z%C3%A9_Ramalho "Zé Ramalho").{{cite web \|title\=Zé Ramalho – Zé Ramalho \|url\=https://www.discogs.com/Z%C3%A9\-Ramalho\-Z%C3%A9\-Ramalho/release/3022161 \|website\=discogs.com \|access\-date\=15 July 2020}}
### 1978–1991: The Moody Blues and solo projects
In May 1978, Moraz visited a convention held by the [Audio Engineering Society](/wiki/Audio_Engineering_Society "Audio Engineering Society") in Los Angeles, where [Herbie Hancock](/wiki/Herbie_Hancock "Herbie Hancock") taught him [vocoder](/wiki/Vocoder "Vocoder"), and agreed to represent [Aphex Systems](/wiki/Aphex_Systems "Aphex Systems") in Brazil. On his way back to Brazil, Moraz stopped in Miami as he had some free time. At the hotel, he received a call asking him to join [the Moody Blues](/wiki/The_Moody_Blues "The Moody Blues") after [Mike Pinder](/wiki/Mike_Pinder "Mike Pinder") left the band. Moraz proceeded to sing "Nights in White Satin" and "Tuesday Afternoon" on the phone, and accepted an audition in London in July 1978\. Before his arrival, Moraz performed at the [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival "Montreux Jazz Festival") with Brazilian musicians [Airto Moreira](/wiki/Airto_Moreira "Airto Moreira") and [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil "Gilberto Gil"). The audition with the Moody Blues was successful, and Moraz "Got the gig that very afternoon".
Moraz toured with the Moody Blues in support of their ninth album, *[Octave](/wiki/Octave_%28album%29 "Octave (album)")* (1978\), which began in late 1978\. Their next album, *[Long Distance Voyager](/wiki/Long_Distance_Voyager "Long Distance Voyager")* (1981\), became the band's biggest hit, reaching No. 1 in the US. This was followed by *[The Present](/wiki/The_Present_%28Moody_Blues_album%29 "The Present (Moody Blues album)")* (1983\), *[The Other Side of Life](/wiki/The_Other_Side_of_Life "The Other Side of Life")* (1986\), and *[Sur la Mer](/wiki/Sur_la_Mer "Sur la Mer")* (1988\).
During his tenure with the Moody Blues, Moraz completed several solo projects. He toured with his group from Brazil, recorded with [Chick Corea](/wiki/Chick_Corea "Chick Corea"), and released two albums with drummer [Bill Bruford](/wiki/Bill_Bruford "Bill Bruford") as Moraz\-Bruford. The two toured worldwide between 1983 and 1985\. In May 1986, he worked on some "temporary cues" and "not the final scores" to the soundtrack to *[Predator](/wiki/Predator_%28film%29 "Predator (film)")* (1987\) and *[Wild Orchid](/wiki/Wild_Orchid_%28film%29 "Wild Orchid (film)")* (1989\). The project gave him the opportunity to visit the filming of *Predator* in Mexico, and to meet [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger "Arnold Schwarzenegger") and [Mickey Rourke](/wiki/Mickey_Rourke "Mickey Rourke"). However, Moraz could not fully complete the score for *Predator* because of an upcoming tour with the Moody Blues, leaving [Alan Silvestri](/wiki/Alan_Silvestri "Alan Silvestri") to compose the rest. He also operated Aquarius Studios in Geneva with Ristori. Moraz performed the score to *[The Stepfather](/wiki/The_Stepfather_%281987_film%29 "The Stepfather (1987 film)")* (1987\).
During the recording for *[Keys of the Kingdom](/wiki/Keys_of_the_Kingdom "Keys of the Kingdom")* (1991\), Moraz was interviewed for *[Keyboard](/wiki/Keyboard_%28magazine%29 "Keyboard (magazine)")* magazine. He expressed a feeling that The Moody Blues' music had become too confined and that the group had become stagnant, offering "no musical challenge". The other members, he thought, were unwilling to use his musical compositions and claimed his only composition during his 13 years with them was "half a song with the drummer".Doerschuk, Robert L. *[Keyboard](/wiki/Keyboard_%28magazine%29 "Keyboard (magazine)")* magazine. May 1991\. {{ISSN\|0730\-0158}}. Before the Moody Blues toured the album, Moraz was fired from the band. In September 1991, Moraz sued the group for $500,000 as well as wrongful dismissal, claiming the group decided to split their profits four ways instead of five,{{Cite magazine\|url\=http://www.ew.com/article/1991/09/27/latest\-celebrity\-court\-cases\|title\=The latest celebrity court cases\|magazine\=Entertainment Weekly\|first\=Diane\|last\=Goldner\|date\=27 September 1991\|access\-date\=24 May 2016}} and wished to be paid [royalties](/wiki/Royalties "Royalties") he felt were owed to him as a full\-time member of the band for almost 15 years. However, the group maintained Moraz was only a hired musician, despite his name being listed as a member on their albums and promotional materials and his appearing in official band photographs. On December 28, 1992, the jury in the case, aired on *[Court TV](/wiki/Court_TV "Court TV")*, awarded Moraz $77,175 from the defendants. Moraz had been offered $400,000 before the lawsuit.{{cn\|date\=February 2022}}
### 1991–present: Solo career
After his dismissal from the Moody Blues, Moraz has primarily concentrated on solo projects. His first of three piano albums, *Windows of Time* (1994\), was recorded in a studio at [Full Sail University](/wiki/Full_Sail_University "Full Sail University") in Florida.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.somethingelsereviews.com/2013/08/28/something\-else\-interview\-patrick\-moraz\-keyboardist\-with\-yes\-and\-the\-moody\-blues/\|title\=Something Else! Interview: Patrick Moraz, keyboardist with Yes and the Moody Blues\|first\=Nick\|last\=Deriso\|date\=28 August 2013\|publisher\=Something Else!\|access\-date\=26 May 2016}} A total of fourteen hours of material was recorded which was cut to exactly one hour. Moraz then spent the next four years developing "hundreds of pieces of music for all instruments, as well as orchestras and choirs", producing several artists, and completed work for the [Conference on World Affairs](/wiki/Conference_on_World_Affairs "Conference on World Affairs"), of which he is an official delegate. He also wished to tour *Windows of Time*, but thought the style of the music would suffer in a traditional concert setting.
In late 1994, Moraz began a piano tour of the US and Europe with his Coming Home, America Tour (CHAT), which saw him perform at private or semi\-private venues for an $800 flat fee, booked entirely by fans through the Internet. One show saw him perform for a couple in their home.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.tulsaworld.com/archives/patrick\-moraz\-takes\-his\-solo\-shot/article\_fd53a0eb\-ce45\-58ee\-a348\-46bb11ae6446\.html\|title\=Patrick Moraz Takes His Solo Shot\|date\=10 March 1995\|first\=James D.\|last\=Watts Jr.\|work\=Tulsa World\|access\-date\=27 May 2016}} The tour ended in November 1995 for a total of 92 performances. One of them was recorded and released as *PM in Princeton* (1995\) for CD and video. In 1997, Moraz started work on a new album, *A Way to Freedom*, featuring arrangements for a symphony orchestra, percussionists, and a jazz brass band. The project remains a work in progress. From 1998 to 2000, Moraz worked almost exclusively on his second piano album *Resonance* (2000\), which, like *Windows of Time*, was cut to exactly one hour of music. He also performed at a benefit concert at the request of poet [José Ramos\-Horta](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ramos-Horta "José Ramos-Horta").{{Cite web\|url\=http://nfte.org/interviews/PM241\.html\|title\=Conversation with Patrick Moraz (NFTE \#241\)\|first\=Tim\|last\=Morse\|publisher\=Notes from the Edge\|access\-date\=27 May 2015}}
By 2001, Moraz had continued with several projects, including researching and preparing film scripts, including one for a potential film adaptation of *The Story of I*. He released his third piano album, the classically influenced *ESP* (2003\), short for "Etudes, Sonatas and Preludes". In 2012, he issued a compilation of tracks from the three piano albums titled *PianissiMoraz* (2012\).
In 2011, Moraz guested on an album by Panorama Syndicate entitled *Skyline*, playing piano on the title track.
In April 2014, Moraz took part in the annual progressive rock\-themed cruise voyage Cruise to the Edge as a solo artist. In 2015, Moraz and drummer Greg Alban formed the Moraz Alban Project and released a studio album *The M.A.P. Project* (2015\), featuring percussionist Lenny Castro, saxophonist Dave Van Such, bassists [John Avila](/wiki/John_Avila "John Avila") and Patrick Perrier, and [Counting Crows](/wiki/Counting_Crows "Counting Crows") bassist Matt Malley. Moraz and Alban met in 1983 and Alban played drums on Moraz's album *Time Code* (1984\). The project was an Alban solo endeavour at first, with Moraz contributing to the music, but it grew to feature numerous other musicians with the music written around the drums and keyboards. In November 2015, Moraz released a limited edition 19\-CD box set of his 18 albums, including *Mainhorse* (1971\), *The Story of I* (1976\) and the live album *Music for Piano and Drums: Live in Maryland* (2012\).{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.broadwayworld.com/bwwmusic/article/Patrick\-Moraz\-to\-Release\-Limited\-Edition\-19\-CD\-Box\-Collection\-of\-Solo\-Catalogue\-20151124\|title\=Patrick Moraz to Release Limited Edition 19\-CD Box Collection of Solo Catalogue\|publisher\=Broadway World\|access\-date\=26 May 2016\|date\=24 November 2015}}
Moraz took part in his second Cruise to the Edge voyage in February 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.antimusic.com/news/16/April/22Neal\_Morse\_Band,\_Patrick\_Moraz\_Added\_To\_Yess\_Cruise\_To\_The\_Edge.shtml\|title\=Neal Morse Band, Patrick Moraz Added To Yes's Cruise To The Edge\|publisher\=Antimusic\|access\-date\=26 May 2016\|date\=22 April 2016}}
Moraz reunited with Yes in July 2018\. As part of Yes' 50th Anniversary tour, Moraz performed with Yes at two shows in Philadelphia, July 20 and 21\. At each show, Moraz played keys during the band's performance of "Soon". Moraz also appeared during the Yes FanFest before the July 21 show, at first performing a 70\-minute solo piano show and then appearing on stage with Yes and taking part in a band interview.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.686832491328742\.1073741830\.223599747652021/2228599030485406/?type\=3\&theater \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/2228599030485406 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=Who's ready for Patrick Moraz AND Tony Kaye with YES, live in Philadelphia on July 20 \& 21? \|work\=Yes' official facebook \|date\=24 May 2018 \|access\-date\=25 May 2018}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://wmgk.com/event/yesfanfest\-ray\-koob/\|title\=YesFanFest\|publisher\=WMGK\|access\-date\=9 March 2019\|date\=9 March 2019}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### 1969–1974: Mainhorse and Refugee",
"Moraz returned to England in 1969 when he auditioned potential players for a new [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock \"Progressive rock\") band, [Mainhorse](/wiki/Mainhorse \"Mainhorse\"). He wished for a drummer who could play like [John Bonham](/wiki/John_Bonham \"John Bonham\"), [Buddy Rich](/wiki/Buddy_Rich \"Buddy Rich\"), odd [time signatures](/wiki/Time_signature \"Time signature\") and the blues, and tried out \"like 250 drummers\" in the process.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.goldminemag.com/article/qa\\-prog\\-voyager\\-patrick\\-moraz\\-talks\\-about\\-his\\-time\\-with\\-yes\\-and\\-the\\-moody\\-blues\\|title\\=Q\\&A: Prog voyager Patrick Moraz talks about his time with Yes and the Moody Blues\\|first\\=Todd\\|last\\=Whitesel\\|date\\=21 April 2010\\|website\\=Goldmine\\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2016 \\|archiveurl\\=http://web.archive.org/web/20160624152224/http://www.goldminemag.com/article/qa\\-prog\\-voyager\\-patrick\\-moraz\\-talks\\-about\\-his\\-time\\-with\\-yes\\-and\\-the\\-moody\\-blues \\|archivedate\\=June 24, 2016}} He settled with a line\\-up of Jean Ristori on vocals and bass, Bryson Graham on drums, and Peter Lockett on vocals and guitar. They signed with [Polydor Records](/wiki/Polydor_Records \"Polydor Records\") and recorded their only studio album, *Mainhorse* (1971\\), at [De Lane Lea Studios](/wiki/De_Lane_Lea_Studios \"De Lane Lea Studios\"), later purchased by [Ian Gillan](/wiki/Ian_Gillan \"Ian Gillan\") of [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple \"Deep Purple\") in [Kingsway](/wiki/Kingsway%2C_London \"Kingsway, London\"), London. The album was not a commercial success, but the group secured work by performing at gigs in Germany.{{sfn\\|Welch\\|2008\\|page\\=153}} Moraz took up further work as a film composer on *[The Salamander](/wiki/The_Salamander_%281971_film%29 \"The Salamander (1971 film)\")* (1971\\).",
"After touring Japan and Hong Kong as a musical director for a Brazilian ballet, Moraz returned to Switzerland in 1973\\.{{sfn\\|Welch\\|2008\\|page\\=153}} He recorded further film music for *[The Invitation](/wiki/The_Invitation_%281973_film%29 \"The Invitation (1973 film)\")* (1973\\) and *[The Middle of the World](/wiki/The_Middle_of_the_World_%281974_film%29 \"The Middle of the World (1974 film)\")* (1974\\). In the summer, Moraz received a call from [Lee Jackson](/wiki/Lee_Jackson_%28bassist%29 \"Lee Jackson (bassist)\"), guitarist and singer of [Jackson Heights](/wiki/Jackson_Heights_%28band%29 \"Jackson Heights (band)\"), asking him if he was interested in joining Jackson Heights.{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\\|editor\\=\\[\\[Colin Larkin (writer)\\|Colin Larkin]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Guinness Publishing]]\\|date\\=1992\\|edition\\=First \\|isbn\\=0\\-85112\\-939\\-0\\|page\\=2066}} Moraz had jammed with Jackson's previous band, [The Nice](/wiki/The_Nice \"The Nice\"), in 1969 when they played in Switzerland. Moraz refused, and counter\\-offered that they form a new band with former Nice member [Brian Davison](/wiki/Brian_Davison_%28drummer%29 \"Brian Davison (drummer)\") on drums. The band, [Refugee](/wiki/Refugee_%28band%29 \"Refugee (band)\"), signed with [Charisma Records](/wiki/Charisma_Records \"Charisma Records\") and released *[Refugee](/wiki/Refugee_%28Refugee_album%29 \"Refugee (Refugee album)\")* (1974\\), written and arranged by Moraz and Jackson. The group developed a tight sound by practising for at least eight hours each day. Refugee supported the album with a tour.{{sfn\\|Welch\\|2008\\|page\\=153}}",
"### 1974–1978: Yes and start of solo career",
"Upon his arrival from [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\") working on a film score for [Gerard Depardieu](/wiki/Gerard_Depardieu \"Gerard Depardieu\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://dmme.net/interviews/moraz\\|title\\=Interview with PATRICK MORAZ\\|first\\=Dmitry M.\\|last\\=Epstein\\|publisher\\=DMME.net\\|date\\=December 2000\\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2016}} Moraz was asked to join [Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28band%29 \"Yes (band)\"), following the departure of [Rick Wakeman](/wiki/Rick_Wakeman \"Rick Wakeman\") in May 1974\\. The band had begun work on *[Relayer](/wiki/Relayer \"Relayer\")* (1974\\), their seventh album, in [Virginia Water](/wiki/Virginia_Water \"Virginia Water\"), Surrey, and sought potential replacements.{{sfn\\|Welch\\|2008\\|page\\=153}} Moraz had seen the band perform during their tour of Switzerland in 1969\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Prasad \\|first\\=Anil \\|title\\=Patrick Moraz: Future Memories \\|url\\=http://www.innerviews.org/inner/moraz.html \\|publisher\\=Innerviews \\|date\\=2007 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2016}} After a try\\-out with Greek musician [Vangelis](/wiki/Vangelis \"Vangelis\"), which proved unsuccessful following musical union issues and his unwillingness to travel, music reporter [Chris Welch](/wiki/Chris_Welch \"Chris Welch\") suggested to the band's manager, [Brian Lane](/wiki/Brian_Lane_%28manager%29 \"Brian Lane (manager)\"), that they ask Moraz. Though he regretted splitting with his Refugee bandmates, Moraz accepted the position as it was an opportunity that he thought would benefit his career,{{sfn\\|Welch\\|2008\\|page\\=154}} though he once said, \"I felt it was time to leave\".{{sfn\\|Morse\\|1996\\|page\\=50}} Moraz's audition occurred in the first week of August 1974{{sfn\\|Welch\\|2008\\|page\\=155}} with Vangelis's keyboards, which were still set up in the rehearsal room.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hit\\-channel.com/interviewpatrick\\-moraz\\-soloyesthe\\-moody\\-blues/65590\\|title\\=Interview: Patrick Moraz (Solo, YES, The Moody Blues)\\|first\\=Από\\|last\\=Thodoris\\|date\\=18 June 2014 \\|publisher\\=Hit\\-Channel\\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2016}} After tuning up, Moraz watched the band play the middle section of \"Sound Chaser\", which he said was \"Absolutely unbelievable. To experience that – the truest surround experience I had ever encountered as an observer and listener\". He was then asked to come up with an opening to it, and what he played ended up on the album.{{sfn\\|Morse\\|1996\\|page\\=53}}",
"After his successful audition, Moraz learned their repertoire across seven albums for the *Relayer* tour, which began in November 1974\\. When the tour ended in August 1975, Yes took an extended break so each member could produce a solo album. Charisma Records released Moraz's first album as a solo artist, which, due to its title consisting of a symbol which does not appear on standard keyboards, has since become commonly known as *[The Story of I](/wiki/The_Story_of_I \"The Story of I\")* (1976\\). Since working with the Brazilian ballet, he became interested in percussion and travelled to [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"), Chile and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") for inspiration, and arrived in Brazil where he gathered \"a very, very strong unit of 16 percussionists\" to play on his album. Moraz invited synthesizer inventor [Bob Moog](/wiki/Bob_Moog \"Bob Moog\") to contribute sounds on the album; Moog accepted the task, and worked with him for several weeks. During this time Moraz also played on [Steve Howe](/wiki/Steve_Howe_%28musician%29 \"Steve Howe (musician)\")'s album *[Beginnings](/wiki/Beginnings_%28Steve_Howe_album%29 \"Beginnings (Steve Howe album)\")* (1975\\) and [Chris Squire](/wiki/Chris_Squire \"Chris Squire\")'s album *[Fish Out of Water](/wiki/Fish_Out_of_Water_%28Chris_Squire_album%29 \"Fish Out of Water (Chris Squire album)\")* (1975\\). Moraz travelled to Brazil and incorporated Brazilian rhythms and musicians on *The Story of I*, giving it a [world music](/wiki/World_music \"World music\") flavour. Afterward he reconvened with Yes for their 1976 North American tour, where the band headlined several large concerts.",
"After the 1976 tour, Yes retreated from UK tax collectors to [Montreux](/wiki/Montreux \"Montreux\"), Switzerland, to record their next album, *[Going for the One](/wiki/Going_for_the_One \"Going for the One\")* (1977\\). Some of the material had already been worked out by the time of their arrival; this included contributions to \"Awaken\", \"[Wonderous Stories](/wiki/Wonderous_Stories \"Wonderous Stories\")\" and \"Parallels\" from Moraz. However, during the early sessions, Moraz was told to leave in order to allow Wakeman to return to the band. Moraz spoke about his departure: \"Even though, at the time, the split 'was not made to appear acrimonious', I suffered extremely and extensively. To be 'asked to leave' so suddenly put me in a lot of turmoil and disturbance ... I was never compensated for anything. I never ever got paid for any of my tour participation in the ... tour of 1976 ... I was entitled to a 20% cut from what the band was getting.\" In 2014, Chris Squire would suggest that a lack of a musical bond between Moraz and Steve Howe was the main artistic reason for Moraz and Yes parting company.[\"Chris Squire: the hands that built prog\"](https://www.loudersound.com/features/big-generator), article by Mark Blake in *TeamRock*, 13 August 2014",
"Moraz continued with his solo career and Charisma released his second album, *[Out in the Sun](/wiki/Out_in_the_Sun \"Out in the Sun\")* (1977\\), which he wanted to sound \"completely different and more liberated\".{{cite web \\|last\\=Shasho \\|first\\=Ray \\|title\\=Patrick Moraz Interview: The Extraordinary Keyboardist \\& Composer/ Prior Member of 'YES' \\& 'The Moody Blues' \\|url\\=http://www.classicrockmusicwriter.com/2014/09/patrick\\-moraz\\-interview\\-extraordinary.html \\|publisher\\=Classic Rock Music Writer \\|date\\=15 September 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2016}} He then moved to Brazil for a year and a half, and prepared material for his third album. He wanted to title the album \"Primitivization\", but the record company chose to release it as *Patrick Moraz* (1978\\). During his time in Brazil, Moraz joined a Brazilian rock band, [Vimana](/wiki/V%C3%ADmana_%28banda%29 \"Vímana (banda)\"), with [Lobão](/wiki/Lob%C3%A3o_%28musician%29 \"Lobão (musician)\") and [Lulu Santos](/wiki/Lulu_Santos \"Lulu Santos\") and [Ritchie](/wiki/Ritchie \"Ritchie\"). He also recorded the keyboards in one of the most iconic songs of Brazilian music, \"Avohai\" by [Zé Ramalho](/wiki/Z%C3%A9_Ramalho \"Zé Ramalho\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Zé Ramalho – Zé Ramalho \\|url\\=https://www.discogs.com/Z%C3%A9\\-Ramalho\\-Z%C3%A9\\-Ramalho/release/3022161 \\|website\\=discogs.com \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2020}}",
"### 1978–1991: The Moody Blues and solo projects",
"In May 1978, Moraz visited a convention held by the [Audio Engineering Society](/wiki/Audio_Engineering_Society \"Audio Engineering Society\") in Los Angeles, where [Herbie Hancock](/wiki/Herbie_Hancock \"Herbie Hancock\") taught him [vocoder](/wiki/Vocoder \"Vocoder\"), and agreed to represent [Aphex Systems](/wiki/Aphex_Systems \"Aphex Systems\") in Brazil. On his way back to Brazil, Moraz stopped in Miami as he had some free time. At the hotel, he received a call asking him to join [the Moody Blues](/wiki/The_Moody_Blues \"The Moody Blues\") after [Mike Pinder](/wiki/Mike_Pinder \"Mike Pinder\") left the band. Moraz proceeded to sing \"Nights in White Satin\" and \"Tuesday Afternoon\" on the phone, and accepted an audition in London in July 1978\\. Before his arrival, Moraz performed at the [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival \"Montreux Jazz Festival\") with Brazilian musicians [Airto Moreira](/wiki/Airto_Moreira \"Airto Moreira\") and [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil \"Gilberto Gil\"). The audition with the Moody Blues was successful, and Moraz \"Got the gig that very afternoon\".",
"Moraz toured with the Moody Blues in support of their ninth album, *[Octave](/wiki/Octave_%28album%29 \"Octave (album)\")* (1978\\), which began in late 1978\\. Their next album, *[Long Distance Voyager](/wiki/Long_Distance_Voyager \"Long Distance Voyager\")* (1981\\), became the band's biggest hit, reaching No. 1 in the US. This was followed by *[The Present](/wiki/The_Present_%28Moody_Blues_album%29 \"The Present (Moody Blues album)\")* (1983\\), *[The Other Side of Life](/wiki/The_Other_Side_of_Life \"The Other Side of Life\")* (1986\\), and *[Sur la Mer](/wiki/Sur_la_Mer \"Sur la Mer\")* (1988\\).",
"During his tenure with the Moody Blues, Moraz completed several solo projects. He toured with his group from Brazil, recorded with [Chick Corea](/wiki/Chick_Corea \"Chick Corea\"), and released two albums with drummer [Bill Bruford](/wiki/Bill_Bruford \"Bill Bruford\") as Moraz\\-Bruford. The two toured worldwide between 1983 and 1985\\. In May 1986, he worked on some \"temporary cues\" and \"not the final scores\" to the soundtrack to *[Predator](/wiki/Predator_%28film%29 \"Predator (film)\")* (1987\\) and *[Wild Orchid](/wiki/Wild_Orchid_%28film%29 \"Wild Orchid (film)\")* (1989\\). The project gave him the opportunity to visit the filming of *Predator* in Mexico, and to meet [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger \"Arnold Schwarzenegger\") and [Mickey Rourke](/wiki/Mickey_Rourke \"Mickey Rourke\"). However, Moraz could not fully complete the score for *Predator* because of an upcoming tour with the Moody Blues, leaving [Alan Silvestri](/wiki/Alan_Silvestri \"Alan Silvestri\") to compose the rest. He also operated Aquarius Studios in Geneva with Ristori. Moraz performed the score to *[The Stepfather](/wiki/The_Stepfather_%281987_film%29 \"The Stepfather (1987 film)\")* (1987\\).",
"During the recording for *[Keys of the Kingdom](/wiki/Keys_of_the_Kingdom \"Keys of the Kingdom\")* (1991\\), Moraz was interviewed for *[Keyboard](/wiki/Keyboard_%28magazine%29 \"Keyboard (magazine)\")* magazine. He expressed a feeling that The Moody Blues' music had become too confined and that the group had become stagnant, offering \"no musical challenge\". The other members, he thought, were unwilling to use his musical compositions and claimed his only composition during his 13 years with them was \"half a song with the drummer\".Doerschuk, Robert L. *[Keyboard](/wiki/Keyboard_%28magazine%29 \"Keyboard (magazine)\")* magazine. May 1991\\. {{ISSN\\|0730\\-0158}}. Before the Moody Blues toured the album, Moraz was fired from the band. In September 1991, Moraz sued the group for $500,000 as well as wrongful dismissal, claiming the group decided to split their profits four ways instead of five,{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.ew.com/article/1991/09/27/latest\\-celebrity\\-court\\-cases\\|title\\=The latest celebrity court cases\\|magazine\\=Entertainment Weekly\\|first\\=Diane\\|last\\=Goldner\\|date\\=27 September 1991\\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2016}} and wished to be paid [royalties](/wiki/Royalties \"Royalties\") he felt were owed to him as a full\\-time member of the band for almost 15 years. However, the group maintained Moraz was only a hired musician, despite his name being listed as a member on their albums and promotional materials and his appearing in official band photographs. On December 28, 1992, the jury in the case, aired on *[Court TV](/wiki/Court_TV \"Court TV\")*, awarded Moraz $77,175 from the defendants. Moraz had been offered $400,000 before the lawsuit.{{cn\\|date\\=February 2022}}",
"### 1991–present: Solo career",
"After his dismissal from the Moody Blues, Moraz has primarily concentrated on solo projects. His first of three piano albums, *Windows of Time* (1994\\), was recorded in a studio at [Full Sail University](/wiki/Full_Sail_University \"Full Sail University\") in Florida.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.somethingelsereviews.com/2013/08/28/something\\-else\\-interview\\-patrick\\-moraz\\-keyboardist\\-with\\-yes\\-and\\-the\\-moody\\-blues/\\|title\\=Something Else! Interview: Patrick Moraz, keyboardist with Yes and the Moody Blues\\|first\\=Nick\\|last\\=Deriso\\|date\\=28 August 2013\\|publisher\\=Something Else!\\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2016}} A total of fourteen hours of material was recorded which was cut to exactly one hour. Moraz then spent the next four years developing \"hundreds of pieces of music for all instruments, as well as orchestras and choirs\", producing several artists, and completed work for the [Conference on World Affairs](/wiki/Conference_on_World_Affairs \"Conference on World Affairs\"), of which he is an official delegate. He also wished to tour *Windows of Time*, but thought the style of the music would suffer in a traditional concert setting.",
"In late 1994, Moraz began a piano tour of the US and Europe with his Coming Home, America Tour (CHAT), which saw him perform at private or semi\\-private venues for an $800 flat fee, booked entirely by fans through the Internet. One show saw him perform for a couple in their home.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tulsaworld.com/archives/patrick\\-moraz\\-takes\\-his\\-solo\\-shot/article\\_fd53a0eb\\-ce45\\-58ee\\-a348\\-46bb11ae6446\\.html\\|title\\=Patrick Moraz Takes His Solo Shot\\|date\\=10 March 1995\\|first\\=James D.\\|last\\=Watts Jr.\\|work\\=Tulsa World\\|access\\-date\\=27 May 2016}} The tour ended in November 1995 for a total of 92 performances. One of them was recorded and released as *PM in Princeton* (1995\\) for CD and video. In 1997, Moraz started work on a new album, *A Way to Freedom*, featuring arrangements for a symphony orchestra, percussionists, and a jazz brass band. The project remains a work in progress. From 1998 to 2000, Moraz worked almost exclusively on his second piano album *Resonance* (2000\\), which, like *Windows of Time*, was cut to exactly one hour of music. He also performed at a benefit concert at the request of poet [José Ramos\\-Horta](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ramos-Horta \"José Ramos-Horta\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://nfte.org/interviews/PM241\\.html\\|title\\=Conversation with Patrick Moraz (NFTE \\#241\\)\\|first\\=Tim\\|last\\=Morse\\|publisher\\=Notes from the Edge\\|access\\-date\\=27 May 2015}}",
"By 2001, Moraz had continued with several projects, including researching and preparing film scripts, including one for a potential film adaptation of *The Story of I*. He released his third piano album, the classically influenced *ESP* (2003\\), short for \"Etudes, Sonatas and Preludes\". In 2012, he issued a compilation of tracks from the three piano albums titled *PianissiMoraz* (2012\\).",
"In 2011, Moraz guested on an album by Panorama Syndicate entitled *Skyline*, playing piano on the title track.",
"In April 2014, Moraz took part in the annual progressive rock\\-themed cruise voyage Cruise to the Edge as a solo artist. In 2015, Moraz and drummer Greg Alban formed the Moraz Alban Project and released a studio album *The M.A.P. Project* (2015\\), featuring percussionist Lenny Castro, saxophonist Dave Van Such, bassists [John Avila](/wiki/John_Avila \"John Avila\") and Patrick Perrier, and [Counting Crows](/wiki/Counting_Crows \"Counting Crows\") bassist Matt Malley. Moraz and Alban met in 1983 and Alban played drums on Moraz's album *Time Code* (1984\\). The project was an Alban solo endeavour at first, with Moraz contributing to the music, but it grew to feature numerous other musicians with the music written around the drums and keyboards. In November 2015, Moraz released a limited edition 19\\-CD box set of his 18 albums, including *Mainhorse* (1971\\), *The Story of I* (1976\\) and the live album *Music for Piano and Drums: Live in Maryland* (2012\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.broadwayworld.com/bwwmusic/article/Patrick\\-Moraz\\-to\\-Release\\-Limited\\-Edition\\-19\\-CD\\-Box\\-Collection\\-of\\-Solo\\-Catalogue\\-20151124\\|title\\=Patrick Moraz to Release Limited Edition 19\\-CD Box Collection of Solo Catalogue\\|publisher\\=Broadway World\\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2016\\|date\\=24 November 2015}}",
"Moraz took part in his second Cruise to the Edge voyage in February 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.antimusic.com/news/16/April/22Neal\\_Morse\\_Band,\\_Patrick\\_Moraz\\_Added\\_To\\_Yess\\_Cruise\\_To\\_The\\_Edge.shtml\\|title\\=Neal Morse Band, Patrick Moraz Added To Yes's Cruise To The Edge\\|publisher\\=Antimusic\\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2016\\|date\\=22 April 2016}}",
"Moraz reunited with Yes in July 2018\\. As part of Yes' 50th Anniversary tour, Moraz performed with Yes at two shows in Philadelphia, July 20 and 21\\. At each show, Moraz played keys during the band's performance of \"Soon\". Moraz also appeared during the Yes FanFest before the July 21 show, at first performing a 70\\-minute solo piano show and then appearing on stage with Yes and taking part in a band interview.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.686832491328742\\.1073741830\\.223599747652021/2228599030485406/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/2228599030485406 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=Who's ready for Patrick Moraz AND Tony Kaye with YES, live in Philadelphia on July 20 \\& 21? \\|work\\=Yes' official facebook \\|date\\=24 May 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2018}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://wmgk.com/event/yesfanfest\\-ray\\-koob/\\|title\\=YesFanFest\\|publisher\\=WMGK\\|access\\-date\\=9 March 2019\\|date\\=9 March 2019}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Rossi was born in [Carrara](/wiki/Carrara "Carrara"), then under the [Duchy of Massa and Carrara](/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara "Duchy of Massa and Carrara"). Educated at the [University of Pisa](/wiki/University_of_Pisa "University of Pisa") and the [University of Bologna](/wiki/University_of_Bologna "University of Bologna"), he became a professor of law at the latter in 1812\. In 1815, he supported [Joachim Murat](/wiki/Joachim_Murat "Joachim Murat")'s [Neapolitan](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples "Kingdom of Naples") anti\-[Austrian](/wiki/Austrian_Empire "Austrian Empire") expedition. The text of the [Rimini Proclamation](/wiki/Rimini_Proclamation "Rimini Proclamation"), an early document calling for [Italian unification](/wiki/Unification_of_Italy "Unification of Italy"), is widely attributed to Rossi.{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=6 May 2015 \|title\=Il proclama di Rimini \|trans\-title\=The Rimini Proclamation \|url\=https://www.ilponte.com/il\-proclama\-di\-rimini/ \|access\-date\=18 January 2024 \|website\=Il Ponte \|language\=it\-IT}}{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=29 March 2023 \|title\=30 marzo 1815 \- Gioacchino Murat firma il Proclama di Rimini (o di Tolentino?) \|trans\-title\=30 March 1815 – Joachim Murat signs the Proclamation of Rimini (or of Tolentino?) \|url\=https://www.chiamamicitta.it/30\-marzo\-1815\-proclama\-rimini\-tolentino/ \|access\-date\=18 January 2024 \|website\=Chiamami Città \|language\=it\-IT}} After Murat fall, he fled to France and then to [Geneva](/wiki/Canton_of_Geneva "Canton of Geneva"). In Geneva, he taught a successful course of [jurisprudence](/wiki/Jurisprudence "Jurisprudence") applied to [Roman law](/wiki/Roman_law "Roman law"). His success earned him the rare honour of [naturalization](/wiki/Naturalization "Naturalization") as a [citizen of Geneva](/wiki/Swiss_people "Swiss people"). In 1820, he was elected as a deputy to the [cantonal council](/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland "Cantons of Switzerland"), and was a member of the diet of 1832\. Rossi was entrusted with the task of drawing up a revised constitution, which was known as the *Pacte Rossi*. This was rejected by a majority of the population, a result which deeply affected Rossi and made him accept the invitation of [François Guizot](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot "François Guizot") to settle in France.
Here he was appointed in 1833 to the chair of [political economy](/wiki/Political_economy "Political economy") in the [Collège de France](/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France "Collège de France"), vacated by the death of [Jean\-Baptiste Say](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say "Jean-Baptiste Say"). He was naturalized as a French citizen in 1834, and in the same year became professor of [constitutional law](/wiki/Constitutional_law "Constitutional law") in the faculty of law of the [Paris University](/wiki/University_of_Paris "University of Paris"). In 1836 he was elected a member of the [Academy of Political and Moral Sciences](/wiki/Academy_of_Political_and_Moral_Sciences "Academy of Political and Moral Sciences"), was raised to the [French peerage](/wiki/Peerage_of_France "Peerage of France") in 1839, and in 1843 became [dean](/wiki/Dean_%28education%29 "Dean (education)") of the faculty of law.
In 1842 Rossi and Count Ferdinand\-Charles\-Philippe d' Esterno (1805–83\) organized the first meetings of what would become the [Société d'économie politique](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_d%27%C3%A9conomie_politique "Société d'économie politique").{{citation\|page\=670 \|last\=Garnier\|first\=Joseph\|title\=Dictionnaire de l'économie politique contenant l'exposition des principes de la science, l'opinion des écrivains qui ont le plus contribué a sa fondation et a ses progrés, la bibliographie générale de l'économie politique par noms d'auteurs et par ordre de matiéres, avec des notices biographiques et une appréciation raisonnée des principaux ouvrages: A\-I\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qY7KFHk43q0C\&pg\=PA670\|accessdate\=2017\-08\-18\|year\=1852\|publisher\=Meline, Cans\|chapter\=Économie Politique (Société d’)}}
In 1845, Guizot appointed Rossi as ambassador of France to the Papal States, with a specific mission to discuss the question of the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits "Jesuits"). However, the [French Revolution of 1848](/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848 "French Revolution of 1848") toppled Guizot's regime, and the [revolution in Italy](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states "Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states") fully severed Rossi's connection with France. Rossi thus remained in Rome, and there became Minister of the Interior under Pope [Pius IX](/wiki/Pius_IX "Pius IX"). Rossi's program of [liberal reforms](/wiki/Liberalism "Liberalism"), however, was never put into practice. Rossi's program of [moderate liberalism](/wiki/Moderate_Party_%28Italy%29 "Moderate Party (Italy)"), in which suffrage was to be limited to the well\-off and the economic and social disruptions created by industrialization went unaddressed, had narrow appeal.{{cite podcast \|last\=Duncan\|first\=Mike\|author\-link \= Mike Duncan (podcaster)\|title\=The Flight of the Pope\|website\=Revolutions\|date\=18 February 2018\|url\=http://www.revolutionspodcast.com/2018/02/727\-the\-flight\-of\-the\-pope.html\|access\-date\=22 February 2018}} Rossi attempts to mediate reform, were blocked by the reactionary clerical party, and rebuffed as paltry by the rising revolutionary sentiment. In addition, the notion of a united Italy as a federation, kingdom, or republic was proposed by the diverse forces; however some of these ideas clearly threatened the temporal power of various rulers.
On 15 November 1848, Rossi was going to preside of the opening of the Parliament in the [Palazzo della Cancelleria](/wiki/Palazzo_della_Cancelleria "Palazzo della Cancelleria"). After exiting his carriage and walking towards the entrance, he was killed by an assassin who stabbed him in the neck. The pope seeing the inevitable imposition of democracy for his state, fled from Rome, and leading to the proclamation of the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29 "Roman Republic (19th century)").
The murderer was said to be Luigi Brunetti, the elder son of [Angelo Brunetti](/wiki/Angelo_Brunetti "Angelo Brunetti") (or Ciceruacchio), who acted at the instigation of [Pietro Sterbini](/wiki/Pietro_Sterbini "Pietro Sterbini"), and with the cooperation of some veterans or *reduci* of the conflict in Lombardy. After the murder, the senate adjourned without much sorrow and little to no attention to the murder victim. That night, crowds at the house of Rossi's widow chanted *Blessed is the hand that stabbed the Rossi*. Sterbini went on to play a prominent role in the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29 "Roman Republic (19th century)") in 1849 but fled into exile after its fall until 1861\.[*Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z0UmLbpjJYYC), (1907\) by [George Macaulay Trevelyan](/wiki/George_Macaulay_Trevelyan "George Macaulay Trevelyan"), 3rd edition, Longmans, Green, and Company, 39 Paternoster Row, London. In a trial held in 1854, a man by the name of Gabriele Constantini was convicted and executed.
The city of Carrara erected a statue in honor of Pellegrino Rossi.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Rossi was born in [Carrara](/wiki/Carrara \"Carrara\"), then under the [Duchy of Massa and Carrara](/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara \"Duchy of Massa and Carrara\"). Educated at the [University of Pisa](/wiki/University_of_Pisa \"University of Pisa\") and the [University of Bologna](/wiki/University_of_Bologna \"University of Bologna\"), he became a professor of law at the latter in 1812\\. In 1815, he supported [Joachim Murat](/wiki/Joachim_Murat \"Joachim Murat\")'s [Neapolitan](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples \"Kingdom of Naples\") anti\\-[Austrian](/wiki/Austrian_Empire \"Austrian Empire\") expedition. The text of the [Rimini Proclamation](/wiki/Rimini_Proclamation \"Rimini Proclamation\"), an early document calling for [Italian unification](/wiki/Unification_of_Italy \"Unification of Italy\"), is widely attributed to Rossi.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=6 May 2015 \\|title\\=Il proclama di Rimini \\|trans\\-title\\=The Rimini Proclamation \\|url\\=https://www.ilponte.com/il\\-proclama\\-di\\-rimini/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2024 \\|website\\=Il Ponte \\|language\\=it\\-IT}}{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=29 March 2023 \\|title\\=30 marzo 1815 \\- Gioacchino Murat firma il Proclama di Rimini (o di Tolentino?) \\|trans\\-title\\=30 March 1815 – Joachim Murat signs the Proclamation of Rimini (or of Tolentino?) \\|url\\=https://www.chiamamicitta.it/30\\-marzo\\-1815\\-proclama\\-rimini\\-tolentino/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2024 \\|website\\=Chiamami Città \\|language\\=it\\-IT}} After Murat fall, he fled to France and then to [Geneva](/wiki/Canton_of_Geneva \"Canton of Geneva\"). In Geneva, he taught a successful course of [jurisprudence](/wiki/Jurisprudence \"Jurisprudence\") applied to [Roman law](/wiki/Roman_law \"Roman law\"). His success earned him the rare honour of [naturalization](/wiki/Naturalization \"Naturalization\") as a [citizen of Geneva](/wiki/Swiss_people \"Swiss people\"). In 1820, he was elected as a deputy to the [cantonal council](/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland \"Cantons of Switzerland\"), and was a member of the diet of 1832\\. Rossi was entrusted with the task of drawing up a revised constitution, which was known as the *Pacte Rossi*. This was rejected by a majority of the population, a result which deeply affected Rossi and made him accept the invitation of [François Guizot](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot \"François Guizot\") to settle in France.",
"Here he was appointed in 1833 to the chair of [political economy](/wiki/Political_economy \"Political economy\") in the [Collège de France](/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France \"Collège de France\"), vacated by the death of [Jean\\-Baptiste Say](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say \"Jean-Baptiste Say\"). He was naturalized as a French citizen in 1834, and in the same year became professor of [constitutional law](/wiki/Constitutional_law \"Constitutional law\") in the faculty of law of the [Paris University](/wiki/University_of_Paris \"University of Paris\"). In 1836 he was elected a member of the [Academy of Political and Moral Sciences](/wiki/Academy_of_Political_and_Moral_Sciences \"Academy of Political and Moral Sciences\"), was raised to the [French peerage](/wiki/Peerage_of_France \"Peerage of France\") in 1839, and in 1843 became [dean](/wiki/Dean_%28education%29 \"Dean (education)\") of the faculty of law.",
"In 1842 Rossi and Count Ferdinand\\-Charles\\-Philippe d' Esterno (1805–83\\) organized the first meetings of what would become the [Société d'économie politique](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_d%27%C3%A9conomie_politique \"Société d'économie politique\").{{citation\\|page\\=670 \\|last\\=Garnier\\|first\\=Joseph\\|title\\=Dictionnaire de l'économie politique contenant l'exposition des principes de la science, l'opinion des écrivains qui ont le plus contribué a sa fondation et a ses progrés, la bibliographie générale de l'économie politique par noms d'auteurs et par ordre de matiéres, avec des notices biographiques et une appréciation raisonnée des principaux ouvrages: A\\-I\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qY7KFHk43q0C\\&pg\\=PA670\\|accessdate\\=2017\\-08\\-18\\|year\\=1852\\|publisher\\=Meline, Cans\\|chapter\\=Économie Politique (Société d’)}}",
"In 1845, Guizot appointed Rossi as ambassador of France to the Papal States, with a specific mission to discuss the question of the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits \"Jesuits\"). However, the [French Revolution of 1848](/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848 \"French Revolution of 1848\") toppled Guizot's regime, and the [revolution in Italy](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states \"Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states\") fully severed Rossi's connection with France. Rossi thus remained in Rome, and there became Minister of the Interior under Pope [Pius IX](/wiki/Pius_IX \"Pius IX\"). Rossi's program of [liberal reforms](/wiki/Liberalism \"Liberalism\"), however, was never put into practice. Rossi's program of [moderate liberalism](/wiki/Moderate_Party_%28Italy%29 \"Moderate Party (Italy)\"), in which suffrage was to be limited to the well\\-off and the economic and social disruptions created by industrialization went unaddressed, had narrow appeal.{{cite podcast \\|last\\=Duncan\\|first\\=Mike\\|author\\-link \\= Mike Duncan (podcaster)\\|title\\=The Flight of the Pope\\|website\\=Revolutions\\|date\\=18 February 2018\\|url\\=http://www.revolutionspodcast.com/2018/02/727\\-the\\-flight\\-of\\-the\\-pope.html\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2018}} Rossi attempts to mediate reform, were blocked by the reactionary clerical party, and rebuffed as paltry by the rising revolutionary sentiment. In addition, the notion of a united Italy as a federation, kingdom, or republic was proposed by the diverse forces; however some of these ideas clearly threatened the temporal power of various rulers.",
"On 15 November 1848, Rossi was going to preside of the opening of the Parliament in the [Palazzo della Cancelleria](/wiki/Palazzo_della_Cancelleria \"Palazzo della Cancelleria\"). After exiting his carriage and walking towards the entrance, he was killed by an assassin who stabbed him in the neck. The pope seeing the inevitable imposition of democracy for his state, fled from Rome, and leading to the proclamation of the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29 \"Roman Republic (19th century)\").",
"The murderer was said to be Luigi Brunetti, the elder son of [Angelo Brunetti](/wiki/Angelo_Brunetti \"Angelo Brunetti\") (or Ciceruacchio), who acted at the instigation of [Pietro Sterbini](/wiki/Pietro_Sterbini \"Pietro Sterbini\"), and with the cooperation of some veterans or *reduci* of the conflict in Lombardy. After the murder, the senate adjourned without much sorrow and little to no attention to the murder victim. That night, crowds at the house of Rossi's widow chanted *Blessed is the hand that stabbed the Rossi*. Sterbini went on to play a prominent role in the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29 \"Roman Republic (19th century)\") in 1849 but fled into exile after its fall until 1861\\.[*Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z0UmLbpjJYYC), (1907\\) by [George Macaulay Trevelyan](/wiki/George_Macaulay_Trevelyan \"George Macaulay Trevelyan\"), 3rd edition, Longmans, Green, and Company, 39 Paternoster Row, London. In a trial held in 1854, a man by the name of Gabriele Constantini was convicted and executed.",
"The city of Carrara erected a statue in honor of Pellegrino Rossi.",
""
] |
Company history
---------------
### OKI of telecommunication (1881–1950s)
#### Founding
The company was founded by [Kibataro Oki](/wiki/Kibataro_Oki "Kibataro Oki") (1848–1906\), an engineer formerly employed at a Kobusho (Ministry of Industry) factory. In 1877, only a year after [Alexander Graham Bell](/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell "Alexander Graham Bell")'s invention, Kubusho had started an effort to make telephone receivers by reverse engineering and Oki was in the team that came up with the first prototype.{{cite book
\| last \= Odagiri
\| first \= Hiroyuki
\| title \= Technology and Industrial Development in Japan
\| publisher \= Clarendon Press, Oxford
\| year \= 1996
\| isbn \= 0\-19\-828802\-6
\| pages \= 137
}} In January 1881, convinced that the nation was about to enter the age of communications, Kibataro Oki founded **Meikōsha**, which was later renamed OKI. The company manufactured the first telephone in Japan in 1881, five years after Bell invented the phone, and exhibited a silver\-award\-winning [lacquer\-coated wire](/wiki/Magnet_wire "Magnet wire") at the 1885 [International Inventions Exhibition](/wiki/International_Inventions_Exhibition "International Inventions Exhibition") in London.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.oki.com/en/profile/history/his\_1\.html\|title\=1874 \- 1939 \| publisher\= OKI Global\|access\-date\=24 March 2012}}
#### Early years
OKI contributed immensely to the proliferation of phones in Japan under the country's Telephone Expansion Plans. The company saw the need of automatic exchanges as well, as phones became common.[Becoming Modern Corporation, and Era of Automatic Exchanges (1912\-1936\)](https://www.oki.com/en/profile/history/pdf/OkiHe2.pdf). *oki.com*. Retrieved May 30, 2024 [Asano Soichiro](/wiki/Asano_Soichiro "Asano Soichiro") of *[Asano zaibatsu](/wiki/Asano_zaibatsu "Asano zaibatsu")*, a predecessor of the [Fuyo Group](/wiki/Fuyo_Group "Fuyo Group"), was elected to chairman in 1912\.{{Cite web \|title\=1874 \- 1939 {{!}} Corporate Information {{!}} OKI Global \|url\=https://www.oki.com/en/profile/history/his\_1\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.oki.com}}
[alt\=photo of Asano Soichiro\|thumb\|Asano Soichiro of Asano zaibatsu](/wiki/File:Asano_souichiro.jpg "Asano souichiro.jpg")
#### Pre and post wars
During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), wartime demand brought large profits to OKI as demand for telephone service increased. A strong demand emerged for the PBX ([Private Branch Exchange](/wiki/Private_Branch_Exchange "Private Branch Exchange")), the largest system of which in Japan installed by OKI. In addition to business from Japan, overseas business also grew, providing railroad\-type printers, portable telephones and electric wires outside Japan. From around 1920, OKI achieved notable advances in its technical development of the common\-battery switchboard. Asano Soichiro's son was appointed to the next chairman in 1931\.
In the late 1930s, OKI's plants were used towards meeting the military demand for goods, having major effects on OKI's business, such as building new production plants, and increasing its capital as well as the number of its affiliates.
OKI increased its production capacity after WWII to restore magnetotype telephones and exchanges that were damaged during the war, OKI endured great difficulties as it moved toward rebuilding itself. On November 1, 1949, Oki Electric Industry Co., was established to succeed the former entity Oki Electric Co., Ltd. Two years later in November 1951, OKI's shares were listed on the [Tokyo Stock Exchange](/wiki/Tokyo_Stock_Exchange "Tokyo Stock Exchange"). It was also at this time when OKI started mass\-producing the “Type\-4 telephone,” which was called a "symbol of Japan’s postwar reconstruction". In 1956, it was the first to produce a 100\-line Ericsson\-type [crossbar\-switching](/wiki/Crossbar_switch "Crossbar switch") systems for commercial use.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2014}}
### OKI of electronics (1960s\-1980s)
OKI gradually transformed itself into an electronics company from the second half of 1960s into the 1970s.
#### 1960s
To respond to the high\-level economic growth Japan was experiencing, OKI needed to speed up its business operations and clarify responsibilities. OKI began producing and supplying business machines such as [teletypewriters](/wiki/Telegraphy "Telegraphy"), and perforation [typewriters](/wiki/Typewriter "Typewriter"). In June 1961, OKI launched OKITYPER\-2000, an electric teletypewriter that could simultaneously make perforation tapes and book entry forms. The company also developed and sold various general\-purpose computers such as OKITAC\-5090, the first domestically produced computer to use [core memory](/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory "Magnetic-core memory").{{citation needed\|date\=November 2014}}
In 1964 OKI developed OKISAVER, a terminal for online deposits which was provided to financial institutions.
#### 1970s
In addition to minicomputers such as the OKITAC series developed in the mid\-1960s, OKI began supplying various I/O devices, electroprinters, and dot printers, mainly to the financial industry in the 1970s. OKI's business at this time included cash dispensers (CDs), automatic depositors (ADs) and [automated teller machines](/wiki/Automated_teller_machine "Automated teller machine") (ATMs).
{{plain image with caption\|Okidata wordmark.svg\|Logo of Oki Data}}
In this period, OKI expanded its overseas business providing telecommunications systems to countries in the Middle East, Central and South American countries as well as other Asian countries. In 1972, OKI established Oki Data Corporation (ODC: today's OKI Data Americas), a Japan\-US joint venture located in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), to develop the DP100, dot printers.
In 1975, OKI developed the world's first automobile telephone system together with [Bell Labs](/wiki/Bell_Labs "Bell Labs"). This was the beginning of OKI's wireless technology, and, as of 2009, OKI keeps expanding this technology into vehicle\-to\-vehicle communications and ETC ([Electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection "Electronic toll collection")) technologies.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2014}}
#### 1980s
[thumb\|BMC IF 800 20 03 (1982\)](/wiki/File:BMC_IF800_20_03.JPG "BMC IF800 20 03.JPG")
[thumb\|Semiconductor parts that were once manufactured](/wiki/File:Oki_80c86a.jpg "Oki 80c86a.jpg")
In May 1980, OKI launched the {{ill\|IF\-800 series\|jp\|if800}},[The View from Japan](https://books.google.com/books?id=Tz4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1), *[InfoWorld](/wiki/InfoWorld "InfoWorld")*, July 7, 1980, p. 1 which was a successful business\-use PC business. It also added a facsimile business unit in search of private sector demand. In 1982, OKI introduced the world's first cash\-recycling ATM, allowing deposited banknotes to be immediately used for withdrawal.
[thumb\|right\|Oki Data Microline 320 [dot matrix printer](/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer "Dot matrix printer").](/wiki/File:OKIData_Microline_320.jpg "OKIData Microline 320.jpg")
Printers
* Microline
+ {{tooltip\|2\=Atari 1025\|80}}, 82/83, 84, 92/93
+ 180, {{tooltip\|2\=PAR, SER, IEC\|182/183}}, 190, {{tooltip\|2\=PAR, SER, IEC\|192/193}}
+ 280, 292/293, 294
+ 320 {{tooltip\|2\=Flatbed\|FB}}, 321, 380, 390 FB, 393, 395
+ 520/521, 590/591
* [Okimate 10](/wiki/Okimate_10 "Okimate 10"), {{tooltip\|2\=PAR, SER, IEC\|20}}
* Pacemark
+ 2350, 2410
+ 3410, 4410
* Laserline 6
ICs
* MSM5232 8\-channel tone generator
* MSM6242 RTC
* MSM6295 4\-channel [ADPCM](/wiki/ADPCM "ADPCM")
### OKI of network solutions (1990s)
In the early 90s, Japanese economy was in the midst of recession that continued after [the bubble economy](/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble "Japanese asset price bubble") collapsed, which also hit a strong blow to OKI's business. In October 1994, OKI spun off its printer and facsimile business, and established Oki Data Corporation. In the later 90's, with the spread of the Internet, OKI worked on being recognized as a company that offers network solutions.
In December 1990, the OKI 900 cell phone was marketed.{{cite book \|url\=https://www.oki.com/en/profile/history/pdf/OkiChro.pdf \|title\=The 120\-Year History of Oki Electric \|page\=263 \|access\-date\=6 September 2022}} The phone was famous in phone [phreaking](/wiki/Phreaking "Phreaking") culture{{cite magazine \|magazine\=Popular Communications \|date\=October 2008 \|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Short\-Wave/Archive\-Popular\-Communications\-IDX/IDX/Popular\-Communications\-2008\-10\-OCR\-Page\-0020\.pdf \|title\="The OKI 900 \- The Holy Grail Of Cell Phones For Communications Hobbyists" \|page\=18 \|last1\=Bates \|first1\=Bernard\| access\-date \=6 September 2022}} for its advanced debugging menu allowing eavesdropping of others cell phone calls and observation of cell phone network operation.
### 2000s
In 2004, OKI released its IP CONVERGENCE Server SS9100, the industry's first Microsoft.Net\-compliant server, and in 2006, released its Center Stage NX5000, a carrier\-grade communication server compliant with next\-generation networks.
In 2008, as part of its business selection and concentration measures, OKI spun off its semiconductor business to [Rohm](/wiki/Rohm "Rohm") Co., Ltd.
|
[
"Company history\n---------------",
"### OKI of telecommunication (1881–1950s)",
"#### Founding",
"The company was founded by [Kibataro Oki](/wiki/Kibataro_Oki \"Kibataro Oki\") (1848–1906\\), an engineer formerly employed at a Kobusho (Ministry of Industry) factory. In 1877, only a year after [Alexander Graham Bell](/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell \"Alexander Graham Bell\")'s invention, Kubusho had started an effort to make telephone receivers by reverse engineering and Oki was in the team that came up with the first prototype.{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Odagiri\n \\| first \\= Hiroyuki\n \\| title \\= Technology and Industrial Development in Japan\n \\| publisher \\= Clarendon Press, Oxford\n \\| year \\= 1996\n \\| isbn \\= 0\\-19\\-828802\\-6\n \\| pages \\= 137\n}} In January 1881, convinced that the nation was about to enter the age of communications, Kibataro Oki founded **Meikōsha**, which was later renamed OKI. The company manufactured the first telephone in Japan in 1881, five years after Bell invented the phone, and exhibited a silver\\-award\\-winning [lacquer\\-coated wire](/wiki/Magnet_wire \"Magnet wire\") at the 1885 [International Inventions Exhibition](/wiki/International_Inventions_Exhibition \"International Inventions Exhibition\") in London.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oki.com/en/profile/history/his\\_1\\.html\\|title\\=1874 \\- 1939 \\| publisher\\= OKI Global\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2012}}",
"#### Early years",
"OKI contributed immensely to the proliferation of phones in Japan under the country's Telephone Expansion Plans. The company saw the need of automatic exchanges as well, as phones became common.[Becoming Modern Corporation, and Era of Automatic Exchanges (1912\\-1936\\)](https://www.oki.com/en/profile/history/pdf/OkiHe2.pdf). *oki.com*. Retrieved May 30, 2024 [Asano Soichiro](/wiki/Asano_Soichiro \"Asano Soichiro\") of *[Asano zaibatsu](/wiki/Asano_zaibatsu \"Asano zaibatsu\")*, a predecessor of the [Fuyo Group](/wiki/Fuyo_Group \"Fuyo Group\"), was elected to chairman in 1912\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=1874 \\- 1939 {{!}} Corporate Information {{!}} OKI Global \\|url\\=https://www.oki.com/en/profile/history/his\\_1\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.oki.com}}",
"[alt\\=photo of Asano Soichiro\\|thumb\\|Asano Soichiro of Asano zaibatsu](/wiki/File:Asano_souichiro.jpg \"Asano souichiro.jpg\")",
"#### Pre and post wars",
"During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), wartime demand brought large profits to OKI as demand for telephone service increased. A strong demand emerged for the PBX ([Private Branch Exchange](/wiki/Private_Branch_Exchange \"Private Branch Exchange\")), the largest system of which in Japan installed by OKI. In addition to business from Japan, overseas business also grew, providing railroad\\-type printers, portable telephones and electric wires outside Japan. From around 1920, OKI achieved notable advances in its technical development of the common\\-battery switchboard. Asano Soichiro's son was appointed to the next chairman in 1931\\.",
"In the late 1930s, OKI's plants were used towards meeting the military demand for goods, having major effects on OKI's business, such as building new production plants, and increasing its capital as well as the number of its affiliates.",
"OKI increased its production capacity after WWII to restore magnetotype telephones and exchanges that were damaged during the war, OKI endured great difficulties as it moved toward rebuilding itself. On November 1, 1949, Oki Electric Industry Co., was established to succeed the former entity Oki Electric Co., Ltd. Two years later in November 1951, OKI's shares were listed on the [Tokyo Stock Exchange](/wiki/Tokyo_Stock_Exchange \"Tokyo Stock Exchange\"). It was also at this time when OKI started mass\\-producing the “Type\\-4 telephone,” which was called a \"symbol of Japan’s postwar reconstruction\". In 1956, it was the first to produce a 100\\-line Ericsson\\-type [crossbar\\-switching](/wiki/Crossbar_switch \"Crossbar switch\") systems for commercial use.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2014}}",
"### OKI of electronics (1960s\\-1980s)",
"OKI gradually transformed itself into an electronics company from the second half of 1960s into the 1970s.",
"#### 1960s",
"To respond to the high\\-level economic growth Japan was experiencing, OKI needed to speed up its business operations and clarify responsibilities. OKI began producing and supplying business machines such as [teletypewriters](/wiki/Telegraphy \"Telegraphy\"), and perforation [typewriters](/wiki/Typewriter \"Typewriter\"). In June 1961, OKI launched OKITYPER\\-2000, an electric teletypewriter that could simultaneously make perforation tapes and book entry forms. The company also developed and sold various general\\-purpose computers such as OKITAC\\-5090, the first domestically produced computer to use [core memory](/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory \"Magnetic-core memory\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2014}}",
"In 1964 OKI developed OKISAVER, a terminal for online deposits which was provided to financial institutions.",
"#### 1970s",
"In addition to minicomputers such as the OKITAC series developed in the mid\\-1960s, OKI began supplying various I/O devices, electroprinters, and dot printers, mainly to the financial industry in the 1970s. OKI's business at this time included cash dispensers (CDs), automatic depositors (ADs) and [automated teller machines](/wiki/Automated_teller_machine \"Automated teller machine\") (ATMs).\n{{plain image with caption\\|Okidata wordmark.svg\\|Logo of Oki Data}}\nIn this period, OKI expanded its overseas business providing telecommunications systems to countries in the Middle East, Central and South American countries as well as other Asian countries. In 1972, OKI established Oki Data Corporation (ODC: today's OKI Data Americas), a Japan\\-US joint venture located in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), to develop the DP100, dot printers.",
"In 1975, OKI developed the world's first automobile telephone system together with [Bell Labs](/wiki/Bell_Labs \"Bell Labs\"). This was the beginning of OKI's wireless technology, and, as of 2009, OKI keeps expanding this technology into vehicle\\-to\\-vehicle communications and ETC ([Electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection \"Electronic toll collection\")) technologies.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2014}}",
"#### 1980s",
"[thumb\\|BMC IF 800 20 03 (1982\\)](/wiki/File:BMC_IF800_20_03.JPG \"BMC IF800 20 03.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Semiconductor parts that were once manufactured](/wiki/File:Oki_80c86a.jpg \"Oki 80c86a.jpg\")",
"In May 1980, OKI launched the {{ill\\|IF\\-800 series\\|jp\\|if800}},[The View from Japan](https://books.google.com/books?id=Tz4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1), *[InfoWorld](/wiki/InfoWorld \"InfoWorld\")*, July 7, 1980, p. 1 which was a successful business\\-use PC business. It also added a facsimile business unit in search of private sector demand. In 1982, OKI introduced the world's first cash\\-recycling ATM, allowing deposited banknotes to be immediately used for withdrawal.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Oki Data Microline 320 [dot matrix printer](/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer \"Dot matrix printer\").](/wiki/File:OKIData_Microline_320.jpg \"OKIData Microline 320.jpg\")\nPrinters\n* Microline\n\t+ {{tooltip\\|2\\=Atari 1025\\|80}}, 82/83, 84, 92/93\n\t+ 180, {{tooltip\\|2\\=PAR, SER, IEC\\|182/183}}, 190, {{tooltip\\|2\\=PAR, SER, IEC\\|192/193}}\n\t+ 280, 292/293, 294\n\t+ 320 {{tooltip\\|2\\=Flatbed\\|FB}}, 321, 380, 390 FB, 393, 395\n\t+ 520/521, 590/591\n* [Okimate 10](/wiki/Okimate_10 \"Okimate 10\"), {{tooltip\\|2\\=PAR, SER, IEC\\|20}}\n* Pacemark\n\t+ 2350, 2410\n\t+ 3410, 4410\n* Laserline 6",
"ICs\n* MSM5232 8\\-channel tone generator\n* MSM6242 RTC\n* MSM6295 4\\-channel [ADPCM](/wiki/ADPCM \"ADPCM\")",
"### OKI of network solutions (1990s)",
"In the early 90s, Japanese economy was in the midst of recession that continued after [the bubble economy](/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble \"Japanese asset price bubble\") collapsed, which also hit a strong blow to OKI's business. In October 1994, OKI spun off its printer and facsimile business, and established Oki Data Corporation. In the later 90's, with the spread of the Internet, OKI worked on being recognized as a company that offers network solutions.",
"In December 1990, the OKI 900 cell phone was marketed.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://www.oki.com/en/profile/history/pdf/OkiChro.pdf \\|title\\=The 120\\-Year History of Oki Electric \\|page\\=263 \\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2022}} The phone was famous in phone [phreaking](/wiki/Phreaking \"Phreaking\") culture{{cite magazine \\|magazine\\=Popular Communications \\|date\\=October 2008 \\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Short\\-Wave/Archive\\-Popular\\-Communications\\-IDX/IDX/Popular\\-Communications\\-2008\\-10\\-OCR\\-Page\\-0020\\.pdf \\|title\\=\"The OKI 900 \\- The Holy Grail Of Cell Phones For Communications Hobbyists\" \\|page\\=18 \\|last1\\=Bates \\|first1\\=Bernard\\| access\\-date \\=6 September 2022}} for its advanced debugging menu allowing eavesdropping of others cell phone calls and observation of cell phone network operation.",
"### 2000s",
"In 2004, OKI released its IP CONVERGENCE Server SS9100, the industry's first Microsoft.Net\\-compliant server, and in 2006, released its Center Stage NX5000, a carrier\\-grade communication server compliant with next\\-generation networks.",
"In 2008, as part of its business selection and concentration measures, OKI spun off its semiconductor business to [Rohm](/wiki/Rohm \"Rohm\") Co., Ltd.",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
Bauer was born in Schimborn in [Kahlgrund](/wiki/Kahlgrund "Kahlgrund") on 18 March 1933; his parents were farmers, Otto Bauer (1903–1983\) and his wife Maria née Daniel (1905–1998\). He attended primary school in Schimborn and received his secondary education at the {{ill\|Kilianeum, Würzburg\|de\|Kilianeum (Würzburg)\|lt\=Kilianeum}} in [Würzburg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg "Würzburg"), in [Münnerstadt](/wiki/M%C3%BCnnerstadt "Münnerstadt") and [Miltenberg](/wiki/Miltenberg "Miltenberg"). After completing school with the [Abitur](/wiki/Abitur "Abitur"), he studied philosophy and [Catholic theology](/wiki/Catholic_theology "Catholic theology") at the [University of Würzburg](/wiki/University_of_W%C3%BCrzburg "University of Würzburg").
Bauer was ordained as a [priest](/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church "Priesthood in the Catholic Church") in Würzburg on 21 July 1957 by archbishop [Aloisius Joseph Muench](/wiki/Aloisius_Joseph_Muench "Aloisius Joseph Muench"). He worked for four years as a chaplain at {{ill\|Heilig Geist, Schweinfurt\|de\|Heilig\-Geist\-Kirche (Schweinfurt)}}. He became prefect of the boys' seminary at the Kilianeum in 1961\. From 1964 he directed the *Studienseminar* in [Bad Königshofen](/wiki/Bad_K%C3%B6nigshofen "Bad Königshofen"), and from 1968 the Kilianeum.
Bishop [Paul\-Werner Scheele](/wiki/Paul-Werner_Scheele "Paul-Werner Scheele") appointed Bauer as a priest at the [Würzburg Cathedral](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg_Cathedral "Würzburg Cathedral") in 1983\. He was elected [dean](/wiki/Dean_%28Christianity%29 "Dean (Christianity)") in Würzburg the same year.
Pope [John Paul II](/wiki/John_Paul_II "John Paul II") appointed him [titular bishop](/wiki/Titular_bishop "Titular bishop") of {{ill\|Titularbistum Velefi\|de\|lt\=Velefi}} and auxiliary bishop in Würzburg on 8 July 1988\. He was consecrated as a bishop on 14 October 1988 by Bishop Scheele at the Würzburg Cathedral, assisted by [Anton Schlembach](/wiki/Anton_Schlembach "Anton Schlembach") from the [Diocese of Speyer](/wiki/Diocese_of_Speyer "Diocese of Speyer") and {{ill\|Alfons Kempf\|de}}. Bauer considered [confirmations](/wiki/Confirmation_in_the_Catholic_Church "Confirmation in the Catholic Church") his prime duty as a bishop, and confirmed more than 150,000 young people, including 500 on a visit to [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania").
Bauer became *{{ill\|Bischofsvikar\|de}}*, representing the bishop, in 1989\. He was responsible for church music and liturgy in the diocese. He was an enthusiastic singer and played [horn](/wiki/Horn_%28instrument%29 "Horn (instrument)") and [trombone](/wiki/Trombone "Trombone"). He was particular engaged in the church music at the Würzburg Cathedral and remained its patron in retirement.
Bauer also presided over the commission for the *[Gotteslob](/wiki/Gotteslob "Gotteslob")*, the 2013 second edition of the common Catholic [hymnal](/wiki/Hymnal "Hymnal") in German, and an ecumenical commission for hymns, {{ill\|Arbeitsgemeinschaft für ökumenisches Liedgut\|de}}, from 1990 to 2008\. He was president of the commission for ecumenism of the Bavarian bishops for twelve years, and represented the Bavarian bishops in the work group of Christian churches in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria") (*Arbeitsgemeinschaft christlicher Kirchen in Bayern*). After Scheele retired in July 2003, Bauer was elected interim bishop and served until {{ill\|Friedhelm Hofmann\|de}} was consecrated on 19 September 2004\.
On 18 March 2008 Pope [Benedict XVI](/wiki/Benedict_XVI "Benedict XVI") accepted Bauer's retirement; he remained active in his positions in the Diocese until his successor Ulrich Boom took office on 31 January 2009\. Bauer remained in [Würzburg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg "Würzburg") in retirement; he enjoyed bicycling, and played the piano to relax. The 30th anniversary of Bauer's consecration as a bishop was celebrated with a service at the Würzburg Cathedral.
Bauer died at the [Juliusspital](/wiki/Juliusspital "Juliusspital") in Würzburg while receiving [palliative care](/wiki/Palliative_care "Palliative care") on 5 October 2024, at the age of 91\.
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"Bauer was born in Schimborn in [Kahlgrund](/wiki/Kahlgrund \"Kahlgrund\") on 18 March 1933; his parents were farmers, Otto Bauer (1903–1983\\) and his wife Maria née Daniel (1905–1998\\). He attended primary school in Schimborn and received his secondary education at the {{ill\\|Kilianeum, Würzburg\\|de\\|Kilianeum (Würzburg)\\|lt\\=Kilianeum}} in [Würzburg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg \"Würzburg\"), in [Münnerstadt](/wiki/M%C3%BCnnerstadt \"Münnerstadt\") and [Miltenberg](/wiki/Miltenberg \"Miltenberg\"). After completing school with the [Abitur](/wiki/Abitur \"Abitur\"), he studied philosophy and [Catholic theology](/wiki/Catholic_theology \"Catholic theology\") at the [University of Würzburg](/wiki/University_of_W%C3%BCrzburg \"University of Würzburg\").",
"Bauer was ordained as a [priest](/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church \"Priesthood in the Catholic Church\") in Würzburg on 21 July 1957 by archbishop [Aloisius Joseph Muench](/wiki/Aloisius_Joseph_Muench \"Aloisius Joseph Muench\"). He worked for four years as a chaplain at {{ill\\|Heilig Geist, Schweinfurt\\|de\\|Heilig\\-Geist\\-Kirche (Schweinfurt)}}. He became prefect of the boys' seminary at the Kilianeum in 1961\\. From 1964 he directed the *Studienseminar* in [Bad Königshofen](/wiki/Bad_K%C3%B6nigshofen \"Bad Königshofen\"), and from 1968 the Kilianeum.",
"Bishop [Paul\\-Werner Scheele](/wiki/Paul-Werner_Scheele \"Paul-Werner Scheele\") appointed Bauer as a priest at the [Würzburg Cathedral](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg_Cathedral \"Würzburg Cathedral\") in 1983\\. He was elected [dean](/wiki/Dean_%28Christianity%29 \"Dean (Christianity)\") in Würzburg the same year.",
"Pope [John Paul II](/wiki/John_Paul_II \"John Paul II\") appointed him [titular bishop](/wiki/Titular_bishop \"Titular bishop\") of {{ill\\|Titularbistum Velefi\\|de\\|lt\\=Velefi}} and auxiliary bishop in Würzburg on 8 July 1988\\. He was consecrated as a bishop on 14 October 1988 by Bishop Scheele at the Würzburg Cathedral, assisted by [Anton Schlembach](/wiki/Anton_Schlembach \"Anton Schlembach\") from the [Diocese of Speyer](/wiki/Diocese_of_Speyer \"Diocese of Speyer\") and {{ill\\|Alfons Kempf\\|de}}. Bauer considered [confirmations](/wiki/Confirmation_in_the_Catholic_Church \"Confirmation in the Catholic Church\") his prime duty as a bishop, and confirmed more than 150,000 young people, including 500 on a visit to [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania \"Tanzania\").",
"Bauer became *{{ill\\|Bischofsvikar\\|de}}*, representing the bishop, in 1989\\. He was responsible for church music and liturgy in the diocese. He was an enthusiastic singer and played [horn](/wiki/Horn_%28instrument%29 \"Horn (instrument)\") and [trombone](/wiki/Trombone \"Trombone\"). He was particular engaged in the church music at the Würzburg Cathedral and remained its patron in retirement.",
"Bauer also presided over the commission for the *[Gotteslob](/wiki/Gotteslob \"Gotteslob\")*, the 2013 second edition of the common Catholic [hymnal](/wiki/Hymnal \"Hymnal\") in German, and an ecumenical commission for hymns, {{ill\\|Arbeitsgemeinschaft für ökumenisches Liedgut\\|de}}, from 1990 to 2008\\. He was president of the commission for ecumenism of the Bavarian bishops for twelve years, and represented the Bavarian bishops in the work group of Christian churches in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\") (*Arbeitsgemeinschaft christlicher Kirchen in Bayern*). After Scheele retired in July 2003, Bauer was elected interim bishop and served until {{ill\\|Friedhelm Hofmann\\|de}} was consecrated on 19 September 2004\\.",
"On 18 March 2008 Pope [Benedict XVI](/wiki/Benedict_XVI \"Benedict XVI\") accepted Bauer's retirement; he remained active in his positions in the Diocese until his successor Ulrich Boom took office on 31 January 2009\\. Bauer remained in [Würzburg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg \"Würzburg\") in retirement; he enjoyed bicycling, and played the piano to relax. The 30th anniversary of Bauer's consecration as a bishop was celebrated with a service at the Würzburg Cathedral.",
"Bauer died at the [Juliusspital](/wiki/Juliusspital \"Juliusspital\") in Würzburg while receiving [palliative care](/wiki/Palliative_care \"Palliative care\") on 5 October 2024, at the age of 91\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life and education
Hampton was the son of [surgeon](/wiki/Surgeon "Surgeon") Henry Hampton Sr. and Julia Veva Hampton, raised in [Richmond Heights, Missouri](/wiki/Richmond_Heights%2C_Missouri "Richmond Heights, Missouri"), a suburb adjacent to the western edge of [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis"). Henry lived on the eastern edge of an all\-black [working class](/wiki/Working_class "Working class") community. His family converted to [Catholicism](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") after St Louis Archbishop [Joseph Ritter](/wiki/Joseph_Ritter "Joseph Ritter") led desegregation efforts in the region.{{Cite web\|last\=Epstein\|first\=Helen\|date\=December 1988\|title\=Meet Henry Hampton\|url\=http://bostonreview.net/archives/BR13\.6/epstein.html\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-07\|website\=Boston Review}}
Hampton attended Little Flower School and later the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits "Jesuits")' [St. Louis University High School](/wiki/St._Louis_University_High_School "St. Louis University High School") and the [College of the Holy Cross](/wiki/College_of_the_Holy_Cross "College of the Holy Cross"), before studying literature at [Washington University in St. Louis](/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis "Washington University in St. Louis").{{Cite web\|title\=Home\|url\=http://www.little\-flower\-parish.org/}} He graduated from Wash U in 1961\.[http://www.library.wustl.edu/units/spec/filmandmedia/collections/hampton/hampton\_commencement.html{{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.library.wustl.edu/units/spec/filmandmedia/collections/hampton/hampton_commencement.html{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) Hampton attended [medical school](/wiki/Medical_school "Medical school") for a term at [McGill University](/wiki/McGill_University "McGill University") in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal"), [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec"), before dropping out.
### Career
In 1965, while working for the [Unitarian](/wiki/Unitarianism "Unitarianism") church as information director, Hampton went to [Selma, Alabama](/wiki/Selma%2C_Alabama "Selma, Alabama"), to participate in the [Selma Marches](/wiki/Selma_March "Selma March") (flying down on the same plane as [James Reeb](/wiki/James_Reeb "James Reeb"), the UU minister who would later be murdered during his trip). The marches changed Hampton's life, as he recognized the power of media and television and began to conceptualize a film documenting the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement "Civil Rights Movement").
Three years later, in 1968 (while living in [Roxbury, Boston](/wiki/Roxbury%2C_Boston "Roxbury, Boston")), he founded Blackside, Inc., which offered "special expertise in the design and production of film and audio\-visual products aimed at minority audiences."A Different Way of Communicating; A Blackside publicity booklet (1974\), in the Henry Hampton Collection, Washington University Film \& Media Archive It became one of the largest minority\-owned non\-theatrical film production companies in the U.S. during the mid\-1970s and until his death in the late 1990s. Hampton and his company produced over 80 programs including [documentaries](/wiki/Documentary_film "Documentary film"), [television spots](/wiki/Television_advertisement "Television advertisement"), and other media productions.
Blackside's primary business between 1968 and 1979 was the production of films, television and radio spots, television programming, and audio\-visual educational packages. Blackside also produced public service announcements and film\-based training materials for government and commercial clients. In 1977, the [Harvard School of Design](/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design "Harvard Graduate School of Design") granted Hampton a Loeb Fellowship to study constitutional limitations and the nature of media and government information programs. His studies focused on consumers' and citizens' rights to information.
Hampton made a commitment to social justice with later productions, including his 1987 magnum opus *[Eyes on the Prize](/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize "Eyes on the Prize"): America's Civil Rights Years (1954–1965\)*. He followed this with a series of pieces, including *Eyes on the Prize II: America at the Racial Crossroads 1965–mid 1980s*; *The Great Depression* (1993\); *[Malcolm X: Make It Plain](/wiki/Malcolm_X:Make_It_Plain "Make It Plain")* (1994\); *America's War on Poverty* (1995\); *Breakthrough: The Changing Face of Science in America* (1997\); *I'll Make Me a World: A Century of African\-American Arts* (1999\); *Hopes on the Horizon: Africa in the 1990s* (2001\); *This Far by Faith: African American Spiritual Journeys* (2003\).
He returned to WashU in 1989 to deliver the [commencement speech](/wiki/Commencement_speech "Commencement speech").{{cite web\|title\=WU Libraries: Commencement Speakers, 1940 \- 1990\|url\=http://library.wustl.edu/units/spec/archives/facts/commencement2\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|accessdate\=2009\-06\-30\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128220811/http://library.wustl.edu/units/spec/archives/facts/commencement2\.html\|archivedate\=2010\-01\-28}}
### Health issues and death
Hampton had contracted [polio](/wiki/Polio "Polio") as a child. In his later years, he had [lung cancer](/wiki/Lung_cancer "Lung cancer"), the treatment for which led to [myelodysplastic syndrome](/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome "Myelodysplastic syndrome").
He died at [Brigham and Women's Hospital](/wiki/Brigham_and_Women%27s_Hospital "Brigham and Women's Hospital") on November 22, 1998\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life and education",
"Hampton was the son of [surgeon](/wiki/Surgeon \"Surgeon\") Henry Hampton Sr. and Julia Veva Hampton, raised in [Richmond Heights, Missouri](/wiki/Richmond_Heights%2C_Missouri \"Richmond Heights, Missouri\"), a suburb adjacent to the western edge of [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\"). Henry lived on the eastern edge of an all\\-black [working class](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\") community. His family converted to [Catholicism](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") after St Louis Archbishop [Joseph Ritter](/wiki/Joseph_Ritter \"Joseph Ritter\") led desegregation efforts in the region.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Epstein\\|first\\=Helen\\|date\\=December 1988\\|title\\=Meet Henry Hampton\\|url\\=http://bostonreview.net/archives/BR13\\.6/epstein.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-07\\|website\\=Boston Review}}",
"Hampton attended Little Flower School and later the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits \"Jesuits\")' [St. Louis University High School](/wiki/St._Louis_University_High_School \"St. Louis University High School\") and the [College of the Holy Cross](/wiki/College_of_the_Holy_Cross \"College of the Holy Cross\"), before studying literature at [Washington University in St. Louis](/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis \"Washington University in St. Louis\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Home\\|url\\=http://www.little\\-flower\\-parish.org/}} He graduated from Wash U in 1961\\.[http://www.library.wustl.edu/units/spec/filmandmedia/collections/hampton/hampton\\_commencement.html{{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.library.wustl.edu/units/spec/filmandmedia/collections/hampton/hampton_commencement.html{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) Hampton attended [medical school](/wiki/Medical_school \"Medical school\") for a term at [McGill University](/wiki/McGill_University \"McGill University\") in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\"), [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\"), before dropping out.",
"### Career",
"In 1965, while working for the [Unitarian](/wiki/Unitarianism \"Unitarianism\") church as information director, Hampton went to [Selma, Alabama](/wiki/Selma%2C_Alabama \"Selma, Alabama\"), to participate in the [Selma Marches](/wiki/Selma_March \"Selma March\") (flying down on the same plane as [James Reeb](/wiki/James_Reeb \"James Reeb\"), the UU minister who would later be murdered during his trip). The marches changed Hampton's life, as he recognized the power of media and television and began to conceptualize a film documenting the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement \"Civil Rights Movement\").",
"Three years later, in 1968 (while living in [Roxbury, Boston](/wiki/Roxbury%2C_Boston \"Roxbury, Boston\")), he founded Blackside, Inc., which offered \"special expertise in the design and production of film and audio\\-visual products aimed at minority audiences.\"A Different Way of Communicating; A Blackside publicity booklet (1974\\), in the Henry Hampton Collection, Washington University Film \\& Media Archive It became one of the largest minority\\-owned non\\-theatrical film production companies in the U.S. during the mid\\-1970s and until his death in the late 1990s. Hampton and his company produced over 80 programs including [documentaries](/wiki/Documentary_film \"Documentary film\"), [television spots](/wiki/Television_advertisement \"Television advertisement\"), and other media productions.",
"Blackside's primary business between 1968 and 1979 was the production of films, television and radio spots, television programming, and audio\\-visual educational packages. Blackside also produced public service announcements and film\\-based training materials for government and commercial clients. In 1977, the [Harvard School of Design](/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design \"Harvard Graduate School of Design\") granted Hampton a Loeb Fellowship to study constitutional limitations and the nature of media and government information programs. His studies focused on consumers' and citizens' rights to information.",
"Hampton made a commitment to social justice with later productions, including his 1987 magnum opus *[Eyes on the Prize](/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize \"Eyes on the Prize\"): America's Civil Rights Years (1954–1965\\)*. He followed this with a series of pieces, including *Eyes on the Prize II: America at the Racial Crossroads 1965–mid 1980s*; *The Great Depression* (1993\\); *[Malcolm X: Make It Plain](/wiki/Malcolm_X:Make_It_Plain \"Make It Plain\")* (1994\\); *America's War on Poverty* (1995\\); *Breakthrough: The Changing Face of Science in America* (1997\\); *I'll Make Me a World: A Century of African\\-American Arts* (1999\\); *Hopes on the Horizon: Africa in the 1990s* (2001\\); *This Far by Faith: African American Spiritual Journeys* (2003\\).",
"He returned to WashU in 1989 to deliver the [commencement speech](/wiki/Commencement_speech \"Commencement speech\").{{cite web\\|title\\=WU Libraries: Commencement Speakers, 1940 \\- 1990\\|url\\=http://library.wustl.edu/units/spec/archives/facts/commencement2\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-06\\-30\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128220811/http://library.wustl.edu/units/spec/archives/facts/commencement2\\.html\\|archivedate\\=2010\\-01\\-28}}",
"### Health issues and death",
"Hampton had contracted [polio](/wiki/Polio \"Polio\") as a child. In his later years, he had [lung cancer](/wiki/Lung_cancer \"Lung cancer\"), the treatment for which led to [myelodysplastic syndrome](/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome \"Myelodysplastic syndrome\").",
"He died at [Brigham and Women's Hospital](/wiki/Brigham_and_Women%27s_Hospital \"Brigham and Women's Hospital\") on November 22, 1998\\.",
""
] |
United Nations Command staffing
-------------------------------
[thumb\|left\|Two KPA soldiers standing guard inside a JSA conference room, in front of the door leading to the South Korean side of the JSA. View from north to south.](/wiki/File:DPRK_soldier.JPG "DPRK soldier.JPG")
The **United Nations Command Security Battalion \- Joint Security Area (UNCSB\-JSA)**, simply **United Nations Command Security Battalion** was constituted on May 5, 1952, as Army Unit 8020, United Nations Command Military Armistice Commission Support Group (Provisional). Originally authorized five officers and ten enlisted soldiers, the unit grew to over 1,400 officers and men supporting almost 32,000 soldiers, civilians, and diplomats involved in negotiating and then enforcing the Armistice Agreement. By the end of February 1954 the scope of work declined and the number of soldiers assigned to the unit declined as well.
For the next 50 years, the unit underwent several organizational and name changes, although the original mission to secure the Joint Security Area remains the same today as it was in 1952\. On June 11, 1979, the name was changed from US Army Support Group (Joint Security Area) to United Nations Command Support Group—Joint Security Area, and further changed to United Nations Command Security Force—Joint Security Area on December 23, 1985\. On October 15, 1994, UNC Commander directed that the unit be known by its present designation, the United Nations Command Security Battalion \- Joint Security Area.
[thumb\|upright\|A Republic of Korea soldier of the United Nations Command Security Battalion stands guard inside a JSA conference room, in front of the door leading to the North Korean side of the JSA. View from south to north.](/wiki/File:InsideTheJointSecurityArea1.jpg "InsideTheJointSecurityArea1.jpg")
Originally a purely U.S. Army organization, the unit also included ROK soldiers ([KATUSAs](/wiki/KATUSA "KATUSA")). In addition, ROK Army officers served as liaison officers. In the mid\-1970s the JSA consisted of the JSF company with three platoons of one U.S. and one ROKA officer, and thirty enlisted men, supported by a battalion staff. The three platoons were led by the U.S. officer with the ROK officer as the executive officer, and U.S. Army platoon sergeants. The platoons consisted of three squads, with equal numbers of U.S. and KATUSA soldiers.
Sometime after 1979, another (fourth) platoon was added to the JSF to allow time for training during platoon work rotations. In July 1987 the four platoons of the Joint Security Force (JSF) company were reorganized to mix KATUSA and US soldiers at all levels. At the platoon level, two platoons were led by U.S. Army lieutenants and ROKA platoon sergeants, and two were led by ROKA lieutenants and US Army platoon sergeants. In November 1987 the unit received a ROK Army major as its first deputy commander.
On April 25, 1992, the JSF company became a KATUSA\-pure formation. Captain Yin Sung\-hwan became the first ROK commander assisted by a U.S. Army lieutenant as his executive officer. The number of U.S. Army personnel assigned to the unit fell below 200 for the first time since 1952\. American forces assigned to the JSA assumed mainly administrative and support roles.
On October 31, 2004, a ROK Army battalion assumed sole responsibility for the Joint Security Area.[Leadership of Joint Security Area at DMZ transferred to S. Koreans](http://www.estripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=24393&archive=true) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011832/http://www.estripes.com/article.asp?section\=104\&article\=24393\&archive\=true \|date\=September 28, 2007 }}. Retrieved December 3, 2006 This modified light infantry battalion consisted of a battalion headquarters, a headquarters company, two security companies, and a civil affairs company. The number of U.S. personnel assigned decreased further, reflecting the UNC Commander's desire to minimize the USFK presence near the Korean Demilitarized Zone. The commander of the ROKA JSA Battalion serves as the UNCSB\-JSA Deputy Commander. The UNCSB\-JSA Commander's principal responsibility now lies in his operational control of selected ROKA formations during both Armistice and wartime periods.
Both sides placed guards between the blue meeting houses, where the demarcation line is marked by blocks of concrete. South Korean guards in this area were armed with [pistols](/wiki/Pistol "Pistol") and they stood in a modified [taekwondo](/wiki/Taekwondo "Taekwondo") stance with stolid facial expressions, clenched fists and sunglasses, which was meant to intimidate the North Korean guards. The South Korean guards had to be at least 170 cm (5'7") tall{{cite web\|title\=National Geographic: Dangerous Divide\|url\=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0307/feature1/\|publisher\=National Geographic\|access\-date\=February 19, 2013\|archive\-date\=June 14, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614060107/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0307/feature1/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=mxLBywKrTf4 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100810003330/http://www.youtube.com//watch?v\=mxLBywKrTf4 \|archive\-date\=2010\-08\-10 \|url\-status\=dead\|title\=YouTube\|publisher\=\[\[YouTube]]}} and have a black belt in taekwondo or [judo](/wiki/Judo "Judo").
Since October 25, 2018, guards in the Joint Security area no longer have pistols. They are also required to maintain a capacity no larger than 35 people and must be unarmed.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www3\.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20181026\_02/ \|title\=2 Koreas, UNC complete firearms removal from JSA \- News \- NHK WORLD \- English \|access\-date\=October 26, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026064626/https://www3\.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20181026\_02/ \|archive\-date\=October 26, 2018 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=mdy\-all }}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.upi.com/South\-Korea\-disarms\-Joint\-Security\-Area\-in\-North\-South\-border/1631540459514/\|title\=South Korea disarms Joint Security Area in North\-South border\|website\=UPI\|access\-date\=February 20, 2019\|archive\-date\=March 2, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302092626/https://www.upi.com/South\-Korea\-disarms\-Joint\-Security\-Area\-in\-North\-South\-border/1631540459514/\|url\-status\=live}} Freedom of movement across the border must also be enforced for visitors and tourists at some point as well.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/20181025\-koreas\-remove\-guns\-cold\-war\-truce\-village\|title\=Koreas remove guns from Cold War truce village\|date\=October 25, 2018\|website\=France 24\|access\-date\=February 20, 2019\|archive\-date\=April 12, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412004911/https://www.france24\.com/en/20181025\-koreas\-remove\-guns\-cold\-war\-truce\-village\|url\-status\=live}}
On November 6, 2018, both Koreas and the UNC established new rules which called for, among other things, the transfer of guard duty command to both Koreas for each of their respective sides of the area.
|
[
"United Nations Command staffing\n-------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Two KPA soldiers standing guard inside a JSA conference room, in front of the door leading to the South Korean side of the JSA. View from north to south.](/wiki/File:DPRK_soldier.JPG \"DPRK soldier.JPG\")",
"The **United Nations Command Security Battalion \\- Joint Security Area (UNCSB\\-JSA)**, simply **United Nations Command Security Battalion** was constituted on May 5, 1952, as Army Unit 8020, United Nations Command Military Armistice Commission Support Group (Provisional). Originally authorized five officers and ten enlisted soldiers, the unit grew to over 1,400 officers and men supporting almost 32,000 soldiers, civilians, and diplomats involved in negotiating and then enforcing the Armistice Agreement. By the end of February 1954 the scope of work declined and the number of soldiers assigned to the unit declined as well.",
"For the next 50 years, the unit underwent several organizational and name changes, although the original mission to secure the Joint Security Area remains the same today as it was in 1952\\. On June 11, 1979, the name was changed from US Army Support Group (Joint Security Area) to United Nations Command Support Group—Joint Security Area, and further changed to United Nations Command Security Force—Joint Security Area on December 23, 1985\\. On October 15, 1994, UNC Commander directed that the unit be known by its present designation, the United Nations Command Security Battalion \\- Joint Security Area.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|A Republic of Korea soldier of the United Nations Command Security Battalion stands guard inside a JSA conference room, in front of the door leading to the North Korean side of the JSA. View from south to north.](/wiki/File:InsideTheJointSecurityArea1.jpg \"InsideTheJointSecurityArea1.jpg\")",
"Originally a purely U.S. Army organization, the unit also included ROK soldiers ([KATUSAs](/wiki/KATUSA \"KATUSA\")). In addition, ROK Army officers served as liaison officers. In the mid\\-1970s the JSA consisted of the JSF company with three platoons of one U.S. and one ROKA officer, and thirty enlisted men, supported by a battalion staff. The three platoons were led by the U.S. officer with the ROK officer as the executive officer, and U.S. Army platoon sergeants. The platoons consisted of three squads, with equal numbers of U.S. and KATUSA soldiers.",
"Sometime after 1979, another (fourth) platoon was added to the JSF to allow time for training during platoon work rotations. In July 1987 the four platoons of the Joint Security Force (JSF) company were reorganized to mix KATUSA and US soldiers at all levels. At the platoon level, two platoons were led by U.S. Army lieutenants and ROKA platoon sergeants, and two were led by ROKA lieutenants and US Army platoon sergeants. In November 1987 the unit received a ROK Army major as its first deputy commander.",
"On April 25, 1992, the JSF company became a KATUSA\\-pure formation. Captain Yin Sung\\-hwan became the first ROK commander assisted by a U.S. Army lieutenant as his executive officer. The number of U.S. Army personnel assigned to the unit fell below 200 for the first time since 1952\\. American forces assigned to the JSA assumed mainly administrative and support roles.",
"On October 31, 2004, a ROK Army battalion assumed sole responsibility for the Joint Security Area.[Leadership of Joint Security Area at DMZ transferred to S. Koreans](http://www.estripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=24393&archive=true) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011832/http://www.estripes.com/article.asp?section\\=104\\&article\\=24393\\&archive\\=true \\|date\\=September 28, 2007 }}. Retrieved December 3, 2006 This modified light infantry battalion consisted of a battalion headquarters, a headquarters company, two security companies, and a civil affairs company. The number of U.S. personnel assigned decreased further, reflecting the UNC Commander's desire to minimize the USFK presence near the Korean Demilitarized Zone. The commander of the ROKA JSA Battalion serves as the UNCSB\\-JSA Deputy Commander. The UNCSB\\-JSA Commander's principal responsibility now lies in his operational control of selected ROKA formations during both Armistice and wartime periods.",
"Both sides placed guards between the blue meeting houses, where the demarcation line is marked by blocks of concrete. South Korean guards in this area were armed with [pistols](/wiki/Pistol \"Pistol\") and they stood in a modified [taekwondo](/wiki/Taekwondo \"Taekwondo\") stance with stolid facial expressions, clenched fists and sunglasses, which was meant to intimidate the North Korean guards. The South Korean guards had to be at least 170 cm (5'7\") tall{{cite web\\|title\\=National Geographic: Dangerous Divide\\|url\\=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0307/feature1/\\|publisher\\=National Geographic\\|access\\-date\\=February 19, 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=June 14, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614060107/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0307/feature1/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=mxLBywKrTf4 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100810003330/http://www.youtube.com//watch?v\\=mxLBywKrTf4 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=YouTube\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}} and have a black belt in taekwondo or [judo](/wiki/Judo \"Judo\").",
"Since October 25, 2018, guards in the Joint Security area no longer have pistols. They are also required to maintain a capacity no larger than 35 people and must be unarmed.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www3\\.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20181026\\_02/ \\|title\\=2 Koreas, UNC complete firearms removal from JSA \\- News \\- NHK WORLD \\- English \\|access\\-date\\=October 26, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026064626/https://www3\\.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20181026\\_02/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 26, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=mdy\\-all }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.upi.com/South\\-Korea\\-disarms\\-Joint\\-Security\\-Area\\-in\\-North\\-South\\-border/1631540459514/\\|title\\=South Korea disarms Joint Security Area in North\\-South border\\|website\\=UPI\\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=March 2, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302092626/https://www.upi.com/South\\-Korea\\-disarms\\-Joint\\-Security\\-Area\\-in\\-North\\-South\\-border/1631540459514/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Freedom of movement across the border must also be enforced for visitors and tourists at some point as well.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/20181025\\-koreas\\-remove\\-guns\\-cold\\-war\\-truce\\-village\\|title\\=Koreas remove guns from Cold War truce village\\|date\\=October 25, 2018\\|website\\=France 24\\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=April 12, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412004911/https://www.france24\\.com/en/20181025\\-koreas\\-remove\\-guns\\-cold\\-war\\-truce\\-village\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"On November 6, 2018, both Koreas and the UNC established new rules which called for, among other things, the transfer of guard duty command to both Koreas for each of their respective sides of the area.",
""
] |
Plot
----
{{Long plot\|date\=December 2019}}
In the opening scenes we meet [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") [socialite](/wiki/Socialite "Socialite") Joyce Ramsey, her daughter Dee; Dee’s fiancée, a banker; Joyce’s husband, David; their daughter, Martha, a college student; Martha’s outspoken boyfriend, Phil Polanski, who is working his way through college to become an agricultural chemist. Joyce is concerned about Phil’s working\-class background: His family is Czech and his father works as a taxi starter at the Union Terminal. Joyce is clearly accustomed to managing everything around her in order to maintain the position, family and success that she and David set out to achieve. David is preoccupied and unhappy, and while he is dressing for dinner, he suddenly asks for a divorce, which stuns her. He tells her he is leaving that night, prompting her to look back on their marriage.
Via a [flashback](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 "Flashback (narrative)"), we learn about the couple's humble beginnings in farming country and discover how they worked their way into the world of the [nouveau riche](/wiki/Nouveau_riche "Nouveau riche"). David is a [Santa Rosa](/wiki/Santa_Rosa%2C_California "Santa Rosa, California") [attorney](/wiki/Lawyer "Lawyer") with no clients, working on construction jobs with his law partner, Bob Townsend. David's wife Joyce serves as the struggling firm's secretary. Finding herself pregnant, she schemes to land a new client, Swanson, a former factory worker with a valuable steel\-making patent. She succeeds at getting him to hire David alone. After the baby is born, Bob is planning to quit and work in a law office. Swanson comes by the apartment with instructions for David and the truth comes out. Bob is very angry and quits. David is furious with his wife, but she placates him by convincing him her sole intent was to help him and their child, to give them hope. He promises he’ll find a way to make it up to Bob.
Back in the present, Joyce is forced to admit to her daughters their father has left her when a society columnist calls to question his move. She goes out to a luncheon engagement, leaving the stunned girls to wonder why their parents’ marriage is in trouble. At lunch, she learns from her friends that David has been seen with another woman and goes to a lawyer, Mr. Prescott. Through him, she hires a private detective to investigate. The attorney warns her not to talk about her suspicions to anyone.
Another flashback, and David is taking her to the hospital for the birth of their second child. David, now an executive in Swanson's company, announces he has been transferred to San Francisco but wants to buy a little farm within driving distance. Joyce, longing for the excitement of city living and eager for her children to have the benefits of living among people who are doing big things, changes his mind. Eventually she meets Emily Hedges, and the two, bonded by their social\-climbing aspirations, become close friends.
An additional flashback which occurs in the more recent past reveals Robert Townsend, in desperate need of $15,000, arriving at the Ramsey home to request a loan. He had refused David’s offers of help for 20 years, but needs him now. Joyce tells him David is away on business and won’t be back for 10 days; she is unable to help him. Her husband learns of her lie and comes to his former partner's aid; she is furious. He accuses Joyce of being callous and breaks off the conversation “before I tell you the truth about yourself.”
A return to the present, where David and girl friend Eileen Benson, alone in her apartment, are photographed through a window by the detective Joyce hired. He asks Eileen to marry him, to save her reputation, but she says no. During a divorce settlement a few days later, Joyce insists that David fund a joint trust or separate trusts for both their daughters, rejecting the idea that Dee’s marriage will provide security for her. She refuses David’s bonded guarantee of what we would call child\-support payments; they must become part of the trust(s). She also rejects David’s offer of half of everything he owns, in addition to their home, all her personal possessions and jewelry, which are not included in the settlement. Both lawyers are shocked—David is offering more than any court would award to her. She asks the lawyers to leave them alone. She proceeds to demand all of David's assets, threatening to sue him, naming Eileen as correspondent and revealing their infidelity before the world if he does not comply with her demands. Appalled, David complies with Joyce's demands and instructs his lawyer to give her anything she wants. There is only one more thing to be decided: custody of Martha, who is old enough to choose with which parent she will live. Looking up into her father’s eyes, Martha says quietly that she will choose the parent who needs her most—her mother.
While on a [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") [cruise](/wiki/Cruising_%28maritime%29 "Cruising (maritime)"), Joyce meets Englishman Anthony Tunliffe. During a stop in [Port\-au\-Prince](/wiki/Port-au-Prince "Port-au-Prince"), the two visit the now\-divorced, disillusioned and alcoholic Emily living with a [gigolo](/wiki/Gigolo "Gigolo"), and she expresses concern for Joyce's future. When Joyce learns Anthony is married and looking for nothing more than an extramarital affair, she leaves the ship and returns home.
At Martha and Phil's wedding, Joyce and David meet, but they sit at opposite ends of the table. All the friends and family go to the airport to see them off. Joyce leans against a railing, out of sight, weeping uncontrollably. David offers to put her in a taxi, and when he asks if she wants him to ride with her, she nods, speechless. In the cab, she recovers enough to tell him that she is crying not for Martha but for herself. She knows about loneliness now. She had not known how much a part of him she was. He walks her to the front door, where he suggests they start anew. He wants her back. She tells him that she has never wanted anything so much as to have him with her tonight, but she owes him something. Be sure he’s not saying this because he pities her. He moves to kiss her, but Joyce pulls back. She asks him not to decide tonight. But if he wants her back tomorrow, or the day after, or anytime, she’ll be waiting. She goes in and David walks away, smiling.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"{{Long plot\\|date\\=December 2019}}\nIn the opening scenes we meet [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") [socialite](/wiki/Socialite \"Socialite\") Joyce Ramsey, her daughter Dee; Dee’s fiancée, a banker; Joyce’s husband, David; their daughter, Martha, a college student; Martha’s outspoken boyfriend, Phil Polanski, who is working his way through college to become an agricultural chemist. Joyce is concerned about Phil’s working\\-class background: His family is Czech and his father works as a taxi starter at the Union Terminal. Joyce is clearly accustomed to managing everything around her in order to maintain the position, family and success that she and David set out to achieve. David is preoccupied and unhappy, and while he is dressing for dinner, he suddenly asks for a divorce, which stuns her. He tells her he is leaving that night, prompting her to look back on their marriage.",
"Via a [flashback](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 \"Flashback (narrative)\"), we learn about the couple's humble beginnings in farming country and discover how they worked their way into the world of the [nouveau riche](/wiki/Nouveau_riche \"Nouveau riche\"). David is a [Santa Rosa](/wiki/Santa_Rosa%2C_California \"Santa Rosa, California\") [attorney](/wiki/Lawyer \"Lawyer\") with no clients, working on construction jobs with his law partner, Bob Townsend. David's wife Joyce serves as the struggling firm's secretary. Finding herself pregnant, she schemes to land a new client, Swanson, a former factory worker with a valuable steel\\-making patent. She succeeds at getting him to hire David alone. After the baby is born, Bob is planning to quit and work in a law office. Swanson comes by the apartment with instructions for David and the truth comes out. Bob is very angry and quits. David is furious with his wife, but she placates him by convincing him her sole intent was to help him and their child, to give them hope. He promises he’ll find a way to make it up to Bob.",
"Back in the present, Joyce is forced to admit to her daughters their father has left her when a society columnist calls to question his move. She goes out to a luncheon engagement, leaving the stunned girls to wonder why their parents’ marriage is in trouble. At lunch, she learns from her friends that David has been seen with another woman and goes to a lawyer, Mr. Prescott. Through him, she hires a private detective to investigate. The attorney warns her not to talk about her suspicions to anyone.",
"Another flashback, and David is taking her to the hospital for the birth of their second child. David, now an executive in Swanson's company, announces he has been transferred to San Francisco but wants to buy a little farm within driving distance. Joyce, longing for the excitement of city living and eager for her children to have the benefits of living among people who are doing big things, changes his mind. Eventually she meets Emily Hedges, and the two, bonded by their social\\-climbing aspirations, become close friends.",
"An additional flashback which occurs in the more recent past reveals Robert Townsend, in desperate need of $15,000, arriving at the Ramsey home to request a loan. He had refused David’s offers of help for 20 years, but needs him now. Joyce tells him David is away on business and won’t be back for 10 days; she is unable to help him. Her husband learns of her lie and comes to his former partner's aid; she is furious. He accuses Joyce of being callous and breaks off the conversation “before I tell you the truth about yourself.”",
"A return to the present, where David and girl friend Eileen Benson, alone in her apartment, are photographed through a window by the detective Joyce hired. He asks Eileen to marry him, to save her reputation, but she says no. During a divorce settlement a few days later, Joyce insists that David fund a joint trust or separate trusts for both their daughters, rejecting the idea that Dee’s marriage will provide security for her. She refuses David’s bonded guarantee of what we would call child\\-support payments; they must become part of the trust(s). She also rejects David’s offer of half of everything he owns, in addition to their home, all her personal possessions and jewelry, which are not included in the settlement. Both lawyers are shocked—David is offering more than any court would award to her. She asks the lawyers to leave them alone. She proceeds to demand all of David's assets, threatening to sue him, naming Eileen as correspondent and revealing their infidelity before the world if he does not comply with her demands. Appalled, David complies with Joyce's demands and instructs his lawyer to give her anything she wants. There is only one more thing to be decided: custody of Martha, who is old enough to choose with which parent she will live. Looking up into her father’s eyes, Martha says quietly that she will choose the parent who needs her most—her mother.",
"While on a [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") [cruise](/wiki/Cruising_%28maritime%29 \"Cruising (maritime)\"), Joyce meets Englishman Anthony Tunliffe. During a stop in [Port\\-au\\-Prince](/wiki/Port-au-Prince \"Port-au-Prince\"), the two visit the now\\-divorced, disillusioned and alcoholic Emily living with a [gigolo](/wiki/Gigolo \"Gigolo\"), and she expresses concern for Joyce's future. When Joyce learns Anthony is married and looking for nothing more than an extramarital affair, she leaves the ship and returns home.",
"At Martha and Phil's wedding, Joyce and David meet, but they sit at opposite ends of the table. All the friends and family go to the airport to see them off. Joyce leans against a railing, out of sight, weeping uncontrollably. David offers to put her in a taxi, and when he asks if she wants him to ride with her, she nods, speechless. In the cab, she recovers enough to tell him that she is crying not for Martha but for herself. She knows about loneliness now. She had not known how much a part of him she was. He walks her to the front door, where he suggests they start anew. He wants her back. She tells him that she has never wanted anything so much as to have him with her tonight, but she owes him something. Be sure he’s not saying this because he pities her. He moves to kiss her, but Joyce pulls back. She asks him not to decide tonight. But if he wants her back tomorrow, or the day after, or anytime, she’ll be waiting. She goes in and David walks away, smiling.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early experiments
[thumb\|A circa 1850 "Hillotype" photograph of a colored engraving. Long believed to be a complete fraud, recent testing found that [Levi Hill](/wiki/Levi_Hill "Levi Hill")'s process did reproduce some color photographically, but also that many specimens had been "sweetened" by the addition of [hand\-applied colors](/wiki/Hand-colouring_of_photographs "Hand-colouring of photographs").](/wiki/File:Hillotypie.jpg "Hillotypie.jpg")
Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a "chameleon substance" which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Some encouraging early results, typically obtained by projecting a solar [spectrum](/wiki/Spectrum "Spectrum") directly onto the sensitive surface, seemed to promise eventual success, but the comparatively dim image formed in a camera required exposures lasting for hours or even days. The quality and range of the color was sometimes severely limited mainly to primary colors, as in the chemically complicated "Hillotype" process invented by American [daguerreotypist](/wiki/Daguerreotype "Daguerreotype") [Levi Hill](/wiki/Levi_Hill "Levi Hill") around 1850\. Other experimenters, such as [Edmond Becquerel](/wiki/A._E._Becquerel "A. E. Becquerel"), achieved better results but could find no way to prevent the colors from quickly fading when the images were exposed to light for viewing. Over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value.
### Three\-color processes
The three\-color method, which is the foundation of virtually all practical color processes whether chemical or electronic, was first suggested in an 1855 paper on [color vision](/wiki/Color_vision "Color vision") by Scottish physicist [James Clerk Maxwell](/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell "James Clerk Maxwell").{{cite news\|title\=From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home\-news/charles\-mackintosh\-chemist\-waterproof\-google\-doodle\-scotland\-inventions\-innovation\-bicycles\-a7499911\.html\|work\=The independent\|date\=30 December 2016\|access\-date\=19 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002171029/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home\-news/charles\-mackintosh\-chemist\-waterproof\-google\-doodle\-scotland\-inventions\-innovation\-bicycles\-a7499911\.html\|archive\-date\=2 October 2017\|url\-status\=live}}
It is based on the [Young–Helmholtz theory](/wiki/Young%E2%80%93Helmholtz_theory "Young–Helmholtz theory") that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled [cone cells](/wiki/Cone_cell "Cone cell") of three types: in theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the [spectrum](/wiki/Spectrum "Spectrum") we call "red", another is more sensitive to the middle or "green" region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by "blue". The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of [light](/wiki/Light "Light").
In his studies of color vision, Maxwell showed, by using a [rotating disk](/wiki/Maxwell%27s_discs "Maxwell's discs") with which he could alter the proportions, that any visible hue or gray tone could be made by mixing only three pure colors of light – red, green and blue – in proportions that would stimulate the three types of cells to the same degrees under particular lighting conditions.{{cite journal\|title\=Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour\-blindness\|first\=James Clerk\|last\=Maxwell\|year\=1855\|journal\=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\|volume\=XXI part II\|url\=http://www.jimworthey.com/archive/\|access\-date\=2014\-07\-06\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714222547/http://www.jimworthey.com/archive/\|archive\-date\=2014\-07\-14\|url\-status\=live}} To emphasize that each type of cell by itself did not actually see color but was simply more or less stimulated, he drew an analogy to black\-and\-white photography: if three colorless photographs of the same scene were taken through red, green and blue filters, and transparencies ("slides") made from them were projected through the same filters and superimposed on a screen, the result would be an image reproducing not only red, green and blue, but all of the colors in the original scene.{{cite book
\| title \= Science progress in the twentieth century: a quarterly journal of scientific work \& thought, Volume 2
\| publisher \= John Murray
\| year \= 1908
\| page \= 359
\| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=6sU\-AAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA359
\| access\-date \= 2016\-10\-10
\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20191215050317/https://books.google.com/books?id\=6sU\-AAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA359
\| archive\-date \= 2019\-12\-15
\| url\-status \= live
}} (Note: in apparent deference to the primaries named by [Thomas Young](/wiki/Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29 "Thomas Young (scientist)"), Maxwell calls the short\-wavelength primary "violet" in the relevant paragraphs of his 1855 paper, though he actually used blue in his own experiments, which the paper also describes, and in his 1861 demonstration)
The first color photograph made according to Maxwell's prescription, a set of three monochrome "[color separations](/wiki/Color_separation "Color separation")", was taken by [Thomas Sutton](/wiki/Thomas_Sutton_%28photographer%29 "Thomas Sutton (photographer)") in 1861 for use in illustrating a lecture on color by Maxwell, where it was shown in color by the triple projection method.{{cite news\|title\=The first colour photograph, 1861\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/picture/2013/jul/09/first\-colour\-photograph\|newspaper\=The Guardian\|date\=3 January 2017\|access\-date\=3 January 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104003041/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/picture/2013/jul/09/first\-colour\-photograph\|archive\-date\=4 January 2017\|url\-status\=live}} The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of various colors, apparently including red and green. During the lecture, which was about physics and physiology, not photography, Maxwell commented on the inadequacy of the results and the need for a photographic material more sensitive to red and green light. A century later, historians were mystified by the reproduction of any red at all, because the photographic process used by Sutton was for all practical purposes totally insensitive to red light and only marginally sensitive to green. In 1961, researchers found that many red dyes also reflect ultraviolet light, coincidentally transmitted by Sutton's red filter, and surmised that the three images were probably due to ultra\-violet, blue\-green and blue wavelengths, rather than to red, green and blue.R.W.G. Hunt (2004\). *The Reproduction of Colour*, 6th edition. Wiley. pp 9–10\.
R.M. Evans (1961a). “Some Notes on Maxwell’s Colour Photograph.” *Journal of Photographic Science* **9**. pp243–246
R.M. Evans (1961b). “Maxwell's Color Photography”. *Scientific Photography* **205**. pp 117–128\.
### Additive color
Creating colors by mixing colored lights (usually red, green and blue) in various proportions is the additive method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT (picture tube) color video displays all use this method. If one of these displays is examined with a sufficiently strong magnifier, it will be seen that each pixel is actually composed of red, green and blue sub\-pixels which blend at normal viewing distances, reproducing a wide range of colors as well as white and shades of gray. This is also known as the [RGB color model](/wiki/RGB_color_model "RGB color model").
### Subtractive color
The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for additive color synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are normally cyan, a greenish\-blue which absorbs red; magenta, a purplish\-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue. The red\-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green\-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue\-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image.
This is also known as the [CMYK color model](/wiki/CMYK_color_model "CMYK color model"). The "K" is a black component normally added in ink\-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition.
[thumb\|Color print made by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron "Louis Ducos du Hauron") from three direct [photograms](/wiki/Photogram "Photogram"), 1869 or 1870\. A presentation copy of this bears an early (February?) 1870 date on the mat in DdH's handwriting. This may refer to the print date only, with the original photography possibly occurring in 1869\.](/wiki/File:Direct_Print_1869.jpg "Direct Print 1869.jpg")
At first it may seem that each image ought to be printed in the color of the filter used in making it, but by following any given color through the process the reason for printing in complementary colors should become apparent. A red object, for example, will be very pale in the red\-filtered image but very dark in the other two images, so the result will be an area with just a trace of cyan, absorbing just a bit of red light, but a large amount of magenta and yellow, which together absorb most of the green and blue light, leaving mainly red light to be reflected back from the white paper in the case of a print, or transmitted through a clear support in the case of a transparency.
Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full\-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor\-intensive and time\-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so\-called [carbon process](/wiki/Carbon_print "Carbon print") and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three black\-and\-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re\-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short\-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light\-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct.
[thumb\|An 1877 color photographic print on paper by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron "Louis Ducos du Hauron"), the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red [subtractive color](/wiki/Subtractive_color "Subtractive color") elements are apparent.](/wiki/File:Duhauron1877.jpg "Duhauron1877.jpg")
The production of photographic three\-color prints on paper was pioneered by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron "Louis Ducos du Hauron"), whose comprehensive 1868 French patent also included the basic concepts of most of the color photographic processes which were subsequently developed. For making the three color\-filtered negatives required, he was able to develop materials and methods which were not as completely blind to red and green light as those used by Thomas Sutton in 1861, but they were still very insensitive to those colors. Exposure times were impractically long, the red or orange\-filtered negative requiring hours of exposure in the camera. His earliest surviving color prints are "sun prints" of pressed flowers and leaves, each of the three negatives having been made without a camera by exposing the light\-sensitive surface to direct sunlight passing first through a color filter and then through the vegetation. His first attempts were based on the red\-yellow\-blue colors then used for pigments, with no color reversal. Later he used the primary colors of light with color reversal.
### Color sensitization
As long as photographic materials were usefully sensitive only to blue\-green, blue, violet and ultraviolet, three\-color photography could never be practical. In 1873 German chemist Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the addition of small amounts of certain aniline dyes to a [photographic emulsion](/wiki/Photographic_emulsion "Photographic emulsion") could add sensitivity to colors which the dyes absorbed. He identified dyes which variously sensitized for all the previously ineffective colors except true red, to which only a marginal trace of sensitivity could be added.Vogel, H: "On the sensitiveness of bromide of silver to the so\-called chemically inactive colours", *Chemical News*, December 26, 1873:318–319, copying from *The Photographic News*, date and page not cited but apparently December 12, 1873 (the latter not known to be available online as of August 6, 2010\), in turn translated from Vogel's own publication *Photographische Mittheilungen*, December, 1873 10(117\):233–237\. The capital letters used in this and other sources cited refer to the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, in keeping with contemporary practice. For convenience of reference: C is 656 nm, a slightly deeper red than the output of an average red laser pointer; D is 589 nm, the orange\-yellow light of a sodium vapor lamp; E is 527 nm, green.Vogel, H: "Photo\-spectroscopic researches", *The Photographic News*, March 20, 1874:136–137, translated from *Photographische Mittheilungen*, February, 1874 10(119\):279–283\.Vogel, H: "Rendering actinic non\-actinic rays", *The Photographic News*, July 3, 1874:320–321, a direct communication (apparently in the original English) to *The Photographic News*.Meldola, R. ["Recent Researches In Photography"](https://books.google.com/books?id=9R8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA717). "Popular Science", October 1874, Pg.717–720 ISSN 0161\-7370 In the following year, Edmond Becquerel discovered that chlorophyll was a good sensitizer for red.Becquerel, E: "The action of rays of different refrangibility upon the iodide and bromide of silver: the influence of colouring matters", *The Photographic News*, October 23, 1874:508–509, translated from *Comptes Rendus* (1874\) 79:185–190 (the latter downloaded from the Bibliotheque Nationale Francaise on January 28, 2006 but not directly linkable). Note one significant error in the *Photographic News* translation, page 509: "...vigorous band between the rays C and D" (referring to Fraunhofer lines) should be "C and B" per the original French text and in agreement with subsequent mentions in the translation. Although it would be many more years before these sensitizers (and better ones developed later) found much use beyond scientific applications such as spectrography, they were quickly and eagerly adopted by Louis Ducos du Hauron, Charles Cros and other color photography pioneers. Exposure times for the "problem" colors could now be reduced from hours to minutes. As ever\-more\-sensitive gelatin emulsions replaced the old wet and dry collodion processes, the minutes became seconds. New sensitizing dyes introduced early in the 20th century eventually made so\-called "instantaneous" color exposures possible.
### Color cameras
[thumb\|A 1909 color photograph by [Sergey Prokudin\-Gorsky](/wiki/Sergey_Prokudin-Gorsky "Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky"), documenting Russian peasant girls in a rural area along the [Sheksna River](/wiki/Sheksna_River "Sheksna River") near [Kirillov](/wiki/Kirillov_%28town%29 "Kirillov (town)")](/wiki/File:Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg "Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg")
Making color separations by reloading the camera and changing the filter between exposures was inconvenient, added delays to the already long exposure times and could result in the camera being accidentally shifted out of position. To improve the actual picture\-taking, a number of experimenters designed one or more special cameras for color photography. They were usually of two main types.
The first type used a system of partially reflecting surfaces to divide the light coming through the lens into three parts, each part passing through a different color filter and forming a separate image, so that the three images could be photographed at the same time on three plates (flexible film had not yet replaced glass plates as the support for the emulsion) or different areas of one plate. Later known as "one\-shot" cameras, refined versions continued to be used as late as the 1950s for special purposes such as commercial photography for publication, in which a set of color separations was ultimately required in order to prepare printing plates.
The second type, known variously as a multiple back, repeating back or drop back camera, still exposed the images one at a time but used a sliding holder for the filters and plates which allowed each filter and the corresponding unexposed area of emulsion to be quickly shifted into place. German photochemistry professor [Adolf Miethe](/wiki/Adolf_Miethe "Adolf Miethe") designed a high\-quality camera of this type which was commercially introduced by Bermpohl in 1903\. It was probably this Miethe\-Bermpohl camera which was used by Miethe's pupil [Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin\-Gorskii](/wiki/Sergei_Mikhailovich_Prokudin-Gorskii "Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii") to make his now\-celebrated color photographic surveys of [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia") before the 1917 revolution. One sophisticated variant, patented by Frederic Eugene Ives in 1897, was driven by clockwork and could be adjusted to automatically make each of the exposures for a different length of time according to the particular color sensitivities of the emulsion being used.Ives, F: *Kromskop Color Photography*, pages 33–35\. The Photochromoscope Syndicate Limited, London, 1898\. Only a brief description of this automated camera is given but a line drawing of the mechanism and the patent reference are included. An Ives one\-shot camera is described and illustrated on pages 30–33 and a horizontally oriented multiple back attachment is illustrated on page 37\.
Otherwise simple cameras with multiple color\-filtered lenses were sometimes tried, but unless everything in the scene was at a great distance, or all in a plane at the same distance, the difference in the viewpoints of the lenses ([parallax](/wiki/Parallax "Parallax")) made it impossible to completely register all parts of the resulting images at the same time.
### Color photography leaves the laboratory
Prior to the late 1890s color photography was strictly the domain of a very few experimenters willing to build their own equipment, do their own color\-sensitizing of photographic emulsions, make and test their own color filters and otherwise devote a large amount of time and effort to their pursuits. There were many opportunities for something to go wrong during the series of operations required and problem\-free results were rare. Most photographers still regarded the whole idea of color photography as a pipe dream, something only madmen and swindlers would claim to have accomplished.
In 1898, however, it was possible to buy the required equipment and supplies ready\-made. Two adequately red\-sensitive photographic platesAbney, W: "Orthochromatic photography", *Journal of the Society of Arts*, May 22, 1896 44:587–597 describes and illustrates (with spectrum photographs and curves) the characteristics of the Lumière Panchromatic and Cadett Spectrum plates as of 1896\. Note that during this period "orthochromatic" was not intended to mean "red\-blind", although most or all commercial products so labeled indeed were, which may explain the subsequent evolution in the meaning of the word. The wild roller\-coaster curves necessitated laborious adjustment and testing of the color filters to obtain the three desired curves. In the cases of the red and green filters, that could mean quashing over ninety\-nine percent of the overall sensitivity, requiring exposures measured in seconds under circumstances where one\-fiftieth of a second would have sufficed for unfiltered monochrome use. Disproportionate blue sensitivity, requiring the use of a yellow filter for accurate monochrome rendition in daylight, was typical of commercial panchromatic emulsions far into the 20th Century. See also the previously referenced Ives, F: *Kromskop Color Photography*, price list (following page 80\) pages 1–2, and the subsequently referenced Joly, J: "On a method...", page 135 for mentions of the use of the Lumière Panchromatic in those systems. The alternative alluded to in Ives may be the Cadett Spectrum but could also be the Edwards Isochromatic, only slightly sensitive to red, which Ives is on record as having employed at an earlier date. The Cadett *Lightning* Spectrum plate, with an improved spectral response curve and greatly increased overall speed, was available by mid\-1900\. were already on the market, and two very different systems of color photography with which to use them, described in photographic magazines for several years prior, were finally available to the public.
The most extensive and expensive of the two was the "Kromskop" (pronounced "chrome\-scope") system developed by [Frederic Eugene Ives](/wiki/Frederic_Eugene_Ives "Frederic Eugene Ives").{{Cite web \|url\=https://thebioscope.net/2008/01/12/colourful\-stories\-no\-2\-the\-kromskop/ \|title\=Colourful stories no. 2 – the Kromskop \|date\=12 January 2008 \|access\-date\=2018\-04\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424202551/https://thebioscope.net/2008/01/12/colourful\-stories\-no\-2\-the\-kromskop/ \|archive\-date\=2018\-04\-24 \|url\-status\=live }} This was a straightforward additive system and its essential elements had been described by James Clerk Maxwell, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros much earlier, but Ives invested years of work and ingenuity in refining the methods and materials to optimize color quality, in overcoming problems inherent in the optical systems involved, and in simplifying the apparatus to bring down the cost of producing it commercially. The color images, dubbed "Kromograms", were in the form of sets of three black\-and\-white transparencies on glass, mounted onto special cloth\-tape\-hinged triple cardboard frames. To see a Kromogram in color it had to be inserted into a "Kromskop" (generic name "chromoscope" or "photochromoscope"), a viewing device which used an arrangement of colored glass filters to illuminate each slide with the correct color of light and transparent reflectors to visually combine them into a single full\-color image. The most popular model was [stereoscopic](/wiki/Stereoscopic "Stereoscopic"). By looking through its pair of lenses, an image in full natural color and 3\-D was seen, a startling novelty in the late Victorian age.
The results won near\-universal praise for excellence and realism. At demonstrations, Ives sometimes placed a viewer displaying a still\-life subject next to the actual objects photographed, inviting direct comparison. A Kromskop triple "lantern" could be used to project the three images, mounted in a special metal or wooden frame for this purpose, through filters as Maxwell had done in 1861\. Prepared Kromograms of still\-life subjects, landscapes, famous buildings and works of art were sold and these were the Kromskop viewer's usual fodder, but a "multiple back" camera attachment and a set of three specially adjusted color filters could be bought by "Kromskopists" wishing to make their own Kromograms.
Kromskops and ready\-made Kromograms were bought by educational institutions for their value in teaching about color and color vision, as well as by wealthy individuals. A few people made their own Kromograms. These were not enough to sustain Ives’ businesses, which had been set up to exploit the system; they soon failed, but the viewers, projectors, Kromograms and several varieties of Kromskop cameras and camera attachments continued to be available through the Scientific Shop in Chicago as late as 1907\.
### Screen\-plate era
[thumb\|A color photograph made by Lippmann in the 1890s. It contains no pigments or dyes of any kind.](/wiki/File:Lippmann_photo_flowers.jpg "Lippmann photo flowers.jpg")
The simpler and somewhat more economical alternative was the Joly screen process. This required no special camera or viewer, just a special color\-compensating filter for the camera lens and a special holder for the photographic plates. The holder contained the heart of the system: a clear glass plate on which very fine lines of three colors had been ruled in a regular repeating pattern, completely covering its surface. The idea was that instead of taking three separate complete photographs through three colored filters, the filters could be in the form of a large number of very narrow strips (the colored lines) allowing the necessary color information to be recorded in a single compound image. After the negative was developed, a positive transparency was printed from it and a viewing screen with red, green and blue lines in the same pattern as the lines of the taking screen was applied and carefully aligned. The colors then appeared as if by magic. The transparency and screen were very like the layer of monochrome liquid crystal elements and overlay of hair\-thin red, green and blue color filter stripes which create the color image in a typical LCD display. This was the invention of Irish scientist John Joly, although he, like so many other inventors, eventually discovered that his basic concept had been anticipated in Louis Ducos du Hauron's long\-since\-expired 1868 patent.Joly, J: "On a method of photography in natural colors", *Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society*, October, 1896 6(2\):127–138 includes details such as the actual reasons for the unusual colors employed in the taking screen and examples of the exposures required. The color illustrations have obviously had considerable hand\-work done by the engravers and may have been entirely hand\-colored using the original transparencies as a guide. As is evident from page 127, publication was delayed by more than a year. The 1895 date is confirmed by the publication of a lengthy abstract in *Nature*, November 28, 1895 53(1361\):91–93\.
The Joly screen process had some problems. First and foremost, although the colored lines were reasonably fine (about 75 sets of three colored lines to the inch) they were still disturbingly visible at normal viewing distances and nearly intolerable when enlarged by projection. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that each screen was individually ruled on a machine which used three pens to apply the transparent colored inks, resulting in irregularities, high reject rates and high cost. The glass used for photographic plates at the time was not perfectly flat, and lack of uniform good contact between the screen and the image gave rise to areas of degraded color. Poor contact also caused false colors to appear if the sandwich was viewed at an angle. Although much simpler than the Kromskop system, the Joly system was not inexpensive. The starter kit of plate holder, compensating filter, one taking screen and one viewing screen cost US$30 (the equivalent of at least $750 in 2010 dollars) and additional viewing screens were $1 each (the equivalent of at least $25 in 2010 dollars). This system, too, soon died of neglect, although in fact it pointed the way to the future.
Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned.
[Lippmann photography](/wiki/Lippmann_plate "Lippmann plate") is a way of making a color photograph that relies on Bragg reflection planes in the emulsion to make the colors. It is similar to using the colors of soap bubbles to make an image. [Gabriel Jonas Lippmann](/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann "Gabriel Lippmann") won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1908 for the creation of the first color photographic process using a single emulsion. The method is based on the [interference phenomenon](/wiki/Wave_interference "Wave interference").From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967\. The color fidelity is extremely high but the images can not be reproduced and viewing requires very specific lighting conditions. The development of the Autochrome process quickly rendered the Lippmann method redundant. The method is still utilized to make singular images that cannot be copied for security purposes.
The first commercially successful color process, the [Lumière Autochrome](/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re "Autochrome Lumière"), invented by the French [Lumière brothers](/wiki/Auguste_and_Louis_Lumi%C3%A8re "Auguste and Louis Lumière"), reached the market in 1907\. Instead of colored strips, it was based on an irregular screen plate filter made of three colors of dyed grains of [potato starch](/wiki/Potato_starch "Potato starch") which were too small to be individually visible. The light\-sensitive emulsion was coated directly onto the screen plate, eliminating problems due to imperfect contact between the screen and image. Reversal processing was used to convert the negative image which was initially produced into a positive image by removing the exposed silver metal, and re\-exposing the remaining silver halide, so no printing or screen registration was required. The shortcomings of the Autochrome process were the expense (one plate cost about as much as a dozen black\-and\-white plates of the same size), the relatively long exposure times which made hand\-held "snapshots" and photographs of moving subjects impractical, and the density of the finished image due to the presence of the light\-absorbing color screen.
Viewed under optimum conditions and by daylight as intended, a well\-made and well\-preserved Autochrome can look startlingly fresh and vivid. Unfortunately, modern film and digital copies are usually made with a highly diffused light source, which causes loss of color saturation and other ill effects due to light scatter within the structure of the screen and emulsion, and by fluorescent or other artificial light which alters the color balance. The capabilities of the process should not be judged by the dull, washed\-out, odd\-colored reproductions commonly seen.
Millions of Autochrome plates were manufactured and used during the quarter century before the plates were replaced by film\-based versions in the 1930s. The very last film version, named Alticolor, brought the Autochrome process into the 1950s but was discontinued in 1955\. Many additive color screen products were available between the 1890s and the 1950s, but none, with the possible exception of [Dufaycolor](/wiki/Dufaycolor "Dufaycolor"), introduced as film for still photography in 1935, was as popular or successful as the Lumière Autochrome. The most recent use of the additive screen process for non\-digital photography was in Polachrome, an "instant" 35mm slide film introduced in 1983 and discontinued about twenty years later.
{{Gallery
\|title\=
\|align\=center
\|File:Taj Mahal 1921\.JPG\|A 1914 color photograph of the \[\[Taj Mahal]] published in a 1921 issue of ''\[\[National Geographic (magazine)\|National Geographic]]'' magazine.
\|File:Nieuport 23 C.1\.jpg\|An Autochrome of a \[\[World War I]] \[\[Nieuport 23]] \[\[biplane]] fighter, circa 1917\.
\|File:Stockholmsutställningen 1930 Villa 48\.jpg\|House in \[\[Stockholm]], Autochrome, 1930\.
\|File:Gustaf Adolfs torg 1934\.jpg\|Autochrome dated 1934, the \[\[Royal Swedish Opera]]
}}
### Tripacks
Louis Ducos du Hauron had suggested using a sandwich of three differently color\-recording emulsions on transparent supports which could be exposed together in an ordinary camera, then taken apart and used like any other set of three\-color separations. The problem was that although two of the emulsions could be in contact face\-to\-face, the third would have to be separated by the thickness of one transparent support layer. Because all silver halide emulsions are inherently sensitive to blue, the blue\-recording layer ought to be on top and have a blue\-blocking yellow filter layer behind it. This blue\-recording layer, used to make the yellow print which could most afford to be "soft", would end up producing the sharpest image. The two layers behind it, one sensitized to red but not green and the other to green but not red, would suffer from scattering of the light as it passed through the topmost emulsion, and one or both would further suffer by being spaced away from it.
Despite these limitations, some "tripacks" were commercially produced, such as the Hess\-Ives "Hiblock" which sandwiched an emulsion on film between emulsions coated on glass plates. For a brief period in the early 1930s, the American Agfa\-Ansco company produced Colorol, a roll\-film tripack for snapshot cameras. The three emulsions were on unusually thin film bases. After exposure, the roll was sent to Agfa\-Ansco for processing and the triple negatives were returned to the customer with a set of color prints. The images were not sharp and the color was not very good, but they were genuine "natural color" snapshots.
"Bipacks" using only two emulsions face\-to\-face were the subject of some development. Although the range of colors which could be reproduced by only two components was limited, skin tones and most hair and eye colors could be rendered with surprising fidelity, making bipack processes a viable option for color portraiture. In commercial practice, however, the use of bipacks was almost entirely confined to two\-color motion picture systems.
If the three layers of emulsion in a tripack did not have to be taken apart in order to produce the cyan, magenta and yellow dye images from them, they could be coated directly on top of each other, eliminating the most serious problems. In fact, some chemical magic was under development which would make that possible.
### Color film since the 1930s
In 1935, American [Eastman Kodak](/wiki/Eastman_Kodak "Eastman Kodak") introduced the first modern "integral tripack" color film and called it [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome "Kodachrome"), a name recycled from an earlier and completely different two\-color process. Its development was led by the improbable team of [Leopold Mannes](/wiki/Leopold_Mannes "Leopold Mannes") and [Leopold Godowsky Jr.](/wiki/Leopold_Godowsky_Jr. "Leopold Godowsky Jr.") (nicknamed "Man" and "God"), two highly regarded classical musicians who had started tinkering with color photographic processes and ended up working with the Kodak Research Laboratories. Kodachrome had three layers of emulsion coated on a single base, each layer recording one of the three additive primaries, red, green, and blue. In keeping with Kodak's old "you press the button, we do the rest" slogan, the film was simply loaded into the camera, exposed in the ordinary way, then mailed to Kodak for processing. Aside from manufacturing the film, processing was the most complex step. This involved the controlled penetration of chemicals into the three layers of emulsion. A simplified description of the process is as follows: as each layer was developed into a black\-and\-white silver image, a "[dye coupler](/wiki/Dye_coupler "Dye coupler")" added during that stage of development caused a cyan, magenta or yellow dye image to be created along with it. The silver was chemically removed, leaving only the three layers of dye images in the finished film.
Initially, [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome "Kodachrome") was available only as 16mm film for home movies, but in 1936 it was also introduced as 8mm home movie film and short lengths of 35mm film for still photography. In 1938, sheet film in various sizes for professional photographers was introduced, some changes were made to cure early problems with unstable colors, and a somewhat simplified processing method was instituted.
In 1936, the German [Agfa](/wiki/Agfa "Agfa") followed with their own integral tripack film, [Agfacolor Neu](/wiki/Agfacolor "Agfacolor"), which was generally similar to Kodachrome but had one important advantage: Agfa had found a way to incorporate the dye couplers into the emulsion layers during manufacture, allowing all three layers to be developed at the same time and greatly simplifying the processing. Most modern color films, excepting the now\-discontinued Kodachrome, use the incorporated dye coupler technique, but since the 1970s nearly all have used a modification developed by Kodak rather than the original Agfa version.
In 1941, Kodak made it possible to order prints from Kodachrome slides. The print "paper" was actually a white plastic coated with a multilayer emulsion similar to that on the film. These were the first commercially available color prints created by the [chromogenic](/wiki/Chromogenic "Chromogenic") dye coupler method. In the following year, Kodacolor film was introduced. Unlike Kodachrome, it was designed to be processed into a negative image which showed not only light and dark reversed but also complementary colors. The use of such a negative for making prints on paper simplified the processing of the prints, reducing their cost.
The expense of color film as compared to black\-and\-white and the difficulty of using it with indoor lighting combined to delay its widespread adoption by amateurs. In 1950, black\-and\-white snapshots were still the norm. By 1960, color was much more common but still tended to be reserved for travel photos and special occasions. Color film and color prints cost several times as much as black\-and\-white, and taking color snapshots in deep shade or indoors required [flashbulbs](/wiki/Flash_%28photography%29 "Flash (photography)")—an inconvenience and an additional expense. By 1970, prices were dropping, film sensitivity had improved, [electronic flash units](/wiki/Flash_%28photography%29 "Flash (photography)") were replacing flashbulbs, and color had become the norm for snapshot\-taking in most families. Black\-and\-white film continued to be used by some photographers who preferred it for aesthetic reasons or who wanted to take pictures by existing light in low\-light conditions, which was still difficult to do with color film. They usually did their own developing and printing. By 1980, black\-and\-white film in the formats used by typical snapshot cameras, as well as commercial developing and printing service for it, had nearly disappeared.
[Instant color film](/wiki/Instant_film "Instant film") was introduced by [Polaroid](/wiki/Polaroid_Corporation "Polaroid Corporation") in 1963\. Like Polaroid's contemporary instant black\-and\-white film, their first color product was a negative\-positive peel\-apart process which produced a unique print on paper. The negative could not be reused and was discarded. The blight created by carelessly discarded caustic\-chemical\-laden Polaroid negatives, which tended to accumulate most heavily at the prettiest, most snapshot\-worthy locations, horrified Polaroid founder [Edwin Land](/wiki/Edwin_Land "Edwin Land") and prompted him to develop the later SX\-70 system, which produced no separate negative to discard.
Some currently available color films are designed to produce positive transparencies for use in a [slide projector](/wiki/Slide_projector "Slide projector") or magnifying viewer, although paper prints can also be made from them. Transparencies are preferred by some professional photographers who use film because they can be judged without having to print them first. Transparencies are also capable of a wider dynamic range and, therefore, of a greater degree of realism than the more convenient medium of prints on paper. The early popularity of color "slides" among amateurs went into decline after automated printing equipment began improving print quality and lowering prices.
Other currently available films are designed to produce color negatives for use in creating enlarged positive prints on color photographic paper. Color negatives may also be digitally scanned and then printed by photographic or non\-photographic means, or viewed as positives electronically. Unlike reversal\-film transparency processes, negative\-positive processes are, within limits, forgiving of incorrect exposure and poor color lighting, because printing allows considerable correction. Negative film is therefore more suitable for casual use by amateurs. Virtually all single\-use cameras employ negative film. Photographic transparencies can be made from negatives by printing them on special "positive film", but this has always been unusual outside of the motion picture industry and commercial service to do it for still images may no longer be available. Negative films and paper prints are by far the most common form of color film photography today.
{{Gallery
\|title\=
\|align\=center
\|File:Paris expo 1937\.jpg\|Agfacolor photo dated 1937, \[\[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne\|World exposition]] in \[\[Paris]], France
\|File:Gårdsanlegg \- 7300157010\.jpg\|An Agfacolor slide dated 1937 from café in \[\[Oslo]], Norway.
\|File:Sweden Vaxholm 1938\.jpg\|An Agfacolor slide dated 1938 from Sweden.
\|File:American Embassy in Warsaw 1939\.jpg\|Kodachrome photo taken during the \[\[Invasion of Poland\|German invasion of Poland]] in September 1939\.
\|File:London , Kodachrome by Chalmers Butterfield edit.jpg\|Kodachrome photo by Chalmers Butterfield of \[\[Shaftesbury Avenue]] from \[\[Piccadilly Circus]], in the \[\[West End of London]], c. 1949\|alt6\="A busy 1949 city scene in London, England, with black vintage vehicles, red London buses and many pedestrians. Buildings advertise "Wills's Gold Flake Cigarettes" and "Craven A" cigarettes.
\|File:IMG KODAK 2002(2\).jpg\|Photo taken in 2024 from Photo album book, showing A child takes a picture at his home in \[\[Bogor]], \[\[West Java]] with a \[\[Kodak 11532]] camera in 2002
\|File:Polaroid 600 sunflower.jpg\|A sample shot of Polaroid Type 600, ISO 640, color film, 2009
}}
### Digital photography
[thumb\|350px\|The Bayer arrangement of color filters on the pixel array of an image sensor](/wiki/File:Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg "Bayer pattern on sensor.svg")
After a transition period centered around 1994–2006, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi\-megapixel [digital cameras](/wiki/Digital_camera "Digital camera") that can shoot both in monochrome as well as color. Some photographers continue to prefer film for its distinctive "look" for artistic purposes or out of fondness.
The most commonly used method of obtaining color information in digital photography is the use of a [Bayer filter](/wiki/Bayer_filter "Bayer filter"), invented by [Bryce Bayer](/wiki/Bryce_Bayer "Bryce Bayer") of [Eastman Kodak](/wiki/Eastman_Kodak "Eastman Kodak") in 1976\. In this approach, a sensor that is sensitive to multiple wavelengths of light is placed behind a color filter. Traditionally, each pixel, or "sensel", is thereby assigned an additional light response curve beyond its inherent differential response to different wavelengths \- typically the filters applied respond to red, blue and green, the latter being used twice as often based on an argument that the human eye is more sensitive to variation in green than any other color. Thus, the color image produced would preserve color in a way resembling human perception, and not appear unduly deteriorated in any particular color range.
[thumb\|middle\|250px\|Wavelength\-dependent absorption in silicon and the Foveon X3 sensor. See text for explanation.](/wiki/File:Absorption-X3.png "Absorption-X3.png")
However, alternative approaches do exist. The [Foveon sensor](/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor "Foveon X3 sensor") uses the fact that light penetrates silicon to a depth that depends on the wavelength of the light. Thus, reading light at a lower layer in a silicon stack would yield a different value than reading it at the top, and the difference can be used to compute the color of the light in addition to its intensity.
Another option is the use of a prism to separate the colors onto three separate capturing devices, as in a [three\-CCD camera](/wiki/Three-CCD_camera "Three-CCD camera").
The Bayer pattern itself has had various modifications proposed. One class of these uses the same pattern, but changes the colors of the glass, for instance [using cyan, yellow, green and magenta](/wiki/CYGM_filter "CYGM filter") for increased sensitivity to the intensity of light (luminance) or [replacing one green cell with an "emerald" or cyan one](/wiki/RGBE_filter "RGBE filter").
[Fujifilm](/wiki/Fujifilm "Fujifilm") in particular has proposed some of the more unusual variations of the Bayer pattern, such as the [EXR](/wiki/Bayer_filter%23Fujifilm_%22EXR%22_color_filter_array "Bayer filter#Fujifilm ") and [X\-Trans](/wiki/Fujifilm_X-Trans_sensor "Fujifilm X-Trans sensor") patterns.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early experiments",
"[thumb\\|A circa 1850 \"Hillotype\" photograph of a colored engraving. Long believed to be a complete fraud, recent testing found that [Levi Hill](/wiki/Levi_Hill \"Levi Hill\")'s process did reproduce some color photographically, but also that many specimens had been \"sweetened\" by the addition of [hand\\-applied colors](/wiki/Hand-colouring_of_photographs \"Hand-colouring of photographs\").](/wiki/File:Hillotypie.jpg \"Hillotypie.jpg\")\nColor photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a \"chameleon substance\" which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Some encouraging early results, typically obtained by projecting a solar [spectrum](/wiki/Spectrum \"Spectrum\") directly onto the sensitive surface, seemed to promise eventual success, but the comparatively dim image formed in a camera required exposures lasting for hours or even days. The quality and range of the color was sometimes severely limited mainly to primary colors, as in the chemically complicated \"Hillotype\" process invented by American [daguerreotypist](/wiki/Daguerreotype \"Daguerreotype\") [Levi Hill](/wiki/Levi_Hill \"Levi Hill\") around 1850\\. Other experimenters, such as [Edmond Becquerel](/wiki/A._E._Becquerel \"A. E. Becquerel\"), achieved better results but could find no way to prevent the colors from quickly fading when the images were exposed to light for viewing. Over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value.",
"### Three\\-color processes",
"The three\\-color method, which is the foundation of virtually all practical color processes whether chemical or electronic, was first suggested in an 1855 paper on [color vision](/wiki/Color_vision \"Color vision\") by Scottish physicist [James Clerk Maxwell](/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell \"James Clerk Maxwell\").{{cite news\\|title\\=From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home\\-news/charles\\-mackintosh\\-chemist\\-waterproof\\-google\\-doodle\\-scotland\\-inventions\\-innovation\\-bicycles\\-a7499911\\.html\\|work\\=The independent\\|date\\=30 December 2016\\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002171029/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home\\-news/charles\\-mackintosh\\-chemist\\-waterproof\\-google\\-doodle\\-scotland\\-inventions\\-innovation\\-bicycles\\-a7499911\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2 October 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"It is based on the [Young–Helmholtz theory](/wiki/Young%E2%80%93Helmholtz_theory \"Young–Helmholtz theory\") that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled [cone cells](/wiki/Cone_cell \"Cone cell\") of three types: in theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the [spectrum](/wiki/Spectrum \"Spectrum\") we call \"red\", another is more sensitive to the middle or \"green\" region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by \"blue\". The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of [light](/wiki/Light \"Light\").",
"In his studies of color vision, Maxwell showed, by using a [rotating disk](/wiki/Maxwell%27s_discs \"Maxwell's discs\") with which he could alter the proportions, that any visible hue or gray tone could be made by mixing only three pure colors of light – red, green and blue – in proportions that would stimulate the three types of cells to the same degrees under particular lighting conditions.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour\\-blindness\\|first\\=James Clerk\\|last\\=Maxwell\\|year\\=1855\\|journal\\=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\\|volume\\=XXI part II\\|url\\=http://www.jimworthey.com/archive/\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-06\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714222547/http://www.jimworthey.com/archive/\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-14\\|url\\-status\\=live}} To emphasize that each type of cell by itself did not actually see color but was simply more or less stimulated, he drew an analogy to black\\-and\\-white photography: if three colorless photographs of the same scene were taken through red, green and blue filters, and transparencies (\"slides\") made from them were projected through the same filters and superimposed on a screen, the result would be an image reproducing not only red, green and blue, but all of the colors in the original scene.{{cite book\n \\| title \\= Science progress in the twentieth century: a quarterly journal of scientific work \\& thought, Volume 2\n \\| publisher \\= John Murray\n \\| year \\= 1908\n \\| page \\= 359\n \\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6sU\\-AAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA359\n \\| access\\-date \\= 2016\\-10\\-10\n \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20191215050317/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6sU\\-AAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA359\n \\| archive\\-date \\= 2019\\-12\\-15\n \\| url\\-status \\= live\n }} (Note: in apparent deference to the primaries named by [Thomas Young](/wiki/Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29 \"Thomas Young (scientist)\"), Maxwell calls the short\\-wavelength primary \"violet\" in the relevant paragraphs of his 1855 paper, though he actually used blue in his own experiments, which the paper also describes, and in his 1861 demonstration)",
"The first color photograph made according to Maxwell's prescription, a set of three monochrome \"[color separations](/wiki/Color_separation \"Color separation\")\", was taken by [Thomas Sutton](/wiki/Thomas_Sutton_%28photographer%29 \"Thomas Sutton (photographer)\") in 1861 for use in illustrating a lecture on color by Maxwell, where it was shown in color by the triple projection method.{{cite news\\|title\\=The first colour photograph, 1861\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/picture/2013/jul/09/first\\-colour\\-photograph\\|newspaper\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=3 January 2017\\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104003041/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/picture/2013/jul/09/first\\-colour\\-photograph\\|archive\\-date\\=4 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of various colors, apparently including red and green. During the lecture, which was about physics and physiology, not photography, Maxwell commented on the inadequacy of the results and the need for a photographic material more sensitive to red and green light. A century later, historians were mystified by the reproduction of any red at all, because the photographic process used by Sutton was for all practical purposes totally insensitive to red light and only marginally sensitive to green. In 1961, researchers found that many red dyes also reflect ultraviolet light, coincidentally transmitted by Sutton's red filter, and surmised that the three images were probably due to ultra\\-violet, blue\\-green and blue wavelengths, rather than to red, green and blue.R.W.G. Hunt (2004\\). *The Reproduction of Colour*, 6th edition. Wiley. pp 9–10\\. \nR.M. Evans (1961a). “Some Notes on Maxwell’s Colour Photograph.” *Journal of Photographic Science* **9**. pp243–246 \nR.M. Evans (1961b). “Maxwell's Color Photography”. *Scientific Photography* **205**. pp 117–128\\.",
"### Additive color",
"Creating colors by mixing colored lights (usually red, green and blue) in various proportions is the additive method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT (picture tube) color video displays all use this method. If one of these displays is examined with a sufficiently strong magnifier, it will be seen that each pixel is actually composed of red, green and blue sub\\-pixels which blend at normal viewing distances, reproducing a wide range of colors as well as white and shades of gray. This is also known as the [RGB color model](/wiki/RGB_color_model \"RGB color model\").",
"### Subtractive color",
"The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for additive color synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are normally cyan, a greenish\\-blue which absorbs red; magenta, a purplish\\-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue. The red\\-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green\\-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue\\-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image.",
"This is also known as the [CMYK color model](/wiki/CMYK_color_model \"CMYK color model\"). The \"K\" is a black component normally added in ink\\-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition.",
"[thumb\\|Color print made by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron \"Louis Ducos du Hauron\") from three direct [photograms](/wiki/Photogram \"Photogram\"), 1869 or 1870\\. A presentation copy of this bears an early (February?) 1870 date on the mat in DdH's handwriting. This may refer to the print date only, with the original photography possibly occurring in 1869\\.](/wiki/File:Direct_Print_1869.jpg \"Direct Print 1869.jpg\")",
"At first it may seem that each image ought to be printed in the color of the filter used in making it, but by following any given color through the process the reason for printing in complementary colors should become apparent. A red object, for example, will be very pale in the red\\-filtered image but very dark in the other two images, so the result will be an area with just a trace of cyan, absorbing just a bit of red light, but a large amount of magenta and yellow, which together absorb most of the green and blue light, leaving mainly red light to be reflected back from the white paper in the case of a print, or transmitted through a clear support in the case of a transparency.",
"Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full\\-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor\\-intensive and time\\-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so\\-called [carbon process](/wiki/Carbon_print \"Carbon print\") and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three black\\-and\\-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re\\-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short\\-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light\\-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct.",
"[thumb\\|An 1877 color photographic print on paper by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron \"Louis Ducos du Hauron\"), the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red [subtractive color](/wiki/Subtractive_color \"Subtractive color\") elements are apparent.](/wiki/File:Duhauron1877.jpg \"Duhauron1877.jpg\")",
"The production of photographic three\\-color prints on paper was pioneered by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron \"Louis Ducos du Hauron\"), whose comprehensive 1868 French patent also included the basic concepts of most of the color photographic processes which were subsequently developed. For making the three color\\-filtered negatives required, he was able to develop materials and methods which were not as completely blind to red and green light as those used by Thomas Sutton in 1861, but they were still very insensitive to those colors. Exposure times were impractically long, the red or orange\\-filtered negative requiring hours of exposure in the camera. His earliest surviving color prints are \"sun prints\" of pressed flowers and leaves, each of the three negatives having been made without a camera by exposing the light\\-sensitive surface to direct sunlight passing first through a color filter and then through the vegetation. His first attempts were based on the red\\-yellow\\-blue colors then used for pigments, with no color reversal. Later he used the primary colors of light with color reversal.",
"### Color sensitization",
"As long as photographic materials were usefully sensitive only to blue\\-green, blue, violet and ultraviolet, three\\-color photography could never be practical. In 1873 German chemist Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the addition of small amounts of certain aniline dyes to a [photographic emulsion](/wiki/Photographic_emulsion \"Photographic emulsion\") could add sensitivity to colors which the dyes absorbed. He identified dyes which variously sensitized for all the previously ineffective colors except true red, to which only a marginal trace of sensitivity could be added.Vogel, H: \"On the sensitiveness of bromide of silver to the so\\-called chemically inactive colours\", *Chemical News*, December 26, 1873:318–319, copying from *The Photographic News*, date and page not cited but apparently December 12, 1873 (the latter not known to be available online as of August 6, 2010\\), in turn translated from Vogel's own publication *Photographische Mittheilungen*, December, 1873 10(117\\):233–237\\. The capital letters used in this and other sources cited refer to the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, in keeping with contemporary practice. For convenience of reference: C is 656 nm, a slightly deeper red than the output of an average red laser pointer; D is 589 nm, the orange\\-yellow light of a sodium vapor lamp; E is 527 nm, green.Vogel, H: \"Photo\\-spectroscopic researches\", *The Photographic News*, March 20, 1874:136–137, translated from *Photographische Mittheilungen*, February, 1874 10(119\\):279–283\\.Vogel, H: \"Rendering actinic non\\-actinic rays\", *The Photographic News*, July 3, 1874:320–321, a direct communication (apparently in the original English) to *The Photographic News*.Meldola, R. [\"Recent Researches In Photography\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=9R8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA717). \"Popular Science\", October 1874, Pg.717–720 ISSN 0161\\-7370 In the following year, Edmond Becquerel discovered that chlorophyll was a good sensitizer for red.Becquerel, E: \"The action of rays of different refrangibility upon the iodide and bromide of silver: the influence of colouring matters\", *The Photographic News*, October 23, 1874:508–509, translated from *Comptes Rendus* (1874\\) 79:185–190 (the latter downloaded from the Bibliotheque Nationale Francaise on January 28, 2006 but not directly linkable). Note one significant error in the *Photographic News* translation, page 509: \"...vigorous band between the rays C and D\" (referring to Fraunhofer lines) should be \"C and B\" per the original French text and in agreement with subsequent mentions in the translation. Although it would be many more years before these sensitizers (and better ones developed later) found much use beyond scientific applications such as spectrography, they were quickly and eagerly adopted by Louis Ducos du Hauron, Charles Cros and other color photography pioneers. Exposure times for the \"problem\" colors could now be reduced from hours to minutes. As ever\\-more\\-sensitive gelatin emulsions replaced the old wet and dry collodion processes, the minutes became seconds. New sensitizing dyes introduced early in the 20th century eventually made so\\-called \"instantaneous\" color exposures possible.",
"### Color cameras",
"[thumb\\|A 1909 color photograph by [Sergey Prokudin\\-Gorsky](/wiki/Sergey_Prokudin-Gorsky \"Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky\"), documenting Russian peasant girls in a rural area along the [Sheksna River](/wiki/Sheksna_River \"Sheksna River\") near [Kirillov](/wiki/Kirillov_%28town%29 \"Kirillov (town)\")](/wiki/File:Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg \"Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg\") \nMaking color separations by reloading the camera and changing the filter between exposures was inconvenient, added delays to the already long exposure times and could result in the camera being accidentally shifted out of position. To improve the actual picture\\-taking, a number of experimenters designed one or more special cameras for color photography. They were usually of two main types.",
"The first type used a system of partially reflecting surfaces to divide the light coming through the lens into three parts, each part passing through a different color filter and forming a separate image, so that the three images could be photographed at the same time on three plates (flexible film had not yet replaced glass plates as the support for the emulsion) or different areas of one plate. Later known as \"one\\-shot\" cameras, refined versions continued to be used as late as the 1950s for special purposes such as commercial photography for publication, in which a set of color separations was ultimately required in order to prepare printing plates.",
"The second type, known variously as a multiple back, repeating back or drop back camera, still exposed the images one at a time but used a sliding holder for the filters and plates which allowed each filter and the corresponding unexposed area of emulsion to be quickly shifted into place. German photochemistry professor [Adolf Miethe](/wiki/Adolf_Miethe \"Adolf Miethe\") designed a high\\-quality camera of this type which was commercially introduced by Bermpohl in 1903\\. It was probably this Miethe\\-Bermpohl camera which was used by Miethe's pupil [Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin\\-Gorskii](/wiki/Sergei_Mikhailovich_Prokudin-Gorskii \"Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii\") to make his now\\-celebrated color photographic surveys of [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") before the 1917 revolution. One sophisticated variant, patented by Frederic Eugene Ives in 1897, was driven by clockwork and could be adjusted to automatically make each of the exposures for a different length of time according to the particular color sensitivities of the emulsion being used.Ives, F: *Kromskop Color Photography*, pages 33–35\\. The Photochromoscope Syndicate Limited, London, 1898\\. Only a brief description of this automated camera is given but a line drawing of the mechanism and the patent reference are included. An Ives one\\-shot camera is described and illustrated on pages 30–33 and a horizontally oriented multiple back attachment is illustrated on page 37\\.",
"Otherwise simple cameras with multiple color\\-filtered lenses were sometimes tried, but unless everything in the scene was at a great distance, or all in a plane at the same distance, the difference in the viewpoints of the lenses ([parallax](/wiki/Parallax \"Parallax\")) made it impossible to completely register all parts of the resulting images at the same time.",
"### Color photography leaves the laboratory",
"Prior to the late 1890s color photography was strictly the domain of a very few experimenters willing to build their own equipment, do their own color\\-sensitizing of photographic emulsions, make and test their own color filters and otherwise devote a large amount of time and effort to their pursuits. There were many opportunities for something to go wrong during the series of operations required and problem\\-free results were rare. Most photographers still regarded the whole idea of color photography as a pipe dream, something only madmen and swindlers would claim to have accomplished.",
"In 1898, however, it was possible to buy the required equipment and supplies ready\\-made. Two adequately red\\-sensitive photographic platesAbney, W: \"Orthochromatic photography\", *Journal of the Society of Arts*, May 22, 1896 44:587–597 describes and illustrates (with spectrum photographs and curves) the characteristics of the Lumière Panchromatic and Cadett Spectrum plates as of 1896\\. Note that during this period \"orthochromatic\" was not intended to mean \"red\\-blind\", although most or all commercial products so labeled indeed were, which may explain the subsequent evolution in the meaning of the word. The wild roller\\-coaster curves necessitated laborious adjustment and testing of the color filters to obtain the three desired curves. In the cases of the red and green filters, that could mean quashing over ninety\\-nine percent of the overall sensitivity, requiring exposures measured in seconds under circumstances where one\\-fiftieth of a second would have sufficed for unfiltered monochrome use. Disproportionate blue sensitivity, requiring the use of a yellow filter for accurate monochrome rendition in daylight, was typical of commercial panchromatic emulsions far into the 20th Century. See also the previously referenced Ives, F: *Kromskop Color Photography*, price list (following page 80\\) pages 1–2, and the subsequently referenced Joly, J: \"On a method...\", page 135 for mentions of the use of the Lumière Panchromatic in those systems. The alternative alluded to in Ives may be the Cadett Spectrum but could also be the Edwards Isochromatic, only slightly sensitive to red, which Ives is on record as having employed at an earlier date. The Cadett *Lightning* Spectrum plate, with an improved spectral response curve and greatly increased overall speed, was available by mid\\-1900\\. were already on the market, and two very different systems of color photography with which to use them, described in photographic magazines for several years prior, were finally available to the public.",
"The most extensive and expensive of the two was the \"Kromskop\" (pronounced \"chrome\\-scope\") system developed by [Frederic Eugene Ives](/wiki/Frederic_Eugene_Ives \"Frederic Eugene Ives\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://thebioscope.net/2008/01/12/colourful\\-stories\\-no\\-2\\-the\\-kromskop/ \\|title\\=Colourful stories no. 2 – the Kromskop \\|date\\=12 January 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424202551/https://thebioscope.net/2008/01/12/colourful\\-stories\\-no\\-2\\-the\\-kromskop/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-24 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} This was a straightforward additive system and its essential elements had been described by James Clerk Maxwell, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros much earlier, but Ives invested years of work and ingenuity in refining the methods and materials to optimize color quality, in overcoming problems inherent in the optical systems involved, and in simplifying the apparatus to bring down the cost of producing it commercially. The color images, dubbed \"Kromograms\", were in the form of sets of three black\\-and\\-white transparencies on glass, mounted onto special cloth\\-tape\\-hinged triple cardboard frames. To see a Kromogram in color it had to be inserted into a \"Kromskop\" (generic name \"chromoscope\" or \"photochromoscope\"), a viewing device which used an arrangement of colored glass filters to illuminate each slide with the correct color of light and transparent reflectors to visually combine them into a single full\\-color image. The most popular model was [stereoscopic](/wiki/Stereoscopic \"Stereoscopic\"). By looking through its pair of lenses, an image in full natural color and 3\\-D was seen, a startling novelty in the late Victorian age.",
"The results won near\\-universal praise for excellence and realism. At demonstrations, Ives sometimes placed a viewer displaying a still\\-life subject next to the actual objects photographed, inviting direct comparison. A Kromskop triple \"lantern\" could be used to project the three images, mounted in a special metal or wooden frame for this purpose, through filters as Maxwell had done in 1861\\. Prepared Kromograms of still\\-life subjects, landscapes, famous buildings and works of art were sold and these were the Kromskop viewer's usual fodder, but a \"multiple back\" camera attachment and a set of three specially adjusted color filters could be bought by \"Kromskopists\" wishing to make their own Kromograms.",
"Kromskops and ready\\-made Kromograms were bought by educational institutions for their value in teaching about color and color vision, as well as by wealthy individuals. A few people made their own Kromograms. These were not enough to sustain Ives’ businesses, which had been set up to exploit the system; they soon failed, but the viewers, projectors, Kromograms and several varieties of Kromskop cameras and camera attachments continued to be available through the Scientific Shop in Chicago as late as 1907\\.",
"### Screen\\-plate era",
"[thumb\\|A color photograph made by Lippmann in the 1890s. It contains no pigments or dyes of any kind.](/wiki/File:Lippmann_photo_flowers.jpg \"Lippmann photo flowers.jpg\")",
"The simpler and somewhat more economical alternative was the Joly screen process. This required no special camera or viewer, just a special color\\-compensating filter for the camera lens and a special holder for the photographic plates. The holder contained the heart of the system: a clear glass plate on which very fine lines of three colors had been ruled in a regular repeating pattern, completely covering its surface. The idea was that instead of taking three separate complete photographs through three colored filters, the filters could be in the form of a large number of very narrow strips (the colored lines) allowing the necessary color information to be recorded in a single compound image. After the negative was developed, a positive transparency was printed from it and a viewing screen with red, green and blue lines in the same pattern as the lines of the taking screen was applied and carefully aligned. The colors then appeared as if by magic. The transparency and screen were very like the layer of monochrome liquid crystal elements and overlay of hair\\-thin red, green and blue color filter stripes which create the color image in a typical LCD display. This was the invention of Irish scientist John Joly, although he, like so many other inventors, eventually discovered that his basic concept had been anticipated in Louis Ducos du Hauron's long\\-since\\-expired 1868 patent.Joly, J: \"On a method of photography in natural colors\", *Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society*, October, 1896 6(2\\):127–138 includes details such as the actual reasons for the unusual colors employed in the taking screen and examples of the exposures required. The color illustrations have obviously had considerable hand\\-work done by the engravers and may have been entirely hand\\-colored using the original transparencies as a guide. As is evident from page 127, publication was delayed by more than a year. The 1895 date is confirmed by the publication of a lengthy abstract in *Nature*, November 28, 1895 53(1361\\):91–93\\.",
"The Joly screen process had some problems. First and foremost, although the colored lines were reasonably fine (about 75 sets of three colored lines to the inch) they were still disturbingly visible at normal viewing distances and nearly intolerable when enlarged by projection. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that each screen was individually ruled on a machine which used three pens to apply the transparent colored inks, resulting in irregularities, high reject rates and high cost. The glass used for photographic plates at the time was not perfectly flat, and lack of uniform good contact between the screen and the image gave rise to areas of degraded color. Poor contact also caused false colors to appear if the sandwich was viewed at an angle. Although much simpler than the Kromskop system, the Joly system was not inexpensive. The starter kit of plate holder, compensating filter, one taking screen and one viewing screen cost US$30 (the equivalent of at least $750 in 2010 dollars) and additional viewing screens were $1 each (the equivalent of at least $25 in 2010 dollars). This system, too, soon died of neglect, although in fact it pointed the way to the future.",
"Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned.",
"[Lippmann photography](/wiki/Lippmann_plate \"Lippmann plate\") is a way of making a color photograph that relies on Bragg reflection planes in the emulsion to make the colors. It is similar to using the colors of soap bubbles to make an image. [Gabriel Jonas Lippmann](/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann \"Gabriel Lippmann\") won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1908 for the creation of the first color photographic process using a single emulsion. The method is based on the [interference phenomenon](/wiki/Wave_interference \"Wave interference\").From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967\\. The color fidelity is extremely high but the images can not be reproduced and viewing requires very specific lighting conditions. The development of the Autochrome process quickly rendered the Lippmann method redundant. The method is still utilized to make singular images that cannot be copied for security purposes.",
"The first commercially successful color process, the [Lumière Autochrome](/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re \"Autochrome Lumière\"), invented by the French [Lumière brothers](/wiki/Auguste_and_Louis_Lumi%C3%A8re \"Auguste and Louis Lumière\"), reached the market in 1907\\. Instead of colored strips, it was based on an irregular screen plate filter made of three colors of dyed grains of [potato starch](/wiki/Potato_starch \"Potato starch\") which were too small to be individually visible. The light\\-sensitive emulsion was coated directly onto the screen plate, eliminating problems due to imperfect contact between the screen and image. Reversal processing was used to convert the negative image which was initially produced into a positive image by removing the exposed silver metal, and re\\-exposing the remaining silver halide, so no printing or screen registration was required. The shortcomings of the Autochrome process were the expense (one plate cost about as much as a dozen black\\-and\\-white plates of the same size), the relatively long exposure times which made hand\\-held \"snapshots\" and photographs of moving subjects impractical, and the density of the finished image due to the presence of the light\\-absorbing color screen.",
"Viewed under optimum conditions and by daylight as intended, a well\\-made and well\\-preserved Autochrome can look startlingly fresh and vivid. Unfortunately, modern film and digital copies are usually made with a highly diffused light source, which causes loss of color saturation and other ill effects due to light scatter within the structure of the screen and emulsion, and by fluorescent or other artificial light which alters the color balance. The capabilities of the process should not be judged by the dull, washed\\-out, odd\\-colored reproductions commonly seen.",
"Millions of Autochrome plates were manufactured and used during the quarter century before the plates were replaced by film\\-based versions in the 1930s. The very last film version, named Alticolor, brought the Autochrome process into the 1950s but was discontinued in 1955\\. Many additive color screen products were available between the 1890s and the 1950s, but none, with the possible exception of [Dufaycolor](/wiki/Dufaycolor \"Dufaycolor\"), introduced as film for still photography in 1935, was as popular or successful as the Lumière Autochrome. The most recent use of the additive screen process for non\\-digital photography was in Polachrome, an \"instant\" 35mm slide film introduced in 1983 and discontinued about twenty years later.",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Taj Mahal 1921\\.JPG\\|A 1914 color photograph of the \\[\\[Taj Mahal]] published in a 1921 issue of ''\\[\\[National Geographic (magazine)\\|National Geographic]]'' magazine.\n\\|File:Nieuport 23 C.1\\.jpg\\|An Autochrome of a \\[\\[World War I]] \\[\\[Nieuport 23]] \\[\\[biplane]] fighter, circa 1917\\.\n\\|File:Stockholmsutställningen 1930 Villa 48\\.jpg\\|House in \\[\\[Stockholm]], Autochrome, 1930\\.\n\\|File:Gustaf Adolfs torg 1934\\.jpg\\|Autochrome dated 1934, the \\[\\[Royal Swedish Opera]]\n}}",
"### Tripacks",
"Louis Ducos du Hauron had suggested using a sandwich of three differently color\\-recording emulsions on transparent supports which could be exposed together in an ordinary camera, then taken apart and used like any other set of three\\-color separations. The problem was that although two of the emulsions could be in contact face\\-to\\-face, the third would have to be separated by the thickness of one transparent support layer. Because all silver halide emulsions are inherently sensitive to blue, the blue\\-recording layer ought to be on top and have a blue\\-blocking yellow filter layer behind it. This blue\\-recording layer, used to make the yellow print which could most afford to be \"soft\", would end up producing the sharpest image. The two layers behind it, one sensitized to red but not green and the other to green but not red, would suffer from scattering of the light as it passed through the topmost emulsion, and one or both would further suffer by being spaced away from it.",
"Despite these limitations, some \"tripacks\" were commercially produced, such as the Hess\\-Ives \"Hiblock\" which sandwiched an emulsion on film between emulsions coated on glass plates. For a brief period in the early 1930s, the American Agfa\\-Ansco company produced Colorol, a roll\\-film tripack for snapshot cameras. The three emulsions were on unusually thin film bases. After exposure, the roll was sent to Agfa\\-Ansco for processing and the triple negatives were returned to the customer with a set of color prints. The images were not sharp and the color was not very good, but they were genuine \"natural color\" snapshots.",
"\"Bipacks\" using only two emulsions face\\-to\\-face were the subject of some development. Although the range of colors which could be reproduced by only two components was limited, skin tones and most hair and eye colors could be rendered with surprising fidelity, making bipack processes a viable option for color portraiture. In commercial practice, however, the use of bipacks was almost entirely confined to two\\-color motion picture systems.",
"If the three layers of emulsion in a tripack did not have to be taken apart in order to produce the cyan, magenta and yellow dye images from them, they could be coated directly on top of each other, eliminating the most serious problems. In fact, some chemical magic was under development which would make that possible.",
"### Color film since the 1930s",
"In 1935, American [Eastman Kodak](/wiki/Eastman_Kodak \"Eastman Kodak\") introduced the first modern \"integral tripack\" color film and called it [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome \"Kodachrome\"), a name recycled from an earlier and completely different two\\-color process. Its development was led by the improbable team of [Leopold Mannes](/wiki/Leopold_Mannes \"Leopold Mannes\") and [Leopold Godowsky Jr.](/wiki/Leopold_Godowsky_Jr. \"Leopold Godowsky Jr.\") (nicknamed \"Man\" and \"God\"), two highly regarded classical musicians who had started tinkering with color photographic processes and ended up working with the Kodak Research Laboratories. Kodachrome had three layers of emulsion coated on a single base, each layer recording one of the three additive primaries, red, green, and blue. In keeping with Kodak's old \"you press the button, we do the rest\" slogan, the film was simply loaded into the camera, exposed in the ordinary way, then mailed to Kodak for processing. Aside from manufacturing the film, processing was the most complex step. This involved the controlled penetration of chemicals into the three layers of emulsion. A simplified description of the process is as follows: as each layer was developed into a black\\-and\\-white silver image, a \"[dye coupler](/wiki/Dye_coupler \"Dye coupler\")\" added during that stage of development caused a cyan, magenta or yellow dye image to be created along with it. The silver was chemically removed, leaving only the three layers of dye images in the finished film.",
"Initially, [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome \"Kodachrome\") was available only as 16mm film for home movies, but in 1936 it was also introduced as 8mm home movie film and short lengths of 35mm film for still photography. In 1938, sheet film in various sizes for professional photographers was introduced, some changes were made to cure early problems with unstable colors, and a somewhat simplified processing method was instituted.",
"In 1936, the German [Agfa](/wiki/Agfa \"Agfa\") followed with their own integral tripack film, [Agfacolor Neu](/wiki/Agfacolor \"Agfacolor\"), which was generally similar to Kodachrome but had one important advantage: Agfa had found a way to incorporate the dye couplers into the emulsion layers during manufacture, allowing all three layers to be developed at the same time and greatly simplifying the processing. Most modern color films, excepting the now\\-discontinued Kodachrome, use the incorporated dye coupler technique, but since the 1970s nearly all have used a modification developed by Kodak rather than the original Agfa version.",
"In 1941, Kodak made it possible to order prints from Kodachrome slides. The print \"paper\" was actually a white plastic coated with a multilayer emulsion similar to that on the film. These were the first commercially available color prints created by the [chromogenic](/wiki/Chromogenic \"Chromogenic\") dye coupler method. In the following year, Kodacolor film was introduced. Unlike Kodachrome, it was designed to be processed into a negative image which showed not only light and dark reversed but also complementary colors. The use of such a negative for making prints on paper simplified the processing of the prints, reducing their cost.",
"The expense of color film as compared to black\\-and\\-white and the difficulty of using it with indoor lighting combined to delay its widespread adoption by amateurs. In 1950, black\\-and\\-white snapshots were still the norm. By 1960, color was much more common but still tended to be reserved for travel photos and special occasions. Color film and color prints cost several times as much as black\\-and\\-white, and taking color snapshots in deep shade or indoors required [flashbulbs](/wiki/Flash_%28photography%29 \"Flash (photography)\")—an inconvenience and an additional expense. By 1970, prices were dropping, film sensitivity had improved, [electronic flash units](/wiki/Flash_%28photography%29 \"Flash (photography)\") were replacing flashbulbs, and color had become the norm for snapshot\\-taking in most families. Black\\-and\\-white film continued to be used by some photographers who preferred it for aesthetic reasons or who wanted to take pictures by existing light in low\\-light conditions, which was still difficult to do with color film. They usually did their own developing and printing. By 1980, black\\-and\\-white film in the formats used by typical snapshot cameras, as well as commercial developing and printing service for it, had nearly disappeared.",
"[Instant color film](/wiki/Instant_film \"Instant film\") was introduced by [Polaroid](/wiki/Polaroid_Corporation \"Polaroid Corporation\") in 1963\\. Like Polaroid's contemporary instant black\\-and\\-white film, their first color product was a negative\\-positive peel\\-apart process which produced a unique print on paper. The negative could not be reused and was discarded. The blight created by carelessly discarded caustic\\-chemical\\-laden Polaroid negatives, which tended to accumulate most heavily at the prettiest, most snapshot\\-worthy locations, horrified Polaroid founder [Edwin Land](/wiki/Edwin_Land \"Edwin Land\") and prompted him to develop the later SX\\-70 system, which produced no separate negative to discard.",
"Some currently available color films are designed to produce positive transparencies for use in a [slide projector](/wiki/Slide_projector \"Slide projector\") or magnifying viewer, although paper prints can also be made from them. Transparencies are preferred by some professional photographers who use film because they can be judged without having to print them first. Transparencies are also capable of a wider dynamic range and, therefore, of a greater degree of realism than the more convenient medium of prints on paper. The early popularity of color \"slides\" among amateurs went into decline after automated printing equipment began improving print quality and lowering prices.",
"Other currently available films are designed to produce color negatives for use in creating enlarged positive prints on color photographic paper. Color negatives may also be digitally scanned and then printed by photographic or non\\-photographic means, or viewed as positives electronically. Unlike reversal\\-film transparency processes, negative\\-positive processes are, within limits, forgiving of incorrect exposure and poor color lighting, because printing allows considerable correction. Negative film is therefore more suitable for casual use by amateurs. Virtually all single\\-use cameras employ negative film. Photographic transparencies can be made from negatives by printing them on special \"positive film\", but this has always been unusual outside of the motion picture industry and commercial service to do it for still images may no longer be available. Negative films and paper prints are by far the most common form of color film photography today.",
"",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Paris expo 1937\\.jpg\\|Agfacolor photo dated 1937, \\[\\[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne\\|World exposition]] in \\[\\[Paris]], France\n\\|File:Gårdsanlegg \\- 7300157010\\.jpg\\|An Agfacolor slide dated 1937 from café in \\[\\[Oslo]], Norway.\n\\|File:Sweden Vaxholm 1938\\.jpg\\|An Agfacolor slide dated 1938 from Sweden.\n\\|File:American Embassy in Warsaw 1939\\.jpg\\|Kodachrome photo taken during the \\[\\[Invasion of Poland\\|German invasion of Poland]] in September 1939\\.\n\\|File:London , Kodachrome by Chalmers Butterfield edit.jpg\\|Kodachrome photo by Chalmers Butterfield of \\[\\[Shaftesbury Avenue]] from \\[\\[Piccadilly Circus]], in the \\[\\[West End of London]], c. 1949\\|alt6\\=\"A busy 1949 city scene in London, England, with black vintage vehicles, red London buses and many pedestrians. Buildings advertise \"Wills's Gold Flake Cigarettes\" and \"Craven A\" cigarettes.\n\\|File:IMG KODAK 2002(2\\).jpg\\|Photo taken in 2024 from Photo album book, showing A child takes a picture at his home in \\[\\[Bogor]], \\[\\[West Java]] with a \\[\\[Kodak 11532]] camera in 2002\n\\|File:Polaroid 600 sunflower.jpg\\|A sample shot of Polaroid Type 600, ISO 640, color film, 2009\n}}",
"### Digital photography",
"[thumb\\|350px\\|The Bayer arrangement of color filters on the pixel array of an image sensor](/wiki/File:Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg \"Bayer pattern on sensor.svg\")\nAfter a transition period centered around 1994–2006, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi\\-megapixel [digital cameras](/wiki/Digital_camera \"Digital camera\") that can shoot both in monochrome as well as color. Some photographers continue to prefer film for its distinctive \"look\" for artistic purposes or out of fondness.",
"The most commonly used method of obtaining color information in digital photography is the use of a [Bayer filter](/wiki/Bayer_filter \"Bayer filter\"), invented by [Bryce Bayer](/wiki/Bryce_Bayer \"Bryce Bayer\") of [Eastman Kodak](/wiki/Eastman_Kodak \"Eastman Kodak\") in 1976\\. In this approach, a sensor that is sensitive to multiple wavelengths of light is placed behind a color filter. Traditionally, each pixel, or \"sensel\", is thereby assigned an additional light response curve beyond its inherent differential response to different wavelengths \\- typically the filters applied respond to red, blue and green, the latter being used twice as often based on an argument that the human eye is more sensitive to variation in green than any other color. Thus, the color image produced would preserve color in a way resembling human perception, and not appear unduly deteriorated in any particular color range.",
"[thumb\\|middle\\|250px\\|Wavelength\\-dependent absorption in silicon and the Foveon X3 sensor. See text for explanation.](/wiki/File:Absorption-X3.png \"Absorption-X3.png\")",
"However, alternative approaches do exist. The [Foveon sensor](/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor \"Foveon X3 sensor\") uses the fact that light penetrates silicon to a depth that depends on the wavelength of the light. Thus, reading light at a lower layer in a silicon stack would yield a different value than reading it at the top, and the difference can be used to compute the color of the light in addition to its intensity.",
"Another option is the use of a prism to separate the colors onto three separate capturing devices, as in a [three\\-CCD camera](/wiki/Three-CCD_camera \"Three-CCD camera\").",
"The Bayer pattern itself has had various modifications proposed. One class of these uses the same pattern, but changes the colors of the glass, for instance [using cyan, yellow, green and magenta](/wiki/CYGM_filter \"CYGM filter\") for increased sensitivity to the intensity of light (luminance) or [replacing one green cell with an \"emerald\" or cyan one](/wiki/RGBE_filter \"RGBE filter\").",
"[Fujifilm](/wiki/Fujifilm \"Fujifilm\") in particular has proposed some of the more unusual variations of the Bayer pattern, such as the [EXR](/wiki/Bayer_filter%23Fujifilm_%22EXR%22_color_filter_array \"Bayer filter#Fujifilm \") and [X\\-Trans](/wiki/Fujifilm_X-Trans_sensor \"Fujifilm X-Trans sensor\") patterns.",
""
] |
### Subtractive color
The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for additive color synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are normally cyan, a greenish\-blue which absorbs red; magenta, a purplish\-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue. The red\-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green\-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue\-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image.
This is also known as the [CMYK color model](/wiki/CMYK_color_model "CMYK color model"). The "K" is a black component normally added in ink\-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition.
[thumb\|Color print made by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron "Louis Ducos du Hauron") from three direct [photograms](/wiki/Photogram "Photogram"), 1869 or 1870\. A presentation copy of this bears an early (February?) 1870 date on the mat in DdH's handwriting. This may refer to the print date only, with the original photography possibly occurring in 1869\.](/wiki/File:Direct_Print_1869.jpg "Direct Print 1869.jpg")
At first it may seem that each image ought to be printed in the color of the filter used in making it, but by following any given color through the process the reason for printing in complementary colors should become apparent. A red object, for example, will be very pale in the red\-filtered image but very dark in the other two images, so the result will be an area with just a trace of cyan, absorbing just a bit of red light, but a large amount of magenta and yellow, which together absorb most of the green and blue light, leaving mainly red light to be reflected back from the white paper in the case of a print, or transmitted through a clear support in the case of a transparency.
Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full\-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor\-intensive and time\-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so\-called [carbon process](/wiki/Carbon_print "Carbon print") and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three black\-and\-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re\-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short\-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light\-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct.
[thumb\|An 1877 color photographic print on paper by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron "Louis Ducos du Hauron"), the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red [subtractive color](/wiki/Subtractive_color "Subtractive color") elements are apparent.](/wiki/File:Duhauron1877.jpg "Duhauron1877.jpg")
The production of photographic three\-color prints on paper was pioneered by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron "Louis Ducos du Hauron"), whose comprehensive 1868 French patent also included the basic concepts of most of the color photographic processes which were subsequently developed. For making the three color\-filtered negatives required, he was able to develop materials and methods which were not as completely blind to red and green light as those used by Thomas Sutton in 1861, but they were still very insensitive to those colors. Exposure times were impractically long, the red or orange\-filtered negative requiring hours of exposure in the camera. His earliest surviving color prints are "sun prints" of pressed flowers and leaves, each of the three negatives having been made without a camera by exposing the light\-sensitive surface to direct sunlight passing first through a color filter and then through the vegetation. His first attempts were based on the red\-yellow\-blue colors then used for pigments, with no color reversal. Later he used the primary colors of light with color reversal.
|
[
"### Subtractive color",
"The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for additive color synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are normally cyan, a greenish\\-blue which absorbs red; magenta, a purplish\\-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue. The red\\-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green\\-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue\\-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image.",
"This is also known as the [CMYK color model](/wiki/CMYK_color_model \"CMYK color model\"). The \"K\" is a black component normally added in ink\\-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition.",
"[thumb\\|Color print made by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron \"Louis Ducos du Hauron\") from three direct [photograms](/wiki/Photogram \"Photogram\"), 1869 or 1870\\. A presentation copy of this bears an early (February?) 1870 date on the mat in DdH's handwriting. This may refer to the print date only, with the original photography possibly occurring in 1869\\.](/wiki/File:Direct_Print_1869.jpg \"Direct Print 1869.jpg\")",
"At first it may seem that each image ought to be printed in the color of the filter used in making it, but by following any given color through the process the reason for printing in complementary colors should become apparent. A red object, for example, will be very pale in the red\\-filtered image but very dark in the other two images, so the result will be an area with just a trace of cyan, absorbing just a bit of red light, but a large amount of magenta and yellow, which together absorb most of the green and blue light, leaving mainly red light to be reflected back from the white paper in the case of a print, or transmitted through a clear support in the case of a transparency.",
"Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full\\-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor\\-intensive and time\\-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so\\-called [carbon process](/wiki/Carbon_print \"Carbon print\") and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three black\\-and\\-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re\\-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short\\-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light\\-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct.",
"[thumb\\|An 1877 color photographic print on paper by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron \"Louis Ducos du Hauron\"), the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red [subtractive color](/wiki/Subtractive_color \"Subtractive color\") elements are apparent.](/wiki/File:Duhauron1877.jpg \"Duhauron1877.jpg\")",
"The production of photographic three\\-color prints on paper was pioneered by [Louis Ducos du Hauron](/wiki/Louis_Ducos_du_Hauron \"Louis Ducos du Hauron\"), whose comprehensive 1868 French patent also included the basic concepts of most of the color photographic processes which were subsequently developed. For making the three color\\-filtered negatives required, he was able to develop materials and methods which were not as completely blind to red and green light as those used by Thomas Sutton in 1861, but they were still very insensitive to those colors. Exposure times were impractically long, the red or orange\\-filtered negative requiring hours of exposure in the camera. His earliest surviving color prints are \"sun prints\" of pressed flowers and leaves, each of the three negatives having been made without a camera by exposing the light\\-sensitive surface to direct sunlight passing first through a color filter and then through the vegetation. His first attempts were based on the red\\-yellow\\-blue colors then used for pigments, with no color reversal. Later he used the primary colors of light with color reversal.",
""
] |
### Color photography leaves the laboratory
Prior to the late 1890s color photography was strictly the domain of a very few experimenters willing to build their own equipment, do their own color\-sensitizing of photographic emulsions, make and test their own color filters and otherwise devote a large amount of time and effort to their pursuits. There were many opportunities for something to go wrong during the series of operations required and problem\-free results were rare. Most photographers still regarded the whole idea of color photography as a pipe dream, something only madmen and swindlers would claim to have accomplished.
In 1898, however, it was possible to buy the required equipment and supplies ready\-made. Two adequately red\-sensitive photographic platesAbney, W: "Orthochromatic photography", *Journal of the Society of Arts*, May 22, 1896 44:587–597 describes and illustrates (with spectrum photographs and curves) the characteristics of the Lumière Panchromatic and Cadett Spectrum plates as of 1896\. Note that during this period "orthochromatic" was not intended to mean "red\-blind", although most or all commercial products so labeled indeed were, which may explain the subsequent evolution in the meaning of the word. The wild roller\-coaster curves necessitated laborious adjustment and testing of the color filters to obtain the three desired curves. In the cases of the red and green filters, that could mean quashing over ninety\-nine percent of the overall sensitivity, requiring exposures measured in seconds under circumstances where one\-fiftieth of a second would have sufficed for unfiltered monochrome use. Disproportionate blue sensitivity, requiring the use of a yellow filter for accurate monochrome rendition in daylight, was typical of commercial panchromatic emulsions far into the 20th Century. See also the previously referenced Ives, F: *Kromskop Color Photography*, price list (following page 80\) pages 1–2, and the subsequently referenced Joly, J: "On a method...", page 135 for mentions of the use of the Lumière Panchromatic in those systems. The alternative alluded to in Ives may be the Cadett Spectrum but could also be the Edwards Isochromatic, only slightly sensitive to red, which Ives is on record as having employed at an earlier date. The Cadett *Lightning* Spectrum plate, with an improved spectral response curve and greatly increased overall speed, was available by mid\-1900\. were already on the market, and two very different systems of color photography with which to use them, described in photographic magazines for several years prior, were finally available to the public.
The most extensive and expensive of the two was the "Kromskop" (pronounced "chrome\-scope") system developed by [Frederic Eugene Ives](/wiki/Frederic_Eugene_Ives "Frederic Eugene Ives").{{Cite web \|url\=https://thebioscope.net/2008/01/12/colourful\-stories\-no\-2\-the\-kromskop/ \|title\=Colourful stories no. 2 – the Kromskop \|date\=12 January 2008 \|access\-date\=2018\-04\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424202551/https://thebioscope.net/2008/01/12/colourful\-stories\-no\-2\-the\-kromskop/ \|archive\-date\=2018\-04\-24 \|url\-status\=live }} This was a straightforward additive system and its essential elements had been described by James Clerk Maxwell, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros much earlier, but Ives invested years of work and ingenuity in refining the methods and materials to optimize color quality, in overcoming problems inherent in the optical systems involved, and in simplifying the apparatus to bring down the cost of producing it commercially. The color images, dubbed "Kromograms", were in the form of sets of three black\-and\-white transparencies on glass, mounted onto special cloth\-tape\-hinged triple cardboard frames. To see a Kromogram in color it had to be inserted into a "Kromskop" (generic name "chromoscope" or "photochromoscope"), a viewing device which used an arrangement of colored glass filters to illuminate each slide with the correct color of light and transparent reflectors to visually combine them into a single full\-color image. The most popular model was [stereoscopic](/wiki/Stereoscopic "Stereoscopic"). By looking through its pair of lenses, an image in full natural color and 3\-D was seen, a startling novelty in the late Victorian age.
The results won near\-universal praise for excellence and realism. At demonstrations, Ives sometimes placed a viewer displaying a still\-life subject next to the actual objects photographed, inviting direct comparison. A Kromskop triple "lantern" could be used to project the three images, mounted in a special metal or wooden frame for this purpose, through filters as Maxwell had done in 1861\. Prepared Kromograms of still\-life subjects, landscapes, famous buildings and works of art were sold and these were the Kromskop viewer's usual fodder, but a "multiple back" camera attachment and a set of three specially adjusted color filters could be bought by "Kromskopists" wishing to make their own Kromograms.
Kromskops and ready\-made Kromograms were bought by educational institutions for their value in teaching about color and color vision, as well as by wealthy individuals. A few people made their own Kromograms. These were not enough to sustain Ives’ businesses, which had been set up to exploit the system; they soon failed, but the viewers, projectors, Kromograms and several varieties of Kromskop cameras and camera attachments continued to be available through the Scientific Shop in Chicago as late as 1907\.
|
[
"### Color photography leaves the laboratory",
"Prior to the late 1890s color photography was strictly the domain of a very few experimenters willing to build their own equipment, do their own color\\-sensitizing of photographic emulsions, make and test their own color filters and otherwise devote a large amount of time and effort to their pursuits. There were many opportunities for something to go wrong during the series of operations required and problem\\-free results were rare. Most photographers still regarded the whole idea of color photography as a pipe dream, something only madmen and swindlers would claim to have accomplished.",
"In 1898, however, it was possible to buy the required equipment and supplies ready\\-made. Two adequately red\\-sensitive photographic platesAbney, W: \"Orthochromatic photography\", *Journal of the Society of Arts*, May 22, 1896 44:587–597 describes and illustrates (with spectrum photographs and curves) the characteristics of the Lumière Panchromatic and Cadett Spectrum plates as of 1896\\. Note that during this period \"orthochromatic\" was not intended to mean \"red\\-blind\", although most or all commercial products so labeled indeed were, which may explain the subsequent evolution in the meaning of the word. The wild roller\\-coaster curves necessitated laborious adjustment and testing of the color filters to obtain the three desired curves. In the cases of the red and green filters, that could mean quashing over ninety\\-nine percent of the overall sensitivity, requiring exposures measured in seconds under circumstances where one\\-fiftieth of a second would have sufficed for unfiltered monochrome use. Disproportionate blue sensitivity, requiring the use of a yellow filter for accurate monochrome rendition in daylight, was typical of commercial panchromatic emulsions far into the 20th Century. See also the previously referenced Ives, F: *Kromskop Color Photography*, price list (following page 80\\) pages 1–2, and the subsequently referenced Joly, J: \"On a method...\", page 135 for mentions of the use of the Lumière Panchromatic in those systems. The alternative alluded to in Ives may be the Cadett Spectrum but could also be the Edwards Isochromatic, only slightly sensitive to red, which Ives is on record as having employed at an earlier date. The Cadett *Lightning* Spectrum plate, with an improved spectral response curve and greatly increased overall speed, was available by mid\\-1900\\. were already on the market, and two very different systems of color photography with which to use them, described in photographic magazines for several years prior, were finally available to the public.",
"The most extensive and expensive of the two was the \"Kromskop\" (pronounced \"chrome\\-scope\") system developed by [Frederic Eugene Ives](/wiki/Frederic_Eugene_Ives \"Frederic Eugene Ives\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://thebioscope.net/2008/01/12/colourful\\-stories\\-no\\-2\\-the\\-kromskop/ \\|title\\=Colourful stories no. 2 – the Kromskop \\|date\\=12 January 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424202551/https://thebioscope.net/2008/01/12/colourful\\-stories\\-no\\-2\\-the\\-kromskop/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-24 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} This was a straightforward additive system and its essential elements had been described by James Clerk Maxwell, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros much earlier, but Ives invested years of work and ingenuity in refining the methods and materials to optimize color quality, in overcoming problems inherent in the optical systems involved, and in simplifying the apparatus to bring down the cost of producing it commercially. The color images, dubbed \"Kromograms\", were in the form of sets of three black\\-and\\-white transparencies on glass, mounted onto special cloth\\-tape\\-hinged triple cardboard frames. To see a Kromogram in color it had to be inserted into a \"Kromskop\" (generic name \"chromoscope\" or \"photochromoscope\"), a viewing device which used an arrangement of colored glass filters to illuminate each slide with the correct color of light and transparent reflectors to visually combine them into a single full\\-color image. The most popular model was [stereoscopic](/wiki/Stereoscopic \"Stereoscopic\"). By looking through its pair of lenses, an image in full natural color and 3\\-D was seen, a startling novelty in the late Victorian age.",
"The results won near\\-universal praise for excellence and realism. At demonstrations, Ives sometimes placed a viewer displaying a still\\-life subject next to the actual objects photographed, inviting direct comparison. A Kromskop triple \"lantern\" could be used to project the three images, mounted in a special metal or wooden frame for this purpose, through filters as Maxwell had done in 1861\\. Prepared Kromograms of still\\-life subjects, landscapes, famous buildings and works of art were sold and these were the Kromskop viewer's usual fodder, but a \"multiple back\" camera attachment and a set of three specially adjusted color filters could be bought by \"Kromskopists\" wishing to make their own Kromograms.",
"Kromskops and ready\\-made Kromograms were bought by educational institutions for their value in teaching about color and color vision, as well as by wealthy individuals. A few people made their own Kromograms. These were not enough to sustain Ives’ businesses, which had been set up to exploit the system; they soon failed, but the viewers, projectors, Kromograms and several varieties of Kromskop cameras and camera attachments continued to be available through the Scientific Shop in Chicago as late as 1907\\.",
""
] |
### Screen\-plate era
[thumb\|A color photograph made by Lippmann in the 1890s. It contains no pigments or dyes of any kind.](/wiki/File:Lippmann_photo_flowers.jpg "Lippmann photo flowers.jpg")
The simpler and somewhat more economical alternative was the Joly screen process. This required no special camera or viewer, just a special color\-compensating filter for the camera lens and a special holder for the photographic plates. The holder contained the heart of the system: a clear glass plate on which very fine lines of three colors had been ruled in a regular repeating pattern, completely covering its surface. The idea was that instead of taking three separate complete photographs through three colored filters, the filters could be in the form of a large number of very narrow strips (the colored lines) allowing the necessary color information to be recorded in a single compound image. After the negative was developed, a positive transparency was printed from it and a viewing screen with red, green and blue lines in the same pattern as the lines of the taking screen was applied and carefully aligned. The colors then appeared as if by magic. The transparency and screen were very like the layer of monochrome liquid crystal elements and overlay of hair\-thin red, green and blue color filter stripes which create the color image in a typical LCD display. This was the invention of Irish scientist John Joly, although he, like so many other inventors, eventually discovered that his basic concept had been anticipated in Louis Ducos du Hauron's long\-since\-expired 1868 patent.Joly, J: "On a method of photography in natural colors", *Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society*, October, 1896 6(2\):127–138 includes details such as the actual reasons for the unusual colors employed in the taking screen and examples of the exposures required. The color illustrations have obviously had considerable hand\-work done by the engravers and may have been entirely hand\-colored using the original transparencies as a guide. As is evident from page 127, publication was delayed by more than a year. The 1895 date is confirmed by the publication of a lengthy abstract in *Nature*, November 28, 1895 53(1361\):91–93\.
The Joly screen process had some problems. First and foremost, although the colored lines were reasonably fine (about 75 sets of three colored lines to the inch) they were still disturbingly visible at normal viewing distances and nearly intolerable when enlarged by projection. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that each screen was individually ruled on a machine which used three pens to apply the transparent colored inks, resulting in irregularities, high reject rates and high cost. The glass used for photographic plates at the time was not perfectly flat, and lack of uniform good contact between the screen and the image gave rise to areas of degraded color. Poor contact also caused false colors to appear if the sandwich was viewed at an angle. Although much simpler than the Kromskop system, the Joly system was not inexpensive. The starter kit of plate holder, compensating filter, one taking screen and one viewing screen cost US$30 (the equivalent of at least $750 in 2010 dollars) and additional viewing screens were $1 each (the equivalent of at least $25 in 2010 dollars). This system, too, soon died of neglect, although in fact it pointed the way to the future.
Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned.
[Lippmann photography](/wiki/Lippmann_plate "Lippmann plate") is a way of making a color photograph that relies on Bragg reflection planes in the emulsion to make the colors. It is similar to using the colors of soap bubbles to make an image. [Gabriel Jonas Lippmann](/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann "Gabriel Lippmann") won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1908 for the creation of the first color photographic process using a single emulsion. The method is based on the [interference phenomenon](/wiki/Wave_interference "Wave interference").From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967\. The color fidelity is extremely high but the images can not be reproduced and viewing requires very specific lighting conditions. The development of the Autochrome process quickly rendered the Lippmann method redundant. The method is still utilized to make singular images that cannot be copied for security purposes.
The first commercially successful color process, the [Lumière Autochrome](/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re "Autochrome Lumière"), invented by the French [Lumière brothers](/wiki/Auguste_and_Louis_Lumi%C3%A8re "Auguste and Louis Lumière"), reached the market in 1907\. Instead of colored strips, it was based on an irregular screen plate filter made of three colors of dyed grains of [potato starch](/wiki/Potato_starch "Potato starch") which were too small to be individually visible. The light\-sensitive emulsion was coated directly onto the screen plate, eliminating problems due to imperfect contact between the screen and image. Reversal processing was used to convert the negative image which was initially produced into a positive image by removing the exposed silver metal, and re\-exposing the remaining silver halide, so no printing or screen registration was required. The shortcomings of the Autochrome process were the expense (one plate cost about as much as a dozen black\-and\-white plates of the same size), the relatively long exposure times which made hand\-held "snapshots" and photographs of moving subjects impractical, and the density of the finished image due to the presence of the light\-absorbing color screen.
Viewed under optimum conditions and by daylight as intended, a well\-made and well\-preserved Autochrome can look startlingly fresh and vivid. Unfortunately, modern film and digital copies are usually made with a highly diffused light source, which causes loss of color saturation and other ill effects due to light scatter within the structure of the screen and emulsion, and by fluorescent or other artificial light which alters the color balance. The capabilities of the process should not be judged by the dull, washed\-out, odd\-colored reproductions commonly seen.
Millions of Autochrome plates were manufactured and used during the quarter century before the plates were replaced by film\-based versions in the 1930s. The very last film version, named Alticolor, brought the Autochrome process into the 1950s but was discontinued in 1955\. Many additive color screen products were available between the 1890s and the 1950s, but none, with the possible exception of [Dufaycolor](/wiki/Dufaycolor "Dufaycolor"), introduced as film for still photography in 1935, was as popular or successful as the Lumière Autochrome. The most recent use of the additive screen process for non\-digital photography was in Polachrome, an "instant" 35mm slide film introduced in 1983 and discontinued about twenty years later.
{{Gallery
\|title\=
\|align\=center
\|File:Taj Mahal 1921\.JPG\|A 1914 color photograph of the \[\[Taj Mahal]] published in a 1921 issue of ''\[\[National Geographic (magazine)\|National Geographic]]'' magazine.
\|File:Nieuport 23 C.1\.jpg\|An Autochrome of a \[\[World War I]] \[\[Nieuport 23]] \[\[biplane]] fighter, circa 1917\.
\|File:Stockholmsutställningen 1930 Villa 48\.jpg\|House in \[\[Stockholm]], Autochrome, 1930\.
\|File:Gustaf Adolfs torg 1934\.jpg\|Autochrome dated 1934, the \[\[Royal Swedish Opera]]
}}
|
[
"### Screen\\-plate era",
"[thumb\\|A color photograph made by Lippmann in the 1890s. It contains no pigments or dyes of any kind.](/wiki/File:Lippmann_photo_flowers.jpg \"Lippmann photo flowers.jpg\")",
"The simpler and somewhat more economical alternative was the Joly screen process. This required no special camera or viewer, just a special color\\-compensating filter for the camera lens and a special holder for the photographic plates. The holder contained the heart of the system: a clear glass plate on which very fine lines of three colors had been ruled in a regular repeating pattern, completely covering its surface. The idea was that instead of taking three separate complete photographs through three colored filters, the filters could be in the form of a large number of very narrow strips (the colored lines) allowing the necessary color information to be recorded in a single compound image. After the negative was developed, a positive transparency was printed from it and a viewing screen with red, green and blue lines in the same pattern as the lines of the taking screen was applied and carefully aligned. The colors then appeared as if by magic. The transparency and screen were very like the layer of monochrome liquid crystal elements and overlay of hair\\-thin red, green and blue color filter stripes which create the color image in a typical LCD display. This was the invention of Irish scientist John Joly, although he, like so many other inventors, eventually discovered that his basic concept had been anticipated in Louis Ducos du Hauron's long\\-since\\-expired 1868 patent.Joly, J: \"On a method of photography in natural colors\", *Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society*, October, 1896 6(2\\):127–138 includes details such as the actual reasons for the unusual colors employed in the taking screen and examples of the exposures required. The color illustrations have obviously had considerable hand\\-work done by the engravers and may have been entirely hand\\-colored using the original transparencies as a guide. As is evident from page 127, publication was delayed by more than a year. The 1895 date is confirmed by the publication of a lengthy abstract in *Nature*, November 28, 1895 53(1361\\):91–93\\.",
"The Joly screen process had some problems. First and foremost, although the colored lines were reasonably fine (about 75 sets of three colored lines to the inch) they were still disturbingly visible at normal viewing distances and nearly intolerable when enlarged by projection. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that each screen was individually ruled on a machine which used three pens to apply the transparent colored inks, resulting in irregularities, high reject rates and high cost. The glass used for photographic plates at the time was not perfectly flat, and lack of uniform good contact between the screen and the image gave rise to areas of degraded color. Poor contact also caused false colors to appear if the sandwich was viewed at an angle. Although much simpler than the Kromskop system, the Joly system was not inexpensive. The starter kit of plate holder, compensating filter, one taking screen and one viewing screen cost US$30 (the equivalent of at least $750 in 2010 dollars) and additional viewing screens were $1 each (the equivalent of at least $25 in 2010 dollars). This system, too, soon died of neglect, although in fact it pointed the way to the future.",
"Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned.",
"[Lippmann photography](/wiki/Lippmann_plate \"Lippmann plate\") is a way of making a color photograph that relies on Bragg reflection planes in the emulsion to make the colors. It is similar to using the colors of soap bubbles to make an image. [Gabriel Jonas Lippmann](/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann \"Gabriel Lippmann\") won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1908 for the creation of the first color photographic process using a single emulsion. The method is based on the [interference phenomenon](/wiki/Wave_interference \"Wave interference\").From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967\\. The color fidelity is extremely high but the images can not be reproduced and viewing requires very specific lighting conditions. The development of the Autochrome process quickly rendered the Lippmann method redundant. The method is still utilized to make singular images that cannot be copied for security purposes.",
"The first commercially successful color process, the [Lumière Autochrome](/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re \"Autochrome Lumière\"), invented by the French [Lumière brothers](/wiki/Auguste_and_Louis_Lumi%C3%A8re \"Auguste and Louis Lumière\"), reached the market in 1907\\. Instead of colored strips, it was based on an irregular screen plate filter made of three colors of dyed grains of [potato starch](/wiki/Potato_starch \"Potato starch\") which were too small to be individually visible. The light\\-sensitive emulsion was coated directly onto the screen plate, eliminating problems due to imperfect contact between the screen and image. Reversal processing was used to convert the negative image which was initially produced into a positive image by removing the exposed silver metal, and re\\-exposing the remaining silver halide, so no printing or screen registration was required. The shortcomings of the Autochrome process were the expense (one plate cost about as much as a dozen black\\-and\\-white plates of the same size), the relatively long exposure times which made hand\\-held \"snapshots\" and photographs of moving subjects impractical, and the density of the finished image due to the presence of the light\\-absorbing color screen.",
"Viewed under optimum conditions and by daylight as intended, a well\\-made and well\\-preserved Autochrome can look startlingly fresh and vivid. Unfortunately, modern film and digital copies are usually made with a highly diffused light source, which causes loss of color saturation and other ill effects due to light scatter within the structure of the screen and emulsion, and by fluorescent or other artificial light which alters the color balance. The capabilities of the process should not be judged by the dull, washed\\-out, odd\\-colored reproductions commonly seen.",
"Millions of Autochrome plates were manufactured and used during the quarter century before the plates were replaced by film\\-based versions in the 1930s. The very last film version, named Alticolor, brought the Autochrome process into the 1950s but was discontinued in 1955\\. Many additive color screen products were available between the 1890s and the 1950s, but none, with the possible exception of [Dufaycolor](/wiki/Dufaycolor \"Dufaycolor\"), introduced as film for still photography in 1935, was as popular or successful as the Lumière Autochrome. The most recent use of the additive screen process for non\\-digital photography was in Polachrome, an \"instant\" 35mm slide film introduced in 1983 and discontinued about twenty years later.",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Taj Mahal 1921\\.JPG\\|A 1914 color photograph of the \\[\\[Taj Mahal]] published in a 1921 issue of ''\\[\\[National Geographic (magazine)\\|National Geographic]]'' magazine.\n\\|File:Nieuport 23 C.1\\.jpg\\|An Autochrome of a \\[\\[World War I]] \\[\\[Nieuport 23]] \\[\\[biplane]] fighter, circa 1917\\.\n\\|File:Stockholmsutställningen 1930 Villa 48\\.jpg\\|House in \\[\\[Stockholm]], Autochrome, 1930\\.\n\\|File:Gustaf Adolfs torg 1934\\.jpg\\|Autochrome dated 1934, the \\[\\[Royal Swedish Opera]]\n}}",
""
] |
### Color film since the 1930s
In 1935, American [Eastman Kodak](/wiki/Eastman_Kodak "Eastman Kodak") introduced the first modern "integral tripack" color film and called it [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome "Kodachrome"), a name recycled from an earlier and completely different two\-color process. Its development was led by the improbable team of [Leopold Mannes](/wiki/Leopold_Mannes "Leopold Mannes") and [Leopold Godowsky Jr.](/wiki/Leopold_Godowsky_Jr. "Leopold Godowsky Jr.") (nicknamed "Man" and "God"), two highly regarded classical musicians who had started tinkering with color photographic processes and ended up working with the Kodak Research Laboratories. Kodachrome had three layers of emulsion coated on a single base, each layer recording one of the three additive primaries, red, green, and blue. In keeping with Kodak's old "you press the button, we do the rest" slogan, the film was simply loaded into the camera, exposed in the ordinary way, then mailed to Kodak for processing. Aside from manufacturing the film, processing was the most complex step. This involved the controlled penetration of chemicals into the three layers of emulsion. A simplified description of the process is as follows: as each layer was developed into a black\-and\-white silver image, a "[dye coupler](/wiki/Dye_coupler "Dye coupler")" added during that stage of development caused a cyan, magenta or yellow dye image to be created along with it. The silver was chemically removed, leaving only the three layers of dye images in the finished film.
Initially, [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome "Kodachrome") was available only as 16mm film for home movies, but in 1936 it was also introduced as 8mm home movie film and short lengths of 35mm film for still photography. In 1938, sheet film in various sizes for professional photographers was introduced, some changes were made to cure early problems with unstable colors, and a somewhat simplified processing method was instituted.
In 1936, the German [Agfa](/wiki/Agfa "Agfa") followed with their own integral tripack film, [Agfacolor Neu](/wiki/Agfacolor "Agfacolor"), which was generally similar to Kodachrome but had one important advantage: Agfa had found a way to incorporate the dye couplers into the emulsion layers during manufacture, allowing all three layers to be developed at the same time and greatly simplifying the processing. Most modern color films, excepting the now\-discontinued Kodachrome, use the incorporated dye coupler technique, but since the 1970s nearly all have used a modification developed by Kodak rather than the original Agfa version.
In 1941, Kodak made it possible to order prints from Kodachrome slides. The print "paper" was actually a white plastic coated with a multilayer emulsion similar to that on the film. These were the first commercially available color prints created by the [chromogenic](/wiki/Chromogenic "Chromogenic") dye coupler method. In the following year, Kodacolor film was introduced. Unlike Kodachrome, it was designed to be processed into a negative image which showed not only light and dark reversed but also complementary colors. The use of such a negative for making prints on paper simplified the processing of the prints, reducing their cost.
The expense of color film as compared to black\-and\-white and the difficulty of using it with indoor lighting combined to delay its widespread adoption by amateurs. In 1950, black\-and\-white snapshots were still the norm. By 1960, color was much more common but still tended to be reserved for travel photos and special occasions. Color film and color prints cost several times as much as black\-and\-white, and taking color snapshots in deep shade or indoors required [flashbulbs](/wiki/Flash_%28photography%29 "Flash (photography)")—an inconvenience and an additional expense. By 1970, prices were dropping, film sensitivity had improved, [electronic flash units](/wiki/Flash_%28photography%29 "Flash (photography)") were replacing flashbulbs, and color had become the norm for snapshot\-taking in most families. Black\-and\-white film continued to be used by some photographers who preferred it for aesthetic reasons or who wanted to take pictures by existing light in low\-light conditions, which was still difficult to do with color film. They usually did their own developing and printing. By 1980, black\-and\-white film in the formats used by typical snapshot cameras, as well as commercial developing and printing service for it, had nearly disappeared.
[Instant color film](/wiki/Instant_film "Instant film") was introduced by [Polaroid](/wiki/Polaroid_Corporation "Polaroid Corporation") in 1963\. Like Polaroid's contemporary instant black\-and\-white film, their first color product was a negative\-positive peel\-apart process which produced a unique print on paper. The negative could not be reused and was discarded. The blight created by carelessly discarded caustic\-chemical\-laden Polaroid negatives, which tended to accumulate most heavily at the prettiest, most snapshot\-worthy locations, horrified Polaroid founder [Edwin Land](/wiki/Edwin_Land "Edwin Land") and prompted him to develop the later SX\-70 system, which produced no separate negative to discard.
Some currently available color films are designed to produce positive transparencies for use in a [slide projector](/wiki/Slide_projector "Slide projector") or magnifying viewer, although paper prints can also be made from them. Transparencies are preferred by some professional photographers who use film because they can be judged without having to print them first. Transparencies are also capable of a wider dynamic range and, therefore, of a greater degree of realism than the more convenient medium of prints on paper. The early popularity of color "slides" among amateurs went into decline after automated printing equipment began improving print quality and lowering prices.
Other currently available films are designed to produce color negatives for use in creating enlarged positive prints on color photographic paper. Color negatives may also be digitally scanned and then printed by photographic or non\-photographic means, or viewed as positives electronically. Unlike reversal\-film transparency processes, negative\-positive processes are, within limits, forgiving of incorrect exposure and poor color lighting, because printing allows considerable correction. Negative film is therefore more suitable for casual use by amateurs. Virtually all single\-use cameras employ negative film. Photographic transparencies can be made from negatives by printing them on special "positive film", but this has always been unusual outside of the motion picture industry and commercial service to do it for still images may no longer be available. Negative films and paper prints are by far the most common form of color film photography today.
{{Gallery
\|title\=
\|align\=center
\|File:Paris expo 1937\.jpg\|Agfacolor photo dated 1937, \[\[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne\|World exposition]] in \[\[Paris]], France
\|File:Gårdsanlegg \- 7300157010\.jpg\|An Agfacolor slide dated 1937 from café in \[\[Oslo]], Norway.
\|File:Sweden Vaxholm 1938\.jpg\|An Agfacolor slide dated 1938 from Sweden.
\|File:American Embassy in Warsaw 1939\.jpg\|Kodachrome photo taken during the \[\[Invasion of Poland\|German invasion of Poland]] in September 1939\.
\|File:London , Kodachrome by Chalmers Butterfield edit.jpg\|Kodachrome photo by Chalmers Butterfield of \[\[Shaftesbury Avenue]] from \[\[Piccadilly Circus]], in the \[\[West End of London]], c. 1949\|alt6\="A busy 1949 city scene in London, England, with black vintage vehicles, red London buses and many pedestrians. Buildings advertise "Wills's Gold Flake Cigarettes" and "Craven A" cigarettes.
\|File:IMG KODAK 2002(2\).jpg\|Photo taken in 2024 from Photo album book, showing A child takes a picture at his home in \[\[Bogor]], \[\[West Java]] with a \[\[Kodak 11532]] camera in 2002
\|File:Polaroid 600 sunflower.jpg\|A sample shot of Polaroid Type 600, ISO 640, color film, 2009
}}
|
[
"### Color film since the 1930s",
"In 1935, American [Eastman Kodak](/wiki/Eastman_Kodak \"Eastman Kodak\") introduced the first modern \"integral tripack\" color film and called it [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome \"Kodachrome\"), a name recycled from an earlier and completely different two\\-color process. Its development was led by the improbable team of [Leopold Mannes](/wiki/Leopold_Mannes \"Leopold Mannes\") and [Leopold Godowsky Jr.](/wiki/Leopold_Godowsky_Jr. \"Leopold Godowsky Jr.\") (nicknamed \"Man\" and \"God\"), two highly regarded classical musicians who had started tinkering with color photographic processes and ended up working with the Kodak Research Laboratories. Kodachrome had three layers of emulsion coated on a single base, each layer recording one of the three additive primaries, red, green, and blue. In keeping with Kodak's old \"you press the button, we do the rest\" slogan, the film was simply loaded into the camera, exposed in the ordinary way, then mailed to Kodak for processing. Aside from manufacturing the film, processing was the most complex step. This involved the controlled penetration of chemicals into the three layers of emulsion. A simplified description of the process is as follows: as each layer was developed into a black\\-and\\-white silver image, a \"[dye coupler](/wiki/Dye_coupler \"Dye coupler\")\" added during that stage of development caused a cyan, magenta or yellow dye image to be created along with it. The silver was chemically removed, leaving only the three layers of dye images in the finished film.",
"Initially, [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome \"Kodachrome\") was available only as 16mm film for home movies, but in 1936 it was also introduced as 8mm home movie film and short lengths of 35mm film for still photography. In 1938, sheet film in various sizes for professional photographers was introduced, some changes were made to cure early problems with unstable colors, and a somewhat simplified processing method was instituted.",
"In 1936, the German [Agfa](/wiki/Agfa \"Agfa\") followed with their own integral tripack film, [Agfacolor Neu](/wiki/Agfacolor \"Agfacolor\"), which was generally similar to Kodachrome but had one important advantage: Agfa had found a way to incorporate the dye couplers into the emulsion layers during manufacture, allowing all three layers to be developed at the same time and greatly simplifying the processing. Most modern color films, excepting the now\\-discontinued Kodachrome, use the incorporated dye coupler technique, but since the 1970s nearly all have used a modification developed by Kodak rather than the original Agfa version.",
"In 1941, Kodak made it possible to order prints from Kodachrome slides. The print \"paper\" was actually a white plastic coated with a multilayer emulsion similar to that on the film. These were the first commercially available color prints created by the [chromogenic](/wiki/Chromogenic \"Chromogenic\") dye coupler method. In the following year, Kodacolor film was introduced. Unlike Kodachrome, it was designed to be processed into a negative image which showed not only light and dark reversed but also complementary colors. The use of such a negative for making prints on paper simplified the processing of the prints, reducing their cost.",
"The expense of color film as compared to black\\-and\\-white and the difficulty of using it with indoor lighting combined to delay its widespread adoption by amateurs. In 1950, black\\-and\\-white snapshots were still the norm. By 1960, color was much more common but still tended to be reserved for travel photos and special occasions. Color film and color prints cost several times as much as black\\-and\\-white, and taking color snapshots in deep shade or indoors required [flashbulbs](/wiki/Flash_%28photography%29 \"Flash (photography)\")—an inconvenience and an additional expense. By 1970, prices were dropping, film sensitivity had improved, [electronic flash units](/wiki/Flash_%28photography%29 \"Flash (photography)\") were replacing flashbulbs, and color had become the norm for snapshot\\-taking in most families. Black\\-and\\-white film continued to be used by some photographers who preferred it for aesthetic reasons or who wanted to take pictures by existing light in low\\-light conditions, which was still difficult to do with color film. They usually did their own developing and printing. By 1980, black\\-and\\-white film in the formats used by typical snapshot cameras, as well as commercial developing and printing service for it, had nearly disappeared.",
"[Instant color film](/wiki/Instant_film \"Instant film\") was introduced by [Polaroid](/wiki/Polaroid_Corporation \"Polaroid Corporation\") in 1963\\. Like Polaroid's contemporary instant black\\-and\\-white film, their first color product was a negative\\-positive peel\\-apart process which produced a unique print on paper. The negative could not be reused and was discarded. The blight created by carelessly discarded caustic\\-chemical\\-laden Polaroid negatives, which tended to accumulate most heavily at the prettiest, most snapshot\\-worthy locations, horrified Polaroid founder [Edwin Land](/wiki/Edwin_Land \"Edwin Land\") and prompted him to develop the later SX\\-70 system, which produced no separate negative to discard.",
"Some currently available color films are designed to produce positive transparencies for use in a [slide projector](/wiki/Slide_projector \"Slide projector\") or magnifying viewer, although paper prints can also be made from them. Transparencies are preferred by some professional photographers who use film because they can be judged without having to print them first. Transparencies are also capable of a wider dynamic range and, therefore, of a greater degree of realism than the more convenient medium of prints on paper. The early popularity of color \"slides\" among amateurs went into decline after automated printing equipment began improving print quality and lowering prices.",
"Other currently available films are designed to produce color negatives for use in creating enlarged positive prints on color photographic paper. Color negatives may also be digitally scanned and then printed by photographic or non\\-photographic means, or viewed as positives electronically. Unlike reversal\\-film transparency processes, negative\\-positive processes are, within limits, forgiving of incorrect exposure and poor color lighting, because printing allows considerable correction. Negative film is therefore more suitable for casual use by amateurs. Virtually all single\\-use cameras employ negative film. Photographic transparencies can be made from negatives by printing them on special \"positive film\", but this has always been unusual outside of the motion picture industry and commercial service to do it for still images may no longer be available. Negative films and paper prints are by far the most common form of color film photography today.",
"",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Paris expo 1937\\.jpg\\|Agfacolor photo dated 1937, \\[\\[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne\\|World exposition]] in \\[\\[Paris]], France\n\\|File:Gårdsanlegg \\- 7300157010\\.jpg\\|An Agfacolor slide dated 1937 from café in \\[\\[Oslo]], Norway.\n\\|File:Sweden Vaxholm 1938\\.jpg\\|An Agfacolor slide dated 1938 from Sweden.\n\\|File:American Embassy in Warsaw 1939\\.jpg\\|Kodachrome photo taken during the \\[\\[Invasion of Poland\\|German invasion of Poland]] in September 1939\\.\n\\|File:London , Kodachrome by Chalmers Butterfield edit.jpg\\|Kodachrome photo by Chalmers Butterfield of \\[\\[Shaftesbury Avenue]] from \\[\\[Piccadilly Circus]], in the \\[\\[West End of London]], c. 1949\\|alt6\\=\"A busy 1949 city scene in London, England, with black vintage vehicles, red London buses and many pedestrians. Buildings advertise \"Wills's Gold Flake Cigarettes\" and \"Craven A\" cigarettes.\n\\|File:IMG KODAK 2002(2\\).jpg\\|Photo taken in 2024 from Photo album book, showing A child takes a picture at his home in \\[\\[Bogor]], \\[\\[West Java]] with a \\[\\[Kodak 11532]] camera in 2002\n\\|File:Polaroid 600 sunflower.jpg\\|A sample shot of Polaroid Type 600, ISO 640, color film, 2009\n}}",
""
] |
Preservation
------------
Color photographic materials are impermanent and, by nature, unstable. [Chromogenic](/wiki/Chromogenic "Chromogenic") color photographs, for example, are composed of [yellow](/wiki/Yellow "Yellow"), [magenta](/wiki/Magenta "Magenta"), and [cyan](/wiki/Cyan "Cyan") organic [dyes](/wiki/Dye "Dye"), which fade at different rates. Even in dark storage and archival material enclosures, deterioration is unavoidable. However, proper care can delay fading, color shifting, and discoloration.
### Environment
Unsuitable environmental conditions will deteriorate or destroy photographs. Examples include:
* High temperature and high [relative humidity](/wiki/Relative_humidity "Relative humidity") (RH)
* [Air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution") and dirt
* Light exposure
* Biological threats such as [fungi](/wiki/Fungus "Fungus") and [insects](/wiki/Insect "Insect")
* Residual processing chemicals
* Base and emulsion deterioration
* Handling and usage
* Improper storage and enclosures
Three signs of aging of color images are:
* **Dark fading** occurs regardless of the procedures taken to preserve a photograph and is unavoidable. It is caused by temperature and humidity. Cyan dyes typically fade more quickly, making the image appear too red.
* **Light fading** occurs with exposure to light, e.g. while on display. The intensity of the light source and [ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet_light "Ultraviolet light") (UV) rays affect the rate of change and fade. Magenta dyes typically fade the quickest.
* **Highlight staining** of older color photographic papers is yellowing of the border and highlight areas of a photograph.
### Storage
In general, the colder the storage, the longer the lifetime of color photographs. Frost\-free *cold storage* below freezing is one of the most effective ways to halt damage to color images. Cold storage is more costly and requires special training to remove and return items. *Cool storage* above freezing, which is more common and less costly, requires temperatures between {{convert\|10\|–\|15\|C\|F}} with 30–40% relative humidity and above the [dew point](/wiki/Dew_point "Dew point") to eliminate condensation.
*Dark storage* in light tight enclosures and storage boxes is advised for individual items. When materials are exposed to light during handling, usage, or display, light sources should be UV\-filtered and intensity kept at minimum. In storage areas, 200–400 [lux](/wiki/Lux "Lux") is recommended.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2021}}
### Enclosures
The use of protective enclosures is the easiest method to preserve photographic materials from damage by handling and light exposure. All protective materials should pass the *[Photographic Activity Test](/wiki/Photographic_Activity_Test "Photographic Activity Test")* (PAT) as described both by the [American National Standards Institute](/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute "American National Standards Institute") (ANSI) in standard IT9\.2–1988, and the [International Organization for Standardization](/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization "International Organization for Standardization") (ISO) in standard [18916:2007](/wiki/ISO_18916 "ISO 18916")(E), *Photography – Processed Photographic Materials – Photographic Activity Test for Enclosure Materials*. The PAT is an [archival science](/wiki/Archival_science "Archival science") test that determines what kind of storage enclosures will preserve, prolong, and/or prevent further deterioration.
It is recommended that each item have its own archival enclosure of appropriate size. Archival enclosures may be made of *paper* or *plastic*. Each has advantages and disadvantages.
* **Paper enclosures** should be non\-acidic, lignin\-free paper and may come in either buffered or non\-buffered stock. Paper enclosures are generally less costly than plastic ones. Paper's opacity protects photographs from light. Its porosity may protect them from internal humidity and gaseous pollutants. However, images must be removed from the enclosure to be viewed. This risks mishandling and vandalism.
* Archival quality **plastic enclosures** are made of uncoated [polyester](/wiki/Polyester "Polyester"), [polypropylene](/wiki/Polypropylene "Polypropylene"), or [polyethylene](/wiki/Polyethylene "Polyethylene"). They are transparent, which enables viewing the photograph without removing the enclosure. Plastic is also more resistant to tears, compared to paper. Disadvantages include being prone to static electricity and risk of ferrotyping (moisture becoming trapped between enclosure and item, causing the materials to stick to one another).
After photographic materials are individually enclosed, **housing or storage containers** provide another protective barrier, such as folders and boxes made from archival paperboard as addressed in ISO Standards [18916:2007](/wiki/ISO_18916 "ISO 18916") and 18902\. Sometimes these containers must be custom\-made for oddly sized materials. In general, flat storage in boxes is recommended because it provides more stable support, particularly for materials that are fragile. Boxes and folders should not be over\-filled.
|
[
"Preservation\n------------",
"Color photographic materials are impermanent and, by nature, unstable. [Chromogenic](/wiki/Chromogenic \"Chromogenic\") color photographs, for example, are composed of [yellow](/wiki/Yellow \"Yellow\"), [magenta](/wiki/Magenta \"Magenta\"), and [cyan](/wiki/Cyan \"Cyan\") organic [dyes](/wiki/Dye \"Dye\"), which fade at different rates. Even in dark storage and archival material enclosures, deterioration is unavoidable. However, proper care can delay fading, color shifting, and discoloration.",
"### Environment",
"Unsuitable environmental conditions will deteriorate or destroy photographs. Examples include:\n* High temperature and high [relative humidity](/wiki/Relative_humidity \"Relative humidity\") (RH)\n* [Air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\") and dirt\n* Light exposure\n* Biological threats such as [fungi](/wiki/Fungus \"Fungus\") and [insects](/wiki/Insect \"Insect\")\n* Residual processing chemicals\n* Base and emulsion deterioration\n* Handling and usage\n* Improper storage and enclosures",
"Three signs of aging of color images are:\n* **Dark fading** occurs regardless of the procedures taken to preserve a photograph and is unavoidable. It is caused by temperature and humidity. Cyan dyes typically fade more quickly, making the image appear too red.\n* **Light fading** occurs with exposure to light, e.g. while on display. The intensity of the light source and [ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet_light \"Ultraviolet light\") (UV) rays affect the rate of change and fade. Magenta dyes typically fade the quickest.\n* **Highlight staining** of older color photographic papers is yellowing of the border and highlight areas of a photograph.",
"### Storage",
"In general, the colder the storage, the longer the lifetime of color photographs. Frost\\-free *cold storage* below freezing is one of the most effective ways to halt damage to color images. Cold storage is more costly and requires special training to remove and return items. *Cool storage* above freezing, which is more common and less costly, requires temperatures between {{convert\\|10\\|–\\|15\\|C\\|F}} with 30–40% relative humidity and above the [dew point](/wiki/Dew_point \"Dew point\") to eliminate condensation.",
"*Dark storage* in light tight enclosures and storage boxes is advised for individual items. When materials are exposed to light during handling, usage, or display, light sources should be UV\\-filtered and intensity kept at minimum. In storage areas, 200–400 [lux](/wiki/Lux \"Lux\") is recommended.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2021}}",
"### Enclosures",
"The use of protective enclosures is the easiest method to preserve photographic materials from damage by handling and light exposure. All protective materials should pass the *[Photographic Activity Test](/wiki/Photographic_Activity_Test \"Photographic Activity Test\")* (PAT) as described both by the [American National Standards Institute](/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute \"American National Standards Institute\") (ANSI) in standard IT9\\.2–1988, and the [International Organization for Standardization](/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization \"International Organization for Standardization\") (ISO) in standard [18916:2007](/wiki/ISO_18916 \"ISO 18916\")(E), *Photography – Processed Photographic Materials – Photographic Activity Test for Enclosure Materials*. The PAT is an [archival science](/wiki/Archival_science \"Archival science\") test that determines what kind of storage enclosures will preserve, prolong, and/or prevent further deterioration.",
"It is recommended that each item have its own archival enclosure of appropriate size. Archival enclosures may be made of *paper* or *plastic*. Each has advantages and disadvantages.",
"* **Paper enclosures** should be non\\-acidic, lignin\\-free paper and may come in either buffered or non\\-buffered stock. Paper enclosures are generally less costly than plastic ones. Paper's opacity protects photographs from light. Its porosity may protect them from internal humidity and gaseous pollutants. However, images must be removed from the enclosure to be viewed. This risks mishandling and vandalism.\n* Archival quality **plastic enclosures** are made of uncoated [polyester](/wiki/Polyester \"Polyester\"), [polypropylene](/wiki/Polypropylene \"Polypropylene\"), or [polyethylene](/wiki/Polyethylene \"Polyethylene\"). They are transparent, which enables viewing the photograph without removing the enclosure. Plastic is also more resistant to tears, compared to paper. Disadvantages include being prone to static electricity and risk of ferrotyping (moisture becoming trapped between enclosure and item, causing the materials to stick to one another).",
"After photographic materials are individually enclosed, **housing or storage containers** provide another protective barrier, such as folders and boxes made from archival paperboard as addressed in ISO Standards [18916:2007](/wiki/ISO_18916 \"ISO 18916\") and 18902\\. Sometimes these containers must be custom\\-made for oddly sized materials. In general, flat storage in boxes is recommended because it provides more stable support, particularly for materials that are fragile. Boxes and folders should not be over\\-filled.",
""
] |
Baseball career
---------------
Hunnefield was a member of the [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") state champion baseball team from [Framingham High School](/wiki/Framingham_High_School "Framingham High School") in 1916 (as reported in the Middlesex News on February 14, 1993\), and graduated from Framingham High in 1918\.
Hunnefield attended [Northeastern University](/wiki/Northeastern_University "Northeastern University"), where he played on the baseball team. He was an infielder who played for the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox "Chicago White Sox") and [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians "Cleveland Indians") of the [American League](/wiki/American_League "American League") and the [Boston Braves](/wiki/Boston_Braves_%28baseball%29 "Boston Braves (baseball)") and [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants_%28NL%29 "New York Giants (NL)") of the [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28baseball%29 "National League (baseball)") in a six\-season career from [1926](/wiki/1926_in_baseball "1926 in baseball") to [1931](/wiki/1931_in_baseball "1931 in baseball").
Playing in a total of 511 games, his [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)") was .272 and his [fielding percentage](/wiki/Fielding_percentage "Fielding percentage") was .944\. He finished second in the league in [stolen bases](/wiki/Stolen_bases "Stolen bases") in [1926](/wiki/1926_in_baseball "1926 in baseball"). He played on the winning side in two [no\-hitters](/wiki/No-hitter "No-hitter"): [Ted Lyons](/wiki/Ted_Lyons "Ted Lyons") (1926\) and [Wes Ferrell](/wiki/Wes_Ferrell "Wes Ferrell") (1931\).
There is a vintage "exhibit" card issued in 1927 that pictures Chicago White Sox pitcher [Tommy Thomas](/wiki/Tommy_Thomas_%28pitcher%29 "Tommy Thomas (pitcher)"), and was mislabeled as "Wm. Hunnefield". Bill Hunnefield does appear in a 1993 baseball card set created from photo archives of the Sporting News on card \#696\.
After his major league career, he was a player and manager in the summer [Cape Cod League](/wiki/Cape_Cod_League "Cape Cod League") back when it was an "open" league. He also was a manager in the semi\-pro Boston Parks League in the early 1940s.
In the off\-season, Hunnefield was an [accountant](/wiki/Accountant "Accountant") and often reported late to [spring training](/wiki/Spring_training "Spring training") because it coincided with tax season.
In the late 1940s he moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") with his wife, Jean Nathan, where they founded the Jean Nate company. They operated this company successfully until its sale in 1963 to Lanvin.
|
[
"Baseball career\n---------------",
"Hunnefield was a member of the [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\") state champion baseball team from [Framingham High School](/wiki/Framingham_High_School \"Framingham High School\") in 1916 (as reported in the Middlesex News on February 14, 1993\\), and graduated from Framingham High in 1918\\.",
"Hunnefield attended [Northeastern University](/wiki/Northeastern_University \"Northeastern University\"), where he played on the baseball team. He was an infielder who played for the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox \"Chicago White Sox\") and [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians \"Cleveland Indians\") of the [American League](/wiki/American_League \"American League\") and the [Boston Braves](/wiki/Boston_Braves_%28baseball%29 \"Boston Braves (baseball)\") and [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants_%28NL%29 \"New York Giants (NL)\") of the [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28baseball%29 \"National League (baseball)\") in a six\\-season career from [1926](/wiki/1926_in_baseball \"1926 in baseball\") to [1931](/wiki/1931_in_baseball \"1931 in baseball\").",
"Playing in a total of 511 games, his [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\") was .272 and his [fielding percentage](/wiki/Fielding_percentage \"Fielding percentage\") was .944\\. He finished second in the league in [stolen bases](/wiki/Stolen_bases \"Stolen bases\") in [1926](/wiki/1926_in_baseball \"1926 in baseball\"). He played on the winning side in two [no\\-hitters](/wiki/No-hitter \"No-hitter\"): [Ted Lyons](/wiki/Ted_Lyons \"Ted Lyons\") (1926\\) and [Wes Ferrell](/wiki/Wes_Ferrell \"Wes Ferrell\") (1931\\).",
"There is a vintage \"exhibit\" card issued in 1927 that pictures Chicago White Sox pitcher [Tommy Thomas](/wiki/Tommy_Thomas_%28pitcher%29 \"Tommy Thomas (pitcher)\"), and was mislabeled as \"Wm. Hunnefield\". Bill Hunnefield does appear in a 1993 baseball card set created from photo archives of the Sporting News on card \\#696\\.",
"After his major league career, he was a player and manager in the summer [Cape Cod League](/wiki/Cape_Cod_League \"Cape Cod League\") back when it was an \"open\" league. He also was a manager in the semi\\-pro Boston Parks League in the early 1940s.",
"In the off\\-season, Hunnefield was an [accountant](/wiki/Accountant \"Accountant\") and often reported late to [spring training](/wiki/Spring_training \"Spring training\") because it coincided with tax season.",
"In the late 1940s he moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") with his wife, Jean Nathan, where they founded the Jean Nate company. They operated this company successfully until its sale in 1963 to Lanvin.",
""
] |
History
-------
It is not known when Trincomalee started to function as harbor or gained military significance since the days of the ancient Sri Lankan Kings. The earliest known reference to the port of Gokanna is found in the [Mahavamsa](/wiki/Mahavamsa "Mahavamsa") stating that in the 5th century BC, when King [Vijaya](/wiki/Vijaya_of_Sri_Lanka "Vijaya of Sri Lanka") who having failed to convince his brother to come to Sri Lanka as his successor, got down his youngest son [Panduvasdeva](/wiki/Panduvasdeva_of_Sri_Lanka "Panduvasdeva of Sri Lanka"), who landed at Gokanna and was subsequently enthroned at Upatissagama.
King [Parakramabahu I](/wiki/Parakramabahu_I "Parakramabahu I") used Gokanna (Trincomalee) as his eastern port, to launch a successful invasion of Burma in the 12th Century.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.amazinglanka.com/attractions/trincomalee/trincomalee.php\|title\=Trincomalee\|publisher\= www.amazinglanka.com\|author\=Sumana Saparamadu\|date\=4 March 2007\|accessdate\=30 April 2011}} Trincomalee which is a natural deep\-water harbour that has attracted seafarers like [Marco Polo](/wiki/Marco_Polo "Marco Polo"), [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy "Ptolemy") and Sea Traders from [China](/wiki/China "China") and [East Asia](/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia"). An English sea captain and historical chronicle writer named [Robert Knox](/wiki/Robert_Knox_%28sailor%29 "Robert Knox (sailor)") came ashore by chance near Trincomalee and surrendered to the military detachment of *[Dissawa](/wiki/Dissawa "Dissawa")* (official) of the King of [Kandy](/wiki/Kandy "Kandy") in 1659\. Hence, it was an important trade city between Sri Lanka and the outside world.
With the expansion of the [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon "Portuguese Ceylon") colonial possessions in the coastal areas, they built a fort in 1623 which was captured in 1639 by the Dutch. Known as [Fort Fredrick](/wiki/Fort_Fredrick "Fort Fredrick") it went through a phase of dismantling and reconstruction until was attacked and captured by the French in 1672\. The French handed it back to the [Dutch East India Company](/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company "Dutch East India Company") (VOC) at the Peace of Paris in 1784\. In 1795 it was taken over by the British, and the British maintained a garrison till 1948\. Trincomalee was the first land to be captured by the British who fought and defeated the Dutch, who did not want to surrender Ceylon as directed by the Prince of Orange, who took refuge in London after being defeated by the French republicans under Napoleon.
The importance of Fort Fredrick was due to Trincomalee's natural harbour. Through Trincomalee, it was believed a strong naval force could secure control of India's [Coromandel Coast](/wiki/Coromandel_Coast "Coromandel Coast"). It is stated that Trincomalee was visited by [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") [Arthur Wellesley](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington") (*later the [1st Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington")) and [Midshipman](/wiki/Midshipman "Midshipman") [Horatio Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson") (*later the [1st Viscount Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson")) at different times during their service in India. [Lord Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson") visited whilst serving as a midshipman on board {{HMS\|Seahorse\|1748\|6}} and would call it the *finest harbors in the world*. Arthur Wellesley visited whilst a Colonel in the [British East India Company](/wiki/British_East_India_Company "British East India Company"), the [bungalow](/wiki/Bungalow "Bungalow") he resided in is known as *Wellesley Lodge* which is inside Fort Fredrick and now is the [officer's mess](/wiki/Mess "Mess") of the 2nd (Volunteer) battalion of the [Gajaba Regiment](/wiki/Gajaba_Regiment "Gajaba Regiment").[Lalin's Column: Obrigado (Thank you) Portugal](http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/11/13/lalin%E2%80%99s-column-obrigado-thank-you-portugal-%E2%80%93)
Prior to the Second World War, the British built the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") base, [RAF China Bay](/wiki/RAF_China_Bay "RAF China Bay"), as well as fuel oil storage and support facilities for the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy")'s shore establishment, {{HMS\|Highflyer}}. After the fall of Singapore, Trincomalee became the home port of the [Eastern Fleet](/wiki/Eastern_Fleet "Eastern Fleet") of the Royal Navy, and submarines and flying boats of the [Dutch Navy](/wiki/Dutch_Navy "Dutch Navy"). The harbour and airfield were attacked by a Japanese carrier fleet in April 1942 in the [Indian Ocean Raid](/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Raid "Indian Ocean Raid").
Until 1957, Trincomalee was an important base for the Royal Navy and was home to many British people who were employed by the British Admiralty. In the early 1950s The British Government built groups of bungalows within the Fort specifically for their employees. These bungalows still exist and provide accommodation for soldiers of the Sri Lankan Army. One of the groups of bungalows was named Edinburgh Terrace. Children of the British residents attended a Royal Naval School which was part of the Naval Base.
The naval and air bases were taken over by Sri Lanka in 1957, today SLNS Tissa and SLN Dockyard are used by the [Sri Lankan Navy](/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Navy "Sri Lankan Navy"), while the [Sri Lanka Air Force](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Air_Force "Sri Lanka Air Force") is based at [SLAF China Bay](/wiki/China_Bay_Airport "China Bay Airport"). The [Sri Lanka Army](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Army "Sri Lanka Army") has its [Security Forces Headquarters \- East](/wiki/Security_Forces_Headquarters_-_East "Security Forces Headquarters - East") in Trincomalee.
Trincomalee War Cemetery, is one of the six commonwealth war cemeteries in Sri Lanka, it is maintained by Sri Lankan Ministry of Defence on behalf of the [Commonwealth War Graves Commission](/wiki/Commonwealth_War_Graves_Commission "Commonwealth War Graves Commission").
The Navy Base is home to a naval museum called The [Hoods Tower Museum](/wiki/Hoods_Tower_Museum "Hoods Tower Museum"). The name of the museum refers to a watchtower built on a hill commanding a 360\-degree view of the harbor and the bay.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"It is not known when Trincomalee started to function as harbor or gained military significance since the days of the ancient Sri Lankan Kings. The earliest known reference to the port of Gokanna is found in the [Mahavamsa](/wiki/Mahavamsa \"Mahavamsa\") stating that in the 5th century BC, when King [Vijaya](/wiki/Vijaya_of_Sri_Lanka \"Vijaya of Sri Lanka\") who having failed to convince his brother to come to Sri Lanka as his successor, got down his youngest son [Panduvasdeva](/wiki/Panduvasdeva_of_Sri_Lanka \"Panduvasdeva of Sri Lanka\"), who landed at Gokanna and was subsequently enthroned at Upatissagama.",
"King [Parakramabahu I](/wiki/Parakramabahu_I \"Parakramabahu I\") used Gokanna (Trincomalee) as his eastern port, to launch a successful invasion of Burma in the 12th Century.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.amazinglanka.com/attractions/trincomalee/trincomalee.php\\|title\\=Trincomalee\\|publisher\\= www.amazinglanka.com\\|author\\=Sumana Saparamadu\\|date\\=4 March 2007\\|accessdate\\=30 April 2011}} Trincomalee which is a natural deep\\-water harbour that has attracted seafarers like [Marco Polo](/wiki/Marco_Polo \"Marco Polo\"), [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy \"Ptolemy\") and Sea Traders from [China](/wiki/China \"China\") and [East Asia](/wiki/East_Asia \"East Asia\"). An English sea captain and historical chronicle writer named [Robert Knox](/wiki/Robert_Knox_%28sailor%29 \"Robert Knox (sailor)\") came ashore by chance near Trincomalee and surrendered to the military detachment of *[Dissawa](/wiki/Dissawa \"Dissawa\")* (official) of the King of [Kandy](/wiki/Kandy \"Kandy\") in 1659\\. Hence, it was an important trade city between Sri Lanka and the outside world.",
"With the expansion of the [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon \"Portuguese Ceylon\") colonial possessions in the coastal areas, they built a fort in 1623 which was captured in 1639 by the Dutch. Known as [Fort Fredrick](/wiki/Fort_Fredrick \"Fort Fredrick\") it went through a phase of dismantling and reconstruction until was attacked and captured by the French in 1672\\. The French handed it back to the [Dutch East India Company](/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company \"Dutch East India Company\") (VOC) at the Peace of Paris in 1784\\. In 1795 it was taken over by the British, and the British maintained a garrison till 1948\\. Trincomalee was the first land to be captured by the British who fought and defeated the Dutch, who did not want to surrender Ceylon as directed by the Prince of Orange, who took refuge in London after being defeated by the French republicans under Napoleon.",
"The importance of Fort Fredrick was due to Trincomalee's natural harbour. Through Trincomalee, it was believed a strong naval force could secure control of India's [Coromandel Coast](/wiki/Coromandel_Coast \"Coromandel Coast\"). It is stated that Trincomalee was visited by [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") [Arthur Wellesley](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington \"Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\") (*later the [1st Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington \"Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\")) and [Midshipman](/wiki/Midshipman \"Midshipman\") [Horatio Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\") (*later the [1st Viscount Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\")) at different times during their service in India. [Lord Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\") visited whilst serving as a midshipman on board {{HMS\\|Seahorse\\|1748\\|6}} and would call it the *finest harbors in the world*. Arthur Wellesley visited whilst a Colonel in the [British East India Company](/wiki/British_East_India_Company \"British East India Company\"), the [bungalow](/wiki/Bungalow \"Bungalow\") he resided in is known as *Wellesley Lodge* which is inside Fort Fredrick and now is the [officer's mess](/wiki/Mess \"Mess\") of the 2nd (Volunteer) battalion of the [Gajaba Regiment](/wiki/Gajaba_Regiment \"Gajaba Regiment\").[Lalin's Column: Obrigado (Thank you) Portugal](http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/11/13/lalin%E2%80%99s-column-obrigado-thank-you-portugal-%E2%80%93)",
"Prior to the Second World War, the British built the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") base, [RAF China Bay](/wiki/RAF_China_Bay \"RAF China Bay\"), as well as fuel oil storage and support facilities for the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\")'s shore establishment, {{HMS\\|Highflyer}}. After the fall of Singapore, Trincomalee became the home port of the [Eastern Fleet](/wiki/Eastern_Fleet \"Eastern Fleet\") of the Royal Navy, and submarines and flying boats of the [Dutch Navy](/wiki/Dutch_Navy \"Dutch Navy\"). The harbour and airfield were attacked by a Japanese carrier fleet in April 1942 in the [Indian Ocean Raid](/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Raid \"Indian Ocean Raid\").",
"Until 1957, Trincomalee was an important base for the Royal Navy and was home to many British people who were employed by the British Admiralty. In the early 1950s The British Government built groups of bungalows within the Fort specifically for their employees. These bungalows still exist and provide accommodation for soldiers of the Sri Lankan Army. One of the groups of bungalows was named Edinburgh Terrace. Children of the British residents attended a Royal Naval School which was part of the Naval Base.",
"The naval and air bases were taken over by Sri Lanka in 1957, today SLNS Tissa and SLN Dockyard are used by the [Sri Lankan Navy](/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Navy \"Sri Lankan Navy\"), while the [Sri Lanka Air Force](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Air_Force \"Sri Lanka Air Force\") is based at [SLAF China Bay](/wiki/China_Bay_Airport \"China Bay Airport\"). The [Sri Lanka Army](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Army \"Sri Lanka Army\") has its [Security Forces Headquarters \\- East](/wiki/Security_Forces_Headquarters_-_East \"Security Forces Headquarters - East\") in Trincomalee.",
"Trincomalee War Cemetery, is one of the six commonwealth war cemeteries in Sri Lanka, it is maintained by Sri Lankan Ministry of Defence on behalf of the [Commonwealth War Graves Commission](/wiki/Commonwealth_War_Graves_Commission \"Commonwealth War Graves Commission\").",
"The Navy Base is home to a naval museum called The [Hoods Tower Museum](/wiki/Hoods_Tower_Museum \"Hoods Tower Museum\"). The name of the museum refers to a watchtower built on a hill commanding a 360\\-degree view of the harbor and the bay.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Melanie Pröschle is a 27\-year\-old school teacher who moves to [Karlsruhe](/wiki/Karlsruhe "Karlsruhe") to work at a new school. Melanie is optimistic about her new life but she is quickly demoralized by her difficulty making friends in the new city and by the unruly students she can't control.
After a student throws chocolate milk on her, Melanie tries to discipline him by talking to his mother, but after his mother dismisses the incident, Melanie covers it up.
Melanie manages to befriend Tina, a salesgirl who sells her a jacket and who happens to live in the same tenement building as she does. After Tina visits Melanie in her apartment, the two get drunk and, realizing that Tina's apartment is viewable from Melanie's apartment, they end up spying on Tina's ex, Tobias, as he enters the apartment. Melanie continues to pursue Tina's friendship, but things quickly become awkward as Melanie spies on Tina from her apartment and goes out of her way to chase down Tina.
At school, things take a turn for the worse when Melanie overhears two colleagues discussing her and how she lets the children run wild. Upset, Melanie calls her mother, but rather than worry her, ends up cancelling her planned trip home to stay in Karlsruhe over vacation. She spends her vacation alone, spying on Tina as she goes out with her other friends.
As the new term begins, Melanie continues to have problems at school and with Tina. She is relieved when Tina invites her to her birthday party; however, she bumps into Tobias outside and, introducing herself, tells him it would be better if he didn't come inside. Tobias then gives her flowers to deliver to Tina. When Tina realizes that Melanie told Tobias not to come up, she tells her to leave.
Melanie's attempts to reconnect with Tina fail and while spying on Tina from her window, she spots Tobias and Tina peering back at her and appearing to make fun of her. Upset, Melanie begins to miss work obligations, skipping parent\-teacher night. The following day she leaves class in the middle of the day, gets in her car and begins to drive. As she drives, she lets go of the wheel and climbs into the back seat where she calmly surveys the scenery.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Melanie Pröschle is a 27\\-year\\-old school teacher who moves to [Karlsruhe](/wiki/Karlsruhe \"Karlsruhe\") to work at a new school. Melanie is optimistic about her new life but she is quickly demoralized by her difficulty making friends in the new city and by the unruly students she can't control.",
"After a student throws chocolate milk on her, Melanie tries to discipline him by talking to his mother, but after his mother dismisses the incident, Melanie covers it up.",
"Melanie manages to befriend Tina, a salesgirl who sells her a jacket and who happens to live in the same tenement building as she does. After Tina visits Melanie in her apartment, the two get drunk and, realizing that Tina's apartment is viewable from Melanie's apartment, they end up spying on Tina's ex, Tobias, as he enters the apartment. Melanie continues to pursue Tina's friendship, but things quickly become awkward as Melanie spies on Tina from her apartment and goes out of her way to chase down Tina.",
"At school, things take a turn for the worse when Melanie overhears two colleagues discussing her and how she lets the children run wild. Upset, Melanie calls her mother, but rather than worry her, ends up cancelling her planned trip home to stay in Karlsruhe over vacation. She spends her vacation alone, spying on Tina as she goes out with her other friends.",
"As the new term begins, Melanie continues to have problems at school and with Tina. She is relieved when Tina invites her to her birthday party; however, she bumps into Tobias outside and, introducing herself, tells him it would be better if he didn't come inside. Tobias then gives her flowers to deliver to Tina. When Tina realizes that Melanie told Tobias not to come up, she tells her to leave.",
"Melanie's attempts to reconnect with Tina fail and while spying on Tina from her window, she spots Tobias and Tina peering back at her and appearing to make fun of her. Upset, Melanie begins to miss work obligations, skipping parent\\-teacher night. The following day she leaves class in the middle of the day, gets in her car and begins to drive. As she drives, she lets go of the wheel and climbs into the back seat where she calmly surveys the scenery.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early career
Lau enrolled into the actors' training class of [RTV](/wiki/Rediffusion_Television "Rediffusion Television") (now [ATV](/wiki/Asia_Television "Asia Television")) in 1971, where he started his early acting career. In 1976, he joined [TVB](/wiki/Television_Broadcasts_Limited "Television Broadcasts Limited") on a contract and began to gain recognition for acting in television drama series produced by the TV station. In 1976, Lau rose to fame for his portrayal of the [titular character](/wiki/Lu_Xiaofeng "Lu Xiaofeng") in *[Luk Siu\-fung](/wiki/Luk_Siu-fung_%281976_TV_series%29 "Luk Siu-fung (1976 TV series)")*, an adaptation of *[Wuxia](/wiki/Wuxia "Wuxia")* writer [Gu Long](/wiki/Gu_Long "Gu Long")'s novel series of the same title. His performance in *Yesterday's Glitter* also made him famous.
### Partnership with Michelle Yim
Lau returned to ATV in 1980\. He worked with [Michelle Yim](/wiki/Michelle_Yim "Michelle Yim"), as the male and female leading actor/actress respectively, in a number of TV series in the 1980s, including *Fatherland*, *Chronicles of the Shadow Swordsman* and *[Rise of the Great Wall](/wiki/Rise_of_the_Great_Wall "Rise of the Great Wall")*.
### Film career
Following the rise in popularity of [Hong Kong cinema](/wiki/Cinema_of_Hong_Kong "Cinema of Hong Kong") in the 1980s and 1990s, Lau also started working on films in addition to television series. He was often cast as a typical silent, handsome, heroic swordsman in many *[Wuxia](/wiki/Wuxia "Wuxia")* films of the 1980s and 1990s.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brns.com/hkactors/pages/page7\.html\|title\=Actor Index\|last\=Brian\|website\=www.brns.com}} One of his first major roles was in [John Woo](/wiki/John_Woo "John Woo")'s *[Last Hurrah for Chivalry](/wiki/Last_Hurrah_for_Chivalry "Last Hurrah for Chivalry")* (1979\), in which he played an assassin. In *[Duel to the Death](/wiki/Duel_to_the_Death "Duel to the Death")*, Lau's character faced [Norman Chui](/wiki/Norman_Chui "Norman Chui")‘s character in a final duel, said to be one of the best sword duels ever in *Wuxia* film history.
In 2006, Lau starred in *[The Tokyo Trial](/wiki/The_Tokyo_Trial_%28film%29 "The Tokyo Trial (film)")*, a highly controversial film that was nominated at the [Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival "Cannes Film Festival") and won the 2007 [Golden Rooster Awards](/wiki/Golden_Rooster_Awards "Golden Rooster Awards") for Best Screenplay. In the film, Lau played the historic judge [Mei Ju\-ao](/wiki/Mei_Ju-ao "Mei Ju-ao"), who was able to convince ten other national judges to prosecute [Japanese](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan") [war criminals](/wiki/War_crime "War crime") for their crimes against peace and humanity. The film also saw Lau delivering most of his lines in English for the first time in his acting career.
When interviewed about his role as Mei Ju\-ao, Lau said,
> "[Mei Ju\-ao](/wiki/Mei_Ju-ao "Mei Ju-ao") is a person with a strong sense of ethics and national pride. He represented his country at a significant international affair. He had to shoulder great responsibility as well as a lot of pressure. If he did not harbor strong emotions and a patriotic heart within his bosom, he could hardly successfully overcome the many difficulties before him and fulfill the mission given by the country. He was cool\-headed and witty throughout the trial. I tried to master his inner world through these aspects. I really respect him."{{cite web\|url\=http://english.cri.cn/3166/2006/09/11/44@137581\.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208091259/http://english.cri.cn/3166/2006/09/11/44@137581\.htm\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=8 February 2007\|title\="Tokyo Trial"\-A Movie No Chinese Should Miss\|website\=english.cri.cn}}
### Return to TVB
Lau returned to [TVB](/wiki/Television_Broadcasts_Limited "Television Broadcasts Limited") in 1992 and achieved success for his performance in *[The Greed of Man](/wiki/The_Greed_of_Man "The Greed of Man")*, in which he played an honest and cultured leader of the [Hong Kong Stock Exchange](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Stock_Exchange "Hong Kong Stock Exchange"), who was later murdered by his childhood friend, Ting Hai (played by [Adam Cheng](/wiki/Adam_Cheng "Adam Cheng")), over a love rivalry.
In 2003, Lau starred as Chow Ming\-hin in the family drama *[Point of No Return](/wiki/Point_of_No_Return_%28TV_series%29 "Point of No Return (TV series)")*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.spcnet.tv/TVB\-Series/Point\-of\-No\-Return\-review\-r215\.html\|title\=Point of No Return (2003\) Review by sehseh \- TVB Series \- spcnet.tv\|website\=www.spcnet.tv}} The following year, Lau worked on *[Hard Fate](/wiki/Hard_Fate "Hard Fate")*, a controversial TV series that received many complaints from viewers for its suicide scenes. In the series, Lau played Leung Pak\-yin, an originally morally upright and ambitious company boss who became a desperate, deranged and almost insane man after experiencing many fateful incidents.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.spcnet.tv/TVB\-Series/Hard\-Fate\-review\-r997\.html\|title\=Hard Fate (2004\) Review by Bridget \- TVB Series \- spcnet.tv\|website\=www.spcnet.tv}} In 2007, Lau played a family patriarch in *[The Drive of Life](/wiki/The_Drive_of_Life "The Drive of Life")*, a 60 episodes grand production by TVB and [mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China "Mainland China")'s [CCTV](/wiki/China_Central_Television "China Central Television").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early career",
"Lau enrolled into the actors' training class of [RTV](/wiki/Rediffusion_Television \"Rediffusion Television\") (now [ATV](/wiki/Asia_Television \"Asia Television\")) in 1971, where he started his early acting career. In 1976, he joined [TVB](/wiki/Television_Broadcasts_Limited \"Television Broadcasts Limited\") on a contract and began to gain recognition for acting in television drama series produced by the TV station. In 1976, Lau rose to fame for his portrayal of the [titular character](/wiki/Lu_Xiaofeng \"Lu Xiaofeng\") in *[Luk Siu\\-fung](/wiki/Luk_Siu-fung_%281976_TV_series%29 \"Luk Siu-fung (1976 TV series)\")*, an adaptation of *[Wuxia](/wiki/Wuxia \"Wuxia\")* writer [Gu Long](/wiki/Gu_Long \"Gu Long\")'s novel series of the same title. His performance in *Yesterday's Glitter* also made him famous.",
"### Partnership with Michelle Yim",
"Lau returned to ATV in 1980\\. He worked with [Michelle Yim](/wiki/Michelle_Yim \"Michelle Yim\"), as the male and female leading actor/actress respectively, in a number of TV series in the 1980s, including *Fatherland*, *Chronicles of the Shadow Swordsman* and *[Rise of the Great Wall](/wiki/Rise_of_the_Great_Wall \"Rise of the Great Wall\")*.",
"### Film career",
"Following the rise in popularity of [Hong Kong cinema](/wiki/Cinema_of_Hong_Kong \"Cinema of Hong Kong\") in the 1980s and 1990s, Lau also started working on films in addition to television series. He was often cast as a typical silent, handsome, heroic swordsman in many *[Wuxia](/wiki/Wuxia \"Wuxia\")* films of the 1980s and 1990s.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brns.com/hkactors/pages/page7\\.html\\|title\\=Actor Index\\|last\\=Brian\\|website\\=www.brns.com}} One of his first major roles was in [John Woo](/wiki/John_Woo \"John Woo\")'s *[Last Hurrah for Chivalry](/wiki/Last_Hurrah_for_Chivalry \"Last Hurrah for Chivalry\")* (1979\\), in which he played an assassin. In *[Duel to the Death](/wiki/Duel_to_the_Death \"Duel to the Death\")*, Lau's character faced [Norman Chui](/wiki/Norman_Chui \"Norman Chui\")‘s character in a final duel, said to be one of the best sword duels ever in *Wuxia* film history.",
"In 2006, Lau starred in *[The Tokyo Trial](/wiki/The_Tokyo_Trial_%28film%29 \"The Tokyo Trial (film)\")*, a highly controversial film that was nominated at the [Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival \"Cannes Film Festival\") and won the 2007 [Golden Rooster Awards](/wiki/Golden_Rooster_Awards \"Golden Rooster Awards\") for Best Screenplay. In the film, Lau played the historic judge [Mei Ju\\-ao](/wiki/Mei_Ju-ao \"Mei Ju-ao\"), who was able to convince ten other national judges to prosecute [Japanese](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") [war criminals](/wiki/War_crime \"War crime\") for their crimes against peace and humanity. The film also saw Lau delivering most of his lines in English for the first time in his acting career.",
"When interviewed about his role as Mei Ju\\-ao, Lau said,",
"> \"[Mei Ju\\-ao](/wiki/Mei_Ju-ao \"Mei Ju-ao\") is a person with a strong sense of ethics and national pride. He represented his country at a significant international affair. He had to shoulder great responsibility as well as a lot of pressure. If he did not harbor strong emotions and a patriotic heart within his bosom, he could hardly successfully overcome the many difficulties before him and fulfill the mission given by the country. He was cool\\-headed and witty throughout the trial. I tried to master his inner world through these aspects. I really respect him.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://english.cri.cn/3166/2006/09/11/44@137581\\.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208091259/http://english.cri.cn/3166/2006/09/11/44@137581\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=8 February 2007\\|title\\=\"Tokyo Trial\"\\-A Movie No Chinese Should Miss\\|website\\=english.cri.cn}}",
"",
"### Return to TVB",
"Lau returned to [TVB](/wiki/Television_Broadcasts_Limited \"Television Broadcasts Limited\") in 1992 and achieved success for his performance in *[The Greed of Man](/wiki/The_Greed_of_Man \"The Greed of Man\")*, in which he played an honest and cultured leader of the [Hong Kong Stock Exchange](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Stock_Exchange \"Hong Kong Stock Exchange\"), who was later murdered by his childhood friend, Ting Hai (played by [Adam Cheng](/wiki/Adam_Cheng \"Adam Cheng\")), over a love rivalry.",
"In 2003, Lau starred as Chow Ming\\-hin in the family drama *[Point of No Return](/wiki/Point_of_No_Return_%28TV_series%29 \"Point of No Return (TV series)\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.spcnet.tv/TVB\\-Series/Point\\-of\\-No\\-Return\\-review\\-r215\\.html\\|title\\=Point of No Return (2003\\) Review by sehseh \\- TVB Series \\- spcnet.tv\\|website\\=www.spcnet.tv}} The following year, Lau worked on *[Hard Fate](/wiki/Hard_Fate \"Hard Fate\")*, a controversial TV series that received many complaints from viewers for its suicide scenes. In the series, Lau played Leung Pak\\-yin, an originally morally upright and ambitious company boss who became a desperate, deranged and almost insane man after experiencing many fateful incidents.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.spcnet.tv/TVB\\-Series/Hard\\-Fate\\-review\\-r997\\.html\\|title\\=Hard Fate (2004\\) Review by Bridget \\- TVB Series \\- spcnet.tv\\|website\\=www.spcnet.tv}} In 2007, Lau played a family patriarch in *[The Drive of Life](/wiki/The_Drive_of_Life \"The Drive of Life\")*, a 60 episodes grand production by TVB and [mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China \"Mainland China\")'s [CCTV](/wiki/China_Central_Television \"China Central Television\").",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
### Before the RUF attack
The book starts with Ishmael Beah, his older brother Junior, and their friend Talloi traveling from their village of Mogbwemo to Mattru Jong in order to perform in a talent show. Ishmael, Junior, and their friend dance and sing [rap music](/wiki/Rap_music "Rap music"). Thinking they would return the following day, they tell no one of their leaving.
### RUF attacks and flight
During their stay in Mattru Jong with Gibrilla, Khalilou, and Kaloko, the RUF attacks. The three are able to flee the village without the rebels following them. They decide to head back home. On the way, it turns out that their village was also captured by the RUF. According to an old man who was sitting outside the village, most of the people had fled to a village on the Sierra Leone coast.
Ishmael, Junior, and their friend decide to travel there in order to locate their families. On their way, they encounter multiple other villages. They are accepted into another village on the grounds that they help with the farming. After months, the village is attacked. Caught by surprise, Ishmael, Junior, and their friend split up and run into the swamps.
It is unknown what happens to his friends afterwards. Ishmael roams around the wilderness by himself for a while, until he meets up with another group of traveling boys whom he recognizes from his home village. The boys then travel together to another village on the coast. Many refugees fled to this village because the [Sierra Leone Armed Forces](/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Armed_Forces "Sierra Leone Armed Forces") occupied it. In search of safety, the group of boys and Ishmael go to that village, but soon leave.
Ishmael then learns from a woman from his hometown that Junior, his younger brother Ibrahim, and his parents are safe in another village with many others from Mattru Jong. Just before they reach the village, the boys meet a man named Gasemu whom Ishmael knew from Mattru Jong. Gasemu tells them that Ishmael's family are indeed safe in the village and asks the boys to help him carry bananas back to that village. However, moments before they reach the town, it is attacked by the RUF.
Although their bodies are not found among the dead or in the burning house where they lived, Ishmael assumes that his family is dead. Devastated, and believing that Gasemu is to blame for not being able to see his family on time, Ishmael attacks Gasemu but is stopped by the other boys. They are then chased into the forest by remaining RUF soldiers, and Gasemu dies from being shot, leaving Ishmael more saddened.
### Recruitment and life as a child soldier
The boys then settle into another village protected by the army. After many uneventful days, the lieutenant in charge of the troops in the village announced that the RUF was beginning to assault the village. The lieutenant said that in order for the people to survive, they must contribute to the war effort by enlisting in the army; escape was not an option. By doing this, the lieutenant secures many [child soldiers](/wiki/Child_soldiers "Child soldiers"), the weapon of choice for both the RUF and the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.
Ishmael becomes a junior lieutenant for his skill in executing [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war "Prisoners of war") and is put in charge of a small group of other child soldiers. As a child soldier, Ishmael is exposed to extreme violence and drug usage. The drugs he used are described in the book as "[brown brown](/wiki/Brown-brown "Brown-brown")", "white pills", cocaine, and [marijuana](/wiki/Marijuana "Marijuana").
### Rescue and rehabilitation
In January 1996, during one of the roll calls, a group of men wearing [UNICEF](/wiki/UNICEF "UNICEF") shirts round up several boys and takes them to a shelter in Sierra Leone's capital, [Freetown](/wiki/Freetown%2C_Sierra_Leone "Freetown, Sierra Leone"), where they and several other child soldiers are to be rehabilitated. However, the children cause much trouble for the volunteer staffers at the facility, with Ishmael experiencing symptoms of [drug withdrawal](/wiki/Drug_withdrawal "Drug withdrawal") as well as troubling memories of his time as a child soldier.
Despite the violence caused by the children, one of the staffers, Nurse Esther, becomes interested in Ishmael, learning about his childhood love of [rap music](/wiki/Hip_hop_music "Hip hop music") and purchasing him a rap [cassette](/wiki/Compact_cassette "Compact cassette") and [Walkman](/wiki/Walkman "Walkman"), when she takes Ishmael and his friend Alhaji to the city. It is through this connection and his numerous counseling experiences with Esther that Ishmael eventually turns away from his violent self and starts to heal from his mental wounds.
### Adoption
Eventually, Ishmael becomes adopted by his Uncle Tommy in the city and settles down with him and his family on the outskirts of Freetown. It is during this time that Ishmael is chosen to speak to the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") (UN) in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") about his experiences as a child soldier and the other problems plaguing his country.
While at the UN meeting, Ishmael met several other children who were also experiencing problems in their countries. There were 57 children present at the meeting, and each told his or her story to the UN. Ishmael also meets Laura Simms, his chaperone, who is a [storyteller](/wiki/Storytelling "Storytelling") and his future foster mother.
### Return to Sierra Leone and flight abroad
In 1997, after Ishmael has returned to Sierra Leone, Freetown is invaded by a combination of the RUF and the [Armed Forces Revolutionary Council](/wiki/Armed_Forces_Revolutionary_Council "Armed Forces Revolutionary Council") (AFRC), causing many civilian deaths, including the death of Uncle Tommy from malady. Believing that he can no longer stay in Freetown for fear of either becoming a soldier again or of being killed by his former army friends if he refuses, Ishmael decides to get in contact with Laura Simms. He then escapes Sierra Leone and crosses the border into [Guinea](/wiki/Guinea "Guinea"), where he eventually makes his way to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") and his new life abroad.{{cite book\|author\=Beah, Ishmael\|title\= A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier\|publisher\= New York: Sarah Crichton Books\|year\= 2006}}
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"### Before the RUF attack",
"The book starts with Ishmael Beah, his older brother Junior, and their friend Talloi traveling from their village of Mogbwemo to Mattru Jong in order to perform in a talent show. Ishmael, Junior, and their friend dance and sing [rap music](/wiki/Rap_music \"Rap music\"). Thinking they would return the following day, they tell no one of their leaving.",
"### RUF attacks and flight",
"During their stay in Mattru Jong with Gibrilla, Khalilou, and Kaloko, the RUF attacks. The three are able to flee the village without the rebels following them. They decide to head back home. On the way, it turns out that their village was also captured by the RUF. According to an old man who was sitting outside the village, most of the people had fled to a village on the Sierra Leone coast.",
"Ishmael, Junior, and their friend decide to travel there in order to locate their families. On their way, they encounter multiple other villages. They are accepted into another village on the grounds that they help with the farming. After months, the village is attacked. Caught by surprise, Ishmael, Junior, and their friend split up and run into the swamps.",
"It is unknown what happens to his friends afterwards. Ishmael roams around the wilderness by himself for a while, until he meets up with another group of traveling boys whom he recognizes from his home village. The boys then travel together to another village on the coast. Many refugees fled to this village because the [Sierra Leone Armed Forces](/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Armed_Forces \"Sierra Leone Armed Forces\") occupied it. In search of safety, the group of boys and Ishmael go to that village, but soon leave.",
"Ishmael then learns from a woman from his hometown that Junior, his younger brother Ibrahim, and his parents are safe in another village with many others from Mattru Jong. Just before they reach the village, the boys meet a man named Gasemu whom Ishmael knew from Mattru Jong. Gasemu tells them that Ishmael's family are indeed safe in the village and asks the boys to help him carry bananas back to that village. However, moments before they reach the town, it is attacked by the RUF.",
"Although their bodies are not found among the dead or in the burning house where they lived, Ishmael assumes that his family is dead. Devastated, and believing that Gasemu is to blame for not being able to see his family on time, Ishmael attacks Gasemu but is stopped by the other boys. They are then chased into the forest by remaining RUF soldiers, and Gasemu dies from being shot, leaving Ishmael more saddened.",
"### Recruitment and life as a child soldier",
"The boys then settle into another village protected by the army. After many uneventful days, the lieutenant in charge of the troops in the village announced that the RUF was beginning to assault the village. The lieutenant said that in order for the people to survive, they must contribute to the war effort by enlisting in the army; escape was not an option. By doing this, the lieutenant secures many [child soldiers](/wiki/Child_soldiers \"Child soldiers\"), the weapon of choice for both the RUF and the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.",
"Ishmael becomes a junior lieutenant for his skill in executing [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war \"Prisoners of war\") and is put in charge of a small group of other child soldiers. As a child soldier, Ishmael is exposed to extreme violence and drug usage. The drugs he used are described in the book as \"[brown brown](/wiki/Brown-brown \"Brown-brown\")\", \"white pills\", cocaine, and [marijuana](/wiki/Marijuana \"Marijuana\").",
"### Rescue and rehabilitation",
"In January 1996, during one of the roll calls, a group of men wearing [UNICEF](/wiki/UNICEF \"UNICEF\") shirts round up several boys and takes them to a shelter in Sierra Leone's capital, [Freetown](/wiki/Freetown%2C_Sierra_Leone \"Freetown, Sierra Leone\"), where they and several other child soldiers are to be rehabilitated. However, the children cause much trouble for the volunteer staffers at the facility, with Ishmael experiencing symptoms of [drug withdrawal](/wiki/Drug_withdrawal \"Drug withdrawal\") as well as troubling memories of his time as a child soldier.",
"Despite the violence caused by the children, one of the staffers, Nurse Esther, becomes interested in Ishmael, learning about his childhood love of [rap music](/wiki/Hip_hop_music \"Hip hop music\") and purchasing him a rap [cassette](/wiki/Compact_cassette \"Compact cassette\") and [Walkman](/wiki/Walkman \"Walkman\"), when she takes Ishmael and his friend Alhaji to the city. It is through this connection and his numerous counseling experiences with Esther that Ishmael eventually turns away from his violent self and starts to heal from his mental wounds.",
"### Adoption",
"Eventually, Ishmael becomes adopted by his Uncle Tommy in the city and settles down with him and his family on the outskirts of Freetown. It is during this time that Ishmael is chosen to speak to the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") (UN) in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") about his experiences as a child soldier and the other problems plaguing his country.",
"While at the UN meeting, Ishmael met several other children who were also experiencing problems in their countries. There were 57 children present at the meeting, and each told his or her story to the UN. Ishmael also meets Laura Simms, his chaperone, who is a [storyteller](/wiki/Storytelling \"Storytelling\") and his future foster mother.",
"### Return to Sierra Leone and flight abroad",
"In 1997, after Ishmael has returned to Sierra Leone, Freetown is invaded by a combination of the RUF and the [Armed Forces Revolutionary Council](/wiki/Armed_Forces_Revolutionary_Council \"Armed Forces Revolutionary Council\") (AFRC), causing many civilian deaths, including the death of Uncle Tommy from malady. Believing that he can no longer stay in Freetown for fear of either becoming a soldier again or of being killed by his former army friends if he refuses, Ishmael decides to get in contact with Laura Simms. He then escapes Sierra Leone and crosses the border into [Guinea](/wiki/Guinea \"Guinea\"), where he eventually makes his way to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and his new life abroad.{{cite book\\|author\\=Beah, Ishmael\\|title\\= A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier\\|publisher\\= New York: Sarah Crichton Books\\|year\\= 2006}}",
""
] |
### RUF attacks and flight
During their stay in Mattru Jong with Gibrilla, Khalilou, and Kaloko, the RUF attacks. The three are able to flee the village without the rebels following them. They decide to head back home. On the way, it turns out that their village was also captured by the RUF. According to an old man who was sitting outside the village, most of the people had fled to a village on the Sierra Leone coast.
Ishmael, Junior, and their friend decide to travel there in order to locate their families. On their way, they encounter multiple other villages. They are accepted into another village on the grounds that they help with the farming. After months, the village is attacked. Caught by surprise, Ishmael, Junior, and their friend split up and run into the swamps.
It is unknown what happens to his friends afterwards. Ishmael roams around the wilderness by himself for a while, until he meets up with another group of traveling boys whom he recognizes from his home village. The boys then travel together to another village on the coast. Many refugees fled to this village because the [Sierra Leone Armed Forces](/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Armed_Forces "Sierra Leone Armed Forces") occupied it. In search of safety, the group of boys and Ishmael go to that village, but soon leave.
Ishmael then learns from a woman from his hometown that Junior, his younger brother Ibrahim, and his parents are safe in another village with many others from Mattru Jong. Just before they reach the village, the boys meet a man named Gasemu whom Ishmael knew from Mattru Jong. Gasemu tells them that Ishmael's family are indeed safe in the village and asks the boys to help him carry bananas back to that village. However, moments before they reach the town, it is attacked by the RUF.
Although their bodies are not found among the dead or in the burning house where they lived, Ishmael assumes that his family is dead. Devastated, and believing that Gasemu is to blame for not being able to see his family on time, Ishmael attacks Gasemu but is stopped by the other boys. They are then chased into the forest by remaining RUF soldiers, and Gasemu dies from being shot, leaving Ishmael more saddened.
|
[
"### RUF attacks and flight",
"During their stay in Mattru Jong with Gibrilla, Khalilou, and Kaloko, the RUF attacks. The three are able to flee the village without the rebels following them. They decide to head back home. On the way, it turns out that their village was also captured by the RUF. According to an old man who was sitting outside the village, most of the people had fled to a village on the Sierra Leone coast.",
"Ishmael, Junior, and their friend decide to travel there in order to locate their families. On their way, they encounter multiple other villages. They are accepted into another village on the grounds that they help with the farming. After months, the village is attacked. Caught by surprise, Ishmael, Junior, and their friend split up and run into the swamps.",
"It is unknown what happens to his friends afterwards. Ishmael roams around the wilderness by himself for a while, until he meets up with another group of traveling boys whom he recognizes from his home village. The boys then travel together to another village on the coast. Many refugees fled to this village because the [Sierra Leone Armed Forces](/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Armed_Forces \"Sierra Leone Armed Forces\") occupied it. In search of safety, the group of boys and Ishmael go to that village, but soon leave.",
"Ishmael then learns from a woman from his hometown that Junior, his younger brother Ibrahim, and his parents are safe in another village with many others from Mattru Jong. Just before they reach the village, the boys meet a man named Gasemu whom Ishmael knew from Mattru Jong. Gasemu tells them that Ishmael's family are indeed safe in the village and asks the boys to help him carry bananas back to that village. However, moments before they reach the town, it is attacked by the RUF.",
"Although their bodies are not found among the dead or in the burning house where they lived, Ishmael assumes that his family is dead. Devastated, and believing that Gasemu is to blame for not being able to see his family on time, Ishmael attacks Gasemu but is stopped by the other boys. They are then chased into the forest by remaining RUF soldiers, and Gasemu dies from being shot, leaving Ishmael more saddened.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
### Board and pieces
Jetan is played on a black and orange checkered [board](/wiki/Chessboard "Chessboard") of 10 {{boardgloss\|ranks}} by 10 {{boardgloss\|files}}, with orange pieces on the "north" side and black pieces on the "south".
[thumb\|upright\=1\.25\|left\|Jetan gameboard and starting setup](/wiki/File:Jetan_Board.svg "Jetan Board.svg")
Each player has the following playing pieces: one *Chief*, one *Princess*, two *Fliers*; two *Dwars* (Captains); two *Padwars* (Lieutenants); two *Warriors*; two *Thoats* (Mounted Warriors); and eight *Panthans* (Mercenaries). The Chief, Princess, Fliers, Dwars, Padwars and Warriors are positioned along the rank closest to the player with the Chief at left center, the Princess at right center, and the Fliers, Dwars, Padwars and Warriors arranged to flank each, with the Fliers innermost and the Warriors outermost. The Thoats and Panthans are positioned along the next rank out from the player with the Thoats flanking the Panthans. The complete arrangement of each side follows:
{\|class\="wikitable"
\| T \|\| p \|\| p \|\| p \|\| p \|\| p \|\| p \|\| p \|\| p \|\| T
\|\-
\| W \|\| P \|\| D \|\| F \|\| C \|\| P \|\| F \|\| D \|\| P \|\| W
\|}
There has in the past been considerable confusion regarding the rules of Jetan, but research has shown that most such problems can be cleared up through careful analysis of the text in *The Chessmen of Mars*.{{cite web \|last1\=Ekman \|first1\=Fredrik \|title\=Exploring Jetan \|url\=http://www.erbzine.com/mag70/7030\.html \|website\=ERBzine \|publisher\=Bill Hillman \|access\-date\=25 December 2019}} This article is based primarily on the Appendix in *The Chessmen of Mars*, but takes the abovementioned research into consideration.
{{clear left}}
### Movement
Jetan pieces move one, two or three steps for every move. Two\- and three\-steppers may change their direction of movement at each step in the course of a move, so long as this is in a direction permitted for that piece. No piece can cross the same square of the board twice during the course of a move. The Princess and the Flier may jump over a piece that is in their path.
A capture is made when a piece lands on a square occupied by an opposing piece with its final step or jump; the Princess may not capture.
The pieces move as follows:
* *Chief:* three steps in any direction or combination of directions.
* This is equivalent to three moves of a chess [king](/wiki/King_%28chess%29 "King (chess)"), except that it cannot double back and may only capture at the third step.
* *Princess:* three steps in any direction or combination of directions; it may jump over other pieces but cannot capture.
* It may make one ten space "escape" at any time during gameplay, jumping to any unoccupied and unthreatened space on the board.
* *Flier:* three steps diagonally; it may jump over other pieces.
* Per Burroughs, in an older version of Jetan these pieces were called *Odwars*.
* *Dwar:* three steps orthogonally.
* *Padwar:* two steps diagonally.
* *Warrior:* two steps orthogonally.
* A quote from Chapter 2 in *The Chessmen of Mars* that can be interpreted as a different type of move for the Warrior has been shown to be based on a typographical error.
* *Thoat:* one orthogonal and one diagonal step.
* In Chapter 2 of his text, Burroughs mentions that the Thoat can jump, but this is not mentioned in the more detailed Appendix. Most players disregard this.
* *Panthan:* one single step forward, sideways or diagonally forward.
By analogy to standard [chess](/wiki/Chess "Chess"), it is assumed that a piece that moves multiple squares can capture an opposing piece only by {{em\|finishing}} its move on the opposing piece's square. In other words, a piece can capture only once per turn. Burroughs was explaining his chess rules for an Earth audience familiar with standard chess. He deliberately stated that the Princess and the Flier may jump over a piece that is in their path. The only reasonable interpretation is that the Chief, Dwar, Padwar, and Warrior are {{em\|blocked}} by pieces in their path (as are the queen, rook, and bishop in standard chess). It is unreasonable to suppose that Burroughs could have meant that the Flier jumps over intervening pieces while the Chief captures all intervening pieces, as this would be so different from standard chess that he would have stated this, had it been his intention.
It is not explicitly stated in Burroughs' text that a piece entitled to a two\-space or three\-space move {{em\|must}} move the full amount, but implicit information suggests that this is the case. For example, the Padwar at \[P] is entitled to a two\-space diagonal move, so in the diagram below, it must end its move on the spaces marked \[2]; if all the spaces marked \[1] are occupied by friendly or opposing pieces, or if all the spaces marked \[2] are occupied by friendly pieces, then the Padwar is blocked and unable to move.
{\|class\="wikitable"
\| 2 \|\| \|\| 2 \|\| \|\| 2
\|\-
\| \|\| 1 \|\| \|\| 1 \|\|
\|\-
\| 2 \|\| \|\| P \|\| \|\| 2
\|\-
\| \|\| 1 \|\| \|\| 1 \|\|
\|\-
\| 2 \|\| \|\| 2 \|\| \|\| 2
\|}
### Ending the game
In Burroughs's description, Jetan is won when either a Chief captures the opposing Chief, or when any piece captures the opposing Princess. The game is drawn if each player is reduced to three or fewer pieces of equal value and it is not won within the next ten moves, or if a Chief is taken by any piece other than a Chief.
Some consider these rules to result in too many draws{{cite book \|last1\=Gollon \|first1\=John \|title\=Chess Variations: Ancient, Regional, and Modern \|date\=1968 \|publisher\=Charles E. Tuttle Company. \|isbn\=978\-1\-4629\-1220\-9 \|pages\=209–213}}{{cite web \|last1\=Cazaux \|first1\=Jean\-Louis \|last2\=Bodlaender \|first2\=Hans L. \|title\=Jetan \|url\=https://www.chessvariants.com/other.dir/jetan.html \|website\=The Chess Variant Pages \|publisher\=Fergus Duniho \|access\-date\=25 December 2019}} so a number of variants have been proposed to address this issue, the simplest being that the capture of a Chief by a piece other than a Chief merely retires the Chief without drawing or ending the game.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"### Board and pieces",
"Jetan is played on a black and orange checkered [board](/wiki/Chessboard \"Chessboard\") of 10 {{boardgloss\\|ranks}} by 10 {{boardgloss\\|files}}, with orange pieces on the \"north\" side and black pieces on the \"south\".",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|left\\|Jetan gameboard and starting setup](/wiki/File:Jetan_Board.svg \"Jetan Board.svg\")\nEach player has the following playing pieces: one *Chief*, one *Princess*, two *Fliers*; two *Dwars* (Captains); two *Padwars* (Lieutenants); two *Warriors*; two *Thoats* (Mounted Warriors); and eight *Panthans* (Mercenaries). The Chief, Princess, Fliers, Dwars, Padwars and Warriors are positioned along the rank closest to the player with the Chief at left center, the Princess at right center, and the Fliers, Dwars, Padwars and Warriors arranged to flank each, with the Fliers innermost and the Warriors outermost. The Thoats and Panthans are positioned along the next rank out from the player with the Thoats flanking the Panthans. The complete arrangement of each side follows:",
"{\\|class\\=\"wikitable\"\n\\| T \\|\\| p \\|\\| p \\|\\| p \\|\\| p \\|\\| p \\|\\| p \\|\\| p \\|\\| p \\|\\| T \n\\|\\-\n\\| W \\|\\| P \\|\\| D \\|\\| F \\|\\| C \\|\\| P \\|\\| F \\|\\| D \\|\\| P \\|\\| W \n\\|}\nThere has in the past been considerable confusion regarding the rules of Jetan, but research has shown that most such problems can be cleared up through careful analysis of the text in *The Chessmen of Mars*.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Ekman \\|first1\\=Fredrik \\|title\\=Exploring Jetan \\|url\\=http://www.erbzine.com/mag70/7030\\.html \\|website\\=ERBzine \\|publisher\\=Bill Hillman \\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2019}} This article is based primarily on the Appendix in *The Chessmen of Mars*, but takes the abovementioned research into consideration.\n{{clear left}}",
"### Movement",
"Jetan pieces move one, two or three steps for every move. Two\\- and three\\-steppers may change their direction of movement at each step in the course of a move, so long as this is in a direction permitted for that piece. No piece can cross the same square of the board twice during the course of a move. The Princess and the Flier may jump over a piece that is in their path.",
"A capture is made when a piece lands on a square occupied by an opposing piece with its final step or jump; the Princess may not capture.",
"The pieces move as follows:\n* *Chief:* three steps in any direction or combination of directions.\n* This is equivalent to three moves of a chess [king](/wiki/King_%28chess%29 \"King (chess)\"), except that it cannot double back and may only capture at the third step.\n* *Princess:* three steps in any direction or combination of directions; it may jump over other pieces but cannot capture.\n* It may make one ten space \"escape\" at any time during gameplay, jumping to any unoccupied and unthreatened space on the board.\n* *Flier:* three steps diagonally; it may jump over other pieces.\n* Per Burroughs, in an older version of Jetan these pieces were called *Odwars*.\n* *Dwar:* three steps orthogonally.\n* *Padwar:* two steps diagonally.\n* *Warrior:* two steps orthogonally.\n* A quote from Chapter 2 in *The Chessmen of Mars* that can be interpreted as a different type of move for the Warrior has been shown to be based on a typographical error.\n* *Thoat:* one orthogonal and one diagonal step.\n* In Chapter 2 of his text, Burroughs mentions that the Thoat can jump, but this is not mentioned in the more detailed Appendix. Most players disregard this.\n* *Panthan:* one single step forward, sideways or diagonally forward.",
"By analogy to standard [chess](/wiki/Chess \"Chess\"), it is assumed that a piece that moves multiple squares can capture an opposing piece only by {{em\\|finishing}} its move on the opposing piece's square. In other words, a piece can capture only once per turn. Burroughs was explaining his chess rules for an Earth audience familiar with standard chess. He deliberately stated that the Princess and the Flier may jump over a piece that is in their path. The only reasonable interpretation is that the Chief, Dwar, Padwar, and Warrior are {{em\\|blocked}} by pieces in their path (as are the queen, rook, and bishop in standard chess). It is unreasonable to suppose that Burroughs could have meant that the Flier jumps over intervening pieces while the Chief captures all intervening pieces, as this would be so different from standard chess that he would have stated this, had it been his intention.",
"It is not explicitly stated in Burroughs' text that a piece entitled to a two\\-space or three\\-space move {{em\\|must}} move the full amount, but implicit information suggests that this is the case. For example, the Padwar at \\[P] is entitled to a two\\-space diagonal move, so in the diagram below, it must end its move on the spaces marked \\[2]; if all the spaces marked \\[1] are occupied by friendly or opposing pieces, or if all the spaces marked \\[2] are occupied by friendly pieces, then the Padwar is blocked and unable to move.",
"{\\|class\\=\"wikitable\"\n\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \n\\|\\-\n\\| \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| \\|\\| 1 \\|\\|\n\\|\\-\n\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| P \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \n\\|\\-\n\\| \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| \\|\\| 1 \\|\\|\n\\|\\-\n\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \n\\|}\n### Ending the game",
"In Burroughs's description, Jetan is won when either a Chief captures the opposing Chief, or when any piece captures the opposing Princess. The game is drawn if each player is reduced to three or fewer pieces of equal value and it is not won within the next ten moves, or if a Chief is taken by any piece other than a Chief.",
"Some consider these rules to result in too many draws{{cite book \\|last1\\=Gollon \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=Chess Variations: Ancient, Regional, and Modern \\|date\\=1968 \\|publisher\\=Charles E. Tuttle Company. \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4629\\-1220\\-9 \\|pages\\=209–213}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Cazaux \\|first1\\=Jean\\-Louis \\|last2\\=Bodlaender \\|first2\\=Hans L. \\|title\\=Jetan \\|url\\=https://www.chessvariants.com/other.dir/jetan.html \\|website\\=The Chess Variant Pages \\|publisher\\=Fergus Duniho \\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2019}} so a number of variants have been proposed to address this issue, the simplest being that the capture of a Chief by a piece other than a Chief merely retires the Chief without drawing or ending the game.",
""
] |
### Movement
Jetan pieces move one, two or three steps for every move. Two\- and three\-steppers may change their direction of movement at each step in the course of a move, so long as this is in a direction permitted for that piece. No piece can cross the same square of the board twice during the course of a move. The Princess and the Flier may jump over a piece that is in their path.
A capture is made when a piece lands on a square occupied by an opposing piece with its final step or jump; the Princess may not capture.
The pieces move as follows:
* *Chief:* three steps in any direction or combination of directions.
* This is equivalent to three moves of a chess [king](/wiki/King_%28chess%29 "King (chess)"), except that it cannot double back and may only capture at the third step.
* *Princess:* three steps in any direction or combination of directions; it may jump over other pieces but cannot capture.
* It may make one ten space "escape" at any time during gameplay, jumping to any unoccupied and unthreatened space on the board.
* *Flier:* three steps diagonally; it may jump over other pieces.
* Per Burroughs, in an older version of Jetan these pieces were called *Odwars*.
* *Dwar:* three steps orthogonally.
* *Padwar:* two steps diagonally.
* *Warrior:* two steps orthogonally.
* A quote from Chapter 2 in *The Chessmen of Mars* that can be interpreted as a different type of move for the Warrior has been shown to be based on a typographical error.
* *Thoat:* one orthogonal and one diagonal step.
* In Chapter 2 of his text, Burroughs mentions that the Thoat can jump, but this is not mentioned in the more detailed Appendix. Most players disregard this.
* *Panthan:* one single step forward, sideways or diagonally forward.
By analogy to standard [chess](/wiki/Chess "Chess"), it is assumed that a piece that moves multiple squares can capture an opposing piece only by {{em\|finishing}} its move on the opposing piece's square. In other words, a piece can capture only once per turn. Burroughs was explaining his chess rules for an Earth audience familiar with standard chess. He deliberately stated that the Princess and the Flier may jump over a piece that is in their path. The only reasonable interpretation is that the Chief, Dwar, Padwar, and Warrior are {{em\|blocked}} by pieces in their path (as are the queen, rook, and bishop in standard chess). It is unreasonable to suppose that Burroughs could have meant that the Flier jumps over intervening pieces while the Chief captures all intervening pieces, as this would be so different from standard chess that he would have stated this, had it been his intention.
It is not explicitly stated in Burroughs' text that a piece entitled to a two\-space or three\-space move {{em\|must}} move the full amount, but implicit information suggests that this is the case. For example, the Padwar at \[P] is entitled to a two\-space diagonal move, so in the diagram below, it must end its move on the spaces marked \[2]; if all the spaces marked \[1] are occupied by friendly or opposing pieces, or if all the spaces marked \[2] are occupied by friendly pieces, then the Padwar is blocked and unable to move.
{\|class\="wikitable"
\| 2 \|\| \|\| 2 \|\| \|\| 2
\|\-
\| \|\| 1 \|\| \|\| 1 \|\|
\|\-
\| 2 \|\| \|\| P \|\| \|\| 2
\|\-
\| \|\| 1 \|\| \|\| 1 \|\|
\|\-
\| 2 \|\| \|\| 2 \|\| \|\| 2
\|}
|
[
"### Movement",
"Jetan pieces move one, two or three steps for every move. Two\\- and three\\-steppers may change their direction of movement at each step in the course of a move, so long as this is in a direction permitted for that piece. No piece can cross the same square of the board twice during the course of a move. The Princess and the Flier may jump over a piece that is in their path.",
"A capture is made when a piece lands on a square occupied by an opposing piece with its final step or jump; the Princess may not capture.",
"The pieces move as follows:\n* *Chief:* three steps in any direction or combination of directions.\n* This is equivalent to three moves of a chess [king](/wiki/King_%28chess%29 \"King (chess)\"), except that it cannot double back and may only capture at the third step.\n* *Princess:* three steps in any direction or combination of directions; it may jump over other pieces but cannot capture.\n* It may make one ten space \"escape\" at any time during gameplay, jumping to any unoccupied and unthreatened space on the board.\n* *Flier:* three steps diagonally; it may jump over other pieces.\n* Per Burroughs, in an older version of Jetan these pieces were called *Odwars*.\n* *Dwar:* three steps orthogonally.\n* *Padwar:* two steps diagonally.\n* *Warrior:* two steps orthogonally.\n* A quote from Chapter 2 in *The Chessmen of Mars* that can be interpreted as a different type of move for the Warrior has been shown to be based on a typographical error.\n* *Thoat:* one orthogonal and one diagonal step.\n* In Chapter 2 of his text, Burroughs mentions that the Thoat can jump, but this is not mentioned in the more detailed Appendix. Most players disregard this.\n* *Panthan:* one single step forward, sideways or diagonally forward.",
"By analogy to standard [chess](/wiki/Chess \"Chess\"), it is assumed that a piece that moves multiple squares can capture an opposing piece only by {{em\\|finishing}} its move on the opposing piece's square. In other words, a piece can capture only once per turn. Burroughs was explaining his chess rules for an Earth audience familiar with standard chess. He deliberately stated that the Princess and the Flier may jump over a piece that is in their path. The only reasonable interpretation is that the Chief, Dwar, Padwar, and Warrior are {{em\\|blocked}} by pieces in their path (as are the queen, rook, and bishop in standard chess). It is unreasonable to suppose that Burroughs could have meant that the Flier jumps over intervening pieces while the Chief captures all intervening pieces, as this would be so different from standard chess that he would have stated this, had it been his intention.",
"It is not explicitly stated in Burroughs' text that a piece entitled to a two\\-space or three\\-space move {{em\\|must}} move the full amount, but implicit information suggests that this is the case. For example, the Padwar at \\[P] is entitled to a two\\-space diagonal move, so in the diagram below, it must end its move on the spaces marked \\[2]; if all the spaces marked \\[1] are occupied by friendly or opposing pieces, or if all the spaces marked \\[2] are occupied by friendly pieces, then the Padwar is blocked and unable to move.",
"{\\|class\\=\"wikitable\"\n\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \n\\|\\-\n\\| \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| \\|\\| 1 \\|\\|\n\\|\\-\n\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| P \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \n\\|\\-\n\\| \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| \\|\\| 1 \\|\\|\n\\|\\-\n\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|\\| 2 \n\\|}"
] |
History
-------
The Green Movement ({{lang\-he\|התנועה הירוקה}}, *HaTnuʿa HaYeruka*) was founded in the summer of 2008 by environmental activists and led by Eran Ben\-Yemini and [Alon Tal](/wiki/Alon_Tal "Alon Tal"). It soon formed a political party, and ran a joint list with [Meimad](/wiki/Meimad "Meimad"), a dovish religious party, for the [2009 elections](/wiki/2009_Israeli_legislative_election "2009 Israeli legislative election"), after Meimad had ended its alliance with the [Labor Party](/wiki/Israeli_Labor_Party "Israeli Labor Party").{{cite news \|last\=Waldoks \|first\=Ehud Zion \|title\= Green Movement, Meimad run together \|newspaper\=\[\[The Jerusalem Post]] \|date\=18 December 2008 \|url\=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Green\-Movement\-Meimad\-run\-together \|access\-date\=23 June 2015}} Meimad leader [Michael Melchior](/wiki/Michael_Melchior "Michael Melchior") headed its list, and Ben\-Yemini and Tal came in second and third place; former [Shinui](/wiki/Shinui "Shinui") MK [Meli Polishook\-Bloch](/wiki/Meli_Polishook-Bloch "Meli Polishook-Bloch") was also on its list, in eleventh place.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.knesset.gov.il/elections18/heb/list/list.aspx?ListId\=83 \|title\=התנועה הירוקה מימד בראשות הרב מלכיאור וערן בן ימיני \|language\=he \|trans\-title\=The Green Movement Meimad headed by Rabbi Michael Melchior and Eren Ben Yemini \|publisher\=Knesset \|access\-date\=23 June 2015}} In addition to the environment, the electoral slate's platform addressed issues of education, social democracy, religious pluralism, and co\-existence. The campaign downplayed religious issues, and emphasized environmental questions.{{cite journal \|date\=17 December 2008 \|url\=http://en.idi.org.il/media/1430041/ByThePeople\_NEUMAN.pdf \|author\=Kalman Neuman \|title\=New Politics, No Politics, and Antipolitics: The Dilemma of the Religious Right in Israel \|publisher\=\[\[Israel Democracy Institute]] \|access\-date\=26 February 2015 \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185321/http://en.idi.org.il/media/1430041/ByThePeople\_NEUMAN.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} Presented at the workshop Anti\-Politics: Citizens, Politics and the Political Profession, Jerusalem, 17–19 December 2008\. The alliance failed to win any seats in the Knesset after failing to pass the [election threshold](/wiki/Election_threshold "Election threshold"), receiving the largest number of votes of any party not to do so.
It contested the [2013 elections](/wiki/2013_Israeli_legislative_election "2013 Israeli legislative election") in an alliance with [Tzipi Livni](/wiki/Tzipi_Livni "Tzipi Livni")'s party, [Hatnua](/wiki/Hatnua "Hatnua"). Party leader [Alon Tal](/wiki/Alon_Tal "Alon Tal") was given the 13th spot on the party list. However, Hatnua only won 6 mandates. Following the election, there was a new leadership elected, with [Yael Cohen Paran](/wiki/Yael_Cohen_Paran "Yael Cohen Paran") replacing Tal as co\-chair.
It ran in the [2015 elections](/wiki/2015_Israeli_legislative_election "2015 Israeli legislative election") on a joint [Zionist Union](/wiki/Zionist_Union "Zionist Union") list with [Hatnua](/wiki/Hatnua "Hatnua") and the [Labor Party](/wiki/Israeli_Labor_Party "Israeli Labor Party"). [Tzipi Livni](/wiki/Tzipi_Livni "Tzipi Livni") chose Green Movement co\-chair [Yael Cohen Paran](/wiki/Yael_Cohen_Paran "Yael Cohen Paran") for the 25th spot (reserved for Hatnuah members) on the list.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.jpost.com/Israel\-Elections/Environmentalist\-Yael\-Cohen\-Paran\-chosen\-for\-24th\-spot\-on\-Labor\-Hatnua\-list\-388901 \|title\=Environmentalist Yael Cohen Paran chosen for 24th spot on Labor\-Hatnua list \|author\=Sharon Udasin \|newspaper\=The Jerusalem Post \|date\=25 January 2015}} Paran missed out on being elected, but entered the Knesset following the resignation of another list member in November 2015\.
Within the Knesset, the Movement's main focus is on toxic [pollution in Haifa Bay](/wiki/Haifa_Bay%23Environmental_concerns "Haifa Bay#Environmental concerns") and its effects on nearby neighbourhoods. Another focus is on air pollution. Paran is heading a parliamentary inquiry on renewable energy, pioneered a study on Israel becoming carbon\-free, and is introducing legislation to require solar systems in high\-rise buildings.
Prior to the [September 2019 elections](/wiki/September_2019_Israeli_legislative_election "September 2019 Israeli legislative election") [Stav Shaffir](/wiki/Stav_Shaffir "Stav Shaffir") left the Israeli Labor Party after losing the [leadership election](/wiki/2019_Israeli_Labor_Party_leadership_election "2019 Israeli Labor Party leadership election") to [Amir Peretz](/wiki/Amir_Peretz "Amir Peretz"). She joined the Green Movement, becoming its new leader. The party subsequently joined the [Democratic Union](/wiki/Democratic_Union_%28Israel%29 "Democratic Union (Israel)") alliance for the elections, receiving the 2nd and 8th spots on its list.{{Cite tweet \|user\=YaelCohenParan \|number\=1154284643803377664 \|date \= 25 July 2019 \|title\=המפלגה הירוקה שמחה להיות חלק מהמחנה הדמוקרטי שיעשה מהפך במפה הפוליטית בישראל. \|language\=he }} Shaffir was elected to the Knesset as the alliance won four seats.
After a 2020 snap election was announced, [Meretz](/wiki/Meretz "Meretz") decided to create an electoral pact with the [Labor Party](/wiki/Israeli_Labor_Party "Israeli Labor Party") without the Greens.
In the build\-up to the [2020 elections](/wiki/2020_Israeli_legislative_election "2020 Israeli legislative election"), the party was renamed the Green Party.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.haaretz.com/israel\-news/elections/.premium\-no\-green\-party\-will\-be\-running\-in\-israel\-s\-election\-here\-s\-why\-1\.8598293\|title\=Defying Global Trend, No Green Party Will Be Running in Israel's Election. Here's Why\|author\=Judy Maltz\|newspaper\=\[\[Haaretz]]\|date\=28 February 2020\|quote\=Shaffir came in on the Green Party ticket (which until then was known as the Green Movement) and brought Cohen Paran with her.}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Green Movement ({{lang\\-he\\|התנועה הירוקה}}, *HaTnuʿa HaYeruka*) was founded in the summer of 2008 by environmental activists and led by Eran Ben\\-Yemini and [Alon Tal](/wiki/Alon_Tal \"Alon Tal\"). It soon formed a political party, and ran a joint list with [Meimad](/wiki/Meimad \"Meimad\"), a dovish religious party, for the [2009 elections](/wiki/2009_Israeli_legislative_election \"2009 Israeli legislative election\"), after Meimad had ended its alliance with the [Labor Party](/wiki/Israeli_Labor_Party \"Israeli Labor Party\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Waldoks \\|first\\=Ehud Zion \\|title\\= Green Movement, Meimad run together \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Jerusalem Post]] \\|date\\=18 December 2008 \\|url\\=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Green\\-Movement\\-Meimad\\-run\\-together \\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2015}} Meimad leader [Michael Melchior](/wiki/Michael_Melchior \"Michael Melchior\") headed its list, and Ben\\-Yemini and Tal came in second and third place; former [Shinui](/wiki/Shinui \"Shinui\") MK [Meli Polishook\\-Bloch](/wiki/Meli_Polishook-Bloch \"Meli Polishook-Bloch\") was also on its list, in eleventh place.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.knesset.gov.il/elections18/heb/list/list.aspx?ListId\\=83 \\|title\\=התנועה הירוקה מימד בראשות הרב מלכיאור וערן בן ימיני \\|language\\=he \\|trans\\-title\\=The Green Movement Meimad headed by Rabbi Michael Melchior and Eren Ben Yemini \\|publisher\\=Knesset \\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2015}} In addition to the environment, the electoral slate's platform addressed issues of education, social democracy, religious pluralism, and co\\-existence. The campaign downplayed religious issues, and emphasized environmental questions.{{cite journal \\|date\\=17 December 2008 \\|url\\=http://en.idi.org.il/media/1430041/ByThePeople\\_NEUMAN.pdf \\|author\\=Kalman Neuman \\|title\\=New Politics, No Politics, and Antipolitics: The Dilemma of the Religious Right in Israel \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Israel Democracy Institute]] \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185321/http://en.idi.org.il/media/1430041/ByThePeople\\_NEUMAN.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Presented at the workshop Anti\\-Politics: Citizens, Politics and the Political Profession, Jerusalem, 17–19 December 2008\\. The alliance failed to win any seats in the Knesset after failing to pass the [election threshold](/wiki/Election_threshold \"Election threshold\"), receiving the largest number of votes of any party not to do so.",
"It contested the [2013 elections](/wiki/2013_Israeli_legislative_election \"2013 Israeli legislative election\") in an alliance with [Tzipi Livni](/wiki/Tzipi_Livni \"Tzipi Livni\")'s party, [Hatnua](/wiki/Hatnua \"Hatnua\"). Party leader [Alon Tal](/wiki/Alon_Tal \"Alon Tal\") was given the 13th spot on the party list. However, Hatnua only won 6 mandates. Following the election, there was a new leadership elected, with [Yael Cohen Paran](/wiki/Yael_Cohen_Paran \"Yael Cohen Paran\") replacing Tal as co\\-chair.",
"It ran in the [2015 elections](/wiki/2015_Israeli_legislative_election \"2015 Israeli legislative election\") on a joint [Zionist Union](/wiki/Zionist_Union \"Zionist Union\") list with [Hatnua](/wiki/Hatnua \"Hatnua\") and the [Labor Party](/wiki/Israeli_Labor_Party \"Israeli Labor Party\"). [Tzipi Livni](/wiki/Tzipi_Livni \"Tzipi Livni\") chose Green Movement co\\-chair [Yael Cohen Paran](/wiki/Yael_Cohen_Paran \"Yael Cohen Paran\") for the 25th spot (reserved for Hatnuah members) on the list.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.jpost.com/Israel\\-Elections/Environmentalist\\-Yael\\-Cohen\\-Paran\\-chosen\\-for\\-24th\\-spot\\-on\\-Labor\\-Hatnua\\-list\\-388901 \\|title\\=Environmentalist Yael Cohen Paran chosen for 24th spot on Labor\\-Hatnua list \\|author\\=Sharon Udasin \\|newspaper\\=The Jerusalem Post \\|date\\=25 January 2015}} Paran missed out on being elected, but entered the Knesset following the resignation of another list member in November 2015\\.",
"Within the Knesset, the Movement's main focus is on toxic [pollution in Haifa Bay](/wiki/Haifa_Bay%23Environmental_concerns \"Haifa Bay#Environmental concerns\") and its effects on nearby neighbourhoods. Another focus is on air pollution. Paran is heading a parliamentary inquiry on renewable energy, pioneered a study on Israel becoming carbon\\-free, and is introducing legislation to require solar systems in high\\-rise buildings.",
"Prior to the [September 2019 elections](/wiki/September_2019_Israeli_legislative_election \"September 2019 Israeli legislative election\") [Stav Shaffir](/wiki/Stav_Shaffir \"Stav Shaffir\") left the Israeli Labor Party after losing the [leadership election](/wiki/2019_Israeli_Labor_Party_leadership_election \"2019 Israeli Labor Party leadership election\") to [Amir Peretz](/wiki/Amir_Peretz \"Amir Peretz\"). She joined the Green Movement, becoming its new leader. The party subsequently joined the [Democratic Union](/wiki/Democratic_Union_%28Israel%29 \"Democratic Union (Israel)\") alliance for the elections, receiving the 2nd and 8th spots on its list.{{Cite tweet \\|user\\=YaelCohenParan \\|number\\=1154284643803377664 \\|date \\= 25 July 2019 \\|title\\=המפלגה הירוקה שמחה להיות חלק מהמחנה הדמוקרטי שיעשה מהפך במפה הפוליטית בישראל. \\|language\\=he }} Shaffir was elected to the Knesset as the alliance won four seats.",
"After a 2020 snap election was announced, [Meretz](/wiki/Meretz \"Meretz\") decided to create an electoral pact with the [Labor Party](/wiki/Israeli_Labor_Party \"Israeli Labor Party\") without the Greens.",
"In the build\\-up to the [2020 elections](/wiki/2020_Israeli_legislative_election \"2020 Israeli legislative election\"), the party was renamed the Green Party.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.haaretz.com/israel\\-news/elections/.premium\\-no\\-green\\-party\\-will\\-be\\-running\\-in\\-israel\\-s\\-election\\-here\\-s\\-why\\-1\\.8598293\\|title\\=Defying Global Trend, No Green Party Will Be Running in Israel's Election. Here's Why\\|author\\=Judy Maltz\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Haaretz]]\\|date\\=28 February 2020\\|quote\\=Shaffir came in on the Green Party ticket (which until then was known as the Green Movement) and brought Cohen Paran with her.}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Private operators
There existed three transport services viz. ABC Co. (Ahmadabad Bus Corporation), Morris Transport and Munshi Bus service, before the municipal bus service. There was a shortage of petrol till 1946 due to the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") and the petrol supply was in limited quantity even in 1947 when the municipal bus service started. [Coal gas](/wiki/Coal_gas "Coal gas") was used as a fuel earlier in the buses and many buses were plying on gas. There were approximately 50,000 commuters who travelled in such buses. Morris company operated some 32 bus routes in the city. The buses ran on Gandhi Road, and Relief Road from Bhadra in the city area. There were clockwise and anti\-clockwise routes running from [Shahpur](/wiki/Shahpur%2C_Gujarat "Shahpur, Gujarat") to Shahpur. Moreover, there were other routes for [Shahibaug](/wiki/Shahibaug "Shahibaug"), Dudheshwar, Vadaj, Sabarmati and Calico Mills outside the city area. There were buses for Asarva, Khokhara\-Mehmdabad, Gomtipur, Amraiwadi and [Maninagar](/wiki/Maninagar "Maninagar") in the eastern area, while [Paldi](/wiki/Paldi "Paldi"), Vasna, Ambawadi and Commerce College routes were covered on the western bank of the [Sabarmati River](/wiki/Sabarmati_River "Sabarmati River"). Buses for the Sabarmati area ran from Vadaj.
The first communal riots took place in 1941, and the atmosphere was tense in 1946 also. The buses run by private companies closed down during the emergency period, and hence the citizens felt insecurity and difficulty. The private companies' ([Austin](/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company "Austin Motor Company") and [Studebaker](/wiki/Studebaker "Studebaker")) buses were in wretched condition, having wooden seats without sponge, a curse for the commuters, because the profit motive was at the centre for such commercial organizations. Hence the citizens demanded heavily for a public transport service.
The minimum bus fare was one [Anna](/wiki/Indian_anna "Indian anna") (6 [paise](/wiki/Paise "Paise")), and the maximum bus fare was three Annas (20 paise). They were in force from 1\-1\-47\.
### Public sector operation
[thumb\|Old diesel buses of AMTS](/wiki/File:Ahmedabad2007-100.JPG "Ahmedabad2007-100.JPG")
Amdavad municipality decided to start a bus service in the public sector, keeping in view the ideal to end the troubles of the people and to give them good service at reasonable rates.
There were 60 municipal buses running on the road on 1\-4\-47\. There was a lot of excitement for the new buses, and the people thronged on the bus routes to see the municipal buses, because the public sector city bus service was the first of its kind in [Amdavad](/wiki/Amdavad "Amdavad"), and the citizens gave a very warm welcome to it. The people of the city took pride in the bus service started by the municipality. The seats were spongy and comfortable in the new buses. All the routes started from Lal Darwaja (Bhadra) and the [railway station](/wiki/Ahmedabad_Railway_Station "Ahmedabad Railway Station"). The route numbers were similar to those of the Morris Company, with minor changes, so that the passengers should not face any problems at that time.
Clockwise and anti\-clockwise circular routes were started from Lal Darwaja. When the bus service began in 1947, buses were not delivered in requisite number, hence certain buses were hired for a month, to cater for the urgent need, from Gujarat Motors Ltd. on a daily rent of [Rs.](/wiki/Indian_Rupee "Indian Rupee")50\. Due to an inconvient body for the city\-service, they were stopped as soon as the organization got its own buses.
Insurance
The [third party insurance](/wiki/Third_party_insurance "Third party insurance") risk was not covered from the beginning under the Motor Vehicle Act Section 94 (2\), therefore the amount equivalent to its premium was decided to be deposited, and [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai") state government was requested for exemption on the said amount. The request was granted. It was granted that all the municipal transport service staff would get monthly Rs. 5 as a grain rebate.
New buses
As deliveries were received from the bus dealers, more buses came on the roads. An order was given to [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors") to buy 225 buses in total. Out of that, 143 buses were received up to September 1947\. The petrol supply was inadequate in those days, due to government regulations, so the buses on the road were much fewer than was required. However, there was a considerable increase in the number of passengers as compared to private bus\-management. In 1947\-48, the daily number of passenger were one [Lakh](/wiki/Lakh "Lakh"), nine thousand.
Administration
The department was considered as a section of the Municipality before the separation of the transport fund on 1\-8\-1950\. Separate accounts of AMTS service were maintained, taking into consideration the payments released from 1\-4\-1950 onwards from the municipal office, and accordingly, AMTS estimate Budget\-‘B' for 1951\-52 was presented in the General Meeting of the Municipal corporation by the transport committee through a standing committee in Dec. 1950\. In Jan. 1951, an All India Convention Committee meeting was held in [Gujarat Vidyapith](/wiki/Gujarat_Vidyapith "Gujarat Vidyapith"), Amdavad. At that time, a bus\-stand was erected near Vidyapith in order to assist the crowds gathered to attend to their beloved leaders. On 30 Jan 1951, [Mahatma Gandhi](/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi "Mahatma Gandhi")’s death\-anniversary, people participated in great numbers in the mass\-spinning programme at [Harijan](/wiki/Harijan "Harijan") [Ashram](/wiki/Ashram "Ashram"). There, also, proper bus arrangements were made. Special arrangements were also made for the S.S.C exam at the demand of the National Student Union. A new transport committee was appointed on 19\-7\-1951 after the conversion of the municipality into a corporation. At the end of the year 1951\-52, the organization had 205 buses.
More new buses
With the expansion of the city area and progress in industries, AMTS field became wider. Various new housing colonies, schools and factories cropped up across the river towards the west in Maninagar, Vadaj, Sabarmati and east of the railway line, and it was necessary to add more bus\-routes to cope with public demand. Sixty\-five new buses were purchased and these had [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine"), so fuel expense were decreased in the 1954\-55 budget. [Tyre](/wiki/Tire "Tire")\-tube and spare\-part expenses were also lower in the new fleet of buses. Temporary staff at the workshop was also limited. Carriage capacity of the new buses was comparatively more due to a greater number of seats, but estimated bus\-fare income was at par with last year, Rs. {{formatnum:5900000}}.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Private operators",
"There existed three transport services viz. ABC Co. (Ahmadabad Bus Corporation), Morris Transport and Munshi Bus service, before the municipal bus service. There was a shortage of petrol till 1946 due to the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") and the petrol supply was in limited quantity even in 1947 when the municipal bus service started. [Coal gas](/wiki/Coal_gas \"Coal gas\") was used as a fuel earlier in the buses and many buses were plying on gas. There were approximately 50,000 commuters who travelled in such buses. Morris company operated some 32 bus routes in the city. The buses ran on Gandhi Road, and Relief Road from Bhadra in the city area. There were clockwise and anti\\-clockwise routes running from [Shahpur](/wiki/Shahpur%2C_Gujarat \"Shahpur, Gujarat\") to Shahpur. Moreover, there were other routes for [Shahibaug](/wiki/Shahibaug \"Shahibaug\"), Dudheshwar, Vadaj, Sabarmati and Calico Mills outside the city area. There were buses for Asarva, Khokhara\\-Mehmdabad, Gomtipur, Amraiwadi and [Maninagar](/wiki/Maninagar \"Maninagar\") in the eastern area, while [Paldi](/wiki/Paldi \"Paldi\"), Vasna, Ambawadi and Commerce College routes were covered on the western bank of the [Sabarmati River](/wiki/Sabarmati_River \"Sabarmati River\"). Buses for the Sabarmati area ran from Vadaj.",
"The first communal riots took place in 1941, and the atmosphere was tense in 1946 also. The buses run by private companies closed down during the emergency period, and hence the citizens felt insecurity and difficulty. The private companies' ([Austin](/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company \"Austin Motor Company\") and [Studebaker](/wiki/Studebaker \"Studebaker\")) buses were in wretched condition, having wooden seats without sponge, a curse for the commuters, because the profit motive was at the centre for such commercial organizations. Hence the citizens demanded heavily for a public transport service.",
"The minimum bus fare was one [Anna](/wiki/Indian_anna \"Indian anna\") (6 [paise](/wiki/Paise \"Paise\")), and the maximum bus fare was three Annas (20 paise). They were in force from 1\\-1\\-47\\.",
"### Public sector operation",
"[thumb\\|Old diesel buses of AMTS](/wiki/File:Ahmedabad2007-100.JPG \"Ahmedabad2007-100.JPG\")\nAmdavad municipality decided to start a bus service in the public sector, keeping in view the ideal to end the troubles of the people and to give them good service at reasonable rates.",
"There were 60 municipal buses running on the road on 1\\-4\\-47\\. There was a lot of excitement for the new buses, and the people thronged on the bus routes to see the municipal buses, because the public sector city bus service was the first of its kind in [Amdavad](/wiki/Amdavad \"Amdavad\"), and the citizens gave a very warm welcome to it. The people of the city took pride in the bus service started by the municipality. The seats were spongy and comfortable in the new buses. All the routes started from Lal Darwaja (Bhadra) and the [railway station](/wiki/Ahmedabad_Railway_Station \"Ahmedabad Railway Station\"). The route numbers were similar to those of the Morris Company, with minor changes, so that the passengers should not face any problems at that time.",
"Clockwise and anti\\-clockwise circular routes were started from Lal Darwaja. When the bus service began in 1947, buses were not delivered in requisite number, hence certain buses were hired for a month, to cater for the urgent need, from Gujarat Motors Ltd. on a daily rent of [Rs.](/wiki/Indian_Rupee \"Indian Rupee\")50\\. Due to an inconvient body for the city\\-service, they were stopped as soon as the organization got its own buses.",
"Insurance\nThe [third party insurance](/wiki/Third_party_insurance \"Third party insurance\") risk was not covered from the beginning under the Motor Vehicle Act Section 94 (2\\), therefore the amount equivalent to its premium was decided to be deposited, and [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai \"Mumbai\") state government was requested for exemption on the said amount. The request was granted. It was granted that all the municipal transport service staff would get monthly Rs. 5 as a grain rebate.\nNew buses\nAs deliveries were received from the bus dealers, more buses came on the roads. An order was given to [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\") to buy 225 buses in total. Out of that, 143 buses were received up to September 1947\\. The petrol supply was inadequate in those days, due to government regulations, so the buses on the road were much fewer than was required. However, there was a considerable increase in the number of passengers as compared to private bus\\-management. In 1947\\-48, the daily number of passenger were one [Lakh](/wiki/Lakh \"Lakh\"), nine thousand.\nAdministration\nThe department was considered as a section of the Municipality before the separation of the transport fund on 1\\-8\\-1950\\. Separate accounts of AMTS service were maintained, taking into consideration the payments released from 1\\-4\\-1950 onwards from the municipal office, and accordingly, AMTS estimate Budget\\-‘B' for 1951\\-52 was presented in the General Meeting of the Municipal corporation by the transport committee through a standing committee in Dec. 1950\\. In Jan. 1951, an All India Convention Committee meeting was held in [Gujarat Vidyapith](/wiki/Gujarat_Vidyapith \"Gujarat Vidyapith\"), Amdavad. At that time, a bus\\-stand was erected near Vidyapith in order to assist the crowds gathered to attend to their beloved leaders. On 30 Jan 1951, [Mahatma Gandhi](/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi \"Mahatma Gandhi\")’s death\\-anniversary, people participated in great numbers in the mass\\-spinning programme at [Harijan](/wiki/Harijan \"Harijan\") [Ashram](/wiki/Ashram \"Ashram\"). There, also, proper bus arrangements were made. Special arrangements were also made for the S.S.C exam at the demand of the National Student Union. A new transport committee was appointed on 19\\-7\\-1951 after the conversion of the municipality into a corporation. At the end of the year 1951\\-52, the organization had 205 buses.\nMore new buses\nWith the expansion of the city area and progress in industries, AMTS field became wider. Various new housing colonies, schools and factories cropped up across the river towards the west in Maninagar, Vadaj, Sabarmati and east of the railway line, and it was necessary to add more bus\\-routes to cope with public demand. Sixty\\-five new buses were purchased and these had [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\"), so fuel expense were decreased in the 1954\\-55 budget. [Tyre](/wiki/Tire \"Tire\")\\-tube and spare\\-part expenses were also lower in the new fleet of buses. Temporary staff at the workshop was also limited. Carriage capacity of the new buses was comparatively more due to a greater number of seats, but estimated bus\\-fare income was at par with last year, Rs. {{formatnum:5900000}}."
] |
History
-------
At the height of [Soviet–Chinese tensions](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split "Sino-Soviet split") in 1969, [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party "Chinese Communist Party") [chairman](/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party "Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party") [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong "Mao Zedong") ordered the construction of the Underground City during the [border conflict](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict "Sino-Soviet border conflict") over [Zhenbao Island](/wiki/Zhenbao_Island "Zhenbao Island") in the [Heilongjiang River](/wiki/Heilongjiang_River "Heilongjiang River"). The Underground City was designed to withstand nuclear, biochemical and [conventional](/wiki/Conventional_weapon "Conventional weapon") attacks. The complex would protect Beijing's population, and allow government officials to evacuate in the event of an attack on the city. The government claimed that the tunnels could accommodate all of Beijing's six million inhabitants upon its completion.
The complex was equipped with facilities such as [restaurants](/wiki/Restaurants "Restaurants"), [clinics](/wiki/Clinics "Clinics"), [schools](/wiki/Schools "Schools"), [theaters](/wiki/Theaters "Theaters"), [factories](/wiki/Factories "Factories"), a [roller skating rink](/wiki/Roller_skating "Roller skating"), grain and oil warehouses, and a mushroom cultivation [farm](/wiki/Farm "Farm"). There were also almost 70 potential sites where [water wells](/wiki/Water_wells "Water wells") could easily be dug if needed. Elaborate [ventilation systems](/wiki/Ventilation_%28architecture%29 "Ventilation (architecture)") were installed, with 2,300 [shafts](/wiki/Ventilation_shaft "Ventilation shaft") that can be sealed off to protect the tunnels' inhabitants from poison gases,"[Going underground](http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-12/30/content_508040.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204114431/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005\-12/30/content\_508040\.htm \|date\=2020\-12\-04 }}". ChinaDaily (2005\-12\-30\). Retrieved on 2008\-07\-17\. Gas\- and water\-proof [hatches](/wiki/Trapdoor "Trapdoor"), as well as thick concrete main gates, were constructed to protect the tunnels from biochemical or gas attacks and [nuclear fallouts](/wiki/Nuclear_fallout "Nuclear fallout").
There is no official disclosure about the actual extent of the complex, but it is speculated that the tunnels may link together Beijing's various landmarks, as well as important governmental buildings such as the [Zhongnanhai](/wiki/Zhongnanhai "Zhongnanhai"), the [Great Hall of the People](/wiki/Great_Hall_of_the_People "Great Hall of the People"), and even military bases in the outskirts of the city. Hultengren, Irving A. "[Beijing Underground City](http://www.hultengren.com/beiund.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204114341/http://www.hultengren.com/beiund.htm \|date\=2020\-12\-04 }}". Irving A. Hultegren Home Page 2008 (2008\-05\-02\). Retrieved on 2008\-07\-17\. The China Internet Information Center asserts that "they supposedly link all areas of central Beijing, from [Xidan](/wiki/Xidan "Xidan") and [Xuanwumen](/wiki/Xuanwumen_%28Beijing%29 "Xuanwumen (Beijing)") to [Qianmen](/wiki/Qianmen "Qianmen") and \[the] [Chongwen](/wiki/Chongwen "Chongwen") district", in addition to the Western Hills. It is also rumoured that every residence once had a secret [trapdoor](/wiki/Trapdoor "Trapdoor") nearby leading to the tunnels. In the event of a nuclear attack, the plan was to move half of Beijing's population underground and the other half to the [Western Hills](/wiki/Western_Hills "Western Hills").
The tunnels were built by more than 300,000 local citizens, including school students, on volunteer duties. Some portions were even dug without the help of any heavy machinery. Centuries\-old city walls, towers and gates, including the old city gates of [Xizhimen](/wiki/Xizhimen "Xizhimen"), [Fuchengmen](/wiki/Fuchengmen "Fuchengmen"), and [Chongwenmen](/wiki/Chongwenmen "Chongwenmen") were destroyed to supply construction materials for the complex.
[thumb\|right\|Notice by the side of the Underground City entrance at Xidamochang Jie explaining that the complex is closed for renovations following a safety inspection](/wiki/Image:Dixia_Cheng_notice.JPG "Dixia Cheng notice.JPG")
Since the complex's completion, it has been utilized by locals in various ways as the tunnels remain cool in summer and warm in winter. On busy streets, some portions of the complex were refurbished as cheap [hotels](/wiki/Hotels "Hotels"), while others were transformed into shopping and business centers, or even theaters.
While the complex has never been used for its intended purpose, it has never been fully abandoned either. Local authorities still perform water leakage checks and pest control in the tunnels on a regular basis.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"At the height of [Soviet–Chinese tensions](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split \"Sino-Soviet split\") in 1969, [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party \"Chinese Communist Party\") [chairman](/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party \"Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party\") [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong \"Mao Zedong\") ordered the construction of the Underground City during the [border conflict](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict \"Sino-Soviet border conflict\") over [Zhenbao Island](/wiki/Zhenbao_Island \"Zhenbao Island\") in the [Heilongjiang River](/wiki/Heilongjiang_River \"Heilongjiang River\"). The Underground City was designed to withstand nuclear, biochemical and [conventional](/wiki/Conventional_weapon \"Conventional weapon\") attacks. The complex would protect Beijing's population, and allow government officials to evacuate in the event of an attack on the city. The government claimed that the tunnels could accommodate all of Beijing's six million inhabitants upon its completion.",
"The complex was equipped with facilities such as [restaurants](/wiki/Restaurants \"Restaurants\"), [clinics](/wiki/Clinics \"Clinics\"), [schools](/wiki/Schools \"Schools\"), [theaters](/wiki/Theaters \"Theaters\"), [factories](/wiki/Factories \"Factories\"), a [roller skating rink](/wiki/Roller_skating \"Roller skating\"), grain and oil warehouses, and a mushroom cultivation [farm](/wiki/Farm \"Farm\"). There were also almost 70 potential sites where [water wells](/wiki/Water_wells \"Water wells\") could easily be dug if needed. Elaborate [ventilation systems](/wiki/Ventilation_%28architecture%29 \"Ventilation (architecture)\") were installed, with 2,300 [shafts](/wiki/Ventilation_shaft \"Ventilation shaft\") that can be sealed off to protect the tunnels' inhabitants from poison gases,\"[Going underground](http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-12/30/content_508040.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204114431/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005\\-12/30/content\\_508040\\.htm \\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-04 }}\". ChinaDaily (2005\\-12\\-30\\). Retrieved on 2008\\-07\\-17\\. Gas\\- and water\\-proof [hatches](/wiki/Trapdoor \"Trapdoor\"), as well as thick concrete main gates, were constructed to protect the tunnels from biochemical or gas attacks and [nuclear fallouts](/wiki/Nuclear_fallout \"Nuclear fallout\").",
"There is no official disclosure about the actual extent of the complex, but it is speculated that the tunnels may link together Beijing's various landmarks, as well as important governmental buildings such as the [Zhongnanhai](/wiki/Zhongnanhai \"Zhongnanhai\"), the [Great Hall of the People](/wiki/Great_Hall_of_the_People \"Great Hall of the People\"), and even military bases in the outskirts of the city. Hultengren, Irving A. \"[Beijing Underground City](http://www.hultengren.com/beiund.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204114341/http://www.hultengren.com/beiund.htm \\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-04 }}\". Irving A. Hultegren Home Page 2008 (2008\\-05\\-02\\). Retrieved on 2008\\-07\\-17\\. The China Internet Information Center asserts that \"they supposedly link all areas of central Beijing, from [Xidan](/wiki/Xidan \"Xidan\") and [Xuanwumen](/wiki/Xuanwumen_%28Beijing%29 \"Xuanwumen (Beijing)\") to [Qianmen](/wiki/Qianmen \"Qianmen\") and \\[the] [Chongwen](/wiki/Chongwen \"Chongwen\") district\", in addition to the Western Hills. It is also rumoured that every residence once had a secret [trapdoor](/wiki/Trapdoor \"Trapdoor\") nearby leading to the tunnels. In the event of a nuclear attack, the plan was to move half of Beijing's population underground and the other half to the [Western Hills](/wiki/Western_Hills \"Western Hills\").",
"The tunnels were built by more than 300,000 local citizens, including school students, on volunteer duties. Some portions were even dug without the help of any heavy machinery. Centuries\\-old city walls, towers and gates, including the old city gates of [Xizhimen](/wiki/Xizhimen \"Xizhimen\"), [Fuchengmen](/wiki/Fuchengmen \"Fuchengmen\"), and [Chongwenmen](/wiki/Chongwenmen \"Chongwenmen\") were destroyed to supply construction materials for the complex.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Notice by the side of the Underground City entrance at Xidamochang Jie explaining that the complex is closed for renovations following a safety inspection](/wiki/Image:Dixia_Cheng_notice.JPG \"Dixia Cheng notice.JPG\")\nSince the complex's completion, it has been utilized by locals in various ways as the tunnels remain cool in summer and warm in winter. On busy streets, some portions of the complex were refurbished as cheap [hotels](/wiki/Hotels \"Hotels\"), while others were transformed into shopping and business centers, or even theaters.",
"While the complex has never been used for its intended purpose, it has never been fully abandoned either. Local authorities still perform water leakage checks and pest control in the tunnels on a regular basis.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
It is a large tree, growing to a height of {{cvt\|30\|to\|50\|m\|ft}} and a trunk diameter over {{cvt\|2\|m\|ft\|frac\=2}}. It ranks 3rd in [poplar](/wiki/Populus "Populus") species in the American Forests Champion Tree Registry.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.americanforests.org/champion\-trees/champion\-trees\-registry/ \|title\=Champion Trees Registry \|accessdate\=8 August 2023 \|publisher\=\[\[American Forests]] }} It is normally fairly short\-lived, but some trees may live up to 400 years.Forbes 2006 A cottonwood in [Willamette Mission State Park](/wiki/Willamette_Mission_State_Park "Willamette Mission State Park") near [Salem, Oregon](/wiki/Salem%2C_Oregon "Salem, Oregon"), holds the national and world records. Last measured in April 2008, this black cottonwood was found to be standing at {{cvt\|155\|ft\|m\|order\=flip}} tall, {{convert\|29\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} around, with 527 points.{{Cite web\|url\=http://ascendingthegiants.com/news/16/52/Black\-Cottonwood.html\|title\=Ascending the Giants \- Chronicles Of Measuring Champion Trees\|website\=Ascendingthegiants.com\|access\-date\=2016\-07\-03\|archive\-date\=2016\-09\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911031534/http://ascendingthegiants.com/news/16/52/Black\-Cottonwood.html\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMHY48\_Largest\_Black\_Cottonwood\_Tree\_in\_the\_United\_States\_Marion\_County\_Oregon\|title\=Largest Black Cottonwood Tree in the United States \- Marion County, Oregon \- Exceptional Trees\|website\=Waymarking.com\|access\-date\=2016\-07\-03}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://ortravelexperience.com/oregon\-heritage\-trees/willamette\-mission\-cottonwood/\|title\=Willamette Mission Cottonwood \- Oregon Travel Experience\|website\=Ortravelexperience.com\|access\-date\=2016\-07\-03}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/usa/oregon/marioncounty/11968\_willamettemissionstatepark/\|title\=Black cottonwood 'Willamette Mission Cottonwood' in Willamette Mission State Park in Salem\|website\=Monumentaltrees.com\|access\-date\=2016\-07\-03}}
The [bark](/wiki/Bark_%28botany%29 "Bark (botany)") is grey and covered with [lenticels](/wiki/Lenticel "Lenticel"), becoming thick and deeply fissured on old trees. The bark can become hard enough to cause sparks when cut with a chainsaw.Ewing, Susan. The Great Alaska Nature Factbook. Portland: Alaska Northwest Books, 1996\. The stem is grey in the older parts and light brown in younger parts. The [crown](/wiki/Crown_%28botany%29 "Crown (botany)") is usually roughly conical and quite dense. In large trees, the lower branches droop downwards. [Spur shoots](/wiki/Spur_shoot "Spur shoot") are common. The [wood](/wiki/Wood "Wood") has a light coloring and a straight grain.
The [leaves](/wiki/Leaves "Leaves") are usually {{Convert\|7–20\|cm\|frac\=4}} long with a glossy, dark green upper side and glaucous, light grey\-green underside; larger leaves may be up to {{Convert\|30\|cm\|abbr\=on\|frac\=4}} long and may be produced on stump sprouts and very vigorous young trees. The leaves are alternate, elliptical with a crenate margin and an acute tip, and reticulate venation. The petiole is reddish. The [buds](/wiki/Bud "Bud") are conical, long, narrow, and sticky, with a strong balsam scent in spring when they open.
*P. trichocarpa* has an extensive and aggressive root system, which can invade and damage drainage systems. Sometimes, the roots can even damage the foundations of buildings by drying out the soil.
In 2016, the first direct evidence was published indicating that wild *P. trichocarpa* [fixes nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation "Nitrogen fixation").Doty, S. L., Sher, A. W., Fleck, N. D., Khorasani, M., Bumgarner, R. E., Khan, Z., ... \& DeLuca, T. H. (2016\). Variable nitrogen fixation in wild Populus. PLOS ONE, 11(5\), e0155979\.
[left\|thumb\|220x220px\|emerging male catkins](/wiki/File:Populus_trichocarpa_3.jpg "Populus trichocarpa 3.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|179x179px\|female catkins opening](/wiki/File:Populus_trichocarpa_mature_female_catkins_bursting_open.jpg "Populus trichocarpa mature female catkins bursting open.jpg")
### Reproduction
#### Flowering and fruiting
[thumb\|Male (pollen\-producing) catkin and leaf buds in March. [Sherwood, Oregon](/wiki/Sherwood%2C_Oregon "Sherwood, Oregon").](/wiki/File:Black_cottonwood_male_catkin_and_leaf_buds.JPG "Black cottonwood male catkin and leaf buds.JPG")
*P. trichocarpa* is normally [dioecious](/wiki/Dioecious "Dioecious"); male and female [catkins](/wiki/Catkin "Catkin") are borne on separate trees. The species reaches [flowering](/wiki/Flowering "Flowering") age around 10 years. Flowers may appear in early March to late May in [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28U.S._state%29 "Washington (U.S. state)") and [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon"), and sometimes as late as mid\-June in northern and interior [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia"), [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho "Idaho"), and [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana"). [Staminate](/wiki/Stamen "Stamen") catkins contain 30 to 60 [stamens](/wiki/Stamen "Stamen"), elongated to 2 to 3 cm, and are [deciduous](/wiki/Deciduous "Deciduous"). The pollen can be an [allergen](/wiki/Allergen "Allergen").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.stagrallergymap.com/pdf/allergens/black\-cottonwood.pdf\|title\=Black Cottonwood\|website\=Stagrallergymap.com\|access\-date\=January 21, 2022}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://sites.google.com/site/familyallergy3/blog/that\-white\-cottony\-stuff\-blowing\-around\-in\-the\-air\-is\-not\-snow\-1 \|title\=That white cottony stuff blowing around in the air is not snow... \- Family Allergy Asthma \& Sinus Care \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-04 \|archive\-date\=2020\-10\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201007113523/https://sites.google.com/site/familyallergy3/blog/that\-white\-cottony\-stuff\-blowing\-around\-in\-the\-air\-is\-not\-snow\-1 \|url\-status\=dead }} [Pistillate](/wiki/Pistillate "Pistillate") catkins at maturity are 8 to 20 cm long with [rotund\-ovate](/wiki/Ovule "Ovule"), [tricarpellate](/wiki/Carpel "Carpel") [subsessile](/wiki/Sessility_%28botany%29 "Sessility (botany)") fruits 5 to 8 mm long. Each capsule contains many minute [seeds](/wiki/Seed "Seed") with long, white, cottony hairs.
#### Seed production and dissemination
The seed ripens and is disseminated by late May to late June in Oregon and Washington, but frequently not until mid\-July in Idaho and Montana. Abundant seed crops are usually produced every year. Attached to its cotton, the seed is light and buoyant and can be transported long distances by wind and water. Although highly viable, longevity of *P. trichocarpa* seed under natural conditions may be as short as two weeks to a month. This can be increased with cold storage.
[thumb\|Seeds and fluff of cottonwood in July. [Boise](/wiki/Boise "Boise"), Idaho.](/wiki/File:Seeds_and_Fluff_of_Cottonwood.jpg "Seeds and Fluff of Cottonwood.jpg")
#### Seedling development
Moist seedbeds are essential for high germination, and seedling survival depends on continuously favorable conditions during the first month. Wet bottomlands of rivers and major streams frequently provide such conditions, particularly where bare soil has been exposed or new soil laid down. Germination is [epigeal](/wiki/Epigeal_germination "Epigeal germination") (above ground). *P. trichocarpa* seedlings do not usually become established in abundance after [logging](/wiki/Logging "Logging") unless special measures are taken to prepare the bare, moist seedbeds required for initial establishment. Where seedlings become established in great numbers, they thin out naturally by age five because the weaker seedlings of this shade\-intolerant species are suppressed.
#### Vegetative reproduction
Due to its high levels of rooting hormones, *P. trichocarpa* sprouts readily. After logging operations, it sometimes regenerates naturally from rooting of partially buried fragments of branches or from stumps. Sprouting from roots also occurs. The species also has the ability to [abscise](/wiki/Abscission "Abscission") shoots complete with green leaves. These shoots drop to the ground and may root where they fall or may be dispersed by water transport. In some situations, abscission may be one means of colonizing exposed [sandbars](/wiki/Sandbar "Sandbar").
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"It is a large tree, growing to a height of {{cvt\\|30\\|to\\|50\\|m\\|ft}} and a trunk diameter over {{cvt\\|2\\|m\\|ft\\|frac\\=2}}. It ranks 3rd in [poplar](/wiki/Populus \"Populus\") species in the American Forests Champion Tree Registry.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.americanforests.org/champion\\-trees/champion\\-trees\\-registry/ \\|title\\=Champion Trees Registry \\|accessdate\\=8 August 2023 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[American Forests]] }} It is normally fairly short\\-lived, but some trees may live up to 400 years.Forbes 2006 A cottonwood in [Willamette Mission State Park](/wiki/Willamette_Mission_State_Park \"Willamette Mission State Park\") near [Salem, Oregon](/wiki/Salem%2C_Oregon \"Salem, Oregon\"), holds the national and world records. Last measured in April 2008, this black cottonwood was found to be standing at {{cvt\\|155\\|ft\\|m\\|order\\=flip}} tall, {{convert\\|29\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} around, with 527 points.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ascendingthegiants.com/news/16/52/Black\\-Cottonwood.html\\|title\\=Ascending the Giants \\- Chronicles Of Measuring Champion Trees\\|website\\=Ascendingthegiants.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-03\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911031534/http://ascendingthegiants.com/news/16/52/Black\\-Cottonwood.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMHY48\\_Largest\\_Black\\_Cottonwood\\_Tree\\_in\\_the\\_United\\_States\\_Marion\\_County\\_Oregon\\|title\\=Largest Black Cottonwood Tree in the United States \\- Marion County, Oregon \\- Exceptional Trees\\|website\\=Waymarking.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-03}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ortravelexperience.com/oregon\\-heritage\\-trees/willamette\\-mission\\-cottonwood/\\|title\\=Willamette Mission Cottonwood \\- Oregon Travel Experience\\|website\\=Ortravelexperience.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-03}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/usa/oregon/marioncounty/11968\\_willamettemissionstatepark/\\|title\\=Black cottonwood 'Willamette Mission Cottonwood' in Willamette Mission State Park in Salem\\|website\\=Monumentaltrees.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-03}}",
"The [bark](/wiki/Bark_%28botany%29 \"Bark (botany)\") is grey and covered with [lenticels](/wiki/Lenticel \"Lenticel\"), becoming thick and deeply fissured on old trees. The bark can become hard enough to cause sparks when cut with a chainsaw.Ewing, Susan. The Great Alaska Nature Factbook. Portland: Alaska Northwest Books, 1996\\. The stem is grey in the older parts and light brown in younger parts. The [crown](/wiki/Crown_%28botany%29 \"Crown (botany)\") is usually roughly conical and quite dense. In large trees, the lower branches droop downwards. [Spur shoots](/wiki/Spur_shoot \"Spur shoot\") are common. The [wood](/wiki/Wood \"Wood\") has a light coloring and a straight grain.",
"The [leaves](/wiki/Leaves \"Leaves\") are usually {{Convert\\|7–20\\|cm\\|frac\\=4}} long with a glossy, dark green upper side and glaucous, light grey\\-green underside; larger leaves may be up to {{Convert\\|30\\|cm\\|abbr\\=on\\|frac\\=4}} long and may be produced on stump sprouts and very vigorous young trees. The leaves are alternate, elliptical with a crenate margin and an acute tip, and reticulate venation. The petiole is reddish. The [buds](/wiki/Bud \"Bud\") are conical, long, narrow, and sticky, with a strong balsam scent in spring when they open.",
"*P. trichocarpa* has an extensive and aggressive root system, which can invade and damage drainage systems. Sometimes, the roots can even damage the foundations of buildings by drying out the soil.",
"In 2016, the first direct evidence was published indicating that wild *P. trichocarpa* [fixes nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation \"Nitrogen fixation\").Doty, S. L., Sher, A. W., Fleck, N. D., Khorasani, M., Bumgarner, R. E., Khan, Z., ... \\& DeLuca, T. H. (2016\\). Variable nitrogen fixation in wild Populus. PLOS ONE, 11(5\\), e0155979\\.\n[left\\|thumb\\|220x220px\\|emerging male catkins](/wiki/File:Populus_trichocarpa_3.jpg \"Populus trichocarpa 3.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|179x179px\\|female catkins opening](/wiki/File:Populus_trichocarpa_mature_female_catkins_bursting_open.jpg \"Populus trichocarpa mature female catkins bursting open.jpg\")",
"### Reproduction",
"#### Flowering and fruiting",
"[thumb\\|Male (pollen\\-producing) catkin and leaf buds in March. [Sherwood, Oregon](/wiki/Sherwood%2C_Oregon \"Sherwood, Oregon\").](/wiki/File:Black_cottonwood_male_catkin_and_leaf_buds.JPG \"Black cottonwood male catkin and leaf buds.JPG\")",
"*P. trichocarpa* is normally [dioecious](/wiki/Dioecious \"Dioecious\"); male and female [catkins](/wiki/Catkin \"Catkin\") are borne on separate trees. The species reaches [flowering](/wiki/Flowering \"Flowering\") age around 10 years. Flowers may appear in early March to late May in [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28U.S._state%29 \"Washington (U.S. state)\") and [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\"), and sometimes as late as mid\\-June in northern and interior [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\"), [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho \"Idaho\"), and [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\"). [Staminate](/wiki/Stamen \"Stamen\") catkins contain 30 to 60 [stamens](/wiki/Stamen \"Stamen\"), elongated to 2 to 3 cm, and are [deciduous](/wiki/Deciduous \"Deciduous\"). The pollen can be an [allergen](/wiki/Allergen \"Allergen\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stagrallergymap.com/pdf/allergens/black\\-cottonwood.pdf\\|title\\=Black Cottonwood\\|website\\=Stagrallergymap.com\\|access\\-date\\=January 21, 2022}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://sites.google.com/site/familyallergy3/blog/that\\-white\\-cottony\\-stuff\\-blowing\\-around\\-in\\-the\\-air\\-is\\-not\\-snow\\-1 \\|title\\=That white cottony stuff blowing around in the air is not snow... \\- Family Allergy Asthma \\& Sinus Care \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201007113523/https://sites.google.com/site/familyallergy3/blog/that\\-white\\-cottony\\-stuff\\-blowing\\-around\\-in\\-the\\-air\\-is\\-not\\-snow\\-1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} [Pistillate](/wiki/Pistillate \"Pistillate\") catkins at maturity are 8 to 20 cm long with [rotund\\-ovate](/wiki/Ovule \"Ovule\"), [tricarpellate](/wiki/Carpel \"Carpel\") [subsessile](/wiki/Sessility_%28botany%29 \"Sessility (botany)\") fruits 5 to 8 mm long. Each capsule contains many minute [seeds](/wiki/Seed \"Seed\") with long, white, cottony hairs.",
"#### Seed production and dissemination",
"The seed ripens and is disseminated by late May to late June in Oregon and Washington, but frequently not until mid\\-July in Idaho and Montana. Abundant seed crops are usually produced every year. Attached to its cotton, the seed is light and buoyant and can be transported long distances by wind and water. Although highly viable, longevity of *P. trichocarpa* seed under natural conditions may be as short as two weeks to a month. This can be increased with cold storage.",
"[thumb\\|Seeds and fluff of cottonwood in July. [Boise](/wiki/Boise \"Boise\"), Idaho.](/wiki/File:Seeds_and_Fluff_of_Cottonwood.jpg \"Seeds and Fluff of Cottonwood.jpg\")",
"#### Seedling development",
"Moist seedbeds are essential for high germination, and seedling survival depends on continuously favorable conditions during the first month. Wet bottomlands of rivers and major streams frequently provide such conditions, particularly where bare soil has been exposed or new soil laid down. Germination is [epigeal](/wiki/Epigeal_germination \"Epigeal germination\") (above ground). *P. trichocarpa* seedlings do not usually become established in abundance after [logging](/wiki/Logging \"Logging\") unless special measures are taken to prepare the bare, moist seedbeds required for initial establishment. Where seedlings become established in great numbers, they thin out naturally by age five because the weaker seedlings of this shade\\-intolerant species are suppressed.",
"#### Vegetative reproduction",
"Due to its high levels of rooting hormones, *P. trichocarpa* sprouts readily. After logging operations, it sometimes regenerates naturally from rooting of partially buried fragments of branches or from stumps. Sprouting from roots also occurs. The species also has the ability to [abscise](/wiki/Abscission \"Abscission\") shoots complete with green leaves. These shoots drop to the ground and may root where they fall or may be dispersed by water transport. In some situations, abscission may be one means of colonizing exposed [sandbars](/wiki/Sandbar \"Sandbar\").",
""
] |
Description
-----------
On the border with the mountain ranges formed depression, in which there was an accumulation of wastewater flowing into rivers, creating isolated water bodies. In these desert areas with a dry continental climate and very little precipitation, water consumption in the drainless lakes occurred due to evaporation more intensively than the arrival of new water, which led to a gradual accumulation of salt minerals and other products, which caused the water in the lake to periodically become salty.
**Zhalanashkol** has no permanent tributaries, the water regime is maintained by ground nutrition and a small amount of rain and snowmelt water. Fresh water with insignificant mineralization, sulphate\-bicarbonate\-sodium from 1\.2 to 5 g/L. it is characterized by medicinal properties. The shores of the lake are flat and annually flooded, sometimes swampy with reeds. Along the wetlands there is a lot of salty clay with rotted lake vegetation, which is actively used for balneological purposes by the local population and tourists. The sloping banks are gravelly and pebbly, in the Eastern part of the coast is steep, in the southern\-swampy, with a wide strip of submerged reeds.
In its geological past, the Zhalanashkol may have been the southernmost bay of the larger [Lake Alakol](/wiki/Lake_Alakol "Lake Alakol"). However, now the valley that connects the two lakes has been filled with sediment. Seasonally (when the water level in the Zhalanashkol is at its highest), water drains from the Zhalanashkol to the Alakol along the 10\-km long slough called Zhaman\-Otkel ({{lang\-ru\|Жаман\-Откель}}).{{citation\|author\=Березовиков Н.Н., Гаврилов Э.И., Хроков В.В.\|url\=http://vseprogolub.net/index.php?id\=677\&page\=1\|title\=Орнитофауна озера Жаланашколь и Джунгарских ворот (The bird fauna of Lake Zhalanashkol and the Dzhungarian Gate)\|journal\=Русский орнитологический журнал (The Russian Ornithological Journal)\|volume\=16\|issue\=348\|year\=2007\|pages\=295–333\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=2013\-10\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004212543/http://vseprogolub.net/index.php?id\=677\&page\=1\|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-04\|url\-status\=dead}}
No rivers reach the Zhalanashkol. (The [Terekty River](/wiki/Terekty_River "Terekty River") flows toward Zhalanashkol from the mountains of China's [Yumin County](/wiki/Yumin_County "Yumin County"), but reaches the lake only in the form of a usually dry [alluvial fan](/wiki/Alluvial_fan "Alluvial fan").) The lake is fed by ground water, and by seasonal runoff of rainwater or snow meltwater from the surrounding area.
The lake is usually frozen until late March.
Lake Zhalanashkol is part of the [Alakol Nature Reserve](/wiki/Alakol_Nature_Reserve "Alakol Nature Reserve").
The [Aktogay](/wiki/Aktogay%2C_East_Kazakhstan_Province "Aktogay, East Kazakhstan Province")\-[Dostyk](/wiki/Dostyk "Dostyk") (Kazakhstan's connector between the [Turkestan–Siberia Railway](/wiki/Turkestan%E2%80%93Siberia_Railway "Turkestan–Siberia Railway") and China's [Lanzhou–Xinjiang Railway](/wiki/Lanzhou%E2%80%93Xinjiang_Railway "Lanzhou–Xinjiang Railway")) runs along the lake's eastern shore. The Zhalanashkol Railway Station is located there ({{coord\|45\|36\|00\|N\|82\|11\|00\|E\|region:CN\-62\_type:landmark}}); a Kazakhstan border patrol station of the same name is nearby.
The highway to Dostyk runs on the lake's west side.
A Sino\-Soviet [border conflict](/wiki/Tielieketi "Tielieketi"), which took place in August 1969 in the hills east of the lake, has been known in the USSR and post\-Soviet states as the "Lake Zhalanashkol incident". In China it is known as the [Tielieketi](/wiki/Tielieketi "Tielieketi") incident, based on the name of a locality on the Chinese side on the border, itself coming from the [Terekty River](/wiki/Terekty_River "Terekty River").
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"On the border with the mountain ranges formed depression, in which there was an accumulation of wastewater flowing into rivers, creating isolated water bodies. In these desert areas with a dry continental climate and very little precipitation, water consumption in the drainless lakes occurred due to evaporation more intensively than the arrival of new water, which led to a gradual accumulation of salt minerals and other products, which caused the water in the lake to periodically become salty.\n**Zhalanashkol** has no permanent tributaries, the water regime is maintained by ground nutrition and a small amount of rain and snowmelt water. Fresh water with insignificant mineralization, sulphate\\-bicarbonate\\-sodium from 1\\.2 to 5 g/L. it is characterized by medicinal properties. The shores of the lake are flat and annually flooded, sometimes swampy with reeds. Along the wetlands there is a lot of salty clay with rotted lake vegetation, which is actively used for balneological purposes by the local population and tourists. The sloping banks are gravelly and pebbly, in the Eastern part of the coast is steep, in the southern\\-swampy, with a wide strip of submerged reeds.",
"In its geological past, the Zhalanashkol may have been the southernmost bay of the larger [Lake Alakol](/wiki/Lake_Alakol \"Lake Alakol\"). However, now the valley that connects the two lakes has been filled with sediment. Seasonally (when the water level in the Zhalanashkol is at its highest), water drains from the Zhalanashkol to the Alakol along the 10\\-km long slough called Zhaman\\-Otkel ({{lang\\-ru\\|Жаман\\-Откель}}).{{citation\\|author\\=Березовиков Н.Н., Гаврилов Э.И., Хроков В.В.\\|url\\=http://vseprogolub.net/index.php?id\\=677\\&page\\=1\\|title\\=Орнитофауна озера Жаланашколь и Джунгарских ворот (The bird fauna of Lake Zhalanashkol and the Dzhungarian Gate)\\|journal\\=Русский орнитологический журнал (The Russian Ornithological Journal)\\|volume\\=16\\|issue\\=348\\|year\\=2007\\|pages\\=295–333\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004212543/http://vseprogolub.net/index.php?id\\=677\\&page\\=1\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-04\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"No rivers reach the Zhalanashkol. (The [Terekty River](/wiki/Terekty_River \"Terekty River\") flows toward Zhalanashkol from the mountains of China's [Yumin County](/wiki/Yumin_County \"Yumin County\"), but reaches the lake only in the form of a usually dry [alluvial fan](/wiki/Alluvial_fan \"Alluvial fan\").) The lake is fed by ground water, and by seasonal runoff of rainwater or snow meltwater from the surrounding area.",
"The lake is usually frozen until late March.",
"Lake Zhalanashkol is part of the [Alakol Nature Reserve](/wiki/Alakol_Nature_Reserve \"Alakol Nature Reserve\").",
"The [Aktogay](/wiki/Aktogay%2C_East_Kazakhstan_Province \"Aktogay, East Kazakhstan Province\")\\-[Dostyk](/wiki/Dostyk \"Dostyk\") (Kazakhstan's connector between the [Turkestan–Siberia Railway](/wiki/Turkestan%E2%80%93Siberia_Railway \"Turkestan–Siberia Railway\") and China's [Lanzhou–Xinjiang Railway](/wiki/Lanzhou%E2%80%93Xinjiang_Railway \"Lanzhou–Xinjiang Railway\")) runs along the lake's eastern shore. The Zhalanashkol Railway Station is located there ({{coord\\|45\\|36\\|00\\|N\\|82\\|11\\|00\\|E\\|region:CN\\-62\\_type:landmark}}); a Kazakhstan border patrol station of the same name is nearby.",
"The highway to Dostyk runs on the lake's west side.",
"A Sino\\-Soviet [border conflict](/wiki/Tielieketi \"Tielieketi\"), which took place in August 1969 in the hills east of the lake, has been known in the USSR and post\\-Soviet states as the \"Lake Zhalanashkol incident\". In China it is known as the [Tielieketi](/wiki/Tielieketi \"Tielieketi\") incident, based on the name of a locality on the Chinese side on the border, itself coming from the [Terekty River](/wiki/Terekty_River \"Terekty River\").",
""
] |
History
-------
Betal was a deity of people of the [Konkan](/wiki/Konkan "Konkan"). Betala is derived from word "Vetala". Betal is a [grāmadevatā](/wiki/Gr%C4%81madevat%C4%81 "Grāmadevatā"), a protector deity of the local community.
Vetāla is one of the most famous and popular divine/ semi\-divine beings. Almost everyone recognizes him due to the Vetāla\-pancaviṁśatī/ Vikrama\-Vetāla stories. In Maharashtra, especially in the coastal Konkan region, Vetāla is more popular as the folk deity Vetobā. His nature, appearance, and roles highlight that he is a kshetrapāla or a protector deity.
In Purāṇas, he is treated as a Śivagaṇa. They associate him with Bhairava, another Śivagaṇa, who is often glorified as the complete incarnation of Śiva. Bhairava is also worshipped as Bhairobā or Bhairī in Konkan.
Śivapurāṇa (III.21\) and Kālikāpurāṇa (Chap.47 onwards) narrate interesting stories of association of Bhairava and Vetāla. As per Śivapurāṇa, once Śiva and Pārvatī were enjoying amorous sports and had appointed Bhairava as the doorman to ensure privacy.
When Pārvatī came out of the room in a dishevelled state, Bhairava happened to look at her ‘like a woman’. He obstructed her from going out, smitten with her charm. This infuriated her and she cursed him to be born as a human\[1].
Therefore, Bhairava was born as Vetāla. However, after knowing about this, Śiva did not get furious or curse him any further. Instead, he consoled Bhairava in many ways. After Bhairava was born on the earth as Vetāla, Śiva out of affection for Bhairava took the form of Maheśa and Pārvatī was born as Śāradā\[2].
Kālikāpurāṇa extends this story further by adding multiple layers to it. Bhairava is said to be human form of Mahākāla, while Vetāla is the human form of Bhṛṅgī. \[3] Mahākāla and Bhṛṅgī, the sons of Hara, were born from two drops of his spilled semen. They were dark black in colour, hence named so. They were appointed as the gatemen by Śiva and Pārvatī, while the couple enjoyed in their bedroom.
When Pārvatī exited the room in a tousled state, they happened to see her. She cursed them for having seen her in a state only fit for her husband to see. She cursed them to be born as humans with monkey faces\[4].
Instead of calmly accepting the unjust curse, they hurled a counter\-curse; as they were actually innocent, and were diligently doing their assigned duty. It was her fault to walk out of the bedroom in an inappropriate state. She was also to be born as a human, and Hara as her husband. The duo, Mahākāla and Bhṛṅgī was then to be born to them.
Accordingly Pārvatī was born to King Kakutstha and his wife Queen Manonmathinī as Princess Tārāvatī. She was married to Prince Candraśekhara, son of King Pauṣya. Candraśekhara was actually Śiva himself, born to the issueless King through a boon.
Once, when Queen Tārāvatī was bathing in a river, a certain Sage Kapota was enchanted by her beauty, and sought coitus with her. The Queen, afraid of losing her virtue, sent her sister Citrāṅgadā in her stead. This continued for a while. Upon realizing the fraud, the sage cursed her.
As per the curse, a hideous looking, ill\-dressed, penniless, and skull\-bearing man would forcibly mate with her, resulting in the birth of two monkey\-faced sons.
She was furious with such a curse, and vowed that if she was the daughter of Kakutstha, born with the blessings of goddess Caṇḍikā, and was devoted to her husband Candraśekhara, no one apart from her own husband would be able to mate with her.
After she told her husband about the entire episode, he built a secluded tower for her to stay. Once, Śiva and Pārvatī were passing by the tower by air, and spotted her. Realizing this as a befitting opportunity to fulfil all the curses, Śiva instructed Pārvatī to enter the body of Tārāvatī, while he assumed the form of a man, just as was described by the curse of Sage Kapota\[5]. Through their union were born two monkey\-faced sons.
Later Sage Nārada informed the King about the birth of two princes, and explained their real nature. King then realized his Śivatva and the queen’s Pārvatītva. The kids were named Bhairava and Vetāla.
King later had three more sons with her. He bestowed the kingdom, all the riches, and his love on them; and was rather fearful of Bhairava and Vetāla. They became celibates and wandered about in the forest. In a chance meeting, Sage Kapota explained to them that they actually were the sons of Śiva and Pārvatī.
He sent them to Kāmarūpa to meet their parents. They propitiated Śiva who explained the method of veneration of various forms of Pārvatī. They worshipped her accordingly, and were blessed with permanent servitude to the divine couple, immortality, and divinity. Śiva conferred upon them gaṇeśatva.
The text also goes on to explain their progeny. They were celibates and never married. However, they decided to have sons after a counsel with Sage Nārada, who explained to them the need to have a male offspring\[6]. Bhairava was attracted to the divine nymph Urvaśī and produced a son named Suveśa. Vetāla fathered a son named Śṛṅga with Kāmadhenu. These lineages continued to flourish.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Betal was a deity of people of the [Konkan](/wiki/Konkan \"Konkan\"). Betala is derived from word \"Vetala\". Betal is a [grāmadevatā](/wiki/Gr%C4%81madevat%C4%81 \"Grāmadevatā\"), a protector deity of the local community.",
"Vetāla is one of the most famous and popular divine/ semi\\-divine beings. Almost everyone recognizes him due to the Vetāla\\-pancaviṁśatī/ Vikrama\\-Vetāla stories. In Maharashtra, especially in the coastal Konkan region, Vetāla is more popular as the folk deity Vetobā. His nature, appearance, and roles highlight that he is a kshetrapāla or a protector deity.",
"In Purāṇas, he is treated as a Śivagaṇa. They associate him with Bhairava, another Śivagaṇa, who is often glorified as the complete incarnation of Śiva. Bhairava is also worshipped as Bhairobā or Bhairī in Konkan.",
"Śivapurāṇa (III.21\\) and Kālikāpurāṇa (Chap.47 onwards) narrate interesting stories of association of Bhairava and Vetāla. As per Śivapurāṇa, once Śiva and Pārvatī were enjoying amorous sports and had appointed Bhairava as the doorman to ensure privacy.",
"When Pārvatī came out of the room in a dishevelled state, Bhairava happened to look at her ‘like a woman’. He obstructed her from going out, smitten with her charm. This infuriated her and she cursed him to be born as a human\\[1].",
"Therefore, Bhairava was born as Vetāla. However, after knowing about this, Śiva did not get furious or curse him any further. Instead, he consoled Bhairava in many ways. After Bhairava was born on the earth as Vetāla, Śiva out of affection for Bhairava took the form of Maheśa and Pārvatī was born as Śāradā\\[2].",
"Kālikāpurāṇa extends this story further by adding multiple layers to it. Bhairava is said to be human form of Mahākāla, while Vetāla is the human form of Bhṛṅgī. \\[3] Mahākāla and Bhṛṅgī, the sons of Hara, were born from two drops of his spilled semen. They were dark black in colour, hence named so. They were appointed as the gatemen by Śiva and Pārvatī, while the couple enjoyed in their bedroom.",
"When Pārvatī exited the room in a tousled state, they happened to see her. She cursed them for having seen her in a state only fit for her husband to see. She cursed them to be born as humans with monkey faces\\[4].",
"Instead of calmly accepting the unjust curse, they hurled a counter\\-curse; as they were actually innocent, and were diligently doing their assigned duty. It was her fault to walk out of the bedroom in an inappropriate state. She was also to be born as a human, and Hara as her husband. The duo, Mahākāla and Bhṛṅgī was then to be born to them.",
"Accordingly Pārvatī was born to King Kakutstha and his wife Queen Manonmathinī as Princess Tārāvatī. She was married to Prince Candraśekhara, son of King Pauṣya. Candraśekhara was actually Śiva himself, born to the issueless King through a boon.",
"Once, when Queen Tārāvatī was bathing in a river, a certain Sage Kapota was enchanted by her beauty, and sought coitus with her. The Queen, afraid of losing her virtue, sent her sister Citrāṅgadā in her stead. This continued for a while. Upon realizing the fraud, the sage cursed her.",
"As per the curse, a hideous looking, ill\\-dressed, penniless, and skull\\-bearing man would forcibly mate with her, resulting in the birth of two monkey\\-faced sons.",
"She was furious with such a curse, and vowed that if she was the daughter of Kakutstha, born with the blessings of goddess Caṇḍikā, and was devoted to her husband Candraśekhara, no one apart from her own husband would be able to mate with her.",
"After she told her husband about the entire episode, he built a secluded tower for her to stay. Once, Śiva and Pārvatī were passing by the tower by air, and spotted her. Realizing this as a befitting opportunity to fulfil all the curses, Śiva instructed Pārvatī to enter the body of Tārāvatī, while he assumed the form of a man, just as was described by the curse of Sage Kapota\\[5]. Through their union were born two monkey\\-faced sons.",
"Later Sage Nārada informed the King about the birth of two princes, and explained their real nature. King then realized his Śivatva and the queen’s Pārvatītva. The kids were named Bhairava and Vetāla.",
"King later had three more sons with her. He bestowed the kingdom, all the riches, and his love on them; and was rather fearful of Bhairava and Vetāla. They became celibates and wandered about in the forest. In a chance meeting, Sage Kapota explained to them that they actually were the sons of Śiva and Pārvatī.",
"He sent them to Kāmarūpa to meet their parents. They propitiated Śiva who explained the method of veneration of various forms of Pārvatī. They worshipped her accordingly, and were blessed with permanent servitude to the divine couple, immortality, and divinity. Śiva conferred upon them gaṇeśatva.",
"The text also goes on to explain their progeny. They were celibates and never married. However, they decided to have sons after a counsel with Sage Nārada, who explained to them the need to have a male offspring\\[6]. Bhairava was attracted to the divine nymph Urvaśī and produced a son named Suveśa. Vetāla fathered a son named Śṛṅga with Kāmadhenu. These lineages continued to flourish.",
""
] |
Portfolios
----------
### Agriculture
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Agriculture and Rural Development}}
The Commissioner for Agriculture and Rural Development is in charge of rural issues including most notably the controversial [Common Agricultural Policy](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy "Common Agricultural Policy") (CAP) which represents 44% of the [EU budget](/wiki/European_Union_Budget "European Union Budget"). The post used to be combined with Fisheries in the [Jenkins](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") and [Thorn Commissions](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission"). The related DG is the [Directorate\-General for Agriculture and Rural Development](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Agriculture_and_Rural_Development "Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development")
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Sicco Mansholt](/wiki/Sicco_Mansholt "Sicco Mansholt") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1958–1972 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") I \& II, [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission"), [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission") | Agriculture (vice\-president) |
| 2 | [Carlo Scarascia\-Mugnozza](/wiki/Carlo_Scarascia-Mugnozza "Carlo Scarascia-Mugnozza") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1972–1973 | [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | Agriculture |
| 3 | [Pierre Lardinois](/wiki/Pierre_Lardinois "Pierre Lardinois") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | Agriculture |
| 4 | [Finn Olav Gundelach](/wiki/Finn_Olav_Gundelach "Finn Olav Gundelach") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Agriculture\-Fisheries (vice\-president) |
| 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Agriculture |
| 5 | [Poul Dalsager](/wiki/Poul_Dalsager "Poul Dalsager") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | Agriculture |
| 6 | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen "Frans Andriessen") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Agriculture and Rural Development (vice\-president) |
| 7 | [Ray MacSharry](/wiki/Ray_MacSharry "Ray MacSharry") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Agriculture and Rural Development |
| 8 | [René Steichen](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Steichen "René Steichen") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1992–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III |
| 9 | [Franz Fischler](/wiki/Franz_Fischler "Franz Fischler") | {{Flagu\|Austria}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") |
| 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Agriculture and Fisheries |
| 10 | [Sandra Kalniete](/wiki/Sandra_Kalniete "Sandra Kalniete") | {{Flagu\|Latvia}} | 2004 |
| 11 | [Mariann Fischer Boel](/wiki/Mariann_Fischer_Boel "Mariann Fischer Boel") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Agriculture and Rural Development |
| 12 | [Dacian Cioloş](/wiki/Dacian_Ciolo%C5%9F "Dacian Cioloş") | {{Flagu\|Romania}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II |
| 13 | [Phil Hogan](/wiki/Phil_Hogan "Phil Hogan") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") |
| 14 | [Janusz Wojciechowski](/wiki/Janusz_Wojciechowski "Janusz Wojciechowski") | {{Flagu\|Poland}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Agriculture |
### Climate Action
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Climate Action}}
The post of Commissioner for Climate Action was created in February 2010, being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change "Climate change"). The first Commissioner to take the post was [Connie Hedegaard](/wiki/Connie_Hedegaard "Connie Hedegaard") who headed the [Directorate\-General for Climate Action](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Climate_Action_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Climate Action (European Commission)").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Connie Hedegaard](/wiki/Connie_Hedegaard "Connie Hedegaard") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Climate Action |
| 2 | [Miguel Arias Cañete](/wiki/Miguel_Arias_Ca%C3%B1ete "Miguel Arias Cañete") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Climate Action and Energy |
| 3 | [Frans Timmermans](/wiki/Frans_Timmermans "Frans Timmermans") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 2019–2023 | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Climate Action |
| 4 | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič") (acting) | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2023 | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Climate Action |
| 5 | [Wopke Hoekstra](/wiki/Wopke_Hoekstra "Wopke Hoekstra") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 2023–present | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Climate Action |
### Competition
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Competition}}
The Commissioner for Competition is the member responsible for [commercial competition](/wiki/Competition_regulator "Competition regulator"), [company mergers](/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions "Mergers and acquisitions"), [cartels](/wiki/Cartel "Cartel"), [state aid](/wiki/State_aid "State aid"), and [anti\-trust](/wiki/Anti-trust "Anti-trust") law. The position became the sole merger authority for the [European Economic Area](/wiki/European_Economic_Area "European Economic Area") in September 1990\. The Competition Commissioner is one of the most powerful positions in the commission and is notable in affecting global companies.{{cite news\|last \=Lungescu\|first\=Oana\|publisher\=BBC News\|title \=Examining the EU executive\|date\=2004\-07\-23\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/letter\_from\_america/3921303\.stm\|access\-date \= 2007\-09\-18}} For example, the commissioner has been pursued a number of high\-profile cases against anticompetitive behaviour; such as the case against the merger of [Sony](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music") – [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group "Bertelsmann Music Group"), against [Apple Inc.](/wiki/Apple_Inc. "Apple Inc.") regarding [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes "ITunes"),[Brussels Accuses iTunes of Violating Competition Rules](http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/0,1518,475398,00.html) *Der Spiegel* the ongoing [case against Microsoft](/wiki/European_Union_v._Microsoft "European Union v. Microsoft") and in particular the [GE\-Honeywell merger attempt](/wiki/Honeywell%23GE-Honeywell_merger_attempt "Honeywell#GE-Honeywell merger attempt") in 2001\.[The Commission prohibits GE's acquisition of Honeywell](http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/01/939) Europa (web portal) In 2007, Neelie Kroes (then Competition Commissioner) was the only Commissioner to make [Forbes Magazine's List of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women](/wiki/Forbes_Magazine%27s_List_of_The_World%27s_100_Most_Powerful_Women "Forbes Magazine's List of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women"); she held position 59\.[100 Most Powerful Women](https://web.archive.org/web/20071011022303/http://www.forbes.com/lists/2007/11/biz-07women_The-100-Most-Powerful-Women_Rank_3.html) Forbes
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Hans von der Groeben](/wiki/Hans_von_der_Groeben "Hans von der Groeben") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1958–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") I \& II | Competition |
| 2 | [Maan Sassen](/wiki/Maan_Sassen "Maan Sassen") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1967–1971 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") |
| 3 | [Albert Borschette](/wiki/Albert_Borschette "Albert Borschette") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1970–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | Competition and Regional Policy |
| 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | Competition |
| 4 | [Raymond Vouel](/wiki/Raymond_Vouel "Raymond Vouel") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1976–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") |
| 5 | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen "Frans Andriessen") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Parliamentary Relations and Competition |
| 6 | [Peter Sutherland](/wiki/Peter_Sutherland "Peter Sutherland") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Competition, social affairs and education |
| 7 | [Sir Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan "Leon Brittan") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Competition and financial institutions (vice\-president) |
| 8 | [Karel Van Miert](/wiki/Karel_Van_Miert "Karel Van Miert") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1993–1999 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III, [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Competition (vice\-president) |
| 9 | [Mario Monti](/wiki/Mario_Monti "Mario Monti") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Competition |
| 10 | [Neelie Kroes](/wiki/Neelie_Kroes "Neelie Kroes") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I |
| 11 | [Joaquín Almunia](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Almunia "Joaquín Almunia") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Competition (vice\-president) |
| 12 | [Margrethe Vestager](/wiki/Margrethe_Vestager "Margrethe Vestager") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 2014 onwards | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission"), [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Competition |
### Development
The Commissioner for Development deals with promoting sustainable development in deprived regions (such as [ACP countries](/wiki/ACP_countries "ACP countries") and the EU's [OCTs](/wiki/Special_member_state_territories_and_their_relations_with_the_European_Union "Special member state territories and their relations with the European Union")). It used to include [humanitarian aid](/wiki/Humanitarian_aid "Humanitarian aid"). The related DG is [Directorate\-General for International Partnerships](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Development_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Development (European Commission)")
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Robert Lemaignen](/wiki/Robert_Lemaignen "Robert Lemaignen") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1958–1962 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") I | Overseas Development |
| 2 | [Henri Rochereau](/wiki/Henri_Rochereau "Henri Rochereau") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1962–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") II |
| 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | Development Assistance |
| 3 | [Jean\-François Deniau](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Deniau "Jean-François Deniau") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | Foreign Trade, Enlargement and Assistance to developing countries |
| 1970–1972 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission") | External Relations and Development Aid |
| 1972–1973 | [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | Foreign Affairs and Development Aid |
| 1973 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | Development cooperation |
| 4 | [Claude Cheysson](/wiki/Claude_Cheysson "Claude Cheysson") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1973–1981 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission"), [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Development |
| 1981 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") |
| 5 | [Edgard Pisani](/wiki/Edgard_Pisani "Edgard Pisani") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1981–1984 |
| 6 | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali "Lorenzo Natali") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Cooperation, development affairs and enlargement (vice\-president) |
| 7 | [Filippo Maria Pandolfi](/wiki/Filippo_Maria_Pandolfi "Filippo Maria Pandolfi") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Science, research, development, telecommunications and innovation (vice\-president) |
| 7 | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin "Manuel Marin") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1989–1992 | Cooperation, development and fisheries (vice\-president) |
| 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Cooperation, development and humanitarian aid (vice\-president) |
| 8 | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro "João de Deus Pinheiro") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Relations with African, Caribbean, Pacific Countries, South Africa and the Lomé Convention |
| 9 | [Poul Nielson](/wiki/Poul_Nielson "Poul Nielson") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Development and Humanitarian Aid |
| 10 | [Joe Borg](/wiki/Joe_Borg "Joe Borg") | {{Flagu\|Malta}} | 2004 |
| 11 | [Benita Ferrero\-Waldner](/wiki/Benita_Ferrero-Waldner "Benita Ferrero-Waldner") | {{Flagu\|Austria}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy |
| 12 | [Louis Michel](/wiki/Louis_Michel "Louis Michel") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 2004–2009 | Development and Humanitarian Aid |
| 13 | [Karel De Gucht](/wiki/Karel_De_Gucht "Karel De Gucht") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 2009–2010 |
| 14 | [Andris Piebalgs](/wiki/Andris_Piebalgs "Andris Piebalgs") | {{Flagu\|Latvia}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Development |
| 15 | [Neven Mimica](/wiki/Neven_Mimica "Neven Mimica") | {{Flagu\|Croatia}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | International Cooperation and Development |
| 16 | [Jutta Urpilainen](/wiki/Jutta_Urpilainen "Jutta Urpilainen") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | International Partnerhips |
### Technology
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Digital Agenda}}
The Commissioner for the Digital Agenda, previously the Commissioner for Information Society and Media, is responsible media and information issues such as [telecoms](/wiki/Telecoms "Telecoms") and [ICT](/wiki/Information_and_Communications_Technology "Information and Communications Technology").
2004–2010 Commissioner, [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding "Viviane Reding"), found a relatively popular policy in seeking to lower [roaming](/wiki/Roaming "Roaming") charges of mobile phones when travelling within the EU, stating: "For years, mobile roaming charges have remained unjustifiably high. We are therefore tackling one of the last borders within Europe's internal market".[Roaming Charges Portal](http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/roaming/index_en.htm) European Commission Her [legislation to cap roaming charges](/wiki/Regulation_on_roaming_charges_in_the_European_Union "Regulation on roaming charges in the European Union") was approved by the [Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") in April 2007[European parliament backs roaming price cuts](https://web.archive.org/web/20070928080017/http://www.computerbusinessreview.com/article_news.asp?guid=9D3AEC6B-EC7C-4114-965C-880A63EEFCDD) Computer Business Review Online On 7 April 2006 the commission launched the new "[.eu](/wiki/.eu ".eu")" [TLD](/wiki/Top-level_domain "Top-level domain") for websites for EU companies and citizens wishing to have a non\-national European internet address. This has proved popular with 2\.5 being registered by April 2007\. It is now the seventh most popular TLD worldwide, and third in Europe (after [.de](/wiki/.de ".de") and [.uk](/wiki/.uk ".uk"))[\`.eu' Domain Names Top 2\.5M in Year One](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/huff-wires/20070411/techbit-eu-internet-names) *Huffington Post*
In the previous Commission information society was linked with Enterprise (now linked with Industry).
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Fritz Hellwig](/wiki/Fritz_Hellwig "Fritz Hellwig") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | Research and Technology, Distribution of Information and Joint Research Centre (vice\-president) |
| 2 | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali "Lorenzo Natali") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Mediterranean Policy, Enlargement and Information (vice\-president) |
| 3 | [Karl\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes "Karl-Heinz Narjes") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1985–1988 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Industry, information technology and science and research (vice\-president) |
| 4 | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana "Carlo Ripa di Meana") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | Institutional reforms, information policy, culture and tourism |
| 5 | [Filippo Maria Pandolfi](/wiki/Filippo_Maria_Pandolfi "Filippo Maria Pandolfi") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Science, research, development, telecommunications and innovation (vice\-president) |
| 6 | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann "Martin Bangemann") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Internal market, industrial affairs and ICT (vice\-president) |
| 7 | [Antonio Ruberti](/wiki/Antonio_Ruberti "Antonio Ruberti") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | Science, research, technological development and education (vice\-president) |
| (6\) | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann "Martin Bangemann") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Industrial affairs, Information and Telecommunications Technologies |
| 8 | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja "Marcelino Oreja") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | Relations with the European Parliament, Culture, Audiovisual Policy |
| 9 | [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen "Erkki Liikanen") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Enterprise and Information Society |
| 10 | [Olli Rehn](/wiki/Olli_Rehn "Olli Rehn") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 2004 |
| 11 | [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE "Ján Figeľ") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2004 |
| 12 | [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding "Viviane Reding") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Information Society and Media |
| 13 | [Neelie Kroes](/wiki/Neelie_Kroes "Neelie Kroes") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Digital Agenda (vice\-president) |
| 14 | [Andrus Ansip](/wiki/Andrus_Ansip "Andrus Ansip") | {{Flagu\|Estonia}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Digital Single Market (vice\-president) |
| 15 | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2019 |
| 16 | [Margrethe Vestager](/wiki/Margrethe_Vestager "Margrethe Vestager") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Europe Fit for Digital Age (Executive Vice\-President) |
### Economic and Financial Affairs, Taxation and Customs
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs}}
The Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs is responsible for the EU's economic affairs including the [euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro"). In the [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission"), the post also acquired responsibility for [taxation and anti\-fraud protection](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Taxation_and_Customs_Union%2C_Audit_and_Anti-Fraud "European Commissioner for Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti-Fraud").
There have been calls for a strengthened economic portfolio with [Ségolène Royal](/wiki/S%C3%A9gol%C3%A8ne_Royal "Ségolène Royal") suggesting that there should be an economic government for the [eurozone](/wiki/Eurozone "Eurozone")[Royal v Sarkozy: The policies](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6357899.stm) BBC News and at the start of the first [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") Germany suggested an economic "[super\-commissioner](/wiki/Super-commissioner "Super-commissioner")"['Big three' strike deal on super commissioner, French VAT cuts, 1% ceiling](http://www.euractiv.com/en/agenda2004/big-strike-deal-super-commissioner-french-vat-cuts-1-ceiling/article-114814) EurActiv.com – which could see a change in this position. That idea, however, was dropped but the Enterprise and Industry Commissioner was strengthened in response.[The New Commission – Some Initial Thought](http://www.bmbrussels.be/box_bmnewcomm.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923001700/http://www.bmbrussels.be/box\_bmnewcomm.php \|date\=23 September 2006 }} BM Brussels
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Robert Marjolin](/wiki/Robert_Marjolin "Robert Marjolin") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1958–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") I \& II | Economics and Finance (vice\-president) |
| 2 | [Raymond Barre](/wiki/Raymond_Barre "Raymond Barre") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | Economic and Finance, Statistical Office (vice\-president) |
| 1970–1972 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | Economic \& Financial Affairs |
| 3 | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp "Wilhelm Haferkamp") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | Economic and Finance, Credit and Investments (vice\-president) |
| 3 | [Henri François Simonet](/wiki/Henri_Fran%C3%A7ois_Simonet "Henri François Simonet") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | Taxation, Energy (vice\-president) |
| 3 | [Finn Olav Gundelach](/wiki/Finn_Olav_Gundelach "Finn Olav Gundelach") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | Internal Market, Customs Union |
| 4 | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 "Richard Burke (Irish politician)") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Taxation, Consumer Affairs, Transport |
| 4 | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon "Étienne Davignon") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | Internal Market, Customs Union, Industrial Affairs |
| 4 | [François\-Xavier Ortoli](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Ortoli "François-Xavier Ortoli") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1977–1985 | Economic and Financial Credit and Investments (vice\-president) |
| [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Economic and Financial Credit and Investments (vice\-president) |
| 5 | [Christopher Tugendhat](/wiki/Christopher_Tugendhat "Christopher Tugendhat") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1981–1985 | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions and Taxation (vice\-president) |
| 5 | [Karl\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes "Karl-Heinz Narjes") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |
| 5 | [Lord Cockfield](/wiki/Lord_Cockfield "Lord Cockfield") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Internal market, tax law and customs (vice\-president) |
| 6 | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen "Henning Christophersen") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration (vice\-president) |
| 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Economic \& financial affairs and coordination of structural funds (vice\-president) |
| 7 | [Christiane Scrivener](/wiki/Christiane_Scrivener "Christiane Scrivener") | {{Flagu\|France}} | Taxation and customs union |
| (6\) | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen "Henning Christophersen") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1992–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Economic and Financial Affairs (vice\-president) |
| (7\) | [Christiane Scrivener](/wiki/Christiane_Scrivener "Christiane Scrivener") | {{Flagu\|France}} | Taxation, customs union and consumer policies |
| 8 | [Yves\-Thibault de Silguy](/wiki/Yves-Thibault_de_Silguy "Yves-Thibault de Silguy") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Economic and Financial Affairs |
| 8 | [Mario Monti](/wiki/Mario_Monti "Mario Monti") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | Internal Market, Services Customs and Taxation |
| 9 | [Pedro Solbes](/wiki/Pedro_Solbes "Pedro Solbes") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Economic and Monetary Affairs |
| 10 | [Joaquín Almunia](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Almunia "Joaquín Almunia") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 2004 |
| 11 | [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas "Siim Kallas") | {{Flagu\|Estonia}} | 2004 |
| 12 | [Joaquín Almunia](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Almunia "Joaquín Almunia") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Economic and Financial Affairs |
| 12 | [László Kovács](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Kov%C3%A1cs_%28politician%29 "László Kovács (politician)") | {{Flagu\|Hungary}} | Taxation and Customs Union |
| 13 | [Olli Rehn](/wiki/Olli_Rehn "Olli Rehn") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Economic and Monetary Affairs and the Euro (vice\-president) |
| 14 | [Jyrki Katainen](/wiki/Jyrki_Katainen "Jyrki Katainen") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 2014 |
| 15 | [Algirdas Šemeta](/wiki/Algirdas_%C5%A0emeta "Algirdas Šemeta") | {{Flagu\|Lithuania}} | 2010–2014 | Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti\-Fraud |
| 16 | [Pierre Moscovici](/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici "Pierre Moscovici") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Economic and Financial Affairs, Taxation and Customs |
| 17 | [Paolo Gentiloni](/wiki/Paolo_Gentiloni "Paolo Gentiloni") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Economy |
| 17 | [Valdis Dombrovskis](/wiki/Valdis_Dombrovskis "Valdis Dombrovskis") | {{Flagu\|Latvia}} | 2019 Onwards | Economy that Works for People (Executive Vice\-President) |
### Education, Culture, Sport and Youth
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth}}
The Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth is responsible for policies in education and [training](/wiki/Training "Training"), [youth](/wiki/Youth "Youth"), sport, [civil society](/wiki/Civil_society "Civil society"), culture, [translation](/wiki/Translation "Translation"), [interpretation](/wiki/Interpreting "Interpreting") and relations with the [Office for Official Publications of the European Communities](/wiki/Office_for_Official_Publications_of_the_European_Communities "Office for Official Publications of the European Communities").
The post was enlarged since the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") with the addition of *training and multilingualism* (The [Directorate\-General](/wiki/Directorate-General "Directorate-General") is still just [Directorate\-General for Education and Culture](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Education_and_Culture_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Education and Culture (European Commission)")). When Romania joined the EU in 2007, multilingualism was handed over to the new Romanian commissioner. In its place the portfolio included youth, sport and civil society. Multilingualism was reintroduced in 2010 under Barroso's second Commission.
The commission has become increasingly active in education. The [ERASMUS programme](/wiki/ERASMUS_programme "ERASMUS programme"), which was established in 1987, is a student exchange programme promoting mobility of students between European universities. The [Bologna process](/wiki/Bologna_process "Bologna process") aims to create a [European Higher Education Area](/wiki/European_Higher_Education_Area "European Higher Education Area") where academic qualifications can be recognised across Europe. The [European Institute of Technology](/wiki/European_Institute_of_Technology "European Institute of Technology") is a proposed research university.
The previous portfolio to the current was Culture, merged with Audiovisual policy and [EP](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") relations.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana "Carlo Ripa di Meana") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Institutional reforms, information policy, culture and tourism |
| 2 | [Jean Dondelinger](/wiki/Jean_Dondelinger "Jean Dondelinger") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Audiovisual and cultural affairs |
| 3 | [Antonio Ruberti](/wiki/Antonio_Ruberti "Antonio Ruberti") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Science, research, technological development and education (vice\-president) |
| 3 | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro "João de Deus Pinheiro") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | Relations with Parliament, culture and audiovisual |
| 4 | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja "Marcelino Oreja") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Relations with the European Parliament, Culture, Audiovisual Policy |
| 5 | [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding "Viviane Reding") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Education and Culture |
| 6 | [Dalia Grybauskaitė](/wiki/Dalia_Grybauskait%C4%97 "Dalia Grybauskaitė") | {{Flagu\|Lithuania}} | 2004 |
| 7 | [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE "Ján Figeľ") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Education, Training and Culture |
| 8 | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2009–2010 |
| 7 | [Leonard Orban](/wiki/Leonard_Orban "Leonard Orban") | {{Flagu\|Romania}} | 2004–2010 | Multilingualism |
| 8 | [Androulla Vassiliou](/wiki/Androulla_Vassiliou "Androulla Vassiliou") | {{Flagu\|Cyprus}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth |
| 9 | [Tibor Navracsics](/wiki/Tibor_Navracsics "Tibor Navracsics") | {{Flagu\|Hungary}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Education, Culture, Youth and Sport |
| 10 | [Mariya Gabriel](/wiki/Mariya_Gabriel "Mariya Gabriel") | {{Flagu\|Bulgaria}} | 2019–2023{{Cite web \|title\=Press corner \|url\=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-11 \|website\=European Commission \- European Commission \|language\=en}} | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Innovation, Research, Culture, Education and Youth |
| 11 | [Iliana Ivanova](/wiki/Iliana_Ivanova "Iliana Ivanova") | {{Flagu\|Bulgaria}} | (designated){{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-29 \|title\=Von der Leyen chooses 'woman from EPP' as Bulgarian commissioner \|url\=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/von\-der\-leyen\-chooses\-woman\-from\-epp\-as\-bulgarian\-commissioner/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-11 \|website\=www.euractiv.com \|language\=en\-GB}} | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Innovation, Research, Culture, Education and Youth |
### Employment and Social Affairs
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion}}
The Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion is responsible for matters including those relating to employment, discrimination and social affairs such as [welfare](/wiki/Social_welfare_provision "Social welfare provision"). The post has had various alterations; under the first Barroso Commission it was known as Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Lionello Levi Sandri](/wiki/Lionello_Levi_Sandri "Lionello Levi Sandri") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1967–1972 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | |
| 2 | [Albert Coppé](/wiki/Albert_Copp%C3%A9 "Albert Coppé") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1972–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | |
| 3 | [Patrick Hillery](/wiki/Patrick_Hillery "Patrick Hillery") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | |
| 4 | [Henk Vredeling](/wiki/Henk_Vredeling "Henk Vredeling") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Employment and Social Affairs (vice\-president) |
| 5 | [Ivor Richard](/wiki/Ivor_Richard "Ivor Richard") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Employment and Social Affairs |
| 6 | [Alois Pfeiffer](/wiki/Alois_Pfeiffer "Alois Pfeiffer") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1985–1987 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Economic affairs and employment |
| 7 | [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber "Peter Schmidhuber") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1987–1989 |
| 8 | [Peter Sutherland](/wiki/Peter_Sutherland "Peter Sutherland") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1985–1989 | Competition, social affairs and education |
| 9 | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin "Manuel Marin") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1986–1989 | Competition, social affairs and education (vice\-president) |
| 10 | [Vasso Papandreou](/wiki/Vasso_Papandreou "Vasso Papandreou") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Employment, industrial relations and social affairs |
| 11 | [Pádraig Flynn](/wiki/P%C3%A1draig_Flynn "Pádraig Flynn") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Social affairs and employment |
| 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Employment and Social Affairs and relations with the EESC |
| 13 | [Anna Diamantopoulou](/wiki/Anna_Diamantopoulou "Anna Diamantopoulou") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Employment and Social Affairs |
| 14 | [Stavros Dimas](/wiki/Stavros_Dimas "Stavros Dimas") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 2004 |
| 14 | [Vladimír Špidla](/wiki/Vladim%C3%ADr_%C5%A0pidla "Vladimír Špidla") | {{Flagu\|Czech Republic}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities |
| 15 | [László Andor](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Andor "László Andor") | {{Flagu\|Hungary}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion |
| 16 | [Marianne Thyssen](/wiki/Marianne_Thyssen "Marianne Thyssen") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Employment, Social Affairs, Skills and Labour Mobility |
| 17 | [Nicolas Schmit](/wiki/Nicolas_Schmit "Nicolas Schmit") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Jobs and Social Rights |
### Energy
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Energy}}
The Commissioner holds responsibility for the [European Union's energy policy](/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union "Energy policy of the European Union") as well as nuclear issues ([Euratom](/wiki/Euratom "Euratom")). The [Directorate\-General](/wiki/Directorate-General "Directorate-General") for this portfolio is shared with the [Commissioner for Transport](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Transport "European Commissioner for Transport") as the [Directorate\-General for Mobility and Transport](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Transport_and_Energy_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Transport and Energy (European Commission)").
The EU is an active supporter of the [Kyoto Protocol](/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol "Kyoto Protocol"), which it signed alongside its member\-states. In March 2007 the Union committed itself to cut {{CO2}} emissions by 20 percent by 2020\.[EU agrees on carbon dioxide cuts](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6432829.stm) There is also a desire to reduce dependency on [Russian](/wiki/Russia "Russia") energy supplies following the disputes between Russia and [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine").See also [2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute](/wiki/2007_Russia%E2%80%93Belarus_energy_dispute "2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute") and [Russia–Ukraine gas disputes](/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_gas_disputes "Russia–Ukraine gas disputes") In April 2007 five southern European countries signed a deal to build an [oil pipeline](/wiki/Oil_pipeline "Oil pipeline") from the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea") to [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") which will help diversify energy sources.[http://www.euractiv.com/en/energy/black\-sea\-oil\-pipeline\-to\-start\-flowing\-by\-2012/article\-162998?Ref\=RSS](http://www.euractiv.com/en/energy/black-sea-oil-pipeline-to-start-flowing-by-2012/article-162998?Ref=RSS)
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp "Wilhelm Haferkamp") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1967–1973 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission"), [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | |
| 2 | [Henri François Simonet](/wiki/Henri_Fran%C3%A7ois_Simonet "Henri François Simonet") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | |
| 3 | [Guido Brunner](/wiki/Guido_Brunner "Guido Brunner") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Energy, Research, Science |
| 4 | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon "Étienne Davignon") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Industrial Affairs, Energy, Research and Science (vice\-president) |
| 5 | [Nicolas Mosar](/wiki/Nicolas_Mosar "Nicolas Mosar") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Energy \& Euratom |
| 6 | [Antonio Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Antonio_Cardoso_e_Cunha "Antonio Cardoso e Cunha") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Energy, Euratom, small businesses; staff and translation |
| 7 | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja "Marcelino Oreja") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Transport and energy |
| 8 | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes "Abel Matutes") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1994–1995 |
| 9 | [Christos Papoutsis](/wiki/Christos_Papoutsis "Christos Papoutsis") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Energy, Euratom Supply Agency, SMEs and Tourism |
| 10 | [Loyola de Palacio](/wiki/Loyola_de_Palacio "Loyola de Palacio") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Inter\-Institutional Relations and Administration, Transport and Energy (vice\-president) |
| 11 | [Andris Piebalgs](/wiki/Andris_Piebalgs "Andris Piebalgs") | {{Flagu\|Latvia}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Energy |
| 12 | [Günther Oettinger](/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Oettinger "Günther Oettinger") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Energy (vice\-president) |
| 13 | [Miguel Arias Cañete](/wiki/Miguel_Arias_Ca%C3%B1ete "Miguel Arias Cañete") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Climate Action and Energy |
| 14 | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | Energy Union (vice\-president) |
| 15 | [Kadri Simson](/wiki/Kadri_Simson "Kadri Simson") | {{Flagu\|Estonia}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Energy |
### Enlargement, European Neighbourhood Policy and External Relations
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy}}
The Commissioner for Enlargement and the [European Neighbourhood Policy](/wiki/European_Neighbourhood_Policy "European Neighbourhood Policy") is concerned with foreign policy towards the EU's nearest neighbours. The [enlargement](/wiki/Enlargement_of_the_European_Union "Enlargement of the European Union") portfolio began to be created out of the regionalised foreign policy posts. In particular the [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") post for relations with central and eastern Europe as those countries began applying to join. The Neighbourhood Policy element was created in 2004 as part of the External Relations portfolio. When that portfolio was absorbed by the High Representative in 2009, Neighbourhood Policy was transferred to Trade and then to Enlargement in 2010 under the Second Barroso Commission.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali "Lorenzo Natali") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Enlargement, Environment, Nuclear Safety |
| | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp "Wilhelm Haferkamp") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | External Relations (vice\-president) |
| 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") |
| | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali "Lorenzo Natali") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | Mediterranean Policy, Enlargement and Information (vice\-president) |
| | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Cooperation, development affairs and enlargement (vice\-president) |
| | [Claude Cheysson](/wiki/Claude_Cheysson "Claude Cheysson") | {{Flagu\|France}} | Mediterranean policy and north–south relations |
| | [Willy De Clercq](/wiki/Willy_De_Clercq "Willy De Clercq") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | External relations and trade policy |
| | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen "Frans Andriessen") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | External relations and trade policy (vice\-president) |
| | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes "Abel Matutes") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1989–1992 | Mediterranean and Latin American policy |
| | [Hans van den Broek](/wiki/Hans_van_den_Broek "Hans van den Broek") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | External relations and enlargement |
| | [Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan "Leon Brittan") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Commercial Policy and External Relations (vice\-president) |
| | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin "Manuel Marin") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | External Relations (vice\-president) |
| | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro "João de Deus Pinheiro") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | Relations with African, Caribbean, Pacific Countries |
| | [Hans van den Broek](/wiki/Hans_van_den_Broek "Hans van den Broek") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | Relations with central and eastern Europe, CFSP and the External Service, South Africa and the Lomé Convention |
| | [Chris Patten](/wiki/Chris_Patten "Chris Patten") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | External Relations |
| | [Günter Verheugen](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Verheugen "Günter Verheugen") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | Enlargement |
| | [Janez Potočnik](/wiki/Janez_Poto%C4%8Dnik "Janez Potočnik") | {{Flagu\|Slovenia}} | 2004 |
| | [Olli Rehn](/wiki/Olli_Rehn "Olli Rehn") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I |
| | [Benita Ferrero\-Waldner](/wiki/Benita_Ferrero-Waldner "Benita Ferrero-Waldner") | {{Flagu\|Austria}} | External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy |
| | [Štefan Füle](/wiki/%C5%A0tefan_F%C3%BCle "Štefan Füle") | {{Flagu\|Czech Republic}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy |
| | [Johannes Hahn](/wiki/Johannes_Hahn "Johannes Hahn") | {{Flagu\|Austria}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | European Neighbourhood Policy and Enlargement Negotiations |
| | [Olivér Várhelyi](/wiki/Oliv%C3%A9r_V%C3%A1rhelyi "Olivér Várhelyi") | {{Flagu\|Hungary}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Neighbourhood and Enlargement |
### Environment
{{Main\|European Commissioner for the Environment}}
The Commissioner for the Environment is responsible for protection of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union")'s environment. Specific actions relating to [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change "Climate change") are under the responsibility of the Climate Action commissioner as of 2010\.
The EU has made a number of environmental moves, partially in regards to climate change. Most notably it signed the [Kyoto Protocol](/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol "Kyoto Protocol") in 1998, set up its [Emission Trading Scheme](/wiki/European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme "European Union Emission Trading Scheme") in 2005 and is agreeing to unilaterally cut its emissions by 20% by 2020\. (See: [Energy policy of the European Union](/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union "Energy policy of the European Union")). Other policies include; the [Natura 2000](/wiki/Natura_2000 "Natura 2000") a widespread and successful network of nature conservation sites, the [Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals](/wiki/Registration%2C_Evaluation_and_Authorisation_of_Chemicals "Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals") (REACH) directive requiring safety testing on widely used chemicals and the [Water Framework Directive](/wiki/Water_Framework_Directive "Water Framework Directive") ensuring water quality reaches higher standards.
For more, see [European Climate Change Programme](/wiki/European_Climate_Change_Programme "European Climate Change Programme"), [European Union Emission Trading Scheme](/wiki/European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme "European Union Emission Trading Scheme"), [Renewable energy in the European Union](/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_European_Union "Renewable energy in the European Union") and the [Directorate\-General for the Environment](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_the_Environment_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission)").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali "Lorenzo Natali") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Enlargement, Environment, Nuclear Safety |
| | [Karl\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes "Karl-Heinz Narjes") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |
| | [Stanley Clinton Davis](/wiki/Stanley_Clinton_Davis "Stanley Clinton Davis") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Environment, consumer protection and transport |
| | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana "Carlo Ripa di Meana") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Environment, nuclear safety and civil protection |
| | [Ioannis Paleokrassas](/wiki/Ioannis_Paleokrassas "Ioannis Paleokrassas") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Environment, fisheries |
| | [Ritt Bjerregaard](/wiki/Ritt_Bjerregaard "Ritt Bjerregaard") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Environment and nuclear security |
| | [Margot Wallström](/wiki/Margot_Wallstr%C3%B6m "Margot Wallström") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Environment |
| | [Stavros Dimas](/wiki/Stavros_Dimas "Stavros Dimas") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I |
| | [Janez Potočnik](/wiki/Janez_Poto%C4%8Dnik "Janez Potočnik") | {{Flagu\|Slovenia}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II |
| | [Karmenu Vella](/wiki/Karmenu_Vella "Karmenu Vella") | {{Flagu\|Malta}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries |
| | [Virginijus Sinkevičius](/wiki/Virginijus_Sinkevi%C4%8Dius "Virginijus Sinkevičius") | {{Flagu\|Lithuania}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Environment, Oceans and Fisheries |
### Budget and Human Resources
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Budget and Human Resources}}
The Commissioner for Budget and Human Resources is primarily responsible for the management of the [budget of the European Union](/wiki/Budget_of_the_European_Union "Budget of the European Union") and related financial issues except for *budgetary discharge* which falls under the Commissioner for administration commissioner. Previously simply for the budget, the position expanded under the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") to include financial programming. The related DG is the [Directorate\-General for Budget](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Budget "Directorate-General for Budget").
Under Commissioner Grybauskaitė, Commissioner's 121\.6 billion euro 2008 budget proposed that for the first time funding for [sustainable growth](/wiki/Sustainable_development "Sustainable development") (€57\.2 billion) would be higher than that of the [Common Agricultural Policy](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy "Common Agricultural Policy") (€56\.3 billion), traditionally the largest source of expenditure in the EU. There would be an increase in [cohesion funds](/wiki/Structural_Funds_and_Cohesion_Funds "Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds"), [energy](/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union "Energy policy of the European Union") and [transport](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Transport "European Commissioner for Transport") of 14%, [research](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Science_and_Research "European Commissioner for Science and Research") by 11% and lifelong learning by 9%. There would also be an increase in the administrative budget, aid to Kosovo and [Palestinian](/wiki/Palestinian_National_Authority "Palestinian National Authority") institutions and funds towards the [Galileo project](/wiki/Galileo_positioning_system "Galileo positioning system"). [Group of EU states wary of 2008 budget plan](http://euobserver.com/19/24012?rss_rk=1)
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Albert Coppé](/wiki/Albert_Copp%C3%A9 "Albert Coppé") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1967–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | |
| | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp "Wilhelm Haferkamp") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | |
| | [Christopher Tugendhat](/wiki/Christopher_Tugendhat "Christopher Tugendhat") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions |
| 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions and Taxation (vice\-president) |
| | [Michael O'Kennedy](/wiki/Michael_O%27Kennedy "Michael O'Kennedy") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1981–1982 | Personnel and Administration |
| | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 "Richard Burke (Irish politician)") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1982–1985 |
| | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen "Henning Christophersen") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration |
| | [Antonio Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Antonio_Cardoso_e_Cunha "Antonio Cardoso e Cunha") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Energy, Euratom, small businesses; staff and translation |
| | [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber "Peter Schmidhuber") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | Budget |
| 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Budget, financial control and the cohesion fund |
| | [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen "Erkki Liikanen") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Budget, Personnel and Administration |
| | [Michaele Schreyer](/wiki/Michaele_Schreyer "Michaele Schreyer") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Budget |
| | [Marcos Kyprianou](/wiki/Marcos_Kyprianou "Marcos Kyprianou") | {{Flagu\|Cyprus}} | 2004 |
| | [Dalia Grybauskaitė](/wiki/Dalia_Grybauskait%C4%97 "Dalia Grybauskaitė") | {{Flagu\|Lithuania}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Financial Programming and the Budget |
| | [Algirdas Šemeta](/wiki/Algirdas_%C5%A0emeta "Algirdas Šemeta") | {{Flagu\|Lithuania}} | 2009–2010 |
| | [Janusz Lewandowski](/wiki/Janusz_Lewandowski "Janusz Lewandowski") | {{Flagu\|Poland}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II |
| | [Jacek Dominik](/wiki/Jacek_Dominik "Jacek Dominik") | {{Flagu\|Poland}} | 2014 |
| | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2010–2014 | Inter\-Institutional Relations and Administration (vice\-president) |
| | [Kristalina Georgieva](/wiki/Kristalina_Georgieva "Kristalina Georgieva") | {{Flagu\|Bulgaria}} | 2014–2016 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Budget and Human Resources (vice\-president) |
| | [Günther Oettinger](/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Oettinger "Günther Oettinger") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 2017–2019 | Budget and Human Resources |
| | [Johannes Hahn](/wiki/Johannes_Hahn "Johannes Hahn") | {{Flagu\|Austria}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Budget and Administration |
### Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Financial Stability Financial Services and Capital Markets Union}}
The Commissioner for Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union is responsible for banking and finance. It was a role created under the Juncker Commission.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portfolio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Christopher Tugendhat](/wiki/Christopher_Tugendhat "Christopher Tugendhat") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions |
| | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions and Taxation (vice\-president) |
| | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen "Henning Christophersen") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration |
| | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes "Abel Matutes") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1986–1989 | Credit, investments, financial instruments and small \& medium\-sized enterprises |
| | [Sir Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan "Leon Brittan") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Competition and financial institutions (vice\-president) |
| | [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber "Peter Schmidhuber") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Budget, financial control and the cohesion fund |
| | [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin "Anita Gradin") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Immigration, Justice \& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |
| | [Jonathan Hill](/wiki/Jonathan_Hill%2C_Baron_Hill_of_Oareford "Jonathan Hill, Baron Hill of Oareford") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 2014–2016 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union |
| | [Valdis Dombrovskis](/wiki/Valdis_Dombrovskis "Valdis Dombrovskis") | {{Flagu\|Latvia}} | 2016–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Euro and Social Dialogue and Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union (vice\-president) |
| 2019–2020 | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Financial Markets |
| | [Mairead McGuinness](/wiki/Mairead_McGuinness "Mairead McGuinness") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 2020–present | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union |
### Institutional Reform, Democracy and Demography
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portfolio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Neil Kinnock](/wiki/Neil_Kinnock "Neil Kinnock") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Administrative reform (vice\-president) |
| | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana "Carlo Ripa di Meana") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Institutional reforms, information policy, culture and tourism |
| | [Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi](/wiki/Raniero_Vanni_d%27Archirafi "Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Institutional reform, internal market and enterprise |
| | *[Dubravka Šuica](/wiki/Dubravka_%C5%A0uica "Dubravka Šuica")* | *{{Flagu\|Croatia}}* | *nominated* | *[Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission")* | *Democracy and Demography (Vice\-President)* |
### Health and Consumer Protection
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Health and Consumer Policy}}
The Commissioner for Health and Consumer Policy is responsible for matters of public health, food safety, animal health, welfare and consumer affairs. Between 2007 and 2010 it was split into a Commissioner for Health and a Commissioner for Consumer Protection – in order to give a portfolio for the incoming Bulgarian Commissioner. It was recombined under the second Barroso Commission.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 "Richard Burke (Irish politician)") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Taxation, Consumer Affairs, Transport |
| | [Karl\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes "Karl-Heinz Narjes") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |
| | [Stanley Clinton Davis](/wiki/Stanley_Clinton_Davis "Stanley Clinton Davis") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Environment, consumer protection and transport |
| | [Grigoris Varfis](/wiki/Grigoris_Varfis "Grigoris Varfis") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1986–1989 | Relations with the European Parliament, regional policy and consumer protection |
| | [Karel Van Miert](/wiki/Karel_Van_Miert "Karel Van Miert") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Transport and consumer protection |
| | [Christiane Scrivener](/wiki/Christiane_Scrivener "Christiane Scrivener") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1992–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Taxation, customs union and consumer policies |
| | [Emma Bonino](/wiki/Emma_Bonino "Emma Bonino") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Consumer Policy, Fisheries and ECHO |
| | [David Byrne](/wiki/David_Byrne_%28Irish_politician%29 "David Byrne (Irish politician)") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Health and Consumer Protection |
| | [Pavel Telička](/wiki/Pavel_Teli%C4%8Dka "Pavel Telička") | {{Flagu\|Czech Republic}} | 2004 |
| | [Markos Kyprianou](/wiki/Markos_Kyprianou "Markos Kyprianou") | {{Flagu\|Cyprus}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Health |
| | [Androulla Vassiliou](/wiki/Androulla_Vassiliou "Androulla Vassiliou") | {{Flagu\|Cyprus}} | 2008–2010 |
| | [Meglena Kuneva](/wiki/Meglena_Kuneva "Meglena Kuneva") | {{Flagu\|Bulgaria}} | 2007–2010 | Consumer Protection |
| | [John Dalli](/wiki/John_Dalli "John Dalli") | {{Flagu\|Malta}} | 2010–2012 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Health and Consumer Policy |
| | [Tonio Borg](/wiki/Tonio_Borg "Tonio Borg") | {{Flagu\|Malta}} | 2012–2014 | Health |
| | [Neven Mimica](/wiki/Neven_Mimica "Neven Mimica") | {{Flagu\|Croatia}} | 2013–2014 | Consumer Protection |
| | [Vytenis Andriukaitis](/wiki/Vytenis_Andriukaitis "Vytenis Andriukaitis") | {{Flagu\|Lithuania}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Health and Food Safety |
| | [Věra Jourová](/wiki/V%C4%9Bra_Jourov%C3%A1 "Věra Jourová") | {{Flagu\|Czech Republic}} | 2014–2019 | Justice and Consumers |
| | [Stella Kyriakidou](/wiki/Stella_Kyriakidou "Stella Kyriakidou") | {{Flagu\|Cyprus}} | 2019 Onwards | *[Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission")* | Health and Food Safety |
| | *[Didier Reynders](/wiki/Didier_Reynders "Didier Reynders")* | *{{Flagu\|Belgium}}* | *nominated* | *Justice* |
### High Representative
{{Main\|High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy}}
The High Representative became a Commissioner on 1 December 2009, replacing the External Relations Commissioner (see historical below). Although other external relations posts continue to exist, such as trade, the High Representative is the most senior foreign affairs post in the EU.
### Home Affairs
The Commissioner for Home Affairs was created in 2010 by dividing the previous Justice, Freedom and Security portfolio into a security orientated post (DG HOME) and a post centred on justice, on individual and fundamental rights (DG JUST). Its DG is the [Directorate\-General for Migration and Home Affairs](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Home_Affairs_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Home Affairs (European Commission)") (DG HOME).
| Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portfolio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin "Anita Gradin") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Immigration, Justice \& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |
| [António Vitorino](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Vitorino "António Vitorino") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Justice and Home Affairs |
| [Franco Frattini](/wiki/Franco_Frattini "Franco Frattini") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Justice, Freedom and Security (vice\-president) |
| [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot "Jacques Barrot") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2008–2009 |
| [Cecilia Malmström](/wiki/Cecilia_Malmstr%C3%B6m "Cecilia Malmström") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Home Affairs |
| [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding "Viviane Reding") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 2010–2014 | Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship (vice\-president) |
| [Martine Reicherts](/wiki/Martine_Reicherts "Martine Reicherts") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 2014 | Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship |
| [Dimitris Avramopoulos](/wiki/Dimitris_Avramopoulos "Dimitris Avramopoulos") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Migration, Home Affairs and Citizenship |
| [Margaritis Schinas](/wiki/Margaritis_Schinas "Margaritis Schinas") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 2019– | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Promoting our European Way of Life (vice\-president) |
| [Ylva Johansson](/wiki/Ylva_Johansson "Ylva Johansson") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 2019– | Home Affairs |
### Industry and Entrepreneurship
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship}}
The Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry post was enlarged from the Commissioner for Enterprise and Information Society portfolio in the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") to include Industry. At the start of the first [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission"), Germany, backed by Britain and France suggested an economic "super\-commissioner" to fight for [competitiveness](/wiki/Competition_%28companies%29 "Competition (companies)"). Although rejected, this idea though has been taken on by Verheugen, as the Enterprise and Industry portfolio was enlarged and was made a [Vice President](/wiki/Vice-President_of_the_European_Commission "Vice-President of the European Commission").
As Commissioner, he indicates his aim to increase the competitiveness of Europe, there is a separate [Commissioner for Competition](/wiki/Commissioner_for_Competition "Commissioner for Competition") dealing with competition between companies within Europe. However, with the numerous economic portfolios, there is a degree of overlap which has been a matter of concern for him along with the purported difficulty of firing [director\-generals](/wiki/Directorate-General "Directorate-General"). This Commissioner also chairs the *Competitiveness Council Commissioners Group* and is the vice chair of the *Group of Commissioners on the [Lisbon Strategy](/wiki/Lisbon_Strategy "Lisbon Strategy")*. He is expected to be the European chair of the new [Transatlantic Economic Council](/wiki/Transatlantic_Economic_Council "Transatlantic Economic Council"). The relevant DG is [Directorate\-General for Enterprise and Industry](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Enterprise_and_Industry_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Enterprise and Industry (European Commission)").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon "Étienne Davignon") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Internal Market, Customs Union, Industrial Affairs |
| 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Industrial Affairs, Energy, Research and Science (vice\-president) |
| | [Karl\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes "Karl-Heinz Narjes") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |
| | [Karl\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes "Karl-Heinz Narjes") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Industry, information technology and science and research (vice\-president) |
| | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes "Abel Matutes") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1986–1989 | Credit, investments, financial instruments and small \& medium\-sized enterprises |
| | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann "Martin Bangemann") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Internal market and industrial affairs (vice\-president) |
| | [Antonio Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Antonio_Cardoso_e_Cunha "Antonio Cardoso e Cunha") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | Energy, Euratom, small businesses; staff and translation |
| | [Vasso Papandreou](/wiki/Vasso_Papandreou "Vasso Papandreou") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | Employment, industrial relations and social affairs |
| | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann "Martin Bangemann") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Internal market, industrial affairs and ICT (vice\-president) |
| | [Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi](/wiki/Raniero_Vanni_d%27Archirafi "Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | Institutional reform, internal market and enterprise |
| | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann "Martin Bangemann") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Industrial affairs, [Information \& Telecommunications Technologies](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Information_Society_%26_Media "European Commissioner for Information Society & Media") |
| | [Christos Papoutsis](/wiki/Christos_Papoutsis "Christos Papoutsis") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | Energy, Euratom Supply Agency, SMEs and Tourism |
| | [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen "Erkki Liikanen") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Enterprise and Information Society |
| | [Olli Rehn](/wiki/Olli_Rehn "Olli Rehn") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 2004 |
| | [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE "Ján Figeľ") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2004 |
| | [Günter Verheugen](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Verheugen "Günter Verheugen") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Enterprise and Industry (vice\-president) |
| | [Antonio Tajani](/wiki/Antonio_Tajani "Antonio Tajani") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Industry and Entrepreneurship (vice\-president) |
| | [Ferdinando Nelli Feroci](/wiki/Ferdinando_Nelli_Feroci "Ferdinando Nelli Feroci") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2014 | Industry and Entrepreneurship |
| | [Elżbieta Bieńkowska](/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Bie%C5%84kowska "Elżbieta Bieńkowska") | {{Flagu\|Poland}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs |
| | [Thierry Breton](/wiki/Thierry_Breton "Thierry Breton") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Internal Market |
### Internal Market
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services}}
The Commissioner for Internal Market and Services concerned the development of the 480\-million\-strong [European](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") [single market](/wiki/Single_market "Single market"), promoting [free movement of people, goods, services and capital](/wiki/Four_Freedoms_%28European_Union%29 "Four Freedoms (European Union)"). The related DG is [Directorate\-General for Internal Market and Services](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Internal_Market_and_Services_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Internal Market and Services (European Commission)") and it is also related to the [Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market](/wiki/Office_for_Harmonization_in_the_Internal_Market "Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market").
Commissioner [Frits Bolkestein](/wiki/Frits_Bolkestein "Frits Bolkestein") (Netherlands) served in the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") between 1999 and 2004\. In addition to holding the Internal Market portfolio he also held [Taxation and Customs Union](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Taxation_and_Customs_Union "European Commissioner for Taxation and Customs Union"). Bolkestein is most notable for the [Directive on services in the internal market](/wiki/Directive_on_services_in_the_internal_market "Directive on services in the internal market"), which is commonly called the "Bolkestein Directive". The directive aimed at enabling a company from a one [member\-state](/wiki/List_of_European_Union_member_states "List of European Union member states") to recruit workers in another member\-state under the law of the company's home state. It was to help the development of the [internal market](/wiki/European_Single_Market "European Single Market") for services, the development of which has lagged behind that for goods. However, there was a great deal of concern about its effect on social standards and welfare, triggering competition between various parts of Europe. This led to significant protests across Europe against the directive including a notable protest at the European Parliament in [Strasbourg](/wiki/Strasbourg "Strasbourg") by port workers which led to damage to the building. MEPs eventually reached a compromise on the text and the Parliament adopted it on 12 December 2006; 2 years after Bolkestein left office, under the [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission").
The portfolio was merged in 2014 with [the one for Industry and Entrepreneurship](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Industry_and_Entrepreneurship "European Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Piero Malvestiti](/wiki/Piero_Malvestiti "Piero Malvestiti") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1958–1959 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") I | |
| | [Giuseppe Caron](/wiki/Giuseppe_Caron "Giuseppe Caron") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1959–1963 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") I \& II | |
| | [Guido Colonna di Paliano](/wiki/Guido_Colonna_di_Paliano "Guido Colonna di Paliano") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1964–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") II | |
| | [Hans von der Groeben](/wiki/Hans_von_der_Groeben "Hans von der Groeben") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | |
| | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp "Wilhelm Haferkamp") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1970–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | |
| | [Finn Olav Gundelach](/wiki/Finn_Olav_Gundelach "Finn Olav Gundelach") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | |
| | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon "Étienne Davignon") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Internal Market, Customs Union, Industrial Affairs |
| | [Karl\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes "Karl-Heinz Narjes") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |
| | [Lord Cockfield](/wiki/Lord_Cockfield "Lord Cockfield") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Internal market, tax law and customs |
| | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann "Martin Bangemann") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Internal market and industrial affairs (vice\-president) |
| 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Internal market, industrial affairs and ICT (vice\-president) |
| | [Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi](/wiki/Raniero_Vanni_d%27Archirafi "Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Institutional reform, internal market and enterprise |
| | [Mario Monti](/wiki/Mario_Monti "Mario Monti") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Internal Market, Services, Customs and Taxation |
| | [Frits Bolkestein](/wiki/Frits_Bolkestein "Frits Bolkestein") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Internal Market |
| | [Charlie McCreevy](/wiki/Charlie_McCreevy "Charlie McCreevy") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Internal Market and Services |
| | [Michel Barnier](/wiki/Michel_Barnier "Michel Barnier") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Internal Market and Services (vice\-president) |
| | [Elżbieta Bieńkowska](/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Bie%C5%84kowska "Elżbieta Bieńkowska") | {{Flagu\|Poland}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs |
| | [Thierry Breton](/wiki/Thierry_Breton "Thierry Breton") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Internal Market |
### International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid, Civil Protection and Crisis Management
{{main\|European Commissioner for International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Response}}
The Commissioner for International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Response was created under the second Barroso Commission in 2010 . It deals in party with dealing with humanitarian disasters and [humanitarian aid](/wiki/Humanitarian_aid "Humanitarian aid"): the EU is the [largest supplier of aid](/wiki/ECHO_%28European_Commission%29 "ECHO (European Commission)") in the world.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Robert Lemaignen](/wiki/Robert_Lemaignen "Robert Lemaignen") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1958–1962 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") | |
| | [Henri Rochereau](/wiki/Henri_Rochereau "Henri Rochereau") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1962–1970 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission"), [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | |
| | [Jean\-François Deniau](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Deniau "Jean-François Deniau") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1967–1973 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission"), [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | |
| | [Claude Cheysson](/wiki/Claude_Cheysson "Claude Cheysson") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1973–1981 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission"), [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)"), [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | |
| | [Edgard Pisani](/wiki/Edgard_Pisani "Edgard Pisani") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | |
| | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali "Lorenzo Natali") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Cooperation, development affairs and enlargement (vice\-president) |
| | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana "Carlo Ripa di Meana") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Environment, nuclear safety and civil protection |
| | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin "Manuel Marin") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | Cooperation, development and fisheries (vice\-president) |
| 1992–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Cooperation, development and humanitarian aid |
| | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro "João de Deus Pinheiro") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Relations with African, Caribbean, Pacific Countries, South Africa and the Lomé Convention |
| | [Emma Bonino](/wiki/Emma_Bonino "Emma Bonino") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1995–1999 | Consumer Policy, Fisheries and ECHO |
| | [Poul Nielson](/wiki/Poul_Nielson "Poul Nielson") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Development and Humanitarian Aid |
| | [Joe Borg](/wiki/Joe_Borg "Joe Borg") | {{Flagu\|Malta}} | 2004 |
| | [Benita Ferrero\-Waldner](/wiki/Benita_Ferrero-Waldner "Benita Ferrero-Waldner") | {{Flagu\|Austria}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy |
| | [Louis Michel](/wiki/Louis_Michel "Louis Michel") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 2004–2009 | Development and Humanitarian Aid |
| | [Karel De Gucht](/wiki/Karel_De_Gucht "Karel De Gucht") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 2009–2010 |
| | [Kristalina Georgieva](/wiki/Kristalina_Georgieva "Kristalina Georgieva") | {{Flagu\|Bulgaria}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Response |
| | [Christos Stylianides](/wiki/Christos_Stylianides "Christos Stylianides") | {{Flagu\|Cyprus}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Management |
| | [Janez Lenarčič](/wiki/Janez_Lenar%C4%8Di%C4%8D "Janez Lenarčič") | {{Flagu\|Slovenia}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Crisis Management |
### Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight
The Vice President of the European Commission for Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight is responsible for the administration of the commission, including management of some of the commission's [Internal Services](/wiki/Internal_Services_in_the_European_Commission "Internal Services in the European Commission"); in particular consolidation of administrative reform, [personnel](/wiki/Human_resources "Human resources") and administration, [European Schools](/wiki/European_Schools "European Schools") and security. The Commissioner is also responsible for the following departments; the [Directorate\-General for Personnel and Administration](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Personnel_and_Administration "Directorate-General for Personnel and Administration"), the Office for the Administration and Payment of Individual Entitlement, the [Directorate\-General for Informatics](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Informatics_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Informatics (European Commission)"), the [Office of Infrastructure and Logistics](/wiki/Office_of_Infrastructure_and_Logistics_%28European_Commission%29 "Office of Infrastructure and Logistics (European Commission)"), and relations with the [European Personnel Selection Office](/wiki/European_Personnel_Selection_Office "European Personnel Selection Office").{{Cite web\|url\=https://ec.europa.eu/archives/commission\_2004\-2009/index\_en.htm\|title\=The Commissioners – Profiles, Portfolios and Homepages\|website\=ec.europa.eu}} The current Vice President is [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič").
Prior to 2010 it was also responsible for Audit and Anti\-Fraud, now merged with taxation, but gain responsibility for relations with the other EU institutions.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen "Frans Andriessen") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Parliamentary Relations and Competition |
| | [Michael O'Kennedy](/wiki/Michael_O%27Kennedy "Michael O'Kennedy") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1981–1982 | Personnel and Administration |
| | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 "Richard Burke (Irish politician)") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1982–1985 |
| | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen "Henning Christophersen") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1985–1988 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration |
| | [Grigoris Varfis](/wiki/Grigoris_Varfis "Grigoris Varfis") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1986–1988 | Relations with the European Parliament, regional policy and consumer protection |
| | [Antonio Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Antonio_Cardoso_e_Cunha "Antonio Cardoso e Cunha") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Energy, Euratom, small businesses; staff and translation |
| | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro "João de Deus Pinheiro") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Relations with Parliament, culture and audiovisual |
| | [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen "Erkki Liikanen") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Budget, Personnel and Administration |
| | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja "Marcelino Oreja") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | Relations with the European Parliament, Culture, Audiovisual Policy |
| | [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin "Anita Gradin") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | Immigration, Justice \& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |
| | [Loyola de Palacio](/wiki/Loyola_de_Palacio "Loyola de Palacio") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | European Commissioner for Interinstitutional Relations and Administration, Transport and Energy (vice\-president) |
| | [Margot Wallström](/wiki/Margot_Wallstr%C3%B6m "Margot Wallström") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Institutional Relations and Communication Strategy (First Vice\-President) |
| | [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas "Siim Kallas") | {{Flagu\|Estonia}} | 2004–2009 | Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti\-Fraud |
| | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Interinstitutional Relations and Administration (vice\-president) |
| | [Frans Timmermans](/wiki/Frans_Timmermans "Frans Timmermans") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Better Regulation, Interinstitutional Relations, Rule of Law and Charter of Fundamental Rights (First Vice\-President) |
| | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič") | {{Flagu\|Slovakia}} | 2019–present | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight (vice\-president) |
|
### Justice and Gender Equality
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship}}
The Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship was created in 2010 by dividing the previous Justice, Freedom and Security portfolio into a security orientated post and a justice and fundamental rights orientated post. The portfolio was then renamed into Justice, Consumers and Gender Equality under the [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin "Anita Gradin") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Immigration, Justice \& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |
| | [António Vitorino](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Vitorino "António Vitorino") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Justice and Home Affairs |
| | [Franco Frattini](/wiki/Franco_Frattini "Franco Frattini") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Justice, Freedom and Security (vice\-president) |
| | [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot "Jacques Barrot") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2008–2009 |
| | [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding "Viviane Reding") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship (vice\-president) |
| | [Frans Timmermans](/wiki/Frans_Timmermans "Frans Timmermans") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 2014–present | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Better Regulation, Inter\-Institutional Relations, Rule of Law and Charter of Fundamental Rights (First Vice\-President) |
| | [Věra Jourová](/wiki/V%C4%9Bra_Jourov%C3%A1 "Věra Jourová") | {{Flagu\|Czech Republic}} | 2014 onwards | Justice and Consumers |
| *nominated* | *[Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission")* | *Values and Transparency (Vice\-President)* |
| | *[Didier Reynders](/wiki/Didier_Reynders "Didier Reynders")* | *{{Flagu\|Belgium}}* | *nominated* | *Justice* |
| | *[Helena Dalli](/wiki/Helena_Dalli "Helena Dalli")* | *{{Flagu\|Malta}}* | *nominated* | *Equality* |
### Maritime Affairs and Fisheries
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries}}
The Maritime affairs and Fisheries Commissioner is responsible for policies such as the [Common Fisheries Policy](/wiki/Common_Fisheries_Policy "Common Fisheries Policy"), which is largely a competence of the EU rather than the members. The Union has 66,000 km of [coastline](/wiki/Coastline "Coastline")[European Union](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/european-union/) CIA World Factbook and the largest [Exclusive Economic Zone](/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone "Exclusive Economic Zone") in the world, covering 25 million km2.[EU Glossary](http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/outermost_regions_en.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909000258/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/outermost\_regions\_en.htm \|date\= 9 September 2010 }} Europa (web portal)
On 7 June 2006 the Commission published a [green paper](/wiki/Green_paper "Green paper") for a Maritime Policy and [consultation](/wiki/Public_consultation "Public consultation") will end in June 2007\.[Consultation on Maritime Policy](http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy_en.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519191342/http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy\_en.html \|date\=19 May 2007 }} European Commission The document addresses a number of issues such as sustainable development, protection of the environment, skills and employment, technology and resources, coastal safety and tourism, financial support and heritage.[Green paper](http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/pdf/com_2006_0275_en_part2.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070325213544/http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/pdf/com\_2006\_0275\_en\_part2\.pdf \|date\=25 March 2007 }} European Commission The Commission came under fire in May 2007 for not penalise French fishermen after [over\-fishing](/wiki/Over-fishing "Over-fishing") the threatened [bluefin tuna](/wiki/Atlantic_bluefin_tuna "Atlantic bluefin tuna") by 65% while backing penalties on Irish fishermen for over\-fishing [mackerel](/wiki/Mackerel "Mackerel").[Fishermen citicise EU over\-fishing decision](http://www.rte.ie/news/2007/0502/fishing.html?rss). Raidió Teilifís Éireann.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Finn Olav Gundelach](/wiki/Finn_Olav_Gundelach "Finn Olav Gundelach") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Agriculture\-Fisheries (vice\-president) |
| | [Giorgos Kontogeorgis](/wiki/Giorgos_Kontogeorgis "Giorgos Kontogeorgis") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Transport, Fisheries and Tourism |
| | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen "Frans Andriessen") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | [Agriculture](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Agriculture_%26_Rural_Development "European Commissioner for Agriculture & Rural Development") and [fisheries](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Fisheries_%26_Maritime_Affairs "European Commissioner for Fisheries & Maritime Affairs") (vice\-president) |
| | [António Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Cardoso_e_Cunha "António Cardoso e Cunha") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1986–1989 | [Fisheries](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Fisheries_%26_Maritime_Affairs "European Commissioner for Fisheries & Maritime Affairs") |
| | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin "Manuel Marin") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Cooperation, development and fisheries (vice\-president) |
| | [Ioannis Paleokrassas](/wiki/Ioannis_Paleokrassas "Ioannis Paleokrassas") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Environment, fisheries |
| | [Franz Fischler](/wiki/Franz_Fischler "Franz Fischler") | {{Flagu\|Austria}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Agriculture and Fisheries |
| | [Sandra Kalniete](/wiki/Sandra_Kalniete "Sandra Kalniete") | {{Flagu\|Latvia}} | 2004 |
| | [Joe Borg](/wiki/Joe_Borg "Joe Borg") | {{Flagu\|Malta}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Fisheries and Maritime Affairs |
| | [Maria Damanaki](/wiki/Maria_Damanaki "Maria Damanaki") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Maritime Affairs and Fisheries |
| | [Karmenu Vella](/wiki/Karmenu_Vella "Karmenu Vella") | {{Flagu\|Malta}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries |
| | [Virginijus Sinkevičius](/wiki/Virginijus_Sinkevi%C4%8Dius "Virginijus Sinkevičius") | {{Flagu\|Lithuania}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Environment, Oceans and Fisheries |
### Regional Policy and Cohesion
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Regional Policy}}
The Regional Policy Commissioner, occasional Regional Affairs Commissioner, is responsible for managing the [regional policy](/wiki/European_Union_Regional_policy "European Union Regional policy") of the EU which takes up a third of the [EU's budget](/wiki/European_Union_Budget "European Union Budget"); it includes the [European Regional Development Fund](/wiki/European_Regional_Development_Fund "European Regional Development Fund"), [Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds](/wiki/Structural_Funds_and_Cohesion_Funds "Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds"), [Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre\-Accession](/wiki/Instrument_for_Structural_Policies_for_Pre-Accession "Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-Accession") and the [European Social Fund](/wiki/European_Social_Fund "European Social Fund"). The related DG is [Directorate\-General for Regional Policy](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Regional_Policy_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Regional Policy (European Commission)").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Hans von der Groeben](/wiki/Hans_von_der_Groeben "Hans von der Groeben") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | |
| | [Albert Borschette](/wiki/Albert_Borschette "Albert Borschette") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1970–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | |
| | [George Thomson](/wiki/George_Thomson%2C_Baron_Thomson_of_Monifieth "George Thomson, Baron Thomson of Monifieth") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | |
| | [Antonio Giolitti](/wiki/Antonio_Giolitti "Antonio Giolitti") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1977–1985 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)"), [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Regional Policy |
| | [Grigoris Varfis](/wiki/Grigoris_Varfis "Grigoris Varfis") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Relations with the European Parliament, regional policy and consumer protection |
| | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen "Henning Christophersen") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration (vice\-president) |
| | [Bruce Millan](/wiki/Bruce_Millan "Bruce Millan") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Regional Policy |
| 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Regional Policy and Cohesion |
| | [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber "Peter Schmidhuber") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | Budget, financial control and the cohesion fund |
| | [Monika Wulf\-Mathies](/wiki/Monika_Wulf-Mathies "Monika Wulf-Mathies") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Regional Policy |
| | [Michel Barnier](/wiki/Michel_Barnier "Michel Barnier") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") |
| | [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot "Jacques Barrot") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2004 |
| | [Péter Balázs](/wiki/P%C3%A9ter_Bal%C3%A1zs "Péter Balázs") | {{Flagu\|Hungary}} | 2004 |
| | [Danuta Hübner](/wiki/Danuta_H%C3%BCbner "Danuta Hübner") | {{Flagu\|Poland}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I |
| | [Paweł Samecki](/wiki/Pawe%C5%82_Samecki "Paweł Samecki") | {{Flagu\|Poland}} | 2009–2010 |
| | [Johannes Hahn](/wiki/Johannes_Hahn "Johannes Hahn") | {{Flagu\|Austria}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II |
| | [Corina Crețu](/wiki/Corina_Cre%C8%9Bu "Corina Crețu") | {{Flagu\|Romania}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") |
| | [Elisa Ferreira](/wiki/Elisa_Ferreira "Elisa Ferreira") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Cohesion and Reforms |
### Research, Innovation and Science
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Research, Innovation and Science}}
The name has had several variations: under the first Barroso Commission it was Science and Research, under Prodi it was simply "Research", Santer was "Research, Science and Technology" and under Delors it was combined with others as "Industry, information technology and science and research" and other various names and combinations prior. The related DG is the [Directorate\-General for Research](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Research_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Research (European Commission)").
The 2004–2010 Commissioner, Potočnik, aimed to create a [European Research Area](/wiki/European_Research_Area "European Research Area").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.itpro.co.uk/news/109975/building\-an\-information\-society\-on\-par\-with\-postwar\-reconstruction\-says\-eu.html \|title\=Building an information society on par with post\-war reconstruction, says EU \|publisher\=IT PRO \|date\=2007\-04\-12 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-27 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927191211/http://www.itpro.co.uk/news/109975/building\-an\-information\-society\-on\-par\-with\-postwar\-reconstruction\-says\-eu.html \|archive\-date\=27 September 2007 }}
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Fritz Hellwig](/wiki/Fritz_Hellwig "Fritz Hellwig") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | |
| | [Ralf Dahrendorf](/wiki/Ralf_Dahrendorf "Ralf Dahrendorf") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | |
| | [Guido Brunner](/wiki/Guido_Brunner "Guido Brunner") | {{flagu\|West Germany}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Energy, Research, Science |
| | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon "Étienne Davignon") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Industrial Affairs, Energy, Research and Science (vice\-president) |
| | [Karl\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes "Karl-Heinz Narjes") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Industry, information technology and science and research (vice\-president) |
| | [Filippo Maria Pandolfi](/wiki/Filippo_Maria_Pandolfi "Filippo Maria Pandolfi") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Science, research, development, telecommunications and innovation |
| | [Antonio Ruberti](/wiki/Antonio_Ruberti "Antonio Ruberti") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Science, research, technological development and education (vice\-president) |
| | [Édith Cresson](/wiki/%C3%89dith_Cresson "Édith Cresson") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Research, Science and Technology |
| | [Philippe Busquin](/wiki/Philippe_Busquin "Philippe Busquin") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Research |
| | [Louis Michel](/wiki/Louis_Michel "Louis Michel") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 2004 |
| | [Janez Potočnik](/wiki/Janez_Poto%C4%8Dnik "Janez Potočnik") | {{Flagu\|Slovenia}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Science and Research |
| | [Máire Geoghegan\-Quinn](/wiki/M%C3%A1ire_Geoghegan-Quinn "Máire Geoghegan-Quinn") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Research, Innovation and Science |
| | [Carlos Moedas](/wiki/Carlos_Moedas "Carlos Moedas") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Research, Science and Innovation |
| | *[Mariya Gabriel](/wiki/Mariya_Gabriel "Mariya Gabriel")* | *{{Flagu\|Bulgaria}}* | *nominated* | *[Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission")* | *Innovation and Youth* |
| | *[Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D "Maroš Šefčovič")* | *{{Flagu\|Slovakia}}* | *nominated* | *Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight (Vice\-President)* |
### Defence Union
The Commissioner for Security Union was created in 2016\.
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Franco Frattini](/wiki/Franco_Frattini "Franco Frattini") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Justice, Freedom and Security (vice\-president) |
| | [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot "Jacques Barrot") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2008–2009 |
| | [Julian King](/wiki/Julian_King_%28diplomat%29 "Julian King (diplomat)") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 2016–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Security Union |
| | [Margaritis Schinas](/wiki/Margaritis_Schinas "Margaritis Schinas") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Protecting our European Way of Life (vice\-president) |
### Statistics, Audit and Anti\-Fraud
{{main\|European Commissioner for Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti\-Fraud}}
The Commissioner for Taxation, Customs, Statistics, Audit and Anti\-Fraud is responsible for the [EU's customs union](/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union "European Union Customs Union") and [taxation](/wiki/Taxation "Taxation") policy. The European Union has had a customs union since the creation of the [European Economic Community](/wiki/European_Economic_Community "European Economic Community") and that union [extends to the non\-EU members](/wiki/Third_country_economic_relationships_with_the_European_Union%23Customs_unions "Third country economic relationships with the European Union#Customs unions") of the [European Economic Area](/wiki/European_Economic_Area "European Economic Area") and to [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), [Andorra](/wiki/Andorra "Andorra") and [San Marino](/wiki/San_Marino "San Marino"). Since 2010 it gained responsibility for audit (budgetary discharge, internal [audit](/wiki/Audit "Audit"), counter [fraud](/wiki/Fraud "Fraud")): in particular the [Internal Audit Service](/wiki/Internal_Audit_Service_%28European_Commission%29 "Internal Audit Service (European Commission)") and the [European Anti\-fraud Office](/wiki/OLAF "OLAF").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin "Anita Gradin") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Immigration, Justice \& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |
| | [Frits Bolkestein](/wiki/Frits_Bolkestein "Frits Bolkestein") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Internal Market |
| | [Neil Kinnock](/wiki/Neil_Kinnock "Neil Kinnock") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1999–2004 | Administrative reform |
| | [László Kovács](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Kov%C3%A1cs_%28politician%29 "László Kovács (politician)") | {{Flagu\|Hungary}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Taxation and Customs Union |
| | [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas "Siim Kallas") | {{Flagu\|Estonia}} | 2004–2010 | Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti\-Fraud |
| | [Algirdas Šemeta](/wiki/Algirdas_%C5%A0emeta "Algirdas Šemeta") | {{Flagu\|Lithuania}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II | Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti\-Fraud |
| | [Pierre Moscovici](/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici "Pierre Moscovici") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Economic and Financial Affairs, Taxation and Customs |
| | [Paolo Gentiloni](/wiki/Paolo_Gentiloni "Paolo Gentiloni") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") | Economy |
| | *[Didier Reynders](/wiki/Didier_Reynders "Didier Reynders")* | *{{Flagu\|Belgium}}* | *nominated* | *Justice* |
### Trade
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Trade}}
The Commissioner for Trade is responsible for the EU's external trade policy. Due to the size of the [European economy](/wiki/Economy_of_the_European_Union "Economy of the European Union"), being the world's largest market and having a huge slice of world trade, this position can be very important in dealing with other world economic powers such as China or the United States. Former Commissioner [Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan%2C_Baron_Brittan_of_Spennithorne "Leon Brittan, Baron Brittan of Spennithorne") commented that "Frankly, it is more important than most \[national] cabinet jobs".[The New Commission – Some initial thoughts](http://www.bmbrussels.be/box_bmnewcomm.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923001700/http://www.bmbrussels.be/box\_bmnewcomm.php \|date\=23 September 2006 }} BM Brussels The Commissioner leads Europe in organisations such as the [World Trade Organization](/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization") (WTO). Concluding WTO talks after the collapse of the [Doha Development Round](/wiki/Doha_Development_Round "Doha Development Round") has been a contentious point, with the EU not willing to cut [agricultural subsidies](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy "Common Agricultural Policy") without similar action by the United States. The related DG is [Directorate\-General for Trade](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Trade_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Trade (European Commission)").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Willy De Clercq](/wiki/Willy_De_Clercq "Willy De Clercq") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | External relations and trade policy |
| | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen "Frans Andriessen") | {{Flagu\|Netherlands}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | External relations and trade policy (vice\-president) |
| | [Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan "Leon Brittan") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1992–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | External economic affairs and trade policy (vice\-president) |
| 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Commercial Policy and External Relations (vice\-president) |
| | [Pascal Lamy](/wiki/Pascal_Lamy "Pascal Lamy") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Trade |
| | [Danuta Hübner](/wiki/Danuta_H%C3%BCbner "Danuta Hübner") | {{Flagu\|Poland}} | 2004 |
| | [Peter Mandelson](/wiki/Peter_Mandelson "Peter Mandelson") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I |
| | [Catherine Ashton](/wiki/Catherine_Ashton%2C_Baroness_Ashton_of_Upholland "Catherine Ashton, Baroness Ashton of Upholland") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 2008–2010 |
| | [Karel De Gucht](/wiki/Karel_De_Gucht "Karel De Gucht") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II |
| | [Cecilia Malmström](/wiki/Cecilia_Malmstr%C3%B6m "Cecilia Malmström") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") |
| | [Phil Hogan](/wiki/Phil_Hogan "Phil Hogan") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 2019–2020 | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") |
| | [Valdis Dombrovskis](/wiki/Valdis_Dombrovskis "Valdis Dombrovskis") | {{Flagu\|Latvia}} | 2020 Onwards |
### Transport
{{Main\|European Commissioner for Transport}}
The portfolio is responsible for the development of transport infrastructure in the EU such as [road and rail networks](/wiki/Trans-European_transport_networks "Trans-European transport networks") but also navigation systems such as the [Galileo positioning system](/wiki/Galileo_positioning_system "Galileo positioning system").
| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | [Michel Rasquin](/wiki/Michel_Rasquin "Michel Rasquin") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1958 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") | |
| | [Lambert Schaus](/wiki/Lambert_Schaus "Lambert Schaus") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1958–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission "Hallstein Commission") | |
| | [Victor Bodson](/wiki/Victor_Bodson "Victor Bodson") | {{Flagu\|Luxembourg}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission "Rey Commission") | |
| | [Albert Coppé](/wiki/Albert_Copp%C3%A9 "Albert Coppé") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1970–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission "Malfatti Commission"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission "Mansholt Commission") | |
| | [Carlo Scarascia\-Mugnozza](/wiki/Carlo_Scarascia-Mugnozza "Carlo Scarascia-Mugnozza") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission "Ortoli Commission") | |
| | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 "Richard Burke (Irish politician)") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") | Taxation, Consumer Affairs, Transport |
| | [Giorgos Kontogeorgis](/wiki/Giorgos_Kontogeorgis "Giorgos Kontogeorgis") | {{Flagu\|Greece}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") | Transport, Fisheries and Tourism |
| | [Stanley Clinton Davis](/wiki/Stanley_Clinton_Davis "Stanley Clinton Davis") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") I | Environment, Consumer Protection and Transport |
| | [Karel Van Miert](/wiki/Karel_Van_Miert "Karel Van Miert") | {{Flagu\|Belgium}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") II | Transport and Consumer Protection |
| | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes "Abel Matutes") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") III | Transport and Energy |
| | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja_Aguirre "Marcelino Oreja Aguirre") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1994–1995 |
| | [Neil Kinnock](/wiki/Neil_Kinnock "Neil Kinnock") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") | Transport, including TEN |
| | [Loyola de Palacio](/wiki/Loyola_de_Palacio "Loyola de Palacio") | {{Flagu\|Spain}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") | Inter\-Institutional Relations and Administration, Transport and Energy (vice\-president) |
| | [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot "Jacques Barrot") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") I | Transport |
| | [Antonio Tajani](/wiki/Antonio_Tajani "Antonio Tajani") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2008–2010 | Transport (vice\-president) |
| | [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas "Siim Kallas") | {{Flagu\|Estonia}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") II |
| | [Violeta Bulc](/wiki/Violeta_Bulc "Violeta Bulc") | {{Flagu\|Slovenia}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission "Juncker Commission") | Transport |
| | [Adina Ioana Vălean](/wiki/Adina_Ioana_V%C4%83lean "Adina Ioana Vălean") | {{Flagu\|Romania}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission "Von der Leyen Commission") |
|
[
"Portfolios\n----------",
"### Agriculture",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Agriculture and Rural Development}}\nThe Commissioner for Agriculture and Rural Development is in charge of rural issues including most notably the controversial [Common Agricultural Policy](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy \"Common Agricultural Policy\") (CAP) which represents 44% of the [EU budget](/wiki/European_Union_Budget \"European Union Budget\"). The post used to be combined with Fisheries in the [Jenkins](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") and [Thorn Commissions](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\"). The related DG is the [Directorate\\-General for Agriculture and Rural Development](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Agriculture_and_Rural_Development \"Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development\")",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Sicco Mansholt](/wiki/Sicco_Mansholt \"Sicco Mansholt\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1958–1972 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") I \\& II, [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\"), [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\") | Agriculture (vice\\-president) |\n| 2 | [Carlo Scarascia\\-Mugnozza](/wiki/Carlo_Scarascia-Mugnozza \"Carlo Scarascia-Mugnozza\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1972–1973 | [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | Agriculture |\n| 3 | [Pierre Lardinois](/wiki/Pierre_Lardinois \"Pierre Lardinois\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | Agriculture |\n| 4 | [Finn Olav Gundelach](/wiki/Finn_Olav_Gundelach \"Finn Olav Gundelach\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Agriculture\\-Fisheries (vice\\-president) |\n| 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Agriculture |\n| 5 | [Poul Dalsager](/wiki/Poul_Dalsager \"Poul Dalsager\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | Agriculture |\n| 6 | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen \"Frans Andriessen\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Agriculture and Rural Development (vice\\-president) |\n| 7 | [Ray MacSharry](/wiki/Ray_MacSharry \"Ray MacSharry\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Agriculture and Rural Development |\n| 8 | [René Steichen](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Steichen \"René Steichen\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1992–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III |\n| 9 | [Franz Fischler](/wiki/Franz_Fischler \"Franz Fischler\") | {{Flagu\\|Austria}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") |\n| 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Agriculture and Fisheries |\n| 10 | [Sandra Kalniete](/wiki/Sandra_Kalniete \"Sandra Kalniete\") | {{Flagu\\|Latvia}} | 2004 |\n| 11 | [Mariann Fischer Boel](/wiki/Mariann_Fischer_Boel \"Mariann Fischer Boel\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Agriculture and Rural Development |\n| 12 | [Dacian Cioloş](/wiki/Dacian_Ciolo%C5%9F \"Dacian Cioloş\") | {{Flagu\\|Romania}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II |\n| 13 | [Phil Hogan](/wiki/Phil_Hogan \"Phil Hogan\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") |\n| 14 | [Janusz Wojciechowski](/wiki/Janusz_Wojciechowski \"Janusz Wojciechowski\") | {{Flagu\\|Poland}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Agriculture |",
"### Climate Action",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Climate Action}}\nThe post of Commissioner for Climate Action was created in February 2010, being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change \"Climate change\"). The first Commissioner to take the post was [Connie Hedegaard](/wiki/Connie_Hedegaard \"Connie Hedegaard\") who headed the [Directorate\\-General for Climate Action](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Climate_Action_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Climate Action (European Commission)\").",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Connie Hedegaard](/wiki/Connie_Hedegaard \"Connie Hedegaard\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Climate Action |\n| 2 | [Miguel Arias Cañete](/wiki/Miguel_Arias_Ca%C3%B1ete \"Miguel Arias Cañete\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Climate Action and Energy |\n| 3 | [Frans Timmermans](/wiki/Frans_Timmermans \"Frans Timmermans\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 2019–2023 | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Climate Action |\n| 4 | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\") (acting) | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2023 | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Climate Action |\n| 5 | [Wopke Hoekstra](/wiki/Wopke_Hoekstra \"Wopke Hoekstra\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 2023–present | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Climate Action |",
"",
"### Competition",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Competition}}\nThe Commissioner for Competition is the member responsible for [commercial competition](/wiki/Competition_regulator \"Competition regulator\"), [company mergers](/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions \"Mergers and acquisitions\"), [cartels](/wiki/Cartel \"Cartel\"), [state aid](/wiki/State_aid \"State aid\"), and [anti\\-trust](/wiki/Anti-trust \"Anti-trust\") law. The position became the sole merger authority for the [European Economic Area](/wiki/European_Economic_Area \"European Economic Area\") in September 1990\\. The Competition Commissioner is one of the most powerful positions in the commission and is notable in affecting global companies.{{cite news\\|last \\=Lungescu\\|first\\=Oana\\|publisher\\=BBC News\\|title \\=Examining the EU executive\\|date\\=2004\\-07\\-23\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/letter\\_from\\_america/3921303\\.stm\\|access\\-date \\= 2007\\-09\\-18}} For example, the commissioner has been pursued a number of high\\-profile cases against anticompetitive behaviour; such as the case against the merger of [Sony](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\") – [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group \"Bertelsmann Music Group\"), against [Apple Inc.](/wiki/Apple_Inc. \"Apple Inc.\") regarding [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes \"ITunes\"),[Brussels Accuses iTunes of Violating Competition Rules](http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/0,1518,475398,00.html) *Der Spiegel* the ongoing [case against Microsoft](/wiki/European_Union_v._Microsoft \"European Union v. Microsoft\") and in particular the [GE\\-Honeywell merger attempt](/wiki/Honeywell%23GE-Honeywell_merger_attempt \"Honeywell#GE-Honeywell merger attempt\") in 2001\\.[The Commission prohibits GE's acquisition of Honeywell](http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/01/939) Europa (web portal) In 2007, Neelie Kroes (then Competition Commissioner) was the only Commissioner to make [Forbes Magazine's List of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women](/wiki/Forbes_Magazine%27s_List_of_The_World%27s_100_Most_Powerful_Women \"Forbes Magazine's List of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women\"); she held position 59\\.[100 Most Powerful Women](https://web.archive.org/web/20071011022303/http://www.forbes.com/lists/2007/11/biz-07women_The-100-Most-Powerful-Women_Rank_3.html) Forbes",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Hans von der Groeben](/wiki/Hans_von_der_Groeben \"Hans von der Groeben\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1958–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") I \\& II | Competition |\n| 2 | [Maan Sassen](/wiki/Maan_Sassen \"Maan Sassen\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1967–1971 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") |\n| 3 | [Albert Borschette](/wiki/Albert_Borschette \"Albert Borschette\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1970–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | Competition and Regional Policy |\n| 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | Competition |\n| 4 | [Raymond Vouel](/wiki/Raymond_Vouel \"Raymond Vouel\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1976–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") |\n| 5 | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen \"Frans Andriessen\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Parliamentary Relations and Competition |\n| 6 | [Peter Sutherland](/wiki/Peter_Sutherland \"Peter Sutherland\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Competition, social affairs and education |\n| 7 | [Sir Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan \"Leon Brittan\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Competition and financial institutions (vice\\-president) |\n| 8 | [Karel Van Miert](/wiki/Karel_Van_Miert \"Karel Van Miert\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1993–1999 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III, [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Competition (vice\\-president) |\n| 9 | [Mario Monti](/wiki/Mario_Monti \"Mario Monti\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Competition |\n| 10 | [Neelie Kroes](/wiki/Neelie_Kroes \"Neelie Kroes\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I |\n| 11 | [Joaquín Almunia](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Almunia \"Joaquín Almunia\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Competition (vice\\-president) |\n| 12 | [Margrethe Vestager](/wiki/Margrethe_Vestager \"Margrethe Vestager\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 2014 onwards | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\"), [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Competition |",
"### Development",
"The Commissioner for Development deals with promoting sustainable development in deprived regions (such as [ACP countries](/wiki/ACP_countries \"ACP countries\") and the EU's [OCTs](/wiki/Special_member_state_territories_and_their_relations_with_the_European_Union \"Special member state territories and their relations with the European Union\")). It used to include [humanitarian aid](/wiki/Humanitarian_aid \"Humanitarian aid\"). The related DG is [Directorate\\-General for International Partnerships](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Development_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Development (European Commission)\")",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Robert Lemaignen](/wiki/Robert_Lemaignen \"Robert Lemaignen\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1958–1962 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") I | Overseas Development |\n| 2 | [Henri Rochereau](/wiki/Henri_Rochereau \"Henri Rochereau\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1962–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") II |\n| 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | Development Assistance |\n| 3 | [Jean\\-François Deniau](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Deniau \"Jean-François Deniau\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | Foreign Trade, Enlargement and Assistance to developing countries |\n| 1970–1972 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\") | External Relations and Development Aid |\n| 1972–1973 | [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | Foreign Affairs and Development Aid |\n| 1973 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | Development cooperation |\n| 4 | [Claude Cheysson](/wiki/Claude_Cheysson \"Claude Cheysson\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1973–1981 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\"), [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Development |\n| 1981 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") |\n| 5 | [Edgard Pisani](/wiki/Edgard_Pisani \"Edgard Pisani\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1981–1984 |\n| 6 | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali \"Lorenzo Natali\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Cooperation, development affairs and enlargement (vice\\-president) |\n| 7 | [Filippo Maria Pandolfi](/wiki/Filippo_Maria_Pandolfi \"Filippo Maria Pandolfi\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Science, research, development, telecommunications and innovation (vice\\-president) |\n| 7 | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin \"Manuel Marin\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1989–1992 | Cooperation, development and fisheries (vice\\-president) |\n| 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Cooperation, development and humanitarian aid (vice\\-president) |\n| 8 | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro \"João de Deus Pinheiro\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Relations with African, Caribbean, Pacific Countries, South Africa and the Lomé Convention |\n| 9 | [Poul Nielson](/wiki/Poul_Nielson \"Poul Nielson\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Development and Humanitarian Aid |\n| 10 | [Joe Borg](/wiki/Joe_Borg \"Joe Borg\") | {{Flagu\\|Malta}} | 2004 |\n| 11 | [Benita Ferrero\\-Waldner](/wiki/Benita_Ferrero-Waldner \"Benita Ferrero-Waldner\") | {{Flagu\\|Austria}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy |\n| 12 | [Louis Michel](/wiki/Louis_Michel \"Louis Michel\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 2004–2009 | Development and Humanitarian Aid |\n| 13 | [Karel De Gucht](/wiki/Karel_De_Gucht \"Karel De Gucht\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 2009–2010 |\n| 14 | [Andris Piebalgs](/wiki/Andris_Piebalgs \"Andris Piebalgs\") | {{Flagu\\|Latvia}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Development |\n| 15 | [Neven Mimica](/wiki/Neven_Mimica \"Neven Mimica\") | {{Flagu\\|Croatia}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | International Cooperation and Development |\n| 16 | [Jutta Urpilainen](/wiki/Jutta_Urpilainen \"Jutta Urpilainen\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | International Partnerhips |",
"### Technology",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Digital Agenda}}\nThe Commissioner for the Digital Agenda, previously the Commissioner for Information Society and Media, is responsible media and information issues such as [telecoms](/wiki/Telecoms \"Telecoms\") and [ICT](/wiki/Information_and_Communications_Technology \"Information and Communications Technology\").",
"2004–2010 Commissioner, [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding \"Viviane Reding\"), found a relatively popular policy in seeking to lower [roaming](/wiki/Roaming \"Roaming\") charges of mobile phones when travelling within the EU, stating: \"For years, mobile roaming charges have remained unjustifiably high. We are therefore tackling one of the last borders within Europe's internal market\".[Roaming Charges Portal](http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/roaming/index_en.htm) European Commission Her [legislation to cap roaming charges](/wiki/Regulation_on_roaming_charges_in_the_European_Union \"Regulation on roaming charges in the European Union\") was approved by the [Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\") in April 2007[European parliament backs roaming price cuts](https://web.archive.org/web/20070928080017/http://www.computerbusinessreview.com/article_news.asp?guid=9D3AEC6B-EC7C-4114-965C-880A63EEFCDD) Computer Business Review Online On 7 April 2006 the commission launched the new \"[.eu](/wiki/.eu \".eu\")\" [TLD](/wiki/Top-level_domain \"Top-level domain\") for websites for EU companies and citizens wishing to have a non\\-national European internet address. This has proved popular with 2\\.5 being registered by April 2007\\. It is now the seventh most popular TLD worldwide, and third in Europe (after [.de](/wiki/.de \".de\") and [.uk](/wiki/.uk \".uk\"))[\\`.eu' Domain Names Top 2\\.5M in Year One](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/huff-wires/20070411/techbit-eu-internet-names) *Huffington Post*",
"In the previous Commission information society was linked with Enterprise (now linked with Industry).",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Fritz Hellwig](/wiki/Fritz_Hellwig \"Fritz Hellwig\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | Research and Technology, Distribution of Information and Joint Research Centre (vice\\-president) |\n| 2 | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali \"Lorenzo Natali\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Mediterranean Policy, Enlargement and Information (vice\\-president) |\n| 3 | [Karl\\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes \"Karl-Heinz Narjes\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1985–1988 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Industry, information technology and science and research (vice\\-president) |\n| 4 | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana \"Carlo Ripa di Meana\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | Institutional reforms, information policy, culture and tourism |\n| 5 | [Filippo Maria Pandolfi](/wiki/Filippo_Maria_Pandolfi \"Filippo Maria Pandolfi\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Science, research, development, telecommunications and innovation (vice\\-president) |\n| 6 | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann \"Martin Bangemann\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Internal market, industrial affairs and ICT (vice\\-president) |\n| 7 | [Antonio Ruberti](/wiki/Antonio_Ruberti \"Antonio Ruberti\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | Science, research, technological development and education (vice\\-president) |\n| (6\\) | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann \"Martin Bangemann\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Industrial affairs, Information and Telecommunications Technologies |\n| 8 | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja \"Marcelino Oreja\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | Relations with the European Parliament, Culture, Audiovisual Policy |\n| 9 | [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen \"Erkki Liikanen\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Enterprise and Information Society |\n| 10 | [Olli Rehn](/wiki/Olli_Rehn \"Olli Rehn\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 2004 |\n| 11 | [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE \"Ján Figeľ\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2004 |\n| 12 | [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding \"Viviane Reding\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Information Society and Media |\n| 13 | [Neelie Kroes](/wiki/Neelie_Kroes \"Neelie Kroes\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Digital Agenda (vice\\-president) |\n| 14 | [Andrus Ansip](/wiki/Andrus_Ansip \"Andrus Ansip\") | {{Flagu\\|Estonia}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Digital Single Market (vice\\-president) |\n| 15 | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2019 |\n| 16 | [Margrethe Vestager](/wiki/Margrethe_Vestager \"Margrethe Vestager\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Europe Fit for Digital Age (Executive Vice\\-President) |",
"",
"### Economic and Financial Affairs, Taxation and Customs",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs}}\nThe Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs is responsible for the EU's economic affairs including the [euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\"). In the [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\"), the post also acquired responsibility for [taxation and anti\\-fraud protection](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Taxation_and_Customs_Union%2C_Audit_and_Anti-Fraud \"European Commissioner for Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti-Fraud\").",
"There have been calls for a strengthened economic portfolio with [Ségolène Royal](/wiki/S%C3%A9gol%C3%A8ne_Royal \"Ségolène Royal\") suggesting that there should be an economic government for the [eurozone](/wiki/Eurozone \"Eurozone\")[Royal v Sarkozy: The policies](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6357899.stm) BBC News and at the start of the first [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") Germany suggested an economic \"[super\\-commissioner](/wiki/Super-commissioner \"Super-commissioner\")\"['Big three' strike deal on super commissioner, French VAT cuts, 1% ceiling](http://www.euractiv.com/en/agenda2004/big-strike-deal-super-commissioner-french-vat-cuts-1-ceiling/article-114814) EurActiv.com – which could see a change in this position. That idea, however, was dropped but the Enterprise and Industry Commissioner was strengthened in response.[The New Commission – Some Initial Thought](http://www.bmbrussels.be/box_bmnewcomm.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923001700/http://www.bmbrussels.be/box\\_bmnewcomm.php \\|date\\=23 September 2006 }} BM Brussels",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Robert Marjolin](/wiki/Robert_Marjolin \"Robert Marjolin\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1958–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") I \\& II | Economics and Finance (vice\\-president) |\n| 2 | [Raymond Barre](/wiki/Raymond_Barre \"Raymond Barre\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | Economic and Finance, Statistical Office (vice\\-president) |\n| 1970–1972 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | Economic \\& Financial Affairs |\n| 3 | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp \"Wilhelm Haferkamp\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | Economic and Finance, Credit and Investments (vice\\-president) |\n| 3 | [Henri François Simonet](/wiki/Henri_Fran%C3%A7ois_Simonet \"Henri François Simonet\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | Taxation, Energy (vice\\-president) |\n| 3 | [Finn Olav Gundelach](/wiki/Finn_Olav_Gundelach \"Finn Olav Gundelach\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | Internal Market, Customs Union |\n| 4 | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 \"Richard Burke (Irish politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Taxation, Consumer Affairs, Transport |\n| 4 | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon \"Étienne Davignon\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | Internal Market, Customs Union, Industrial Affairs |\n| 4 | [François\\-Xavier Ortoli](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Ortoli \"François-Xavier Ortoli\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1977–1985 | Economic and Financial Credit and Investments (vice\\-president) |\n| [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Economic and Financial Credit and Investments (vice\\-president) |\n| 5 | [Christopher Tugendhat](/wiki/Christopher_Tugendhat \"Christopher Tugendhat\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1981–1985 | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions and Taxation (vice\\-president) |\n| 5 | [Karl\\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes \"Karl-Heinz Narjes\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |\n| 5 | [Lord Cockfield](/wiki/Lord_Cockfield \"Lord Cockfield\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Internal market, tax law and customs (vice\\-president) |\n| 6 | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen \"Henning Christophersen\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration (vice\\-president) |\n| 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Economic \\& financial affairs and coordination of structural funds (vice\\-president) |\n| 7 | [Christiane Scrivener](/wiki/Christiane_Scrivener \"Christiane Scrivener\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | Taxation and customs union |\n| (6\\) | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen \"Henning Christophersen\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1992–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Economic and Financial Affairs (vice\\-president) |\n| (7\\) | [Christiane Scrivener](/wiki/Christiane_Scrivener \"Christiane Scrivener\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | Taxation, customs union and consumer policies |\n| 8 | [Yves\\-Thibault de Silguy](/wiki/Yves-Thibault_de_Silguy \"Yves-Thibault de Silguy\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Economic and Financial Affairs |\n| 8 | [Mario Monti](/wiki/Mario_Monti \"Mario Monti\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | Internal Market, Services Customs and Taxation |\n| 9 | [Pedro Solbes](/wiki/Pedro_Solbes \"Pedro Solbes\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Economic and Monetary Affairs |\n| 10 | [Joaquín Almunia](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Almunia \"Joaquín Almunia\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 2004 |\n| 11 | [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas \"Siim Kallas\") | {{Flagu\\|Estonia}} | 2004 |\n| 12 | [Joaquín Almunia](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Almunia \"Joaquín Almunia\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Economic and Financial Affairs |\n| 12 | [László Kovács](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Kov%C3%A1cs_%28politician%29 \"László Kovács (politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Hungary}} | Taxation and Customs Union |\n| 13 | [Olli Rehn](/wiki/Olli_Rehn \"Olli Rehn\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Economic and Monetary Affairs and the Euro (vice\\-president) |\n| 14 | [Jyrki Katainen](/wiki/Jyrki_Katainen \"Jyrki Katainen\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 2014 |\n| 15 | [Algirdas Šemeta](/wiki/Algirdas_%C5%A0emeta \"Algirdas Šemeta\") | {{Flagu\\|Lithuania}} | 2010–2014 | Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud |\n| 16 | [Pierre Moscovici](/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici \"Pierre Moscovici\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Economic and Financial Affairs, Taxation and Customs |\n| 17 | [Paolo Gentiloni](/wiki/Paolo_Gentiloni \"Paolo Gentiloni\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Economy |\n| 17 | [Valdis Dombrovskis](/wiki/Valdis_Dombrovskis \"Valdis Dombrovskis\") | {{Flagu\\|Latvia}} | 2019 Onwards | Economy that Works for People (Executive Vice\\-President) |",
"### Education, Culture, Sport and Youth",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth}}\nThe Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth is responsible for policies in education and [training](/wiki/Training \"Training\"), [youth](/wiki/Youth \"Youth\"), sport, [civil society](/wiki/Civil_society \"Civil society\"), culture, [translation](/wiki/Translation \"Translation\"), [interpretation](/wiki/Interpreting \"Interpreting\") and relations with the [Office for Official Publications of the European Communities](/wiki/Office_for_Official_Publications_of_the_European_Communities \"Office for Official Publications of the European Communities\").",
"The post was enlarged since the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") with the addition of *training and multilingualism* (The [Directorate\\-General](/wiki/Directorate-General \"Directorate-General\") is still just [Directorate\\-General for Education and Culture](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Education_and_Culture_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Education and Culture (European Commission)\")). When Romania joined the EU in 2007, multilingualism was handed over to the new Romanian commissioner. In its place the portfolio included youth, sport and civil society. Multilingualism was reintroduced in 2010 under Barroso's second Commission.",
"The commission has become increasingly active in education. The [ERASMUS programme](/wiki/ERASMUS_programme \"ERASMUS programme\"), which was established in 1987, is a student exchange programme promoting mobility of students between European universities. The [Bologna process](/wiki/Bologna_process \"Bologna process\") aims to create a [European Higher Education Area](/wiki/European_Higher_Education_Area \"European Higher Education Area\") where academic qualifications can be recognised across Europe. The [European Institute of Technology](/wiki/European_Institute_of_Technology \"European Institute of Technology\") is a proposed research university.",
"The previous portfolio to the current was Culture, merged with Audiovisual policy and [EP](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\") relations.",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana \"Carlo Ripa di Meana\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Institutional reforms, information policy, culture and tourism |\n| 2 | [Jean Dondelinger](/wiki/Jean_Dondelinger \"Jean Dondelinger\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Audiovisual and cultural affairs |\n| 3 | [Antonio Ruberti](/wiki/Antonio_Ruberti \"Antonio Ruberti\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Science, research, technological development and education (vice\\-president) |\n| 3 | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro \"João de Deus Pinheiro\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | Relations with Parliament, culture and audiovisual |\n| 4 | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja \"Marcelino Oreja\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Relations with the European Parliament, Culture, Audiovisual Policy |\n| 5 | [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding \"Viviane Reding\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Education and Culture |\n| 6 | [Dalia Grybauskaitė](/wiki/Dalia_Grybauskait%C4%97 \"Dalia Grybauskaitė\") | {{Flagu\\|Lithuania}} | 2004 |\n| 7 | [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE \"Ján Figeľ\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Education, Training and Culture |\n| 8 | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2009–2010 |\n| 7 | [Leonard Orban](/wiki/Leonard_Orban \"Leonard Orban\") | {{Flagu\\|Romania}} | 2004–2010 | Multilingualism |\n| 8 | [Androulla Vassiliou](/wiki/Androulla_Vassiliou \"Androulla Vassiliou\") | {{Flagu\\|Cyprus}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth |\n| 9 | [Tibor Navracsics](/wiki/Tibor_Navracsics \"Tibor Navracsics\") | {{Flagu\\|Hungary}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Education, Culture, Youth and Sport |\n| 10 | [Mariya Gabriel](/wiki/Mariya_Gabriel \"Mariya Gabriel\") | {{Flagu\\|Bulgaria}} | 2019–2023{{Cite web \\|title\\=Press corner \\|url\\=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-11 \\|website\\=European Commission \\- European Commission \\|language\\=en}} | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Innovation, Research, Culture, Education and Youth |\n| 11 | [Iliana Ivanova](/wiki/Iliana_Ivanova \"Iliana Ivanova\") | {{Flagu\\|Bulgaria}} | (designated){{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-29 \\|title\\=Von der Leyen chooses 'woman from EPP' as Bulgarian commissioner \\|url\\=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/von\\-der\\-leyen\\-chooses\\-woman\\-from\\-epp\\-as\\-bulgarian\\-commissioner/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-11 \\|website\\=www.euractiv.com \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Innovation, Research, Culture, Education and Youth |",
"",
"### Employment and Social Affairs",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion}}\nThe Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion is responsible for matters including those relating to employment, discrimination and social affairs such as [welfare](/wiki/Social_welfare_provision \"Social welfare provision\"). The post has had various alterations; under the first Barroso Commission it was known as Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities.",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Lionello Levi Sandri](/wiki/Lionello_Levi_Sandri \"Lionello Levi Sandri\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1967–1972 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | |\n| 2 | [Albert Coppé](/wiki/Albert_Copp%C3%A9 \"Albert Coppé\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1972–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | |\n| 3 | [Patrick Hillery](/wiki/Patrick_Hillery \"Patrick Hillery\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | |\n| 4 | [Henk Vredeling](/wiki/Henk_Vredeling \"Henk Vredeling\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Employment and Social Affairs (vice\\-president) |\n| 5 | [Ivor Richard](/wiki/Ivor_Richard \"Ivor Richard\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Employment and Social Affairs |\n| 6 | [Alois Pfeiffer](/wiki/Alois_Pfeiffer \"Alois Pfeiffer\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1985–1987 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Economic affairs and employment |\n| 7 | [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber \"Peter Schmidhuber\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1987–1989 |\n| 8 | [Peter Sutherland](/wiki/Peter_Sutherland \"Peter Sutherland\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1985–1989 | Competition, social affairs and education |\n| 9 | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin \"Manuel Marin\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1986–1989 | Competition, social affairs and education (vice\\-president) |\n| 10 | [Vasso Papandreou](/wiki/Vasso_Papandreou \"Vasso Papandreou\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Employment, industrial relations and social affairs |\n| 11 | [Pádraig Flynn](/wiki/P%C3%A1draig_Flynn \"Pádraig Flynn\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Social affairs and employment |\n| 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Employment and Social Affairs and relations with the EESC |\n| 13 | [Anna Diamantopoulou](/wiki/Anna_Diamantopoulou \"Anna Diamantopoulou\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Employment and Social Affairs |\n| 14 | [Stavros Dimas](/wiki/Stavros_Dimas \"Stavros Dimas\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 2004 |\n| 14 | [Vladimír Špidla](/wiki/Vladim%C3%ADr_%C5%A0pidla \"Vladimír Špidla\") | {{Flagu\\|Czech Republic}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities |\n| 15 | [László Andor](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Andor \"László Andor\") | {{Flagu\\|Hungary}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion |\n| 16 | [Marianne Thyssen](/wiki/Marianne_Thyssen \"Marianne Thyssen\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Employment, Social Affairs, Skills and Labour Mobility |\n| 17 | [Nicolas Schmit](/wiki/Nicolas_Schmit \"Nicolas Schmit\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Jobs and Social Rights |",
"### Energy",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Energy}}",
"The Commissioner holds responsibility for the [European Union's energy policy](/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union \"Energy policy of the European Union\") as well as nuclear issues ([Euratom](/wiki/Euratom \"Euratom\")). The [Directorate\\-General](/wiki/Directorate-General \"Directorate-General\") for this portfolio is shared with the [Commissioner for Transport](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Transport \"European Commissioner for Transport\") as the [Directorate\\-General for Mobility and Transport](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Transport_and_Energy_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Transport and Energy (European Commission)\").",
"The EU is an active supporter of the [Kyoto Protocol](/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol \"Kyoto Protocol\"), which it signed alongside its member\\-states. In March 2007 the Union committed itself to cut {{CO2}} emissions by 20 percent by 2020\\.[EU agrees on carbon dioxide cuts](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6432829.stm) There is also a desire to reduce dependency on [Russian](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") energy supplies following the disputes between Russia and [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\").See also [2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute](/wiki/2007_Russia%E2%80%93Belarus_energy_dispute \"2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute\") and [Russia–Ukraine gas disputes](/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_gas_disputes \"Russia–Ukraine gas disputes\") In April 2007 five southern European countries signed a deal to build an [oil pipeline](/wiki/Oil_pipeline \"Oil pipeline\") from the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea \"Black Sea\") to [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") which will help diversify energy sources.[http://www.euractiv.com/en/energy/black\\-sea\\-oil\\-pipeline\\-to\\-start\\-flowing\\-by\\-2012/article\\-162998?Ref\\=RSS](http://www.euractiv.com/en/energy/black-sea-oil-pipeline-to-start-flowing-by-2012/article-162998?Ref=RSS)",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp \"Wilhelm Haferkamp\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1967–1973 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\"), [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | |\n| 2 | [Henri François Simonet](/wiki/Henri_Fran%C3%A7ois_Simonet \"Henri François Simonet\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | |\n| 3 | [Guido Brunner](/wiki/Guido_Brunner \"Guido Brunner\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Energy, Research, Science |\n| 4 | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon \"Étienne Davignon\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Industrial Affairs, Energy, Research and Science (vice\\-president) |\n| 5 | [Nicolas Mosar](/wiki/Nicolas_Mosar \"Nicolas Mosar\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Energy \\& Euratom |\n| 6 | [Antonio Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Antonio_Cardoso_e_Cunha \"Antonio Cardoso e Cunha\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Energy, Euratom, small businesses; staff and translation |\n| 7 | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja \"Marcelino Oreja\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Transport and energy |\n| 8 | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes \"Abel Matutes\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1994–1995 |\n| 9 | [Christos Papoutsis](/wiki/Christos_Papoutsis \"Christos Papoutsis\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Energy, Euratom Supply Agency, SMEs and Tourism |\n| 10 | [Loyola de Palacio](/wiki/Loyola_de_Palacio \"Loyola de Palacio\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Inter\\-Institutional Relations and Administration, Transport and Energy (vice\\-president) |\n| 11 | [Andris Piebalgs](/wiki/Andris_Piebalgs \"Andris Piebalgs\") | {{Flagu\\|Latvia}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Energy |\n| 12 | [Günther Oettinger](/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Oettinger \"Günther Oettinger\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Energy (vice\\-president) |\n| 13 | [Miguel Arias Cañete](/wiki/Miguel_Arias_Ca%C3%B1ete \"Miguel Arias Cañete\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Climate Action and Energy |\n| 14 | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | Energy Union (vice\\-president) |\n| 15 | [Kadri Simson](/wiki/Kadri_Simson \"Kadri Simson\") | {{Flagu\\|Estonia}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Energy |",
"### Enlargement, European Neighbourhood Policy and External Relations",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy}}\nThe Commissioner for Enlargement and the [European Neighbourhood Policy](/wiki/European_Neighbourhood_Policy \"European Neighbourhood Policy\") is concerned with foreign policy towards the EU's nearest neighbours. The [enlargement](/wiki/Enlargement_of_the_European_Union \"Enlargement of the European Union\") portfolio began to be created out of the regionalised foreign policy posts. In particular the [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") post for relations with central and eastern Europe as those countries began applying to join. The Neighbourhood Policy element was created in 2004 as part of the External Relations portfolio. When that portfolio was absorbed by the High Representative in 2009, Neighbourhood Policy was transferred to Trade and then to Enlargement in 2010 under the Second Barroso Commission.",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali \"Lorenzo Natali\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Enlargement, Environment, Nuclear Safety |\n| | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp \"Wilhelm Haferkamp\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | External Relations (vice\\-president) |\n| 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") |\n| | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali \"Lorenzo Natali\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | Mediterranean Policy, Enlargement and Information (vice\\-president) |\n| | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Cooperation, development affairs and enlargement (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Claude Cheysson](/wiki/Claude_Cheysson \"Claude Cheysson\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | Mediterranean policy and north–south relations |\n| | [Willy De Clercq](/wiki/Willy_De_Clercq \"Willy De Clercq\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | External relations and trade policy |\n| | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen \"Frans Andriessen\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | External relations and trade policy (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes \"Abel Matutes\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1989–1992 | Mediterranean and Latin American policy |\n| | [Hans van den Broek](/wiki/Hans_van_den_Broek \"Hans van den Broek\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | External relations and enlargement |\n| | [Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan \"Leon Brittan\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Commercial Policy and External Relations (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin \"Manuel Marin\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | External Relations (vice\\-president) |\n| | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro \"João de Deus Pinheiro\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | Relations with African, Caribbean, Pacific Countries |\n| | [Hans van den Broek](/wiki/Hans_van_den_Broek \"Hans van den Broek\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | Relations with central and eastern Europe, CFSP and the External Service, South Africa and the Lomé Convention |\n| | [Chris Patten](/wiki/Chris_Patten \"Chris Patten\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | External Relations |\n| | [Günter Verheugen](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Verheugen \"Günter Verheugen\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | Enlargement |\n| | [Janez Potočnik](/wiki/Janez_Poto%C4%8Dnik \"Janez Potočnik\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovenia}} | 2004 |\n| | [Olli Rehn](/wiki/Olli_Rehn \"Olli Rehn\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I |\n| | [Benita Ferrero\\-Waldner](/wiki/Benita_Ferrero-Waldner \"Benita Ferrero-Waldner\") | {{Flagu\\|Austria}} | External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy |\n| | [Štefan Füle](/wiki/%C5%A0tefan_F%C3%BCle \"Štefan Füle\") | {{Flagu\\|Czech Republic}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy |\n| | [Johannes Hahn](/wiki/Johannes_Hahn \"Johannes Hahn\") | {{Flagu\\|Austria}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | European Neighbourhood Policy and Enlargement Negotiations |\n| | [Olivér Várhelyi](/wiki/Oliv%C3%A9r_V%C3%A1rhelyi \"Olivér Várhelyi\") | {{Flagu\\|Hungary}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Neighbourhood and Enlargement |",
"### Environment",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for the Environment}}\nThe Commissioner for the Environment is responsible for protection of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\")'s environment. Specific actions relating to [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change \"Climate change\") are under the responsibility of the Climate Action commissioner as of 2010\\.",
"The EU has made a number of environmental moves, partially in regards to climate change. Most notably it signed the [Kyoto Protocol](/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol \"Kyoto Protocol\") in 1998, set up its [Emission Trading Scheme](/wiki/European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme \"European Union Emission Trading Scheme\") in 2005 and is agreeing to unilaterally cut its emissions by 20% by 2020\\. (See: [Energy policy of the European Union](/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union \"Energy policy of the European Union\")). Other policies include; the [Natura 2000](/wiki/Natura_2000 \"Natura 2000\") a widespread and successful network of nature conservation sites, the [Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals](/wiki/Registration%2C_Evaluation_and_Authorisation_of_Chemicals \"Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals\") (REACH) directive requiring safety testing on widely used chemicals and the [Water Framework Directive](/wiki/Water_Framework_Directive \"Water Framework Directive\") ensuring water quality reaches higher standards.",
"For more, see [European Climate Change Programme](/wiki/European_Climate_Change_Programme \"European Climate Change Programme\"), [European Union Emission Trading Scheme](/wiki/European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme \"European Union Emission Trading Scheme\"), [Renewable energy in the European Union](/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_European_Union \"Renewable energy in the European Union\") and the [Directorate\\-General for the Environment](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_the_Environment_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission)\").",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali \"Lorenzo Natali\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Enlargement, Environment, Nuclear Safety |\n| | [Karl\\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes \"Karl-Heinz Narjes\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |\n| | [Stanley Clinton Davis](/wiki/Stanley_Clinton_Davis \"Stanley Clinton Davis\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Environment, consumer protection and transport |\n| | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana \"Carlo Ripa di Meana\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Environment, nuclear safety and civil protection |\n| | [Ioannis Paleokrassas](/wiki/Ioannis_Paleokrassas \"Ioannis Paleokrassas\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Environment, fisheries |\n| | [Ritt Bjerregaard](/wiki/Ritt_Bjerregaard \"Ritt Bjerregaard\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Environment and nuclear security |\n| | [Margot Wallström](/wiki/Margot_Wallstr%C3%B6m \"Margot Wallström\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Environment |\n| | [Stavros Dimas](/wiki/Stavros_Dimas \"Stavros Dimas\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I |\n| | [Janez Potočnik](/wiki/Janez_Poto%C4%8Dnik \"Janez Potočnik\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovenia}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II |\n| | [Karmenu Vella](/wiki/Karmenu_Vella \"Karmenu Vella\") | {{Flagu\\|Malta}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries |\n| | [Virginijus Sinkevičius](/wiki/Virginijus_Sinkevi%C4%8Dius \"Virginijus Sinkevičius\") | {{Flagu\\|Lithuania}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Environment, Oceans and Fisheries |",
"### Budget and Human Resources",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Budget and Human Resources}}\nThe Commissioner for Budget and Human Resources is primarily responsible for the management of the [budget of the European Union](/wiki/Budget_of_the_European_Union \"Budget of the European Union\") and related financial issues except for *budgetary discharge* which falls under the Commissioner for administration commissioner. Previously simply for the budget, the position expanded under the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") to include financial programming. The related DG is the [Directorate\\-General for Budget](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Budget \"Directorate-General for Budget\").",
"Under Commissioner Grybauskaitė, Commissioner's 121\\.6 billion euro 2008 budget proposed that for the first time funding for [sustainable growth](/wiki/Sustainable_development \"Sustainable development\") (€57\\.2 billion) would be higher than that of the [Common Agricultural Policy](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy \"Common Agricultural Policy\") (€56\\.3 billion), traditionally the largest source of expenditure in the EU. There would be an increase in [cohesion funds](/wiki/Structural_Funds_and_Cohesion_Funds \"Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds\"), [energy](/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union \"Energy policy of the European Union\") and [transport](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Transport \"European Commissioner for Transport\") of 14%, [research](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Science_and_Research \"European Commissioner for Science and Research\") by 11% and lifelong learning by 9%. There would also be an increase in the administrative budget, aid to Kosovo and [Palestinian](/wiki/Palestinian_National_Authority \"Palestinian National Authority\") institutions and funds towards the [Galileo project](/wiki/Galileo_positioning_system \"Galileo positioning system\"). [Group of EU states wary of 2008 budget plan](http://euobserver.com/19/24012?rss_rk=1)",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Albert Coppé](/wiki/Albert_Copp%C3%A9 \"Albert Coppé\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1967–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | |\n| | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp \"Wilhelm Haferkamp\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | |\n| | [Christopher Tugendhat](/wiki/Christopher_Tugendhat \"Christopher Tugendhat\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions |\n| 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions and Taxation (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Michael O'Kennedy](/wiki/Michael_O%27Kennedy \"Michael O'Kennedy\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1981–1982 | Personnel and Administration |\n| | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 \"Richard Burke (Irish politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1982–1985 |\n| | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen \"Henning Christophersen\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration |\n| | [Antonio Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Antonio_Cardoso_e_Cunha \"Antonio Cardoso e Cunha\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Energy, Euratom, small businesses; staff and translation |\n| | [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber \"Peter Schmidhuber\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | Budget |\n| 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Budget, financial control and the cohesion fund |\n| | [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen \"Erkki Liikanen\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Budget, Personnel and Administration |\n| | [Michaele Schreyer](/wiki/Michaele_Schreyer \"Michaele Schreyer\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Budget |\n| | [Marcos Kyprianou](/wiki/Marcos_Kyprianou \"Marcos Kyprianou\") | {{Flagu\\|Cyprus}} | 2004 |\n| | [Dalia Grybauskaitė](/wiki/Dalia_Grybauskait%C4%97 \"Dalia Grybauskaitė\") | {{Flagu\\|Lithuania}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Financial Programming and the Budget |\n| | [Algirdas Šemeta](/wiki/Algirdas_%C5%A0emeta \"Algirdas Šemeta\") | {{Flagu\\|Lithuania}} | 2009–2010 |\n| | [Janusz Lewandowski](/wiki/Janusz_Lewandowski \"Janusz Lewandowski\") | {{Flagu\\|Poland}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II |\n| | [Jacek Dominik](/wiki/Jacek_Dominik \"Jacek Dominik\") | {{Flagu\\|Poland}} | 2014 |\n| | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2010–2014 | Inter\\-Institutional Relations and Administration (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Kristalina Georgieva](/wiki/Kristalina_Georgieva \"Kristalina Georgieva\") | {{Flagu\\|Bulgaria}} | 2014–2016 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Budget and Human Resources (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Günther Oettinger](/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Oettinger \"Günther Oettinger\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 2017–2019 | Budget and Human Resources |\n| | [Johannes Hahn](/wiki/Johannes_Hahn \"Johannes Hahn\") | {{Flagu\\|Austria}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Budget and Administration |",
"### Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Financial Stability Financial Services and Capital Markets Union}}\nThe Commissioner for Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union is responsible for banking and finance. It was a role created under the Juncker Commission.",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portfolio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Christopher Tugendhat](/wiki/Christopher_Tugendhat \"Christopher Tugendhat\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions |\n| | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Budget and Financial Control, Financial Institutions and Taxation (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen \"Henning Christophersen\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration |\n| | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes \"Abel Matutes\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1986–1989 | Credit, investments, financial instruments and small \\& medium\\-sized enterprises |\n| | [Sir Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan \"Leon Brittan\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Competition and financial institutions (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber \"Peter Schmidhuber\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Budget, financial control and the cohesion fund |\n| | [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin \"Anita Gradin\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Immigration, Justice \\& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |\n| | [Jonathan Hill](/wiki/Jonathan_Hill%2C_Baron_Hill_of_Oareford \"Jonathan Hill, Baron Hill of Oareford\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 2014–2016 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union |\n| | [Valdis Dombrovskis](/wiki/Valdis_Dombrovskis \"Valdis Dombrovskis\") | {{Flagu\\|Latvia}} | 2016–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Euro and Social Dialogue and Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union (vice\\-president) |\n| 2019–2020 | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Financial Markets |\n| | [Mairead McGuinness](/wiki/Mairead_McGuinness \"Mairead McGuinness\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 2020–present | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union |",
"### Institutional Reform, Democracy and Demography",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portfolio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Neil Kinnock](/wiki/Neil_Kinnock \"Neil Kinnock\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Administrative reform (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana \"Carlo Ripa di Meana\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Institutional reforms, information policy, culture and tourism |\n| | [Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi](/wiki/Raniero_Vanni_d%27Archirafi \"Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Institutional reform, internal market and enterprise |\n| | *[Dubravka Šuica](/wiki/Dubravka_%C5%A0uica \"Dubravka Šuica\")* | *{{Flagu\\|Croatia}}* | *nominated* | *[Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\")* | *Democracy and Demography (Vice\\-President)* |",
"### Health and Consumer Protection",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Health and Consumer Policy}}\nThe Commissioner for Health and Consumer Policy is responsible for matters of public health, food safety, animal health, welfare and consumer affairs. Between 2007 and 2010 it was split into a Commissioner for Health and a Commissioner for Consumer Protection – in order to give a portfolio for the incoming Bulgarian Commissioner. It was recombined under the second Barroso Commission.",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 \"Richard Burke (Irish politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Taxation, Consumer Affairs, Transport |\n| | [Karl\\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes \"Karl-Heinz Narjes\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |\n| | [Stanley Clinton Davis](/wiki/Stanley_Clinton_Davis \"Stanley Clinton Davis\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Environment, consumer protection and transport |\n| | [Grigoris Varfis](/wiki/Grigoris_Varfis \"Grigoris Varfis\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1986–1989 | Relations with the European Parliament, regional policy and consumer protection |\n| | [Karel Van Miert](/wiki/Karel_Van_Miert \"Karel Van Miert\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Transport and consumer protection |\n| | [Christiane Scrivener](/wiki/Christiane_Scrivener \"Christiane Scrivener\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1992–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Taxation, customs union and consumer policies |\n| | [Emma Bonino](/wiki/Emma_Bonino \"Emma Bonino\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Consumer Policy, Fisheries and ECHO |\n| | [David Byrne](/wiki/David_Byrne_%28Irish_politician%29 \"David Byrne (Irish politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Health and Consumer Protection |\n| | [Pavel Telička](/wiki/Pavel_Teli%C4%8Dka \"Pavel Telička\") | {{Flagu\\|Czech Republic}} | 2004 |\n| | [Markos Kyprianou](/wiki/Markos_Kyprianou \"Markos Kyprianou\") | {{Flagu\\|Cyprus}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Health |\n| | [Androulla Vassiliou](/wiki/Androulla_Vassiliou \"Androulla Vassiliou\") | {{Flagu\\|Cyprus}} | 2008–2010 |\n| | [Meglena Kuneva](/wiki/Meglena_Kuneva \"Meglena Kuneva\") | {{Flagu\\|Bulgaria}} | 2007–2010 | Consumer Protection |\n| | [John Dalli](/wiki/John_Dalli \"John Dalli\") | {{Flagu\\|Malta}} | 2010–2012 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Health and Consumer Policy |\n| | [Tonio Borg](/wiki/Tonio_Borg \"Tonio Borg\") | {{Flagu\\|Malta}} | 2012–2014 | Health |\n| | [Neven Mimica](/wiki/Neven_Mimica \"Neven Mimica\") | {{Flagu\\|Croatia}} | 2013–2014 | Consumer Protection |\n| | [Vytenis Andriukaitis](/wiki/Vytenis_Andriukaitis \"Vytenis Andriukaitis\") | {{Flagu\\|Lithuania}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Health and Food Safety |\n| | [Věra Jourová](/wiki/V%C4%9Bra_Jourov%C3%A1 \"Věra Jourová\") | {{Flagu\\|Czech Republic}} | 2014–2019 | Justice and Consumers |\n| | [Stella Kyriakidou](/wiki/Stella_Kyriakidou \"Stella Kyriakidou\") | {{Flagu\\|Cyprus}} | 2019 Onwards | *[Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\")* | Health and Food Safety |\n| | *[Didier Reynders](/wiki/Didier_Reynders \"Didier Reynders\")* | *{{Flagu\\|Belgium}}* | *nominated* | *Justice* |",
"### High Representative",
"{{Main\\|High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy}}\nThe High Representative became a Commissioner on 1 December 2009, replacing the External Relations Commissioner (see historical below). Although other external relations posts continue to exist, such as trade, the High Representative is the most senior foreign affairs post in the EU.",
"### Home Affairs",
"The Commissioner for Home Affairs was created in 2010 by dividing the previous Justice, Freedom and Security portfolio into a security orientated post (DG HOME) and a post centred on justice, on individual and fundamental rights (DG JUST). Its DG is the [Directorate\\-General for Migration and Home Affairs](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Home_Affairs_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Home Affairs (European Commission)\") (DG HOME).",
"",
"| Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portfolio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin \"Anita Gradin\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Immigration, Justice \\& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |\n| [António Vitorino](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Vitorino \"António Vitorino\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Justice and Home Affairs |\n| [Franco Frattini](/wiki/Franco_Frattini \"Franco Frattini\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Justice, Freedom and Security (vice\\-president) |\n| [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot \"Jacques Barrot\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2008–2009 |\n| [Cecilia Malmström](/wiki/Cecilia_Malmstr%C3%B6m \"Cecilia Malmström\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Home Affairs |\n| [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding \"Viviane Reding\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 2010–2014 | Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship (vice\\-president) |\n| [Martine Reicherts](/wiki/Martine_Reicherts \"Martine Reicherts\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 2014 | Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship |\n| [Dimitris Avramopoulos](/wiki/Dimitris_Avramopoulos \"Dimitris Avramopoulos\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Migration, Home Affairs and Citizenship |\n| [Margaritis Schinas](/wiki/Margaritis_Schinas \"Margaritis Schinas\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 2019– | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Promoting our European Way of Life (vice\\-president) |\n| [Ylva Johansson](/wiki/Ylva_Johansson \"Ylva Johansson\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 2019– | Home Affairs |",
"### Industry and Entrepreneurship",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship}}\nThe Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry post was enlarged from the Commissioner for Enterprise and Information Society portfolio in the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") to include Industry. At the start of the first [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\"), Germany, backed by Britain and France suggested an economic \"super\\-commissioner\" to fight for [competitiveness](/wiki/Competition_%28companies%29 \"Competition (companies)\"). Although rejected, this idea though has been taken on by Verheugen, as the Enterprise and Industry portfolio was enlarged and was made a [Vice President](/wiki/Vice-President_of_the_European_Commission \"Vice-President of the European Commission\").",
"As Commissioner, he indicates his aim to increase the competitiveness of Europe, there is a separate [Commissioner for Competition](/wiki/Commissioner_for_Competition \"Commissioner for Competition\") dealing with competition between companies within Europe. However, with the numerous economic portfolios, there is a degree of overlap which has been a matter of concern for him along with the purported difficulty of firing [director\\-generals](/wiki/Directorate-General \"Directorate-General\"). This Commissioner also chairs the *Competitiveness Council Commissioners Group* and is the vice chair of the *Group of Commissioners on the [Lisbon Strategy](/wiki/Lisbon_Strategy \"Lisbon Strategy\")*. He is expected to be the European chair of the new [Transatlantic Economic Council](/wiki/Transatlantic_Economic_Council \"Transatlantic Economic Council\"). The relevant DG is [Directorate\\-General for Enterprise and Industry](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Enterprise_and_Industry_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Enterprise and Industry (European Commission)\").",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon \"Étienne Davignon\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Internal Market, Customs Union, Industrial Affairs |\n| 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Industrial Affairs, Energy, Research and Science (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Karl\\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes \"Karl-Heinz Narjes\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |\n| | [Karl\\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes \"Karl-Heinz Narjes\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Industry, information technology and science and research (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes \"Abel Matutes\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1986–1989 | Credit, investments, financial instruments and small \\& medium\\-sized enterprises |\n| | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann \"Martin Bangemann\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Internal market and industrial affairs (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Antonio Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Antonio_Cardoso_e_Cunha \"Antonio Cardoso e Cunha\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | Energy, Euratom, small businesses; staff and translation |\n| | [Vasso Papandreou](/wiki/Vasso_Papandreou \"Vasso Papandreou\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | Employment, industrial relations and social affairs |\n| | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann \"Martin Bangemann\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Internal market, industrial affairs and ICT (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi](/wiki/Raniero_Vanni_d%27Archirafi \"Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | Institutional reform, internal market and enterprise |\n| | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann \"Martin Bangemann\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Industrial affairs, [Information \\& Telecommunications Technologies](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Information_Society_%26_Media \"European Commissioner for Information Society & Media\") |\n| | [Christos Papoutsis](/wiki/Christos_Papoutsis \"Christos Papoutsis\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | Energy, Euratom Supply Agency, SMEs and Tourism |\n| | [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen \"Erkki Liikanen\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Enterprise and Information Society |\n| | [Olli Rehn](/wiki/Olli_Rehn \"Olli Rehn\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 2004 |\n| | [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE \"Ján Figeľ\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2004 |\n| | [Günter Verheugen](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Verheugen \"Günter Verheugen\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Enterprise and Industry (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Antonio Tajani](/wiki/Antonio_Tajani \"Antonio Tajani\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Industry and Entrepreneurship (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Ferdinando Nelli Feroci](/wiki/Ferdinando_Nelli_Feroci \"Ferdinando Nelli Feroci\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2014 | Industry and Entrepreneurship |\n| | [Elżbieta Bieńkowska](/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Bie%C5%84kowska \"Elżbieta Bieńkowska\") | {{Flagu\\|Poland}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs |\n| | [Thierry Breton](/wiki/Thierry_Breton \"Thierry Breton\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Internal Market |",
"### Internal Market",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services}}\nThe Commissioner for Internal Market and Services concerned the development of the 480\\-million\\-strong [European](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") [single market](/wiki/Single_market \"Single market\"), promoting [free movement of people, goods, services and capital](/wiki/Four_Freedoms_%28European_Union%29 \"Four Freedoms (European Union)\"). The related DG is [Directorate\\-General for Internal Market and Services](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Internal_Market_and_Services_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Internal Market and Services (European Commission)\") and it is also related to the [Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market](/wiki/Office_for_Harmonization_in_the_Internal_Market \"Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market\").",
"Commissioner [Frits Bolkestein](/wiki/Frits_Bolkestein \"Frits Bolkestein\") (Netherlands) served in the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") between 1999 and 2004\\. In addition to holding the Internal Market portfolio he also held [Taxation and Customs Union](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Taxation_and_Customs_Union \"European Commissioner for Taxation and Customs Union\"). Bolkestein is most notable for the [Directive on services in the internal market](/wiki/Directive_on_services_in_the_internal_market \"Directive on services in the internal market\"), which is commonly called the \"Bolkestein Directive\". The directive aimed at enabling a company from a one [member\\-state](/wiki/List_of_European_Union_member_states \"List of European Union member states\") to recruit workers in another member\\-state under the law of the company's home state. It was to help the development of the [internal market](/wiki/European_Single_Market \"European Single Market\") for services, the development of which has lagged behind that for goods. However, there was a great deal of concern about its effect on social standards and welfare, triggering competition between various parts of Europe. This led to significant protests across Europe against the directive including a notable protest at the European Parliament in [Strasbourg](/wiki/Strasbourg \"Strasbourg\") by port workers which led to damage to the building. MEPs eventually reached a compromise on the text and the Parliament adopted it on 12 December 2006; 2 years after Bolkestein left office, under the [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\").",
"The portfolio was merged in 2014 with [the one for Industry and Entrepreneurship](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Industry_and_Entrepreneurship \"European Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship\").",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Piero Malvestiti](/wiki/Piero_Malvestiti \"Piero Malvestiti\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1958–1959 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") I | |\n| | [Giuseppe Caron](/wiki/Giuseppe_Caron \"Giuseppe Caron\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1959–1963 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") I \\& II | |\n| | [Guido Colonna di Paliano](/wiki/Guido_Colonna_di_Paliano \"Guido Colonna di Paliano\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1964–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") II | |\n| | [Hans von der Groeben](/wiki/Hans_von_der_Groeben \"Hans von der Groeben\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | |\n| | [Wilhelm Haferkamp](/wiki/Wilhelm_Haferkamp \"Wilhelm Haferkamp\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1970–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | |\n| | [Finn Olav Gundelach](/wiki/Finn_Olav_Gundelach \"Finn Olav Gundelach\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | |\n| | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon \"Étienne Davignon\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Internal Market, Customs Union, Industrial Affairs |\n| | [Karl\\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes \"Karl-Heinz Narjes\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Internal Market, Industrial Innovation, Customs Union, the Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety |\n| | [Lord Cockfield](/wiki/Lord_Cockfield \"Lord Cockfield\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Internal market, tax law and customs |\n| | [Martin Bangemann](/wiki/Martin_Bangemann \"Martin Bangemann\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Internal market and industrial affairs (vice\\-president) |\n| 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Internal market, industrial affairs and ICT (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi](/wiki/Raniero_Vanni_d%27Archirafi \"Raniero Vanni d'Archirafi\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Institutional reform, internal market and enterprise |\n| | [Mario Monti](/wiki/Mario_Monti \"Mario Monti\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Internal Market, Services, Customs and Taxation |\n| | [Frits Bolkestein](/wiki/Frits_Bolkestein \"Frits Bolkestein\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Internal Market |\n| | [Charlie McCreevy](/wiki/Charlie_McCreevy \"Charlie McCreevy\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Internal Market and Services |\n| | [Michel Barnier](/wiki/Michel_Barnier \"Michel Barnier\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Internal Market and Services (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Elżbieta Bieńkowska](/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Bie%C5%84kowska \"Elżbieta Bieńkowska\") | {{Flagu\\|Poland}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs |\n| | [Thierry Breton](/wiki/Thierry_Breton \"Thierry Breton\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Internal Market |",
"### International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid, Civil Protection and Crisis Management",
"{{main\\|European Commissioner for International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Response}}\nThe Commissioner for International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Response was created under the second Barroso Commission in 2010 . It deals in party with dealing with humanitarian disasters and [humanitarian aid](/wiki/Humanitarian_aid \"Humanitarian aid\"): the EU is the [largest supplier of aid](/wiki/ECHO_%28European_Commission%29 \"ECHO (European Commission)\") in the world.",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Robert Lemaignen](/wiki/Robert_Lemaignen \"Robert Lemaignen\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1958–1962 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") | |\n| | [Henri Rochereau](/wiki/Henri_Rochereau \"Henri Rochereau\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1962–1970 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\"), [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | |\n| | [Jean\\-François Deniau](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Deniau \"Jean-François Deniau\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1967–1973 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\"), [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | |\n| | [Claude Cheysson](/wiki/Claude_Cheysson \"Claude Cheysson\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1973–1981 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\"), [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\"), [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | |\n| | [Edgard Pisani](/wiki/Edgard_Pisani \"Edgard Pisani\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | |\n| | [Lorenzo Natali](/wiki/Lorenzo_Natali \"Lorenzo Natali\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Cooperation, development affairs and enlargement (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Carlo Ripa di Meana](/wiki/Carlo_Ripa_di_Meana \"Carlo Ripa di Meana\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Environment, nuclear safety and civil protection |\n| | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin \"Manuel Marin\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | Cooperation, development and fisheries (vice\\-president) |\n| 1992–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Cooperation, development and humanitarian aid |\n| | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro \"João de Deus Pinheiro\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Relations with African, Caribbean, Pacific Countries, South Africa and the Lomé Convention |\n| | [Emma Bonino](/wiki/Emma_Bonino \"Emma Bonino\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1995–1999 | Consumer Policy, Fisheries and ECHO |\n| | [Poul Nielson](/wiki/Poul_Nielson \"Poul Nielson\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Development and Humanitarian Aid |\n| | [Joe Borg](/wiki/Joe_Borg \"Joe Borg\") | {{Flagu\\|Malta}} | 2004 |\n| | [Benita Ferrero\\-Waldner](/wiki/Benita_Ferrero-Waldner \"Benita Ferrero-Waldner\") | {{Flagu\\|Austria}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy |\n| | [Louis Michel](/wiki/Louis_Michel \"Louis Michel\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 2004–2009 | Development and Humanitarian Aid |\n| | [Karel De Gucht](/wiki/Karel_De_Gucht \"Karel De Gucht\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 2009–2010 |\n| | [Kristalina Georgieva](/wiki/Kristalina_Georgieva \"Kristalina Georgieva\") | {{Flagu\\|Bulgaria}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Response |\n| | [Christos Stylianides](/wiki/Christos_Stylianides \"Christos Stylianides\") | {{Flagu\\|Cyprus}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Management |\n| | [Janez Lenarčič](/wiki/Janez_Lenar%C4%8Di%C4%8D \"Janez Lenarčič\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovenia}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Crisis Management |",
"### Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight",
"The Vice President of the European Commission for Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight is responsible for the administration of the commission, including management of some of the commission's [Internal Services](/wiki/Internal_Services_in_the_European_Commission \"Internal Services in the European Commission\"); in particular consolidation of administrative reform, [personnel](/wiki/Human_resources \"Human resources\") and administration, [European Schools](/wiki/European_Schools \"European Schools\") and security. The Commissioner is also responsible for the following departments; the [Directorate\\-General for Personnel and Administration](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Personnel_and_Administration \"Directorate-General for Personnel and Administration\"), the Office for the Administration and Payment of Individual Entitlement, the [Directorate\\-General for Informatics](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Informatics_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Informatics (European Commission)\"), the [Office of Infrastructure and Logistics](/wiki/Office_of_Infrastructure_and_Logistics_%28European_Commission%29 \"Office of Infrastructure and Logistics (European Commission)\"), and relations with the [European Personnel Selection Office](/wiki/European_Personnel_Selection_Office \"European Personnel Selection Office\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ec.europa.eu/archives/commission\\_2004\\-2009/index\\_en.htm\\|title\\=The Commissioners – Profiles, Portfolios and Homepages\\|website\\=ec.europa.eu}} The current Vice President is [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\").",
"Prior to 2010 it was also responsible for Audit and Anti\\-Fraud, now merged with taxation, but gain responsibility for relations with the other EU institutions.",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen \"Frans Andriessen\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Parliamentary Relations and Competition |\n| | [Michael O'Kennedy](/wiki/Michael_O%27Kennedy \"Michael O'Kennedy\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1981–1982 | Personnel and Administration |\n| | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 \"Richard Burke (Irish politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1982–1985 |\n| | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen \"Henning Christophersen\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1985–1988 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration |\n| | [Grigoris Varfis](/wiki/Grigoris_Varfis \"Grigoris Varfis\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1986–1988 | Relations with the European Parliament, regional policy and consumer protection |\n| | [Antonio Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Antonio_Cardoso_e_Cunha \"Antonio Cardoso e Cunha\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Energy, Euratom, small businesses; staff and translation |\n| | [João de Deus Pinheiro](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_Pinheiro \"João de Deus Pinheiro\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Relations with Parliament, culture and audiovisual |\n| | [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen \"Erkki Liikanen\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Budget, Personnel and Administration |\n| | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja \"Marcelino Oreja\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | Relations with the European Parliament, Culture, Audiovisual Policy |\n| | [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin \"Anita Gradin\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | Immigration, Justice \\& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |\n| | [Loyola de Palacio](/wiki/Loyola_de_Palacio \"Loyola de Palacio\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | European Commissioner for Interinstitutional Relations and Administration, Transport and Energy (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Margot Wallström](/wiki/Margot_Wallstr%C3%B6m \"Margot Wallström\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Institutional Relations and Communication Strategy (First Vice\\-President) |\n| | [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas \"Siim Kallas\") | {{Flagu\\|Estonia}} | 2004–2009 | Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud |\n| | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Interinstitutional Relations and Administration (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Frans Timmermans](/wiki/Frans_Timmermans \"Frans Timmermans\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Better Regulation, Interinstitutional Relations, Rule of Law and Charter of Fundamental Rights (First Vice\\-President) |\n| | [Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovakia}} | 2019–present | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight (vice\\-president) |\n|",
"### Justice and Gender Equality",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship}}\nThe Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship was created in 2010 by dividing the previous Justice, Freedom and Security portfolio into a security orientated post and a justice and fundamental rights orientated post. The portfolio was then renamed into Justice, Consumers and Gender Equality under the [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\").",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin \"Anita Gradin\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Immigration, Justice \\& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |\n| | [António Vitorino](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Vitorino \"António Vitorino\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Justice and Home Affairs |\n| | [Franco Frattini](/wiki/Franco_Frattini \"Franco Frattini\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Justice, Freedom and Security (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot \"Jacques Barrot\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2008–2009 |\n| | [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding \"Viviane Reding\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Frans Timmermans](/wiki/Frans_Timmermans \"Frans Timmermans\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 2014–present | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Better Regulation, Inter\\-Institutional Relations, Rule of Law and Charter of Fundamental Rights (First Vice\\-President) |\n| | [Věra Jourová](/wiki/V%C4%9Bra_Jourov%C3%A1 \"Věra Jourová\") | {{Flagu\\|Czech Republic}} | 2014 onwards | Justice and Consumers |\n| *nominated* | *[Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\")* | *Values and Transparency (Vice\\-President)* |\n| | *[Didier Reynders](/wiki/Didier_Reynders \"Didier Reynders\")* | *{{Flagu\\|Belgium}}* | *nominated* | *Justice* |\n| | *[Helena Dalli](/wiki/Helena_Dalli \"Helena Dalli\")* | *{{Flagu\\|Malta}}* | *nominated* | *Equality* |",
"### Maritime Affairs and Fisheries",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries}}\nThe Maritime affairs and Fisheries Commissioner is responsible for policies such as the [Common Fisheries Policy](/wiki/Common_Fisheries_Policy \"Common Fisheries Policy\"), which is largely a competence of the EU rather than the members. The Union has 66,000 km of [coastline](/wiki/Coastline \"Coastline\")[European Union](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/european-union/) CIA World Factbook and the largest [Exclusive Economic Zone](/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone \"Exclusive Economic Zone\") in the world, covering 25 million km2.[EU Glossary](http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/outermost_regions_en.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909000258/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/outermost\\_regions\\_en.htm \\|date\\= 9 September 2010 }} Europa (web portal)",
"On 7 June 2006 the Commission published a [green paper](/wiki/Green_paper \"Green paper\") for a Maritime Policy and [consultation](/wiki/Public_consultation \"Public consultation\") will end in June 2007\\.[Consultation on Maritime Policy](http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy_en.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519191342/http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy\\_en.html \\|date\\=19 May 2007 }} European Commission The document addresses a number of issues such as sustainable development, protection of the environment, skills and employment, technology and resources, coastal safety and tourism, financial support and heritage.[Green paper](http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/pdf/com_2006_0275_en_part2.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070325213544/http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/pdf/com\\_2006\\_0275\\_en\\_part2\\.pdf \\|date\\=25 March 2007 }} European Commission The Commission came under fire in May 2007 for not penalise French fishermen after [over\\-fishing](/wiki/Over-fishing \"Over-fishing\") the threatened [bluefin tuna](/wiki/Atlantic_bluefin_tuna \"Atlantic bluefin tuna\") by 65% while backing penalties on Irish fishermen for over\\-fishing [mackerel](/wiki/Mackerel \"Mackerel\").[Fishermen citicise EU over\\-fishing decision](http://www.rte.ie/news/2007/0502/fishing.html?rss). Raidió Teilifís Éireann.",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Finn Olav Gundelach](/wiki/Finn_Olav_Gundelach \"Finn Olav Gundelach\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Agriculture\\-Fisheries (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Giorgos Kontogeorgis](/wiki/Giorgos_Kontogeorgis \"Giorgos Kontogeorgis\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Transport, Fisheries and Tourism |\n| | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen \"Frans Andriessen\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | [Agriculture](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Agriculture_%26_Rural_Development \"European Commissioner for Agriculture & Rural Development\") and [fisheries](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Fisheries_%26_Maritime_Affairs \"European Commissioner for Fisheries & Maritime Affairs\") (vice\\-president) |\n| | [António Cardoso e Cunha](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Cardoso_e_Cunha \"António Cardoso e Cunha\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1986–1989 | [Fisheries](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Fisheries_%26_Maritime_Affairs \"European Commissioner for Fisheries & Maritime Affairs\") |\n| | [Manuel Marin](/wiki/Manuel_Marin \"Manuel Marin\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Cooperation, development and fisheries (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Ioannis Paleokrassas](/wiki/Ioannis_Paleokrassas \"Ioannis Paleokrassas\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Environment, fisheries |\n| | [Franz Fischler](/wiki/Franz_Fischler \"Franz Fischler\") | {{Flagu\\|Austria}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Agriculture and Fisheries |\n| | [Sandra Kalniete](/wiki/Sandra_Kalniete \"Sandra Kalniete\") | {{Flagu\\|Latvia}} | 2004 |\n| | [Joe Borg](/wiki/Joe_Borg \"Joe Borg\") | {{Flagu\\|Malta}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Fisheries and Maritime Affairs |\n| | [Maria Damanaki](/wiki/Maria_Damanaki \"Maria Damanaki\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Maritime Affairs and Fisheries |\n| | [Karmenu Vella](/wiki/Karmenu_Vella \"Karmenu Vella\") | {{Flagu\\|Malta}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries |\n| | [Virginijus Sinkevičius](/wiki/Virginijus_Sinkevi%C4%8Dius \"Virginijus Sinkevičius\") | {{Flagu\\|Lithuania}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Environment, Oceans and Fisheries |",
"### Regional Policy and Cohesion",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Regional Policy}}\nThe Regional Policy Commissioner, occasional Regional Affairs Commissioner, is responsible for managing the [regional policy](/wiki/European_Union_Regional_policy \"European Union Regional policy\") of the EU which takes up a third of the [EU's budget](/wiki/European_Union_Budget \"European Union Budget\"); it includes the [European Regional Development Fund](/wiki/European_Regional_Development_Fund \"European Regional Development Fund\"), [Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds](/wiki/Structural_Funds_and_Cohesion_Funds \"Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds\"), [Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre\\-Accession](/wiki/Instrument_for_Structural_Policies_for_Pre-Accession \"Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-Accession\") and the [European Social Fund](/wiki/European_Social_Fund \"European Social Fund\"). The related DG is [Directorate\\-General for Regional Policy](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Regional_Policy_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Regional Policy (European Commission)\").",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Hans von der Groeben](/wiki/Hans_von_der_Groeben \"Hans von der Groeben\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | |\n| | [Albert Borschette](/wiki/Albert_Borschette \"Albert Borschette\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1970–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | |\n| | [George Thomson](/wiki/George_Thomson%2C_Baron_Thomson_of_Monifieth \"George Thomson, Baron Thomson of Monifieth\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | |\n| | [Antonio Giolitti](/wiki/Antonio_Giolitti \"Antonio Giolitti\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1977–1985 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\"), [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Regional Policy |\n| | [Grigoris Varfis](/wiki/Grigoris_Varfis \"Grigoris Varfis\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Relations with the European Parliament, regional policy and consumer protection |\n| | [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen \"Henning Christophersen\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Budget, financial control, personnel and administration (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Bruce Millan](/wiki/Bruce_Millan \"Bruce Millan\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Regional Policy |\n| 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Regional Policy and Cohesion |\n| | [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber \"Peter Schmidhuber\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | Budget, financial control and the cohesion fund |\n| | [Monika Wulf\\-Mathies](/wiki/Monika_Wulf-Mathies \"Monika Wulf-Mathies\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Regional Policy |\n| | [Michel Barnier](/wiki/Michel_Barnier \"Michel Barnier\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") |\n| | [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot \"Jacques Barrot\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2004 |\n| | [Péter Balázs](/wiki/P%C3%A9ter_Bal%C3%A1zs \"Péter Balázs\") | {{Flagu\\|Hungary}} | 2004 |\n| | [Danuta Hübner](/wiki/Danuta_H%C3%BCbner \"Danuta Hübner\") | {{Flagu\\|Poland}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I |\n| | [Paweł Samecki](/wiki/Pawe%C5%82_Samecki \"Paweł Samecki\") | {{Flagu\\|Poland}} | 2009–2010 |\n| | [Johannes Hahn](/wiki/Johannes_Hahn \"Johannes Hahn\") | {{Flagu\\|Austria}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II |\n| | [Corina Crețu](/wiki/Corina_Cre%C8%9Bu \"Corina Crețu\") | {{Flagu\\|Romania}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") |\n| | [Elisa Ferreira](/wiki/Elisa_Ferreira \"Elisa Ferreira\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Cohesion and Reforms |",
"### Research, Innovation and Science",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Research, Innovation and Science}}\nThe name has had several variations: under the first Barroso Commission it was Science and Research, under Prodi it was simply \"Research\", Santer was \"Research, Science and Technology\" and under Delors it was combined with others as \"Industry, information technology and science and research\" and other various names and combinations prior. The related DG is the [Directorate\\-General for Research](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Research_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Research (European Commission)\").",
"The 2004–2010 Commissioner, Potočnik, aimed to create a [European Research Area](/wiki/European_Research_Area \"European Research Area\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.itpro.co.uk/news/109975/building\\-an\\-information\\-society\\-on\\-par\\-with\\-postwar\\-reconstruction\\-says\\-eu.html \\|title\\=Building an information society on par with post\\-war reconstruction, says EU \\|publisher\\=IT PRO \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-12 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927191211/http://www.itpro.co.uk/news/109975/building\\-an\\-information\\-society\\-on\\-par\\-with\\-postwar\\-reconstruction\\-says\\-eu.html \\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2007 }}",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Fritz Hellwig](/wiki/Fritz_Hellwig \"Fritz Hellwig\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | |\n| | [Ralf Dahrendorf](/wiki/Ralf_Dahrendorf \"Ralf Dahrendorf\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | |\n| | [Guido Brunner](/wiki/Guido_Brunner \"Guido Brunner\") | {{flagu\\|West Germany}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Energy, Research, Science |\n| | [Étienne Davignon](/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Davignon \"Étienne Davignon\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Industrial Affairs, Energy, Research and Science (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Karl\\-Heinz Narjes](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Narjes \"Karl-Heinz Narjes\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Industry, information technology and science and research (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Filippo Maria Pandolfi](/wiki/Filippo_Maria_Pandolfi \"Filippo Maria Pandolfi\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1989–1993 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Science, research, development, telecommunications and innovation |\n| | [Antonio Ruberti](/wiki/Antonio_Ruberti \"Antonio Ruberti\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1993–1995 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Science, research, technological development and education (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Édith Cresson](/wiki/%C3%89dith_Cresson \"Édith Cresson\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Research, Science and Technology |\n| | [Philippe Busquin](/wiki/Philippe_Busquin \"Philippe Busquin\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Research |\n| | [Louis Michel](/wiki/Louis_Michel \"Louis Michel\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 2004 |\n| | [Janez Potočnik](/wiki/Janez_Poto%C4%8Dnik \"Janez Potočnik\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovenia}} | 2004–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Science and Research |\n| | [Máire Geoghegan\\-Quinn](/wiki/M%C3%A1ire_Geoghegan-Quinn \"Máire Geoghegan-Quinn\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Research, Innovation and Science |\n| | [Carlos Moedas](/wiki/Carlos_Moedas \"Carlos Moedas\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Research, Science and Innovation |\n| | *[Mariya Gabriel](/wiki/Mariya_Gabriel \"Mariya Gabriel\")* | *{{Flagu\\|Bulgaria}}* | *nominated* | *[Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\")* | *Innovation and Youth* |\n| | *[Maroš Šefčovič](/wiki/Maro%C5%A1_%C5%A0ef%C4%8Dovi%C4%8D \"Maroš Šefčovič\")* | *{{Flagu\\|Slovakia}}* | *nominated* | *Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight (Vice\\-President)* |",
"### Defence Union",
"The Commissioner for Security Union was created in 2016\\.",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Franco Frattini](/wiki/Franco_Frattini \"Franco Frattini\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Justice, Freedom and Security (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot \"Jacques Barrot\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2008–2009 |\n| | [Julian King](/wiki/Julian_King_%28diplomat%29 \"Julian King (diplomat)\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 2016–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Security Union |\n| | [Margaritis Schinas](/wiki/Margaritis_Schinas \"Margaritis Schinas\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Protecting our European Way of Life (vice\\-president) |",
"### Statistics, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud",
"{{main\\|European Commissioner for Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud}}\nThe Commissioner for Taxation, Customs, Statistics, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud is responsible for the [EU's customs union](/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union \"European Union Customs Union\") and [taxation](/wiki/Taxation \"Taxation\") policy. The European Union has had a customs union since the creation of the [European Economic Community](/wiki/European_Economic_Community \"European Economic Community\") and that union [extends to the non\\-EU members](/wiki/Third_country_economic_relationships_with_the_European_Union%23Customs_unions \"Third country economic relationships with the European Union#Customs unions\") of the [European Economic Area](/wiki/European_Economic_Area \"European Economic Area\") and to [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"), [Andorra](/wiki/Andorra \"Andorra\") and [San Marino](/wiki/San_Marino \"San Marino\"). Since 2010 it gained responsibility for audit (budgetary discharge, internal [audit](/wiki/Audit \"Audit\"), counter [fraud](/wiki/Fraud \"Fraud\")): in particular the [Internal Audit Service](/wiki/Internal_Audit_Service_%28European_Commission%29 \"Internal Audit Service (European Commission)\") and the [European Anti\\-fraud Office](/wiki/OLAF \"OLAF\").",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin \"Anita Gradin\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Immigration, Justice \\& Home Affairs, Financial Control, Anti\\-fraud and Relations with the European Ombudsman. |\n| | [Frits Bolkestein](/wiki/Frits_Bolkestein \"Frits Bolkestein\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Internal Market |\n| | [Neil Kinnock](/wiki/Neil_Kinnock \"Neil Kinnock\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1999–2004 | Administrative reform |\n| | [László Kovács](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Kov%C3%A1cs_%28politician%29 \"László Kovács (politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Hungary}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Taxation and Customs Union |\n| | [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas \"Siim Kallas\") | {{Flagu\\|Estonia}} | 2004–2010 | Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud |\n| | [Algirdas Šemeta](/wiki/Algirdas_%C5%A0emeta \"Algirdas Šemeta\") | {{Flagu\\|Lithuania}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II | Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud |\n| | [Pierre Moscovici](/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici \"Pierre Moscovici\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Economic and Financial Affairs, Taxation and Customs |\n| | [Paolo Gentiloni](/wiki/Paolo_Gentiloni \"Paolo Gentiloni\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") | Economy |\n| | *[Didier Reynders](/wiki/Didier_Reynders \"Didier Reynders\")* | *{{Flagu\\|Belgium}}* | *nominated* | *Justice* |",
"### Trade",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Trade}}\nThe Commissioner for Trade is responsible for the EU's external trade policy. Due to the size of the [European economy](/wiki/Economy_of_the_European_Union \"Economy of the European Union\"), being the world's largest market and having a huge slice of world trade, this position can be very important in dealing with other world economic powers such as China or the United States. Former Commissioner [Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan%2C_Baron_Brittan_of_Spennithorne \"Leon Brittan, Baron Brittan of Spennithorne\") commented that \"Frankly, it is more important than most \\[national] cabinet jobs\".[The New Commission – Some initial thoughts](http://www.bmbrussels.be/box_bmnewcomm.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923001700/http://www.bmbrussels.be/box\\_bmnewcomm.php \\|date\\=23 September 2006 }} BM Brussels The Commissioner leads Europe in organisations such as the [World Trade Organization](/wiki/World_Trade_Organization \"World Trade Organization\") (WTO). Concluding WTO talks after the collapse of the [Doha Development Round](/wiki/Doha_Development_Round \"Doha Development Round\") has been a contentious point, with the EU not willing to cut [agricultural subsidies](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy \"Common Agricultural Policy\") without similar action by the United States. The related DG is [Directorate\\-General for Trade](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Trade_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Trade (European Commission)\").",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Willy De Clercq](/wiki/Willy_De_Clercq \"Willy De Clercq\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | External relations and trade policy |\n| | [Frans Andriessen](/wiki/Frans_Andriessen \"Frans Andriessen\") | {{Flagu\\|Netherlands}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | External relations and trade policy (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Leon Brittan](/wiki/Leon_Brittan \"Leon Brittan\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1992–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | External economic affairs and trade policy (vice\\-president) |\n| 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Commercial Policy and External Relations (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Pascal Lamy](/wiki/Pascal_Lamy \"Pascal Lamy\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Trade |\n| | [Danuta Hübner](/wiki/Danuta_H%C3%BCbner \"Danuta Hübner\") | {{Flagu\\|Poland}} | 2004 |\n| | [Peter Mandelson](/wiki/Peter_Mandelson \"Peter Mandelson\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I |\n| | [Catherine Ashton](/wiki/Catherine_Ashton%2C_Baroness_Ashton_of_Upholland \"Catherine Ashton, Baroness Ashton of Upholland\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 2008–2010 |\n| | [Karel De Gucht](/wiki/Karel_De_Gucht \"Karel De Gucht\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II |\n| | [Cecilia Malmström](/wiki/Cecilia_Malmstr%C3%B6m \"Cecilia Malmström\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") |\n| | [Phil Hogan](/wiki/Phil_Hogan \"Phil Hogan\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 2019–2020 | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") |\n| | [Valdis Dombrovskis](/wiki/Valdis_Dombrovskis \"Valdis Dombrovskis\") | {{Flagu\\|Latvia}} | 2020 Onwards |",
"### Transport",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for Transport}}\nThe portfolio is responsible for the development of transport infrastructure in the EU such as [road and rail networks](/wiki/Trans-European_transport_networks \"Trans-European transport networks\") but also navigation systems such as the [Galileo positioning system](/wiki/Galileo_positioning_system \"Galileo positioning system\").",
"",
"| | Name | Country | Period | Commission | Portoflio actual name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Michel Rasquin](/wiki/Michel_Rasquin \"Michel Rasquin\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1958 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") | |\n| | [Lambert Schaus](/wiki/Lambert_Schaus \"Lambert Schaus\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1958–1967 | [Hallstein Commission](/wiki/Hallstein_Commission \"Hallstein Commission\") | |\n| | [Victor Bodson](/wiki/Victor_Bodson \"Victor Bodson\") | {{Flagu\\|Luxembourg}} | 1967–1970 | [Rey Commission](/wiki/Rey_Commission \"Rey Commission\") | |\n| | [Albert Coppé](/wiki/Albert_Copp%C3%A9 \"Albert Coppé\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1970–1973 | [Malfatti Commission](/wiki/Malfatti_Commission \"Malfatti Commission\"), [Mansholt Commission](/wiki/Mansholt_Commission \"Mansholt Commission\") | |\n| | [Carlo Scarascia\\-Mugnozza](/wiki/Carlo_Scarascia-Mugnozza \"Carlo Scarascia-Mugnozza\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 1973–1977 | [Ortoli Commission](/wiki/Ortoli_Commission \"Ortoli Commission\") | |\n| | [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 \"Richard Burke (Irish politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1977–1981 | [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") | Taxation, Consumer Affairs, Transport |\n| | [Giorgos Kontogeorgis](/wiki/Giorgos_Kontogeorgis \"Giorgos Kontogeorgis\") | {{Flagu\\|Greece}} | 1981–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") | Transport, Fisheries and Tourism |\n| | [Stanley Clinton Davis](/wiki/Stanley_Clinton_Davis \"Stanley Clinton Davis\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1985–1989 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") I | Environment, Consumer Protection and Transport |\n| | [Karel Van Miert](/wiki/Karel_Van_Miert \"Karel Van Miert\") | {{Flagu\\|Belgium}} | 1989–1992 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") II | Transport and Consumer Protection |\n| | [Abel Matutes](/wiki/Abel_Matutes \"Abel Matutes\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1993–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") III | Transport and Energy |\n| | [Marcelino Oreja](/wiki/Marcelino_Oreja_Aguirre \"Marcelino Oreja Aguirre\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1994–1995 |\n| | [Neil Kinnock](/wiki/Neil_Kinnock \"Neil Kinnock\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") | Transport, including TEN |\n| | [Loyola de Palacio](/wiki/Loyola_de_Palacio \"Loyola de Palacio\") | {{Flagu\\|Spain}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") | Inter\\-Institutional Relations and Administration, Transport and Energy (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot \"Jacques Barrot\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") I | Transport |\n| | [Antonio Tajani](/wiki/Antonio_Tajani \"Antonio Tajani\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2008–2010 | Transport (vice\\-president) |\n| | [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas \"Siim Kallas\") | {{Flagu\\|Estonia}} | 2010–2014 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") II |\n| | [Violeta Bulc](/wiki/Violeta_Bulc \"Violeta Bulc\") | {{Flagu\\|Slovenia}} | 2014–2019 | [Juncker Commission](/wiki/Juncker_Commission \"Juncker Commission\") | Transport |\n| | [Adina Ioana Vălean](/wiki/Adina_Ioana_V%C4%83lean \"Adina Ioana Vălean\") | {{Flagu\\|Romania}} | 2019 Onwards | [Von der Leyen Commission](/wiki/Von_der_Leyen_Commission \"Von der Leyen Commission\") |",
""
] |
Historical portfolios
---------------------
Many portfolios have been combined and split under different president's, below is a few of the previous posts that have since been abolished.
### Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti\-Fraud
The Commissioner for Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti\-Fraud was in the first Barroso Commission and was responsible for the commission's internal administration and anti\-fraud efforts.
Its administrative duties included management of some of the commission's [Internal Services](/wiki/Internal_Services_in_the_European_Commission "Internal Services in the European Commission"); in particular consolidation of administrative reform, [personnel](/wiki/Human_resources "Human resources") and administration, [European Schools](/wiki/European_Schools "European Schools") and security. The Commissioner is also responsible for the following departments; the [Directorate\-General for Personnel and Administration](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Personnel_and_Administration "Directorate-General for Personnel and Administration"), the [Office for the Administration and Payment of Individual Entitlement](/wiki/Office_for_the_Administration_and_Payment_of_Individual_Entitlement_%28European_Commission%29 "Office for the Administration and Payment of Individual Entitlement (European Commission)"), the [Directorate\-General for Informatics](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Informatics_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Informatics (European Commission)"), the [Office of Infrastructure and Logistics](/wiki/Office_of_Infrastructure_and_Logistics_%28European_Commission%29 "Office of Infrastructure and Logistics (European Commission)"), and relations with the [European Personnel Selection Office](/wiki/European_Personnel_Selection_Office "European Personnel Selection Office"). Its other responsibilities were for audit (budgetary discharge, internal [audit](/wiki/Audit "Audit"), counter fraud): in particular the [Internal Audit Service](/wiki/Internal_Audit_Service_%28European_Commission%29 "Internal Audit Service (European Commission)") and the [European Anti\-fraud Office](/wiki/OLAF "OLAF").
| Name | Country | Period | Commission |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Michael O'Kennedy](/wiki/Michael_O%27Kennedy "Michael O'Kennedy") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1981–1982 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") |
| [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 "Richard Burke (Irish politician)") | {{Flagu\|Ireland}} | 1982–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") |
| [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen "Henning Christophersen") | {{Flagu\|Denmark}} | 1985–1988 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") |
| [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber "Peter Schmidhuber") | {{Flagu\|Germany}} | 1988–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission "Delors Commission") |
| [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen "Erkki Liikanen") | {{Flagu\|Finland}} | 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") |
| [Neil Kinnock](/wiki/Neil_Kinnock "Neil Kinnock") | {{Flagu\|United Kingdom}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") (*Audit*) |
| [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas "Siim Kallas") | {{Flagu\|Estonia}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") |
### Administrative Reform
A position created for the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") in the wake of the [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") corruption scandal.
### Agriculture and Fisheries
This position used deal with the [Common Agricultural Policy](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy "Common Agricultural Policy") (CAP) and the [Common Fisheries Policy](/wiki/Common_Fisheries_Policy "Common Fisheries Policy") (CFP). It existed when the CFP was created in the [Jenkins](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") until the [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission "Thorn Commission") when it was split into Agriculture and Rural Affairs and Fisheries and Maritime Affairs.
### Communication strategy
The Communication strategy portfolio in the first [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") existed between 2004 and 2010 combined with Institutional Relations. Under the second Barroso Commission this was dropped as it had no powers and was open to allegations of propaganda.
### Consumer Protection
The Commissioner for Consumer Protection was responsible for [protecting the rights of consumers vs corporations](/wiki/Consumer_protection "Consumer protection") between 2007 and 2010\. The only Commissioner was [Meglena Kuneva](/wiki/Meglena_Kuneva "Meglena Kuneva") ([ALDE](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_%28European_Parliament_group%29 "Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (European Parliament group)")).
This specific portfolio was created in 2007, separated from the Health portfolio. However, it first appeared in the [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 "Jenkins Commission (EU)") as "Consumer Affairs" though the Barroso Commission was the first time it has been an independent portfolio. The independent portfolio was created when Bulgaria and Romania joined the European Union on 1 January 2007\. It used to be part of the Health and Consumer Protection portfolio which was held by [Markos Kyprianou](/wiki/Markos_Kyprianou "Markos Kyprianou"). Unlike the [Multilingualism portfolio](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Multilingualism "European Commissioner for Multilingualism") that was created for [Leonard Orban](/wiki/Leonard_Orban "Leonard Orban"), this post was welcomed due to the large size of the combined portfolio. The [Directorate\-General](/wiki/Directorate-General "Directorate-General") is [still merged with that office](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Health_and_Consumer_Protection_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Health and Consumer Protection (European Commission)"). In 2010 it was recombined with Health in the second Barroso Commission.
### External Relations
{{Main\|European Commissioner for External Relations}}
The Commissioner for External Relations, known as the Commissioner for External Relations and the [European Neighbourhood Policy](/wiki/European_Neighbourhood_Policy "European Neighbourhood Policy") at its demise dealt with general foreign relations and representation of the Commission abroad. It occasionally took on related responsibilities such as enlargement or neighbourhood policy, though most of the time other separate external relations portfolios existed such as development or trade. Early on external relations were split according to geography between various Commissioners. On 1 December 2009 its responsibilities were merged into the [High Representative](/wiki/High_Representative "High Representative").
### Energy, Euratom Supply Agency, SMEs and Tourism
An expanded version of the Energy portfolio in the [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission"), including parts of Industry (SMEs) and Tourism which has only appeared under Santer.
### Health
The Commissioner for Health existed between 2007 and 2010 when it was split off from Consumer Protection for the new Bulgarian Commissioner. It was recombined under the succeeding Commission in 2010\.
### Justice, Freedom and Security
The Justice, Freedom and Security portfolio was roughly on the former third [pillar](/wiki/Three_pillars_of_the_European_Union "Three pillars of the European Union"): [Police and Judicial Co\-operation in Criminal Matters](/wiki/Police_and_Judicial_Co-operation_in_Criminal_Matters "Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters"). The position covers such matters as [judicial](/wiki/Judicial "Judicial") matters, human rights, [equality](/wiki/Equality_before_the_law "Equality before the law") laws, immigration control, policing and [citizenship](/wiki/Citizenship "Citizenship") (see *[Area of freedom, security and justice](/wiki/Area_of_freedom%2C_security_and_justice "Area of freedom, security and justice")*). The relevant DG was [Directorate\-General for Justice, Freedom and Security](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Justice%2C_Freedom_and_Security_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Justice, Freedom and Security (European Commission)").
As a concession to the [liberals](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_%28European_Parliament_group%29 "Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (European Parliament group)"), Barroso split the post in 2010 into the [Commissioner for Home Affairs](/wiki/%23Home_Affairs "#Home Affairs") (the security aspect) and the [Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Justice%2C_Fundamental_Rights_and_Citizenship "European Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship") (the human rights aspect).
Previous commissioners:
| Name | Country | Period | Commission |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin "Anita Gradin") | {{Flagu\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission "Santer Commission") |
| [António Vitorino](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Vitorino "António Vitorino") | {{Flagu\|Portugal}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission "Prodi Commission") |
| [Franco Frattini](/wiki/Franco_Frattini "Franco Frattini") | {{Flagu\|Italy}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") |
| [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot "Jacques Barrot") | {{Flagu\|France}} | 2008–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission") |
### Multilingualism
The Commissioner for Multilingualism was responsible for [language policy of the European Union](/wiki/Languages_of_the_European_Union "Languages of the European Union"), i.e., promoting [multilingualism](/wiki/Multilingualism "Multilingualism") for the citizens and the institutions of the EU. It was created on 1 January 2007 during the [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission "Barroso Commission"). The only commissioner is [Leonard Orban](/wiki/Leonard_Orban "Leonard Orban") (2007–2010\). The post was created on 1 January 2007, in the enlarged Barroso Commission after the [accession of Bulgaria and Romania](/wiki/2007_enlargement_of_the_European_Union "2007 enlargement of the European Union") to the EU. Multilingualism had been a responsibility of the [European Commissioner for Education, Training, Culture and Multilingualism](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Education%2C_Training%2C_Culture_and_Multilingualism "European Commissioner for Education, Training, Culture and Multilingualism") (held by [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE "Ján Figeľ") between 2004 and 2007\). Under the second Barroso Commission, the post was re\-merged into the education and culture portfolio (held by [Androulla Vassiliou](/wiki/Androulla_Vassiliou "Androulla Vassiliou")).
The new portfolio was criticised for vagueness and ambiguity, it has been claimed that the post overlaps with responsibilities of other Commissioners. The [Conference of Presidents](/wiki/Conference_of_Presidents_of_the_European_Parliament "Conference of Presidents of the European Parliament") of the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") has asked the current president of the Commission [José Manuel Barroso](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Barroso "José Manuel Barroso") to clarify the mandate of Commissioner for Multilingualism{{cite web\|url\=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/hearings/commission/2006\_enlarg/press/conf\_presidents\_en.pdf\|title\=Conference of Presidents gives positive assessment of hearings and seeks clarification of Mr Orban's portfolio\|website\=europarl.europa.eu}} and of other members of the commission with regards to the "intercultural dialogue".
European Parliament [Socialist Group](/wiki/Party_of_European_Socialists "Party of European Socialists") (PES) leader [Martin Schulz](/wiki/Martin_Schulz "Martin Schulz") suggested a portfolio for the protection of [ethnic minorities](/wiki/Ethnic_minorities "Ethnic minorities") instead. His party suggested the introduction of the protection of the [Roma](/wiki/Romani_people "Romani people") minority.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.euractiv.com/en/enlargement/socialists\-criticise\-new\-commissioner\-portfolio/article\-159715 \|title\=Socialists criticise new commissioner's portfolio \|publisher\=EurActiv \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-27}} Barroso turned down the PES proposal and defended the post. He stated that Commissioner for Education, Training and Culture Ján Figeľ "will remain responsible for the management of actions to directly promote the inter\-cultural dialogue".{{Cite web\|url\=http://euobserver.com/9/23046\|title \= MEPs back Romanian commissioner despite 'indecent' job task\| date\=6 December 2006 }}
Politically, the portfolio was mainly focused on promoting [foreign languages learning](/wiki/Language_learning "Language learning") as means for [worker's mobility](/wiki/Labour_mobility "Labour mobility") and business [competitiveness](/wiki/Competition_%28companies%29 "Competition (companies)") rather than emphasizing [language rights](/wiki/Language_rights "Language rights") of speakers of [regional](/wiki/Regional_language "Regional language"), [minority](/wiki/Minority_language "Minority language"), lesser\-used and migrant languages. Commissioner for Multilingualism is also responsible, alongside the [President of the Commission](/wiki/President_of_the_European_Commission "President of the European Commission"), [Barroso](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Barroso "José Manuel Barroso"), and the [European Commissioner for Education, Training and Culture](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Education%2C_Training_and_Culture "European Commissioner for Education, Training and Culture"), [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE "Ján Figeľ") to work on "intercultural dialogue", including the 2008 [European Year of Intercultural Dialogue](/wiki/European_Year_of_Intercultural_Dialogue "European Year of Intercultural Dialogue").
Administratively, Commissioner for Multilingualism was in charge of the [Directorate\-General for Translation](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Translation_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Translation (European Commission)"), the [DG for Interpretation](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Interpretation_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Interpretation (European Commission)") and the [Office for Official Publications of the European Communities](/wiki/Publications_Office_%28European_Union%29 "Publications Office (European Union)"), as well as for the Multilingualism policy unit (EAC\-C\-5\) in the [DG for Education and Culture](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Education_and_Culture_%28European_Commission%29 "Directorate-General for Education and Culture (European Commission)"), with 3,400 staff in total – about 15 per cent of the Brussels executive's workforce\- and with about 1 percent of the [EU budget](/wiki/Budget_of_the_European_Union "Budget of the European Union").
|
[
"Historical portfolios\n---------------------",
"Many portfolios have been combined and split under different president's, below is a few of the previous posts that have since been abolished.",
"### Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud",
"The Commissioner for Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti\\-Fraud was in the first Barroso Commission and was responsible for the commission's internal administration and anti\\-fraud efforts.",
"Its administrative duties included management of some of the commission's [Internal Services](/wiki/Internal_Services_in_the_European_Commission \"Internal Services in the European Commission\"); in particular consolidation of administrative reform, [personnel](/wiki/Human_resources \"Human resources\") and administration, [European Schools](/wiki/European_Schools \"European Schools\") and security. The Commissioner is also responsible for the following departments; the [Directorate\\-General for Personnel and Administration](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Personnel_and_Administration \"Directorate-General for Personnel and Administration\"), the [Office for the Administration and Payment of Individual Entitlement](/wiki/Office_for_the_Administration_and_Payment_of_Individual_Entitlement_%28European_Commission%29 \"Office for the Administration and Payment of Individual Entitlement (European Commission)\"), the [Directorate\\-General for Informatics](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Informatics_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Informatics (European Commission)\"), the [Office of Infrastructure and Logistics](/wiki/Office_of_Infrastructure_and_Logistics_%28European_Commission%29 \"Office of Infrastructure and Logistics (European Commission)\"), and relations with the [European Personnel Selection Office](/wiki/European_Personnel_Selection_Office \"European Personnel Selection Office\"). Its other responsibilities were for audit (budgetary discharge, internal [audit](/wiki/Audit \"Audit\"), counter fraud): in particular the [Internal Audit Service](/wiki/Internal_Audit_Service_%28European_Commission%29 \"Internal Audit Service (European Commission)\") and the [European Anti\\-fraud Office](/wiki/OLAF \"OLAF\").",
"",
"| Name | Country | Period | Commission |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Michael O'Kennedy](/wiki/Michael_O%27Kennedy \"Michael O'Kennedy\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1981–1982 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") |\n| [Richard Burke](/wiki/Richard_Burke_%28Irish_politician%29 \"Richard Burke (Irish politician)\") | {{Flagu\\|Ireland}} | 1982–1985 | [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") |\n| [Henning Christophersen](/wiki/Henning_Christophersen \"Henning Christophersen\") | {{Flagu\\|Denmark}} | 1985–1988 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") |\n| [Peter Schmidhuber](/wiki/Peter_Schmidhuber \"Peter Schmidhuber\") | {{Flagu\\|Germany}} | 1988–1994 | [Delors Commission](/wiki/Delors_Commission \"Delors Commission\") |\n| [Erkki Liikanen](/wiki/Erkki_Liikanen \"Erkki Liikanen\") | {{Flagu\\|Finland}} | 1994–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") |\n| [Neil Kinnock](/wiki/Neil_Kinnock \"Neil Kinnock\") | {{Flagu\\|United Kingdom}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") (*Audit*) |\n| [Siim Kallas](/wiki/Siim_Kallas \"Siim Kallas\") | {{Flagu\\|Estonia}} | 2004–2009 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") |",
"### Administrative Reform",
"A position created for the [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") in the wake of the [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") corruption scandal.",
"### Agriculture and Fisheries",
"This position used deal with the [Common Agricultural Policy](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy \"Common Agricultural Policy\") (CAP) and the [Common Fisheries Policy](/wiki/Common_Fisheries_Policy \"Common Fisheries Policy\") (CFP). It existed when the CFP was created in the [Jenkins](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") until the [Thorn Commission](/wiki/Thorn_Commission \"Thorn Commission\") when it was split into Agriculture and Rural Affairs and Fisheries and Maritime Affairs.",
"### Communication strategy",
"The Communication strategy portfolio in the first [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") existed between 2004 and 2010 combined with Institutional Relations. Under the second Barroso Commission this was dropped as it had no powers and was open to allegations of propaganda.",
"### Consumer Protection",
"The Commissioner for Consumer Protection was responsible for [protecting the rights of consumers vs corporations](/wiki/Consumer_protection \"Consumer protection\") between 2007 and 2010\\. The only Commissioner was [Meglena Kuneva](/wiki/Meglena_Kuneva \"Meglena Kuneva\") ([ALDE](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_%28European_Parliament_group%29 \"Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (European Parliament group)\")).",
"This specific portfolio was created in 2007, separated from the Health portfolio. However, it first appeared in the [Jenkins Commission](/wiki/Jenkins_Commission_%28EU%29 \"Jenkins Commission (EU)\") as \"Consumer Affairs\" though the Barroso Commission was the first time it has been an independent portfolio. The independent portfolio was created when Bulgaria and Romania joined the European Union on 1 January 2007\\. It used to be part of the Health and Consumer Protection portfolio which was held by [Markos Kyprianou](/wiki/Markos_Kyprianou \"Markos Kyprianou\"). Unlike the [Multilingualism portfolio](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Multilingualism \"European Commissioner for Multilingualism\") that was created for [Leonard Orban](/wiki/Leonard_Orban \"Leonard Orban\"), this post was welcomed due to the large size of the combined portfolio. The [Directorate\\-General](/wiki/Directorate-General \"Directorate-General\") is [still merged with that office](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Health_and_Consumer_Protection_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Health and Consumer Protection (European Commission)\"). In 2010 it was recombined with Health in the second Barroso Commission.",
"### External Relations",
"{{Main\\|European Commissioner for External Relations}}\nThe Commissioner for External Relations, known as the Commissioner for External Relations and the [European Neighbourhood Policy](/wiki/European_Neighbourhood_Policy \"European Neighbourhood Policy\") at its demise dealt with general foreign relations and representation of the Commission abroad. It occasionally took on related responsibilities such as enlargement or neighbourhood policy, though most of the time other separate external relations portfolios existed such as development or trade. Early on external relations were split according to geography between various Commissioners. On 1 December 2009 its responsibilities were merged into the [High Representative](/wiki/High_Representative \"High Representative\").",
"### Energy, Euratom Supply Agency, SMEs and Tourism",
"An expanded version of the Energy portfolio in the [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\"), including parts of Industry (SMEs) and Tourism which has only appeared under Santer.",
"### Health",
"The Commissioner for Health existed between 2007 and 2010 when it was split off from Consumer Protection for the new Bulgarian Commissioner. It was recombined under the succeeding Commission in 2010\\.",
"### Justice, Freedom and Security",
"The Justice, Freedom and Security portfolio was roughly on the former third [pillar](/wiki/Three_pillars_of_the_European_Union \"Three pillars of the European Union\"): [Police and Judicial Co\\-operation in Criminal Matters](/wiki/Police_and_Judicial_Co-operation_in_Criminal_Matters \"Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters\"). The position covers such matters as [judicial](/wiki/Judicial \"Judicial\") matters, human rights, [equality](/wiki/Equality_before_the_law \"Equality before the law\") laws, immigration control, policing and [citizenship](/wiki/Citizenship \"Citizenship\") (see *[Area of freedom, security and justice](/wiki/Area_of_freedom%2C_security_and_justice \"Area of freedom, security and justice\")*). The relevant DG was [Directorate\\-General for Justice, Freedom and Security](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Justice%2C_Freedom_and_Security_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Justice, Freedom and Security (European Commission)\").",
"As a concession to the [liberals](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_%28European_Parliament_group%29 \"Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (European Parliament group)\"), Barroso split the post in 2010 into the [Commissioner for Home Affairs](/wiki/%23Home_Affairs \"#Home Affairs\") (the security aspect) and the [Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Justice%2C_Fundamental_Rights_and_Citizenship \"European Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship\") (the human rights aspect).",
"Previous commissioners:",
"| Name | Country | Period | Commission |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Anita Gradin](/wiki/Anita_Gradin \"Anita Gradin\") | {{Flagu\\|Sweden}} | 1995–1999 | [Santer Commission](/wiki/Santer_Commission \"Santer Commission\") |\n| [António Vitorino](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Vitorino \"António Vitorino\") | {{Flagu\\|Portugal}} | 1999–2004 | [Prodi Commission](/wiki/Prodi_Commission \"Prodi Commission\") |\n| [Franco Frattini](/wiki/Franco_Frattini \"Franco Frattini\") | {{Flagu\\|Italy}} | 2004–2008 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") |\n| [Jacques Barrot](/wiki/Jacques_Barrot \"Jacques Barrot\") | {{Flagu\\|France}} | 2008–2010 | [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\") |",
"",
"### Multilingualism",
"The Commissioner for Multilingualism was responsible for [language policy of the European Union](/wiki/Languages_of_the_European_Union \"Languages of the European Union\"), i.e., promoting [multilingualism](/wiki/Multilingualism \"Multilingualism\") for the citizens and the institutions of the EU. It was created on 1 January 2007 during the [Barroso Commission](/wiki/Barroso_Commission \"Barroso Commission\"). The only commissioner is [Leonard Orban](/wiki/Leonard_Orban \"Leonard Orban\") (2007–2010\\). The post was created on 1 January 2007, in the enlarged Barroso Commission after the [accession of Bulgaria and Romania](/wiki/2007_enlargement_of_the_European_Union \"2007 enlargement of the European Union\") to the EU. Multilingualism had been a responsibility of the [European Commissioner for Education, Training, Culture and Multilingualism](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Education%2C_Training%2C_Culture_and_Multilingualism \"European Commissioner for Education, Training, Culture and Multilingualism\") (held by [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE \"Ján Figeľ\") between 2004 and 2007\\). Under the second Barroso Commission, the post was re\\-merged into the education and culture portfolio (held by [Androulla Vassiliou](/wiki/Androulla_Vassiliou \"Androulla Vassiliou\")).",
"The new portfolio was criticised for vagueness and ambiguity, it has been claimed that the post overlaps with responsibilities of other Commissioners. The [Conference of Presidents](/wiki/Conference_of_Presidents_of_the_European_Parliament \"Conference of Presidents of the European Parliament\") of the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\") has asked the current president of the Commission [José Manuel Barroso](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Barroso \"José Manuel Barroso\") to clarify the mandate of Commissioner for Multilingualism{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/hearings/commission/2006\\_enlarg/press/conf\\_presidents\\_en.pdf\\|title\\=Conference of Presidents gives positive assessment of hearings and seeks clarification of Mr Orban's portfolio\\|website\\=europarl.europa.eu}} and of other members of the commission with regards to the \"intercultural dialogue\".",
"European Parliament [Socialist Group](/wiki/Party_of_European_Socialists \"Party of European Socialists\") (PES) leader [Martin Schulz](/wiki/Martin_Schulz \"Martin Schulz\") suggested a portfolio for the protection of [ethnic minorities](/wiki/Ethnic_minorities \"Ethnic minorities\") instead. His party suggested the introduction of the protection of the [Roma](/wiki/Romani_people \"Romani people\") minority.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.euractiv.com/en/enlargement/socialists\\-criticise\\-new\\-commissioner\\-portfolio/article\\-159715 \\|title\\=Socialists criticise new commissioner's portfolio \\|publisher\\=EurActiv \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-27}} Barroso turned down the PES proposal and defended the post. He stated that Commissioner for Education, Training and Culture Ján Figeľ \"will remain responsible for the management of actions to directly promote the inter\\-cultural dialogue\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://euobserver.com/9/23046\\|title \\= MEPs back Romanian commissioner despite 'indecent' job task\\| date\\=6 December 2006 }}",
"Politically, the portfolio was mainly focused on promoting [foreign languages learning](/wiki/Language_learning \"Language learning\") as means for [worker's mobility](/wiki/Labour_mobility \"Labour mobility\") and business [competitiveness](/wiki/Competition_%28companies%29 \"Competition (companies)\") rather than emphasizing [language rights](/wiki/Language_rights \"Language rights\") of speakers of [regional](/wiki/Regional_language \"Regional language\"), [minority](/wiki/Minority_language \"Minority language\"), lesser\\-used and migrant languages. Commissioner for Multilingualism is also responsible, alongside the [President of the Commission](/wiki/President_of_the_European_Commission \"President of the European Commission\"), [Barroso](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Barroso \"José Manuel Barroso\"), and the [European Commissioner for Education, Training and Culture](/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Education%2C_Training_and_Culture \"European Commissioner for Education, Training and Culture\"), [Ján Figeľ](/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Fige%C4%BE \"Ján Figeľ\") to work on \"intercultural dialogue\", including the 2008 [European Year of Intercultural Dialogue](/wiki/European_Year_of_Intercultural_Dialogue \"European Year of Intercultural Dialogue\").",
"Administratively, Commissioner for Multilingualism was in charge of the [Directorate\\-General for Translation](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Translation_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Translation (European Commission)\"), the [DG for Interpretation](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Interpretation_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Interpretation (European Commission)\") and the [Office for Official Publications of the European Communities](/wiki/Publications_Office_%28European_Union%29 \"Publications Office (European Union)\"), as well as for the Multilingualism policy unit (EAC\\-C\\-5\\) in the [DG for Education and Culture](/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Education_and_Culture_%28European_Commission%29 \"Directorate-General for Education and Culture (European Commission)\"), with 3,400 staff in total – about 15 per cent of the Brussels executive's workforce\\- and with about 1 percent of the [EU budget](/wiki/Budget_of_the_European_Union \"Budget of the European Union\").",
""
] |
Namesake
--------
Stanley Graves Benner was born on 5 July 1916 in [Arlington, Massachusetts](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Massachusetts "Arlington, Massachusetts"). He lived in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), Massachusetts, until 1940\. Enlisting in the [United States Marine Corps Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve "United States Marine Corps Reserve") on 21 August 1940, he reported for active duty at [Marine Corps Base Quantico](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Quantico "Marine Corps Base Quantico"), on 8 November that same year. After training at the Marine Corps' recruit depot at [Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island "Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island"), he arrived at [Guantanamo Bay Naval Base](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base "Guantanamo Bay Naval Base"), on 21 January 1941\. While there, he participated in maneuvers on the [Puerto Rican](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico") Island of [Culebra](/wiki/Culebra%2C_Puerto_Rico "Culebra, Puerto Rico"). Transferred to the Marine Corps Base at Parris Island, S.C., on 12 April, he served there—receiving a promotion to [private first class](/wiki/Private_first_class "Private first class") on 26 May, until shifting duty station to what would later become [Camp Lejeune](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Camp_Lejeune "Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune") at New River, N.C., on 28 September. Benner was promoted to [corporal](/wiki/Corporal%23United_States "Corporal#United States") on 11 October 1941 and to [Sergeant](/wiki/Sergeant%23United_States "Sergeant#United States") on 1 April 1942\.
Ordered to the field on 8 May 1942, Benner joined Company "A", [1st Battalion, 7th Marines](/wiki/1st_Battalion%2C_7th_Marines "1st Battalion, 7th Marines"), and, after traveling by rail to [Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego "Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego"), sailed for the [South Pacific](/wiki/South_Pacific_Area "South Pacific Area") in late May. After arriving at [Tutuila](/wiki/Tutuila "Tutuila"), the battalion reinforced other elements of the 7th Marines already on garrison duty in the [Samoan Islands](/wiki/Samoan_Islands "Samoan Islands"). It remained there, serving as a reserve amphibious force, during the initial [landings on Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign%23Landings "Guadalcanal campaign#Landings") in early August. While on [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa "Samoa"), Sgt. Benner accepted appointment as [second lieutenant](/wiki/Second_lieutenant%23United_States "Second lieutenant#United States") on 4 August. The 7th Marines sailed from Samoa on 4 September, for [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo "Espiritu Santo") in the [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides "New Hebrides"). Upon arrival on the 12th, the regiment received orders to move to Guadalcanal as soon as possible. Departing the New Hebrides on the 14th, the [transports](/wiki/Transport_%28ship%29 "Transport (ship)") arrived off [Kukum](/wiki/Kukum "Kukum"), Guadalcanal, on 18 September. Later that same day, the 7th Marines took up a position astride "[Bloody Ridge](/wiki/Battle_of_Edson%27s_Ridge "Battle of Edson's Ridge")", guarding the perimeter's southern flank from there down to the [Lunga River](/wiki/Lunga_River_%28Solomon_Islands%29 "Lunga River (Solomon Islands)").
Over the next few weeks, Benner's unit took part in the fierce fighting along the [Matanikau River](/wiki/Matanikau_River "Matanikau River"), including the desperate amphibious evacuation west of [Point Cruz](/wiki/Point_Cruz "Point Cruz") on 27 September and the far more successful [spoiling attack west of the river](/wiki/Actions_along_the_Matanikau%23October_action "Actions along the Matanikau#October action") between 7 and 9 October. The 1st Battalion then returned to their original positions on "Bloody Ridge." On the night of 24 October the [Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment](/wiki/4th_Infantry_Regiment_%28Imperial_Japanese_Army%29 "4th Infantry Regiment (Imperial Japanese Army)") closed the perimeter's southern flank. When the Japanese arrived, only Benner's 1st Battalion remained to face them because the 2d Battalion had been pulled out to reinforce the perimeter's western flank the day before.
The assault, coming under cover of heavy rain and darkness, surged out of the jungle just after midnight on the 25th. The Japanese, throwing [grenades](/wiki/Grenade "Grenade") and firing [rifles](/wiki/Rifle "Rifle") and [machine guns](/wiki/Machine_gun "Machine gun"), repeatedly charged the marine positions but were beaten back by American small arms, [mortar](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)"), and [artillery](/wiki/Artillery "Artillery") fire. The enemy kept the pressure on the ridge throughout the night, at one point forcing a salient into the Marines' line, but were eventually driven back with heavy losses. The Japanese resumed the attack the following evening, throwing fresh troops into the fray. Artillery, mortars, small arms, and canister\-firing 37\-millimeter guns cut down the repeated Japanese assaults, forcing the decimated units to withdraw. Benner led his platoon in the fierce two days of combat on "Bloody Ridge" and directed its fire against repeated assaults of enemy forces greatly superior in number. In so doing, contributing to the "rout and virtual annihilation of a Japanese regiment" he was killed in action in the early morning hours of 26 October. Benner was awarded the [Silver Star](/wiki/Silver_Star "Silver Star"), posthumously.
The [destroyer escort](/wiki/Destroyer_escort "Destroyer escort") {{USS\|Benner\|DE\-551\|6}} was named for Benner, but her construction was cancelled in 1944 before it could begin.
|
[
"Namesake\n--------",
"Stanley Graves Benner was born on 5 July 1916 in [Arlington, Massachusetts](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Massachusetts \"Arlington, Massachusetts\"). He lived in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), Massachusetts, until 1940\\. Enlisting in the [United States Marine Corps Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve \"United States Marine Corps Reserve\") on 21 August 1940, he reported for active duty at [Marine Corps Base Quantico](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Quantico \"Marine Corps Base Quantico\"), on 8 November that same year. After training at the Marine Corps' recruit depot at [Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island \"Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island\"), he arrived at [Guantanamo Bay Naval Base](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base \"Guantanamo Bay Naval Base\"), on 21 January 1941\\. While there, he participated in maneuvers on the [Puerto Rican](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") Island of [Culebra](/wiki/Culebra%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Culebra, Puerto Rico\"). Transferred to the Marine Corps Base at Parris Island, S.C., on 12 April, he served there—receiving a promotion to [private first class](/wiki/Private_first_class \"Private first class\") on 26 May, until shifting duty station to what would later become [Camp Lejeune](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Camp_Lejeune \"Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune\") at New River, N.C., on 28 September. Benner was promoted to [corporal](/wiki/Corporal%23United_States \"Corporal#United States\") on 11 October 1941 and to [Sergeant](/wiki/Sergeant%23United_States \"Sergeant#United States\") on 1 April 1942\\.",
"Ordered to the field on 8 May 1942, Benner joined Company \"A\", [1st Battalion, 7th Marines](/wiki/1st_Battalion%2C_7th_Marines \"1st Battalion, 7th Marines\"), and, after traveling by rail to [Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego \"Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego\"), sailed for the [South Pacific](/wiki/South_Pacific_Area \"South Pacific Area\") in late May. After arriving at [Tutuila](/wiki/Tutuila \"Tutuila\"), the battalion reinforced other elements of the 7th Marines already on garrison duty in the [Samoan Islands](/wiki/Samoan_Islands \"Samoan Islands\"). It remained there, serving as a reserve amphibious force, during the initial [landings on Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign%23Landings \"Guadalcanal campaign#Landings\") in early August. While on [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa \"Samoa\"), Sgt. Benner accepted appointment as [second lieutenant](/wiki/Second_lieutenant%23United_States \"Second lieutenant#United States\") on 4 August. The 7th Marines sailed from Samoa on 4 September, for [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo \"Espiritu Santo\") in the [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides \"New Hebrides\"). Upon arrival on the 12th, the regiment received orders to move to Guadalcanal as soon as possible. Departing the New Hebrides on the 14th, the [transports](/wiki/Transport_%28ship%29 \"Transport (ship)\") arrived off [Kukum](/wiki/Kukum \"Kukum\"), Guadalcanal, on 18 September. Later that same day, the 7th Marines took up a position astride \"[Bloody Ridge](/wiki/Battle_of_Edson%27s_Ridge \"Battle of Edson's Ridge\")\", guarding the perimeter's southern flank from there down to the [Lunga River](/wiki/Lunga_River_%28Solomon_Islands%29 \"Lunga River (Solomon Islands)\").",
"Over the next few weeks, Benner's unit took part in the fierce fighting along the [Matanikau River](/wiki/Matanikau_River \"Matanikau River\"), including the desperate amphibious evacuation west of [Point Cruz](/wiki/Point_Cruz \"Point Cruz\") on 27 September and the far more successful [spoiling attack west of the river](/wiki/Actions_along_the_Matanikau%23October_action \"Actions along the Matanikau#October action\") between 7 and 9 October. The 1st Battalion then returned to their original positions on \"Bloody Ridge.\" On the night of 24 October the [Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment](/wiki/4th_Infantry_Regiment_%28Imperial_Japanese_Army%29 \"4th Infantry Regiment (Imperial Japanese Army)\") closed the perimeter's southern flank. When the Japanese arrived, only Benner's 1st Battalion remained to face them because the 2d Battalion had been pulled out to reinforce the perimeter's western flank the day before.",
"The assault, coming under cover of heavy rain and darkness, surged out of the jungle just after midnight on the 25th. The Japanese, throwing [grenades](/wiki/Grenade \"Grenade\") and firing [rifles](/wiki/Rifle \"Rifle\") and [machine guns](/wiki/Machine_gun \"Machine gun\"), repeatedly charged the marine positions but were beaten back by American small arms, [mortar](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\"), and [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\") fire. The enemy kept the pressure on the ridge throughout the night, at one point forcing a salient into the Marines' line, but were eventually driven back with heavy losses. The Japanese resumed the attack the following evening, throwing fresh troops into the fray. Artillery, mortars, small arms, and canister\\-firing 37\\-millimeter guns cut down the repeated Japanese assaults, forcing the decimated units to withdraw. Benner led his platoon in the fierce two days of combat on \"Bloody Ridge\" and directed its fire against repeated assaults of enemy forces greatly superior in number. In so doing, contributing to the \"rout and virtual annihilation of a Japanese regiment\" he was killed in action in the early morning hours of 26 October. Benner was awarded the [Silver Star](/wiki/Silver_Star \"Silver Star\"), posthumously.",
"The [destroyer escort](/wiki/Destroyer_escort \"Destroyer escort\") {{USS\\|Benner\\|DE\\-551\\|6}} was named for Benner, but her construction was cancelled in 1944 before it could begin.",
""
] |
1945
----
Intended for service as a "[picket ship](/wiki/Radar_picket "Radar picket")" in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific "Pacific"), *Benner* received radar and other modifications at the [Boston Navy Yard](/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard "Boston Navy Yard") between 13 February and 21 March. She then sailed for [Guantanamo Bay](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base "Guantanamo Bay Naval Base"), Cuba, on the 28th, arriving there on the 31st. The destroyer conducted four weeks of shakedown exercises, including gunnery, antiaircraft, and [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") (ASW) drills.
On 29 April, she steamed to [Gonaïves Bay](/wiki/Gona%C3%AFves "Gonaïves"), Haiti, for ASW training on a friendly "bottomed out" [submarine](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine") and conducted a shore bombardment exercise off [Culebra Island](/wiki/Culebra_Island "Culebra Island") the following day. After her rendezvous with {{HMS\|Reaper\|D82}} in [Windward Passage](/wiki/Windward_Passage "Windward Passage") on 3 May, the warships sailed north on an antisubmarine patrol. Although *Benner*{{'}}s crew dropped 11 [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge "Depth charge") on a possible submarine contact later that day, they later determined it to be a false contact. She parted company with HMS *Reaper* on the 7th and sailed independently for Boston, arriving on 8 May for three weeks of post\-shakedown availability. Following those repairs, the destroyer steamed to Norfolk, Virginia, where she joined {{USS\|Prince William\|CVE\-31\|3}} and {{USS\|Gantner\|APD\-42\|3}} in preparation for sailing to the Pacific.
*Benner* got underway for the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal") on 2 June, transited the canal on the 8th, and arrived at [San Diego, California](/wiki/Naval_Station_San_Diego "Naval Station San Diego") on 15 June. After minor repairs, she sailed for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") on the 18th, mooring in [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") on 23 June. *Benner* spent the rest of the month conducting training missions – antiaircraft, fighter\-direction, radar jamming, and [motor\-torpedo\-boat](/wiki/Motor_torpedo_boat "Motor torpedo boat") (MTB) evasion exercises – in preparation for deployment to the waters off Japan.
In company with {{USS\|Terry\|DD\-513\|3}}, escorting {{USS\|Wasp\|CV\-18\|3}} in Task Unit 12\.5\.3 (TU 12\.5\.3\), *Benner* departed Pearl Harbor on 12 July. During the transit across the [central Pacific](/wiki/Central_Pacific_Area "Central Pacific Area"), the destroyers screened *Wasp* as that [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier") launched air strikes against [Wake Island](/wiki/Wake_Island "Wake Island") on the 18th. After a brief pause at [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok") to refuel the following day, the task unit joined [Task Force 38](/wiki/Task_Force_38 "Task Force 38") (TF 38\) just south of the [Japanese home islands](/wiki/Japanese_home_islands "Japanese home islands") on 26 July.
*Benner* screened {{USS\|Randolph\|CV\-15\|3}} in Task Group 38\.3 (TG 38\.3\) during 28 July air strikes against enemy shipping at [Maizuru](/wiki/Maizuru "Maizuru") and on 30 July against the [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo")\-[Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya%2C_Aichi "Nagoya, Aichi") area. While a [typhoon](/wiki/Typhoon "Typhoon") canceled further attacks scheduled for early August, the [task group](/wiki/Task_force "Task force") refueled and then moved into position for strikes against northern [Honshū](/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB "Honshū") on 8 August. Taking up a picket position – about 50 miles (90 km) southwest of TF 38 – with {{USS\|John W. Weeks\|DD\-701\|3}}, {{USS\|Borie\|DD\-704\|3}} and {{USS\|Hank\|DD\-702\|3}}, *Benner* watched as unidentified aircraft approached their position all day. Although most of the enemy aircraft retreated before friendly [combat air patrol](/wiki/Combat_air_patrol "Combat air patrol") (CAP), some low\-flying Japanese aircraft sneaked under the CAP's protective umbrella to attack the destroyers.
At 14:54, a single [Aichi B7A](/wiki/Aichi_B7A "Aichi B7A")1 "Grace" carrier attack plane dove over *Hank*, passed across the formation, and, despite withering anti\-aircraft fire, banked around to crash into *Borie*. Large fires broke out immediately, especially in her forward superstructure around the bridge; and the three other destroyers spent the next two hours fending off four more enemy attacks. After *Borie*{{'}}s damage control teams got the fires under control, *Benner* spent a fruitless evening searching the water for *Borie* crewmen lost over the side.
The destroyers continued screen operations between 10 and 15 August before TF 38 retired southeast of Honshū to await developments in the wake of news of the [Japanese surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan"). Detached on 24 August, *Benner* cruised off Nagoya to provide an aircraft homing beacon for flights to Tokyo from [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"). On 4 September, she joined a task group formed around {{USS\|Bennington\|CV\-20\|3}} and cruised off Honshū as that carrier launched [POW](/wiki/Prisoner_of_war "Prisoner of war")\-relief flights through 9 September. Following leave and upkeep in Tokyo, the destroyer steamed to the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands "Marshall Islands") at the end of September – for a week's upkeep alongside a tender – before returning to Japan for three more months of occupation duty.
|
[
"1945\n----",
"Intended for service as a \"[picket ship](/wiki/Radar_picket \"Radar picket\")\" in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific \"Pacific\"), *Benner* received radar and other modifications at the [Boston Navy Yard](/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard \"Boston Navy Yard\") between 13 February and 21 March. She then sailed for [Guantanamo Bay](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base \"Guantanamo Bay Naval Base\"), Cuba, on the 28th, arriving there on the 31st. The destroyer conducted four weeks of shakedown exercises, including gunnery, antiaircraft, and [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") (ASW) drills.",
"On 29 April, she steamed to [Gonaïves Bay](/wiki/Gona%C3%AFves \"Gonaïves\"), Haiti, for ASW training on a friendly \"bottomed out\" [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") and conducted a shore bombardment exercise off [Culebra Island](/wiki/Culebra_Island \"Culebra Island\") the following day. After her rendezvous with {{HMS\\|Reaper\\|D82}} in [Windward Passage](/wiki/Windward_Passage \"Windward Passage\") on 3 May, the warships sailed north on an antisubmarine patrol. Although *Benner*{{'}}s crew dropped 11 [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge \"Depth charge\") on a possible submarine contact later that day, they later determined it to be a false contact. She parted company with HMS *Reaper* on the 7th and sailed independently for Boston, arriving on 8 May for three weeks of post\\-shakedown availability. Following those repairs, the destroyer steamed to Norfolk, Virginia, where she joined {{USS\\|Prince William\\|CVE\\-31\\|3}} and {{USS\\|Gantner\\|APD\\-42\\|3}} in preparation for sailing to the Pacific.",
"*Benner* got underway for the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") on 2 June, transited the canal on the 8th, and arrived at [San Diego, California](/wiki/Naval_Station_San_Diego \"Naval Station San Diego\") on 15 June. After minor repairs, she sailed for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") on the 18th, mooring in [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") on 23 June. *Benner* spent the rest of the month conducting training missions – antiaircraft, fighter\\-direction, radar jamming, and [motor\\-torpedo\\-boat](/wiki/Motor_torpedo_boat \"Motor torpedo boat\") (MTB) evasion exercises – in preparation for deployment to the waters off Japan.",
"In company with {{USS\\|Terry\\|DD\\-513\\|3}}, escorting {{USS\\|Wasp\\|CV\\-18\\|3}} in Task Unit 12\\.5\\.3 (TU 12\\.5\\.3\\), *Benner* departed Pearl Harbor on 12 July. During the transit across the [central Pacific](/wiki/Central_Pacific_Area \"Central Pacific Area\"), the destroyers screened *Wasp* as that [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\") launched air strikes against [Wake Island](/wiki/Wake_Island \"Wake Island\") on the 18th. After a brief pause at [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\") to refuel the following day, the task unit joined [Task Force 38](/wiki/Task_Force_38 \"Task Force 38\") (TF 38\\) just south of the [Japanese home islands](/wiki/Japanese_home_islands \"Japanese home islands\") on 26 July.",
"*Benner* screened {{USS\\|Randolph\\|CV\\-15\\|3}} in Task Group 38\\.3 (TG 38\\.3\\) during 28 July air strikes against enemy shipping at [Maizuru](/wiki/Maizuru \"Maizuru\") and on 30 July against the [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\")\\-[Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya%2C_Aichi \"Nagoya, Aichi\") area. While a [typhoon](/wiki/Typhoon \"Typhoon\") canceled further attacks scheduled for early August, the [task group](/wiki/Task_force \"Task force\") refueled and then moved into position for strikes against northern [Honshū](/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB \"Honshū\") on 8 August. Taking up a picket position – about 50 miles (90 km) southwest of TF 38 – with {{USS\\|John W. Weeks\\|DD\\-701\\|3}}, {{USS\\|Borie\\|DD\\-704\\|3}} and {{USS\\|Hank\\|DD\\-702\\|3}}, *Benner* watched as unidentified aircraft approached their position all day. Although most of the enemy aircraft retreated before friendly [combat air patrol](/wiki/Combat_air_patrol \"Combat air patrol\") (CAP), some low\\-flying Japanese aircraft sneaked under the CAP's protective umbrella to attack the destroyers.",
"At 14:54, a single [Aichi B7A](/wiki/Aichi_B7A \"Aichi B7A\")1 \"Grace\" carrier attack plane dove over *Hank*, passed across the formation, and, despite withering anti\\-aircraft fire, banked around to crash into *Borie*. Large fires broke out immediately, especially in her forward superstructure around the bridge; and the three other destroyers spent the next two hours fending off four more enemy attacks. After *Borie*{{'}}s damage control teams got the fires under control, *Benner* spent a fruitless evening searching the water for *Borie* crewmen lost over the side.",
"The destroyers continued screen operations between 10 and 15 August before TF 38 retired southeast of Honshū to await developments in the wake of news of the [Japanese surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\"). Detached on 24 August, *Benner* cruised off Nagoya to provide an aircraft homing beacon for flights to Tokyo from [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"). On 4 September, she joined a task group formed around {{USS\\|Bennington\\|CV\\-20\\|3}} and cruised off Honshū as that carrier launched [POW](/wiki/Prisoner_of_war \"Prisoner of war\")\\-relief flights through 9 September. Following leave and upkeep in Tokyo, the destroyer steamed to the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\") at the end of September – for a week's upkeep alongside a tender – before returning to Japan for three more months of occupation duty.",
""
] |
1956–1959
---------
Reassigned to the [Pacific Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Fleet "United States Pacific Fleet") in the spring of 1956, *Benner* departed Newport on 9 June and sailed south, transiting the Panama Canal on 18 June and mooring at her new home port at [Long Beach, California](/wiki/Naval_Station_Long_Beach "Naval Station Long Beach"), on the 28th. Assigned to DesDiv 91 on 26 August, the destroyer spent the next six months conducting refresher and type training in and around the San Diego operating area.
On 12 March 1957, the warship departed Long Beach on a regular deployment to the [western Pacific](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean") for operations with the [7th Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Seventh_Fleet "United States Seventh Fleet"). The destroyer crossed the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific "Pacific") via the southern route, stopping at [Suva](/wiki/Suva "Suva") in the [Fiji Islands](/wiki/Fiji "Fiji") between 25 and 27 March and at [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne%2C_Victoria "Melbourne, Victoria"), Australia, from 2 to 7 April. Proceeding northward, she refueled at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island "Manus Island") and [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") before arriving at [Yokosuka, Japan](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka "United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka"), on 24 April. As one of the major functions of the 7th Fleet was to patrol the [Taiwan Strait](/wiki/Taiwan_Strait "Taiwan Strait") – part of the American commitment to secure [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") against communist attack – *Benner* spent most of this deployment screening carrier operations in this part of the region. While there, she visited [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung "Kaohsiung"), [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung"), and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") as well as occasionally steaming north for upkeep at Yokosuka, Japan. The destroyer sailed for home on 27 August and arrived at Long Beach on 10 September.
Following a short leave period, *Benner* conducted local operations in the Long Beach area, maneuvers that were punctuated by tender availability and upkeep periods. Between 21 November 1957 and 10 March 1958, she underwent a routine overhaul at the [Long Beach Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Long_Beach_Naval_Shipyard "Long Beach Naval Shipyard"). This was followed by six weeks of refresher training in preparation for another [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East") deployment.
Underway on 29 April, *Benner* first proceeded to [Eniwetok Atoll](/wiki/Enewetak "Enewetak") in the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands "Marshall Islands"). There, she participated in "[Operation Hardtack I](/wiki/Operation_Hardtack_I "Operation Hardtack I")" – a 35\-detonation series of atmospheric [nuclear tests](/wiki/Nuclear_test "Nuclear test") designed to evaluate new types of weapons, the effects of high\-altitude explosions, and the new [Polaris missile](/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris "UGM-27 Polaris") warhead prototype. *Benner*{{'}}s assignments during these tests included weather observations, search and rescue, and scientific equipment recovery. She also performed air operations center functions at [Bikini Atoll](/wiki/Bikini_Atoll "Bikini Atoll"). The destroyer then departed Eniwetok on 1 August and arrived in Yokosuka five days later.
After several weeks of screening carrier operations off [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"), *Benner* received orders to proceed south to Taiwan on 25 August. Two days previously, [Chinese Communist](/wiki/Chinese_Communist "Chinese Communist") artillery on the mainland had opened fire on [Chinese Nationalist](/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist "Chinese Nationalist") forces on the islands of [Quemoy](/wiki/Quemoy "Quemoy") and [Matsu](/wiki/Matsu_Islands "Matsu Islands"). *Benner* joined what eventually became a six\-carrier task force in the region and, over the next eight weeks, helped to protect supply convoys to the beleaguered Nationalist garrison on Quemoy [until the crisis eased](/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis "Second Taiwan Strait Crisis"). After brief stops at Yokosuka and Midway, the destroyer returned to Long Beach on 21 November.
The warship spent the next seven months in the Long Beach area, either conducting local operations or in a tender availability and upkeep status. In June 1959 "Benner" visited Portland, Oregon as part of the Portland Rose Festival fleet. *Benner* commenced her third western Pacific tour on 17 July 1959, visiting Hong Kong, Kaohsiung, and Yokosuka in between tours on the Taiwan Strait patrol. She returned home to Long Beach for upkeep on 26 November.
|
[
"1956–1959\n---------",
"Reassigned to the [Pacific Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Fleet \"United States Pacific Fleet\") in the spring of 1956, *Benner* departed Newport on 9 June and sailed south, transiting the Panama Canal on 18 June and mooring at her new home port at [Long Beach, California](/wiki/Naval_Station_Long_Beach \"Naval Station Long Beach\"), on the 28th. Assigned to DesDiv 91 on 26 August, the destroyer spent the next six months conducting refresher and type training in and around the San Diego operating area.",
"On 12 March 1957, the warship departed Long Beach on a regular deployment to the [western Pacific](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\") for operations with the [7th Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Seventh_Fleet \"United States Seventh Fleet\"). The destroyer crossed the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific \"Pacific\") via the southern route, stopping at [Suva](/wiki/Suva \"Suva\") in the [Fiji Islands](/wiki/Fiji \"Fiji\") between 25 and 27 March and at [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne%2C_Victoria \"Melbourne, Victoria\"), Australia, from 2 to 7 April. Proceeding northward, she refueled at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island \"Manus Island\") and [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") before arriving at [Yokosuka, Japan](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka \"United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka\"), on 24 April. As one of the major functions of the 7th Fleet was to patrol the [Taiwan Strait](/wiki/Taiwan_Strait \"Taiwan Strait\") – part of the American commitment to secure [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") against communist attack – *Benner* spent most of this deployment screening carrier operations in this part of the region. While there, she visited [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung \"Kaohsiung\"), [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\"), and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") as well as occasionally steaming north for upkeep at Yokosuka, Japan. The destroyer sailed for home on 27 August and arrived at Long Beach on 10 September.",
"Following a short leave period, *Benner* conducted local operations in the Long Beach area, maneuvers that were punctuated by tender availability and upkeep periods. Between 21 November 1957 and 10 March 1958, she underwent a routine overhaul at the [Long Beach Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Long_Beach_Naval_Shipyard \"Long Beach Naval Shipyard\"). This was followed by six weeks of refresher training in preparation for another [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\") deployment.",
"Underway on 29 April, *Benner* first proceeded to [Eniwetok Atoll](/wiki/Enewetak \"Enewetak\") in the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\"). There, she participated in \"[Operation Hardtack I](/wiki/Operation_Hardtack_I \"Operation Hardtack I\")\" – a 35\\-detonation series of atmospheric [nuclear tests](/wiki/Nuclear_test \"Nuclear test\") designed to evaluate new types of weapons, the effects of high\\-altitude explosions, and the new [Polaris missile](/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris \"UGM-27 Polaris\") warhead prototype. *Benner*{{'}}s assignments during these tests included weather observations, search and rescue, and scientific equipment recovery. She also performed air operations center functions at [Bikini Atoll](/wiki/Bikini_Atoll \"Bikini Atoll\"). The destroyer then departed Eniwetok on 1 August and arrived in Yokosuka five days later.",
"After several weeks of screening carrier operations off [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"), *Benner* received orders to proceed south to Taiwan on 25 August. Two days previously, [Chinese Communist](/wiki/Chinese_Communist \"Chinese Communist\") artillery on the mainland had opened fire on [Chinese Nationalist](/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist \"Chinese Nationalist\") forces on the islands of [Quemoy](/wiki/Quemoy \"Quemoy\") and [Matsu](/wiki/Matsu_Islands \"Matsu Islands\"). *Benner* joined what eventually became a six\\-carrier task force in the region and, over the next eight weeks, helped to protect supply convoys to the beleaguered Nationalist garrison on Quemoy [until the crisis eased](/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis \"Second Taiwan Strait Crisis\"). After brief stops at Yokosuka and Midway, the destroyer returned to Long Beach on 21 November.",
"The warship spent the next seven months in the Long Beach area, either conducting local operations or in a tender availability and upkeep status. In June 1959 \"Benner\" visited Portland, Oregon as part of the Portland Rose Festival fleet. *Benner* commenced her third western Pacific tour on 17 July 1959, visiting Hong Kong, Kaohsiung, and Yokosuka in between tours on the Taiwan Strait patrol. She returned home to Long Beach for upkeep on 26 November.",
""
] |
1960–1970
---------
The destroyer continued this pattern of operations – routine exercises off the California coast in preparation for a deployment to the [Orient](/wiki/Orient "Orient") which was then followed by an upkeep or overhaul period at Long Beach – for the next four and a half years. This pattern was broken in June 1962, when *Benner* entered the [Long Beach Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Long_Beach_Naval_Shipyard "Long Beach Naval Shipyard") for an eight\-month [Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization](/wiki/Fleet_Rehabilitation_and_Modernization "Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization") (FRAM) overhaul. During this yard period, the destroyer received new [sonar](/wiki/Sonar "Sonar") and [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") (ASW) weapons, including a [Drone Anti\-Submarine Helicopter](/wiki/QH-50_DASH "QH-50 DASH"). In addition, she was reclassified from a radar picket destroyer to a destroyer and was redesignated **DD\-807** on 15 November 1962\. She returned to normal operations in May 1963 and, after a series of ASW exercises intended to test her DASH equipment, deployed to the western Pacific again on 20 February 1964\. During this cruise, *Benner* participated in a [Southeast Asia Treaty Organization](/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization "Southeast Asia Treaty Organization") (SEATO) exercise in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") in May and a [Taiwan Strait](/wiki/Taiwan_Strait "Taiwan Strait") patrol in June before returning home to Long Beach on 12 August for an extended period of leave, upkeep, and local operations.
In April 1965, *Benner* and DesDiv 232 joined {{USS\|Hornet\|CVS\-12\|3}} for seven weeks of refresher training in San Diego waters. Early in June, she embarked 35 [midshipmen](/wiki/Midshipman "Midshipman") for a two\-week training cruise in the [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound "Puget Sound") area. In July, during a five\-day shoot on the [San Clemente Island](/wiki/San_Clemente_Island "San Clemente Island") range, *Benner* qualified for both day and night shore bombardment.
On 12 August, the destroyer got underway for a six\-month tour of duty in the Far East. After a two\-week stop in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") for an ASW readiness evaluation, the warship continued on to Japan, mooring at [Yokosuka](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka "United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka") on 23 September. On 12 October, *Benner* joined TF 77 for patrol and surveillance duties off the coast of [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"). Over the next three days, the destroyer carried out naval gunfire support missions off [Quang Ngai](/wiki/Quang_Ngai "Quang Ngai") before conducting a [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue "Search and rescue") (SAR) patrol in the [Gulf of Tonkin](/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin "Gulf of Tonkin"). Following a week of recreation in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), the warship set out for [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") on 10 November, and then operated out of [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung "Kaohsiung") on the [Taiwan Strait](/wiki/Taiwan_Strait "Taiwan Strait") patrol. On 5 December, she proceeded north for a joint ASW operation with ships of the [Republic of Korea (ROK) Navy](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy "Republic of Korea Navy") and a visit to [Chinhae](/wiki/Chinhae "Chinhae"), before steaming to Sasebo for the Christmas holidays. On 3 January 1966, the warship sailed south to Taiwan to conduct four weeks of patrols in the Taiwan Strait. Returning north to Yokosuka on 9 February, she got underway for home on the 18th, and moored at Long Beach on 3 March.
After six weeks of leave and upkeep, *Benner* underwent a regular three\-month overhaul at the [San Francisco Bay Naval Shipyard](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Naval_Shipyard "San Francisco Bay Naval Shipyard"). Returning to Long Beach on 19 July, she spent the next three months preparing for her next Far Eastern cruise. After leaving Long Beach on 4 November, *Benner* participated in a joint American and Canadian ASW operation in [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") waters where she was awarded the "[Golden Plunger Award](/wiki/Golden_Plunger_Award "Golden Plunger Award")" for "sinking" {{USS\|Plunger\|SSN\-595\|3}} during the exercise. Continuing on to Yokosuka late that month, the destroyer proceeded to the [Gulf of Tonkin](/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin "Gulf of Tonkin") and, on 24 December, joined "[Operation Sea Dragon](/wiki/Operation_Sea_Dragon_%28Vietnam_War%29 "Operation Sea Dragon (Vietnam War)")", a logistics interdiction effort in the coastal waters of [North Vietnam](/wiki/North_Vietnam "North Vietnam"). *Benner* first action of the tour came when she fired upon three small logistic craft on 6 January 1967, damaging one before they escaped into coastal inlets. The next afternoon, the warship destroyed an enemy anti\-aircraft battery. After a short period drydocked in {{USS\|Resourceful\|AFDM\-5\|1}} at [Subic Bay](/wiki/Subic_Bay "Subic Bay"), the destroyer sailed to Hong Kong for rest and recreation on the 31st. She returned to routine "Sea Dragon" operations on 8 February.
The tempo of operations increased on 26 February when *Benner* joined up with {{USS\|Canberra\|CAG\-2\|3}} and {{USS\|Joseph Strauss\|DDG\-16\|3}} for a bombardment of the North Vietnamese coast. During that day, the warship fired seven missions – including two counter\-battery actions – and received 116 enemy rounds close aboard. Although the destroyer was straddled twice by fire from [Hon Matt Island](/wiki/Hon_Matt_Island "Hon Matt Island"), her counter\-battery fire managed to silence the enemy guns. Over the next week, the destroyer conducted another 36 fire missions – firing off 1,281 5\-inch rounds in the process – against enemy targets. After a two\-week tender availability at [Sasebo, Japan](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Sasebo "United States Fleet Activities Sasebo"), *Benner* served a short stint in the Taiwan Strait before returning to Long Beach on 12 May. She spent the remainder of the year in leave, upkeep, and local operations.
*Benner* began 1968 with ASW refresher training out of San Diego and then deployed once more to Far Eastern waters. Arriving at Yokosuka on 29 May, she headed south to Vietnamese waters and duty as a naval gunfire support ship. Her first opportunity for action came on 26 June when she fired almost 900 5\-inch rounds at [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong "Viet Cong") troops in the [Vũng Tàu](/wiki/V%C5%A9ng_T%C3%A0u "Vũng Tàu") area in support of "[Operation Game Warden](/wiki/Operation_Game_Warden "Operation Game Warden")". Over the next three weeks, the destroyer also fired in the [Demilitarized Zone](/wiki/Vietnamese_Demilitarized_Zone "Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone") (DMZ) and in [I Corps](/wiki/I_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 "I Corps (South Vietnam)") territory.
Steaming south for rest and recreation, *Benner* crossed the equator – and observed the traditional "[shellback](/wiki/Line-crossing_ceremony "Line-crossing ceremony")" initiation rites – to visit [Port Swettenham](/wiki/Port_Klang "Port Klang") in [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") between 26 and 29 July. Rejoining TF 77 on 1 August, she participated in ASW Exercise "Swift Move" before steaming to Sasebo on the 7th. Following two weeks of repairs alongside {{USS\|Ajax\|AR\-6\|3}}, *Benner* returned south for carrier screen duties in the Gulf of Tonkin. She finally returned home to Long Beach, via Yokosuka, on 9 November.
In a change of pace, *Benner* got underway on 3 January 1969 to provide three days of target services to [submarines](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine") {{USS\|Bugara\|SS\-331\|3}}, {{USS\|Charr\|AGSS\-328\|3}}, {{USS\|Medregal\|AGSS\-480\|3}} and {{USS\|Bluegill\|AGSS\-242\|3}}. Following these exercises, she conducted local operations out of San Diego until moving into the [Long Beach Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Long_Beach_Naval_Shipyard "Long Beach Naval Shipyard") for an overhaul on 29 January. The destroyer received upgrades to her sonar system during this repair period. Returning to duty on 4 June, the crew then took *Benner* through a 10\-week refresher training cycle.
On 30 July, a fuel oil fire broke out in the destroyer's after fireroom. Although the space was temporarily abandoned owing to the flames, the fire was brought under control and extinguished shortly thereafter. Under closer inspection, the damage proved light and new electrical cables and fixtures were installed at San Diego by 3 August. Returning to local operations the next day, *Benner* suffered another accident when she lost a remote\-controlled DASH helicopter at sea.
Following a series of inspections and a tender availability, *Benner* departed Long Beach on 8 October for another Far Eastern deployment. After brief stops at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor"), [Midway](/wiki/Midway_Atoll "Midway Atoll"), and [Yokosuka](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka "United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka"), she arrived on "[Yankee Station](/wiki/Yankee_Station "Yankee Station")" on 13 November. With the prohibition against attacks on targets in [North Vietnam](/wiki/North_Vietnam "North Vietnam") in effect since 1 November, the destroyer's duties were limited to [plane guard](/wiki/Plane_guard "Plane guard") and ASW screen operations to protect TF 77's carriers as they attacked targets in [Laos](/wiki/Laos "Laos"), [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam"), and [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia"). Aside from brief diversions to cover {{USS\|Long Beach\|CGN\-9\|3}} – the primary [sea\-air rescue](/wiki/Sea-air_rescue "Sea-air rescue") ship in the Tonkin Gulf – *Benner* spent the majority of this cruise screening {{USS\|Ranger\|CVA\-61\|3}} on "Yankee Station".
After *Benner* returned home on 9 April, she fell victim to the drastic defense infrastructure budget cuts of the time to fund the war in Vietnam. Reporting to the [Puget Sound Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Naval_Shipyard "Puget Sound Naval Shipyard") in [Bremerton](/wiki/Bremerton%2C_Washington "Bremerton, Washington") on 29 August, the warship began inactivation preparations on 1 September. *Benner* was decommissioned on 20 November 1970, and her name was struck from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") on 1 February 1974\. Although authorized for sale to [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") on 7 February 1974, the offer was refused on 14 March; and she was sold for scrapping to General Metals of Tacoma, Inc., [Tacoma, Washington](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington "Tacoma, Washington"), on 18 April 1975\.
|
[
"1960–1970\n---------",
"The destroyer continued this pattern of operations – routine exercises off the California coast in preparation for a deployment to the [Orient](/wiki/Orient \"Orient\") which was then followed by an upkeep or overhaul period at Long Beach – for the next four and a half years. This pattern was broken in June 1962, when *Benner* entered the [Long Beach Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Long_Beach_Naval_Shipyard \"Long Beach Naval Shipyard\") for an eight\\-month [Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization](/wiki/Fleet_Rehabilitation_and_Modernization \"Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization\") (FRAM) overhaul. During this yard period, the destroyer received new [sonar](/wiki/Sonar \"Sonar\") and [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") (ASW) weapons, including a [Drone Anti\\-Submarine Helicopter](/wiki/QH-50_DASH \"QH-50 DASH\"). In addition, she was reclassified from a radar picket destroyer to a destroyer and was redesignated **DD\\-807** on 15 November 1962\\. She returned to normal operations in May 1963 and, after a series of ASW exercises intended to test her DASH equipment, deployed to the western Pacific again on 20 February 1964\\. During this cruise, *Benner* participated in a [Southeast Asia Treaty Organization](/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization \"Southeast Asia Treaty Organization\") (SEATO) exercise in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") in May and a [Taiwan Strait](/wiki/Taiwan_Strait \"Taiwan Strait\") patrol in June before returning home to Long Beach on 12 August for an extended period of leave, upkeep, and local operations.",
"In April 1965, *Benner* and DesDiv 232 joined {{USS\\|Hornet\\|CVS\\-12\\|3}} for seven weeks of refresher training in San Diego waters. Early in June, she embarked 35 [midshipmen](/wiki/Midshipman \"Midshipman\") for a two\\-week training cruise in the [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound \"Puget Sound\") area. In July, during a five\\-day shoot on the [San Clemente Island](/wiki/San_Clemente_Island \"San Clemente Island\") range, *Benner* qualified for both day and night shore bombardment.",
"On 12 August, the destroyer got underway for a six\\-month tour of duty in the Far East. After a two\\-week stop in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") for an ASW readiness evaluation, the warship continued on to Japan, mooring at [Yokosuka](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka \"United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka\") on 23 September. On 12 October, *Benner* joined TF 77 for patrol and surveillance duties off the coast of [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"). Over the next three days, the destroyer carried out naval gunfire support missions off [Quang Ngai](/wiki/Quang_Ngai \"Quang Ngai\") before conducting a [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue \"Search and rescue\") (SAR) patrol in the [Gulf of Tonkin](/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin \"Gulf of Tonkin\"). Following a week of recreation in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), the warship set out for [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") on 10 November, and then operated out of [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung \"Kaohsiung\") on the [Taiwan Strait](/wiki/Taiwan_Strait \"Taiwan Strait\") patrol. On 5 December, she proceeded north for a joint ASW operation with ships of the [Republic of Korea (ROK) Navy](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy \"Republic of Korea Navy\") and a visit to [Chinhae](/wiki/Chinhae \"Chinhae\"), before steaming to Sasebo for the Christmas holidays. On 3 January 1966, the warship sailed south to Taiwan to conduct four weeks of patrols in the Taiwan Strait. Returning north to Yokosuka on 9 February, she got underway for home on the 18th, and moored at Long Beach on 3 March.",
"After six weeks of leave and upkeep, *Benner* underwent a regular three\\-month overhaul at the [San Francisco Bay Naval Shipyard](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Naval_Shipyard \"San Francisco Bay Naval Shipyard\"). Returning to Long Beach on 19 July, she spent the next three months preparing for her next Far Eastern cruise. After leaving Long Beach on 4 November, *Benner* participated in a joint American and Canadian ASW operation in [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") waters where she was awarded the \"[Golden Plunger Award](/wiki/Golden_Plunger_Award \"Golden Plunger Award\")\" for \"sinking\" {{USS\\|Plunger\\|SSN\\-595\\|3}} during the exercise. Continuing on to Yokosuka late that month, the destroyer proceeded to the [Gulf of Tonkin](/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin \"Gulf of Tonkin\") and, on 24 December, joined \"[Operation Sea Dragon](/wiki/Operation_Sea_Dragon_%28Vietnam_War%29 \"Operation Sea Dragon (Vietnam War)\")\", a logistics interdiction effort in the coastal waters of [North Vietnam](/wiki/North_Vietnam \"North Vietnam\"). *Benner* first action of the tour came when she fired upon three small logistic craft on 6 January 1967, damaging one before they escaped into coastal inlets. The next afternoon, the warship destroyed an enemy anti\\-aircraft battery. After a short period drydocked in {{USS\\|Resourceful\\|AFDM\\-5\\|1}} at [Subic Bay](/wiki/Subic_Bay \"Subic Bay\"), the destroyer sailed to Hong Kong for rest and recreation on the 31st. She returned to routine \"Sea Dragon\" operations on 8 February.",
"The tempo of operations increased on 26 February when *Benner* joined up with {{USS\\|Canberra\\|CAG\\-2\\|3}} and {{USS\\|Joseph Strauss\\|DDG\\-16\\|3}} for a bombardment of the North Vietnamese coast. During that day, the warship fired seven missions – including two counter\\-battery actions – and received 116 enemy rounds close aboard. Although the destroyer was straddled twice by fire from [Hon Matt Island](/wiki/Hon_Matt_Island \"Hon Matt Island\"), her counter\\-battery fire managed to silence the enemy guns. Over the next week, the destroyer conducted another 36 fire missions – firing off 1,281 5\\-inch rounds in the process – against enemy targets. After a two\\-week tender availability at [Sasebo, Japan](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Sasebo \"United States Fleet Activities Sasebo\"), *Benner* served a short stint in the Taiwan Strait before returning to Long Beach on 12 May. She spent the remainder of the year in leave, upkeep, and local operations.",
"*Benner* began 1968 with ASW refresher training out of San Diego and then deployed once more to Far Eastern waters. Arriving at Yokosuka on 29 May, she headed south to Vietnamese waters and duty as a naval gunfire support ship. Her first opportunity for action came on 26 June when she fired almost 900 5\\-inch rounds at [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong \"Viet Cong\") troops in the [Vũng Tàu](/wiki/V%C5%A9ng_T%C3%A0u \"Vũng Tàu\") area in support of \"[Operation Game Warden](/wiki/Operation_Game_Warden \"Operation Game Warden\")\". Over the next three weeks, the destroyer also fired in the [Demilitarized Zone](/wiki/Vietnamese_Demilitarized_Zone \"Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone\") (DMZ) and in [I Corps](/wiki/I_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 \"I Corps (South Vietnam)\") territory.",
"Steaming south for rest and recreation, *Benner* crossed the equator – and observed the traditional \"[shellback](/wiki/Line-crossing_ceremony \"Line-crossing ceremony\")\" initiation rites – to visit [Port Swettenham](/wiki/Port_Klang \"Port Klang\") in [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\") between 26 and 29 July. Rejoining TF 77 on 1 August, she participated in ASW Exercise \"Swift Move\" before steaming to Sasebo on the 7th. Following two weeks of repairs alongside {{USS\\|Ajax\\|AR\\-6\\|3}}, *Benner* returned south for carrier screen duties in the Gulf of Tonkin. She finally returned home to Long Beach, via Yokosuka, on 9 November.",
"In a change of pace, *Benner* got underway on 3 January 1969 to provide three days of target services to [submarines](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") {{USS\\|Bugara\\|SS\\-331\\|3}}, {{USS\\|Charr\\|AGSS\\-328\\|3}}, {{USS\\|Medregal\\|AGSS\\-480\\|3}} and {{USS\\|Bluegill\\|AGSS\\-242\\|3}}. Following these exercises, she conducted local operations out of San Diego until moving into the [Long Beach Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Long_Beach_Naval_Shipyard \"Long Beach Naval Shipyard\") for an overhaul on 29 January. The destroyer received upgrades to her sonar system during this repair period. Returning to duty on 4 June, the crew then took *Benner* through a 10\\-week refresher training cycle.",
"On 30 July, a fuel oil fire broke out in the destroyer's after fireroom. Although the space was temporarily abandoned owing to the flames, the fire was brought under control and extinguished shortly thereafter. Under closer inspection, the damage proved light and new electrical cables and fixtures were installed at San Diego by 3 August. Returning to local operations the next day, *Benner* suffered another accident when she lost a remote\\-controlled DASH helicopter at sea.",
"Following a series of inspections and a tender availability, *Benner* departed Long Beach on 8 October for another Far Eastern deployment. After brief stops at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"), [Midway](/wiki/Midway_Atoll \"Midway Atoll\"), and [Yokosuka](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka \"United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka\"), she arrived on \"[Yankee Station](/wiki/Yankee_Station \"Yankee Station\")\" on 13 November. With the prohibition against attacks on targets in [North Vietnam](/wiki/North_Vietnam \"North Vietnam\") in effect since 1 November, the destroyer's duties were limited to [plane guard](/wiki/Plane_guard \"Plane guard\") and ASW screen operations to protect TF 77's carriers as they attacked targets in [Laos](/wiki/Laos \"Laos\"), [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\"), and [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\"). Aside from brief diversions to cover {{USS\\|Long Beach\\|CGN\\-9\\|3}} – the primary [sea\\-air rescue](/wiki/Sea-air_rescue \"Sea-air rescue\") ship in the Tonkin Gulf – *Benner* spent the majority of this cruise screening {{USS\\|Ranger\\|CVA\\-61\\|3}} on \"Yankee Station\".",
"After *Benner* returned home on 9 April, she fell victim to the drastic defense infrastructure budget cuts of the time to fund the war in Vietnam. Reporting to the [Puget Sound Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Naval_Shipyard \"Puget Sound Naval Shipyard\") in [Bremerton](/wiki/Bremerton%2C_Washington \"Bremerton, Washington\") on 29 August, the warship began inactivation preparations on 1 September. *Benner* was decommissioned on 20 November 1970, and her name was struck from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") on 1 February 1974\\. Although authorized for sale to [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\") on 7 February 1974, the offer was refused on 14 March; and she was sold for scrapping to General Metals of Tacoma, Inc., [Tacoma, Washington](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington \"Tacoma, Washington\"), on 18 April 1975\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
Ferdinand August Bebel, known as August, was born on 22 February 1840, in [Deutz](/wiki/Deutz%2C_Cologne "Deutz, Cologne"), Germany, now a part of [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne "Cologne"). He was the son of a [Prussian](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia") [noncommissioned officer](/wiki/Noncommissioned_officer "Noncommissioned officer") in the Prussian infantry, initially from [Ostrowo](/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Wielkopolski "Ostrów Wielkopolski") in the [Province of Posen](/wiki/Province_of_Posen "Province of Posen"), and was born in military barracks.{{Cite Americana\|wstitle\=Bebel, Ferdinand August}} The father died in 1844\.
[thumb\|left\|A young Bebel in 1863](/wiki/File:Bebel1863.jpg "Bebel1863.jpg")
As a young man, Bebel apprenticed as a carpenter and joiner in [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig "Leipzig")."August Bebel, German Socialist Leader, Dies in Switzerland," *The Weekly People* \[New York], vol. 23, no. 21 (23 August 1913\), pp. 1–2\. Like most German workmen at that time, he travelled extensively in search of work and he thereby obtained a first\-hand knowledge of the difficulties facing the working people of the day.
At [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg "Salzburg"), where he lived for some time, he joined a [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") workmen's club. When in [Tyrol](/wiki/County_of_Tyrol "County of Tyrol") in 1859 he volunteered for service in the war against Italy, but was rejected; and in his own country he was rejected likewise as physically unfit for the army.
In 1860 he settled in Leipzig as a master turner, making horn buttons. He joined various labour organisations.{{Cite Collier's\|wstitle\=Bebel, Ferdinand August}} Although initially an opponent of socialism, Bebel gradually was won over to socialist ideas through pamphlets of [Ferdinand Lassalle](/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle "Ferdinand Lassalle"), which popularized the ideas of [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx "Karl Marx").Lenin, Vladimir, "August Bebel," *Severnaia Pravada,* 6 August 1913\. Reprinted in Lenin, Vladimir, *Collected Works: Volume 19\.* Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1963; p. 297\. In 1865 he came under the influence of [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht "Wilhelm Liebknecht") and was thereafter committed fully to the socialist cause. In 1866 he joined the [First International](/wiki/First_International "First International").{{Cite web\|title\=Bebel's Reminiscences\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bebel/1911/reminiscences/ch10\.htm\|access\-date\=9 October 2020\|website\=www.marxists.org}}
### Political career
{{Marxism}}
Following the death of Lassalle, Bebel was among the group of Socialists that refused to follow new party leader [Johann Baptist von Schweitzer](/wiki/Johann_Baptist_von_Schweitzer "Johann Baptist von Schweitzer") at the Eisenach Conference of 1867, an action which gave rise to the name "Eisenachers" for this Marxist faction. Together with Liebknecht, he founded the *[Sächsische Volkspartei](/wiki/S%C3%A4chsische_Volkspartei "Sächsische Volkspartei")* ("Saxon People's Party"). Bebel was also President of the Union of German Workers' Associations from 1867 and a member of the [First International](/wiki/First_International "First International").Pozdnyakov, Andrei, "August Bebel," *Karl Marx, Frederick Engels Collected Works: Volume 44\.* New York: International Publishers, 1989; p. 684\.
Bebel was elected to the [North German](/wiki/North_German_Confederation "North German Confederation") [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28North_German_Confederation%29 "Reichstag (North German Confederation)") as a member from [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") in that same year.
In 1869 he helped found the [Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany") (SDAP), which later merged with another organisation in 1875 to form the {{ill\|Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (1875\)\|de\|Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands (1875\)\|lt\=Socialist Workers' Party of Germany}} (SAPD), which in turn became the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") (SPD) in 1890\.
Bebel's great organizing talent and oratorical power quickly made him one of the leaders of the socialists and their chief spokesman in parliament. He remained a member of the North German Parliament, and later of its counterpart for the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire"), the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)"), until his death, except for the interval of 1881–83\. He represented successively the districts of [Glauchau](/wiki/Glauchau "Glauchau"), [Meerane](/wiki/Meerane "Meerane"), [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden "Dresden"), [Strassburg](/wiki/Strasbourg "Strasbourg"), and [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg"). Later in his life, he acted as chairman of the SPD. Representing as he did Marxian principles, he was bitterly opposed by certain factions of his party.
In 1870 he spoke in parliament against the continuance of the [war with France](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War "Franco-Prussian War"). Bebel and Liebknecht were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary subsidy required for the war with France. Bebel was one of only two socialists elected to the Reichstag in [1871](/wiki/1871_German_federal_election "1871 German federal election"), and he used his position to protest against the annexation of [Alsace\-Lorraine](/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine "Alsace-Lorraine") and to express his full sympathy with the [Paris Commune](/wiki/Paris_Commune "Paris Commune"). German Chancellor [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck "Otto von Bismarck") afterwards said that this speech of Bebel's was a "ray of light" showing him that socialism was an enemy to be fought against and crushed. Falsely accused of being in league with the French and part of a conspiracy to free French [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoner_of_war "Prisoner of war") held in Germany and to lead them in an attack from the rear, Bebel and Liebknecht were arrested for [high treason](/wiki/High_treason "High treason"), but no prosecution was possible for lack of evidence.
[thumb\|August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/File:August_Bebel_and_Wilhelm_Liebknecht.png "August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht.png")
Not wanting to release such important opponents of the war effort, old charges of preaching dangerous doctrines and plotting against the state were levied against Bebel and Liebknecht in 1872\. The pair were convicted and sentenced to two years in *{{ill\|Festungshaft\|de}}* (imprisonment in a fortress), which was spent at the famous [Königstein Fortress](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigstein_Fortress "Königstein Fortress"). For insulting the German emperor, Bebel was additionally sentenced to nine months' ordinary imprisonment. This incarceration served to increase Bebel's prestige among his party associates and the sympathetic public at large.{{Cite NIE\|wstitle\=Bebel, Ferdinand August\|year\=1905}}
In 1874 Bebel took a partner and founded a small button factory, for which he acted as salesman, but in 1889 he gave up his business to devote himself wholly to politics. In 1868 he became connected with the staff of the *Volksstaat* ("The People's State") at Leipzig, and in 1891 with that of the *[Vorwärts](/wiki/Vorw%C3%A4rts "Vorwärts")* ("Forward") at [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin").
After his release from prison, he helped to organise, at the congress of [Gotha](/wiki/Gotha_%28town%29 "Gotha (town)"), the united party of Social Democrats, which had been formed during his imprisonment. After the passing of the Socialist Law he continued to show great activity in the debates of the Reichstag, and was also elected a member of the Saxon parliament; when the [state of siege](/wiki/State_of_siege "State of siege") was proclaimed in Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886 condemned to nine months' imprisonment for taking part in a secret society.{{Cite EB1911\|wstitle\=Bebel, Ferdinand August \|volume\=3 \|page\=601 \|first\=James Wycliffe \|last\=Headlam }}
[thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.1\|August Bebel, c. 1910](/wiki/File:August_Bebel_c1910.jpg "August Bebel c1910.jpg")
In party meetings of 1890 and 1891, Bebel's policies were severely attacked, first by the extremists, the "young" Socialists from Berlin, who wished to abandon parliamentary action; against these Bebel won a complete victory. On the other side he was involved in a quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put aside from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bringing about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual amelioration. This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel came to be regarded as the chief exponent of the traditional views of the orthodox Marxist party. Though a strong opponent of militarism, he publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany must not expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. Already in 1911 amid the rising tensions between the European powers, Bebel publicly predicted an upcoming [great war](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") with millions of soldiers confronting each other{{cite magazine\|title\=Das Nahen des Weltkriegs \|trans\-title\=The Dawning of the World War \|first\=Gerd \|last\=Krumeich \|magazine\=\[\[Damals]] \|language\=de \|pages\=7–22 \|year\=2013 \|volume\=Special volume}} followed by a [great collapse](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), "mass bankruptcy, mass misery, mass unemployment and great famine".Evans, Stephen (8 January 2014\) [Berlin 1914: A city of ambition and self\-doubt](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-25635311), *BBC News*, Berlin
In 1899, at the [Hanover Congress](/wiki/Hanover_Congress_%281899%29 "Hanover Congress (1899)") of the SPD, Bebel delivered a speech condemning [Eduard Bernstein](/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein "Eduard Bernstein")'s [revisionism](/wiki/Revisionism_%28Marxism%29 "Revisionism (Marxism)"). His resolution, *Attacks on the Fundamental Views and Tactics of the Party*, garnered the support of the vast majority of the Congress, including Bernstein's supporters.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1901/witbd/i.htm \|title\=What Is To Be Done? — I. Dogmatism And "Freedom of Criticism" \|author\=Lenin, Vladimir \|date\=1902 \|website\=Marxists Internet Archive}}
### Class, race, religion and sex
Bebel particularly distinguished himself by his denunciation of the maltreatment of soldiers by officers and still more frequently by non\-commissioned officers. His efforts in this matter had received great encouragement when [Albert, King of Saxony](/wiki/Albert%2C_King_of_Saxony "Albert, King of Saxony") issued an edict dealing with the maltreatment of soldiers in the Saxon contingent, thus cutting the ground from under the feet of the Imperial Government, which had persistently attempted to deny or to explain away the cases put forward by Bebel.{{Cite EB1922\|wstitle\=Bebel, Ferdinand August \|volume\=30 \|page\=424}}
Speaking before the *Reichstag*, Bebel criticised the war to crush the [Boxer Rebellion](/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion "Boxer Rebellion") in [China](/wiki/China "China") in 1900, saying:
{{quote\|No, this is no crusade, no holy war; it is a very ordinary war of conquest ... A campaign of revenge as barbaric as has never been seen in the last centuries, and not often at all in history ... not even with the Huns, not even with the Vandals ... That is no match for what the German and other troops of foreign powers, together with the Japanese troops, have done in China.Mombaurer, Annika "Wilhelm II, Waldersee, and the Boxer Rebellion" pages 91–118 from The Kaiser edited by Annika Mombaurer, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 page 97\.}}
Bebel is also famed for his outrage at the news of German mistreatment of indigenous people in [German South\-West Africa](/wiki/German_South-West_Africa "German South-West Africa"), the [Herero](/wiki/Herero_people "Herero people") nation in particular. In 1904 following [a violent uprising](/wiki/Herero_Wars "Herero Wars") by the Herero people against German officials, soldiers, and settlers, [Imperial German Army](/wiki/Imperial_German_Army "Imperial German Army") General [Lothar von Trotha](/wiki/Lothar_von_Trotha "Lothar von Trotha") launched the [Herero and Namaqua Genocide](/wiki/Herero_and_Namaqua_Genocide "Herero and Namaqua Genocide") to crush the revolt by waging a "war of extermination" against the Herero. In response, Bebel and the [German Social Democratic Party](/wiki/German_Social_Democratic_Party "German Social Democratic Party") became the only party in the Reichstag to oppose increased colonial expenditures,{{cite thesis \|type\=MA thesis \|institution\=Brandeis University \|url\=https://bir.brandeis.edu/bitstream/handle/10192/23234/adeas\_mathesis\_0509\.pdf.txt \|first\= Andrew \|last\=Deas \|date\=April 2009 \|title\=Germany's Introspective Wars. Colonial and Domestic Conflict in the German Press. Discourse on Race. 1904–1907 \|page\=45 \|access\-date\=2 May 2014}} and in a speech in March 1904 Bebel classified the policy in [German South\-West Africa](/wiki/German_South-West_Africa "German South-West Africa") as "not only barbaric, but bestial". This caused some sections of the contemporary German press to scathingly classify Bebel as "Der hereroische Bebel" (Bebel the Hereroic") (*Coburger Zeitung*, 17 January 1904\). Bebel was not deterred; he later followed this up with strongly worded warnings against the rising tide of theories of [racial hierarchy](/wiki/Racial_hierarchy "Racial hierarchy") and [racial purity](/wiki/Racial_purity "Racial purity"), causing the 1907 general election to the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)") in 1907 to go down in history as the "[Hottentot Election](/wiki/1907_German_federal_election "1907 German federal election")".Smith, Helmut Walser; ‘*The Talk of Genocide’*, the Rhetoric of Miscegenation: Notes on Debates in the German Reichstag Concerning Southwest Africa, 1904–1914, in The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and its Legacy, (Sara Friedrichsmeyer etc. eds. 1998\), p 107–23, 116, 111–12 \& 118\.
Bebel's book, *Women and Socialism* was translated into English by [Daniel De Leon](/wiki/Daniel_De_Leon "Daniel De Leon") of the [Socialist Labor Party of America](/wiki/Socialist_Labor_Party_of_America "Socialist Labor Party of America") as *Woman under Socialism*.Bebel, August. [*Woman under Socialism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=_4QEAAAAYAAJ), translation by Daniel DeLeon. New York: New York Labor News Company, 1904\. It figured prominently in the Connolly\-DeLeon controversy after [James Connolly](/wiki/James_Connolly "James Connolly"), then a member of the [SLP](/wiki/Socialist_Labor_Party_of_America "Socialist Labor Party of America"), denounced it as a "quasi\-prurient" book that would repel potential recruits to the socialist movement.James Connolly \& Daniel DeLeon: [*The Connolly\-DeLeon controversy*](http://www.marxists.org/archive/connolly/1904/condel/index.htm). Cork Workers' Club, Cork 1976\. The book contained an attack on the institution of marriage which identified Bebel with the most extreme forms of socialism. In the preface to DeLeon's translation, *Woman Under Socialism*, DeLeon distanced himself from Bebel on this point, holding that monogamy was the most desirable form of social organisation.DeLeon, Daniel (1904\). "Translator's Preface" to *Woman Under Socialism* by August Bebel. New York Labor News Company, p. vi.
In 1898 he voiced his support for the decriminalisation of homosexuality in the Reichstag.{{Cite news\|last\=Huneke\|first\=Samuel Clowes\|date\=17 April 2019\|title\=Gay Liberation Behind the Iron Curtain\|url\=http://bostonreview.net/gender\-sexuality/samuel\-clowes\-huneke\-gay\-liberation\-behind\-iron\-curtain\|access\-date\=9 October 2020\|website\=Boston Review\|language\=en}}
Bebel said that religion is a "private matter", claiming that the SPD should be neutral on the question of religion, while in actuality advocating secularism.{{Cite web\|title\=Clericalism and the Socialist Attitude Thereto by August Bebel 1903\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bebel/1903/11/clericalism.htm\|access\-date\=9 October 2020\|website\=www.marxists.org}} Bebel considered himself both a patriot and an internationalist believing them to not be antagonistic but instead supplemental.{{Cite web\|title\=Socialism and Internationalism by August Bebel 1905\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bebel/1905/08/internationalism.htm\|access\-date\=9 October 2020\|website\=www.marxists.org}}
### Death and legacy
[thumb\|August Bebel's last portrait in 1913](/wiki/File:August_Bebel_last_portrait_1913.jpg "August Bebel last portrait 1913.jpg")
August Bebel died on 13 August 1913 of a heart attack during a visit to a sanatorium in [Passugg](/wiki/Churwalden "Churwalden"), Switzerland. He was 73 years old at the time of his death. His body was buried in [Zürich](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich "Zürich").
At the time of his death Bebel was eulogized by Russian Marxist leader [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin") as a "model workers' leader", who had proven himself able to "break his own road" from being an ordinary worker into becoming a political leader in the struggle for a "better social system".Lenin, Vladimir, "August Bebel," *Collected Works*: Vol. 19, pp. 300–301\.
The well\-known saying "Anti\-Semitism is the socialism of fools" ("*Der Antisemitismus ist der Sozialismus der dummen Kerle*") is frequently attributed to Bebel, but probably originated with the Austrian democrat [Ferdinand Kronawetter](/wiki/Ferdinand_Kronawetter "Ferdinand Kronawetter"); it was in general use among German Social Democrats by the 1890s.Richard J. Evans, *The Coming of the Third Reich* (Penguin Group, 2005: {{ISBN\|0\-14\-303469\-3}}), p. 496\.
Along with [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx "Karl Marx"), [Friedrich Engels](/wiki/Friedrich_Engels "Friedrich Engels") and [Ferdinand Lassalle](/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle "Ferdinand Lassalle"), Bebel was among the socialist icons included in *bas relief* portraits on the facade of [The Forward](/wiki/The_Forward "The Forward") building, erected in 1912 as the headquarters of the New York Yiddish\-language socialist newspaper.
[thumb\|Bebel's tombstone at Sihlfeld cemetery, Zurich](/wiki/File:Z%C3%BCrich_Friedhof_Sihlfeld_Bebel_2.JPG "Zürich Friedhof Sihlfeld Bebel 2.JPG")
Bebel's legacy was adopted by the [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic "German Democratic Republic") (East Germany), which named a square and several streets after him. Stamps bearing his likeness were also issued.{{cite book \|last1\=Schmidt \|first1\=Jurgen \|title\=August Bebel Social Democracy and the Founding of the Labour Movement \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=Bloomsbury Publishing \|pages\=158–9}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"Ferdinand August Bebel, known as August, was born on 22 February 1840, in [Deutz](/wiki/Deutz%2C_Cologne \"Deutz, Cologne\"), Germany, now a part of [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne \"Cologne\"). He was the son of a [Prussian](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\") [noncommissioned officer](/wiki/Noncommissioned_officer \"Noncommissioned officer\") in the Prussian infantry, initially from [Ostrowo](/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Wielkopolski \"Ostrów Wielkopolski\") in the [Province of Posen](/wiki/Province_of_Posen \"Province of Posen\"), and was born in military barracks.{{Cite Americana\\|wstitle\\=Bebel, Ferdinand August}} The father died in 1844\\.\n[thumb\\|left\\|A young Bebel in 1863](/wiki/File:Bebel1863.jpg \"Bebel1863.jpg\")\nAs a young man, Bebel apprenticed as a carpenter and joiner in [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig \"Leipzig\").\"August Bebel, German Socialist Leader, Dies in Switzerland,\" *The Weekly People* \\[New York], vol. 23, no. 21 (23 August 1913\\), pp. 1–2\\. Like most German workmen at that time, he travelled extensively in search of work and he thereby obtained a first\\-hand knowledge of the difficulties facing the working people of the day.",
"At [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg \"Salzburg\"), where he lived for some time, he joined a [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") workmen's club. When in [Tyrol](/wiki/County_of_Tyrol \"County of Tyrol\") in 1859 he volunteered for service in the war against Italy, but was rejected; and in his own country he was rejected likewise as physically unfit for the army.",
"In 1860 he settled in Leipzig as a master turner, making horn buttons. He joined various labour organisations.{{Cite Collier's\\|wstitle\\=Bebel, Ferdinand August}} Although initially an opponent of socialism, Bebel gradually was won over to socialist ideas through pamphlets of [Ferdinand Lassalle](/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle \"Ferdinand Lassalle\"), which popularized the ideas of [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\").Lenin, Vladimir, \"August Bebel,\" *Severnaia Pravada,* 6 August 1913\\. Reprinted in Lenin, Vladimir, *Collected Works: Volume 19\\.* Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1963; p. 297\\. In 1865 he came under the influence of [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht \"Wilhelm Liebknecht\") and was thereafter committed fully to the socialist cause. In 1866 he joined the [First International](/wiki/First_International \"First International\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Bebel's Reminiscences\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bebel/1911/reminiscences/ch10\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2020\\|website\\=www.marxists.org}}",
"### Political career",
"{{Marxism}}\nFollowing the death of Lassalle, Bebel was among the group of Socialists that refused to follow new party leader [Johann Baptist von Schweitzer](/wiki/Johann_Baptist_von_Schweitzer \"Johann Baptist von Schweitzer\") at the Eisenach Conference of 1867, an action which gave rise to the name \"Eisenachers\" for this Marxist faction. Together with Liebknecht, he founded the *[Sächsische Volkspartei](/wiki/S%C3%A4chsische_Volkspartei \"Sächsische Volkspartei\")* (\"Saxon People's Party\"). Bebel was also President of the Union of German Workers' Associations from 1867 and a member of the [First International](/wiki/First_International \"First International\").Pozdnyakov, Andrei, \"August Bebel,\" *Karl Marx, Frederick Engels Collected Works: Volume 44\\.* New York: International Publishers, 1989; p. 684\\.",
"Bebel was elected to the [North German](/wiki/North_German_Confederation \"North German Confederation\") [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28North_German_Confederation%29 \"Reichstag (North German Confederation)\") as a member from [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") in that same year.",
"In 1869 he helped found the [Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany\") (SDAP), which later merged with another organisation in 1875 to form the {{ill\\|Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (1875\\)\\|de\\|Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands (1875\\)\\|lt\\=Socialist Workers' Party of Germany}} (SAPD), which in turn became the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (SPD) in 1890\\.",
"Bebel's great organizing talent and oratorical power quickly made him one of the leaders of the socialists and their chief spokesman in parliament. He remained a member of the North German Parliament, and later of its counterpart for the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\"), the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\"), until his death, except for the interval of 1881–83\\. He represented successively the districts of [Glauchau](/wiki/Glauchau \"Glauchau\"), [Meerane](/wiki/Meerane \"Meerane\"), [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden \"Dresden\"), [Strassburg](/wiki/Strasbourg \"Strasbourg\"), and [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\"). Later in his life, he acted as chairman of the SPD. Representing as he did Marxian principles, he was bitterly opposed by certain factions of his party.",
"In 1870 he spoke in parliament against the continuance of the [war with France](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\"). Bebel and Liebknecht were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary subsidy required for the war with France. Bebel was one of only two socialists elected to the Reichstag in [1871](/wiki/1871_German_federal_election \"1871 German federal election\"), and he used his position to protest against the annexation of [Alsace\\-Lorraine](/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine \"Alsace-Lorraine\") and to express his full sympathy with the [Paris Commune](/wiki/Paris_Commune \"Paris Commune\"). German Chancellor [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck \"Otto von Bismarck\") afterwards said that this speech of Bebel's was a \"ray of light\" showing him that socialism was an enemy to be fought against and crushed. Falsely accused of being in league with the French and part of a conspiracy to free French [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoner_of_war \"Prisoner of war\") held in Germany and to lead them in an attack from the rear, Bebel and Liebknecht were arrested for [high treason](/wiki/High_treason \"High treason\"), but no prosecution was possible for lack of evidence.\n[thumb\\|August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/File:August_Bebel_and_Wilhelm_Liebknecht.png \"August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht.png\") \nNot wanting to release such important opponents of the war effort, old charges of preaching dangerous doctrines and plotting against the state were levied against Bebel and Liebknecht in 1872\\. The pair were convicted and sentenced to two years in *{{ill\\|Festungshaft\\|de}}* (imprisonment in a fortress), which was spent at the famous [Königstein Fortress](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigstein_Fortress \"Königstein Fortress\"). For insulting the German emperor, Bebel was additionally sentenced to nine months' ordinary imprisonment. This incarceration served to increase Bebel's prestige among his party associates and the sympathetic public at large.{{Cite NIE\\|wstitle\\=Bebel, Ferdinand August\\|year\\=1905}}",
"In 1874 Bebel took a partner and founded a small button factory, for which he acted as salesman, but in 1889 he gave up his business to devote himself wholly to politics. In 1868 he became connected with the staff of the *Volksstaat* (\"The People's State\") at Leipzig, and in 1891 with that of the *[Vorwärts](/wiki/Vorw%C3%A4rts \"Vorwärts\")* (\"Forward\") at [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\").",
"After his release from prison, he helped to organise, at the congress of [Gotha](/wiki/Gotha_%28town%29 \"Gotha (town)\"), the united party of Social Democrats, which had been formed during his imprisonment. After the passing of the Socialist Law he continued to show great activity in the debates of the Reichstag, and was also elected a member of the Saxon parliament; when the [state of siege](/wiki/State_of_siege \"State of siege\") was proclaimed in Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886 condemned to nine months' imprisonment for taking part in a secret society.{{Cite EB1911\\|wstitle\\=Bebel, Ferdinand August \\|volume\\=3 \\|page\\=601 \\|first\\=James Wycliffe \\|last\\=Headlam }}\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|August Bebel, c. 1910](/wiki/File:August_Bebel_c1910.jpg \"August Bebel c1910.jpg\")\nIn party meetings of 1890 and 1891, Bebel's policies were severely attacked, first by the extremists, the \"young\" Socialists from Berlin, who wished to abandon parliamentary action; against these Bebel won a complete victory. On the other side he was involved in a quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put aside from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bringing about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual amelioration. This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel came to be regarded as the chief exponent of the traditional views of the orthodox Marxist party. Though a strong opponent of militarism, he publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany must not expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. Already in 1911 amid the rising tensions between the European powers, Bebel publicly predicted an upcoming [great war](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") with millions of soldiers confronting each other{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Das Nahen des Weltkriegs \\|trans\\-title\\=The Dawning of the World War \\|first\\=Gerd \\|last\\=Krumeich \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Damals]] \\|language\\=de \\|pages\\=7–22 \\|year\\=2013 \\|volume\\=Special volume}} followed by a [great collapse](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), \"mass bankruptcy, mass misery, mass unemployment and great famine\".Evans, Stephen (8 January 2014\\) [Berlin 1914: A city of ambition and self\\-doubt](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-25635311), *BBC News*, Berlin",
"In 1899, at the [Hanover Congress](/wiki/Hanover_Congress_%281899%29 \"Hanover Congress (1899)\") of the SPD, Bebel delivered a speech condemning [Eduard Bernstein](/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein \"Eduard Bernstein\")'s [revisionism](/wiki/Revisionism_%28Marxism%29 \"Revisionism (Marxism)\"). His resolution, *Attacks on the Fundamental Views and Tactics of the Party*, garnered the support of the vast majority of the Congress, including Bernstein's supporters.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1901/witbd/i.htm \\|title\\=What Is To Be Done? — I. Dogmatism And \"Freedom of Criticism\" \\|author\\=Lenin, Vladimir \\|date\\=1902 \\|website\\=Marxists Internet Archive}}",
"### Class, race, religion and sex",
"Bebel particularly distinguished himself by his denunciation of the maltreatment of soldiers by officers and still more frequently by non\\-commissioned officers. His efforts in this matter had received great encouragement when [Albert, King of Saxony](/wiki/Albert%2C_King_of_Saxony \"Albert, King of Saxony\") issued an edict dealing with the maltreatment of soldiers in the Saxon contingent, thus cutting the ground from under the feet of the Imperial Government, which had persistently attempted to deny or to explain away the cases put forward by Bebel.{{Cite EB1922\\|wstitle\\=Bebel, Ferdinand August \\|volume\\=30 \\|page\\=424}}",
"Speaking before the *Reichstag*, Bebel criticised the war to crush the [Boxer Rebellion](/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion \"Boxer Rebellion\") in [China](/wiki/China \"China\") in 1900, saying:",
"{{quote\\|No, this is no crusade, no holy war; it is a very ordinary war of conquest ... A campaign of revenge as barbaric as has never been seen in the last centuries, and not often at all in history ... not even with the Huns, not even with the Vandals ... That is no match for what the German and other troops of foreign powers, together with the Japanese troops, have done in China.Mombaurer, Annika \"Wilhelm II, Waldersee, and the Boxer Rebellion\" pages 91–118 from The Kaiser edited by Annika Mombaurer, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 page 97\\.}}",
"Bebel is also famed for his outrage at the news of German mistreatment of indigenous people in [German South\\-West Africa](/wiki/German_South-West_Africa \"German South-West Africa\"), the [Herero](/wiki/Herero_people \"Herero people\") nation in particular. In 1904 following [a violent uprising](/wiki/Herero_Wars \"Herero Wars\") by the Herero people against German officials, soldiers, and settlers, [Imperial German Army](/wiki/Imperial_German_Army \"Imperial German Army\") General [Lothar von Trotha](/wiki/Lothar_von_Trotha \"Lothar von Trotha\") launched the [Herero and Namaqua Genocide](/wiki/Herero_and_Namaqua_Genocide \"Herero and Namaqua Genocide\") to crush the revolt by waging a \"war of extermination\" against the Herero. In response, Bebel and the [German Social Democratic Party](/wiki/German_Social_Democratic_Party \"German Social Democratic Party\") became the only party in the Reichstag to oppose increased colonial expenditures,{{cite thesis \\|type\\=MA thesis \\|institution\\=Brandeis University \\|url\\=https://bir.brandeis.edu/bitstream/handle/10192/23234/adeas\\_mathesis\\_0509\\.pdf.txt \\|first\\= Andrew \\|last\\=Deas \\|date\\=April 2009 \\|title\\=Germany's Introspective Wars. Colonial and Domestic Conflict in the German Press. Discourse on Race. 1904–1907 \\|page\\=45 \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2014}} and in a speech in March 1904 Bebel classified the policy in [German South\\-West Africa](/wiki/German_South-West_Africa \"German South-West Africa\") as \"not only barbaric, but bestial\". This caused some sections of the contemporary German press to scathingly classify Bebel as \"Der hereroische Bebel\" (Bebel the Hereroic\") (*Coburger Zeitung*, 17 January 1904\\). Bebel was not deterred; he later followed this up with strongly worded warnings against the rising tide of theories of [racial hierarchy](/wiki/Racial_hierarchy \"Racial hierarchy\") and [racial purity](/wiki/Racial_purity \"Racial purity\"), causing the 1907 general election to the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\") in 1907 to go down in history as the \"[Hottentot Election](/wiki/1907_German_federal_election \"1907 German federal election\")\".Smith, Helmut Walser; ‘*The Talk of Genocide’*, the Rhetoric of Miscegenation: Notes on Debates in the German Reichstag Concerning Southwest Africa, 1904–1914, in The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and its Legacy, (Sara Friedrichsmeyer etc. eds. 1998\\), p 107–23, 116, 111–12 \\& 118\\.",
"Bebel's book, *Women and Socialism* was translated into English by [Daniel De Leon](/wiki/Daniel_De_Leon \"Daniel De Leon\") of the [Socialist Labor Party of America](/wiki/Socialist_Labor_Party_of_America \"Socialist Labor Party of America\") as *Woman under Socialism*.Bebel, August. [*Woman under Socialism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=_4QEAAAAYAAJ), translation by Daniel DeLeon. New York: New York Labor News Company, 1904\\. It figured prominently in the Connolly\\-DeLeon controversy after [James Connolly](/wiki/James_Connolly \"James Connolly\"), then a member of the [SLP](/wiki/Socialist_Labor_Party_of_America \"Socialist Labor Party of America\"), denounced it as a \"quasi\\-prurient\" book that would repel potential recruits to the socialist movement.James Connolly \\& Daniel DeLeon: [*The Connolly\\-DeLeon controversy*](http://www.marxists.org/archive/connolly/1904/condel/index.htm). Cork Workers' Club, Cork 1976\\. The book contained an attack on the institution of marriage which identified Bebel with the most extreme forms of socialism. In the preface to DeLeon's translation, *Woman Under Socialism*, DeLeon distanced himself from Bebel on this point, holding that monogamy was the most desirable form of social organisation.DeLeon, Daniel (1904\\). \"Translator's Preface\" to *Woman Under Socialism* by August Bebel. New York Labor News Company, p. vi.",
"In 1898 he voiced his support for the decriminalisation of homosexuality in the Reichstag.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Huneke\\|first\\=Samuel Clowes\\|date\\=17 April 2019\\|title\\=Gay Liberation Behind the Iron Curtain\\|url\\=http://bostonreview.net/gender\\-sexuality/samuel\\-clowes\\-huneke\\-gay\\-liberation\\-behind\\-iron\\-curtain\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2020\\|website\\=Boston Review\\|language\\=en}}",
"Bebel said that religion is a \"private matter\", claiming that the SPD should be neutral on the question of religion, while in actuality advocating secularism.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Clericalism and the Socialist Attitude Thereto by August Bebel 1903\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bebel/1903/11/clericalism.htm\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2020\\|website\\=www.marxists.org}} Bebel considered himself both a patriot and an internationalist believing them to not be antagonistic but instead supplemental.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Socialism and Internationalism by August Bebel 1905\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bebel/1905/08/internationalism.htm\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2020\\|website\\=www.marxists.org}}",
"### Death and legacy",
"[thumb\\|August Bebel's last portrait in 1913](/wiki/File:August_Bebel_last_portrait_1913.jpg \"August Bebel last portrait 1913.jpg\")\nAugust Bebel died on 13 August 1913 of a heart attack during a visit to a sanatorium in [Passugg](/wiki/Churwalden \"Churwalden\"), Switzerland. He was 73 years old at the time of his death. His body was buried in [Zürich](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich \"Zürich\").",
"At the time of his death Bebel was eulogized by Russian Marxist leader [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\") as a \"model workers' leader\", who had proven himself able to \"break his own road\" from being an ordinary worker into becoming a political leader in the struggle for a \"better social system\".Lenin, Vladimir, \"August Bebel,\" *Collected Works*: Vol. 19, pp. 300–301\\.",
"The well\\-known saying \"Anti\\-Semitism is the socialism of fools\" (\"*Der Antisemitismus ist der Sozialismus der dummen Kerle*\") is frequently attributed to Bebel, but probably originated with the Austrian democrat [Ferdinand Kronawetter](/wiki/Ferdinand_Kronawetter \"Ferdinand Kronawetter\"); it was in general use among German Social Democrats by the 1890s.Richard J. Evans, *The Coming of the Third Reich* (Penguin Group, 2005: {{ISBN\\|0\\-14\\-303469\\-3}}), p. 496\\.",
"Along with [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\"), [Friedrich Engels](/wiki/Friedrich_Engels \"Friedrich Engels\") and [Ferdinand Lassalle](/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle \"Ferdinand Lassalle\"), Bebel was among the socialist icons included in *bas relief* portraits on the facade of [The Forward](/wiki/The_Forward \"The Forward\") building, erected in 1912 as the headquarters of the New York Yiddish\\-language socialist newspaper.\n[thumb\\|Bebel's tombstone at Sihlfeld cemetery, Zurich](/wiki/File:Z%C3%BCrich_Friedhof_Sihlfeld_Bebel_2.JPG \"Zürich Friedhof Sihlfeld Bebel 2.JPG\")\nBebel's legacy was adopted by the [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic \"German Democratic Republic\") (East Germany), which named a square and several streets after him. Stamps bearing his likeness were also issued.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Schmidt \\|first1\\=Jurgen \\|title\\=August Bebel Social Democracy and the Founding of the Labour Movement \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Publishing \\|pages\\=158–9}}",
""
] |
Life
----
Born in [County Limerick](/wiki/County_Limerick "County Limerick"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland"), O'Keefe emigrated to New York in 1864\. She selected nursing as a career, and during her two years' training at [Charity Hospital](/wiki/City_Hospital_%28Roosevelt_Island%29 "City Hospital (Roosevelt Island)"), [Blackwell's Island](/wiki/Roosevelt_Island "Roosevelt Island"), first conceived the idea which was to give a direction to her life. Moved with pity for the unfortunate women with whom she there came in contact and whose previous records were so fatal an obstacle to their securing employment, she determined to found a home where they could find shelter and an opportunity for work.[Dehey, Elinor Tong. *Religious Orders of Women in the United States*, Hammond, Indiana. W.B. Conkey Co., 1930, pp. 749\-750](https://www.patheos.com/blogs/mcnamarasblog/2011/09/sisters-of-st-zita-1903.html)[Diner, Hasia R., *Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century*, JHU Press, 1983, p. 131](https://books.google.com/books?id=Asq02peapwIC&dq=Sisters+of+Reparation+of+the+Congregation+of+Mary&pg=PA131){{ISBN\|9780801828720}}
### St. Zita's Home for Friendless Women
Guilds had been established in Europe in honor of Saint [Zita](/wiki/Zita "Zita") to provide homes for servants temporarily out of work, and to care those aged or incurably ill.[Vansittart, E.C., "A Lowly Saint",*The Rosary Magazine*, April 1905\. p. 375](https://books.google.com/books?id=8ToPAAAAIAAJ&dq=St.+Zita%27s+Guild&pg=PA375){{PD\-notice}} In 1890, with her personal savings she started single\-handed a home in 24th Street near the East River pier where the city's steamboats landed discharged prisoners.[Lafort, Remigius. *The Catholic Church in the United States*, vol. II, New York. Te Catholic Editing Company, 1914 p. 434](https://books.google.com/books?id=x70YAAAAYAAJ&dq=Sisters+of+Reparation+of+the+Congregation+of+Mary&pg=PA434){{PD\-notice}} She was later joined by two friends (Mary Finnegan and Katherine Dunne). The house was incorporated as St. Zita's Home in 1893\.[Directory of Charities", *Documents of the Senate of the State of New York*, Volume 9, E. Croswell, 1912, p. 447](https://books.google.com/books?id=COoLzBBH8kMC&dq=Ellen+O%27Keefe+%2B+Mother+Mary+Zita&pg=PA447){{PD\-notice}}
Every woman who sought admission was received without formal application and regardless of her religious views or previous character. Archbishop [Michael Corrigan](/wiki/Michael_Corrigan "Michael Corrigan") approved their efforts. As St. Zita's became more widely known the greatly increased number of applicants necessitated its transference to larger quarters.[Coyle, Moira. "St. Zita's Home for Friendless Women." The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15762b.htm) Vol. 15\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912\. 2 September 2021 {{PD\-notice}} St. Zita's Home relocated to East 52nd Street.
### Sisters of St. Zita
O'Keefe, although reluctant to form a religious community St. Zita's was dependent on O'Keefe and her friends. [Archbishop Farley](/wiki/John_Murphy_Farley "John Murphy Farley") encouraged her to consider establishing a [religious congregation](/wiki/Religious_congregation "Religious congregation") to carry on her work. To prepare, O'Keefe and three others entered the novitiate of the Franciscan Sisters in Albany. Archbishop Farley approved the new congregation in September, 1903, under the title of the **Sisters of Reparation of the Congregation of Mary** (S.R.C.M.) (**Sisters of St. Zita**). O'Keefe was named Superioress of the congregation under her religious name of Mother Zita. Her companion, Katherine Dunne (Sister Mary Magdalen) took the [religious habit](/wiki/Religious_habit "Religious habit") on her death\-bed. A postulancy of one year and a novitiate of two years had to be served; perpetual [vows](/wiki/Religious_vows "Religious vows") were made after five years. In 1906 Mother Zita visited her native land and returned with six novices, bringing the number of members to fifteen by 1912\.
In 1907 a branch house was opened at East 79th Street. A Sister always slept near the door, since it was a rule of the community that no one was to be refused admission at any hour, day or night; the observance of this rule frequently rendered it necessary to the Sisters to give up their own beds to their humble guests.
The women were kept as long as they desired to stay; if able\-bodied they had to help in the laundry or at sewing, the sole support of the home. They also replenished church supplies on ocean liners. If ill, they were cared for or sent to the hospital. Catholic residents were required to attend Mass on Sundays and any [Holy Day of Obligation](/wiki/Holy_Day_of_Obligation "Holy Day of Obligation"), but this was the sole distinction between the residents of the different religions. The Sisters also visited the poor in the hospitals, and supplied free meals to men out of employment. The number of women accommodated each night was from one hundred to 125; the meals supplied to men out of work averaged daily 65\.
Mother Mary Zita died in New York City January 22, 1917\.{{cite book \|last1\=Litoff \|first1\=Judy Barrett \|last2\=McDonnell \|first2\=Judith \|author1\-link\=Judy Barrett Litoff \|title\=European Immigrant Women in the United States: A Biographical Dictionary \|date\=1994 \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|isbn\=978\-0\-8240\-5306\-2 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1ZyYa0cAPbkC\&dq\=Sisters\+of\+Reparation\+of\+the\+Congregation\+of\+Mary\&pg\=PA327 \|language\=en \|page\=327}}
St. Zita's home had moved to West 14th St.["Sisters of Reparation Reception and Profession", *The Tablet*, 06 May 1950, p. 15](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/34215574/sisters-of-reparation-reception-and/) During the 50s, Sister Mary John Burke attended beauty school to learn how to style and cut hair to help the women look their best when applying for jobs.
The sisters made home visitations,[Advert., *Pittsburgh Catholic*, 6 December 1968, p. 10](https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=TPC19681206-01.1.10&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------) taught religious education classes, prepared children to receive the sacraments, and trained altar boys. By 2000, the members of the congregation were both too few in number, and too advanced in years to continue to manage the shelter. The sisters relocated to their property in Monsey, New York, and the building on 14th Street was sold in the spring of 2001\.
### St. Zita's Villa
St. Zita's Villa, in [Monsey, New York](/wiki/Monsey%2C_New_York "Monsey, New York"), began in 1938 as a residence for the sisters, and later became an adult home for women, where the remaining members of the congregation retired along with a number of their residents.["St. Zita’s Villa Adult Home for Women to Hold Open House \& Family Fun Day", *Rockland County Times*, September 4, 2014](https://www.rocklandtimes.com/2014/09/04/st-zitas-villa-adult-home-for-women-to-hold-open-house-family-fun-day/)
In April 2020, Sacred Heart Parish in [Suffern, New York](/wiki/Suffern%2C_New_York "Suffern, New York") expressed concern over the effect of the [Covid\-19](/wiki/Covid-19 "Covid-19") virus on the community at St. Zita's Villa.["Newsletter, Spring 2020", Sacred Heart Parish, Suffern](https://sacredheartparish.org/news/tagaste-news-letter-april-2010) Sister Maureen Francis O'Shea, S.R.C.M., the superior general of the congregation died at the age of eighty\-five on March 18, 2020\.["Sister Maureen Francis O'Shea, S.R.C.M.", *Catholic New York*, April 9, 2020](https://www.cny.org/stories/sister-maureen-francis-oshea-srcm,20823)[Brum, Robert. "Monsey: Future of St. Zita's Villa appears uncertain following director's death", lohud.com, July 17, 2020](https://www.lohud.com/story/news/local/rockland/monsey/2020/07/17/monsey-future-uncertain-st-zitas-villa-after-directors-death/5444714002/) The last member of the community, Sister Mary John Burke SRCM (born Ruth Burke) died at the age of 90 on September 14, 2020\.["Sister Mary John Burke, S.R.C.M.", *Catholic New York*, October 8, 2020](https://www.cny.org/stories/sister-mary-john-burke-srcm,21480?)
Upon executing the final wills and testaments of the last two surviving Sisters of Saint Zita's Villa of the Sisters of Reparation of the Congregation of Mary, Prena Grishaj, along with Rosa Gorman and Donna Pepino, took over the operations of Saint Zita's Villa. According to the final wishes of both Sister Maureen Frances, S.R.C.M., and Sister Mary John Burke, S.R.C.M. the operations as an adult home for women would cease without Sisters of the order to tend to its residents as they would have, having taken vows of consecrated life. They left their intentions of continuing the charity left behind by all of the nuns of this order known in their wills and trust. Where Ellen O'Keefe became the first nun of this order as Mother Zita, Ruth Burke known in religion as Sister Mary John Burke followed in succession to Sister Maureen Frances as Mother Superior of the Order as the final Mother Zita, while in hospice care. The charity now exists as a layperson\-run charity for the first time since its inception in 1890 as a Charitable Trust administrated by Prena Grishaj, Donna Pepino, and Rosa Gorman.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Born in [County Limerick](/wiki/County_Limerick \"County Limerick\"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\"), O'Keefe emigrated to New York in 1864\\. She selected nursing as a career, and during her two years' training at [Charity Hospital](/wiki/City_Hospital_%28Roosevelt_Island%29 \"City Hospital (Roosevelt Island)\"), [Blackwell's Island](/wiki/Roosevelt_Island \"Roosevelt Island\"), first conceived the idea which was to give a direction to her life. Moved with pity for the unfortunate women with whom she there came in contact and whose previous records were so fatal an obstacle to their securing employment, she determined to found a home where they could find shelter and an opportunity for work.[Dehey, Elinor Tong. *Religious Orders of Women in the United States*, Hammond, Indiana. W.B. Conkey Co., 1930, pp. 749\\-750](https://www.patheos.com/blogs/mcnamarasblog/2011/09/sisters-of-st-zita-1903.html)[Diner, Hasia R., *Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century*, JHU Press, 1983, p. 131](https://books.google.com/books?id=Asq02peapwIC&dq=Sisters+of+Reparation+of+the+Congregation+of+Mary&pg=PA131){{ISBN\\|9780801828720}}",
"### St. Zita's Home for Friendless Women",
"Guilds had been established in Europe in honor of Saint [Zita](/wiki/Zita \"Zita\") to provide homes for servants temporarily out of work, and to care those aged or incurably ill.[Vansittart, E.C., \"A Lowly Saint\",*The Rosary Magazine*, April 1905\\. p. 375](https://books.google.com/books?id=8ToPAAAAIAAJ&dq=St.+Zita%27s+Guild&pg=PA375){{PD\\-notice}} In 1890, with her personal savings she started single\\-handed a home in 24th Street near the East River pier where the city's steamboats landed discharged prisoners.[Lafort, Remigius. *The Catholic Church in the United States*, vol. II, New York. Te Catholic Editing Company, 1914 p. 434](https://books.google.com/books?id=x70YAAAAYAAJ&dq=Sisters+of+Reparation+of+the+Congregation+of+Mary&pg=PA434){{PD\\-notice}} She was later joined by two friends (Mary Finnegan and Katherine Dunne). The house was incorporated as St. Zita's Home in 1893\\.[Directory of Charities\", *Documents of the Senate of the State of New York*, Volume 9, E. Croswell, 1912, p. 447](https://books.google.com/books?id=COoLzBBH8kMC&dq=Ellen+O%27Keefe+%2B+Mother+Mary+Zita&pg=PA447){{PD\\-notice}}",
"Every woman who sought admission was received without formal application and regardless of her religious views or previous character. Archbishop [Michael Corrigan](/wiki/Michael_Corrigan \"Michael Corrigan\") approved their efforts. As St. Zita's became more widely known the greatly increased number of applicants necessitated its transference to larger quarters.[Coyle, Moira. \"St. Zita's Home for Friendless Women.\" The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15762b.htm) Vol. 15\\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912\\. 2 September 2021 {{PD\\-notice}} St. Zita's Home relocated to East 52nd Street.",
"### Sisters of St. Zita",
"O'Keefe, although reluctant to form a religious community St. Zita's was dependent on O'Keefe and her friends. [Archbishop Farley](/wiki/John_Murphy_Farley \"John Murphy Farley\") encouraged her to consider establishing a [religious congregation](/wiki/Religious_congregation \"Religious congregation\") to carry on her work. To prepare, O'Keefe and three others entered the novitiate of the Franciscan Sisters in Albany. Archbishop Farley approved the new congregation in September, 1903, under the title of the **Sisters of Reparation of the Congregation of Mary** (S.R.C.M.) (**Sisters of St. Zita**). O'Keefe was named Superioress of the congregation under her religious name of Mother Zita. Her companion, Katherine Dunne (Sister Mary Magdalen) took the [religious habit](/wiki/Religious_habit \"Religious habit\") on her death\\-bed. A postulancy of one year and a novitiate of two years had to be served; perpetual [vows](/wiki/Religious_vows \"Religious vows\") were made after five years. In 1906 Mother Zita visited her native land and returned with six novices, bringing the number of members to fifteen by 1912\\.",
"In 1907 a branch house was opened at East 79th Street. A Sister always slept near the door, since it was a rule of the community that no one was to be refused admission at any hour, day or night; the observance of this rule frequently rendered it necessary to the Sisters to give up their own beds to their humble guests.",
"The women were kept as long as they desired to stay; if able\\-bodied they had to help in the laundry or at sewing, the sole support of the home. They also replenished church supplies on ocean liners. If ill, they were cared for or sent to the hospital. Catholic residents were required to attend Mass on Sundays and any [Holy Day of Obligation](/wiki/Holy_Day_of_Obligation \"Holy Day of Obligation\"), but this was the sole distinction between the residents of the different religions. The Sisters also visited the poor in the hospitals, and supplied free meals to men out of employment. The number of women accommodated each night was from one hundred to 125; the meals supplied to men out of work averaged daily 65\\.",
"Mother Mary Zita died in New York City January 22, 1917\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Litoff \\|first1\\=Judy Barrett \\|last2\\=McDonnell \\|first2\\=Judith \\|author1\\-link\\=Judy Barrett Litoff \\|title\\=European Immigrant Women in the United States: A Biographical Dictionary \\|date\\=1994 \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8240\\-5306\\-2 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1ZyYa0cAPbkC\\&dq\\=Sisters\\+of\\+Reparation\\+of\\+the\\+Congregation\\+of\\+Mary\\&pg\\=PA327 \\|language\\=en \\|page\\=327}}",
"St. Zita's home had moved to West 14th St.[\"Sisters of Reparation Reception and Profession\", *The Tablet*, 06 May 1950, p. 15](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/34215574/sisters-of-reparation-reception-and/) During the 50s, Sister Mary John Burke attended beauty school to learn how to style and cut hair to help the women look their best when applying for jobs.",
"The sisters made home visitations,[Advert., *Pittsburgh Catholic*, 6 December 1968, p. 10](https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=TPC19681206-01.1.10&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------) taught religious education classes, prepared children to receive the sacraments, and trained altar boys. By 2000, the members of the congregation were both too few in number, and too advanced in years to continue to manage the shelter. The sisters relocated to their property in Monsey, New York, and the building on 14th Street was sold in the spring of 2001\\.",
"### St. Zita's Villa",
"St. Zita's Villa, in [Monsey, New York](/wiki/Monsey%2C_New_York \"Monsey, New York\"), began in 1938 as a residence for the sisters, and later became an adult home for women, where the remaining members of the congregation retired along with a number of their residents.[\"St. Zita’s Villa Adult Home for Women to Hold Open House \\& Family Fun Day\", *Rockland County Times*, September 4, 2014](https://www.rocklandtimes.com/2014/09/04/st-zitas-villa-adult-home-for-women-to-hold-open-house-family-fun-day/)",
"In April 2020, Sacred Heart Parish in [Suffern, New York](/wiki/Suffern%2C_New_York \"Suffern, New York\") expressed concern over the effect of the [Covid\\-19](/wiki/Covid-19 \"Covid-19\") virus on the community at St. Zita's Villa.[\"Newsletter, Spring 2020\", Sacred Heart Parish, Suffern](https://sacredheartparish.org/news/tagaste-news-letter-april-2010) Sister Maureen Francis O'Shea, S.R.C.M., the superior general of the congregation died at the age of eighty\\-five on March 18, 2020\\.[\"Sister Maureen Francis O'Shea, S.R.C.M.\", *Catholic New York*, April 9, 2020](https://www.cny.org/stories/sister-maureen-francis-oshea-srcm,20823)[Brum, Robert. \"Monsey: Future of St. Zita's Villa appears uncertain following director's death\", lohud.com, July 17, 2020](https://www.lohud.com/story/news/local/rockland/monsey/2020/07/17/monsey-future-uncertain-st-zitas-villa-after-directors-death/5444714002/) The last member of the community, Sister Mary John Burke SRCM (born Ruth Burke) died at the age of 90 on September 14, 2020\\.[\"Sister Mary John Burke, S.R.C.M.\", *Catholic New York*, October 8, 2020](https://www.cny.org/stories/sister-mary-john-burke-srcm,21480?)",
"Upon executing the final wills and testaments of the last two surviving Sisters of Saint Zita's Villa of the Sisters of Reparation of the Congregation of Mary, Prena Grishaj, along with Rosa Gorman and Donna Pepino, took over the operations of Saint Zita's Villa. According to the final wishes of both Sister Maureen Frances, S.R.C.M., and Sister Mary John Burke, S.R.C.M. the operations as an adult home for women would cease without Sisters of the order to tend to its residents as they would have, having taken vows of consecrated life. They left their intentions of continuing the charity left behind by all of the nuns of this order known in their wills and trust. Where Ellen O'Keefe became the first nun of this order as Mother Zita, Ruth Burke known in religion as Sister Mary John Burke followed in succession to Sister Maureen Frances as Mother Superior of the Order as the final Mother Zita, while in hospice care. The charity now exists as a layperson\\-run charity for the first time since its inception in 1890 as a Charitable Trust administrated by Prena Grishaj, Donna Pepino, and Rosa Gorman.",
""
] |
### Sisters of St. Zita
O'Keefe, although reluctant to form a religious community St. Zita's was dependent on O'Keefe and her friends. [Archbishop Farley](/wiki/John_Murphy_Farley "John Murphy Farley") encouraged her to consider establishing a [religious congregation](/wiki/Religious_congregation "Religious congregation") to carry on her work. To prepare, O'Keefe and three others entered the novitiate of the Franciscan Sisters in Albany. Archbishop Farley approved the new congregation in September, 1903, under the title of the **Sisters of Reparation of the Congregation of Mary** (S.R.C.M.) (**Sisters of St. Zita**). O'Keefe was named Superioress of the congregation under her religious name of Mother Zita. Her companion, Katherine Dunne (Sister Mary Magdalen) took the [religious habit](/wiki/Religious_habit "Religious habit") on her death\-bed. A postulancy of one year and a novitiate of two years had to be served; perpetual [vows](/wiki/Religious_vows "Religious vows") were made after five years. In 1906 Mother Zita visited her native land and returned with six novices, bringing the number of members to fifteen by 1912\.
In 1907 a branch house was opened at East 79th Street. A Sister always slept near the door, since it was a rule of the community that no one was to be refused admission at any hour, day or night; the observance of this rule frequently rendered it necessary to the Sisters to give up their own beds to their humble guests.
The women were kept as long as they desired to stay; if able\-bodied they had to help in the laundry or at sewing, the sole support of the home. They also replenished church supplies on ocean liners. If ill, they were cared for or sent to the hospital. Catholic residents were required to attend Mass on Sundays and any [Holy Day of Obligation](/wiki/Holy_Day_of_Obligation "Holy Day of Obligation"), but this was the sole distinction between the residents of the different religions. The Sisters also visited the poor in the hospitals, and supplied free meals to men out of employment. The number of women accommodated each night was from one hundred to 125; the meals supplied to men out of work averaged daily 65\.
Mother Mary Zita died in New York City January 22, 1917\.{{cite book \|last1\=Litoff \|first1\=Judy Barrett \|last2\=McDonnell \|first2\=Judith \|author1\-link\=Judy Barrett Litoff \|title\=European Immigrant Women in the United States: A Biographical Dictionary \|date\=1994 \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|isbn\=978\-0\-8240\-5306\-2 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1ZyYa0cAPbkC\&dq\=Sisters\+of\+Reparation\+of\+the\+Congregation\+of\+Mary\&pg\=PA327 \|language\=en \|page\=327}}
St. Zita's home had moved to West 14th St.["Sisters of Reparation Reception and Profession", *The Tablet*, 06 May 1950, p. 15](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/34215574/sisters-of-reparation-reception-and/) During the 50s, Sister Mary John Burke attended beauty school to learn how to style and cut hair to help the women look their best when applying for jobs.
The sisters made home visitations,[Advert., *Pittsburgh Catholic*, 6 December 1968, p. 10](https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=TPC19681206-01.1.10&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------) taught religious education classes, prepared children to receive the sacraments, and trained altar boys. By 2000, the members of the congregation were both too few in number, and too advanced in years to continue to manage the shelter. The sisters relocated to their property in Monsey, New York, and the building on 14th Street was sold in the spring of 2001\.
|
[
"### Sisters of St. Zita",
"O'Keefe, although reluctant to form a religious community St. Zita's was dependent on O'Keefe and her friends. [Archbishop Farley](/wiki/John_Murphy_Farley \"John Murphy Farley\") encouraged her to consider establishing a [religious congregation](/wiki/Religious_congregation \"Religious congregation\") to carry on her work. To prepare, O'Keefe and three others entered the novitiate of the Franciscan Sisters in Albany. Archbishop Farley approved the new congregation in September, 1903, under the title of the **Sisters of Reparation of the Congregation of Mary** (S.R.C.M.) (**Sisters of St. Zita**). O'Keefe was named Superioress of the congregation under her religious name of Mother Zita. Her companion, Katherine Dunne (Sister Mary Magdalen) took the [religious habit](/wiki/Religious_habit \"Religious habit\") on her death\\-bed. A postulancy of one year and a novitiate of two years had to be served; perpetual [vows](/wiki/Religious_vows \"Religious vows\") were made after five years. In 1906 Mother Zita visited her native land and returned with six novices, bringing the number of members to fifteen by 1912\\.",
"In 1907 a branch house was opened at East 79th Street. A Sister always slept near the door, since it was a rule of the community that no one was to be refused admission at any hour, day or night; the observance of this rule frequently rendered it necessary to the Sisters to give up their own beds to their humble guests.",
"The women were kept as long as they desired to stay; if able\\-bodied they had to help in the laundry or at sewing, the sole support of the home. They also replenished church supplies on ocean liners. If ill, they were cared for or sent to the hospital. Catholic residents were required to attend Mass on Sundays and any [Holy Day of Obligation](/wiki/Holy_Day_of_Obligation \"Holy Day of Obligation\"), but this was the sole distinction between the residents of the different religions. The Sisters also visited the poor in the hospitals, and supplied free meals to men out of employment. The number of women accommodated each night was from one hundred to 125; the meals supplied to men out of work averaged daily 65\\.",
"Mother Mary Zita died in New York City January 22, 1917\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Litoff \\|first1\\=Judy Barrett \\|last2\\=McDonnell \\|first2\\=Judith \\|author1\\-link\\=Judy Barrett Litoff \\|title\\=European Immigrant Women in the United States: A Biographical Dictionary \\|date\\=1994 \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8240\\-5306\\-2 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1ZyYa0cAPbkC\\&dq\\=Sisters\\+of\\+Reparation\\+of\\+the\\+Congregation\\+of\\+Mary\\&pg\\=PA327 \\|language\\=en \\|page\\=327}}",
"St. Zita's home had moved to West 14th St.[\"Sisters of Reparation Reception and Profession\", *The Tablet*, 06 May 1950, p. 15](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/34215574/sisters-of-reparation-reception-and/) During the 50s, Sister Mary John Burke attended beauty school to learn how to style and cut hair to help the women look their best when applying for jobs.",
"The sisters made home visitations,[Advert., *Pittsburgh Catholic*, 6 December 1968, p. 10](https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=TPC19681206-01.1.10&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------) taught religious education classes, prepared children to receive the sacraments, and trained altar boys. By 2000, the members of the congregation were both too few in number, and too advanced in years to continue to manage the shelter. The sisters relocated to their property in Monsey, New York, and the building on 14th Street was sold in the spring of 2001\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
Soon after [communism in Romania](/wiki/Communism_in_Romania "Communism in Romania") came to power, the authorities wanted to modernize the Bucharest [tram network](/wiki/Tram_network "Tram network"), that at the time used ancient V09 trams from the 1920s. For a while the only solutions they could come up with were the [V54](/wiki/Electroputere_V54 "Electroputere V54") trams introduced by [Electroputere](/wiki/Electroputere "Electroputere") from [Craiova](/wiki/Craiova "Craiova"), and the {{ill\|ITB V56/V58\|de\|V56 und V58}} trams made by URAC. However they were not enough for Bucharest's quick expansion in the 1960s. It soon became apparent that a new type of tram was needed for the growing network. In 1968 an agreement was reached with [Linke\-Hofmann\-Busch](/wiki/Linke-Hofmann-Busch "Linke-Hofmann-Busch") (LHB) from [Salzgitter](/wiki/Salzgitter "Salzgitter")\-[Brunswick](/wiki/Braunschweig "Braunschweig"), [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany"), that the following year a 3 section tram would be delivered (based on the LHB GT6\) and a licence would be agreed upon. Indeed, the prototype was delivered in 1969 and tested in revenue service the following years, until it was scrapped in 1991\. In 1970 the tram was dismantled for an inspection, where the designers for the project would modify some of its technicalities for the V3A project. The V3A prototype was manufactured in 1971, and was presented that same year on 4 May 1971, at the 100 year anniversary of the tram operation, where it ran on the newly operated tram line 30 in the Titan neighborhood. Series production ultimately started in 1972\.
[thumb\|LHB GT8 prototype car 3501 seen in 1977 on [Calea Văcărești](/wiki/Calea_V%C4%83c%C4%83re%C8%99ti "Calea Văcărești")](/wiki/File:LHB_GT8_3501_on_V%C4%83c%C4%83re%C8%99ti_Avenue.jpg "LHB GT8 3501 on Văcărești Avenue.jpg")
However, the V3A prototypes' fate was not as happy as it was thought. The original agreement included the local assembly of 100 [CKD kits](/wiki/CKD_kits "CKD kits") received from LHB, with the prototype to be possibly returned, should that idea had worked. However the LHB accused the ITB of having illegally dismantled and copied the designs of their tram, and that the V3A was nothing but a pirate\-copy of the LHB 3501 tram. Eventually the dispute was settled and both trams could continue working in the ITB's fleet.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2023}}
The most noticeable modifications made was removal of lightweight [fibreglass](/wiki/Fibreglass "Fibreglass") material from the trams, thus increasing their weight from 15 to 25 tonnes, moving the third door's location in the second section of the [articulated tram](/wiki/Articulated_tram "Articulated tram"), the less\-aerodynamic design which gave the tram a boxy\-shape, compared to the round shape of the 3501 prototype, modified destination display and minor interior modifications. The axles were made by [Grivița Auto Repair Works](/wiki/Grivi%C8%9Ba_%28vehicle_manufacturer%29 "Grivița (vehicle manufacturer)") (Întreprinderea de Reparații Auto Grivița), which specialized in producing tram axles, while the traction electric motor was produced by the {{ill\|Uzina de Mașini Electrice București\|ro}} (UMEB), and the electrical equipment by {{ill\|Electroaparataj\|ro}} Bucharest. The first units were allocated to the Dudești Depot to be used on lines serving the Titan housing estate.
Eventually by the end of 1979 a total of 293 vehicles were made, and the V3A became the flagship of the ITB fleet, slowly replacing the V54s that were now modernized with electric equipment coming from the V3As and the V56s that were slowly withdrawn thanks to the introduction of the [Tatra T4R](/wiki/Tatra_T4 "Tatra T4") trams from [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia").
However, with the early 1980s, these trams would soon be introduced in other cities in Romania. The huge debt that had been accumulated by the Romanian government between 1977 and 1981 meant that imports were tightly restricted, meaning that importing Tatra trams was not allowed any more and fuel import restrictions meant that buses were becoming less efficient. The local authorities then turned to electrification of public transport in cities as a solution, which included the addition and expansion of trolleybus and tram networks. At the same time the [Timiș 2](/wiki/Timi%C8%99_2 "Timiș 2") made in [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara "Timișoara") had more success than the V3A, however some city councils desired to have articulated trams instead of a traction car\-trailer car formation.
In 1982, a tram car named V2A was introduced, being designed for lines (and later, networks) with smaller number of passengers, such as the tram lines in the [Giulești](/wiki/Giule%C8%99ti "Giulești"), [Berceni](/wiki/Berceni%2C_Bucharest "Berceni, Bucharest") and [Colentina](/wiki/Colentina%2C_Bucharest "Colentina, Bucharest") neighborhoods of Bucharest. To counter the success of the Timiș 2 trams, in 1984 the V3A and V2A were finally adapted for export to other cities, the exports starting that very same year to [Constanța](/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba "Constanța")'s newly founded tram network. However the same year, Bucharest's network was soon being faced with mass demolitions that threatened the disruption of most tram lines, and the solution of temporary track relocation was not possible like the previous times when the metro works forced tram lines to detour. To answer to this issue, ITB modified a few V3A trams that were made in 1974 and 1978, and added doors on both sides and cabs at both ends. The result was called V3B or V3A\-2S. The experiment was successful, however no new trams would be produced from this. In 1986, new V2B trams were produced which were similar to the V2A trams but had the same defying characteristic as the V3B did: double cabs and double doors. In 1987 the 500th V3A tram left the factory. The last tram to leave the factory was number 362 which was made in 1990\.
By 1992, the following vehicles were produced:
| City | Total | Years | Numbers |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Bucharest | 362 V3A{{0}}42 V2A{{0}}{{0}}7 V2B | 197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198619871990 | 001 (V3A prototype)002–006 (V3A)007–016 (V3A)017–037 (V3A)038–089 (V3A)090–143 (V3A)144–201 (V3A)202–253 (V3A)254–293 (V3A)294–337 (V3A)338–351 (V3A), 4001 (V2A)4002–4036 (V2A)352 (V3A), 4037–4044 (V2B), 4045–4048 (V2A)353–361 (V3A), 4049 (V2A)362 (V3A) |
| Constanța | {{0}}75 V3A | 19841985198619871990 | 101–110111–140141142–170171–175 |
| Ploiești | {{0}}29 V3A | 19871988{{0}} | 7001–7005, 7007–7008, 7010, 7013–7014, 7018–70197023–7024, 7028–7037, 7041–7042, 7045, 7047–7048Note: numbers were parallel with the ones from the Timiș 2 |
| Brașov | {{0}}16 V3A{{0}}{{0}}4 V2A | 198719881989 | 1–8 (V3A)9–12 (V2A), 13–16 (V3A)17–20 (V3A) |
| Cluj\-Napoca | {{0}}{{0}}6 V3A{{0}}16 V2A | 19871988 | 101–106107–122 |
| Oradea{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eminescu.rdsor.ro/istvan/nvv/allomany.html\#hazai\_motor\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120909205431/http://www.eminescu.rdsor.ro/istvan/nvv/allomany.html\#hazai\_motor\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=2012\-09\-09\|website\=eminescu.rdsor.ro\|title\=''Romániai építésű vasvázas motorkocsik állományi adatai'' at eminescu.rdsor.ro\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-11}} | {{0}}{{0}}3 V2A{{0}}{{0}}6 V3A | 198819891990 | 20–21 (V2A)22 (V2A), 23–27 (V3A)28 (V3A) |
| Brăila | {{0}}10 V3A | 1988–1989 | 80–89, some were left un\-numbered |
| Botoșani | {{0}}10 V3A | 1990 | 1–10 |
| Iași | {{0}}{{0}}1 V2A | 1992 | 350 (metre\-gauge prototype) |
|
By the 1990s, in Bucharest however, the series was becoming outdated, so a modernization project started, called "V3A\-93". The prototype was finished in 1993, in time for the 100 year anniversary of electric trams which featured a parade. By the early 2000s they quickly replaced the EP/V3A trams (modernizations of the V54 trams) and the Rathgeber and [Duewag](/wiki/Duewag "Duewag") trams from [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich") and [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt "Frankfurt"), brought second hand from 1992 to 1997\. The last of the original V3A trams (later designated V3A\-71 due to their year of manufacture) were retired in 2007, however they were replaced with a newer tram type that was known as V3A\-CH\-PPC (CHopper and Partial Low\-floor/Podea Parțial Coborâtă). The V3B trams were also quickly replaced with V3B\-93 trams, being the last trams from the 1993 model to be made, thus making the oldest PPC trams older than the newest 1993 model trams.
The modernization was not only done by RATB's workshops, however. Because the RATB workshops were too small to modernize a lot of trams in such a short time, this meant that an agreement was reached with FAUR, which helped with the modernization between 1995 and 2004\. Not only that, but various types of modernizations were experimented. For example, a special type of modernization, known as M2000 was developed for the reconstruction of the light rail line 41\. These featured bumpers, a red front paint and high\-speed [pantographs](/wiki/Pantograph_%28rail%29 "Pantograph (rail)"). Electroputere modernized a few trams between 1997 and 2002, 3 of them featuring [Holec](/wiki/Brush_HMA "Brush HMA") electric equipments, etc.
The end of the V2A trams started officially in 2004 when a few older trams were retired, however starting from 2008 the official withdrawal began due to their age and old technology they used, being replaced with V3A\-CH\-PPC trams, with the last ones' operation ending in 2010\. Also in 2010 the last V2B trams were retired, being replaced with a V3B\-10 variant what was not much different from the V3B\-93 variant, featuring the same body as the 93 variant however featuring electrics from the 10 variant.
However, by 2013, it became clear that the modernization introduced in the 1990s was starting to show its age too. The main problem was the fact that these trams are all high floor vehicles, and despite being easy to maintain, they would have to be retired from service anyway due to non\-compliance to EU transportation rules. So the same year two units were retired and modernized. The modernization is very similar to the CH\-PPC variant, however the main modification was in the electric part. Here, the traction motors work on AC instead of DC, giving them the designation CA\-PPC (Curent Alternativ\-Podea Parțial Coborâtă). They were trialed in 2013 and introduced in 2014\. From 2016 to 2017, the official modernizations started, marking the beginning of the end of the V3A\-93 era. In 2019, air conditioning systems from [Liebherr](/wiki/Liebherr "Liebherr") began to be installed on 46 V3A\-CH\-PPC units.[STB SA a scos pe șine primele tramvaie din cele 46 CH PPC echipate cu aer condiționat](https://mobilitate.eu/stb-aer-conditionat-chppc/)
By 2021 as all of the 46 CH\-PPC trams are due for major repairs, they have been re\-modernized and have brought new features, like the overhauled interior, CCTV surveillance, better passenger information with two ultrawide displays, USB plugs, holstered seats and new validators that also allow debit cards as payment. These have been painted in STB's new Lime Green livery, introduced first with the Mercedes\-Benz Citaro Hybrid buses.[STB SA introduce in traseu cele mai noi tramvaie modernizate și revopseste vechile tramvaie care au probleme estetice](https://mobilitate.eu/stb-sa-tram-septembrie/) There is also plans to modernize 50 more standard V3A\-93 trams with environmental funds for the next two years, which will also bring an upgraded AC drive.[STB SA vrea să reducă cu 40% consumul de energie prin modernizarea a 50 de tramvaie V3A în următorii 2 ani](https://mobilitate.eu/stb-sa-mod-v3a/)
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Soon after [communism in Romania](/wiki/Communism_in_Romania \"Communism in Romania\") came to power, the authorities wanted to modernize the Bucharest [tram network](/wiki/Tram_network \"Tram network\"), that at the time used ancient V09 trams from the 1920s. For a while the only solutions they could come up with were the [V54](/wiki/Electroputere_V54 \"Electroputere V54\") trams introduced by [Electroputere](/wiki/Electroputere \"Electroputere\") from [Craiova](/wiki/Craiova \"Craiova\"), and the {{ill\\|ITB V56/V58\\|de\\|V56 und V58}} trams made by URAC. However they were not enough for Bucharest's quick expansion in the 1960s. It soon became apparent that a new type of tram was needed for the growing network. In 1968 an agreement was reached with [Linke\\-Hofmann\\-Busch](/wiki/Linke-Hofmann-Busch \"Linke-Hofmann-Busch\") (LHB) from [Salzgitter](/wiki/Salzgitter \"Salzgitter\")\\-[Brunswick](/wiki/Braunschweig \"Braunschweig\"), [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\"), that the following year a 3 section tram would be delivered (based on the LHB GT6\\) and a licence would be agreed upon. Indeed, the prototype was delivered in 1969 and tested in revenue service the following years, until it was scrapped in 1991\\. In 1970 the tram was dismantled for an inspection, where the designers for the project would modify some of its technicalities for the V3A project. The V3A prototype was manufactured in 1971, and was presented that same year on 4 May 1971, at the 100 year anniversary of the tram operation, where it ran on the newly operated tram line 30 in the Titan neighborhood. Series production ultimately started in 1972\\.\n[thumb\\|LHB GT8 prototype car 3501 seen in 1977 on [Calea Văcărești](/wiki/Calea_V%C4%83c%C4%83re%C8%99ti \"Calea Văcărești\")](/wiki/File:LHB_GT8_3501_on_V%C4%83c%C4%83re%C8%99ti_Avenue.jpg \"LHB GT8 3501 on Văcărești Avenue.jpg\")\nHowever, the V3A prototypes' fate was not as happy as it was thought. The original agreement included the local assembly of 100 [CKD kits](/wiki/CKD_kits \"CKD kits\") received from LHB, with the prototype to be possibly returned, should that idea had worked. However the LHB accused the ITB of having illegally dismantled and copied the designs of their tram, and that the V3A was nothing but a pirate\\-copy of the LHB 3501 tram. Eventually the dispute was settled and both trams could continue working in the ITB's fleet.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2023}}",
"The most noticeable modifications made was removal of lightweight [fibreglass](/wiki/Fibreglass \"Fibreglass\") material from the trams, thus increasing their weight from 15 to 25 tonnes, moving the third door's location in the second section of the [articulated tram](/wiki/Articulated_tram \"Articulated tram\"), the less\\-aerodynamic design which gave the tram a boxy\\-shape, compared to the round shape of the 3501 prototype, modified destination display and minor interior modifications. The axles were made by [Grivița Auto Repair Works](/wiki/Grivi%C8%9Ba_%28vehicle_manufacturer%29 \"Grivița (vehicle manufacturer)\") (Întreprinderea de Reparații Auto Grivița), which specialized in producing tram axles, while the traction electric motor was produced by the {{ill\\|Uzina de Mașini Electrice București\\|ro}} (UMEB), and the electrical equipment by {{ill\\|Electroaparataj\\|ro}} Bucharest. The first units were allocated to the Dudești Depot to be used on lines serving the Titan housing estate.",
"Eventually by the end of 1979 a total of 293 vehicles were made, and the V3A became the flagship of the ITB fleet, slowly replacing the V54s that were now modernized with electric equipment coming from the V3As and the V56s that were slowly withdrawn thanks to the introduction of the [Tatra T4R](/wiki/Tatra_T4 \"Tatra T4\") trams from [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\").",
"However, with the early 1980s, these trams would soon be introduced in other cities in Romania. The huge debt that had been accumulated by the Romanian government between 1977 and 1981 meant that imports were tightly restricted, meaning that importing Tatra trams was not allowed any more and fuel import restrictions meant that buses were becoming less efficient. The local authorities then turned to electrification of public transport in cities as a solution, which included the addition and expansion of trolleybus and tram networks. At the same time the [Timiș 2](/wiki/Timi%C8%99_2 \"Timiș 2\") made in [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara \"Timișoara\") had more success than the V3A, however some city councils desired to have articulated trams instead of a traction car\\-trailer car formation.",
"In 1982, a tram car named V2A was introduced, being designed for lines (and later, networks) with smaller number of passengers, such as the tram lines in the [Giulești](/wiki/Giule%C8%99ti \"Giulești\"), [Berceni](/wiki/Berceni%2C_Bucharest \"Berceni, Bucharest\") and [Colentina](/wiki/Colentina%2C_Bucharest \"Colentina, Bucharest\") neighborhoods of Bucharest. To counter the success of the Timiș 2 trams, in 1984 the V3A and V2A were finally adapted for export to other cities, the exports starting that very same year to [Constanța](/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba \"Constanța\")'s newly founded tram network. However the same year, Bucharest's network was soon being faced with mass demolitions that threatened the disruption of most tram lines, and the solution of temporary track relocation was not possible like the previous times when the metro works forced tram lines to detour. To answer to this issue, ITB modified a few V3A trams that were made in 1974 and 1978, and added doors on both sides and cabs at both ends. The result was called V3B or V3A\\-2S. The experiment was successful, however no new trams would be produced from this. In 1986, new V2B trams were produced which were similar to the V2A trams but had the same defying characteristic as the V3B did: double cabs and double doors. In 1987 the 500th V3A tram left the factory. The last tram to leave the factory was number 362 which was made in 1990\\.",
"By 1992, the following vehicles were produced:",
"",
"| City | Total | Years | Numbers |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Bucharest | 362 V3A{{0}}42 V2A{{0}}{{0}}7 V2B | 197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198619871990 | 001 (V3A prototype)002–006 (V3A)007–016 (V3A)017–037 (V3A)038–089 (V3A)090–143 (V3A)144–201 (V3A)202–253 (V3A)254–293 (V3A)294–337 (V3A)338–351 (V3A), 4001 (V2A)4002–4036 (V2A)352 (V3A), 4037–4044 (V2B), 4045–4048 (V2A)353–361 (V3A), 4049 (V2A)362 (V3A) |\n| Constanța | {{0}}75 V3A | 19841985198619871990 | 101–110111–140141142–170171–175 |\n| Ploiești | {{0}}29 V3A | 19871988{{0}} | 7001–7005, 7007–7008, 7010, 7013–7014, 7018–70197023–7024, 7028–7037, 7041–7042, 7045, 7047–7048Note: numbers were parallel with the ones from the Timiș 2 |\n| Brașov | {{0}}16 V3A{{0}}{{0}}4 V2A | 198719881989 | 1–8 (V3A)9–12 (V2A), 13–16 (V3A)17–20 (V3A) |\n| Cluj\\-Napoca | {{0}}{{0}}6 V3A{{0}}16 V2A | 19871988 | 101–106107–122 |\n| Oradea{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eminescu.rdsor.ro/istvan/nvv/allomany.html\\#hazai\\_motor\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120909205431/http://www.eminescu.rdsor.ro/istvan/nvv/allomany.html\\#hazai\\_motor\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-09\\|website\\=eminescu.rdsor.ro\\|title\\=''Romániai építésű vasvázas motorkocsik állományi adatai'' at eminescu.rdsor.ro\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-11}} | {{0}}{{0}}3 V2A{{0}}{{0}}6 V3A | 198819891990 | 20–21 (V2A)22 (V2A), 23–27 (V3A)28 (V3A) |\n| Brăila | {{0}}10 V3A | 1988–1989 | 80–89, some were left un\\-numbered |\n| Botoșani | {{0}}10 V3A | 1990 | 1–10 |\n| Iași | {{0}}{{0}}1 V2A | 1992 | 350 (metre\\-gauge prototype) |\n|",
"By the 1990s, in Bucharest however, the series was becoming outdated, so a modernization project started, called \"V3A\\-93\". The prototype was finished in 1993, in time for the 100 year anniversary of electric trams which featured a parade. By the early 2000s they quickly replaced the EP/V3A trams (modernizations of the V54 trams) and the Rathgeber and [Duewag](/wiki/Duewag \"Duewag\") trams from [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\") and [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt \"Frankfurt\"), brought second hand from 1992 to 1997\\. The last of the original V3A trams (later designated V3A\\-71 due to their year of manufacture) were retired in 2007, however they were replaced with a newer tram type that was known as V3A\\-CH\\-PPC (CHopper and Partial Low\\-floor/Podea Parțial Coborâtă). The V3B trams were also quickly replaced with V3B\\-93 trams, being the last trams from the 1993 model to be made, thus making the oldest PPC trams older than the newest 1993 model trams.",
"The modernization was not only done by RATB's workshops, however. Because the RATB workshops were too small to modernize a lot of trams in such a short time, this meant that an agreement was reached with FAUR, which helped with the modernization between 1995 and 2004\\. Not only that, but various types of modernizations were experimented. For example, a special type of modernization, known as M2000 was developed for the reconstruction of the light rail line 41\\. These featured bumpers, a red front paint and high\\-speed [pantographs](/wiki/Pantograph_%28rail%29 \"Pantograph (rail)\"). Electroputere modernized a few trams between 1997 and 2002, 3 of them featuring [Holec](/wiki/Brush_HMA \"Brush HMA\") electric equipments, etc.",
"The end of the V2A trams started officially in 2004 when a few older trams were retired, however starting from 2008 the official withdrawal began due to their age and old technology they used, being replaced with V3A\\-CH\\-PPC trams, with the last ones' operation ending in 2010\\. Also in 2010 the last V2B trams were retired, being replaced with a V3B\\-10 variant what was not much different from the V3B\\-93 variant, featuring the same body as the 93 variant however featuring electrics from the 10 variant.",
"However, by 2013, it became clear that the modernization introduced in the 1990s was starting to show its age too. The main problem was the fact that these trams are all high floor vehicles, and despite being easy to maintain, they would have to be retired from service anyway due to non\\-compliance to EU transportation rules. So the same year two units were retired and modernized. The modernization is very similar to the CH\\-PPC variant, however the main modification was in the electric part. Here, the traction motors work on AC instead of DC, giving them the designation CA\\-PPC (Curent Alternativ\\-Podea Parțial Coborâtă). They were trialed in 2013 and introduced in 2014\\. From 2016 to 2017, the official modernizations started, marking the beginning of the end of the V3A\\-93 era. In 2019, air conditioning systems from [Liebherr](/wiki/Liebherr \"Liebherr\") began to be installed on 46 V3A\\-CH\\-PPC units.[STB SA a scos pe șine primele tramvaie din cele 46 CH PPC echipate cu aer condiționat](https://mobilitate.eu/stb-aer-conditionat-chppc/)",
"By 2021 as all of the 46 CH\\-PPC trams are due for major repairs, they have been re\\-modernized and have brought new features, like the overhauled interior, CCTV surveillance, better passenger information with two ultrawide displays, USB plugs, holstered seats and new validators that also allow debit cards as payment. These have been painted in STB's new Lime Green livery, introduced first with the Mercedes\\-Benz Citaro Hybrid buses.[STB SA introduce in traseu cele mai noi tramvaie modernizate și revopseste vechile tramvaie care au probleme estetice](https://mobilitate.eu/stb-sa-tram-septembrie/) There is also plans to modernize 50 more standard V3A\\-93 trams with environmental funds for the next two years, which will also bring an upgraded AC drive.[STB SA vrea să reducă cu 40% consumul de energie prin modernizarea a 50 de tramvaie V3A în următorii 2 ani](https://mobilitate.eu/stb-sa-mod-v3a/)",
""
] |
History
-------
### Creation
Since [1887](/wiki/1887_All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship "1887 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship"), the [All\-Ireland Championship](/wiki/All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship "All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship") had been steadily growing in interest and in participation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rte.ie/centuryireland/index.php/articles/how\-leix\-won\-the\-all\-ireland\-hurling\-championship\-of\-1915\|title\=How Leix Won the All\-Ireland Hurling Championship of 1915\|publisher\=Century Ireland\|access\-date\=9 January 2018\|first\=Paul\|last\=Rouse}} The championship, however, was largely confined to the summer months, resulting in a lack of top class inter\-county action between September and April. Inter\-county tournament games were popular as a way of filling the void, while some provinces organised their own pre\-championship competitions, most notably the [Thomond Feis](/wiki/Thomond_Feis "Thomond Feis") in [Munster](/wiki/Munster "Munster").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.independent.ie/regionals/corkman/news/danno\-mahony\-a\-charleville\-great\-honoured\-27067339\.html\|title\=Danno Mahony: a Charleville great honoured\|publisher\=The Corkman\|date\=11 December 2008\|access\-date\=9 January 2018}} Several counties had also organised inter\-club leagues as a means of supplementing the county championship by providing more games. While these had proved successful, it was decided to create a national senior inter\-county league to provide games during the winter and spring months.
### Beginnings
The [inaugural National Hurling League](/wiki/1925%E2%80%9326_National_Hurling_League "1925–26 National Hurling League") began on 27 September 1925 and ended on 16 May 1926\. Seven teams \- [Cork](/wiki/Cork_GAA "Cork GAA"), [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin_GAA "Dublin GAA"), [Galway](/wiki/Galway_GAA "Galway GAA"). [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_GAA "Kilkenny GAA"), [Laois](/wiki/Laois_GAA "Laois GAA"), [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_GAA "Limerick GAA") and [Tipperary](/wiki/Tipperary_GAA "Tipperary GAA") \- competed in a six\-game [single round\-robin format](/wiki/Single_round-robin_tournament "Single round-robin tournament"). At the end of the group stage the top two teams contested the league final. Cork won the 1925–26 league following a 3–7 to 1–5 defeat of Dublin in the final.
### Development
While no league took place during the 1926–27 season, the [1926–27 league](/wiki/1927%E2%80%9328_National_Hurling_League "1927–28 National Hurling League") featured nine teams. A single round\-robin format was once again used, with each team playing eight games. The second league featured no final, with Tipperary being declared champions after securing 14 points from their group stage games.
The [1928\-29 league](/wiki/1928%E2%80%9329_National_Hurling_League "1928–29 National Hurling League") featured twelve teams divided in two groups based on geographical position. The Eastern Division comprised five teams from the [province of Leinster](/wiki/Province_of_Leinster "Province of Leinster"), while the Southwestern Division had seven teams from the [province of Munster](/wiki/Province_of_Munster "Province of Munster") and Galway. The top teams in each division played off in the final to determine the champions. This format was used on a number of occasions until the [1934–35](/wiki/1934%E2%80%9335_National_Hurling_League "1934–35 National Hurling League"), when the league reverted to a straightforward one\-group league with the top\-placed team being declared the champions. This format was used again during the leagues in [1935–36](/wiki/1935%E2%80%9336_National_Hurling_League "1935–36 National Hurling League") and [1936–37](/wiki/1936%E2%80%9337_National_Hurling_League "1936–37 National Hurling League").
Ten teams entered the [1937–38 league](/wiki/1937%E2%80%9338_National_Hurling_League "1937–38 National Hurling League"), with two groups of five teams competing. A third group was added in [1938–39](/wiki/1938%E2%80%9339_National_Hurling_League "1938–39 National Hurling League") as the number of teams increased to thirteen. These formats were regularly used over the following seasons, depending on the number of teams participating.
Between 1941 and 1945 the league was suspended due to [the Emergency](/wiki/The_Emergency_%28Ireland%29 "The Emergency (Ireland)").
The [1955–56 league](/wiki/1955%E2%80%9356_National_Hurling_League "1955–56 National Hurling League") saw the introduction of a major change in format. As a result of a lack of interest from defeated first\-round teams in recent years, [Central Council](/wiki/Structure_of_the_Gaelic_Athletic_Association "Structure of the Gaelic Athletic Association") introduced a two\-division league featuring a new system of relegation and promotion. Division 1 was confined to ten teams in two groups of five. The bottom\-placed team in each group would play off to decide which of the two teams would be relegated. Division 2 was made up of the 'second tier' hurling teams and featured eight teams divided into two groups. Limerick became the first team to be relegated, while Antrim became the first team to gain promotion under the new system.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Creation",
"Since [1887](/wiki/1887_All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship \"1887 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship\"), the [All\\-Ireland Championship](/wiki/All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship \"All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship\") had been steadily growing in interest and in participation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rte.ie/centuryireland/index.php/articles/how\\-leix\\-won\\-the\\-all\\-ireland\\-hurling\\-championship\\-of\\-1915\\|title\\=How Leix Won the All\\-Ireland Hurling Championship of 1915\\|publisher\\=Century Ireland\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2018\\|first\\=Paul\\|last\\=Rouse}} The championship, however, was largely confined to the summer months, resulting in a lack of top class inter\\-county action between September and April. Inter\\-county tournament games were popular as a way of filling the void, while some provinces organised their own pre\\-championship competitions, most notably the [Thomond Feis](/wiki/Thomond_Feis \"Thomond Feis\") in [Munster](/wiki/Munster \"Munster\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.independent.ie/regionals/corkman/news/danno\\-mahony\\-a\\-charleville\\-great\\-honoured\\-27067339\\.html\\|title\\=Danno Mahony: a Charleville great honoured\\|publisher\\=The Corkman\\|date\\=11 December 2008\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2018}} Several counties had also organised inter\\-club leagues as a means of supplementing the county championship by providing more games. While these had proved successful, it was decided to create a national senior inter\\-county league to provide games during the winter and spring months.",
"### Beginnings",
"The [inaugural National Hurling League](/wiki/1925%E2%80%9326_National_Hurling_League \"1925–26 National Hurling League\") began on 27 September 1925 and ended on 16 May 1926\\. Seven teams \\- [Cork](/wiki/Cork_GAA \"Cork GAA\"), [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin_GAA \"Dublin GAA\"), [Galway](/wiki/Galway_GAA \"Galway GAA\"). [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_GAA \"Kilkenny GAA\"), [Laois](/wiki/Laois_GAA \"Laois GAA\"), [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_GAA \"Limerick GAA\") and [Tipperary](/wiki/Tipperary_GAA \"Tipperary GAA\") \\- competed in a six\\-game [single round\\-robin format](/wiki/Single_round-robin_tournament \"Single round-robin tournament\"). At the end of the group stage the top two teams contested the league final. Cork won the 1925–26 league following a 3–7 to 1–5 defeat of Dublin in the final.",
"### Development",
"While no league took place during the 1926–27 season, the [1926–27 league](/wiki/1927%E2%80%9328_National_Hurling_League \"1927–28 National Hurling League\") featured nine teams. A single round\\-robin format was once again used, with each team playing eight games. The second league featured no final, with Tipperary being declared champions after securing 14 points from their group stage games.",
"The [1928\\-29 league](/wiki/1928%E2%80%9329_National_Hurling_League \"1928–29 National Hurling League\") featured twelve teams divided in two groups based on geographical position. The Eastern Division comprised five teams from the [province of Leinster](/wiki/Province_of_Leinster \"Province of Leinster\"), while the Southwestern Division had seven teams from the [province of Munster](/wiki/Province_of_Munster \"Province of Munster\") and Galway. The top teams in each division played off in the final to determine the champions. This format was used on a number of occasions until the [1934–35](/wiki/1934%E2%80%9335_National_Hurling_League \"1934–35 National Hurling League\"), when the league reverted to a straightforward one\\-group league with the top\\-placed team being declared the champions. This format was used again during the leagues in [1935–36](/wiki/1935%E2%80%9336_National_Hurling_League \"1935–36 National Hurling League\") and [1936–37](/wiki/1936%E2%80%9337_National_Hurling_League \"1936–37 National Hurling League\").",
"Ten teams entered the [1937–38 league](/wiki/1937%E2%80%9338_National_Hurling_League \"1937–38 National Hurling League\"), with two groups of five teams competing. A third group was added in [1938–39](/wiki/1938%E2%80%9339_National_Hurling_League \"1938–39 National Hurling League\") as the number of teams increased to thirteen. These formats were regularly used over the following seasons, depending on the number of teams participating.",
"Between 1941 and 1945 the league was suspended due to [the Emergency](/wiki/The_Emergency_%28Ireland%29 \"The Emergency (Ireland)\").",
"The [1955–56 league](/wiki/1955%E2%80%9356_National_Hurling_League \"1955–56 National Hurling League\") saw the introduction of a major change in format. As a result of a lack of interest from defeated first\\-round teams in recent years, [Central Council](/wiki/Structure_of_the_Gaelic_Athletic_Association \"Structure of the Gaelic Athletic Association\") introduced a two\\-division league featuring a new system of relegation and promotion. Division 1 was confined to ten teams in two groups of five. The bottom\\-placed team in each group would play off to decide which of the two teams would be relegated. Division 2 was made up of the 'second tier' hurling teams and featured eight teams divided into two groups. Limerick became the first team to be relegated, while Antrim became the first team to gain promotion under the new system.",
""
] |
### Development
While no league took place during the 1926–27 season, the [1926–27 league](/wiki/1927%E2%80%9328_National_Hurling_League "1927–28 National Hurling League") featured nine teams. A single round\-robin format was once again used, with each team playing eight games. The second league featured no final, with Tipperary being declared champions after securing 14 points from their group stage games.
The [1928\-29 league](/wiki/1928%E2%80%9329_National_Hurling_League "1928–29 National Hurling League") featured twelve teams divided in two groups based on geographical position. The Eastern Division comprised five teams from the [province of Leinster](/wiki/Province_of_Leinster "Province of Leinster"), while the Southwestern Division had seven teams from the [province of Munster](/wiki/Province_of_Munster "Province of Munster") and Galway. The top teams in each division played off in the final to determine the champions. This format was used on a number of occasions until the [1934–35](/wiki/1934%E2%80%9335_National_Hurling_League "1934–35 National Hurling League"), when the league reverted to a straightforward one\-group league with the top\-placed team being declared the champions. This format was used again during the leagues in [1935–36](/wiki/1935%E2%80%9336_National_Hurling_League "1935–36 National Hurling League") and [1936–37](/wiki/1936%E2%80%9337_National_Hurling_League "1936–37 National Hurling League").
Ten teams entered the [1937–38 league](/wiki/1937%E2%80%9338_National_Hurling_League "1937–38 National Hurling League"), with two groups of five teams competing. A third group was added in [1938–39](/wiki/1938%E2%80%9339_National_Hurling_League "1938–39 National Hurling League") as the number of teams increased to thirteen. These formats were regularly used over the following seasons, depending on the number of teams participating.
Between 1941 and 1945 the league was suspended due to [the Emergency](/wiki/The_Emergency_%28Ireland%29 "The Emergency (Ireland)").
The [1955–56 league](/wiki/1955%E2%80%9356_National_Hurling_League "1955–56 National Hurling League") saw the introduction of a major change in format. As a result of a lack of interest from defeated first\-round teams in recent years, [Central Council](/wiki/Structure_of_the_Gaelic_Athletic_Association "Structure of the Gaelic Athletic Association") introduced a two\-division league featuring a new system of relegation and promotion. Division 1 was confined to ten teams in two groups of five. The bottom\-placed team in each group would play off to decide which of the two teams would be relegated. Division 2 was made up of the 'second tier' hurling teams and featured eight teams divided into two groups. Limerick became the first team to be relegated, while Antrim became the first team to gain promotion under the new system.
|
[
"### Development",
"While no league took place during the 1926–27 season, the [1926–27 league](/wiki/1927%E2%80%9328_National_Hurling_League \"1927–28 National Hurling League\") featured nine teams. A single round\\-robin format was once again used, with each team playing eight games. The second league featured no final, with Tipperary being declared champions after securing 14 points from their group stage games.",
"The [1928\\-29 league](/wiki/1928%E2%80%9329_National_Hurling_League \"1928–29 National Hurling League\") featured twelve teams divided in two groups based on geographical position. The Eastern Division comprised five teams from the [province of Leinster](/wiki/Province_of_Leinster \"Province of Leinster\"), while the Southwestern Division had seven teams from the [province of Munster](/wiki/Province_of_Munster \"Province of Munster\") and Galway. The top teams in each division played off in the final to determine the champions. This format was used on a number of occasions until the [1934–35](/wiki/1934%E2%80%9335_National_Hurling_League \"1934–35 National Hurling League\"), when the league reverted to a straightforward one\\-group league with the top\\-placed team being declared the champions. This format was used again during the leagues in [1935–36](/wiki/1935%E2%80%9336_National_Hurling_League \"1935–36 National Hurling League\") and [1936–37](/wiki/1936%E2%80%9337_National_Hurling_League \"1936–37 National Hurling League\").",
"Ten teams entered the [1937–38 league](/wiki/1937%E2%80%9338_National_Hurling_League \"1937–38 National Hurling League\"), with two groups of five teams competing. A third group was added in [1938–39](/wiki/1938%E2%80%9339_National_Hurling_League \"1938–39 National Hurling League\") as the number of teams increased to thirteen. These formats were regularly used over the following seasons, depending on the number of teams participating.",
"Between 1941 and 1945 the league was suspended due to [the Emergency](/wiki/The_Emergency_%28Ireland%29 \"The Emergency (Ireland)\").",
"The [1955–56 league](/wiki/1955%E2%80%9356_National_Hurling_League \"1955–56 National Hurling League\") saw the introduction of a major change in format. As a result of a lack of interest from defeated first\\-round teams in recent years, [Central Council](/wiki/Structure_of_the_Gaelic_Athletic_Association \"Structure of the Gaelic Athletic Association\") introduced a two\\-division league featuring a new system of relegation and promotion. Division 1 was confined to ten teams in two groups of five. The bottom\\-placed team in each group would play off to decide which of the two teams would be relegated. Division 2 was made up of the 'second tier' hurling teams and featured eight teams divided into two groups. Limerick became the first team to be relegated, while Antrim became the first team to gain promotion under the new system.",
""
] |
Division 1
----------
### History
[200px\|thumb\|right\|[Jason Flynn](/wiki/Jason_Flynn "Jason Flynn") in action for [Galway](/wiki/Galway_GAA "Galway GAA") against [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_GAA "Kilkenny GAA") in the [2015 National Hurling League](/wiki/2015_National_Hurling_League "2015 National Hurling League")](/wiki/File:Jason_Flynn.jpg "Jason Flynn.jpg")
Division 1 has existed in its current form since the [2012 league](/wiki/2012_National_Hurling_League "2012 National Hurling League").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.breakingnews.ie/sport/other/revamp\-announced\-for\-next\-years\-hurling\-league\-517286\.html\|title\=Revamp announced for next year's hurling league\|publisher\=Breaking News\|date\=20 August 2011\|access\-date\=3 February 2018}} Prior to this, Division 1 had existed as a single division of eight teams. The new division, comprising two groups, was created using the final rankings from the [2011 league](/wiki/2011_National_Hurling_League "2011 National Hurling League"). The top six teams from that year's Division 1 were added to the new Division 1A. The bottom two teams from Division 1 and the top four teams from Division 2 were added to the new Division 1B.
In 2012 and [2013](/wiki/2013_National_Hurling_League "2013 National Hurling League"), the top two teams in Division 1B contested a final, with the winners joining the top three teams from Division 1A in the semi\-finals of the league proper. This format was abandoned when the quarter\-final stage was introduced during the [2014 league](/wiki/2014_National_Hurling_League "2014 National Hurling League").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.the42\.ie/allianz\-hurling\-league\-2\-1316775\-Feb2014/\|title\=Explainer: How does the new format for the 2014 hurling league work?\|publisher\=The 42\|date\=20 August 2011\|access\-date\=16 February 2018}}
### Format
There are currently seven teams in Division 1A.
During the course of a season (from February to March) each team plays the others once (a single round\-robin system) for a total of 21 games. Teams receive two points for a win and one point for a draw. No points are awarded for a loss. Where two teams are level on points, the team that wins the head\-to\-head match is ranked ahead. If this game is a draw, points difference (total scored minus total conceded in all games) is used to rank the teams. Where three or more teams are level on points, points difference is used to rank them.
The top two teams in Division 1A contest the National Hurling League final. The bottom two teams in Division 1A are relegated to Division 1B.
### 2025 Teams
The following seven teams are competing in Division 1A during the 2025 league.
| Team | Position in table in [2024](/wiki/2024_National_Hurling_League "2024 National Hurling League") | First year in Division 1A | In Division 1A since | Division 1 titles | Last Division 1 title |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg "Colours of Clare.svg") Clare | Champions | | | 5 | [2024](/wiki/2024_National_Hurling_League "2024 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg "Colours of Cork.svg") Cork | Group stage | | | 14 | [1998](/wiki/1998_National_Hurling_League "1998 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg "Colours of Galway.svg") Galway | Group Stage | | | 11 | [2021](/wiki/2021_National_Hurling_League "2021 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg "Colours of Kilkenny.svg") Kilkenny | Runners\-up | | | 19 | [2021](/wiki/2021_National_Hurling_League "2021 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg "Colours of Limerick.svg") Limerick | Semi\-finals | | | 14 | [2023](/wiki/2023_National_Hurling_League "2023 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg "Colours of Tipperary.svg") Tipperary | Semi\-finals | | | 19 | [2008](/wiki/2008_National_Hurling_League "2008 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Wexford.svg "Colours of Wexford.svg") Wexford | Group Stage | | | 4 | [1972–73](/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_National_Hurling_League "1972–73 National Hurling League") |
### Venues
[thumb\|[Semple Stadium](/wiki/Semple_Stadium "Semple Stadium"), as well as being the home stadium of Tipperary, is a regular venue for semi\-finals and finals.](/wiki/File:Semple1.jpg "Semple1.jpg")
[thumb\|[Páirc Uí Chaoimh](/wiki/P%C3%A1irc_U%C3%AD_Chaoimh "Páirc Uí Chaoimh") is the home stadium of Cork.](/wiki/File:P%C3%A1irc_U%C3%AD_Chaoimh.jpg "Páirc Uí Chaoimh.jpg")
[thumb\|[Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park "Croke Park") last hosted the league final in 2019\.](/wiki/File:Croke_Park_from_the_Hill_-_2004_All-Ireland_Football_Championship_Final.jpg "Croke Park from the Hill - 2004 All-Ireland Football Championship Final.jpg")
#### Attendances
Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Central Council and for the teams involved. For the knock\-out stages of the 2017 league, average attendances were 12,474 with a total aggregate attendance figure of 87,321 for the seven games.
#### Group stage
The league is operated using a home and away basis every second year. Fixtures in the five group stage rounds of the league are played at the home ground of one of the two teams involved. Each team is guaranteed at least two home games.
#### Quarter\-finals
The quarter\-finals of the league are usually played at the home venue of one of the teams involved. The team which receives home advantage is decided by using the home and away agreement or by a coin toss.
#### Semi\-finals
The semi\-finals of the league are usually played on the same day at the same venue as part of a double\-header of games. [Semple Stadium](/wiki/Semple_Stadium "Semple Stadium"), [Nowlan Park](/wiki/Nowlan_Park "Nowlan Park") and the [Gaelic Grounds](/wiki/Gaelic_Grounds "Gaelic Grounds") have all been used as the venues for the semi\-finals.
#### Final
Since 2000, Semple Stadium has been used on ten occasions as the host venue for the league final. The Gaelic Grounds, Nowlan Park and [Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park "Croke Park") have also been used as the final venue during this time.
### Managers
[thumb\|[Brian Cody](/wiki/Brian_Cody "Brian Cody") managed [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team "Kilkenny county hurling team") to 10 league titles.](/wiki/File:Brian_Cody.jpg "Brian Cody.jpg")
[thumb\|[Davy Fitzgerald](/wiki/Davy_Fitzgerald "Davy Fitzgerald") managed [Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team "Clare county hurling team") to the title in 2016\.](/wiki/File:Davy-fitzgerald-sf.jpg "Davy-fitzgerald-sf.jpg")
[Managers](/wiki/Manager_%28Gaelic_games%29 "Manager (Gaelic games)") in the National Hurling League are involved in the day\-to\-day running of the team, including the training, team selection, and sourcing of players from the club championships. Their influence varies from county\-to\-county and is related to the individual county boards. From 2018, all inter\-county head coaches must be Award 2 qualified. The manager is assisted by a team of two or three selectors and an extensive backroom team consisting of various coaches. Prior to the development of the concept of a manager in the 1970s, teams were usually managed by a team of selectors with one member acting as chairman.
| \+ Winning managers (1976–2021\) |
| --- |
| Manager | Team | Wins | Winning years |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg "Colours of Kilkenny.svg") [Brian Cody](/wiki/Brian_Cody "Brian Cody") |[Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team "Kilkenny county hurling team")
10
[2002](/wiki/2002_National_Hurling_League "2002 National Hurling League"), [2003](/wiki/2003_National_Hurling_League "2003 National Hurling League"), [2005](/wiki/2005_National_Hurling_League "2005 National Hurling League"), [2006](/wiki/2006_National_Hurling_League "2006 National Hurling League"), [2009](/wiki/2009_National_Hurling_League "2009 National Hurling League"), [2012](/wiki/2012_National_Hurling_League "2012 National Hurling League"), [2013](/wiki/2013_National_Hurling_League "2013 National Hurling League"), [2014](/wiki/2014_National_Hurling_League "2014 National Hurling League"), [2018](/wiki/2018_National_Hurling_League "2018 National Hurling League"), [2021](/wiki/2021_National_Hurling_League "2021 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg "Colours of Kilkenny.svg") [Pat Henderson](/wiki/Pat_Henderson_%28hurler%29 "Pat Henderson (hurler)") |[Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team "Kilkenny county hurling team")
3
[1981\-82](/wiki/1981-82_National_Hurling_League "1981-82 National Hurling League"), [1982\-83](/wiki/1982-83_National_Hurling_League "1982-83 National Hurling League"), [1985\-86](/wiki/1985-86_National_Hurling_League "1985-86 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg "Colours of Cork.svg") [Justin McCarthy](/wiki/Justin_McCarthy_%28hurler%29 "Justin McCarthy (hurler)") |[Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team "Clare county hurling team")
[Waterford](/wiki/Waterford_county_hurling_team "Waterford county hurling team")
3
[1977](/wiki/1976-77_National_Hurling_League "1976-77 National Hurling League"){{Cref2\|CE}}, [1978](/wiki/1977-78_National_Hurling_League "1977-78 National Hurling League"){{Cref2\|CE}}[2007](/wiki/2007_National_Hurling_League "2007 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg "Colours of Limerick.svg") [John Kiely](/wiki/John_Kiely_%28Limerick_hurler%29 "John Kiely (Limerick hurler)") |[Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_county_hurling_team "Limerick county hurling team")
3
[2019](/wiki/2019_National_Hurling_League "2019 National Hurling League"), [2020](/wiki/2020_National_Hurling_League "2020 National Hurling League"), [2023](/wiki/2023_National_Hurling_League "2023 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg "Colours of Clare.svg") [Fr. Harry Bohan](/wiki/Harry_Bohan "Harry Bohan") |[Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team "Clare county hurling team")
2
[1977](/wiki/1976-77_National_Hurling_League "1976-77 National Hurling League"){{Cref2\|CE}}, [1978](/wiki/1977-78_National_Hurling_League "1977-78 National Hurling League"){{Cref2\|CE}} |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Dublin.svg "Colours of Dublin.svg") [Noel Drumgoole](/wiki/Noel_Drumgoole "Noel Drumgoole") |[Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_county_hurling_team "Limerick county hurling team")
2
[1983\-84](/wiki/1983-84_National_Hurling_League "1983-84 National Hurling League"), [1984\-85](/wiki/1984-85_National_Hurling_League "1984-85 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg "Colours of Tipperary.svg") [Nicky English](/wiki/Nicky_English "Nicky English") |[Tipperary](/wiki/Tipperary_county_hurling_team "Tipperary county hurling team")
2
[1999](/wiki/1999_National_Hurling_League "1999 National Hurling League"), [2001](/wiki/2001_National_Hurling_League "2001 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg "Colours of Galway.svg") [Cyril Farrell](/wiki/Cyril_Farrell "Cyril Farrell") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team "Galway county hurling team")
2
[1986\-87](/wiki/1986-87_National_Hurling_League "1986-87 National Hurling League"), [1988\-89](/wiki/1988-89_National_Hurling_League "1988-89 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg "Colours of Tipperary.svg") [Michael Keating](/wiki/Babs_Keating "Babs Keating") |[Tipperary](/wiki/Tipperary_county_hurling_team "Tipperary county hurling team")
2
[1987\-88](/wiki/1987-88_National_Hurling_League "1987-88 National Hurling League"), [1993\-94](/wiki/1993-94_National_Hurling_League "1993-94 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg "Colours of Galway.svg") [Mattie Murphy](/wiki/Mattie_Murphy "Mattie Murphy") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team "Galway county hurling team")
2
[1995\-96](/wiki/1995-96_National_Hurling_League "1995-96 National Hurling League"), [2000](/wiki/2000_National_Hurling_League "2000 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg "Colours of Cork.svg") [Jimmy Barry\-Murphy](/wiki/Jimmy_Barry-Murphy "Jimmy Barry-Murphy") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team "Cork county hurling team")
1
[1998](/wiki/1998_National_Hurling_League "1998 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg "Colours of Limerick.svg") [Phil Bennis](/wiki/Phil_Bennis "Phil Bennis") |[Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_county_hurling_team "Limerick county hurling team")
1
[1991\-92](/wiki/1991-92_National_Hurling_League "1991-92 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg "Colours of Clare.svg") [Anthony Daly](/wiki/Anthony_Daly_%28hurler%29 "Anthony Daly (hurler)") |[Dublin](/wiki/Dublin_county_hurling_team "Dublin county hurling team")
1
[2011](/wiki/2011_National_Hurling_League "2011 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg "Colours of Galway.svg") [Micheál Donoghue](/wiki/Miche%C3%A1l_Donoghue "Micheál Donoghue") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team "Galway county hurling team")
1
[2017](/wiki/2017_National_Hurling_League "2017 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg "Colours of Clare.svg") [Davy Fitzgerald](/wiki/Davy_Fitzgerald "Davy Fitzgerald") |[Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team "Clare county hurling team")
1
[2016](/wiki/2016_National_Hurling_League "2016 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg "Colours of Tipperary.svg") [Len Gaynor](/wiki/Len_Gaynor "Len Gaynor") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team "Cork county hurling team")
1
[1978\-79](/wiki/1978-79_National_Hurling_League "1978-79 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg "Colours of Galway.svg") [Conor Hayes](/wiki/Conor_Hayes "Conor Hayes") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team "Galway county hurling team")
1
[2004](/wiki/2004_National_Hurling_League "2004 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg "Colours of Kilkenny.svg") [Dermot Healy](/wiki/Dermot_Healy_%28hurling_manager%29 "Dermot Healy (hurling manager)") |[Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team "Kilkenny county hurling team")
1
[1989\-90](/wiki/1989-90_National_Hurling_League "1989-90 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Offaly.svg "Colours of Offaly.svg") [Pádraig Horan](/wiki/P%C3%A1draig_Horan "Pádraig Horan") |[Offaly](/wiki/Offaly_county_hurling_team "Offaly county hurling team")
1
[1990\-91](/wiki/1990-91_National_Hurling_League "1990-91 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg "Colours of Cork.svg") [Gerald McCarthy](/wiki/Gerald_McCarthy_%28hurler%29 "Gerald McCarthy (hurler)") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team "Cork county hurling team")
1
[1980\-81](/wiki/1980-81_National_Hurling_League "1980-81 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Waterford.svg "Colours of Waterford.svg") [Derek McGrath](/wiki/Derek_McGrath_%28hurler%29 "Derek McGrath (hurler)") |[Waterford](/wiki/Waterford_county_hurling_team "Waterford county hurling team")
1
[2015](/wiki/2015_National_Hurling_League "2015 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg "Colours of Tipperary.svg") [John McIntyre](/wiki/John_McIntyre_%28hurler%29 "John McIntyre (hurler)") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team "Galway county hurling team")
1
[2010](/wiki/2010_National_Hurling_League "2010 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg "Colours of Cork.svg") [Michael O'Brien](/wiki/Michael_O%27Brien_%28hurling_manager%29 "Michael O'Brien (hurling manager)") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team "Cork county hurling team")
1
[1992\-93](/wiki/1992-93_National_Hurling_League "1992-93 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg "Colours of Limerick.svg") [Tom Ryan](/wiki/Tom_Ryan_%28Limerick_hurler%29 "Tom Ryan (Limerick hurler)") |[Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_county_hurling_team "Limerick county hurling team")
1
[1997](/wiki/1997_National_Hurling_League "1997 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg "Colours of Tipperary.svg") [Liam Sheedy](/wiki/Liam_Sheedy "Liam Sheedy") |[Tipperary](/wiki/Tipperary_county_hurling_team "Tipperary county hurling team")
1
[2008](/wiki/2008_National_Hurling_League "2008 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg "Colours of Cork.svg") [Bertie Troy](/wiki/Bertie_Troy "Bertie Troy") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team "Cork county hurling team")
1
[1979\-80](/wiki/1979-80_National_Hurling_League "1979-80 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg "Colours of Kilkenny.svg") [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh "Ollie Walsh") |[Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team "Kilkenny county hurling team")
1
[1994\-95](/wiki/1994-95_National_Hurling_League "1994-95 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg "Colours of Limerick.svg") [Shane O'Neill](/wiki/Shane_O%27Neill_%28Limerick_hurler%29 "Shane O'Neill (Limerick hurler)") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team "Galway county hurling team")
1
[2021](/wiki/2021_National_Hurling_League "2021 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg "Colours of Tipperary.svg") [Liam Cahill](/wiki/Liam_Cahill "Liam Cahill") |[Waterford](/wiki/Waterford_county_hurling_team "Waterford county hurling team")
1
[2022](/wiki/2022_National_Hurling_League "2022 National Hurling League") |
| [20px\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg "Colours of Clare.svg") [Brian Lohan](/wiki/Brian_Lohan "Brian Lohan") |[Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team "Clare county hurling team")
1
[2024](/wiki/2024_National_Hurling_League "2024 National Hurling League") |
Notes
{{Cnote2 Begin\|liststyle\=disc}}
{{Cnote2\|CE\|'''Clare (CE):''' \[\[Harry Bohan\|Fr. Harry Bohan]] and \[\[Justin McCarthy (hurler)\|Justin McCarthy]] co\-managed \[\[Clare GAA\|Clare]] to success in \[\[1976\-77 National Hurling League\|1977]] and \[\[1977\-78 National Hurling League\|1978]].}}
{{Cnote2 End}}
|
[
"Division 1\n----------",
"### History",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|right\\|[Jason Flynn](/wiki/Jason_Flynn \"Jason Flynn\") in action for [Galway](/wiki/Galway_GAA \"Galway GAA\") against [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_GAA \"Kilkenny GAA\") in the [2015 National Hurling League](/wiki/2015_National_Hurling_League \"2015 National Hurling League\")](/wiki/File:Jason_Flynn.jpg \"Jason Flynn.jpg\")\nDivision 1 has existed in its current form since the [2012 league](/wiki/2012_National_Hurling_League \"2012 National Hurling League\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.breakingnews.ie/sport/other/revamp\\-announced\\-for\\-next\\-years\\-hurling\\-league\\-517286\\.html\\|title\\=Revamp announced for next year's hurling league\\|publisher\\=Breaking News\\|date\\=20 August 2011\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2018}} Prior to this, Division 1 had existed as a single division of eight teams. The new division, comprising two groups, was created using the final rankings from the [2011 league](/wiki/2011_National_Hurling_League \"2011 National Hurling League\"). The top six teams from that year's Division 1 were added to the new Division 1A. The bottom two teams from Division 1 and the top four teams from Division 2 were added to the new Division 1B.",
"In 2012 and [2013](/wiki/2013_National_Hurling_League \"2013 National Hurling League\"), the top two teams in Division 1B contested a final, with the winners joining the top three teams from Division 1A in the semi\\-finals of the league proper. This format was abandoned when the quarter\\-final stage was introduced during the [2014 league](/wiki/2014_National_Hurling_League \"2014 National Hurling League\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.the42\\.ie/allianz\\-hurling\\-league\\-2\\-1316775\\-Feb2014/\\|title\\=Explainer: How does the new format for the 2014 hurling league work?\\|publisher\\=The 42\\|date\\=20 August 2011\\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2018}}",
"### Format",
"There are currently seven teams in Division 1A.",
"During the course of a season (from February to March) each team plays the others once (a single round\\-robin system) for a total of 21 games. Teams receive two points for a win and one point for a draw. No points are awarded for a loss. Where two teams are level on points, the team that wins the head\\-to\\-head match is ranked ahead. If this game is a draw, points difference (total scored minus total conceded in all games) is used to rank the teams. Where three or more teams are level on points, points difference is used to rank them.",
"The top two teams in Division 1A contest the National Hurling League final. The bottom two teams in Division 1A are relegated to Division 1B.",
"### 2025 Teams",
"The following seven teams are competing in Division 1A during the 2025 league.",
"| Team | Position in table in [2024](/wiki/2024_National_Hurling_League \"2024 National Hurling League\") | First year in Division 1A | In Division 1A since | Division 1 titles | Last Division 1 title |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg \"Colours of Clare.svg\") Clare | Champions | | | 5 | [2024](/wiki/2024_National_Hurling_League \"2024 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg \"Colours of Cork.svg\") Cork | Group stage | | | 14 | [1998](/wiki/1998_National_Hurling_League \"1998 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg \"Colours of Galway.svg\") Galway | Group Stage | | | 11 | [2021](/wiki/2021_National_Hurling_League \"2021 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg \"Colours of Kilkenny.svg\") Kilkenny | Runners\\-up | | | 19 | [2021](/wiki/2021_National_Hurling_League \"2021 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg \"Colours of Limerick.svg\") Limerick | Semi\\-finals | | | 14 | [2023](/wiki/2023_National_Hurling_League \"2023 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg \"Colours of Tipperary.svg\") Tipperary | Semi\\-finals | | | 19 | [2008](/wiki/2008_National_Hurling_League \"2008 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Wexford.svg \"Colours of Wexford.svg\") Wexford | Group Stage | | | 4 | [1972–73](/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_National_Hurling_League \"1972–73 National Hurling League\") |",
"",
"### Venues",
"[thumb\\|[Semple Stadium](/wiki/Semple_Stadium \"Semple Stadium\"), as well as being the home stadium of Tipperary, is a regular venue for semi\\-finals and finals.](/wiki/File:Semple1.jpg \"Semple1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Páirc Uí Chaoimh](/wiki/P%C3%A1irc_U%C3%AD_Chaoimh \"Páirc Uí Chaoimh\") is the home stadium of Cork.](/wiki/File:P%C3%A1irc_U%C3%AD_Chaoimh.jpg \"Páirc Uí Chaoimh.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park \"Croke Park\") last hosted the league final in 2019\\.](/wiki/File:Croke_Park_from_the_Hill_-_2004_All-Ireland_Football_Championship_Final.jpg \"Croke Park from the Hill - 2004 All-Ireland Football Championship Final.jpg\")",
"#### Attendances",
"Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Central Council and for the teams involved. For the knock\\-out stages of the 2017 league, average attendances were 12,474 with a total aggregate attendance figure of 87,321 for the seven games.",
"#### Group stage",
"The league is operated using a home and away basis every second year. Fixtures in the five group stage rounds of the league are played at the home ground of one of the two teams involved. Each team is guaranteed at least two home games.",
"#### Quarter\\-finals",
"The quarter\\-finals of the league are usually played at the home venue of one of the teams involved. The team which receives home advantage is decided by using the home and away agreement or by a coin toss.",
"#### Semi\\-finals",
"The semi\\-finals of the league are usually played on the same day at the same venue as part of a double\\-header of games. [Semple Stadium](/wiki/Semple_Stadium \"Semple Stadium\"), [Nowlan Park](/wiki/Nowlan_Park \"Nowlan Park\") and the [Gaelic Grounds](/wiki/Gaelic_Grounds \"Gaelic Grounds\") have all been used as the venues for the semi\\-finals.",
"#### Final",
"Since 2000, Semple Stadium has been used on ten occasions as the host venue for the league final. The Gaelic Grounds, Nowlan Park and [Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park \"Croke Park\") have also been used as the final venue during this time.",
"### Managers",
"[thumb\\|[Brian Cody](/wiki/Brian_Cody \"Brian Cody\") managed [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team \"Kilkenny county hurling team\") to 10 league titles.](/wiki/File:Brian_Cody.jpg \"Brian Cody.jpg\")",
"[thumb\\|[Davy Fitzgerald](/wiki/Davy_Fitzgerald \"Davy Fitzgerald\") managed [Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team \"Clare county hurling team\") to the title in 2016\\.](/wiki/File:Davy-fitzgerald-sf.jpg \"Davy-fitzgerald-sf.jpg\")\n[Managers](/wiki/Manager_%28Gaelic_games%29 \"Manager (Gaelic games)\") in the National Hurling League are involved in the day\\-to\\-day running of the team, including the training, team selection, and sourcing of players from the club championships. Their influence varies from county\\-to\\-county and is related to the individual county boards. From 2018, all inter\\-county head coaches must be Award 2 qualified. The manager is assisted by a team of two or three selectors and an extensive backroom team consisting of various coaches. Prior to the development of the concept of a manager in the 1970s, teams were usually managed by a team of selectors with one member acting as chairman.",
"",
"| \\+ Winning managers (1976–2021\\) |\n| --- |\n| Manager | Team | Wins | Winning years |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg \"Colours of Kilkenny.svg\") [Brian Cody](/wiki/Brian_Cody \"Brian Cody\") |[Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team \"Kilkenny county hurling team\")",
"10",
"[2002](/wiki/2002_National_Hurling_League \"2002 National Hurling League\"), [2003](/wiki/2003_National_Hurling_League \"2003 National Hurling League\"), [2005](/wiki/2005_National_Hurling_League \"2005 National Hurling League\"), [2006](/wiki/2006_National_Hurling_League \"2006 National Hurling League\"), [2009](/wiki/2009_National_Hurling_League \"2009 National Hurling League\"), [2012](/wiki/2012_National_Hurling_League \"2012 National Hurling League\"), [2013](/wiki/2013_National_Hurling_League \"2013 National Hurling League\"), [2014](/wiki/2014_National_Hurling_League \"2014 National Hurling League\"), [2018](/wiki/2018_National_Hurling_League \"2018 National Hurling League\"), [2021](/wiki/2021_National_Hurling_League \"2021 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg \"Colours of Kilkenny.svg\") [Pat Henderson](/wiki/Pat_Henderson_%28hurler%29 \"Pat Henderson (hurler)\") |[Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team \"Kilkenny county hurling team\")",
"3",
"[1981\\-82](/wiki/1981-82_National_Hurling_League \"1981-82 National Hurling League\"), [1982\\-83](/wiki/1982-83_National_Hurling_League \"1982-83 National Hurling League\"), [1985\\-86](/wiki/1985-86_National_Hurling_League \"1985-86 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg \"Colours of Cork.svg\") [Justin McCarthy](/wiki/Justin_McCarthy_%28hurler%29 \"Justin McCarthy (hurler)\") |[Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team \"Clare county hurling team\") \n[Waterford](/wiki/Waterford_county_hurling_team \"Waterford county hurling team\")",
"3",
"[1977](/wiki/1976-77_National_Hurling_League \"1976-77 National Hurling League\"){{Cref2\\|CE}}, [1978](/wiki/1977-78_National_Hurling_League \"1977-78 National Hurling League\"){{Cref2\\|CE}}[2007](/wiki/2007_National_Hurling_League \"2007 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg \"Colours of Limerick.svg\") [John Kiely](/wiki/John_Kiely_%28Limerick_hurler%29 \"John Kiely (Limerick hurler)\") |[Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_county_hurling_team \"Limerick county hurling team\")",
"3",
"[2019](/wiki/2019_National_Hurling_League \"2019 National Hurling League\"), [2020](/wiki/2020_National_Hurling_League \"2020 National Hurling League\"), [2023](/wiki/2023_National_Hurling_League \"2023 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg \"Colours of Clare.svg\") [Fr. Harry Bohan](/wiki/Harry_Bohan \"Harry Bohan\") |[Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team \"Clare county hurling team\")",
"2",
"[1977](/wiki/1976-77_National_Hurling_League \"1976-77 National Hurling League\"){{Cref2\\|CE}}, [1978](/wiki/1977-78_National_Hurling_League \"1977-78 National Hurling League\"){{Cref2\\|CE}} |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Dublin.svg \"Colours of Dublin.svg\") [Noel Drumgoole](/wiki/Noel_Drumgoole \"Noel Drumgoole\") |[Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_county_hurling_team \"Limerick county hurling team\")",
"2",
"[1983\\-84](/wiki/1983-84_National_Hurling_League \"1983-84 National Hurling League\"), [1984\\-85](/wiki/1984-85_National_Hurling_League \"1984-85 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg \"Colours of Tipperary.svg\") [Nicky English](/wiki/Nicky_English \"Nicky English\") |[Tipperary](/wiki/Tipperary_county_hurling_team \"Tipperary county hurling team\")",
"2",
"[1999](/wiki/1999_National_Hurling_League \"1999 National Hurling League\"), [2001](/wiki/2001_National_Hurling_League \"2001 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg \"Colours of Galway.svg\") [Cyril Farrell](/wiki/Cyril_Farrell \"Cyril Farrell\") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team \"Galway county hurling team\")",
"2",
"[1986\\-87](/wiki/1986-87_National_Hurling_League \"1986-87 National Hurling League\"), [1988\\-89](/wiki/1988-89_National_Hurling_League \"1988-89 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg \"Colours of Tipperary.svg\") [Michael Keating](/wiki/Babs_Keating \"Babs Keating\") |[Tipperary](/wiki/Tipperary_county_hurling_team \"Tipperary county hurling team\")",
"2",
"[1987\\-88](/wiki/1987-88_National_Hurling_League \"1987-88 National Hurling League\"), [1993\\-94](/wiki/1993-94_National_Hurling_League \"1993-94 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg \"Colours of Galway.svg\") [Mattie Murphy](/wiki/Mattie_Murphy \"Mattie Murphy\") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team \"Galway county hurling team\")",
"2",
"[1995\\-96](/wiki/1995-96_National_Hurling_League \"1995-96 National Hurling League\"), [2000](/wiki/2000_National_Hurling_League \"2000 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg \"Colours of Cork.svg\") [Jimmy Barry\\-Murphy](/wiki/Jimmy_Barry-Murphy \"Jimmy Barry-Murphy\") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team \"Cork county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1998](/wiki/1998_National_Hurling_League \"1998 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg \"Colours of Limerick.svg\") [Phil Bennis](/wiki/Phil_Bennis \"Phil Bennis\") |[Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_county_hurling_team \"Limerick county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1991\\-92](/wiki/1991-92_National_Hurling_League \"1991-92 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg \"Colours of Clare.svg\") [Anthony Daly](/wiki/Anthony_Daly_%28hurler%29 \"Anthony Daly (hurler)\") |[Dublin](/wiki/Dublin_county_hurling_team \"Dublin county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2011](/wiki/2011_National_Hurling_League \"2011 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg \"Colours of Galway.svg\") [Micheál Donoghue](/wiki/Miche%C3%A1l_Donoghue \"Micheál Donoghue\") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team \"Galway county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2017](/wiki/2017_National_Hurling_League \"2017 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg \"Colours of Clare.svg\") [Davy Fitzgerald](/wiki/Davy_Fitzgerald \"Davy Fitzgerald\") |[Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team \"Clare county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2016](/wiki/2016_National_Hurling_League \"2016 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg \"Colours of Tipperary.svg\") [Len Gaynor](/wiki/Len_Gaynor \"Len Gaynor\") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team \"Cork county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1978\\-79](/wiki/1978-79_National_Hurling_League \"1978-79 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Galway.svg \"Colours of Galway.svg\") [Conor Hayes](/wiki/Conor_Hayes \"Conor Hayes\") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team \"Galway county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2004](/wiki/2004_National_Hurling_League \"2004 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg \"Colours of Kilkenny.svg\") [Dermot Healy](/wiki/Dermot_Healy_%28hurling_manager%29 \"Dermot Healy (hurling manager)\") |[Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team \"Kilkenny county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1989\\-90](/wiki/1989-90_National_Hurling_League \"1989-90 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Offaly.svg \"Colours of Offaly.svg\") [Pádraig Horan](/wiki/P%C3%A1draig_Horan \"Pádraig Horan\") |[Offaly](/wiki/Offaly_county_hurling_team \"Offaly county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1990\\-91](/wiki/1990-91_National_Hurling_League \"1990-91 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg \"Colours of Cork.svg\") [Gerald McCarthy](/wiki/Gerald_McCarthy_%28hurler%29 \"Gerald McCarthy (hurler)\") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team \"Cork county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1980\\-81](/wiki/1980-81_National_Hurling_League \"1980-81 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Waterford.svg \"Colours of Waterford.svg\") [Derek McGrath](/wiki/Derek_McGrath_%28hurler%29 \"Derek McGrath (hurler)\") |[Waterford](/wiki/Waterford_county_hurling_team \"Waterford county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2015](/wiki/2015_National_Hurling_League \"2015 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg \"Colours of Tipperary.svg\") [John McIntyre](/wiki/John_McIntyre_%28hurler%29 \"John McIntyre (hurler)\") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team \"Galway county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2010](/wiki/2010_National_Hurling_League \"2010 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg \"Colours of Cork.svg\") [Michael O'Brien](/wiki/Michael_O%27Brien_%28hurling_manager%29 \"Michael O'Brien (hurling manager)\") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team \"Cork county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1992\\-93](/wiki/1992-93_National_Hurling_League \"1992-93 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg \"Colours of Limerick.svg\") [Tom Ryan](/wiki/Tom_Ryan_%28Limerick_hurler%29 \"Tom Ryan (Limerick hurler)\") |[Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_county_hurling_team \"Limerick county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1997](/wiki/1997_National_Hurling_League \"1997 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg \"Colours of Tipperary.svg\") [Liam Sheedy](/wiki/Liam_Sheedy \"Liam Sheedy\") |[Tipperary](/wiki/Tipperary_county_hurling_team \"Tipperary county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2008](/wiki/2008_National_Hurling_League \"2008 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Cork.svg \"Colours of Cork.svg\") [Bertie Troy](/wiki/Bertie_Troy \"Bertie Troy\") |[Cork](/wiki/Cork_county_hurling_team \"Cork county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1979\\-80](/wiki/1979-80_National_Hurling_League \"1979-80 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Kilkenny.svg \"Colours of Kilkenny.svg\") [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh \"Ollie Walsh\") |[Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_county_hurling_team \"Kilkenny county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[1994\\-95](/wiki/1994-95_National_Hurling_League \"1994-95 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Limerick.svg \"Colours of Limerick.svg\") [Shane O'Neill](/wiki/Shane_O%27Neill_%28Limerick_hurler%29 \"Shane O'Neill (Limerick hurler)\") |[Galway](/wiki/Galway_county_hurling_team \"Galway county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2021](/wiki/2021_National_Hurling_League \"2021 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Tipperary.svg \"Colours of Tipperary.svg\") [Liam Cahill](/wiki/Liam_Cahill \"Liam Cahill\") |[Waterford](/wiki/Waterford_county_hurling_team \"Waterford county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2022](/wiki/2022_National_Hurling_League \"2022 National Hurling League\") |\n| [20px\\|border](/wiki/File:Colours_of_Clare.svg \"Colours of Clare.svg\") [Brian Lohan](/wiki/Brian_Lohan \"Brian Lohan\") |[Clare](/wiki/Clare_county_hurling_team \"Clare county hurling team\")",
"1",
"[2024](/wiki/2024_National_Hurling_League \"2024 National Hurling League\") |",
"Notes\n{{Cnote2 Begin\\|liststyle\\=disc}}\n{{Cnote2\\|CE\\|'''Clare (CE):''' \\[\\[Harry Bohan\\|Fr. Harry Bohan]] and \\[\\[Justin McCarthy (hurler)\\|Justin McCarthy]] co\\-managed \\[\\[Clare GAA\\|Clare]] to success in \\[\\[1976\\-77 National Hurling League\\|1977]] and \\[\\[1977\\-78 National Hurling League\\|1978]].}}\n{{Cnote2 End}}"
] |
### Venues
[thumb\|[Semple Stadium](/wiki/Semple_Stadium "Semple Stadium"), as well as being the home stadium of Tipperary, is a regular venue for semi\-finals and finals.](/wiki/File:Semple1.jpg "Semple1.jpg")
[thumb\|[Páirc Uí Chaoimh](/wiki/P%C3%A1irc_U%C3%AD_Chaoimh "Páirc Uí Chaoimh") is the home stadium of Cork.](/wiki/File:P%C3%A1irc_U%C3%AD_Chaoimh.jpg "Páirc Uí Chaoimh.jpg")
[thumb\|[Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park "Croke Park") last hosted the league final in 2019\.](/wiki/File:Croke_Park_from_the_Hill_-_2004_All-Ireland_Football_Championship_Final.jpg "Croke Park from the Hill - 2004 All-Ireland Football Championship Final.jpg")
#### Attendances
Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Central Council and for the teams involved. For the knock\-out stages of the 2017 league, average attendances were 12,474 with a total aggregate attendance figure of 87,321 for the seven games.
#### Group stage
The league is operated using a home and away basis every second year. Fixtures in the five group stage rounds of the league are played at the home ground of one of the two teams involved. Each team is guaranteed at least two home games.
#### Quarter\-finals
The quarter\-finals of the league are usually played at the home venue of one of the teams involved. The team which receives home advantage is decided by using the home and away agreement or by a coin toss.
#### Semi\-finals
The semi\-finals of the league are usually played on the same day at the same venue as part of a double\-header of games. [Semple Stadium](/wiki/Semple_Stadium "Semple Stadium"), [Nowlan Park](/wiki/Nowlan_Park "Nowlan Park") and the [Gaelic Grounds](/wiki/Gaelic_Grounds "Gaelic Grounds") have all been used as the venues for the semi\-finals.
#### Final
Since 2000, Semple Stadium has been used on ten occasions as the host venue for the league final. The Gaelic Grounds, Nowlan Park and [Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park "Croke Park") have also been used as the final venue during this time.
|
[
"### Venues",
"[thumb\\|[Semple Stadium](/wiki/Semple_Stadium \"Semple Stadium\"), as well as being the home stadium of Tipperary, is a regular venue for semi\\-finals and finals.](/wiki/File:Semple1.jpg \"Semple1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Páirc Uí Chaoimh](/wiki/P%C3%A1irc_U%C3%AD_Chaoimh \"Páirc Uí Chaoimh\") is the home stadium of Cork.](/wiki/File:P%C3%A1irc_U%C3%AD_Chaoimh.jpg \"Páirc Uí Chaoimh.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park \"Croke Park\") last hosted the league final in 2019\\.](/wiki/File:Croke_Park_from_the_Hill_-_2004_All-Ireland_Football_Championship_Final.jpg \"Croke Park from the Hill - 2004 All-Ireland Football Championship Final.jpg\")",
"#### Attendances",
"Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Central Council and for the teams involved. For the knock\\-out stages of the 2017 league, average attendances were 12,474 with a total aggregate attendance figure of 87,321 for the seven games.",
"#### Group stage",
"The league is operated using a home and away basis every second year. Fixtures in the five group stage rounds of the league are played at the home ground of one of the two teams involved. Each team is guaranteed at least two home games.",
"#### Quarter\\-finals",
"The quarter\\-finals of the league are usually played at the home venue of one of the teams involved. The team which receives home advantage is decided by using the home and away agreement or by a coin toss.",
"#### Semi\\-finals",
"The semi\\-finals of the league are usually played on the same day at the same venue as part of a double\\-header of games. [Semple Stadium](/wiki/Semple_Stadium \"Semple Stadium\"), [Nowlan Park](/wiki/Nowlan_Park \"Nowlan Park\") and the [Gaelic Grounds](/wiki/Gaelic_Grounds \"Gaelic Grounds\") have all been used as the venues for the semi\\-finals.",
"#### Final",
"Since 2000, Semple Stadium has been used on ten occasions as the host venue for the league final. The Gaelic Grounds, Nowlan Park and [Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park \"Croke Park\") have also been used as the final venue during this time.",
""
] |
Geographic subdivisions
-----------------------
### Egypt
Egyptology is one example of a specialized branch that deals with the Nile Valley cultures of Egypt and associated regions in sub\-Saharan Africa, the Sinai Peninsula to the east, and parts of North Africa. It includes language studies, history and archaeology and other related disciplines.
### Southern Levant
The name [Levant](/wiki/Levant "Levant") (or Syria\-Palestine) is used to refer to the area adjacent to the east coast of the Mediterranean. The southern region included in this term encompasses [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel"), the [West Bank](/wiki/West_Bank "West Bank"), [Gaza Strip](/wiki/Gaza_Strip "Gaza Strip"), and part of [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan"). [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 "Palestine (region)") was its ancient [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") and [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") name and was also in use during the [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades") (1095–1291\), the period of [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") rule (1517\-1917\) and the [British Mandate](/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine "Mandate for Palestine") (1918–1948\). The same region is also called the [Holy Land](/wiki/Holy_Land "Holy Land"), the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel "Land of Israel"), and [Canaan](/wiki/Canaan "Canaan"). The foregoing names can be perceived as having political overtones, meaning that the more neutral, geographically based term the [southern Levant](/wiki/Southern_Levant "Southern Levant") has become popular with archaeologists who wish to refer to this area without prejudice or political orientation. In many contexts the Sinai Peninsula is also considered to be part of the southern Levant, although it is part of the modern state of Egypt. Archaeologically, it is distinguished from the heartland of Egypt, the Nile Valley and Delta.
### Northern Levant
The term northern Levant can be used to refer to [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), the Syrian littoral and portions of the Mediterranean coast of Turkey in the province of [Hatay](/wiki/Hatay_Province "Hatay Province"). These regions are often included in Greater Syria, a name used to refer to the whole area between Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and Arabia. The Mediterranean coast of Lebanon, the [Syrian Arab Republic](/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Republic "Syrian Arab Republic"), and parts of northern Israel are also known as [Phoenicia](/wiki/Phoenicia "Phoenicia"), after the ancient kingdom. However, this term suffers from the same problems as Canaan and equivalents and so is generally now only used in a strict historical sense.
### Anatolia
The peninsula of [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia"), most of modern Turkey, is bordered by several seas and includes parts of Northern Mesopotamia. The [Tigris](/wiki/Tigris "Tigris") and [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates") rise in Turkey and flow south into Iraq.
### Cyprus
[Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus") (ancient [Alashiya](/wiki/Alashiya "Alashiya")), a large island in the eastern Mediterranean was a separate cultural entity during most periods of human occupation. However, its proximity to both Anatolia and the northern and southern Levant was responsible for influences from and to both these regions. This was especially the case as Cyprus was an important source of copper for much of the region.
### Mesopotamia
[Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia") ("The Land of Two Rivers") is considered to begin more or less near the modern border with Iraq and refers to the flat valley of the southern Tigris and Euphrates and their tributaries. These rivers empty into the [Shatt al\-Arab](/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab "Shatt al-Arab") waterway that separates Iraq from Iran. Sumerology is a very specialized discipline that deals with the history, language and archaeology of ancient [Sumer](/wiki/Sumer "Sumer") (southern Mesopotamia), mostly during the [4th](/wiki/4th_millennium_BCE "4th millennium BCE") and 3rd millennium BCE. Assyriology deals with the [Assyrians](/wiki/Assyria "Assyria") who succeeded the Sumerians and covers much of the region while that language was still in use.
### Iran
[Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran"), sometimes known as [Persia](/wiki/Persia "Persia"), includes a large plateau and its periphery, including the [Zagros Mountains](/wiki/Zagros_Mountains "Zagros Mountains"). Sub\-disciplines of this region deal mostly with the languages, history and archaeology of regions within this large area.
### Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula and its offshore islands is a separate geographical zone that has contacts with Sinai, the well\-watered regions to the north, and by sea with the far\-east.
|
[
"Geographic subdivisions\n-----------------------",
"### Egypt",
"Egyptology is one example of a specialized branch that deals with the Nile Valley cultures of Egypt and associated regions in sub\\-Saharan Africa, the Sinai Peninsula to the east, and parts of North Africa. It includes language studies, history and archaeology and other related disciplines.",
"### Southern Levant",
"The name [Levant](/wiki/Levant \"Levant\") (or Syria\\-Palestine) is used to refer to the area adjacent to the east coast of the Mediterranean. The southern region included in this term encompasses [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\"), the [West Bank](/wiki/West_Bank \"West Bank\"), [Gaza Strip](/wiki/Gaza_Strip \"Gaza Strip\"), and part of [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\"). [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 \"Palestine (region)\") was its ancient [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") and [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") name and was also in use during the [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\") (1095–1291\\), the period of [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") rule (1517\\-1917\\) and the [British Mandate](/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine \"Mandate for Palestine\") (1918–1948\\). The same region is also called the [Holy Land](/wiki/Holy_Land \"Holy Land\"), the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel \"Land of Israel\"), and [Canaan](/wiki/Canaan \"Canaan\"). The foregoing names can be perceived as having political overtones, meaning that the more neutral, geographically based term the [southern Levant](/wiki/Southern_Levant \"Southern Levant\") has become popular with archaeologists who wish to refer to this area without prejudice or political orientation. In many contexts the Sinai Peninsula is also considered to be part of the southern Levant, although it is part of the modern state of Egypt. Archaeologically, it is distinguished from the heartland of Egypt, the Nile Valley and Delta.",
"### Northern Levant",
"The term northern Levant can be used to refer to [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), the Syrian littoral and portions of the Mediterranean coast of Turkey in the province of [Hatay](/wiki/Hatay_Province \"Hatay Province\"). These regions are often included in Greater Syria, a name used to refer to the whole area between Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and Arabia. The Mediterranean coast of Lebanon, the [Syrian Arab Republic](/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Republic \"Syrian Arab Republic\"), and parts of northern Israel are also known as [Phoenicia](/wiki/Phoenicia \"Phoenicia\"), after the ancient kingdom. However, this term suffers from the same problems as Canaan and equivalents and so is generally now only used in a strict historical sense.",
"### Anatolia",
"The peninsula of [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia \"Anatolia\"), most of modern Turkey, is bordered by several seas and includes parts of Northern Mesopotamia. The [Tigris](/wiki/Tigris \"Tigris\") and [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates \"Euphrates\") rise in Turkey and flow south into Iraq.",
"### Cyprus",
"[Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\") (ancient [Alashiya](/wiki/Alashiya \"Alashiya\")), a large island in the eastern Mediterranean was a separate cultural entity during most periods of human occupation. However, its proximity to both Anatolia and the northern and southern Levant was responsible for influences from and to both these regions. This was especially the case as Cyprus was an important source of copper for much of the region.",
"### Mesopotamia",
"[Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\") (\"The Land of Two Rivers\") is considered to begin more or less near the modern border with Iraq and refers to the flat valley of the southern Tigris and Euphrates and their tributaries. These rivers empty into the [Shatt al\\-Arab](/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab \"Shatt al-Arab\") waterway that separates Iraq from Iran. Sumerology is a very specialized discipline that deals with the history, language and archaeology of ancient [Sumer](/wiki/Sumer \"Sumer\") (southern Mesopotamia), mostly during the [4th](/wiki/4th_millennium_BCE \"4th millennium BCE\") and 3rd millennium BCE. Assyriology deals with the [Assyrians](/wiki/Assyria \"Assyria\") who succeeded the Sumerians and covers much of the region while that language was still in use.",
"### Iran",
"[Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"), sometimes known as [Persia](/wiki/Persia \"Persia\"), includes a large plateau and its periphery, including the [Zagros Mountains](/wiki/Zagros_Mountains \"Zagros Mountains\"). Sub\\-disciplines of this region deal mostly with the languages, history and archaeology of regions within this large area.",
"### Arabian Peninsula",
"The Arabian Peninsula and its offshore islands is a separate geographical zone that has contacts with Sinai, the well\\-watered regions to the north, and by sea with the far\\-east.",
""
] |
Investigation
-------------
The investigation was headed by the Mackenzie Cowell Task Force, a multi\-agency police group assembled after the recovery of Cowell's body. The task force included law enforcement agents from the cities of Wenatchee and [East Wenatchee](/wiki/East_Wenatchee%2C_Washington "East Wenatchee, Washington"), and from the counties of Chelan and [Douglas](/wiki/Douglas_County%2C_Washington "Douglas County, Washington").{{cite news \|last\=McNiel \|first\=Michelle \|date\=March 3, 2010 \|title\=Police won't cut corners in Cowell case \|url\=https://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/local/police\-won\-t\-cut\-corners\-in\-cowell\-case/article\_27e01c01\-b46c\-5cb1\-b063\-2cb6f6065dfc.html \|work\=\[\[The Wenatchee World]] \|access\-date\=June 30, 2019}} An FBI agent and two officials from [U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement](/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement "U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement") also assisted the task force.{{cite news \|last\=Riggs \|first\=Dee \|date\=April 1, 2010 \|title\=No letting up in Cowell case, police pledge \|url\=https://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/local/no\-letting\-up\-in\-cowell\-case\-police\-pledge/article\_3d5e1981\-c50a\-5406\-b186\-b79694198725\.html \|work\=\[\[The Wenatchee World]] \|access\-date\=June 30, 2019}} The case was the largest multi\-agency investigation in the [Wenatchee area](/wiki/Wenatchee%E2%80%93East_Wenatchee_metropolitan_area "Wenatchee–East Wenatchee metropolitan area") since an attempted serial bombing in 1997\. Police interviewed over 800 people throughout the course of the investigation.
Police initially looked into Cowell's boyfriend, Joaquin Villasano; as well as her mother's boyfriend, Joey Fisher. According to police, Villasano had failed a [polygraph](/wiki/Polygraph "Polygraph") when asked if he knew what happened to Cowell. Fisher had allegedly gotten into an argument with Cowell the day before she went missing. However, both Villasano and Fisher were later completely cleared by police.
The next lead in the case came from Liz Reid, a college student, police [informant](/wiki/Informant "Informant") and former [drug dealer](/wiki/Drug_dealer "Drug dealer"). Reid told police that two drug dealers, Sam Cuevas and Emmanuel Cerros, had murdered Cowell in a case of mistaken identity. The two had supposedly believed Cowell was an informant. Reid claims she saw a [snuff film](/wiki/Snuff_film "Snuff film") of the murder, and that Cuevas admitted to her: "'I choked that bitch to shut her up".
Reid was able to describe the murder weapon before it was made public, and gave police a ring which she claimed had belonged to Cowell. She said Cerros had sent her to the murder site to find the ring. None of Cowell's family members recognized the ring as belonging to Mackenzie. Reid later retracted her claim of seeing a video of the murder. As a result, police began to question Reid's credibility. Cuevas and Cerros were interviewed by police and produced alibis, witness statements and phone records placing them elsewhere on the day of Cowell's disappearance.{{cite news \|last\=Robbins \|first\=Jefferson \|date\=April 12, 2012 \|title\='Other suspects' considered in Cowell murder case \|url\=https://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/local/other\-suspects\-considered\-in\-cowell\-murder\-case/article\_d97883dd\-65d4\-56ba\-a86a\-264641cdbb4a.html \|work\=\[\[The Wenatchee World]] \|access\-date\=June 30, 2019}}
### Christopher Scott Wilson
After receiving several tips, police began to focus the investigation on Christopher Scott Wilson, a 29\-year\-old classmate of Cowell's at the Academy of Hair Design. Police received a letter in August which claimed that Wilson had an "obsession with death, dead bodies and serial killers". One of Wilson's classmates told police that Wilson had said he used to work in [funeral homes](/wiki/Funeral_home "Funeral home") and that he "liked to cut people up".
On October 6, Wilson was arrested on suspicion of second\-degree murder and held on US$1 million (equivalent to ${{Inflation\|US\|1\|2006\|r\=2}} million in {{Inflation/year\|US}}) bail. DNA found on duct tape near where Cowell's body was discovered linked Wilson to the crime. According to investigators, Wilson left the beauty school shortly after Cowell did on the day she disappeared. Three witnesses reported seeing a man matching Wilson's description near where her car had been abandoned. A search of Wilson's apartment revealed the presence of blood which matched Cowell's DNA.
In December, the Cowell task force made a second arrest. Wilson's friend Tessa M. Schuyleman was accused of—but never charged with—helping Wilson to conceal the crime. She was instead charged with obstruction of justice for an unrelated case.{{cite news \|last\=Robbins \|first\=Jefferson \|date\=September 14, 2012 \|title\=Former Cowell suspect overturns conviction \|url\=https://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/local/former\-cowell\-suspect\-overturns\-conviction/article\_a05da469\-74be\-57f9\-8884\-b841b8f44f03\.html \|work\=\[\[The Wenatchee World]] \|access\-date\=June 30, 2019}} Detectives claimed that many photos were found on Wilson's computer of Schuyleman "posing as a dead person" on the spot in Wilson's apartment where Cowell's blood was found. Schuyleman claims she had no knowledge of the blood stain and that Wilson had told her to pose there.{{cite news \|last\=Robbins \|first\=Jefferson \|date\=December 19, 2010 \|title\=Picture set up, woman says \|url\=https://www.theolympian.com/news/local/crime/article25274032\.html \|work\=\[\[The Wenatchee World]] \|via\=\[\[The Olympian]] \|access\-date\=June 30, 2019}}
|
[
"Investigation\n-------------",
"The investigation was headed by the Mackenzie Cowell Task Force, a multi\\-agency police group assembled after the recovery of Cowell's body. The task force included law enforcement agents from the cities of Wenatchee and [East Wenatchee](/wiki/East_Wenatchee%2C_Washington \"East Wenatchee, Washington\"), and from the counties of Chelan and [Douglas](/wiki/Douglas_County%2C_Washington \"Douglas County, Washington\").{{cite news \\|last\\=McNiel \\|first\\=Michelle \\|date\\=March 3, 2010 \\|title\\=Police won't cut corners in Cowell case \\|url\\=https://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/local/police\\-won\\-t\\-cut\\-corners\\-in\\-cowell\\-case/article\\_27e01c01\\-b46c\\-5cb1\\-b063\\-2cb6f6065dfc.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wenatchee World]] \\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2019}} An FBI agent and two officials from [U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement](/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement \"U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement\") also assisted the task force.{{cite news \\|last\\=Riggs \\|first\\=Dee \\|date\\=April 1, 2010 \\|title\\=No letting up in Cowell case, police pledge \\|url\\=https://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/local/no\\-letting\\-up\\-in\\-cowell\\-case\\-police\\-pledge/article\\_3d5e1981\\-c50a\\-5406\\-b186\\-b79694198725\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wenatchee World]] \\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2019}} The case was the largest multi\\-agency investigation in the [Wenatchee area](/wiki/Wenatchee%E2%80%93East_Wenatchee_metropolitan_area \"Wenatchee–East Wenatchee metropolitan area\") since an attempted serial bombing in 1997\\. Police interviewed over 800 people throughout the course of the investigation.",
"Police initially looked into Cowell's boyfriend, Joaquin Villasano; as well as her mother's boyfriend, Joey Fisher. According to police, Villasano had failed a [polygraph](/wiki/Polygraph \"Polygraph\") when asked if he knew what happened to Cowell. Fisher had allegedly gotten into an argument with Cowell the day before she went missing. However, both Villasano and Fisher were later completely cleared by police.",
"The next lead in the case came from Liz Reid, a college student, police [informant](/wiki/Informant \"Informant\") and former [drug dealer](/wiki/Drug_dealer \"Drug dealer\"). Reid told police that two drug dealers, Sam Cuevas and Emmanuel Cerros, had murdered Cowell in a case of mistaken identity. The two had supposedly believed Cowell was an informant. Reid claims she saw a [snuff film](/wiki/Snuff_film \"Snuff film\") of the murder, and that Cuevas admitted to her: \"'I choked that bitch to shut her up\".",
"Reid was able to describe the murder weapon before it was made public, and gave police a ring which she claimed had belonged to Cowell. She said Cerros had sent her to the murder site to find the ring. None of Cowell's family members recognized the ring as belonging to Mackenzie. Reid later retracted her claim of seeing a video of the murder. As a result, police began to question Reid's credibility. Cuevas and Cerros were interviewed by police and produced alibis, witness statements and phone records placing them elsewhere on the day of Cowell's disappearance.{{cite news \\|last\\=Robbins \\|first\\=Jefferson \\|date\\=April 12, 2012 \\|title\\='Other suspects' considered in Cowell murder case \\|url\\=https://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/local/other\\-suspects\\-considered\\-in\\-cowell\\-murder\\-case/article\\_d97883dd\\-65d4\\-56ba\\-a86a\\-264641cdbb4a.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wenatchee World]] \\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2019}}",
"### Christopher Scott Wilson",
"After receiving several tips, police began to focus the investigation on Christopher Scott Wilson, a 29\\-year\\-old classmate of Cowell's at the Academy of Hair Design. Police received a letter in August which claimed that Wilson had an \"obsession with death, dead bodies and serial killers\". One of Wilson's classmates told police that Wilson had said he used to work in [funeral homes](/wiki/Funeral_home \"Funeral home\") and that he \"liked to cut people up\".",
"On October 6, Wilson was arrested on suspicion of second\\-degree murder and held on US$1 million (equivalent to ${{Inflation\\|US\\|1\\|2006\\|r\\=2}} million in {{Inflation/year\\|US}}) bail. DNA found on duct tape near where Cowell's body was discovered linked Wilson to the crime. According to investigators, Wilson left the beauty school shortly after Cowell did on the day she disappeared. Three witnesses reported seeing a man matching Wilson's description near where her car had been abandoned. A search of Wilson's apartment revealed the presence of blood which matched Cowell's DNA.",
"In December, the Cowell task force made a second arrest. Wilson's friend Tessa M. Schuyleman was accused of—but never charged with—helping Wilson to conceal the crime. She was instead charged with obstruction of justice for an unrelated case.{{cite news \\|last\\=Robbins \\|first\\=Jefferson \\|date\\=September 14, 2012 \\|title\\=Former Cowell suspect overturns conviction \\|url\\=https://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/local/former\\-cowell\\-suspect\\-overturns\\-conviction/article\\_a05da469\\-74be\\-57f9\\-8884\\-b841b8f44f03\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wenatchee World]] \\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2019}} Detectives claimed that many photos were found on Wilson's computer of Schuyleman \"posing as a dead person\" on the spot in Wilson's apartment where Cowell's blood was found. Schuyleman claims she had no knowledge of the blood stain and that Wilson had told her to pose there.{{cite news \\|last\\=Robbins \\|first\\=Jefferson \\|date\\=December 19, 2010 \\|title\\=Picture set up, woman says \\|url\\=https://www.theolympian.com/news/local/crime/article25274032\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wenatchee World]] \\|via\\=\\[\\[The Olympian]] \\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2019}}",
""
] |
Drury Lane
----------
{{Moresources\|section\|date\=July 2023}}
[thumb\|250px\|left\|Garrick (right) as Abel Drugger in Jonson's *The Alchemist* painted by [Johann Zoffany](/wiki/Johann_Zoffany "Johann Zoffany")](/wiki/File:Zoffany-Garrick_in_The_Alchemist.jpg "Zoffany-Garrick in The Alchemist.jpg")
At the end of the London season, Garrick, along with Peg Woffington, traveled to [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin") for the summer season at the [Theatre Royal, Smock Lane](/wiki/Theatre_Royal%2C_Dublin "Theatre Royal, Dublin"). While in Dublin, Garrick added two new roles to his repertoire: Shakespeare's [Hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet "Hamlet"), Abel Drugger in [Ben Jonson](/wiki/Ben_Jonson "Ben Jonson")'s *[The Alchemist](/wiki/The_Alchemist_%28play%29 "The Alchemist (play)")* (a role that earned him much acclaim) and Captain Plume in Farquhar's *The Recruiting Officer*.{{sfn\|Woods\|1996\|p\=291}} Some of his success could be attributed to one of his earliest fans, [John Boyle, 5th Earl of Cork](/wiki/John_Boyle%2C_5th_Earl_of_Cork "John Boyle, 5th Earl of Cork"), who wrote letters to many noblemen and gentlemen recommending Garrick's acting. His writings led Garrick to exclaim that it must have been the reason he was "more caressed" in Dublin.{{sfn\|Kendall\|1985\|p\=26}}
Five years after joining the acting company at Drury Lane, Garrick again traveled to Dublin for a season where he managed and directed at the Smock Alley Theatre in conjunction with [Thomas Sheridan](/wiki/Thomas_Sheridan_%28actor%29 "Thomas Sheridan (actor)"), the father of [Richard Brinsley Sheridan](/wiki/Richard_Brinsley_Sheridan "Richard Brinsley Sheridan"). After his return to London, he spent some time acting at Covent Garden under [John Rich](/wiki/John_Rich_%28producer%29 "John Rich (producer)") while a [farce](/wiki/Farce "Farce") of his, *[Miss in Her Teens](/wiki/Miss_in_Her_Teens "Miss in Her Teens")*, was also produced there.
With the end of the 1746–1747 season, Fleetwoods' patent on Drury Lane expired in partnership with [James Lacy](/wiki/James_Lacy_%28actor%29 "James Lacy (actor)"), Garrick took over the theatre in April 1747\. The theatre had been in decline for some years, but the partnership of Garrick and Lacy led to success and accolades. The first performance under Garrick and Lacy's management opened with an *Ode to Drury Lane Theatre, on dedicating a Building and erecting a Statue, to Shakespeare* read by Garrick and written by his friend, Dr Johnson. The ode promised the patrons that "The drama's law the drama's patrons give,/For we that live to please must please to live." Certainly, this statement could be regarded as succinctly summing up Garrick's management at Drury Lane where he was able to balance both artistic integrity and the fickle tastes of the public.
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Garrick and his wife, Eva Marie Veigel, painted by [William Hogarth](/wiki/William_Hogarth "William Hogarth"). From the [Royal Collection](/wiki/Royal_Collection "Royal Collection"), [Windsor Castle](/wiki/Windsor_Castle "Windsor Castle").](/wiki/File:William_Hogarth_-_David_Garrick_%281717-79%29_with_his_wife_Eva-Maria_Veigel%2C_%22La_Violette%22_or_%22Violetti%22_%281725_-_1822%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg "William Hogarth - David Garrick (1717-79) with his wife Eva-Maria Veigel, ")
After the Woffington affair, there were several botched love affairs, including possibly fathering a son with [Jane Green](/wiki/Jane_Green_%28actress%29 "Jane Green (actress)").{{sfn\|Batty\|2004}} Garrick met [Eva Marie Veigel](/wiki/Eva_Marie_Veigel "Eva Marie Veigel") (1724–1822\), a German dancer in opera choruses who emigrated to London in 1746\. The pair wed on 22 June 1749 and were preserved together in several portraits, including one by [William Hogarth](/wiki/William_Hogarth "William Hogarth"). Hogarth also made several drawings and paintings of them separately. The union was childless but happy, Garrick calling her "the best of women and wives",{{sfn\|Carruthers\|Ward\|1911\|pp\=475–477}} and they were famously inseparable throughout their nearly 30 years of marriage. Garrick's increasing wealth enabled him to purchase a palatial estate for Eva Marie and himself to live in, naming it [Garrick's Villa](/wiki/Garrick%27s_Villa "Garrick's Villa"), that he bought at [Hampton](/wiki/Hampton%2C_London "Hampton, London") in 1754\.{{sfn\|Sheaf\|Howe\|1995\|p\=55}} He also indulged his passion for Shakespeare by building a [Temple to Shakespeare](/wiki/Garrick%27s_Temple_to_Shakespeare "Garrick's Temple to Shakespeare") on the riverside at Hampton to house his collection of memorabilia.{{sfn\|Richmond Library staff\|2011}} Hogarth collaborated with Garrick on the furnishing of this temple, and their relationship to, and self\-identification with, Shakespeare has been extensively examined by [Robin Simon](/wiki/Robin_Simon_%28critic%29 "Robin Simon (critic)").[*Shakespeare, Hogarth and Garrick: Plays, Painting and Performance*](https://www.paulholberton.com/product-page/shakespeare-hogarth-and-garrick-plays-painting-and-performance) (London 2023\).
In September 1769 Garrick staged the [Shakespeare Jubilee](/wiki/Shakespeare_Jubilee "Shakespeare Jubilee") in [Stratford\-upon\-Avon](/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon "Stratford-upon-Avon").{{sfn\|Pierce\|2005\|pp\= 4–10}} It was a major focal point in the emerging movement that helped cement Shakespeare as England's [national poet](/wiki/National_poet "National poet"). It involved a number of events held in the town to celebrate (five years too late) 200 years since Shakespeare's birth. In a speech made on the second day of the Jubilee in Stratford Garrick recognized the [Shakespeare Ladies Club](/wiki/Shakespeare_Ladies_Club "Shakespeare Ladies Club") as those who "restor'd Shakespeare to the Stage," protecting his fame and erecting "a Monument to his and your own honor in Westminster Abbey."qtd. in {{harvnb\|Stochholm\|1964\|p\=91}}.
No Shakespeare plays were performed during the Jubilee, and heavy rain forced a Shakespeare Pageant to be called off. The Pageant was first staged a month later at [Drury Lane Theatre](/wiki/Theatre_Royal%2C_Drury_Lane "Theatre Royal, Drury Lane") under the title *[The Jubilee](/wiki/The_Jubilee "The Jubilee")* and proved successful enjoying 90 performances.{{sfn\|Pierce\|2005\|pp\=9–10}} The song "[Soft Flowing Avon](/wiki/Soft_Flowing_Avon "Soft Flowing Avon")" was composed by [Thomas Arne](/wiki/Thomas_Arne "Thomas Arne"), with lyrics by Garrick, for the Jubilee.
Garrick would manage the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, until he retired from management in 1776\. In his last years he continued to add roles to his repertoire; Posthumus in *[Cymbeline](/wiki/Cymbeline "Cymbeline")* was among his last famous roles.
|
[
"Drury Lane\n----------",
"{{Moresources\\|section\\|date\\=July 2023}}\n[thumb\\|250px\\|left\\|Garrick (right) as Abel Drugger in Jonson's *The Alchemist* painted by [Johann Zoffany](/wiki/Johann_Zoffany \"Johann Zoffany\")](/wiki/File:Zoffany-Garrick_in_The_Alchemist.jpg \"Zoffany-Garrick in The Alchemist.jpg\")\nAt the end of the London season, Garrick, along with Peg Woffington, traveled to [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\") for the summer season at the [Theatre Royal, Smock Lane](/wiki/Theatre_Royal%2C_Dublin \"Theatre Royal, Dublin\"). While in Dublin, Garrick added two new roles to his repertoire: Shakespeare's [Hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet \"Hamlet\"), Abel Drugger in [Ben Jonson](/wiki/Ben_Jonson \"Ben Jonson\")'s *[The Alchemist](/wiki/The_Alchemist_%28play%29 \"The Alchemist (play)\")* (a role that earned him much acclaim) and Captain Plume in Farquhar's *The Recruiting Officer*.{{sfn\\|Woods\\|1996\\|p\\=291}} Some of his success could be attributed to one of his earliest fans, [John Boyle, 5th Earl of Cork](/wiki/John_Boyle%2C_5th_Earl_of_Cork \"John Boyle, 5th Earl of Cork\"), who wrote letters to many noblemen and gentlemen recommending Garrick's acting. His writings led Garrick to exclaim that it must have been the reason he was \"more caressed\" in Dublin.{{sfn\\|Kendall\\|1985\\|p\\=26}}",
"Five years after joining the acting company at Drury Lane, Garrick again traveled to Dublin for a season where he managed and directed at the Smock Alley Theatre in conjunction with [Thomas Sheridan](/wiki/Thomas_Sheridan_%28actor%29 \"Thomas Sheridan (actor)\"), the father of [Richard Brinsley Sheridan](/wiki/Richard_Brinsley_Sheridan \"Richard Brinsley Sheridan\"). After his return to London, he spent some time acting at Covent Garden under [John Rich](/wiki/John_Rich_%28producer%29 \"John Rich (producer)\") while a [farce](/wiki/Farce \"Farce\") of his, *[Miss in Her Teens](/wiki/Miss_in_Her_Teens \"Miss in Her Teens\")*, was also produced there.",
"With the end of the 1746–1747 season, Fleetwoods' patent on Drury Lane expired in partnership with [James Lacy](/wiki/James_Lacy_%28actor%29 \"James Lacy (actor)\"), Garrick took over the theatre in April 1747\\. The theatre had been in decline for some years, but the partnership of Garrick and Lacy led to success and accolades. The first performance under Garrick and Lacy's management opened with an *Ode to Drury Lane Theatre, on dedicating a Building and erecting a Statue, to Shakespeare* read by Garrick and written by his friend, Dr Johnson. The ode promised the patrons that \"The drama's law the drama's patrons give,/For we that live to please must please to live.\" Certainly, this statement could be regarded as succinctly summing up Garrick's management at Drury Lane where he was able to balance both artistic integrity and the fickle tastes of the public.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Garrick and his wife, Eva Marie Veigel, painted by [William Hogarth](/wiki/William_Hogarth \"William Hogarth\"). From the [Royal Collection](/wiki/Royal_Collection \"Royal Collection\"), [Windsor Castle](/wiki/Windsor_Castle \"Windsor Castle\").](/wiki/File:William_Hogarth_-_David_Garrick_%281717-79%29_with_his_wife_Eva-Maria_Veigel%2C_%22La_Violette%22_or_%22Violetti%22_%281725_-_1822%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg \"William Hogarth - David Garrick (1717-79) with his wife Eva-Maria Veigel, \")\nAfter the Woffington affair, there were several botched love affairs, including possibly fathering a son with [Jane Green](/wiki/Jane_Green_%28actress%29 \"Jane Green (actress)\").{{sfn\\|Batty\\|2004}} Garrick met [Eva Marie Veigel](/wiki/Eva_Marie_Veigel \"Eva Marie Veigel\") (1724–1822\\), a German dancer in opera choruses who emigrated to London in 1746\\. The pair wed on 22 June 1749 and were preserved together in several portraits, including one by [William Hogarth](/wiki/William_Hogarth \"William Hogarth\"). Hogarth also made several drawings and paintings of them separately. The union was childless but happy, Garrick calling her \"the best of women and wives\",{{sfn\\|Carruthers\\|Ward\\|1911\\|pp\\=475–477}} and they were famously inseparable throughout their nearly 30 years of marriage. Garrick's increasing wealth enabled him to purchase a palatial estate for Eva Marie and himself to live in, naming it [Garrick's Villa](/wiki/Garrick%27s_Villa \"Garrick's Villa\"), that he bought at [Hampton](/wiki/Hampton%2C_London \"Hampton, London\") in 1754\\.{{sfn\\|Sheaf\\|Howe\\|1995\\|p\\=55}} He also indulged his passion for Shakespeare by building a [Temple to Shakespeare](/wiki/Garrick%27s_Temple_to_Shakespeare \"Garrick's Temple to Shakespeare\") on the riverside at Hampton to house his collection of memorabilia.{{sfn\\|Richmond Library staff\\|2011}} Hogarth collaborated with Garrick on the furnishing of this temple, and their relationship to, and self\\-identification with, Shakespeare has been extensively examined by [Robin Simon](/wiki/Robin_Simon_%28critic%29 \"Robin Simon (critic)\").[*Shakespeare, Hogarth and Garrick: Plays, Painting and Performance*](https://www.paulholberton.com/product-page/shakespeare-hogarth-and-garrick-plays-painting-and-performance) (London 2023\\).",
"In September 1769 Garrick staged the [Shakespeare Jubilee](/wiki/Shakespeare_Jubilee \"Shakespeare Jubilee\") in [Stratford\\-upon\\-Avon](/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon \"Stratford-upon-Avon\").{{sfn\\|Pierce\\|2005\\|pp\\= 4–10}} It was a major focal point in the emerging movement that helped cement Shakespeare as England's [national poet](/wiki/National_poet \"National poet\"). It involved a number of events held in the town to celebrate (five years too late) 200 years since Shakespeare's birth. In a speech made on the second day of the Jubilee in Stratford Garrick recognized the [Shakespeare Ladies Club](/wiki/Shakespeare_Ladies_Club \"Shakespeare Ladies Club\") as those who \"restor'd Shakespeare to the Stage,\" protecting his fame and erecting \"a Monument to his and your own honor in Westminster Abbey.\"qtd. in {{harvnb\\|Stochholm\\|1964\\|p\\=91}}.",
"No Shakespeare plays were performed during the Jubilee, and heavy rain forced a Shakespeare Pageant to be called off. The Pageant was first staged a month later at [Drury Lane Theatre](/wiki/Theatre_Royal%2C_Drury_Lane \"Theatre Royal, Drury Lane\") under the title *[The Jubilee](/wiki/The_Jubilee \"The Jubilee\")* and proved successful enjoying 90 performances.{{sfn\\|Pierce\\|2005\\|pp\\=9–10}} The song \"[Soft Flowing Avon](/wiki/Soft_Flowing_Avon \"Soft Flowing Avon\")\" was composed by [Thomas Arne](/wiki/Thomas_Arne \"Thomas Arne\"), with lyrics by Garrick, for the Jubilee.",
"Garrick would manage the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, until he retired from management in 1776\\. In his last years he continued to add roles to his repertoire; Posthumus in *[Cymbeline](/wiki/Cymbeline \"Cymbeline\")* was among his last famous roles.",
""
] |
History
-------
In the late 1850s, Otto Hinrichs built a small wooden store on this site at the corner of Williamson and Patterson streets, nine blocks east of the [capitol](/wiki/Wisconsin_State_Capitol "Wisconsin State Capitol"). Hinrichs sold [dry goods](/wiki/Dry_goods%23US_usage "Dry goods#US usage") and groceries from the store until 1866, when he sold the store to Charles F. Biederstaedt. Biederstaedt continued the business until 1874 when he leased the building to Martin Joachim, but then the building was destroyed by a fire that broke out in Hyer's Hotel next door.{{citation\|author1\=Jacquelyn Star\|author2\=Lance Neckar\|author3\=Katherine H. Rankin\|title\=National Register of Historic Places Registration Form: Biederstaedt\-Breitenbach Grocery\|url\={{NRHP url\|id\=82000647}}\|publisher\=\[\[National Park Service]]\|date\=February 1981\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-19}} With {{NRHP url\|id\=82000647\|photos\=y\|title\=one photo}}.
After the fire, Biederstaedt built a bigger store on the same corner, two stories in hard\-to\-burn brick with sandstone trim, with the exterior very much as it stands today. At street\-level, stone [pilasters](/wiki/Pilasters "Pilasters") separate the shop windows, and support a bracketed [cornice](/wiki/Cornice "Cornice"). Above that the walls are brick, with [hood moulds](/wiki/Hood_mould "Hood mould") with [keystones](/wiki/Keystones "Keystones") over the six windows. Above them a line of decorative brick [corbelling](/wiki/Corbelling "Corbelling") leads to a brick [parapet](/wiki/Parapet "Parapet") which hides a shallow gable roof behind. The parapet is topped with a bracketed wood cornice. The overall style is [Italianate](/wiki/Italianate_architecture "Italianate architecture"), which was popular in the 1870s. Biederstaedt ran a grocery store out of the 853 side of the building and a saloon in the 851 side, and his family lived upstairs.
George C. Breitenbach immigrated from [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria") to the U.S. in 1846, moving with his family to Madison in 1850\. When he was seven they settled on Williamson Street near the store. He worked as a wagonmaker and plowmaker, but when Charles Biederstaedt died in 1890, Breitenbach leased the store from the Biederstaedt family, and bought it in 1898 or 1899\. The Biederstaedts moved to a house nearby and the Breitenbachs moved in above the store and saloon. The family lived there and ran the grocery store for over sixty years, until 1951\.
In 1949 an old\-timer recalled the Breitenbach years:
> Williamson Street in the old days was a very important thoroughfare. It is yet for that matter. But I can well remember the time when it was by far the best (and under certain weather conditions, the only) street that tapped the rich farming country to the east and even the northeast of Madison. And Breitenbach's corner, as it came to be called, was the busiest spot on the street. The hitching posts and curb rings always tethered a full quota of farm wagons or bob sleds. In the winter the street was a heaven for us neighboring kids who spent our Saturdays "hitching bobs." ... The candy counter in the store was a popular place, too, for us youngsters. George Breitenbach was very fond of children and he had a free and open handed disposition. He always gave us double value for our nickels and pennies and as often as not refused to take our money. I am afraid we often took advantage of his generosity.Capital Times article, quoted in the NRHP nomination.
The building now serves as a [specialty store](/wiki/Specialty_store "Specialty store"), with a [ghost sign](/wiki/Ghost_sign "Ghost sign") for King Midas Flour still on the side. Along with the NRHP listing, the building was designated a landmark by the Madison Landmarks Commission in 1977\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=33233\|title\=Biederstaedt \- Breitenbach Grocery\|publisher\=Historical Marker Database.org\|accessdate\=2012\-02\-03}}
In the late 1800s, small neighborhood grocery stores were scattered all around Madison. Along with bars and other local stores, they served as informal community centers where neighbors met. As people got cars and access to larger stores, the corner stores dwindled. A 1977 survey found only nine corner grocery stores from the 1800s left in Madison, and of them Biederstaedt\-Breitenbach was the most intact, and the best surviving example.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In the late 1850s, Otto Hinrichs built a small wooden store on this site at the corner of Williamson and Patterson streets, nine blocks east of the [capitol](/wiki/Wisconsin_State_Capitol \"Wisconsin State Capitol\"). Hinrichs sold [dry goods](/wiki/Dry_goods%23US_usage \"Dry goods#US usage\") and groceries from the store until 1866, when he sold the store to Charles F. Biederstaedt. Biederstaedt continued the business until 1874 when he leased the building to Martin Joachim, but then the building was destroyed by a fire that broke out in Hyer's Hotel next door.{{citation\\|author1\\=Jacquelyn Star\\|author2\\=Lance Neckar\\|author3\\=Katherine H. Rankin\\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places Registration Form: Biederstaedt\\-Breitenbach Grocery\\|url\\={{NRHP url\\|id\\=82000647}}\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Park Service]]\\|date\\=February 1981\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-19}} With {{NRHP url\\|id\\=82000647\\|photos\\=y\\|title\\=one photo}}.",
"After the fire, Biederstaedt built a bigger store on the same corner, two stories in hard\\-to\\-burn brick with sandstone trim, with the exterior very much as it stands today. At street\\-level, stone [pilasters](/wiki/Pilasters \"Pilasters\") separate the shop windows, and support a bracketed [cornice](/wiki/Cornice \"Cornice\"). Above that the walls are brick, with [hood moulds](/wiki/Hood_mould \"Hood mould\") with [keystones](/wiki/Keystones \"Keystones\") over the six windows. Above them a line of decorative brick [corbelling](/wiki/Corbelling \"Corbelling\") leads to a brick [parapet](/wiki/Parapet \"Parapet\") which hides a shallow gable roof behind. The parapet is topped with a bracketed wood cornice. The overall style is [Italianate](/wiki/Italianate_architecture \"Italianate architecture\"), which was popular in the 1870s. Biederstaedt ran a grocery store out of the 853 side of the building and a saloon in the 851 side, and his family lived upstairs.",
"George C. Breitenbach immigrated from [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\") to the U.S. in 1846, moving with his family to Madison in 1850\\. When he was seven they settled on Williamson Street near the store. He worked as a wagonmaker and plowmaker, but when Charles Biederstaedt died in 1890, Breitenbach leased the store from the Biederstaedt family, and bought it in 1898 or 1899\\. The Biederstaedts moved to a house nearby and the Breitenbachs moved in above the store and saloon. The family lived there and ran the grocery store for over sixty years, until 1951\\.",
"In 1949 an old\\-timer recalled the Breitenbach years: \n> Williamson Street in the old days was a very important thoroughfare. It is yet for that matter. But I can well remember the time when it was by far the best (and under certain weather conditions, the only) street that tapped the rich farming country to the east and even the northeast of Madison. And Breitenbach's corner, as it came to be called, was the busiest spot on the street. The hitching posts and curb rings always tethered a full quota of farm wagons or bob sleds. In the winter the street was a heaven for us neighboring kids who spent our Saturdays \"hitching bobs.\" ... The candy counter in the store was a popular place, too, for us youngsters. George Breitenbach was very fond of children and he had a free and open handed disposition. He always gave us double value for our nickels and pennies and as often as not refused to take our money. I am afraid we often took advantage of his generosity.Capital Times article, quoted in the NRHP nomination.",
"",
"The building now serves as a [specialty store](/wiki/Specialty_store \"Specialty store\"), with a [ghost sign](/wiki/Ghost_sign \"Ghost sign\") for King Midas Flour still on the side. Along with the NRHP listing, the building was designated a landmark by the Madison Landmarks Commission in 1977\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=33233\\|title\\=Biederstaedt \\- Breitenbach Grocery\\|publisher\\=Historical Marker Database.org\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-02\\-03}}",
"In the late 1800s, small neighborhood grocery stores were scattered all around Madison. Along with bars and other local stores, they served as informal community centers where neighbors met. As people got cars and access to larger stores, the corner stores dwindled. A 1977 survey found only nine corner grocery stores from the 1800s left in Madison, and of them Biederstaedt\\-Breitenbach was the most intact, and the best surviving example.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Hugh H. Young was born in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Texas "San Antonio, Texas"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"), on September 18, 1870\.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vI5IAAAAMAAJ\|last\=Early\|first\=Ruth Hairston\|title\=The family of Early: which settled upon the eastern shore of Virginia\|location\=Lynchburg, Virginia\|publisher\=Brown\-Morrison Press\|year\=1920\|oclc\=9510197\|page\=55\|isbn\=9780608321684}} He was the son of [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army "Confederate States Army") [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_General_%28CSA%29 "Brigadier General (CSA)") [William Hugh Young](/wiki/William_Hugh_Young "William Hugh Young") and Frances (Kemper) Young.
Young graduated from the [University of Virginia](/wiki/University_of_Virginia "University of Virginia") in 1891 after acquiring BA, MA, and MD degrees in just four years.{{cite journal\|journal\=\[\[CA (journal)\|CA – A Cancer Journal for Clinicians]]\|year\=1977\|volume\=27\|issue\=5\|pages\= 305–307\|doi\=10\.3322/canjclin.27\.5\.305\|pmid\=411552\|last1\=Young\|first1\=H.\|title \= Hugh Hampton Young (1870\-1945\)\|doi\-access\=free}} As of 1895 he began teaching at the [Johns Hopkins Hospital](/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_School_of_Medicine "Johns Hopkins School of Medicine") and by 1897 he was the head of their urology department, at an age of just 27\.{{Cite web\|title\=History of Urology at Johns Hopkins\|url\=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/brady\-urology\-institute/about\_us/history\_of\_urology\_at\_johns\_hopkins/index.html\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=urology.jhu.edu}} The Brady Urological Institute, named after one of Young's patients, opened at Johns Hopkins in 1915\.{{Cite web\|title\=About Us {{!}} Johns Hopkins Brady Urological Institute\|url\=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/brady\-urology\-institute/about\_us/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=www.hopkinsmedicine.org\|language\=en}} Young remained there for most of his life, until 1940\.
Among Young's contributions to the medical field are several inventions and discoveries, primarily relating to surgery. One such innovation was the "boomerang needle," a type of surgical needle designed for working with deep incisions. He also invented a device known as the Young punch, an instrument used in prostatectomy procedures. He and his associates also discovered the antiseptic merbromin, more popularly known as [Mercurochrome](/wiki/Mercurochrome "Mercurochrome"), one of its brand names.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sciencesource.com/archive/Hugh\-Hampton\-Young\-\-American\-Surgeon\-and\-Inventor\-SS2502273\.html\|title\=Science Source \- Hugh Hampton Young, American Surgeon and Inventor\|website\=www.sciencesource.com\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-10}}
[Intersex](/wiki/Intersex "Intersex") people were brought to Brady Urological Institute to [reassign them as either male or female](/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions "Intersex medical interventions"), and the Institute's protocol, created under Young, was widely influential. Young began with external and internal exams, X\-rays, and exploratory surgery. Intersex children in the 1920s and 1930s typically went to Brady rather than to the pediatric Harriet Lane Home at Hopkins.{{Cite book\|last\=Gill\-Peterson\|first\=Julian\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hod0DwAAQBAJ\|title\=Histories of the Transgender Child\|date\=2018\-10\-23\|publisher\=U of Minnesota Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4529\-5815\-6\|language\=en\|chapter\=Chapter 2\. Before Transsexuality: The Transgender Child from the 1900s to the 1930s}}
He is credited with conceiving of the use of radical [perineal](/wiki/Perineum "Perineum") [prostatectomy](/wiki/Prostatectomy "Prostatectomy") to treat [prostate cancer](/wiki/Prostate_cancer "Prostate cancer") and performed the first operation of that kind on April 7, 1904\. He learned the procedure from Dr. [George Goodfellow](/wiki/George_E._Goodfellow "George E. Goodfellow"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2002\-oct\-27\-me\-then27\-story.html\|title\='Gunfighter's Surgeon' Became a Southwest Legend\|date\=2002\-10\-27\|website\=Los Angeles Times\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-10}}{{cite news \|title\=George Goodfellow's Medical Treatment of Stomach Wounds Became Legendary \|publisher\=The Prescott Courier \|date\=May 2, 1980\|page\=4}}{{cite web\|title\=George Goodfellow Investigates Earthquake\|url\=http://www.history.com/this\-day\-in\-history/george\-goodfellow\-investigates\-earthquake\|publisher\=History.com\|access\-date\=9 March 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312213011/http://www.history.com/this\-day\-in\-history/george\-goodfellow\-investigates\-earthquake\|archive\-date\=12 March 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} who first performed the operation in 1891\. Goodfellow's original purpose was to treat bladder problems caused by an enlarged prostate. Goodfellow traveled extensively across the United States for several years training other physicians in the operation, including Dr. Young. Goodfellow completed 78 operations and only two patients died, a remarkable level of success for the time period.
In [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), Young was a Major in charge of the [venereal health](/wiki/Venereal_disease "Venereal disease") of the [Doughboys](/wiki/Doughboy "Doughboy") in France.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WHhyDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA14\|page\=14\|title\=The Girls Next Door: Bringing the Home Front to the Front Lines\|last\=Vuic\|first\=Kara Dixon\|publisher\=Harvard University Press\|year\=2019\|isbn\=9780674986381}} He fought [prostitution](/wiki/Prostitution "Prostitution") near American bases with the full cooperation of [General Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing "John J. Pershing"). In 1917, he established *[The Journal of Urology](/wiki/The_Journal_of_Urology "The Journal of Urology")* and became its first editor\-in\-chief.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ju100\.org/ju\-editors.cfm\|title\=Journal of Urology Editors\|website\=www.ju100\.org\|access\-date\=5 February 2020}}
In addition to his pioneering medical work, Young had a personal interest in the burgeoning field of aviation and chaired a committee for planning what is now [Baltimore\-Washington International Airport](/wiki/Baltimore-Washington_International_Airport "Baltimore-Washington International Airport"), which at the time was to be named "Friendship Airport." He was also active in community affairs and was known to be a supporter of [Albert Cabell Ritchie](/wiki/Albert_Cabell_Ritchie "Albert Cabell Ritchie"), a [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland") politician who made a bid for the presidency in 1932 but lost the nomination to [Franklin Delano Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt "Franklin Delano Roosevelt") at the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") convention in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), where Young was among the delegates.
Young wrote an autobiography entitled *Hugh Young, a surgeon's autobiography* (published by Harcourt, Brace and company in 1940\) as well as several urological texts. He died on August 23, 1945, and is buried in Druid Ridge Cemetery, in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland "Baltimore, Maryland"), [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland").
The [American Urological Association](/wiki/American_Urological_Association "American Urological Association") presents an annual award called the [Hugh Hampton Young Award](/wiki/Hugh_Hampton_Young_Award "Hugh Hampton Young Award") named in his honor. Notable recipients include [John K. Lattimer](/wiki/John_K._Lattimer "John K. Lattimer"), pioneer of pediatric urology and physician investigator of the [JFK assassination](/wiki/JFK_assassination "JFK assassination"), and [Larry I. Lipshultz](/wiki/Larry_Lipshultz "Larry Lipshultz"), founder of Society for the Study of Male Reproduction.
The Hugh Hampton Young Memorial Fellowship at the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology "Massachusetts Institute of Technology") was established by an anonymous donor in 1965, for the benefit of MIT graduate students ; it "seeks individuals exhibiting a blend of broad focus, leadership, and initiative,"{{Cite web\|title\=Hugh Hampton Young Fellowship {{!}} Office of Graduate Education\|url\=https://oge.mit.edu/finances/fellowships/hugh\-hampton\-young\-memorial\-fund\-fellowship/\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}} and recognizes "academic achievement across multiple disciplines and \[honors] students who possess exceptional character strengths. These students harbor outstanding potential to make a positive impact on humanity."{{Cite web\|title\=A legacy of curiosity in the name of Hugh Hampton Young\|url\=https://news.mit.edu/2020/hugh\-hampton\-young\-fellows\-0915\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18\|website\=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|language\=en}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Hugh H. Young was born in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Texas \"San Antonio, Texas\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"), on September 18, 1870\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vI5IAAAAMAAJ\\|last\\=Early\\|first\\=Ruth Hairston\\|title\\=The family of Early: which settled upon the eastern shore of Virginia\\|location\\=Lynchburg, Virginia\\|publisher\\=Brown\\-Morrison Press\\|year\\=1920\\|oclc\\=9510197\\|page\\=55\\|isbn\\=9780608321684}} He was the son of [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army \"Confederate States Army\") [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_General_%28CSA%29 \"Brigadier General (CSA)\") [William Hugh Young](/wiki/William_Hugh_Young \"William Hugh Young\") and Frances (Kemper) Young.",
"Young graduated from the [University of Virginia](/wiki/University_of_Virginia \"University of Virginia\") in 1891 after acquiring BA, MA, and MD degrees in just four years.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=\\[\\[CA (journal)\\|CA – A Cancer Journal for Clinicians]]\\|year\\=1977\\|volume\\=27\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\= 305–307\\|doi\\=10\\.3322/canjclin.27\\.5\\.305\\|pmid\\=411552\\|last1\\=Young\\|first1\\=H.\\|title \\= Hugh Hampton Young (1870\\-1945\\)\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} As of 1895 he began teaching at the [Johns Hopkins Hospital](/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_School_of_Medicine \"Johns Hopkins School of Medicine\") and by 1897 he was the head of their urology department, at an age of just 27\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=History of Urology at Johns Hopkins\\|url\\=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/brady\\-urology\\-institute/about\\_us/history\\_of\\_urology\\_at\\_johns\\_hopkins/index.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=urology.jhu.edu}} The Brady Urological Institute, named after one of Young's patients, opened at Johns Hopkins in 1915\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=About Us {{!}} Johns Hopkins Brady Urological Institute\\|url\\=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/brady\\-urology\\-institute/about\\_us/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=www.hopkinsmedicine.org\\|language\\=en}} Young remained there for most of his life, until 1940\\.",
"Among Young's contributions to the medical field are several inventions and discoveries, primarily relating to surgery. One such innovation was the \"boomerang needle,\" a type of surgical needle designed for working with deep incisions. He also invented a device known as the Young punch, an instrument used in prostatectomy procedures. He and his associates also discovered the antiseptic merbromin, more popularly known as [Mercurochrome](/wiki/Mercurochrome \"Mercurochrome\"), one of its brand names.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sciencesource.com/archive/Hugh\\-Hampton\\-Young\\-\\-American\\-Surgeon\\-and\\-Inventor\\-SS2502273\\.html\\|title\\=Science Source \\- Hugh Hampton Young, American Surgeon and Inventor\\|website\\=www.sciencesource.com\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-10}}",
"[Intersex](/wiki/Intersex \"Intersex\") people were brought to Brady Urological Institute to [reassign them as either male or female](/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions \"Intersex medical interventions\"), and the Institute's protocol, created under Young, was widely influential. Young began with external and internal exams, X\\-rays, and exploratory surgery. Intersex children in the 1920s and 1930s typically went to Brady rather than to the pediatric Harriet Lane Home at Hopkins.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Gill\\-Peterson\\|first\\=Julian\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hod0DwAAQBAJ\\|title\\=Histories of the Transgender Child\\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-23\\|publisher\\=U of Minnesota Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4529\\-5815\\-6\\|language\\=en\\|chapter\\=Chapter 2\\. Before Transsexuality: The Transgender Child from the 1900s to the 1930s}}",
"He is credited with conceiving of the use of radical [perineal](/wiki/Perineum \"Perineum\") [prostatectomy](/wiki/Prostatectomy \"Prostatectomy\") to treat [prostate cancer](/wiki/Prostate_cancer \"Prostate cancer\") and performed the first operation of that kind on April 7, 1904\\. He learned the procedure from Dr. [George Goodfellow](/wiki/George_E._Goodfellow \"George E. Goodfellow\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2002\\-oct\\-27\\-me\\-then27\\-story.html\\|title\\='Gunfighter's Surgeon' Became a Southwest Legend\\|date\\=2002\\-10\\-27\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-10}}{{cite news \\|title\\=George Goodfellow's Medical Treatment of Stomach Wounds Became Legendary \\|publisher\\=The Prescott Courier \\|date\\=May 2, 1980\\|page\\=4}}{{cite web\\|title\\=George Goodfellow Investigates Earthquake\\|url\\=http://www.history.com/this\\-day\\-in\\-history/george\\-goodfellow\\-investigates\\-earthquake\\|publisher\\=History.com\\|access\\-date\\=9 March 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312213011/http://www.history.com/this\\-day\\-in\\-history/george\\-goodfellow\\-investigates\\-earthquake\\|archive\\-date\\=12 March 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} who first performed the operation in 1891\\. Goodfellow's original purpose was to treat bladder problems caused by an enlarged prostate. Goodfellow traveled extensively across the United States for several years training other physicians in the operation, including Dr. Young. Goodfellow completed 78 operations and only two patients died, a remarkable level of success for the time period.",
"In [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), Young was a Major in charge of the [venereal health](/wiki/Venereal_disease \"Venereal disease\") of the [Doughboys](/wiki/Doughboy \"Doughboy\") in France.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WHhyDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA14\\|page\\=14\\|title\\=The Girls Next Door: Bringing the Home Front to the Front Lines\\|last\\=Vuic\\|first\\=Kara Dixon\\|publisher\\=Harvard University Press\\|year\\=2019\\|isbn\\=9780674986381}} He fought [prostitution](/wiki/Prostitution \"Prostitution\") near American bases with the full cooperation of [General Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing \"John J. Pershing\"). In 1917, he established *[The Journal of Urology](/wiki/The_Journal_of_Urology \"The Journal of Urology\")* and became its first editor\\-in\\-chief.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ju100\\.org/ju\\-editors.cfm\\|title\\=Journal of Urology Editors\\|website\\=www.ju100\\.org\\|access\\-date\\=5 February 2020}}",
"In addition to his pioneering medical work, Young had a personal interest in the burgeoning field of aviation and chaired a committee for planning what is now [Baltimore\\-Washington International Airport](/wiki/Baltimore-Washington_International_Airport \"Baltimore-Washington International Airport\"), which at the time was to be named \"Friendship Airport.\" He was also active in community affairs and was known to be a supporter of [Albert Cabell Ritchie](/wiki/Albert_Cabell_Ritchie \"Albert Cabell Ritchie\"), a [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\") politician who made a bid for the presidency in 1932 but lost the nomination to [Franklin Delano Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt \"Franklin Delano Roosevelt\") at the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") convention in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), where Young was among the delegates.",
"Young wrote an autobiography entitled *Hugh Young, a surgeon's autobiography* (published by Harcourt, Brace and company in 1940\\) as well as several urological texts. He died on August 23, 1945, and is buried in Druid Ridge Cemetery, in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland \"Baltimore, Maryland\"), [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\").",
"The [American Urological Association](/wiki/American_Urological_Association \"American Urological Association\") presents an annual award called the [Hugh Hampton Young Award](/wiki/Hugh_Hampton_Young_Award \"Hugh Hampton Young Award\") named in his honor. Notable recipients include [John K. Lattimer](/wiki/John_K._Lattimer \"John K. Lattimer\"), pioneer of pediatric urology and physician investigator of the [JFK assassination](/wiki/JFK_assassination \"JFK assassination\"), and [Larry I. Lipshultz](/wiki/Larry_Lipshultz \"Larry Lipshultz\"), founder of Society for the Study of Male Reproduction.",
"The Hugh Hampton Young Memorial Fellowship at the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\") was established by an anonymous donor in 1965, for the benefit of MIT graduate students ; it \"seeks individuals exhibiting a blend of broad focus, leadership, and initiative,\"{{Cite web\\|title\\=Hugh Hampton Young Fellowship {{!}} Office of Graduate Education\\|url\\=https://oge.mit.edu/finances/fellowships/hugh\\-hampton\\-young\\-memorial\\-fund\\-fellowship/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}} and recognizes \"academic achievement across multiple disciplines and \\[honors] students who possess exceptional character strengths. These students harbor outstanding potential to make a positive impact on humanity.\"{{Cite web\\|title\\=A legacy of curiosity in the name of Hugh Hampton Young\\|url\\=https://news.mit.edu/2020/hugh\\-hampton\\-young\\-fellows\\-0915\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18\\|website\\=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology\\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The building was constructed between 1905 and 1906 on the site of a previous house dating from 1874\. At this time, the address was *149 Danziger Strasse, Bromberg*.Einwohner\-, Adress\- und Telefonbücher von Bromberg \-1908
It was designed by the architect Fritz Weidner, following a commission from the shipping investor ({{lang\-de\|Spediteur}}) **Max Rosenthal**. The first tenant was Friedrich Herzer, who ran a men's fashion salon offering elegant clothing, uniforms and sportswear until [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I").{{cite book \|date\=1917 \|title\=Adressbuch nebst Allgemeinem Geschäfts\-Anzeiger von Bromberg mit Vororten für das Jahr 1917: auf Grund amtlicher und privater Unterlagen \|location\=Bromberg \|publisher\=A. Dittmann }}
A notable doctor, Elmiar Schendell, lived there from the 1910s to the 1930s.{{cite book \|last\=Weber \|first\=Władysław \|date\=1928 \|title\=Książka Adresowa Miasta Bydgoszczy : na rok 1928 \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Bibljoteka polska w Bydgoszczy \|chapter\=Ulicy \|page\=359}} During First World War, he gave nursing courses to young mother at the Infant Dispensary on [Kościelecki Square](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcielecki_Square_in_Bydgoszcz "Kościelecki Square in Bydgoszcz").
Fritz Weidner was a German builder who came to Bydgoszcz at the end of the 19th century. He conducted frantic building activity in the city between 1896 and 1914\. From 1912, he lived in the house he built for himself at [34 Gdańska](/wiki/Fritz_Weidner_tenement_in_Bydgoszcz "Fritz Weidner tenement in Bydgoszcz").
In the same area, Fritz Weidner built houses at the following addresses:
* [Mix Ernst tenement and movie theatre](/wiki/Mix_Ernst_tenement_in_Bydgoszcz "Mix Ernst tenement in Bydgoszcz") at 10 Gdanska St. in 1905;
* [Thomas Frankowski Tenement](/wiki/Thomas_Frankowski_Tenement_%28Bydgoszcz%29 "Thomas Frankowski Tenement (Bydgoszcz)") at 28 Gdanska St. in 1897;
* [George Sikorski Tenement](/wiki/George_Sikorski_Tenement_in_Bydgoszcz "George Sikorski Tenement in Bydgoszcz") at 31 Gdańska St. in 1906;
* [Ernst Bartsch tenement](/wiki/Ernst_Bartsch_tenement_in_Bydgoszcz "Ernst Bartsch tenement in Bydgoszcz") at 79 Gdańska St. in 1898;
* [House](/wiki/Freedom_Square_in_Bydgoszcz "Freedom Square in Bydgoszcz") at 3 Freedom Square in 1903\.
In 1918, the merchant [Bronisław Kentzer](/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Kentzer "Bronisław Kentzer") bought the tenement to set up there the "Colonial Goods Wholesale and Coffee Roaster B. Kentzer i Ska" ({{lang\-pl\|Hurtownia Towarów Kolonianych i Palarnia Kawy B. Kentzer i Ska}}). The firm became one of the largest trading companies in [Pomerania](/wiki/Pomerania "Pomerania") and [Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland "Greater Poland").
End of 2017, a thorough refurbishment of the building has anew underlined the features of the elevation on Gdańska street.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The building was constructed between 1905 and 1906 on the site of a previous house dating from 1874\\. At this time, the address was *149 Danziger Strasse, Bromberg*.Einwohner\\-, Adress\\- und Telefonbücher von Bromberg \\-1908\nIt was designed by the architect Fritz Weidner, following a commission from the shipping investor ({{lang\\-de\\|Spediteur}}) **Max Rosenthal**. The first tenant was Friedrich Herzer, who ran a men's fashion salon offering elegant clothing, uniforms and sportswear until [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\").{{cite book \\|date\\=1917 \\|title\\=Adressbuch nebst Allgemeinem Geschäfts\\-Anzeiger von Bromberg mit Vororten für das Jahr 1917: auf Grund amtlicher und privater Unterlagen \\|location\\=Bromberg \\|publisher\\=A. Dittmann }}",
"A notable doctor, Elmiar Schendell, lived there from the 1910s to the 1930s.{{cite book \\|last\\=Weber \\|first\\=Władysław \\|date\\=1928 \\|title\\=Książka Adresowa Miasta Bydgoszczy : na rok 1928 \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Bibljoteka polska w Bydgoszczy \\|chapter\\=Ulicy \\|page\\=359}} During First World War, he gave nursing courses to young mother at the Infant Dispensary on [Kościelecki Square](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcielecki_Square_in_Bydgoszcz \"Kościelecki Square in Bydgoszcz\").",
"Fritz Weidner was a German builder who came to Bydgoszcz at the end of the 19th century. He conducted frantic building activity in the city between 1896 and 1914\\. From 1912, he lived in the house he built for himself at [34 Gdańska](/wiki/Fritz_Weidner_tenement_in_Bydgoszcz \"Fritz Weidner tenement in Bydgoszcz\").",
"In the same area, Fritz Weidner built houses at the following addresses:\n* [Mix Ernst tenement and movie theatre](/wiki/Mix_Ernst_tenement_in_Bydgoszcz \"Mix Ernst tenement in Bydgoszcz\") at 10 Gdanska St. in 1905;\n* [Thomas Frankowski Tenement](/wiki/Thomas_Frankowski_Tenement_%28Bydgoszcz%29 \"Thomas Frankowski Tenement (Bydgoszcz)\") at 28 Gdanska St. in 1897;\n* [George Sikorski Tenement](/wiki/George_Sikorski_Tenement_in_Bydgoszcz \"George Sikorski Tenement in Bydgoszcz\") at 31 Gdańska St. in 1906;\n* [Ernst Bartsch tenement](/wiki/Ernst_Bartsch_tenement_in_Bydgoszcz \"Ernst Bartsch tenement in Bydgoszcz\") at 79 Gdańska St. in 1898;\n* [House](/wiki/Freedom_Square_in_Bydgoszcz \"Freedom Square in Bydgoszcz\") at 3 Freedom Square in 1903\\.",
"In 1918, the merchant [Bronisław Kentzer](/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Kentzer \"Bronisław Kentzer\") bought the tenement to set up there the \"Colonial Goods Wholesale and Coffee Roaster B. Kentzer i Ska\" ({{lang\\-pl\\|Hurtownia Towarów Kolonianych i Palarnia Kawy B. Kentzer i Ska}}). The firm became one of the largest trading companies in [Pomerania](/wiki/Pomerania \"Pomerania\") and [Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland \"Greater Poland\").",
"End of 2017, a thorough refurbishment of the building has anew underlined the features of the elevation on Gdańska street.",
""
] |
Country specific laws
---------------------
### India
Under Indian law the corporate, managing bodies, etc. and several other non\-human entitles have been given the status of the "[legal person](/wiki/Legal_person%23India "Legal person#India")". In court cases regarding corporate, the shareholders are not responsible for the company's debts but the company itself being a "legal person" is liable to repay those debts or be sued for the non\-repayment of debts. The non\-human entities given the "legal person" status by the law "have rights and co\-relative duties; they can sue and be sued, can possess and transfer property". Since these non\-human entities are "voiceless" they are legally represented "through guardians and representatives" to claim their legal rights and to fulfill their legal duties and responsibilities. Specific non\-human entities given the status of "legal person" include "corporate personality, [body politic](/wiki/Body_politic "Body politic"), [charitable unions](/wiki/Charitable_organization "Charitable organization") etc.", as well as [trust estates](/wiki/Trust_law%23 "Trust law#"), [deity](/wiki/Deity "Deity"), temples, [churches](/wiki/Church_%28building%29 "Church (building)"), [mosques](/wiki/Mosque "Mosque"), [hospitals](/wiki/Hospital "Hospital"), [universities](/wiki/University "University"), [colleges](/wiki/College "College"), [banks](/wiki/Bank "Bank"), [railways](/wiki/Railways "Railways"), [municipalities](/wiki/Municipality "Municipality"), and gram panchayats (village councils), rivers, all animals and birds.["Birds to holy rivers: A list of everything India considers 'legal persons{{'"}}](https://qz.com/india/1636326/who-apart-from-human-beings-are-legal-persons-in-india/), *[Quartz](/wiki/Quartz_%28publication%29 "Quartz (publication)")*, September 2019\.
### In the United States
In a U.S. historical context, the phrase "corporate personhood" refers to the ongoing legal debate over the extent to which rights traditionally associated with natural persons should also be afforded to [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person "Juridical person") including [corporations](/wiki/Corporations "Corporations"). A [headnote](/wiki/Headnote "Headnote") issued by the [court reporter](/wiki/Court_reporter "Court reporter") in the 1886 Supreme Court case *[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad_Co. "Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.")* claimed to state the sense of the Court regarding the [equal protection clause](/wiki/Equal_protection_clause "Equal protection clause") of the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") as it applies to corporations, without the Court having actually made a decision or issued a written opinion on that point.Adam Winkler ['Corporations Are People' Is Built on an Incredible 19th\-Century Lie; How a farcical series of events in the 1880s produced an enduring and controversial legal precedent](https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/03/corporations-people-adam-winkler/554852) March 5, 2018 [theatlantic.com](/wiki/Theatlantic.com "Theatlantic.com") This was the first time that the Supreme Court was reported to hold that the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause granted constitutional protections to corporations as well as to [natural persons](/wiki/Natural_persons "Natural persons"), although numerous other cases, since *[Dartmouth College v. Woodward](/wiki/Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward "Dartmouth College v. Woodward")* in 1819, had recognized that corporations were entitled to some of the protections of the Constitution. In *[Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.](/wiki/Burwell_v._Hobby_Lobby_Stores%2C_Inc. "Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.")* (2014\), the Court found that the [Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993](/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act "Religious Freedom Restoration Act") exempted [Hobby Lobby](/wiki/Hobby_Lobby "Hobby Lobby") from aspects of the [Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act") because those aspects placed a substantial burden on the company's owners' free exercise of sincerely held religious beliefs.{{cite web\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=5322529599500468186 \|title\=Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. \|publisher\=Google Scholar \|access\-date\=2018\-01\-26}}
U.S. courts have extended certain constitutional protections to corporations under various rationales. An early perspective, variously known as 'contractual', 'associate', or 'aggregate' theory, holds that owners of property have certain constitutional protections, even when the property is held via a corporation rather than directly under the owner's own name. Corporate attorney [John Norton Pomeroy](/wiki/John_Norton_Pomeroy "John Norton Pomeroy") argued in the 1880s that "Statutes violating their prohibitions in dealing with corporations must necessarily infringe upon the rights of natural persons. In applying and enforcing these constitutional guaranties, corporations cannot be separated from the natural persons who compose them."
Similarly, proponents might argue a juridical person can be a device for exercising shareholders' rights to free speech. Under this perspective, such constitutional rights might also extend to other associations of people, even where the association does not take on the formal legal form of a corporation. A second perspective, known as the 'real entity' or 'natural entity' view, shifts the presumption of corporate regulation against the states.
The dominant view from the 1920s to the 1980s, championed by philosopher [John Dewey](/wiki/John_Dewey "John Dewey"), asserted that such perspectives are often overgeneralizations, and that the decision to grant corporate rights in a given sphere should be governed by the consequences of doing so{{citation needed\|date\=December 2020}}. The 1980s saw an explosion of economic analyses, with a corporation often viewed as a nexus of contracts and as an economic agent appointed to act on behalf of its shareholders.
Some rulings combine multiple perspectives; the majority opinion in *Citizens United* argued both from an 'association' perspective ("if the antidistortion rationale were to be accepted... it would permit Government to ban political speech simply because the speaker is an association that has taken on the corporate form") and from a 'natural entity' perspective ("the worth of speech 'does not depend upon the identity of its source, whether corporation, association, union, or individual{{'"}}).
Treating [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person "Juridical person") as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders as well as the [right of association](/wiki/Right_of_association "Right of association").
Generally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would not otherwise be available to persons acting as a group. For example, the Supreme Court has not recognized a [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution") right against self\-incrimination for a corporation, since the right can be exercised only on an individual basis. In *United States v. Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company*, "\[a]ppellants \[suggested] the use of the word 'taxpayer' several times in the regulations requires the fifth\-amendment self\-incrimination warning be given to a corporation." The Court did not agree.{{cite web\|url\=http://cases.justia.com/us\-court\-of\-appeals/F2/515/295/292973/ \|title\=United States of America, Plaintiff\-appellant, v. S. Steve Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company, Defendants\-appellees \|publisher\=Cases.justia.com \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-19}} Likewise, corporations and organizations do not have privacy rights under the [Privacy Act of 1974](/wiki/Privacy_Act_of_1974 "Privacy Act of 1974"), since the statute refers to any "individual," which it defines as "a citizen of the United States or an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence."{{cite web \|title\=Overview of the Privacy Act of 1974 \|url\=https://www.justice.gov/opcl/definitions \|agency\=\[\[US Department of Justice]] \|website\=www.justice.gov \|author\= \|date\=January 15, 2020 \|access\-date\=December 4, 2020 \|quote\=Corporations and organizations also do not have any Privacy Act rights.}}
Since the Supreme Court's ruling in *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission "Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission")* in 2010, upholding the rights of corporations to make unlimited political expenditures under the First Amendment, there have been several calls for a Constitutional amendment to abolish corporate personhood.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.movetoamend.org/resolutions\-in\-support \|title\=Resolutions in Support \|publisher\=Movetoamend.org }} The *Citizens United* majority opinion makes no reference to corporate personhood or the Fourteenth Amendment, but rather argues that political speech rights do not depend on the identity of the speaker, which could be a person or an association of people.*Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission* [Opinion of the Court](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/opinion.html) (2010\)*Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission* [Concurrence \& Dissent In Part (John Paul Stevens)](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/cdinpart.html) (2010\)
Individual shareholders cannot generally sue over the deprivation of a corporation's rights; only the board of directors has the standing to assert a corporation's constitutional rights in court.
#### Historical background in the United States
{{unreferenced section\|date\=October 2011}}
During the colonial era, British corporations were chartered by the crown to do business in North America. This practice continued in the early United States. They were often granted monopolies as part of the chartering process. For example, the controversial [Bank Bill of 1791](/wiki/Bank_Bill_of_1791 "Bank Bill of 1791") chartered a 20\-year corporate [monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly "Monopoly") for the [First Bank of the United States](/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States "First Bank of the United States"). Although the Federal government has from time to time chartered corporations, the general chartering of corporations has been left to the states. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, corporations began to be chartered in greater numbers by the states, under general laws allowing for incorporation at the initiative of citizens, rather than through specific acts of the legislature.
The degree of permissible government interference in corporate affairs was controversial from the earliest days of the nation. In 1790, [John Marshall](/wiki/John_Marshall "John Marshall"), a private attorney and a veteran of the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army "Continental Army"), represented the board of the [College of William and Mary](/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary "College of William and Mary"), in litigation that required him to defend the corporation's right to reorganize itself and in the process remove professors, *The Rev John Bracken v. The Visitors of Wm \& Mary College* (7 Va. 573; 1790 [Supreme Court of Virginia](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Virginia "Supreme Court of Virginia")). The Supreme Court of Virginia ruled that the original Crown charter provided the authority for the corporation's Board of Visitors to make changes including the reorganization.
As the 19th century matured, manufacturing in the U.S. became more complex as the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") generated new inventions and business processes. The favored form for large businesses became the corporation because the corporation provided a mechanism to raise the large amounts of investment capital large business required, especially for capital intensive yet risky projects such as railroads.
Following the reasoning of the Dartmouth College case and other precedents (see {{format link\|\#Case law in the United States}} below), corporations could exercise the rights of their shareholders and these shareholders were entitled to some of the legal protections against arbitrary state action. Their cause was strengthened by the adoption of general incorporation statutes in the states in the late 19th century, most notably in New Jersey and Delaware, which allowed anyone to form corporations without any particular government grant or authorization, and thus without the government\-granted monopolies that had been common in charters granted by the Crown or by acts of the legislature (see [Delaware General Corporation Law](/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law "Delaware General Corporation Law")). In *[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad "Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad")* (1886\), the Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment applied to corporations. Since then the doctrine has been repeatedly reaffirmed in case law.{{cite book \|last1\=Clarke \|first1\=Frank \|last2\=Dean \|first2\=Graeme \|last3\=Egan \|first3\=Matthew \|title\=The Unaccountable \& Ungovernable Corporation: Companies' use\-by\-dates close in \|date\=21 March 2014 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-317\-96409\-4 \|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The\_Unaccountable\_Ungovernable\_Corporati/HQQkAwAAQBAJ?hl\=en\&gbpv\=1\&dq\=Fourteenth\+Amendment\+corporations\+repeatedly\+reaffirmed\&pg\=PT31\&printsec\=frontcover \|language\=en}}{{Chronology citation needed\|date\=March 2019}}
#### Case law in the United States
In 1818, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") decided *[Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward](/wiki/Trustees_of_Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward "Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward")* – 17 U.S. 518 (1819\), writing: "The opinion of the Court, after mature deliberation, is that this corporate [charter](/wiki/Charter "Charter") is a [contract](/wiki/Contract "Contract"), the obligation of which cannot be impaired without violating the Constitution of the United States. This opinion appears to us to be equally supported by reason, and by the former decisions of this Court." Beginning with this opinion, the U.S. Supreme Court has continuously recognized corporations as having the same rights as natural persons to contract and to enforce contracts.{{Cite web \|title\=Does "We the People" Include Corporations? \|url\=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human\_rights\_magazine\_home/we\-the\-people/we\-the\-people\-corporations/ \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-07 \|website\=www.americanbar.org \|language\=en}}
Seven years after the Dartmouth College opinion, the Supreme Court decided *Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet* (1823\), in which an English corporation dedicated to missionary work, with land in the U.S., sought to protect its rights to the land under colonial\-era grants against an effort by the state of [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont "Vermont") to revoke the grants. Justice [Joseph Story](/wiki/Joseph_Story "Joseph Story"), writing for the court, explicitly extended the same protections to corporate\-owned property as it would have to property owned by natural persons. Seven years later, Chief Justice Marshall stated: "The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men."*Providence Bank v. Billings*, [29 U.S. 514](http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=29&invol=514) (1830\).
In the 1886 case *[Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific](/wiki/Santa_Clara_v._Southern_Pacific "Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific")* – 118 U.S. 394 (1886\), Chief Justice Waite of the Supreme Court orally directed the lawyers that the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") equal protection clause guarantees constitutional protections to corporations in addition to natural persons, and the oral argument should focus on other issues in the case.{{Cite book\|author\=Calvert, Clay\|chapter\=Freedom of Speech Extended to Corporations\|editor\=Finkelman, Paul\|title\=Encyclopedia of American civil liberties, Volume 1\|publisher\=CRC Press\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-94342\-0\|page\=650\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YoI14vYA8r0C\&pg\=PA650}} In the Santa Clara case the court reporter, [Bancroft Davis](/wiki/Bancroft_Davis "Bancroft Davis"),{{cite book \|last\=Hartman \|first\=Thom \|title\=Unequal Protection: The Rise of Corporate Dominance and the Theft of Human Rights \|location\=New York \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|year\=2002}} noted in the headnote to the opinion that the Chief Justice, [Morrison Waite](/wiki/Morrison_Waite "Morrison Waite"), began oral argument by stating, "The court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") to the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States "Constitution of the United States"), which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does."118 U.S. 394 (1886\) – Official court Syllabus in the United States Reports While the headnote is not part of the Court's opinion and thus not [precedent](/wiki/Precedent "Precedent"), two years later, in *[Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pembina_Consolidated_Silver_Mining_Co._v._Pennsylvania "Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania")* – 125 U.S. 181 (1888\), the Court clearly affirmed the doctrine, holding, "Under the designation of 'person' there is no doubt that a private corporation is included \[in the Fourteenth Amendment]. Such corporations are merely associations of individuals united for a special purpose and permitted to do business under a particular name and have a succession of members without dissolution."*Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania*, [125 U.S. 394](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/125/181/case.html) (1886\). This doctrine has been reaffirmed by the Court many times since.{{cite book \|last1\=Choudhury \|first1\=Barnali \|last2\=Petrin \|first2\=Martin \|title\=Understanding the Company: Corporate Governance and Theory \|date\=20 July 2017 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-108\-21094\-2 \|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Understanding\_the\_Company/jwQvDwAAQBAJ?hl\=en\&gbpv\=1\&dq\=Fourteenth\+Amendment\+corporations\+reaffirmed\+many\+times\+since\&pg\=PA170\&printsec\=frontcover \|language\=en}}
The 14th Amendment does not insulate corporations from all government regulation, any more than it relieves individuals from all regulatory obligations. Thus, for example, in *[Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs](/wiki/Northwestern_Nat_Life_Ins._Co._v._Riggs "Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs")* (203 U.S. 243 (1906\)), the Court accepted that corporations are for legal purposes "persons", but still ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment was not a bar to many state laws which effectively limited a corporation's right to contract business as it pleased. However, this was not because corporations were not protected under the Fourteenth Amendment—rather, the Court's ruling was that the Fourteenth Amendment did not prohibit the type of regulation at issue, whether of a corporation or of sole proprietorship or partnership.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2011}}
#### Legislation in the United States
{{See also\|Creature of statute}}
Federal statutes that refer to "persons" generally include both natural and juridical ones, unless a different definition is given. This general rule of interpretation is specified in Title 1, section 1 of the U.S. Code,{{cite web\|url\=http://www4\.law.cornell.edu/uscode/1/1\.html \|title\=United States Code: Title 1,1\. Words denoting number, gender, and so forth \| LII / Legal Information Institute \|publisher\=.law.cornell.edu \|date\=2010\-04\-07 \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-19}} known as the Dictionary Act, which states:
> In determining the meaning of any Act of Congress, unless the context indicates otherwise—
the words "person" and "whoever" include corporations, companies, associations, firms, partnerships, societies, and joint stock companies, as well as individuals;
This federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation may enter contracts,{{cite web \| last\=Torres\-Spelliscy \| first\=Ciara \| title\=Does “We the People” Include Corporations? \| website\=American Bar Association \| date\=October 11, 2017 \| url\=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human\_rights\_magazine\_home/we\-the\-people/we\-the\-people\-corporations/ \| access\-date\=March 28, 2024}} sue and be sued,{{cite web \| last\=School \| first\=Purdue Global Law \| title\=Corporate Personhood: What It Means and How It Has Evolved \| website\=Purdue Global Law School \| date\=January 6, 2023 \| url\=https://www.purduegloballawschool.edu/blog/news/corporate\-personhood \| access\-date\=March 28, 2024}} and be held liable under both civil and criminal law.{{Cite book \|last\=Lo \|first\=Stefan H. C. \|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/In\_Search\_of\_Corporate\_Accountability/ugr5DAAAQBAJ?hl\=en\&gbpv\=1\&dq\=held\+liable\+under\+corporation\+%22both\+civil\+and\+criminal\+law%22\&pg\=PA15\&printsec\=frontcover \|title\=In Search of Corporate Accountability: Liabilities of Corporate Participants \|date\=2016\-01\-14 \|publisher\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-4438\-8771\-7 \|language\=en}} Because the corporation is legally considered the "person", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages.{{cite web \| last\=Winkler \| first\=Adam \| title\=Corporate Person\-hood and Constitutional Rights for Corporations \| website\=New England Law Review \| date\=February 26, 2022 \| url\=https://www.newenglrev.com/volume\-54\-1/corporate\-personhood\-and\-constitutional\-rights\-for\-corporations \| access\-date\=March 28, 2024}} Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. {{Citation needed\|reason\=This is primarily a matter of state law. If there is some applicable federal statute (and cases construing it), this should be clarified.\|date\=February 2021}}
Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same [constitutional rights](/wiki/Constitutional_right "Constitutional right").
Corporations as [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person "Juridical person") have always been able to perform [commercial](/wiki/Commerce "Commerce") activities, similar to a person acting as a [sole proprietor](/wiki/Sole_proprietorship "Sole proprietorship"), such as entering into a contract or owning property. Therefore, corporations have always had a "juridical personality" for the purposes of conducting business while shielding individual [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholder "Shareholder") from personal liability (i.e. protecting personal assets which were not invested in the corporation).
[Ralph Nader](/wiki/Ralph_Nader "Ralph Nader"), [Phil Radford](/wiki/Phil_Radford "Phil Radford") and others have argued that a strict [originalist](/wiki/Originalist "Originalist") philosophy should reject the doctrine of corporate personhood under the Fourteenth Amendment.[Ralph Nader and Robert Weissman. Letter to the Editor: Ralph Nader on Scalia's "originalism"](http://hlrecord.org/2008/11/letter-to-the-editor-ralph-nader-on-scalias-originalism/). *[Harvard Law Record](/wiki/Harvard_Law_Record "Harvard Law Record")*, Published: Thursday, November 13, 2008, Updated: Tuesday, September 29, 2009\. Indeed, Chief Justice [William Rehnquist](/wiki/William_Rehnquist "William Rehnquist") repeatedly criticized the Court's invention of corporate constitutional "rights", most famously in his dissenting opinion in the 1978 case *[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti](/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti "First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti")*; though, in *Bellotti*, Rehnquist's objections are based on his "views of the limited application of the First Amendment to the States" and not on whether corporations qualify as "persons" under the Fourteenth Amendment.{{cite web \|author\=United States Supreme Court \|title\=FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF BOSTON v. BELLOTTI \|number\=76–1172 \|website\=Findlaw \|date\=1978\-04\-06 \|url\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\-supreme\-court/435/765\.html \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-04}} Nonetheless, these justices' rulings have continued to affirm the assumption of corporate personhood, as the Waite court did, and Justice Rehnquist himself eventually endorsed the right of corporations to spend in elections (the majority view in *Bellotti*) in his dissenting opinion in *[McConnell v. FEC](/wiki/McConnell_v._FEC "McConnell v. FEC")*.
#### Corporate political spending
A central point of debate in recent years has been what role corporate money plays and should play in democratic politics. This is part of the larger debate on [campaign finance reform](/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States "Campaign finance reform in the United States") and the role which money may play in politics.
In the United States, legal milestones in this debate include:
* [Tillman Act of 1907](/wiki/Tillman_Act_of_1907 "Tillman Act of 1907"), banned corporate political contributions to national campaigns.
* [Federal Election Campaign Act](/wiki/Federal_Election_Campaign_Act "Federal Election Campaign Act") of 1971, campaign financing legislation.
* 1974 Amendments to Federal Election Campaign Act provided for first comprehensive system of regulation, including limitations on the size of contributions and expenditures and prohibitions on certain entities from contributing or spending, disclosure, creation of the Federal Election Commission as a regulatory agency, and government funding of presidential campaigns.
* *[Buckley v. Valeo](/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo "Buckley v. Valeo"),* 424 [U.S. 1](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/case.html) (1976\) upheld limits on campaign contributions, but held that spending money to influence elections is protected speech by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution").{{Cite news\|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/\|title\=Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976\)\|work\=Justia Law\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-20\|language\=en}}
* *[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti](/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti "First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti")* (1978\) upheld the rights of corporations to spend money in non\-candidate elections (i.e. ballot initiatives and referendums).
* *[Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Austin_v._Michigan_Chamber_of_Commerce "Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce")* (1990\) upheld the right of the state of Michigan to prohibit corporations from using money from their corporate treasuries to support or oppose candidates in elections, noting: "\[c]orporate wealth can unfairly influence elections."
* [Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002](/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_of_2002 "Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002") (McCain–Feingold), banned corporate funding of [issue advocacy ads](/wiki/Issue_advocacy_ads "Issue advocacy ads") which mentioned candidates close to an election.
* *[McConnell v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/McConnell_v._Federal_Election_Commission "McConnell v. Federal Election Commission")* (2003\), substantially upheld McCain–Feingold.
* *[Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.](/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life%2C_Inc. "Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.")* (2007\) weakened McCain–Feingold, but upheld core of McConnell.
* *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission "Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission"),* [**558**](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases%2C_volume_558 "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 558") **[U.S. 844](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/)** (2010\): the Supreme Court of the United States held that corporate funding of independent broadcasts of films about political subjects when there is an upcoming election cannot be limited under the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution"), overruling *Austin* (1990\) and partly overruling *McConnell* (2003\).{{Cite news\|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/310/\|title\=Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm'n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010\)\|work\=Justia Law\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-20\|language\=en}}
* *[Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana](/wiki/Western_Tradition_Partnership%2C_Inc._v._Attorney_General_of_Montana "Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana")* (2012\). U.S. Supreme Court [summary reversal](/wiki/Summary_judgement "Summary judgement") of a decision by the [Montana Supreme Court](/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court "Montana Supreme Court") holding that *Citizens United* did not preclude a Montana state law prohibiting corporate spending in elections.
The corporate personhood aspect of the campaign finance debate turns on *Buckley v. Valeo* (1976\) and *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission "Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission")* (2010\): *Buckley* ruled that political spending is protected by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution") [right to free speech](/wiki/Right_to_free_speech "Right to free speech"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\-supreme\-court/424/1\.html\|title\=Buckley v. Valeo\|website\=Find Law\|access\-date\=December 6, 2019}} while *Citizens United* ruled that corporate political spending is protected, holding that corporations have a First Amendment right to free speech because they are "associations of citizens" and hold the collected rights of the individual citizens who constitute them.{{Cite web\|url\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\-supreme\-court/08\-205\.html\|title\=Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\|website\=Find Law\|access\-date\=December 6, 2019}}
|
[
"Country specific laws\n---------------------",
"### India",
"Under Indian law the corporate, managing bodies, etc. and several other non\\-human entitles have been given the status of the \"[legal person](/wiki/Legal_person%23India \"Legal person#India\")\". In court cases regarding corporate, the shareholders are not responsible for the company's debts but the company itself being a \"legal person\" is liable to repay those debts or be sued for the non\\-repayment of debts. The non\\-human entities given the \"legal person\" status by the law \"have rights and co\\-relative duties; they can sue and be sued, can possess and transfer property\". Since these non\\-human entities are \"voiceless\" they are legally represented \"through guardians and representatives\" to claim their legal rights and to fulfill their legal duties and responsibilities. Specific non\\-human entities given the status of \"legal person\" include \"corporate personality, [body politic](/wiki/Body_politic \"Body politic\"), [charitable unions](/wiki/Charitable_organization \"Charitable organization\") etc.\", as well as [trust estates](/wiki/Trust_law%23 \"Trust law#\"), [deity](/wiki/Deity \"Deity\"), temples, [churches](/wiki/Church_%28building%29 \"Church (building)\"), [mosques](/wiki/Mosque \"Mosque\"), [hospitals](/wiki/Hospital \"Hospital\"), [universities](/wiki/University \"University\"), [colleges](/wiki/College \"College\"), [banks](/wiki/Bank \"Bank\"), [railways](/wiki/Railways \"Railways\"), [municipalities](/wiki/Municipality \"Municipality\"), and gram panchayats (village councils), rivers, all animals and birds.[\"Birds to holy rivers: A list of everything India considers 'legal persons{{'\"}}](https://qz.com/india/1636326/who-apart-from-human-beings-are-legal-persons-in-india/), *[Quartz](/wiki/Quartz_%28publication%29 \"Quartz (publication)\")*, September 2019\\.",
"### In the United States",
"In a U.S. historical context, the phrase \"corporate personhood\" refers to the ongoing legal debate over the extent to which rights traditionally associated with natural persons should also be afforded to [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person \"Juridical person\") including [corporations](/wiki/Corporations \"Corporations\"). A [headnote](/wiki/Headnote \"Headnote\") issued by the [court reporter](/wiki/Court_reporter \"Court reporter\") in the 1886 Supreme Court case *[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad_Co. \"Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.\")* claimed to state the sense of the Court regarding the [equal protection clause](/wiki/Equal_protection_clause \"Equal protection clause\") of the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") as it applies to corporations, without the Court having actually made a decision or issued a written opinion on that point.Adam Winkler ['Corporations Are People' Is Built on an Incredible 19th\\-Century Lie; How a farcical series of events in the 1880s produced an enduring and controversial legal precedent](https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/03/corporations-people-adam-winkler/554852) March 5, 2018 [theatlantic.com](/wiki/Theatlantic.com \"Theatlantic.com\") This was the first time that the Supreme Court was reported to hold that the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause granted constitutional protections to corporations as well as to [natural persons](/wiki/Natural_persons \"Natural persons\"), although numerous other cases, since *[Dartmouth College v. Woodward](/wiki/Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward \"Dartmouth College v. Woodward\")* in 1819, had recognized that corporations were entitled to some of the protections of the Constitution. In *[Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.](/wiki/Burwell_v._Hobby_Lobby_Stores%2C_Inc. \"Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.\")* (2014\\), the Court found that the [Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993](/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act \"Religious Freedom Restoration Act\") exempted [Hobby Lobby](/wiki/Hobby_Lobby \"Hobby Lobby\") from aspects of the [Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act \"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act\") because those aspects placed a substantial burden on the company's owners' free exercise of sincerely held religious beliefs.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=5322529599500468186 \\|title\\=Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. \\|publisher\\=Google Scholar \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-26}}",
"U.S. courts have extended certain constitutional protections to corporations under various rationales. An early perspective, variously known as 'contractual', 'associate', or 'aggregate' theory, holds that owners of property have certain constitutional protections, even when the property is held via a corporation rather than directly under the owner's own name. Corporate attorney [John Norton Pomeroy](/wiki/John_Norton_Pomeroy \"John Norton Pomeroy\") argued in the 1880s that \"Statutes violating their prohibitions in dealing with corporations must necessarily infringe upon the rights of natural persons. In applying and enforcing these constitutional guaranties, corporations cannot be separated from the natural persons who compose them.\"",
"Similarly, proponents might argue a juridical person can be a device for exercising shareholders' rights to free speech. Under this perspective, such constitutional rights might also extend to other associations of people, even where the association does not take on the formal legal form of a corporation. A second perspective, known as the 'real entity' or 'natural entity' view, shifts the presumption of corporate regulation against the states.",
"The dominant view from the 1920s to the 1980s, championed by philosopher [John Dewey](/wiki/John_Dewey \"John Dewey\"), asserted that such perspectives are often overgeneralizations, and that the decision to grant corporate rights in a given sphere should be governed by the consequences of doing so{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2020}}. The 1980s saw an explosion of economic analyses, with a corporation often viewed as a nexus of contracts and as an economic agent appointed to act on behalf of its shareholders.",
"Some rulings combine multiple perspectives; the majority opinion in *Citizens United* argued both from an 'association' perspective (\"if the antidistortion rationale were to be accepted... it would permit Government to ban political speech simply because the speaker is an association that has taken on the corporate form\") and from a 'natural entity' perspective (\"the worth of speech 'does not depend upon the identity of its source, whether corporation, association, union, or individual{{'\"}}).",
"Treating [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person \"Juridical person\") as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders as well as the [right of association](/wiki/Right_of_association \"Right of association\").",
"Generally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would not otherwise be available to persons acting as a group. For example, the Supreme Court has not recognized a [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") right against self\\-incrimination for a corporation, since the right can be exercised only on an individual basis. In *United States v. Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company*, \"\\[a]ppellants \\[suggested] the use of the word 'taxpayer' several times in the regulations requires the fifth\\-amendment self\\-incrimination warning be given to a corporation.\" The Court did not agree.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cases.justia.com/us\\-court\\-of\\-appeals/F2/515/295/292973/ \\|title\\=United States of America, Plaintiff\\-appellant, v. S. Steve Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company, Defendants\\-appellees \\|publisher\\=Cases.justia.com \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-19}} Likewise, corporations and organizations do not have privacy rights under the [Privacy Act of 1974](/wiki/Privacy_Act_of_1974 \"Privacy Act of 1974\"), since the statute refers to any \"individual,\" which it defines as \"a citizen of the United States or an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=Overview of the Privacy Act of 1974 \\|url\\=https://www.justice.gov/opcl/definitions \\|agency\\=\\[\\[US Department of Justice]] \\|website\\=www.justice.gov \\|author\\= \\|date\\=January 15, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2020 \\|quote\\=Corporations and organizations also do not have any Privacy Act rights.}}",
"Since the Supreme Court's ruling in *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission \"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\")* in 2010, upholding the rights of corporations to make unlimited political expenditures under the First Amendment, there have been several calls for a Constitutional amendment to abolish corporate personhood.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.movetoamend.org/resolutions\\-in\\-support \\|title\\=Resolutions in Support \\|publisher\\=Movetoamend.org }} The *Citizens United* majority opinion makes no reference to corporate personhood or the Fourteenth Amendment, but rather argues that political speech rights do not depend on the identity of the speaker, which could be a person or an association of people.*Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission* [Opinion of the Court](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/opinion.html) (2010\\)*Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission* [Concurrence \\& Dissent In Part (John Paul Stevens)](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/cdinpart.html) (2010\\)",
"Individual shareholders cannot generally sue over the deprivation of a corporation's rights; only the board of directors has the standing to assert a corporation's constitutional rights in court.",
"#### Historical background in the United States",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=October 2011}}\nDuring the colonial era, British corporations were chartered by the crown to do business in North America. This practice continued in the early United States. They were often granted monopolies as part of the chartering process. For example, the controversial [Bank Bill of 1791](/wiki/Bank_Bill_of_1791 \"Bank Bill of 1791\") chartered a 20\\-year corporate [monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly \"Monopoly\") for the [First Bank of the United States](/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States \"First Bank of the United States\"). Although the Federal government has from time to time chartered corporations, the general chartering of corporations has been left to the states. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, corporations began to be chartered in greater numbers by the states, under general laws allowing for incorporation at the initiative of citizens, rather than through specific acts of the legislature.",
"The degree of permissible government interference in corporate affairs was controversial from the earliest days of the nation. In 1790, [John Marshall](/wiki/John_Marshall \"John Marshall\"), a private attorney and a veteran of the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army \"Continental Army\"), represented the board of the [College of William and Mary](/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary \"College of William and Mary\"), in litigation that required him to defend the corporation's right to reorganize itself and in the process remove professors, *The Rev John Bracken v. The Visitors of Wm \\& Mary College* (7 Va. 573; 1790 [Supreme Court of Virginia](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Virginia \"Supreme Court of Virginia\")). The Supreme Court of Virginia ruled that the original Crown charter provided the authority for the corporation's Board of Visitors to make changes including the reorganization.",
"As the 19th century matured, manufacturing in the U.S. became more complex as the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") generated new inventions and business processes. The favored form for large businesses became the corporation because the corporation provided a mechanism to raise the large amounts of investment capital large business required, especially for capital intensive yet risky projects such as railroads.",
"Following the reasoning of the Dartmouth College case and other precedents (see {{format link\\|\\#Case law in the United States}} below), corporations could exercise the rights of their shareholders and these shareholders were entitled to some of the legal protections against arbitrary state action. Their cause was strengthened by the adoption of general incorporation statutes in the states in the late 19th century, most notably in New Jersey and Delaware, which allowed anyone to form corporations without any particular government grant or authorization, and thus without the government\\-granted monopolies that had been common in charters granted by the Crown or by acts of the legislature (see [Delaware General Corporation Law](/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law \"Delaware General Corporation Law\")). In *[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad \"Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad\")* (1886\\), the Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment applied to corporations. Since then the doctrine has been repeatedly reaffirmed in case law.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Clarke \\|first1\\=Frank \\|last2\\=Dean \\|first2\\=Graeme \\|last3\\=Egan \\|first3\\=Matthew \\|title\\=The Unaccountable \\& Ungovernable Corporation: Companies' use\\-by\\-dates close in \\|date\\=21 March 2014 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-317\\-96409\\-4 \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The\\_Unaccountable\\_Ungovernable\\_Corporati/HQQkAwAAQBAJ?hl\\=en\\&gbpv\\=1\\&dq\\=Fourteenth\\+Amendment\\+corporations\\+repeatedly\\+reaffirmed\\&pg\\=PT31\\&printsec\\=frontcover \\|language\\=en}}{{Chronology citation needed\\|date\\=March 2019}}",
"#### Case law in the United States",
"In 1818, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") decided *[Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward](/wiki/Trustees_of_Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward \"Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward\")* – 17 U.S. 518 (1819\\), writing: \"The opinion of the Court, after mature deliberation, is that this corporate [charter](/wiki/Charter \"Charter\") is a [contract](/wiki/Contract \"Contract\"), the obligation of which cannot be impaired without violating the Constitution of the United States. This opinion appears to us to be equally supported by reason, and by the former decisions of this Court.\" Beginning with this opinion, the U.S. Supreme Court has continuously recognized corporations as having the same rights as natural persons to contract and to enforce contracts.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Does \"We the People\" Include Corporations? \\|url\\=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human\\_rights\\_magazine\\_home/we\\-the\\-people/we\\-the\\-people\\-corporations/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-07 \\|website\\=www.americanbar.org \\|language\\=en}}",
"Seven years after the Dartmouth College opinion, the Supreme Court decided *Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet* (1823\\), in which an English corporation dedicated to missionary work, with land in the U.S., sought to protect its rights to the land under colonial\\-era grants against an effort by the state of [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\") to revoke the grants. Justice [Joseph Story](/wiki/Joseph_Story \"Joseph Story\"), writing for the court, explicitly extended the same protections to corporate\\-owned property as it would have to property owned by natural persons. Seven years later, Chief Justice Marshall stated: \"The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men.\"*Providence Bank v. Billings*, [29 U.S. 514](http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=29&invol=514) (1830\\).",
"In the 1886 case *[Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific](/wiki/Santa_Clara_v._Southern_Pacific \"Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific\")* – 118 U.S. 394 (1886\\), Chief Justice Waite of the Supreme Court orally directed the lawyers that the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") equal protection clause guarantees constitutional protections to corporations in addition to natural persons, and the oral argument should focus on other issues in the case.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Calvert, Clay\\|chapter\\=Freedom of Speech Extended to Corporations\\|editor\\=Finkelman, Paul\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of American civil liberties, Volume 1\\|publisher\\=CRC Press\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-94342\\-0\\|page\\=650\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YoI14vYA8r0C\\&pg\\=PA650}} In the Santa Clara case the court reporter, [Bancroft Davis](/wiki/Bancroft_Davis \"Bancroft Davis\"),{{cite book \\|last\\=Hartman \\|first\\=Thom \\|title\\=Unequal Protection: The Rise of Corporate Dominance and the Theft of Human Rights \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|year\\=2002}} noted in the headnote to the opinion that the Chief Justice, [Morrison Waite](/wiki/Morrison_Waite \"Morrison Waite\"), began oral argument by stating, \"The court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") to the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States \"Constitution of the United States\"), which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does.\"118 U.S. 394 (1886\\) – Official court Syllabus in the United States Reports While the headnote is not part of the Court's opinion and thus not [precedent](/wiki/Precedent \"Precedent\"), two years later, in *[Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pembina_Consolidated_Silver_Mining_Co._v._Pennsylvania \"Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania\")* – 125 U.S. 181 (1888\\), the Court clearly affirmed the doctrine, holding, \"Under the designation of 'person' there is no doubt that a private corporation is included \\[in the Fourteenth Amendment]. Such corporations are merely associations of individuals united for a special purpose and permitted to do business under a particular name and have a succession of members without dissolution.\"*Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania*, [125 U.S. 394](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/125/181/case.html) (1886\\). This doctrine has been reaffirmed by the Court many times since.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Choudhury \\|first1\\=Barnali \\|last2\\=Petrin \\|first2\\=Martin \\|title\\=Understanding the Company: Corporate Governance and Theory \\|date\\=20 July 2017 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-108\\-21094\\-2 \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Understanding\\_the\\_Company/jwQvDwAAQBAJ?hl\\=en\\&gbpv\\=1\\&dq\\=Fourteenth\\+Amendment\\+corporations\\+reaffirmed\\+many\\+times\\+since\\&pg\\=PA170\\&printsec\\=frontcover \\|language\\=en}}",
"The 14th Amendment does not insulate corporations from all government regulation, any more than it relieves individuals from all regulatory obligations. Thus, for example, in *[Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs](/wiki/Northwestern_Nat_Life_Ins._Co._v._Riggs \"Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs\")* (203 U.S. 243 (1906\\)), the Court accepted that corporations are for legal purposes \"persons\", but still ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment was not a bar to many state laws which effectively limited a corporation's right to contract business as it pleased. However, this was not because corporations were not protected under the Fourteenth Amendment—rather, the Court's ruling was that the Fourteenth Amendment did not prohibit the type of regulation at issue, whether of a corporation or of sole proprietorship or partnership.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2011}}",
"#### Legislation in the United States",
"{{See also\\|Creature of statute}}\nFederal statutes that refer to \"persons\" generally include both natural and juridical ones, unless a different definition is given. This general rule of interpretation is specified in Title 1, section 1 of the U.S. Code,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www4\\.law.cornell.edu/uscode/1/1\\.html \\|title\\=United States Code: Title 1,1\\. Words denoting number, gender, and so forth \\| LII / Legal Information Institute \\|publisher\\=.law.cornell.edu \\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-07 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-19}} known as the Dictionary Act, which states:",
"",
"> In determining the meaning of any Act of Congress, unless the context indicates otherwise—",
"the words \"person\" and \"whoever\" include corporations, companies, associations, firms, partnerships, societies, and joint stock companies, as well as individuals;",
"This federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation may enter contracts,{{cite web \\| last\\=Torres\\-Spelliscy \\| first\\=Ciara \\| title\\=Does “We the People” Include Corporations? \\| website\\=American Bar Association \\| date\\=October 11, 2017 \\| url\\=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human\\_rights\\_magazine\\_home/we\\-the\\-people/we\\-the\\-people\\-corporations/ \\| access\\-date\\=March 28, 2024}} sue and be sued,{{cite web \\| last\\=School \\| first\\=Purdue Global Law \\| title\\=Corporate Personhood: What It Means and How It Has Evolved \\| website\\=Purdue Global Law School \\| date\\=January 6, 2023 \\| url\\=https://www.purduegloballawschool.edu/blog/news/corporate\\-personhood \\| access\\-date\\=March 28, 2024}} and be held liable under both civil and criminal law.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Lo \\|first\\=Stefan H. C. \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/In\\_Search\\_of\\_Corporate\\_Accountability/ugr5DAAAQBAJ?hl\\=en\\&gbpv\\=1\\&dq\\=held\\+liable\\+under\\+corporation\\+%22both\\+civil\\+and\\+criminal\\+law%22\\&pg\\=PA15\\&printsec\\=frontcover \\|title\\=In Search of Corporate Accountability: Liabilities of Corporate Participants \\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-14 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4438\\-8771\\-7 \\|language\\=en}} Because the corporation is legally considered the \"person\", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages.{{cite web \\| last\\=Winkler \\| first\\=Adam \\| title\\=Corporate Person\\-hood and Constitutional Rights for Corporations \\| website\\=New England Law Review \\| date\\=February 26, 2022 \\| url\\=https://www.newenglrev.com/volume\\-54\\-1/corporate\\-personhood\\-and\\-constitutional\\-rights\\-for\\-corporations \\| access\\-date\\=March 28, 2024}} Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. {{Citation needed\\|reason\\=This is primarily a matter of state law. If there is some applicable federal statute (and cases construing it), this should be clarified.\\|date\\=February 2021}}",
"Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same [constitutional rights](/wiki/Constitutional_right \"Constitutional right\").",
"Corporations as [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person \"Juridical person\") have always been able to perform [commercial](/wiki/Commerce \"Commerce\") activities, similar to a person acting as a [sole proprietor](/wiki/Sole_proprietorship \"Sole proprietorship\"), such as entering into a contract or owning property. Therefore, corporations have always had a \"juridical personality\" for the purposes of conducting business while shielding individual [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholder \"Shareholder\") from personal liability (i.e. protecting personal assets which were not invested in the corporation).",
"[Ralph Nader](/wiki/Ralph_Nader \"Ralph Nader\"), [Phil Radford](/wiki/Phil_Radford \"Phil Radford\") and others have argued that a strict [originalist](/wiki/Originalist \"Originalist\") philosophy should reject the doctrine of corporate personhood under the Fourteenth Amendment.[Ralph Nader and Robert Weissman. Letter to the Editor: Ralph Nader on Scalia's \"originalism\"](http://hlrecord.org/2008/11/letter-to-the-editor-ralph-nader-on-scalias-originalism/). *[Harvard Law Record](/wiki/Harvard_Law_Record \"Harvard Law Record\")*, Published: Thursday, November 13, 2008, Updated: Tuesday, September 29, 2009\\. Indeed, Chief Justice [William Rehnquist](/wiki/William_Rehnquist \"William Rehnquist\") repeatedly criticized the Court's invention of corporate constitutional \"rights\", most famously in his dissenting opinion in the 1978 case *[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti](/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti \"First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti\")*; though, in *Bellotti*, Rehnquist's objections are based on his \"views of the limited application of the First Amendment to the States\" and not on whether corporations qualify as \"persons\" under the Fourteenth Amendment.{{cite web \\|author\\=United States Supreme Court \\|title\\=FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF BOSTON v. BELLOTTI \\|number\\=76–1172 \\|website\\=Findlaw \\|date\\=1978\\-04\\-06 \\|url\\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\\-supreme\\-court/435/765\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-04}} Nonetheless, these justices' rulings have continued to affirm the assumption of corporate personhood, as the Waite court did, and Justice Rehnquist himself eventually endorsed the right of corporations to spend in elections (the majority view in *Bellotti*) in his dissenting opinion in *[McConnell v. FEC](/wiki/McConnell_v._FEC \"McConnell v. FEC\")*.",
"#### Corporate political spending",
"A central point of debate in recent years has been what role corporate money plays and should play in democratic politics. This is part of the larger debate on [campaign finance reform](/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States \"Campaign finance reform in the United States\") and the role which money may play in politics.",
"In the United States, legal milestones in this debate include:\n* [Tillman Act of 1907](/wiki/Tillman_Act_of_1907 \"Tillman Act of 1907\"), banned corporate political contributions to national campaigns.\n* [Federal Election Campaign Act](/wiki/Federal_Election_Campaign_Act \"Federal Election Campaign Act\") of 1971, campaign financing legislation.\n* 1974 Amendments to Federal Election Campaign Act provided for first comprehensive system of regulation, including limitations on the size of contributions and expenditures and prohibitions on certain entities from contributing or spending, disclosure, creation of the Federal Election Commission as a regulatory agency, and government funding of presidential campaigns.\n* *[Buckley v. Valeo](/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo \"Buckley v. Valeo\"),* 424 [U.S. 1](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/case.html) (1976\\) upheld limits on campaign contributions, but held that spending money to influence elections is protected speech by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/\\|title\\=Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976\\)\\|work\\=Justia Law\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-20\\|language\\=en}}\n* *[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti](/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti \"First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti\")* (1978\\) upheld the rights of corporations to spend money in non\\-candidate elections (i.e. ballot initiatives and referendums).\n* *[Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Austin_v._Michigan_Chamber_of_Commerce \"Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce\")* (1990\\) upheld the right of the state of Michigan to prohibit corporations from using money from their corporate treasuries to support or oppose candidates in elections, noting: \"\\[c]orporate wealth can unfairly influence elections.\"\n* [Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002](/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_of_2002 \"Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002\") (McCain–Feingold), banned corporate funding of [issue advocacy ads](/wiki/Issue_advocacy_ads \"Issue advocacy ads\") which mentioned candidates close to an election.\n* *[McConnell v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/McConnell_v._Federal_Election_Commission \"McConnell v. Federal Election Commission\")* (2003\\), substantially upheld McCain–Feingold.\n* *[Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.](/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life%2C_Inc. \"Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.\")* (2007\\) weakened McCain–Feingold, but upheld core of McConnell.\n* *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission \"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\"),* [**558**](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases%2C_volume_558 \"List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 558\") **[U.S. 844](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/)** (2010\\): the Supreme Court of the United States held that corporate funding of independent broadcasts of films about political subjects when there is an upcoming election cannot be limited under the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\"), overruling *Austin* (1990\\) and partly overruling *McConnell* (2003\\).{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/310/\\|title\\=Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm'n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010\\)\\|work\\=Justia Law\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-20\\|language\\=en}}\n* *[Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana](/wiki/Western_Tradition_Partnership%2C_Inc._v._Attorney_General_of_Montana \"Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana\")* (2012\\). U.S. Supreme Court [summary reversal](/wiki/Summary_judgement \"Summary judgement\") of a decision by the [Montana Supreme Court](/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court \"Montana Supreme Court\") holding that *Citizens United* did not preclude a Montana state law prohibiting corporate spending in elections.",
"The corporate personhood aspect of the campaign finance debate turns on *Buckley v. Valeo* (1976\\) and *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission \"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\")* (2010\\): *Buckley* ruled that political spending is protected by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\") [right to free speech](/wiki/Right_to_free_speech \"Right to free speech\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\\-supreme\\-court/424/1\\.html\\|title\\=Buckley v. Valeo\\|website\\=Find Law\\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2019}} while *Citizens United* ruled that corporate political spending is protected, holding that corporations have a First Amendment right to free speech because they are \"associations of citizens\" and hold the collected rights of the individual citizens who constitute them.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\\-supreme\\-court/08\\-205\\.html\\|title\\=Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\\|website\\=Find Law\\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2019}}",
""
] |
### In the United States
In a U.S. historical context, the phrase "corporate personhood" refers to the ongoing legal debate over the extent to which rights traditionally associated with natural persons should also be afforded to [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person "Juridical person") including [corporations](/wiki/Corporations "Corporations"). A [headnote](/wiki/Headnote "Headnote") issued by the [court reporter](/wiki/Court_reporter "Court reporter") in the 1886 Supreme Court case *[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad_Co. "Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.")* claimed to state the sense of the Court regarding the [equal protection clause](/wiki/Equal_protection_clause "Equal protection clause") of the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") as it applies to corporations, without the Court having actually made a decision or issued a written opinion on that point.Adam Winkler ['Corporations Are People' Is Built on an Incredible 19th\-Century Lie; How a farcical series of events in the 1880s produced an enduring and controversial legal precedent](https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/03/corporations-people-adam-winkler/554852) March 5, 2018 [theatlantic.com](/wiki/Theatlantic.com "Theatlantic.com") This was the first time that the Supreme Court was reported to hold that the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause granted constitutional protections to corporations as well as to [natural persons](/wiki/Natural_persons "Natural persons"), although numerous other cases, since *[Dartmouth College v. Woodward](/wiki/Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward "Dartmouth College v. Woodward")* in 1819, had recognized that corporations were entitled to some of the protections of the Constitution. In *[Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.](/wiki/Burwell_v._Hobby_Lobby_Stores%2C_Inc. "Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.")* (2014\), the Court found that the [Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993](/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act "Religious Freedom Restoration Act") exempted [Hobby Lobby](/wiki/Hobby_Lobby "Hobby Lobby") from aspects of the [Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act") because those aspects placed a substantial burden on the company's owners' free exercise of sincerely held religious beliefs.{{cite web\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=5322529599500468186 \|title\=Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. \|publisher\=Google Scholar \|access\-date\=2018\-01\-26}}
U.S. courts have extended certain constitutional protections to corporations under various rationales. An early perspective, variously known as 'contractual', 'associate', or 'aggregate' theory, holds that owners of property have certain constitutional protections, even when the property is held via a corporation rather than directly under the owner's own name. Corporate attorney [John Norton Pomeroy](/wiki/John_Norton_Pomeroy "John Norton Pomeroy") argued in the 1880s that "Statutes violating their prohibitions in dealing with corporations must necessarily infringe upon the rights of natural persons. In applying and enforcing these constitutional guaranties, corporations cannot be separated from the natural persons who compose them."
Similarly, proponents might argue a juridical person can be a device for exercising shareholders' rights to free speech. Under this perspective, such constitutional rights might also extend to other associations of people, even where the association does not take on the formal legal form of a corporation. A second perspective, known as the 'real entity' or 'natural entity' view, shifts the presumption of corporate regulation against the states.
The dominant view from the 1920s to the 1980s, championed by philosopher [John Dewey](/wiki/John_Dewey "John Dewey"), asserted that such perspectives are often overgeneralizations, and that the decision to grant corporate rights in a given sphere should be governed by the consequences of doing so{{citation needed\|date\=December 2020}}. The 1980s saw an explosion of economic analyses, with a corporation often viewed as a nexus of contracts and as an economic agent appointed to act on behalf of its shareholders.
Some rulings combine multiple perspectives; the majority opinion in *Citizens United* argued both from an 'association' perspective ("if the antidistortion rationale were to be accepted... it would permit Government to ban political speech simply because the speaker is an association that has taken on the corporate form") and from a 'natural entity' perspective ("the worth of speech 'does not depend upon the identity of its source, whether corporation, association, union, or individual{{'"}}).
Treating [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person "Juridical person") as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders as well as the [right of association](/wiki/Right_of_association "Right of association").
Generally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would not otherwise be available to persons acting as a group. For example, the Supreme Court has not recognized a [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution") right against self\-incrimination for a corporation, since the right can be exercised only on an individual basis. In *United States v. Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company*, "\[a]ppellants \[suggested] the use of the word 'taxpayer' several times in the regulations requires the fifth\-amendment self\-incrimination warning be given to a corporation." The Court did not agree.{{cite web\|url\=http://cases.justia.com/us\-court\-of\-appeals/F2/515/295/292973/ \|title\=United States of America, Plaintiff\-appellant, v. S. Steve Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company, Defendants\-appellees \|publisher\=Cases.justia.com \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-19}} Likewise, corporations and organizations do not have privacy rights under the [Privacy Act of 1974](/wiki/Privacy_Act_of_1974 "Privacy Act of 1974"), since the statute refers to any "individual," which it defines as "a citizen of the United States or an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence."{{cite web \|title\=Overview of the Privacy Act of 1974 \|url\=https://www.justice.gov/opcl/definitions \|agency\=\[\[US Department of Justice]] \|website\=www.justice.gov \|author\= \|date\=January 15, 2020 \|access\-date\=December 4, 2020 \|quote\=Corporations and organizations also do not have any Privacy Act rights.}}
Since the Supreme Court's ruling in *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission "Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission")* in 2010, upholding the rights of corporations to make unlimited political expenditures under the First Amendment, there have been several calls for a Constitutional amendment to abolish corporate personhood.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.movetoamend.org/resolutions\-in\-support \|title\=Resolutions in Support \|publisher\=Movetoamend.org }} The *Citizens United* majority opinion makes no reference to corporate personhood or the Fourteenth Amendment, but rather argues that political speech rights do not depend on the identity of the speaker, which could be a person or an association of people.*Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission* [Opinion of the Court](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/opinion.html) (2010\)*Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission* [Concurrence \& Dissent In Part (John Paul Stevens)](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/cdinpart.html) (2010\)
Individual shareholders cannot generally sue over the deprivation of a corporation's rights; only the board of directors has the standing to assert a corporation's constitutional rights in court.
#### Historical background in the United States
{{unreferenced section\|date\=October 2011}}
During the colonial era, British corporations were chartered by the crown to do business in North America. This practice continued in the early United States. They were often granted monopolies as part of the chartering process. For example, the controversial [Bank Bill of 1791](/wiki/Bank_Bill_of_1791 "Bank Bill of 1791") chartered a 20\-year corporate [monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly "Monopoly") for the [First Bank of the United States](/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States "First Bank of the United States"). Although the Federal government has from time to time chartered corporations, the general chartering of corporations has been left to the states. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, corporations began to be chartered in greater numbers by the states, under general laws allowing for incorporation at the initiative of citizens, rather than through specific acts of the legislature.
The degree of permissible government interference in corporate affairs was controversial from the earliest days of the nation. In 1790, [John Marshall](/wiki/John_Marshall "John Marshall"), a private attorney and a veteran of the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army "Continental Army"), represented the board of the [College of William and Mary](/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary "College of William and Mary"), in litigation that required him to defend the corporation's right to reorganize itself and in the process remove professors, *The Rev John Bracken v. The Visitors of Wm \& Mary College* (7 Va. 573; 1790 [Supreme Court of Virginia](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Virginia "Supreme Court of Virginia")). The Supreme Court of Virginia ruled that the original Crown charter provided the authority for the corporation's Board of Visitors to make changes including the reorganization.
As the 19th century matured, manufacturing in the U.S. became more complex as the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") generated new inventions and business processes. The favored form for large businesses became the corporation because the corporation provided a mechanism to raise the large amounts of investment capital large business required, especially for capital intensive yet risky projects such as railroads.
Following the reasoning of the Dartmouth College case and other precedents (see {{format link\|\#Case law in the United States}} below), corporations could exercise the rights of their shareholders and these shareholders were entitled to some of the legal protections against arbitrary state action. Their cause was strengthened by the adoption of general incorporation statutes in the states in the late 19th century, most notably in New Jersey and Delaware, which allowed anyone to form corporations without any particular government grant or authorization, and thus without the government\-granted monopolies that had been common in charters granted by the Crown or by acts of the legislature (see [Delaware General Corporation Law](/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law "Delaware General Corporation Law")). In *[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad "Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad")* (1886\), the Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment applied to corporations. Since then the doctrine has been repeatedly reaffirmed in case law.{{cite book \|last1\=Clarke \|first1\=Frank \|last2\=Dean \|first2\=Graeme \|last3\=Egan \|first3\=Matthew \|title\=The Unaccountable \& Ungovernable Corporation: Companies' use\-by\-dates close in \|date\=21 March 2014 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-317\-96409\-4 \|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The\_Unaccountable\_Ungovernable\_Corporati/HQQkAwAAQBAJ?hl\=en\&gbpv\=1\&dq\=Fourteenth\+Amendment\+corporations\+repeatedly\+reaffirmed\&pg\=PT31\&printsec\=frontcover \|language\=en}}{{Chronology citation needed\|date\=March 2019}}
#### Case law in the United States
In 1818, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") decided *[Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward](/wiki/Trustees_of_Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward "Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward")* – 17 U.S. 518 (1819\), writing: "The opinion of the Court, after mature deliberation, is that this corporate [charter](/wiki/Charter "Charter") is a [contract](/wiki/Contract "Contract"), the obligation of which cannot be impaired without violating the Constitution of the United States. This opinion appears to us to be equally supported by reason, and by the former decisions of this Court." Beginning with this opinion, the U.S. Supreme Court has continuously recognized corporations as having the same rights as natural persons to contract and to enforce contracts.{{Cite web \|title\=Does "We the People" Include Corporations? \|url\=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human\_rights\_magazine\_home/we\-the\-people/we\-the\-people\-corporations/ \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-07 \|website\=www.americanbar.org \|language\=en}}
Seven years after the Dartmouth College opinion, the Supreme Court decided *Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet* (1823\), in which an English corporation dedicated to missionary work, with land in the U.S., sought to protect its rights to the land under colonial\-era grants against an effort by the state of [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont "Vermont") to revoke the grants. Justice [Joseph Story](/wiki/Joseph_Story "Joseph Story"), writing for the court, explicitly extended the same protections to corporate\-owned property as it would have to property owned by natural persons. Seven years later, Chief Justice Marshall stated: "The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men."*Providence Bank v. Billings*, [29 U.S. 514](http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=29&invol=514) (1830\).
In the 1886 case *[Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific](/wiki/Santa_Clara_v._Southern_Pacific "Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific")* – 118 U.S. 394 (1886\), Chief Justice Waite of the Supreme Court orally directed the lawyers that the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") equal protection clause guarantees constitutional protections to corporations in addition to natural persons, and the oral argument should focus on other issues in the case.{{Cite book\|author\=Calvert, Clay\|chapter\=Freedom of Speech Extended to Corporations\|editor\=Finkelman, Paul\|title\=Encyclopedia of American civil liberties, Volume 1\|publisher\=CRC Press\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-94342\-0\|page\=650\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YoI14vYA8r0C\&pg\=PA650}} In the Santa Clara case the court reporter, [Bancroft Davis](/wiki/Bancroft_Davis "Bancroft Davis"),{{cite book \|last\=Hartman \|first\=Thom \|title\=Unequal Protection: The Rise of Corporate Dominance and the Theft of Human Rights \|location\=New York \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|year\=2002}} noted in the headnote to the opinion that the Chief Justice, [Morrison Waite](/wiki/Morrison_Waite "Morrison Waite"), began oral argument by stating, "The court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") to the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States "Constitution of the United States"), which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does."118 U.S. 394 (1886\) – Official court Syllabus in the United States Reports While the headnote is not part of the Court's opinion and thus not [precedent](/wiki/Precedent "Precedent"), two years later, in *[Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pembina_Consolidated_Silver_Mining_Co._v._Pennsylvania "Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania")* – 125 U.S. 181 (1888\), the Court clearly affirmed the doctrine, holding, "Under the designation of 'person' there is no doubt that a private corporation is included \[in the Fourteenth Amendment]. Such corporations are merely associations of individuals united for a special purpose and permitted to do business under a particular name and have a succession of members without dissolution."*Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania*, [125 U.S. 394](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/125/181/case.html) (1886\). This doctrine has been reaffirmed by the Court many times since.{{cite book \|last1\=Choudhury \|first1\=Barnali \|last2\=Petrin \|first2\=Martin \|title\=Understanding the Company: Corporate Governance and Theory \|date\=20 July 2017 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-108\-21094\-2 \|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Understanding\_the\_Company/jwQvDwAAQBAJ?hl\=en\&gbpv\=1\&dq\=Fourteenth\+Amendment\+corporations\+reaffirmed\+many\+times\+since\&pg\=PA170\&printsec\=frontcover \|language\=en}}
The 14th Amendment does not insulate corporations from all government regulation, any more than it relieves individuals from all regulatory obligations. Thus, for example, in *[Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs](/wiki/Northwestern_Nat_Life_Ins._Co._v._Riggs "Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs")* (203 U.S. 243 (1906\)), the Court accepted that corporations are for legal purposes "persons", but still ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment was not a bar to many state laws which effectively limited a corporation's right to contract business as it pleased. However, this was not because corporations were not protected under the Fourteenth Amendment—rather, the Court's ruling was that the Fourteenth Amendment did not prohibit the type of regulation at issue, whether of a corporation or of sole proprietorship or partnership.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2011}}
#### Legislation in the United States
{{See also\|Creature of statute}}
Federal statutes that refer to "persons" generally include both natural and juridical ones, unless a different definition is given. This general rule of interpretation is specified in Title 1, section 1 of the U.S. Code,{{cite web\|url\=http://www4\.law.cornell.edu/uscode/1/1\.html \|title\=United States Code: Title 1,1\. Words denoting number, gender, and so forth \| LII / Legal Information Institute \|publisher\=.law.cornell.edu \|date\=2010\-04\-07 \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-19}} known as the Dictionary Act, which states:
> In determining the meaning of any Act of Congress, unless the context indicates otherwise—
the words "person" and "whoever" include corporations, companies, associations, firms, partnerships, societies, and joint stock companies, as well as individuals;
This federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation may enter contracts,{{cite web \| last\=Torres\-Spelliscy \| first\=Ciara \| title\=Does “We the People” Include Corporations? \| website\=American Bar Association \| date\=October 11, 2017 \| url\=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human\_rights\_magazine\_home/we\-the\-people/we\-the\-people\-corporations/ \| access\-date\=March 28, 2024}} sue and be sued,{{cite web \| last\=School \| first\=Purdue Global Law \| title\=Corporate Personhood: What It Means and How It Has Evolved \| website\=Purdue Global Law School \| date\=January 6, 2023 \| url\=https://www.purduegloballawschool.edu/blog/news/corporate\-personhood \| access\-date\=March 28, 2024}} and be held liable under both civil and criminal law.{{Cite book \|last\=Lo \|first\=Stefan H. C. \|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/In\_Search\_of\_Corporate\_Accountability/ugr5DAAAQBAJ?hl\=en\&gbpv\=1\&dq\=held\+liable\+under\+corporation\+%22both\+civil\+and\+criminal\+law%22\&pg\=PA15\&printsec\=frontcover \|title\=In Search of Corporate Accountability: Liabilities of Corporate Participants \|date\=2016\-01\-14 \|publisher\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-4438\-8771\-7 \|language\=en}} Because the corporation is legally considered the "person", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages.{{cite web \| last\=Winkler \| first\=Adam \| title\=Corporate Person\-hood and Constitutional Rights for Corporations \| website\=New England Law Review \| date\=February 26, 2022 \| url\=https://www.newenglrev.com/volume\-54\-1/corporate\-personhood\-and\-constitutional\-rights\-for\-corporations \| access\-date\=March 28, 2024}} Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. {{Citation needed\|reason\=This is primarily a matter of state law. If there is some applicable federal statute (and cases construing it), this should be clarified.\|date\=February 2021}}
Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same [constitutional rights](/wiki/Constitutional_right "Constitutional right").
Corporations as [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person "Juridical person") have always been able to perform [commercial](/wiki/Commerce "Commerce") activities, similar to a person acting as a [sole proprietor](/wiki/Sole_proprietorship "Sole proprietorship"), such as entering into a contract or owning property. Therefore, corporations have always had a "juridical personality" for the purposes of conducting business while shielding individual [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholder "Shareholder") from personal liability (i.e. protecting personal assets which were not invested in the corporation).
[Ralph Nader](/wiki/Ralph_Nader "Ralph Nader"), [Phil Radford](/wiki/Phil_Radford "Phil Radford") and others have argued that a strict [originalist](/wiki/Originalist "Originalist") philosophy should reject the doctrine of corporate personhood under the Fourteenth Amendment.[Ralph Nader and Robert Weissman. Letter to the Editor: Ralph Nader on Scalia's "originalism"](http://hlrecord.org/2008/11/letter-to-the-editor-ralph-nader-on-scalias-originalism/). *[Harvard Law Record](/wiki/Harvard_Law_Record "Harvard Law Record")*, Published: Thursday, November 13, 2008, Updated: Tuesday, September 29, 2009\. Indeed, Chief Justice [William Rehnquist](/wiki/William_Rehnquist "William Rehnquist") repeatedly criticized the Court's invention of corporate constitutional "rights", most famously in his dissenting opinion in the 1978 case *[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti](/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti "First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti")*; though, in *Bellotti*, Rehnquist's objections are based on his "views of the limited application of the First Amendment to the States" and not on whether corporations qualify as "persons" under the Fourteenth Amendment.{{cite web \|author\=United States Supreme Court \|title\=FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF BOSTON v. BELLOTTI \|number\=76–1172 \|website\=Findlaw \|date\=1978\-04\-06 \|url\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\-supreme\-court/435/765\.html \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-04}} Nonetheless, these justices' rulings have continued to affirm the assumption of corporate personhood, as the Waite court did, and Justice Rehnquist himself eventually endorsed the right of corporations to spend in elections (the majority view in *Bellotti*) in his dissenting opinion in *[McConnell v. FEC](/wiki/McConnell_v._FEC "McConnell v. FEC")*.
#### Corporate political spending
A central point of debate in recent years has been what role corporate money plays and should play in democratic politics. This is part of the larger debate on [campaign finance reform](/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States "Campaign finance reform in the United States") and the role which money may play in politics.
In the United States, legal milestones in this debate include:
* [Tillman Act of 1907](/wiki/Tillman_Act_of_1907 "Tillman Act of 1907"), banned corporate political contributions to national campaigns.
* [Federal Election Campaign Act](/wiki/Federal_Election_Campaign_Act "Federal Election Campaign Act") of 1971, campaign financing legislation.
* 1974 Amendments to Federal Election Campaign Act provided for first comprehensive system of regulation, including limitations on the size of contributions and expenditures and prohibitions on certain entities from contributing or spending, disclosure, creation of the Federal Election Commission as a regulatory agency, and government funding of presidential campaigns.
* *[Buckley v. Valeo](/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo "Buckley v. Valeo"),* 424 [U.S. 1](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/case.html) (1976\) upheld limits on campaign contributions, but held that spending money to influence elections is protected speech by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution").{{Cite news\|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/\|title\=Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976\)\|work\=Justia Law\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-20\|language\=en}}
* *[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti](/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti "First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti")* (1978\) upheld the rights of corporations to spend money in non\-candidate elections (i.e. ballot initiatives and referendums).
* *[Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Austin_v._Michigan_Chamber_of_Commerce "Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce")* (1990\) upheld the right of the state of Michigan to prohibit corporations from using money from their corporate treasuries to support or oppose candidates in elections, noting: "\[c]orporate wealth can unfairly influence elections."
* [Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002](/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_of_2002 "Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002") (McCain–Feingold), banned corporate funding of [issue advocacy ads](/wiki/Issue_advocacy_ads "Issue advocacy ads") which mentioned candidates close to an election.
* *[McConnell v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/McConnell_v._Federal_Election_Commission "McConnell v. Federal Election Commission")* (2003\), substantially upheld McCain–Feingold.
* *[Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.](/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life%2C_Inc. "Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.")* (2007\) weakened McCain–Feingold, but upheld core of McConnell.
* *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission "Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission"),* [**558**](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases%2C_volume_558 "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 558") **[U.S. 844](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/)** (2010\): the Supreme Court of the United States held that corporate funding of independent broadcasts of films about political subjects when there is an upcoming election cannot be limited under the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution"), overruling *Austin* (1990\) and partly overruling *McConnell* (2003\).{{Cite news\|url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/310/\|title\=Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm'n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010\)\|work\=Justia Law\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-20\|language\=en}}
* *[Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana](/wiki/Western_Tradition_Partnership%2C_Inc._v._Attorney_General_of_Montana "Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana")* (2012\). U.S. Supreme Court [summary reversal](/wiki/Summary_judgement "Summary judgement") of a decision by the [Montana Supreme Court](/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court "Montana Supreme Court") holding that *Citizens United* did not preclude a Montana state law prohibiting corporate spending in elections.
The corporate personhood aspect of the campaign finance debate turns on *Buckley v. Valeo* (1976\) and *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission "Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission")* (2010\): *Buckley* ruled that political spending is protected by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution") [right to free speech](/wiki/Right_to_free_speech "Right to free speech"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\-supreme\-court/424/1\.html\|title\=Buckley v. Valeo\|website\=Find Law\|access\-date\=December 6, 2019}} while *Citizens United* ruled that corporate political spending is protected, holding that corporations have a First Amendment right to free speech because they are "associations of citizens" and hold the collected rights of the individual citizens who constitute them.{{Cite web\|url\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\-supreme\-court/08\-205\.html\|title\=Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\|website\=Find Law\|access\-date\=December 6, 2019}}
|
[
"### In the United States",
"In a U.S. historical context, the phrase \"corporate personhood\" refers to the ongoing legal debate over the extent to which rights traditionally associated with natural persons should also be afforded to [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person \"Juridical person\") including [corporations](/wiki/Corporations \"Corporations\"). A [headnote](/wiki/Headnote \"Headnote\") issued by the [court reporter](/wiki/Court_reporter \"Court reporter\") in the 1886 Supreme Court case *[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad_Co. \"Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.\")* claimed to state the sense of the Court regarding the [equal protection clause](/wiki/Equal_protection_clause \"Equal protection clause\") of the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") as it applies to corporations, without the Court having actually made a decision or issued a written opinion on that point.Adam Winkler ['Corporations Are People' Is Built on an Incredible 19th\\-Century Lie; How a farcical series of events in the 1880s produced an enduring and controversial legal precedent](https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/03/corporations-people-adam-winkler/554852) March 5, 2018 [theatlantic.com](/wiki/Theatlantic.com \"Theatlantic.com\") This was the first time that the Supreme Court was reported to hold that the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause granted constitutional protections to corporations as well as to [natural persons](/wiki/Natural_persons \"Natural persons\"), although numerous other cases, since *[Dartmouth College v. Woodward](/wiki/Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward \"Dartmouth College v. Woodward\")* in 1819, had recognized that corporations were entitled to some of the protections of the Constitution. In *[Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.](/wiki/Burwell_v._Hobby_Lobby_Stores%2C_Inc. \"Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.\")* (2014\\), the Court found that the [Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993](/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act \"Religious Freedom Restoration Act\") exempted [Hobby Lobby](/wiki/Hobby_Lobby \"Hobby Lobby\") from aspects of the [Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act \"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act\") because those aspects placed a substantial burden on the company's owners' free exercise of sincerely held religious beliefs.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=5322529599500468186 \\|title\\=Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. \\|publisher\\=Google Scholar \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-26}}",
"U.S. courts have extended certain constitutional protections to corporations under various rationales. An early perspective, variously known as 'contractual', 'associate', or 'aggregate' theory, holds that owners of property have certain constitutional protections, even when the property is held via a corporation rather than directly under the owner's own name. Corporate attorney [John Norton Pomeroy](/wiki/John_Norton_Pomeroy \"John Norton Pomeroy\") argued in the 1880s that \"Statutes violating their prohibitions in dealing with corporations must necessarily infringe upon the rights of natural persons. In applying and enforcing these constitutional guaranties, corporations cannot be separated from the natural persons who compose them.\"",
"Similarly, proponents might argue a juridical person can be a device for exercising shareholders' rights to free speech. Under this perspective, such constitutional rights might also extend to other associations of people, even where the association does not take on the formal legal form of a corporation. A second perspective, known as the 'real entity' or 'natural entity' view, shifts the presumption of corporate regulation against the states.",
"The dominant view from the 1920s to the 1980s, championed by philosopher [John Dewey](/wiki/John_Dewey \"John Dewey\"), asserted that such perspectives are often overgeneralizations, and that the decision to grant corporate rights in a given sphere should be governed by the consequences of doing so{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2020}}. The 1980s saw an explosion of economic analyses, with a corporation often viewed as a nexus of contracts and as an economic agent appointed to act on behalf of its shareholders.",
"Some rulings combine multiple perspectives; the majority opinion in *Citizens United* argued both from an 'association' perspective (\"if the antidistortion rationale were to be accepted... it would permit Government to ban political speech simply because the speaker is an association that has taken on the corporate form\") and from a 'natural entity' perspective (\"the worth of speech 'does not depend upon the identity of its source, whether corporation, association, union, or individual{{'\"}}).",
"Treating [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person \"Juridical person\") as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders as well as the [right of association](/wiki/Right_of_association \"Right of association\").",
"Generally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would not otherwise be available to persons acting as a group. For example, the Supreme Court has not recognized a [Fifth Amendment](/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") right against self\\-incrimination for a corporation, since the right can be exercised only on an individual basis. In *United States v. Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company*, \"\\[a]ppellants \\[suggested] the use of the word 'taxpayer' several times in the regulations requires the fifth\\-amendment self\\-incrimination warning be given to a corporation.\" The Court did not agree.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cases.justia.com/us\\-court\\-of\\-appeals/F2/515/295/292973/ \\|title\\=United States of America, Plaintiff\\-appellant, v. S. Steve Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company, Defendants\\-appellees \\|publisher\\=Cases.justia.com \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-19}} Likewise, corporations and organizations do not have privacy rights under the [Privacy Act of 1974](/wiki/Privacy_Act_of_1974 \"Privacy Act of 1974\"), since the statute refers to any \"individual,\" which it defines as \"a citizen of the United States or an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=Overview of the Privacy Act of 1974 \\|url\\=https://www.justice.gov/opcl/definitions \\|agency\\=\\[\\[US Department of Justice]] \\|website\\=www.justice.gov \\|author\\= \\|date\\=January 15, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2020 \\|quote\\=Corporations and organizations also do not have any Privacy Act rights.}}",
"Since the Supreme Court's ruling in *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission \"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\")* in 2010, upholding the rights of corporations to make unlimited political expenditures under the First Amendment, there have been several calls for a Constitutional amendment to abolish corporate personhood.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.movetoamend.org/resolutions\\-in\\-support \\|title\\=Resolutions in Support \\|publisher\\=Movetoamend.org }} The *Citizens United* majority opinion makes no reference to corporate personhood or the Fourteenth Amendment, but rather argues that political speech rights do not depend on the identity of the speaker, which could be a person or an association of people.*Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission* [Opinion of the Court](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/opinion.html) (2010\\)*Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission* [Concurrence \\& Dissent In Part (John Paul Stevens)](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/cdinpart.html) (2010\\)",
"Individual shareholders cannot generally sue over the deprivation of a corporation's rights; only the board of directors has the standing to assert a corporation's constitutional rights in court.",
"#### Historical background in the United States",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=October 2011}}\nDuring the colonial era, British corporations were chartered by the crown to do business in North America. This practice continued in the early United States. They were often granted monopolies as part of the chartering process. For example, the controversial [Bank Bill of 1791](/wiki/Bank_Bill_of_1791 \"Bank Bill of 1791\") chartered a 20\\-year corporate [monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly \"Monopoly\") for the [First Bank of the United States](/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States \"First Bank of the United States\"). Although the Federal government has from time to time chartered corporations, the general chartering of corporations has been left to the states. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, corporations began to be chartered in greater numbers by the states, under general laws allowing for incorporation at the initiative of citizens, rather than through specific acts of the legislature.",
"The degree of permissible government interference in corporate affairs was controversial from the earliest days of the nation. In 1790, [John Marshall](/wiki/John_Marshall \"John Marshall\"), a private attorney and a veteran of the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army \"Continental Army\"), represented the board of the [College of William and Mary](/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary \"College of William and Mary\"), in litigation that required him to defend the corporation's right to reorganize itself and in the process remove professors, *The Rev John Bracken v. The Visitors of Wm \\& Mary College* (7 Va. 573; 1790 [Supreme Court of Virginia](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Virginia \"Supreme Court of Virginia\")). The Supreme Court of Virginia ruled that the original Crown charter provided the authority for the corporation's Board of Visitors to make changes including the reorganization.",
"As the 19th century matured, manufacturing in the U.S. became more complex as the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") generated new inventions and business processes. The favored form for large businesses became the corporation because the corporation provided a mechanism to raise the large amounts of investment capital large business required, especially for capital intensive yet risky projects such as railroads.",
"Following the reasoning of the Dartmouth College case and other precedents (see {{format link\\|\\#Case law in the United States}} below), corporations could exercise the rights of their shareholders and these shareholders were entitled to some of the legal protections against arbitrary state action. Their cause was strengthened by the adoption of general incorporation statutes in the states in the late 19th century, most notably in New Jersey and Delaware, which allowed anyone to form corporations without any particular government grant or authorization, and thus without the government\\-granted monopolies that had been common in charters granted by the Crown or by acts of the legislature (see [Delaware General Corporation Law](/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law \"Delaware General Corporation Law\")). In *[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad \"Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad\")* (1886\\), the Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment applied to corporations. Since then the doctrine has been repeatedly reaffirmed in case law.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Clarke \\|first1\\=Frank \\|last2\\=Dean \\|first2\\=Graeme \\|last3\\=Egan \\|first3\\=Matthew \\|title\\=The Unaccountable \\& Ungovernable Corporation: Companies' use\\-by\\-dates close in \\|date\\=21 March 2014 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-317\\-96409\\-4 \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The\\_Unaccountable\\_Ungovernable\\_Corporati/HQQkAwAAQBAJ?hl\\=en\\&gbpv\\=1\\&dq\\=Fourteenth\\+Amendment\\+corporations\\+repeatedly\\+reaffirmed\\&pg\\=PT31\\&printsec\\=frontcover \\|language\\=en}}{{Chronology citation needed\\|date\\=March 2019}}",
"#### Case law in the United States",
"In 1818, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") decided *[Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward](/wiki/Trustees_of_Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward \"Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward\")* – 17 U.S. 518 (1819\\), writing: \"The opinion of the Court, after mature deliberation, is that this corporate [charter](/wiki/Charter \"Charter\") is a [contract](/wiki/Contract \"Contract\"), the obligation of which cannot be impaired without violating the Constitution of the United States. This opinion appears to us to be equally supported by reason, and by the former decisions of this Court.\" Beginning with this opinion, the U.S. Supreme Court has continuously recognized corporations as having the same rights as natural persons to contract and to enforce contracts.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Does \"We the People\" Include Corporations? \\|url\\=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human\\_rights\\_magazine\\_home/we\\-the\\-people/we\\-the\\-people\\-corporations/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-07 \\|website\\=www.americanbar.org \\|language\\=en}}",
"Seven years after the Dartmouth College opinion, the Supreme Court decided *Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet* (1823\\), in which an English corporation dedicated to missionary work, with land in the U.S., sought to protect its rights to the land under colonial\\-era grants against an effort by the state of [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\") to revoke the grants. Justice [Joseph Story](/wiki/Joseph_Story \"Joseph Story\"), writing for the court, explicitly extended the same protections to corporate\\-owned property as it would have to property owned by natural persons. Seven years later, Chief Justice Marshall stated: \"The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men.\"*Providence Bank v. Billings*, [29 U.S. 514](http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=29&invol=514) (1830\\).",
"In the 1886 case *[Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific](/wiki/Santa_Clara_v._Southern_Pacific \"Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific\")* – 118 U.S. 394 (1886\\), Chief Justice Waite of the Supreme Court orally directed the lawyers that the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") equal protection clause guarantees constitutional protections to corporations in addition to natural persons, and the oral argument should focus on other issues in the case.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Calvert, Clay\\|chapter\\=Freedom of Speech Extended to Corporations\\|editor\\=Finkelman, Paul\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of American civil liberties, Volume 1\\|publisher\\=CRC Press\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-94342\\-0\\|page\\=650\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YoI14vYA8r0C\\&pg\\=PA650}} In the Santa Clara case the court reporter, [Bancroft Davis](/wiki/Bancroft_Davis \"Bancroft Davis\"),{{cite book \\|last\\=Hartman \\|first\\=Thom \\|title\\=Unequal Protection: The Rise of Corporate Dominance and the Theft of Human Rights \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|year\\=2002}} noted in the headnote to the opinion that the Chief Justice, [Morrison Waite](/wiki/Morrison_Waite \"Morrison Waite\"), began oral argument by stating, \"The court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") to the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States \"Constitution of the United States\"), which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does.\"118 U.S. 394 (1886\\) – Official court Syllabus in the United States Reports While the headnote is not part of the Court's opinion and thus not [precedent](/wiki/Precedent \"Precedent\"), two years later, in *[Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pembina_Consolidated_Silver_Mining_Co._v._Pennsylvania \"Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania\")* – 125 U.S. 181 (1888\\), the Court clearly affirmed the doctrine, holding, \"Under the designation of 'person' there is no doubt that a private corporation is included \\[in the Fourteenth Amendment]. Such corporations are merely associations of individuals united for a special purpose and permitted to do business under a particular name and have a succession of members without dissolution.\"*Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania*, [125 U.S. 394](http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/125/181/case.html) (1886\\). This doctrine has been reaffirmed by the Court many times since.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Choudhury \\|first1\\=Barnali \\|last2\\=Petrin \\|first2\\=Martin \\|title\\=Understanding the Company: Corporate Governance and Theory \\|date\\=20 July 2017 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-108\\-21094\\-2 \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Understanding\\_the\\_Company/jwQvDwAAQBAJ?hl\\=en\\&gbpv\\=1\\&dq\\=Fourteenth\\+Amendment\\+corporations\\+reaffirmed\\+many\\+times\\+since\\&pg\\=PA170\\&printsec\\=frontcover \\|language\\=en}}",
"The 14th Amendment does not insulate corporations from all government regulation, any more than it relieves individuals from all regulatory obligations. Thus, for example, in *[Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs](/wiki/Northwestern_Nat_Life_Ins._Co._v._Riggs \"Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs\")* (203 U.S. 243 (1906\\)), the Court accepted that corporations are for legal purposes \"persons\", but still ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment was not a bar to many state laws which effectively limited a corporation's right to contract business as it pleased. However, this was not because corporations were not protected under the Fourteenth Amendment—rather, the Court's ruling was that the Fourteenth Amendment did not prohibit the type of regulation at issue, whether of a corporation or of sole proprietorship or partnership.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2011}}",
"#### Legislation in the United States",
"{{See also\\|Creature of statute}}\nFederal statutes that refer to \"persons\" generally include both natural and juridical ones, unless a different definition is given. This general rule of interpretation is specified in Title 1, section 1 of the U.S. Code,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www4\\.law.cornell.edu/uscode/1/1\\.html \\|title\\=United States Code: Title 1,1\\. Words denoting number, gender, and so forth \\| LII / Legal Information Institute \\|publisher\\=.law.cornell.edu \\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-07 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-19}} known as the Dictionary Act, which states:",
"",
"> In determining the meaning of any Act of Congress, unless the context indicates otherwise—",
"the words \"person\" and \"whoever\" include corporations, companies, associations, firms, partnerships, societies, and joint stock companies, as well as individuals;",
"This federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation may enter contracts,{{cite web \\| last\\=Torres\\-Spelliscy \\| first\\=Ciara \\| title\\=Does “We the People” Include Corporations? \\| website\\=American Bar Association \\| date\\=October 11, 2017 \\| url\\=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human\\_rights\\_magazine\\_home/we\\-the\\-people/we\\-the\\-people\\-corporations/ \\| access\\-date\\=March 28, 2024}} sue and be sued,{{cite web \\| last\\=School \\| first\\=Purdue Global Law \\| title\\=Corporate Personhood: What It Means and How It Has Evolved \\| website\\=Purdue Global Law School \\| date\\=January 6, 2023 \\| url\\=https://www.purduegloballawschool.edu/blog/news/corporate\\-personhood \\| access\\-date\\=March 28, 2024}} and be held liable under both civil and criminal law.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Lo \\|first\\=Stefan H. C. \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/In\\_Search\\_of\\_Corporate\\_Accountability/ugr5DAAAQBAJ?hl\\=en\\&gbpv\\=1\\&dq\\=held\\+liable\\+under\\+corporation\\+%22both\\+civil\\+and\\+criminal\\+law%22\\&pg\\=PA15\\&printsec\\=frontcover \\|title\\=In Search of Corporate Accountability: Liabilities of Corporate Participants \\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-14 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4438\\-8771\\-7 \\|language\\=en}} Because the corporation is legally considered the \"person\", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages.{{cite web \\| last\\=Winkler \\| first\\=Adam \\| title\\=Corporate Person\\-hood and Constitutional Rights for Corporations \\| website\\=New England Law Review \\| date\\=February 26, 2022 \\| url\\=https://www.newenglrev.com/volume\\-54\\-1/corporate\\-personhood\\-and\\-constitutional\\-rights\\-for\\-corporations \\| access\\-date\\=March 28, 2024}} Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. {{Citation needed\\|reason\\=This is primarily a matter of state law. If there is some applicable federal statute (and cases construing it), this should be clarified.\\|date\\=February 2021}}",
"Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same [constitutional rights](/wiki/Constitutional_right \"Constitutional right\").",
"Corporations as [juridical persons](/wiki/Juridical_person \"Juridical person\") have always been able to perform [commercial](/wiki/Commerce \"Commerce\") activities, similar to a person acting as a [sole proprietor](/wiki/Sole_proprietorship \"Sole proprietorship\"), such as entering into a contract or owning property. Therefore, corporations have always had a \"juridical personality\" for the purposes of conducting business while shielding individual [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholder \"Shareholder\") from personal liability (i.e. protecting personal assets which were not invested in the corporation).",
"[Ralph Nader](/wiki/Ralph_Nader \"Ralph Nader\"), [Phil Radford](/wiki/Phil_Radford \"Phil Radford\") and others have argued that a strict [originalist](/wiki/Originalist \"Originalist\") philosophy should reject the doctrine of corporate personhood under the Fourteenth Amendment.[Ralph Nader and Robert Weissman. Letter to the Editor: Ralph Nader on Scalia's \"originalism\"](http://hlrecord.org/2008/11/letter-to-the-editor-ralph-nader-on-scalias-originalism/). *[Harvard Law Record](/wiki/Harvard_Law_Record \"Harvard Law Record\")*, Published: Thursday, November 13, 2008, Updated: Tuesday, September 29, 2009\\. Indeed, Chief Justice [William Rehnquist](/wiki/William_Rehnquist \"William Rehnquist\") repeatedly criticized the Court's invention of corporate constitutional \"rights\", most famously in his dissenting opinion in the 1978 case *[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti](/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti \"First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti\")*; though, in *Bellotti*, Rehnquist's objections are based on his \"views of the limited application of the First Amendment to the States\" and not on whether corporations qualify as \"persons\" under the Fourteenth Amendment.{{cite web \\|author\\=United States Supreme Court \\|title\\=FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF BOSTON v. BELLOTTI \\|number\\=76–1172 \\|website\\=Findlaw \\|date\\=1978\\-04\\-06 \\|url\\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\\-supreme\\-court/435/765\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-04}} Nonetheless, these justices' rulings have continued to affirm the assumption of corporate personhood, as the Waite court did, and Justice Rehnquist himself eventually endorsed the right of corporations to spend in elections (the majority view in *Bellotti*) in his dissenting opinion in *[McConnell v. FEC](/wiki/McConnell_v._FEC \"McConnell v. FEC\")*.",
"#### Corporate political spending",
"A central point of debate in recent years has been what role corporate money plays and should play in democratic politics. This is part of the larger debate on [campaign finance reform](/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States \"Campaign finance reform in the United States\") and the role which money may play in politics.",
"In the United States, legal milestones in this debate include:\n* [Tillman Act of 1907](/wiki/Tillman_Act_of_1907 \"Tillman Act of 1907\"), banned corporate political contributions to national campaigns.\n* [Federal Election Campaign Act](/wiki/Federal_Election_Campaign_Act \"Federal Election Campaign Act\") of 1971, campaign financing legislation.\n* 1974 Amendments to Federal Election Campaign Act provided for first comprehensive system of regulation, including limitations on the size of contributions and expenditures and prohibitions on certain entities from contributing or spending, disclosure, creation of the Federal Election Commission as a regulatory agency, and government funding of presidential campaigns.\n* *[Buckley v. Valeo](/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo \"Buckley v. Valeo\"),* 424 [U.S. 1](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/case.html) (1976\\) upheld limits on campaign contributions, but held that spending money to influence elections is protected speech by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/\\|title\\=Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976\\)\\|work\\=Justia Law\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-20\\|language\\=en}}\n* *[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti](/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti \"First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti\")* (1978\\) upheld the rights of corporations to spend money in non\\-candidate elections (i.e. ballot initiatives and referendums).\n* *[Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Austin_v._Michigan_Chamber_of_Commerce \"Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce\")* (1990\\) upheld the right of the state of Michigan to prohibit corporations from using money from their corporate treasuries to support or oppose candidates in elections, noting: \"\\[c]orporate wealth can unfairly influence elections.\"\n* [Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002](/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_of_2002 \"Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002\") (McCain–Feingold), banned corporate funding of [issue advocacy ads](/wiki/Issue_advocacy_ads \"Issue advocacy ads\") which mentioned candidates close to an election.\n* *[McConnell v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/McConnell_v._Federal_Election_Commission \"McConnell v. Federal Election Commission\")* (2003\\), substantially upheld McCain–Feingold.\n* *[Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.](/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life%2C_Inc. \"Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.\")* (2007\\) weakened McCain–Feingold, but upheld core of McConnell.\n* *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission \"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\"),* [**558**](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases%2C_volume_558 \"List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 558\") **[U.S. 844](https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/08-205/)** (2010\\): the Supreme Court of the United States held that corporate funding of independent broadcasts of films about political subjects when there is an upcoming election cannot be limited under the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\"), overruling *Austin* (1990\\) and partly overruling *McConnell* (2003\\).{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/310/\\|title\\=Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm'n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010\\)\\|work\\=Justia Law\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-20\\|language\\=en}}\n* *[Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana](/wiki/Western_Tradition_Partnership%2C_Inc._v._Attorney_General_of_Montana \"Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana\")* (2012\\). U.S. Supreme Court [summary reversal](/wiki/Summary_judgement \"Summary judgement\") of a decision by the [Montana Supreme Court](/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court \"Montana Supreme Court\") holding that *Citizens United* did not preclude a Montana state law prohibiting corporate spending in elections.",
"The corporate personhood aspect of the campaign finance debate turns on *Buckley v. Valeo* (1976\\) and *[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission](/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission \"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\")* (2010\\): *Buckley* ruled that political spending is protected by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\") [right to free speech](/wiki/Right_to_free_speech \"Right to free speech\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\\-supreme\\-court/424/1\\.html\\|title\\=Buckley v. Valeo\\|website\\=Find Law\\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2019}} while *Citizens United* ruled that corporate political spending is protected, holding that corporations have a First Amendment right to free speech because they are \"associations of citizens\" and hold the collected rights of the individual citizens who constitute them.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us\\-supreme\\-court/08\\-205\\.html\\|title\\=Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\\|website\\=Find Law\\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2019}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Club
Joshua Grommen attended the [Queensland Academy of Sport](/wiki/Queensland_Academy_of_Sport "Queensland Academy of Sport") and was part of [Brisbane Roar](/wiki/Brisbane_Roar "Brisbane Roar")'s [National Youth League](/wiki/National_Youth_League_%28Australia%29 "National Youth League (Australia)") team. At age 18, Grommen moved to the Philippines due to limited playing opportunities in Australia to play for clubs including [Loyola Meralco](/wiki/Loyola_Meralco_F.C. "Loyola Meralco F.C."), [Stallion](/wiki/Stallion_Laguna_F.C. "Stallion Laguna F.C."), [Ceres\-Negros](/wiki/Ceres-Negros_F.C. "Ceres-Negros F.C."), and [Davao Aguilas](/wiki/Davao_Aguilas_F.C. "Davao Aguilas F.C."). Grommen joined Loyola Meralco of the now\-defunct [United Football League](/wiki/United_Football_League_%28Philippines%29 "United Football League (Philippines)") (UFL) in 2014 but left the club paying out his contract after getting an offer to play for Brisbane Roar. He returned to the UFL in 2015 with [Stallion](/wiki/Stallion_Laguna_F.C. "Stallion Laguna F.C.") signing him in for the 2016 season.
He had a brief stint with [Western Pride](/wiki/Western_Pride_FC "Western Pride FC") back in Australia. He joined Pride in October 2017 and made a bid to join the club's first team. After just two pre\-season trial matches he left the club in January 2017 to join [Ceres](/wiki/Ceres%E2%80%93Negros_F.C. "Ceres–Negros F.C.") which were then still playing in the UFL for a chance to play in the [AFC Cup](/wiki/AFC_Cup "AFC Cup").{{cite news \|last1\=Harvey \|first1\=Graham \|title\=Asia Awaits for Pride's Prodigy \|url\=https://www.pressreader.com/australia/the\-queensland\-times/20170118/282226600424423 \|access\-date\=10 August 2019 \|work\=The Queensland Times \|date\=18 January 2017}} The club later won the zonal championships of the [2017 AFC Cup](/wiki/2017_AFC_Cup "2017 AFC Cup"). He remained part of Ceres, which renamed as Ceres\-Negros F.C., when the club moved to the [Philippines Football League](/wiki/Philippines_Football_League "Philippines Football League") (PFL).
For the 2018 PFL season, Grommen joined the [Davao Aguilas](/wiki/Davao_Aguilas "Davao Aguilas"){{cite news \|last1\=Jacinto \|first1\=Christian \|title\=Davao Aguilas cap busy offseason in signing new recruits Dennis Villanueva, Grommen, Matas \|url\=https://www.spin.ph/football/davao\-aguilas\-pfl\-2018\-dennis\-villanueva\-joshua\-grommen\-tyler\-matas \|access\-date\=10 August 2019 \|work\=Sports Interactive Network Philippines \|date\=26 February 2018}} which later become defunct by the end of the season.
In early 2019, Grommen moved to [Petaling Jaya City](/wiki/Petaling_Jaya_City_FC "Petaling Jaya City FC") of the [Malaysia Super League](/wiki/Malaysia_Super_League "Malaysia Super League"). He later became a free agent but through connections with fellow Filipino\-Australian player [Iain Ramsay](/wiki/Iain_Ramsay "Iain Ramsay") managed to secure a move to [Sukhothai](/wiki/Sukhothai_F.C. "Sukhothai F.C.") of [Thai League 1](/wiki/Thai_League_1 "Thai League 1").
Grommen rejoined Ceres–Negros for the 2020 season.{{cite news \|last1\=Davidson \|first1\=John \|title\=Aussie seals Philippines switch \|url\=https://www.ftbl.com.au/news/aussie\-seals\-philippines\-switch\-536068 \|access\-date\=February 4, 2020 \|agency\=FTBL \|date\=January 2, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102081131/https://www.ftbl.com.au/news/aussie\-seals\-philippines\-switch\-536068 \|archive\-date\=January 2, 2020}} On 11 February, he started in Ceres' first [AFC Cup](/wiki/AFC_Cup "AFC Cup") group match against Cambodian champions [Svay Rieng](/wiki/Preah_Khan_Reach_Svay_Rieng_FC "Preah Khan Reach Svay Rieng FC"). He scored Ceres' second goal in the 14th minute, converting [Stephan Schröck](/wiki/Stephan_Schr%C3%B6ck "Stephan Schröck")'s cross with what looked like a [header](/wiki/Header_%28association_football%29 "Header (association football)"). Replays showed that Grommen used his hand to score, yet the goal was still counted in the 4–0 win for Ceres, as the referee and his assistants failed to notice the incident.{{cite news \|last1\=Tan \|first1\=Gabriel \|title\=Ceres\-Negros up and running in AFC Cup 2020 with Preah Khan Reach Svay Rieng rout \|url\=https://www.foxsports.ph/football/asian\-football/afc\-cup/1063821/ceres\-negros\-up\-and\-running\-in\-afc\-cup\-2020\-with\-preah\-khan\-reach\-svay\-rieng\-rout/ \|access\-date\=14 February 2020 \|agency\=Fox Sports Philippines \|date\=11 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212165739/https://www.foxsports.ph/football/asian\-football/afc\-cup/1063821/ceres\-negros\-up\-and\-running\-in\-afc\-cup\-2020\-with\-preah\-khan\-reach\-svay\-rieng\-rout/ \|archive\-date\=12 February 2020}}{{cite news \|title\=WATCH: Ceres\-Negros' Joshua Grommen emulates Diego Maradona with 'Hand of God' goal in AFC Cup 2020 \|url\=https://www.foxsportsasia.com/football/asian\-football/afc\-cup/1231083/watch\-ceres\-negros\-joshua\-grommen\-emulates\-diego\-maradona\-with\-hand\-of\-god\-goal\-in\-afc\-cup\-2020/ \|access\-date\=16 February 2020 \|agency\=Fox Sports Asia \|date\=12 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213144745/https://www.foxsportsasia.com/football/asian\-football/afc\-cup/1231083/watch\-ceres\-negros\-joshua\-grommen\-emulates\-diego\-maradona\-with\-hand\-of\-god\-goal\-in\-afc\-cup\-2020/ \|archive\-date\=13 February 2020}} In March, football tournaments in the Philippines and Asia were either suspended or cancelled due to COVID\-19\. Grommen then left Ceres–Negros in June and returned to Australia.{{cite news \|last1\=Davidson \|first1\=John \|title\=Aussie defender back home after Filipino nightmare \|url\=https://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/aussie\-defender\-back\-home\-after\-filipino\-nightmare \|access\-date\=28 December 2020 \|work\=The World Game \|publisher\=SBS \|date\=28 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928024941/https://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/aussie\-defender\-back\-home\-after\-filipino\-nightmare \|archive\-date\=28 September 2020}}
In August 2020, [National Premier Leagues Queensland](/wiki/National_Premier_Leagues_Queensland "National Premier Leagues Queensland") side [Brisbane City](/wiki/Brisbane_City_FC "Brisbane City FC") announced that they have signed in Grommen.{{cite news \|last1\=Saldajeno \|first1\=Ivan Stewart \|title\=Ex\-Ceres Negros player Grommen joins 2nd tier Aussie club \|url\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1111478 \|access\-date\=August 7, 2020 \|work\=Philippine News Agency \|date\=August 7, 2020}} He made two league appearances for the team that season.{{cite web \|title\=Statistics for Brisbane City FC playing in NPL QLD 2020 \|url\=https://websites.sportstg.com/team\_info.cgi?c\=0\-9385\-138097\-555046\-26649226\&a\=STATS \|website\=websites.sportstg.com \|publisher\=SportsTG \|access\-date\=28 December 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20201228154945/https://websites.sportstg.com/team\_info.cgi?c\=0\-9385\-138097\-555046\-26649226\&a\=STATS \|archive\-date\=28 December 2020}}
Sukhothai announced Grommen's return on 6 January 2021\.{{cite news \|title\=ทางการ "สุโขทัย" เปิดตัว 4 แข้งใหม่ลุยศึกเลกที่ 2 \|url\=https://www.thairath.co.th/sport/thaifootball/2008700 \|access\-date\=8 January 2021 \|work\=ไทยรัฐ (Thai Rath) \|date\=8 January 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20210108161828/https://www.thairath.co.th/sport/thaifootball/2008700 \|archive\-date\=8 January 2021 \|language\=th}}
### International
Grommen has played for the Philippine national youth team. He played for the Philippines in the [2016 AFC U\-23 Championship qualifiers](/wiki/2016_AFC_U-23_Championship_qualification "2016 AFC U-23 Championship qualification").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Club",
"Joshua Grommen attended the [Queensland Academy of Sport](/wiki/Queensland_Academy_of_Sport \"Queensland Academy of Sport\") and was part of [Brisbane Roar](/wiki/Brisbane_Roar \"Brisbane Roar\")'s [National Youth League](/wiki/National_Youth_League_%28Australia%29 \"National Youth League (Australia)\") team. At age 18, Grommen moved to the Philippines due to limited playing opportunities in Australia to play for clubs including [Loyola Meralco](/wiki/Loyola_Meralco_F.C. \"Loyola Meralco F.C.\"), [Stallion](/wiki/Stallion_Laguna_F.C. \"Stallion Laguna F.C.\"), [Ceres\\-Negros](/wiki/Ceres-Negros_F.C. \"Ceres-Negros F.C.\"), and [Davao Aguilas](/wiki/Davao_Aguilas_F.C. \"Davao Aguilas F.C.\"). Grommen joined Loyola Meralco of the now\\-defunct [United Football League](/wiki/United_Football_League_%28Philippines%29 \"United Football League (Philippines)\") (UFL) in 2014 but left the club paying out his contract after getting an offer to play for Brisbane Roar. He returned to the UFL in 2015 with [Stallion](/wiki/Stallion_Laguna_F.C. \"Stallion Laguna F.C.\") signing him in for the 2016 season.",
"He had a brief stint with [Western Pride](/wiki/Western_Pride_FC \"Western Pride FC\") back in Australia. He joined Pride in October 2017 and made a bid to join the club's first team. After just two pre\\-season trial matches he left the club in January 2017 to join [Ceres](/wiki/Ceres%E2%80%93Negros_F.C. \"Ceres–Negros F.C.\") which were then still playing in the UFL for a chance to play in the [AFC Cup](/wiki/AFC_Cup \"AFC Cup\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Harvey \\|first1\\=Graham \\|title\\=Asia Awaits for Pride's Prodigy \\|url\\=https://www.pressreader.com/australia/the\\-queensland\\-times/20170118/282226600424423 \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2019 \\|work\\=The Queensland Times \\|date\\=18 January 2017}} The club later won the zonal championships of the [2017 AFC Cup](/wiki/2017_AFC_Cup \"2017 AFC Cup\"). He remained part of Ceres, which renamed as Ceres\\-Negros F.C., when the club moved to the [Philippines Football League](/wiki/Philippines_Football_League \"Philippines Football League\") (PFL).",
"For the 2018 PFL season, Grommen joined the [Davao Aguilas](/wiki/Davao_Aguilas \"Davao Aguilas\"){{cite news \\|last1\\=Jacinto \\|first1\\=Christian \\|title\\=Davao Aguilas cap busy offseason in signing new recruits Dennis Villanueva, Grommen, Matas \\|url\\=https://www.spin.ph/football/davao\\-aguilas\\-pfl\\-2018\\-dennis\\-villanueva\\-joshua\\-grommen\\-tyler\\-matas \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2019 \\|work\\=Sports Interactive Network Philippines \\|date\\=26 February 2018}} which later become defunct by the end of the season.",
"In early 2019, Grommen moved to [Petaling Jaya City](/wiki/Petaling_Jaya_City_FC \"Petaling Jaya City FC\") of the [Malaysia Super League](/wiki/Malaysia_Super_League \"Malaysia Super League\"). He later became a free agent but through connections with fellow Filipino\\-Australian player [Iain Ramsay](/wiki/Iain_Ramsay \"Iain Ramsay\") managed to secure a move to [Sukhothai](/wiki/Sukhothai_F.C. \"Sukhothai F.C.\") of [Thai League 1](/wiki/Thai_League_1 \"Thai League 1\").",
"Grommen rejoined Ceres–Negros for the 2020 season.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Davidson \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=Aussie seals Philippines switch \\|url\\=https://www.ftbl.com.au/news/aussie\\-seals\\-philippines\\-switch\\-536068 \\|access\\-date\\=February 4, 2020 \\|agency\\=FTBL \\|date\\=January 2, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102081131/https://www.ftbl.com.au/news/aussie\\-seals\\-philippines\\-switch\\-536068 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2020}} On 11 February, he started in Ceres' first [AFC Cup](/wiki/AFC_Cup \"AFC Cup\") group match against Cambodian champions [Svay Rieng](/wiki/Preah_Khan_Reach_Svay_Rieng_FC \"Preah Khan Reach Svay Rieng FC\"). He scored Ceres' second goal in the 14th minute, converting [Stephan Schröck](/wiki/Stephan_Schr%C3%B6ck \"Stephan Schröck\")'s cross with what looked like a [header](/wiki/Header_%28association_football%29 \"Header (association football)\"). Replays showed that Grommen used his hand to score, yet the goal was still counted in the 4–0 win for Ceres, as the referee and his assistants failed to notice the incident.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Tan \\|first1\\=Gabriel \\|title\\=Ceres\\-Negros up and running in AFC Cup 2020 with Preah Khan Reach Svay Rieng rout \\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.ph/football/asian\\-football/afc\\-cup/1063821/ceres\\-negros\\-up\\-and\\-running\\-in\\-afc\\-cup\\-2020\\-with\\-preah\\-khan\\-reach\\-svay\\-rieng\\-rout/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2020 \\|agency\\=Fox Sports Philippines \\|date\\=11 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212165739/https://www.foxsports.ph/football/asian\\-football/afc\\-cup/1063821/ceres\\-negros\\-up\\-and\\-running\\-in\\-afc\\-cup\\-2020\\-with\\-preah\\-khan\\-reach\\-svay\\-rieng\\-rout/ \\|archive\\-date\\=12 February 2020}}{{cite news \\|title\\=WATCH: Ceres\\-Negros' Joshua Grommen emulates Diego Maradona with 'Hand of God' goal in AFC Cup 2020 \\|url\\=https://www.foxsportsasia.com/football/asian\\-football/afc\\-cup/1231083/watch\\-ceres\\-negros\\-joshua\\-grommen\\-emulates\\-diego\\-maradona\\-with\\-hand\\-of\\-god\\-goal\\-in\\-afc\\-cup\\-2020/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2020 \\|agency\\=Fox Sports Asia \\|date\\=12 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213144745/https://www.foxsportsasia.com/football/asian\\-football/afc\\-cup/1231083/watch\\-ceres\\-negros\\-joshua\\-grommen\\-emulates\\-diego\\-maradona\\-with\\-hand\\-of\\-god\\-goal\\-in\\-afc\\-cup\\-2020/ \\|archive\\-date\\=13 February 2020}} In March, football tournaments in the Philippines and Asia were either suspended or cancelled due to COVID\\-19\\. Grommen then left Ceres–Negros in June and returned to Australia.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Davidson \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=Aussie defender back home after Filipino nightmare \\|url\\=https://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/aussie\\-defender\\-back\\-home\\-after\\-filipino\\-nightmare \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2020 \\|work\\=The World Game \\|publisher\\=SBS \\|date\\=28 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928024941/https://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/aussie\\-defender\\-back\\-home\\-after\\-filipino\\-nightmare \\|archive\\-date\\=28 September 2020}}",
"In August 2020, [National Premier Leagues Queensland](/wiki/National_Premier_Leagues_Queensland \"National Premier Leagues Queensland\") side [Brisbane City](/wiki/Brisbane_City_FC \"Brisbane City FC\") announced that they have signed in Grommen.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Saldajeno \\|first1\\=Ivan Stewart \\|title\\=Ex\\-Ceres Negros player Grommen joins 2nd tier Aussie club \\|url\\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1111478 \\|access\\-date\\=August 7, 2020 \\|work\\=Philippine News Agency \\|date\\=August 7, 2020}} He made two league appearances for the team that season.{{cite web \\|title\\=Statistics for Brisbane City FC playing in NPL QLD 2020 \\|url\\=https://websites.sportstg.com/team\\_info.cgi?c\\=0\\-9385\\-138097\\-555046\\-26649226\\&a\\=STATS \\|website\\=websites.sportstg.com \\|publisher\\=SportsTG \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20201228154945/https://websites.sportstg.com/team\\_info.cgi?c\\=0\\-9385\\-138097\\-555046\\-26649226\\&a\\=STATS \\|archive\\-date\\=28 December 2020}}",
"Sukhothai announced Grommen's return on 6 January 2021\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=ทางการ \"สุโขทัย\" เปิดตัว 4 แข้งใหม่ลุยศึกเลกที่ 2 \\|url\\=https://www.thairath.co.th/sport/thaifootball/2008700 \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2021 \\|work\\=ไทยรัฐ (Thai Rath) \\|date\\=8 January 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20210108161828/https://www.thairath.co.th/sport/thaifootball/2008700 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2021 \\|language\\=th}}",
"### International",
"Grommen has played for the Philippine national youth team. He played for the Philippines in the [2016 AFC U\\-23 Championship qualifiers](/wiki/2016_AFC_U-23_Championship_qualification \"2016 AFC U-23 Championship qualification\").",
""
] |
Mixed martial arts career
-------------------------
### Maximum Fighting Championship
Ford began his career with [Maximum Fighting Championship](/wiki/Maximum_Fighting_Championship "Maximum Fighting Championship"), On February 22, 2008, at MFC 15 Ford defeated [Pete Spratt](/wiki/Pete_Spratt "Pete Spratt") via rear\-naked choke in the second round.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2008/02/mfc\-15\-ryan\-ford\-submits\-pete\-spratt\-jesse\-forbes\-rebounds\-for\-victory\|title\=MFC 15: Ryan Ford Submits Pete Spratt; Jesse Forbes Rebounds for Victory\|date\=23 February 2008}}
On May 9, 2008, at MFC 16 Ford defeated CJ Fernandes via rear\-naked choke submission in round one.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmaweekly.com/ryan\-ford\-tops\-mfc\-16\-with\-another\-victory\-2\|title\=RYAN FORD TOPS MFC 16 WITH ANOTHER VICTORY\|date\=11 May 2008 }}
On July 25, 2008, at [MFC 17](/wiki/MFC_17 "MFC 17") Ford was defeated by [Pat Healy](/wiki/Pat_Healy_%28fighter%29 "Pat Healy (fighter)") via arm\-bar submission, the fight was for the MFC Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mma\-core.com/events/MFC\_17\_Hostile\_Takeover/25054\|title\=MFC 17 \- Hostile Takeover Fight Card Results Fights Profile}}
On September 28, 2008, at [MFC 18](/wiki/MFC_18 "MFC 18") Ford defeated [Laverne Clark](/wiki/Laverne_Clark "Laverne Clark") via guillotine choke in the second round.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmaontap.com/mma/entry/mfc\-18\-quick\-results\|title\=MFC 18 Quick results}}
On February 20, 2009, at [MFC 20](/wiki/MFC_20 "MFC 20") Ford was defeated by [Pat Healy](/wiki/Pat_Healy_%28fighter%29 "Pat Healy (fighter)") via split decision in a rematch for the [MFC Welterweight Championship](/wiki/Maximum_Fighting_Championship "Maximum Fighting Championship").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mixedmartialarts.com/events/MFC\-20\-\-\-Destined\-for\-Greatness:86294051\-E3D4\-40E3\-A8D9\-DD49A74E2AC1\|title\=MFC 20 \- Destined for Greatness MMA Event Results\|date\=31 October 2021}}
On September 10, 2010, at [MFC 26](/wiki/MFC_26 "MFC 26") Ford was defeated by [Douglas Lima](/wiki/Douglas_Lima "Douglas Lima") via armbar submission in the second round.
On November 12, 2010, at [MFC 27](/wiki/MFC_27 "MFC 27") Ford defeated [Pete Spratt](/wiki/Pete_Spratt "Pete Spratt") in a rematch via rear\-naked choke submission.
Ford has twice left the [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton%2C_Alberta "Edmonton, Alberta")\-based [MFC](/wiki/Maximum_Fighting_Championship "Maximum Fighting Championship") organization due to contract disputes.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2009/03/20/ryan\-ford\-i\-will\-never\-fight\-in\-the\-mfc\-again\|title\=Ryan Ford: 'I will never fight in the MFC again'\|date\=20 March 2009}}
### Independent promotions
Ford signed with the Edmonton\-based promotion [The Fight Club](/wiki/The_Fight_Club "The Fight Club"). On March 19, 2010, at TFC 10 Ford defeated former [Ultimate Fighter](/wiki/The_Ultimate_Fighter "The Ultimate Fighter") finalist [Tom Speer](/wiki/Tom_Speer "Tom Speer") via rear\-naked choke submission in round one on March 19, 2010, to retain the TFC Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mma\-core.com/fights/Ryan\_The\_Real\_Deal\_Ford\_vs\_Tom\_The\_Farm\_Boy\_Speer/1146594\|title\=Ryan Ford vs. Tom Speer Fight Result TFC 10 \- High Voltage}}
On May 19, 2011, Ford fought UFC veteran [Karo Parisyan](/wiki/Karo_Parisyan "Karo Parisyan") at MMA Live 1 in [London, Ontario](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario "London, Ontario"), After the first two rounds, Ford caught Parisyan with a knee and cut his forehead, causing the doctor and referee to stop the fight giving Ford the win via doctor stoppage.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2011/05/20/mma\-live\-1\-play\-by\-play/\|title\=MMA Live 1 Play By Play\|date\=May 20, 2011\|publisher\=topmmanews.com}}
### Aggression Fighting Championship
On June 10, 2011, Ford Returned to the Aggression MMA organization at *AMMA 7: Confrontation* defeating Nick Hinchcliffe in round three via TKO due to punches. On September 16, 2011, at *AMMA 8: Unfinished Business*, Ford was defeated by David Hulett via guillotine choke in round one.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2011/09/17/aggression\-mma\-8\-recap/\|title\=Aggression MMA 8 – Recap\|author\=Top MMA News Staff\|date\=September 17, 2011\|publisher\=topmmanews.com}} On February 11, 2012, Ford defeated Ricky Goodall at AMMA 9 via TKO due to elbows in round one.
On March 23, 2013, Ford fought for the renamed [Aggression Fighting Championship](/wiki/Aggression_Fighting_Championship "Aggression Fighting Championship") promotion in Edmonton, Alberta. Ford defeated Brendan Tierney via KO in the second round at AFC 17\.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2013/02/28/ryan\-ford\-ready\-to\-put\-on\-show\-for\-edmonton\-on\-march\-23/\|title\=Ryan Ford Ready To Put On Show For Edmonton On March 23\|author\=Top MMA News Staff\|date\=February 28, 2013\|publisher\=topmmanews.com}}
Ford faced [Ultimate Fighter](/wiki/The_Ultimate_Fighter:Team_Carwin_vs._Team_Nelson "Team Carwin vs. Team Nelson") vet [Michael Hill](/wiki/Michael_Hill_%28fighter%29 "Michael Hill (fighter)") on July 5, 2013, at AFC 19 for the AFC Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2013/03/25/afc\-20\-edmonton\-july\-5/\|title\=Ryan Ford faces Michael Hill for AFC Welterweight Championship at AFC 19\|author\=Top MMA News\|date\=June 29, 2013\|publisher\=topmmanews.com}} Ford defeated Hill via rear\-naked choke submission in the fifth round to win the AFC Welterweight Championship.
### Bellator Fighting Championships
Ford signed with [Bellator](/wiki/Bellator_MMA "Bellator MMA") making his debut On May 4, 2012, at [Bellator 67](/wiki/Bellator_Fighting_Championships:Season_Six%23Bellator_LXVII "Season Six#Bellator LXVII"), Ford defeated [Luis Santos](/wiki/Luis_Santos_%28fighter%29 "Luis Santos (fighter)") via TKO due to knees and punches in the second round.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2012/05/04/bellator\-67\-play\-by\-play/\|title\=Bellator 67 Play\-By\-Play – Come Behind Victory For Ford, Baker Advances\|author\=Don Wilson\|date\=May 4, 2012\|publisher\=topmmanews.com}}
On November 2, 2012, at [Bellator 79](/wiki/Bellator_Fighting_Championships:Season_Six%23Bellator_LXXIX "Season Six#Bellator LXXIX"), Ford took on Kyle Baker at Casino Rama in Ontario, Ford won via unanimous decision.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2012/11/02/bellator\-79\-results\-play\-by\-play/\|title\=Bellator 79 Results \& Play\-By\-Play – Ford, De Lorenzi Win\|author\=Don Wilson\|date\=November 3, 2012\|publisher\=topmmanews.com}}
### World Series of Fighting
On December 5, 2013, it was announced that Ford signed a multi\-fight deal with [World Series of Fighting](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting "World Series of Fighting")’s Canadian branch and is expected to debut under the WSOF banner in early 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\-Veteran\-Ryan\-Ford\-Signs\-with\-World\-Series\-of\-Fighting\-Canada\-for\-2014\-Debut\-60387\|title\=Bellator Veteran Ryan Ford Signs with World Series of Fighting Canada for 2014 Debut}}
Ford is expected to make is WSOF debut at [WSOF Canada 1](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_Canada_1:Ford_vs._Powell "Ford vs. Powell") against Joel Powell for the inaugural [WSOF Canadian Welterweight Championship](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_%28Canada%29%23Welterweight_Championship "World Series of Fighting (Canada)#Welterweight Championship").{{cite web\|url\=http://wsof.com/news\-view.php?id\=107\|title\=WSOF CANADA HEADS TO EDMONTON ON FEB. 21 FOR RYAN FORD VS. JOEL POWELL TITLE FIGHT\|publisher\=WSOF.com\|author\=Staff\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017040649/http://www.wsof.com/news\-view.php?id\=107\|archive\-date\=2014\-10\-17}} Ford won via knockout due to a front kick and punches in just 53 seconds of round one to win the WSOF Canadian Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2014/02/21/wsof\-canada\-ford\-vs\-powell\-play\-by\-play/\|title\=WSOF Canada: Ford vs Powell Play\-by\-Play \- Ford Wins Title\|publisher\=TopMMANews.com\|author\=Top MMA News Staff}}
Ford was scheduled to fight [Bristol Marunde](/wiki/Bristol_Marunde "Bristol Marunde") on June 7, 2014, at [WSOF Canada 2](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_Canada_2:Ford_vs._Marunde "Ford vs. Marunde").{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2014/04/24/ford\-marunde\-top\-wsof\-canada\-card\-on\-june\-7/\|title\=Ford, Marunde Top WSOF Canada Card on June 7\|publisher\=TopMMANews.com\|date\=2014\-04\-24\|access\-date\=2014\-04\-24}} He pulled out after getting injured during training.
Ford faced [Jake Shields](/wiki/Jake_Shields "Jake Shields") in the main event at [WSOF 14](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_14:Ford_vs._Shields "Ford vs. Shields") on October 11, 2014, in Edmonton, Alberta Canada.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2014/08/04/jake\-shields\-heads\-north\-to\-fight\-ryan\-ford\-at\-wsof\-14/\|title\=Jake Shields Heads North To Fight Ryan Ford at WSOF 14 \|publisher\=TopMMANews.com \|author\=Keith Grienke\|date\=August 4, 2014}} Although he dropped Shields early in the fight with a left hand, Ford eventually lost the fight via rear naked choke submission in the first round.
Ford was set to face [Yushin Okami](/wiki/Yushin_Okami "Yushin Okami") in a Middleweight bout for the main event of [WSOF 21](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_21:Okami_vs._Ford "Okami vs. Ford") on June 5, 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Ryan\-FordYushin\-Okami\-Smealinho\-RamaBlagoi\-Ivanov\-Announced\-For\-WSOF\-21\-81727\|title\=RYAN FORD\-YUSHIN OKAMI, SMEALINHO RAMA\-BLAGOI IVANOV ANNOUNCED FOR WSOF 21}} However, Ford announced that he had to pull out of the June fight with Okami.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2015/04/injured\-ryan\-ford\-says\-hes\-out\-of\-junes\-wsof\-21\-headliner\|title\=Injured Ryan Ford says he's out of June's WSOF 21 headliner\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com \|author\=MMAjunkie Staff \|date\=2015\-04\-07\|access\-date\=2015\-04\-08}}
### Unified MMA
On January 6, 2022, it was announced that Ford would be making his return to [MMA](/wiki/Mixed_martial_arts "Mixed martial arts") on March 4, 2022, at Unified MMA 43 against Dawond Pickney.{{cite web\|url\=https://unifiedmma.ca/ryan\-ford\-kb\-bhullar\-among\-first\-three\-fights\-announced\-for\-unified\-43/\|title\=Ryan Ford, KB Bhullar among first three fights announced for Unified 43\|date\=7 January 2022}} He won the bout via triangle choke in the second round.{{Cite web \|last\=Griffith \|first\=Joel \|date\=2022\-03\-06 \|title\=Shane Campbell, KB, Bhullar, Ryan Ford among the big winners at Unified MMA 43 \|url\=https://mmaempire.ca/news/campbell\-bhullar\-ford\-unified\-mma\-43/ \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-07 \|website\=MMA Empire \|language\=en}}
Ford made his return on May 27, 2022, at Unified MMA 45 facing off against Robert Hale for the Unified MMA Super Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\|url\=https://unifiedmma.ca/ryan\-ford\-unfazed\-by\-robert\-hales\-trash\-talk\-i\-just\-laugh\-at\-it/\|title\=Ryan Ford unfazed by Robert Hale's trash talk: "I just laugh at it"\|date\=20 May 2022 }} He won the fight via first\-round technical knockout.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-05\-27 \|title\=Unified MMA 45 \- Live Results and Play\-by\-Play \|url\=https://mmaempire.ca/news/unified\-mma\-45\-live\-results\-and\-play\-by\-play/ \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-30 \|website\=MMA Empire \|language\=en}}
Ford faced Fay Bursell on March 31, 2023, at Unified MMA 50, losing the bout via rear\-naked choke in the third round.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-04\-01 \|title\=Unified 50 \- Live Results and Play\-by\-Play \|url\=https://mmaempire.ca/news/unified\-50\-live\-results\-and\-play\-by\-play/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|website\=MMA Empire \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Mixed martial arts career\n-------------------------",
"### Maximum Fighting Championship",
"Ford began his career with [Maximum Fighting Championship](/wiki/Maximum_Fighting_Championship \"Maximum Fighting Championship\"), On February 22, 2008, at MFC 15 Ford defeated [Pete Spratt](/wiki/Pete_Spratt \"Pete Spratt\") via rear\\-naked choke in the second round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2008/02/mfc\\-15\\-ryan\\-ford\\-submits\\-pete\\-spratt\\-jesse\\-forbes\\-rebounds\\-for\\-victory\\|title\\=MFC 15: Ryan Ford Submits Pete Spratt; Jesse Forbes Rebounds for Victory\\|date\\=23 February 2008}}",
"On May 9, 2008, at MFC 16 Ford defeated CJ Fernandes via rear\\-naked choke submission in round one.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmaweekly.com/ryan\\-ford\\-tops\\-mfc\\-16\\-with\\-another\\-victory\\-2\\|title\\=RYAN FORD TOPS MFC 16 WITH ANOTHER VICTORY\\|date\\=11 May 2008 }}",
"On July 25, 2008, at [MFC 17](/wiki/MFC_17 \"MFC 17\") Ford was defeated by [Pat Healy](/wiki/Pat_Healy_%28fighter%29 \"Pat Healy (fighter)\") via arm\\-bar submission, the fight was for the MFC Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mma\\-core.com/events/MFC\\_17\\_Hostile\\_Takeover/25054\\|title\\=MFC 17 \\- Hostile Takeover Fight Card Results Fights Profile}}",
"On September 28, 2008, at [MFC 18](/wiki/MFC_18 \"MFC 18\") Ford defeated [Laverne Clark](/wiki/Laverne_Clark \"Laverne Clark\") via guillotine choke in the second round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmaontap.com/mma/entry/mfc\\-18\\-quick\\-results\\|title\\=MFC 18 Quick results}}",
"On February 20, 2009, at [MFC 20](/wiki/MFC_20 \"MFC 20\") Ford was defeated by [Pat Healy](/wiki/Pat_Healy_%28fighter%29 \"Pat Healy (fighter)\") via split decision in a rematch for the [MFC Welterweight Championship](/wiki/Maximum_Fighting_Championship \"Maximum Fighting Championship\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mixedmartialarts.com/events/MFC\\-20\\-\\-\\-Destined\\-for\\-Greatness:86294051\\-E3D4\\-40E3\\-A8D9\\-DD49A74E2AC1\\|title\\=MFC 20 \\- Destined for Greatness MMA Event Results\\|date\\=31 October 2021}}",
"On September 10, 2010, at [MFC 26](/wiki/MFC_26 \"MFC 26\") Ford was defeated by [Douglas Lima](/wiki/Douglas_Lima \"Douglas Lima\") via armbar submission in the second round.",
"On November 12, 2010, at [MFC 27](/wiki/MFC_27 \"MFC 27\") Ford defeated [Pete Spratt](/wiki/Pete_Spratt \"Pete Spratt\") in a rematch via rear\\-naked choke submission.",
"Ford has twice left the [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton%2C_Alberta \"Edmonton, Alberta\")\\-based [MFC](/wiki/Maximum_Fighting_Championship \"Maximum Fighting Championship\") organization due to contract disputes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2009/03/20/ryan\\-ford\\-i\\-will\\-never\\-fight\\-in\\-the\\-mfc\\-again\\|title\\=Ryan Ford: 'I will never fight in the MFC again'\\|date\\=20 March 2009}}",
"### Independent promotions",
"Ford signed with the Edmonton\\-based promotion [The Fight Club](/wiki/The_Fight_Club \"The Fight Club\"). On March 19, 2010, at TFC 10 Ford defeated former [Ultimate Fighter](/wiki/The_Ultimate_Fighter \"The Ultimate Fighter\") finalist [Tom Speer](/wiki/Tom_Speer \"Tom Speer\") via rear\\-naked choke submission in round one on March 19, 2010, to retain the TFC Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mma\\-core.com/fights/Ryan\\_The\\_Real\\_Deal\\_Ford\\_vs\\_Tom\\_The\\_Farm\\_Boy\\_Speer/1146594\\|title\\=Ryan Ford vs. Tom Speer Fight Result TFC 10 \\- High Voltage}}",
"On May 19, 2011, Ford fought UFC veteran [Karo Parisyan](/wiki/Karo_Parisyan \"Karo Parisyan\") at MMA Live 1 in [London, Ontario](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario \"London, Ontario\"), After the first two rounds, Ford caught Parisyan with a knee and cut his forehead, causing the doctor and referee to stop the fight giving Ford the win via doctor stoppage.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2011/05/20/mma\\-live\\-1\\-play\\-by\\-play/\\|title\\=MMA Live 1 Play By Play\\|date\\=May 20, 2011\\|publisher\\=topmmanews.com}}",
"### Aggression Fighting Championship",
"On June 10, 2011, Ford Returned to the Aggression MMA organization at *AMMA 7: Confrontation* defeating Nick Hinchcliffe in round three via TKO due to punches. On September 16, 2011, at *AMMA 8: Unfinished Business*, Ford was defeated by David Hulett via guillotine choke in round one.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2011/09/17/aggression\\-mma\\-8\\-recap/\\|title\\=Aggression MMA 8 – Recap\\|author\\=Top MMA News Staff\\|date\\=September 17, 2011\\|publisher\\=topmmanews.com}} On February 11, 2012, Ford defeated Ricky Goodall at AMMA 9 via TKO due to elbows in round one.",
"On March 23, 2013, Ford fought for the renamed [Aggression Fighting Championship](/wiki/Aggression_Fighting_Championship \"Aggression Fighting Championship\") promotion in Edmonton, Alberta. Ford defeated Brendan Tierney via KO in the second round at AFC 17\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2013/02/28/ryan\\-ford\\-ready\\-to\\-put\\-on\\-show\\-for\\-edmonton\\-on\\-march\\-23/\\|title\\=Ryan Ford Ready To Put On Show For Edmonton On March 23\\|author\\=Top MMA News Staff\\|date\\=February 28, 2013\\|publisher\\=topmmanews.com}}",
"Ford faced [Ultimate Fighter](/wiki/The_Ultimate_Fighter:Team_Carwin_vs._Team_Nelson \"Team Carwin vs. Team Nelson\") vet [Michael Hill](/wiki/Michael_Hill_%28fighter%29 \"Michael Hill (fighter)\") on July 5, 2013, at AFC 19 for the AFC Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2013/03/25/afc\\-20\\-edmonton\\-july\\-5/\\|title\\=Ryan Ford faces Michael Hill for AFC Welterweight Championship at AFC 19\\|author\\=Top MMA News\\|date\\=June 29, 2013\\|publisher\\=topmmanews.com}} Ford defeated Hill via rear\\-naked choke submission in the fifth round to win the AFC Welterweight Championship.",
"### Bellator Fighting Championships",
"Ford signed with [Bellator](/wiki/Bellator_MMA \"Bellator MMA\") making his debut On May 4, 2012, at [Bellator 67](/wiki/Bellator_Fighting_Championships:Season_Six%23Bellator_LXVII \"Season Six#Bellator LXVII\"), Ford defeated [Luis Santos](/wiki/Luis_Santos_%28fighter%29 \"Luis Santos (fighter)\") via TKO due to knees and punches in the second round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2012/05/04/bellator\\-67\\-play\\-by\\-play/\\|title\\=Bellator 67 Play\\-By\\-Play – Come Behind Victory For Ford, Baker Advances\\|author\\=Don Wilson\\|date\\=May 4, 2012\\|publisher\\=topmmanews.com}}",
"On November 2, 2012, at [Bellator 79](/wiki/Bellator_Fighting_Championships:Season_Six%23Bellator_LXXIX \"Season Six#Bellator LXXIX\"), Ford took on Kyle Baker at Casino Rama in Ontario, Ford won via unanimous decision.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2012/11/02/bellator\\-79\\-results\\-play\\-by\\-play/\\|title\\=Bellator 79 Results \\& Play\\-By\\-Play – Ford, De Lorenzi Win\\|author\\=Don Wilson\\|date\\=November 3, 2012\\|publisher\\=topmmanews.com}}",
"### World Series of Fighting",
"On December 5, 2013, it was announced that Ford signed a multi\\-fight deal with [World Series of Fighting](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting \"World Series of Fighting\")’s Canadian branch and is expected to debut under the WSOF banner in early 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\\-Veteran\\-Ryan\\-Ford\\-Signs\\-with\\-World\\-Series\\-of\\-Fighting\\-Canada\\-for\\-2014\\-Debut\\-60387\\|title\\=Bellator Veteran Ryan Ford Signs with World Series of Fighting Canada for 2014 Debut}}",
"Ford is expected to make is WSOF debut at [WSOF Canada 1](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_Canada_1:Ford_vs._Powell \"Ford vs. Powell\") against Joel Powell for the inaugural [WSOF Canadian Welterweight Championship](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_%28Canada%29%23Welterweight_Championship \"World Series of Fighting (Canada)#Welterweight Championship\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://wsof.com/news\\-view.php?id\\=107\\|title\\=WSOF CANADA HEADS TO EDMONTON ON FEB. 21 FOR RYAN FORD VS. JOEL POWELL TITLE FIGHT\\|publisher\\=WSOF.com\\|author\\=Staff\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017040649/http://www.wsof.com/news\\-view.php?id\\=107\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-17}} Ford won via knockout due to a front kick and punches in just 53 seconds of round one to win the WSOF Canadian Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2014/02/21/wsof\\-canada\\-ford\\-vs\\-powell\\-play\\-by\\-play/\\|title\\=WSOF Canada: Ford vs Powell Play\\-by\\-Play \\- Ford Wins Title\\|publisher\\=TopMMANews.com\\|author\\=Top MMA News Staff}}",
"Ford was scheduled to fight [Bristol Marunde](/wiki/Bristol_Marunde \"Bristol Marunde\") on June 7, 2014, at [WSOF Canada 2](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_Canada_2:Ford_vs._Marunde \"Ford vs. Marunde\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2014/04/24/ford\\-marunde\\-top\\-wsof\\-canada\\-card\\-on\\-june\\-7/\\|title\\=Ford, Marunde Top WSOF Canada Card on June 7\\|publisher\\=TopMMANews.com\\|date\\=2014\\-04\\-24\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-04\\-24}} He pulled out after getting injured during training.",
"Ford faced [Jake Shields](/wiki/Jake_Shields \"Jake Shields\") in the main event at [WSOF 14](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_14:Ford_vs._Shields \"Ford vs. Shields\") on October 11, 2014, in Edmonton, Alberta Canada.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2014/08/04/jake\\-shields\\-heads\\-north\\-to\\-fight\\-ryan\\-ford\\-at\\-wsof\\-14/\\|title\\=Jake Shields Heads North To Fight Ryan Ford at WSOF 14 \\|publisher\\=TopMMANews.com \\|author\\=Keith Grienke\\|date\\=August 4, 2014}} Although he dropped Shields early in the fight with a left hand, Ford eventually lost the fight via rear naked choke submission in the first round.",
"Ford was set to face [Yushin Okami](/wiki/Yushin_Okami \"Yushin Okami\") in a Middleweight bout for the main event of [WSOF 21](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_21:Okami_vs._Ford \"Okami vs. Ford\") on June 5, 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Ryan\\-FordYushin\\-Okami\\-Smealinho\\-RamaBlagoi\\-Ivanov\\-Announced\\-For\\-WSOF\\-21\\-81727\\|title\\=RYAN FORD\\-YUSHIN OKAMI, SMEALINHO RAMA\\-BLAGOI IVANOV ANNOUNCED FOR WSOF 21}} However, Ford announced that he had to pull out of the June fight with Okami.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2015/04/injured\\-ryan\\-ford\\-says\\-hes\\-out\\-of\\-junes\\-wsof\\-21\\-headliner\\|title\\=Injured Ryan Ford says he's out of June's WSOF 21 headliner\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com \\|author\\=MMAjunkie Staff \\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-07\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-08}}",
"### Unified MMA",
"On January 6, 2022, it was announced that Ford would be making his return to [MMA](/wiki/Mixed_martial_arts \"Mixed martial arts\") on March 4, 2022, at Unified MMA 43 against Dawond Pickney.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://unifiedmma.ca/ryan\\-ford\\-kb\\-bhullar\\-among\\-first\\-three\\-fights\\-announced\\-for\\-unified\\-43/\\|title\\=Ryan Ford, KB Bhullar among first three fights announced for Unified 43\\|date\\=7 January 2022}} He won the bout via triangle choke in the second round.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Griffith \\|first\\=Joel \\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-06 \\|title\\=Shane Campbell, KB, Bhullar, Ryan Ford among the big winners at Unified MMA 43 \\|url\\=https://mmaempire.ca/news/campbell\\-bhullar\\-ford\\-unified\\-mma\\-43/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-07 \\|website\\=MMA Empire \\|language\\=en}}",
"Ford made his return on May 27, 2022, at Unified MMA 45 facing off against Robert Hale for the Unified MMA Super Welterweight Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://unifiedmma.ca/ryan\\-ford\\-unfazed\\-by\\-robert\\-hales\\-trash\\-talk\\-i\\-just\\-laugh\\-at\\-it/\\|title\\=Ryan Ford unfazed by Robert Hale's trash talk: \"I just laugh at it\"\\|date\\=20 May 2022 }} He won the fight via first\\-round technical knockout.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-27 \\|title\\=Unified MMA 45 \\- Live Results and Play\\-by\\-Play \\|url\\=https://mmaempire.ca/news/unified\\-mma\\-45\\-live\\-results\\-and\\-play\\-by\\-play/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=MMA Empire \\|language\\=en}}",
"Ford faced Fay Bursell on March 31, 2023, at Unified MMA 50, losing the bout via rear\\-naked choke in the third round.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-01 \\|title\\=Unified 50 \\- Live Results and Play\\-by\\-Play \\|url\\=https://mmaempire.ca/news/unified\\-50\\-live\\-results\\-and\\-play\\-by\\-play/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|website\\=MMA Empire \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Professional boxing career
--------------------------
Ford made his professional boxing debut on February 13, 2010, winning a four\-round majority decision over Willard Lewis. On June 8, 2015, it was announced that Ford was retiring from MMA to focus on a career in professional boxing.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.boxingprospects.net/calgary.html\|title\=KO Boxing News and Results}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tapology.com/forum/fighters/ryan\-ford\-the\-real\-deal/667128\-Ryan\_Ford\_retiring\_from\_MMA\|title\=Ryan Ford retiring from MMA}}{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2015/06/08/canadian\-mma\-rumour\-mill\-june\-8\-2015/\|title\=Canadian MMA Rumor Mill.com \- June 8, 2015}}
Ford fought on September 11, 2015, against Gary Kopas competing for the KO Boxing promotion.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2015/08/19/canadian\-mma\-rumour\-mill\-august\-19\-2015/\|title\=Canadian MMA Rumour Mill \- August 19, 2015}} He won a four\-round unanimous decision.
On September 20, 2015, it was announced that Ford will fight on October 16, 2015, against Antonio Dos Santos at Dekada Premier Fight Night.{{cite web\|url\=http://fightfan.com/2015/09/red\-hot\-dekada\-calgary\-card\-to\-air\-on\-fight\-network\-tickets\-for\-oct\-16\-show\-on\-sale\-this\-tuesday/\|title\=Red hot Dekada Calgary card to air on Fight Network Oct. 16}} He won via knockout in the first round.
On November 13, 2015, it was announced that Ford will fight on December 4, 2015, against Alvaro Enriquez for the KO Boxing promotion.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2015/11/13/canadian\-mma\-rumour\-mill\-november\-13\-2015/\|title\=Canadian MMA Rumour Mill – November 13, 2015}} He won via technical knockout in the second round.{{cite web\|url\=http://50\.87\.248\.84/\~canadjd1/ryan\-ford\-stops\-enriquez\-in\-edmonton\-moves\-to\-4\-0/\|title\=Ryan Ford Stops Enriquez in Edmonton, Moves to 4\-0}}{{dead link\|date\=April 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
On February 22, 2016, it was announced that Ford will fight on March 11, 2016, against David Whittom for the KO Boxing promotion.{{cite web\|url\=http://topmmanews.com/2016/02/22/canadian\-mma\-rumour\-mill\-february\-22\-2016/\|title\=Canadian MMA Rumour Mill – February 22, 2016}} He won via knockout in the first round.
On April 22, 2016, Ford faced former Thailand Olympic Gold and silver medalist [Manus Boonjumnong](/wiki/Manus_Boonjumnong "Manus Boonjumnong").{{cite web\|url\=http://thaboxingvoice.com/ryan\-ford\-take\-manus\-boonjumnnong\-april\-22nd/58053?var\=no\|title\=Ryan Ford To Take On Manus Boonjumnnong On April 22nd\|date\=28 March 2016}} He won via fourth\-round technical knockout after his opponent was no longer able to continue entering the fifth round.
On September 9, 2016, Ford faced former World Boxing Council Cruiserweight Champion Victor Manuel Palacios for the KO Boxing promotion.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.boxingnews24\.com/2016/09/ryan\-ford\-quotes\-training\-camp\-point\-palacios\-tilt/\|title\=Ryan Ford Quotes: "Training camp has been on point" for Palacios Tilt\|date\=8 September 2016}} He won the fight via unanimous decision.
On October 29, 2016, it was announced that Ford would face IBO Asia Pacific Light Heavyweight Champion [Sam Rapira](/wiki/Sam_Rapira_%28boxer%29 "Sam Rapira (boxer)") on February 17, 2017, for the Vacant UBO Light Heavyweight Championship.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.uboboxing.com/upcoming.htm\|title\=UBO Upcoming bouts and events}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/RyanTheRealDealFord/photos/a.779426912166195\.1073741829\.668602976581923/985741758201375/?type\=3\&theater\|title\=Ryan Ford vs. Sam Rapira\|website\=\[\[Facebook]]}} He won the fight via TKO to become the UBO World Light Heavyweight Champion.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.uboboxing.com/articles/article415\.htm\|title\=UBO Roar in Singapore results}}
On November 10, 2016, it was announced that Ford would be facing Mario Baeza for the KO Boxing promotion on December 2, 2016\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.shawconferencecentre.com/events/ko\-boxing\-2/\|title\=KO Boxing promotion \- December 2, 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/RyanTheRealDealFord/photos/a.779426912166195\.1073741829\.668602976581923/999460880162796/?type\=3\&theater\|title\=Ford vs. Baeza \- December 2, 2016\|website\=\[\[Facebook]]}} He won the fight via unanimous decision.
On March 13, 2017, it was announced that Ford would be making the first defense of his title against former [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council "World Boxing Council") Asian World Champion New Zealand fighter [Robert Berridge](/wiki/Robert_Berridge "Robert Berridge") on May 27, 2017\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.uboboxing.com/articles/article421\.htm\|title\=Ryan Ford Defends UBO World Title Against Robert Berridge On May 27}} He won the fight via technical decision after an accidental head butt.
On August 10, 2017, it as announced that Ford would be facing British fighter [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization "World Boxing Organization") European Light Heavyweight Champion [Anthony Yarde](/wiki/Anthony_Yarde "Anthony Yarde") on September 16, 2017, for the vacant [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization "World Boxing Organization") Intercontinental Light Heavyweight Championship.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.boxingnews24\.com/2017/08/yarde\-faces\-undefeated\-ford\-wbo\-inter\-continental\-clash/\|title\=Anthony Yarde vs. Ryan Ford on Saunders\-Monroe card on Sept 16\|date\=9 August 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2017/08/11/edmonton\-boxer\-ryan\-ford\-to\-fight\-for\-wbo\-belt\-next\-month\-in\-england\|title\=Edmonton boxer Ryan Ford to fight for WBO belt next month in England}} On August 25, 2017, it was announced that the fight was canceled after a contract dispute.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.instagram.com/p/BYOnQoWheoE/\|title\=Ford vs. Yarde canceled due to contract dispute}}
On September 6, 2017, it was announced that Ford would be facing Joaquin Murrieta on September 9, 2017, for Rixta Promotions.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thefightcity.com/ryan\-ford\-mma\-boxing\-montreal/\|title\=Ryan Ford: Ready To Fight Anytime\|date\=9 September 2017}} He won the fight via corner stoppage in the fourth round.
On November 17, 2017, it was announced that Ford would be facing former WBA Super Middleweight Champion [Fedor Chudinov](/wiki/Fedor_Chudinov "Fedor Chudinov") for the WBA International Super Middleweight Title on December 9, 2017\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.instagram.com/p/Bbm\-8iqBdTB/\|title\=Ford vs. Chudinov Announcement}}{{cite web\|url\=http://edmontonsun.com/sports/other\-sports/i\-feel\-like\-the\-canadian\-rocky\-ryan\-ford\-in\-russia\-for\-wba\-title\-fight\|title\='I Feel Like The Canadian Rocky': Ryan Ford in Russia for WBA Title}} Ford lost via twelve round unanimous decision.
On February 9, 2019, Ford faced off against [Nick Hannig](/wiki/Nick_Hannig "Nick Hannig") for the vacant [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council "World Boxing Council") International [light heavyweight](/wiki/Light_heavyweight "Light heavyweight") title.{{cite web\|url\=https://ranfighting.de/boxen/nick\-hannig\-vs\-ryan\-ford\|title\=Nick Hannig vs. Ryan Ford: Ranfighting\|date\=18 April 2018}} Ford lost via twelve round unanimous decision.
On April 6, 2019, Ford faced off against German Olympic boxer [Serge Michel](/wiki/Serge_Michel "Serge Michel").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.the13thround.com/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?t\=129891\|title\=Ryan Ford 16\-4 got the KTFO upset vs Michel 8\-0 Saturday}} Ford won the fight via knockout to win the WBC International Silver light heavyweight title.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/boxing/story/\_/id/28283755/golden\-contract\-light\-heavyweight\-tournament\-it\|title\=ESPN: What's the Golden Contract light\-heavyweight tournament, and who's in it?\|date\=12 December 2019}}
On August 31, 2019, Ford faced undefeated [Joshua Buatsi](/wiki/Joshua_Buatsi "Joshua Buatsi") which ended in controversy after what appeared to be a low shot from Buatsi, the fight was stopped awarding Buatsi the victory via knockout {{Cite web\|last\=Christ\|first\=Scott\|date\=2019\-08\-31\|title\=Joshua Buatsi knocks out Ryan Ford in seventh round\|url\=https://www.badlefthook.com/2019/8/31/20842424/lomachenko\-vs\-campbell\-results\-joshua\-buatsi\-knocks\-out\-ryan\-ford\-seven\-rounds\-boxing\-news\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-15\|website\=Bad Left Hook\|language\=en}}
|
[
"Professional boxing career\n--------------------------",
"Ford made his professional boxing debut on February 13, 2010, winning a four\\-round majority decision over Willard Lewis. On June 8, 2015, it was announced that Ford was retiring from MMA to focus on a career in professional boxing.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.boxingprospects.net/calgary.html\\|title\\=KO Boxing News and Results}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tapology.com/forum/fighters/ryan\\-ford\\-the\\-real\\-deal/667128\\-Ryan\\_Ford\\_retiring\\_from\\_MMA\\|title\\=Ryan Ford retiring from MMA}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2015/06/08/canadian\\-mma\\-rumour\\-mill\\-june\\-8\\-2015/\\|title\\=Canadian MMA Rumor Mill.com \\- June 8, 2015}}",
"Ford fought on September 11, 2015, against Gary Kopas competing for the KO Boxing promotion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2015/08/19/canadian\\-mma\\-rumour\\-mill\\-august\\-19\\-2015/\\|title\\=Canadian MMA Rumour Mill \\- August 19, 2015}} He won a four\\-round unanimous decision.",
"On September 20, 2015, it was announced that Ford will fight on October 16, 2015, against Antonio Dos Santos at Dekada Premier Fight Night.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://fightfan.com/2015/09/red\\-hot\\-dekada\\-calgary\\-card\\-to\\-air\\-on\\-fight\\-network\\-tickets\\-for\\-oct\\-16\\-show\\-on\\-sale\\-this\\-tuesday/\\|title\\=Red hot Dekada Calgary card to air on Fight Network Oct. 16}} He won via knockout in the first round.",
"On November 13, 2015, it was announced that Ford will fight on December 4, 2015, against Alvaro Enriquez for the KO Boxing promotion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2015/11/13/canadian\\-mma\\-rumour\\-mill\\-november\\-13\\-2015/\\|title\\=Canadian MMA Rumour Mill – November 13, 2015}} He won via technical knockout in the second round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://50\\.87\\.248\\.84/\\~canadjd1/ryan\\-ford\\-stops\\-enriquez\\-in\\-edmonton\\-moves\\-to\\-4\\-0/\\|title\\=Ryan Ford Stops Enriquez in Edmonton, Moves to 4\\-0}}{{dead link\\|date\\=April 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"On February 22, 2016, it was announced that Ford will fight on March 11, 2016, against David Whittom for the KO Boxing promotion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://topmmanews.com/2016/02/22/canadian\\-mma\\-rumour\\-mill\\-february\\-22\\-2016/\\|title\\=Canadian MMA Rumour Mill – February 22, 2016}} He won via knockout in the first round.",
"On April 22, 2016, Ford faced former Thailand Olympic Gold and silver medalist [Manus Boonjumnong](/wiki/Manus_Boonjumnong \"Manus Boonjumnong\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://thaboxingvoice.com/ryan\\-ford\\-take\\-manus\\-boonjumnnong\\-april\\-22nd/58053?var\\=no\\|title\\=Ryan Ford To Take On Manus Boonjumnnong On April 22nd\\|date\\=28 March 2016}} He won via fourth\\-round technical knockout after his opponent was no longer able to continue entering the fifth round.",
"On September 9, 2016, Ford faced former World Boxing Council Cruiserweight Champion Victor Manuel Palacios for the KO Boxing promotion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.boxingnews24\\.com/2016/09/ryan\\-ford\\-quotes\\-training\\-camp\\-point\\-palacios\\-tilt/\\|title\\=Ryan Ford Quotes: \"Training camp has been on point\" for Palacios Tilt\\|date\\=8 September 2016}} He won the fight via unanimous decision.",
"On October 29, 2016, it was announced that Ford would face IBO Asia Pacific Light Heavyweight Champion [Sam Rapira](/wiki/Sam_Rapira_%28boxer%29 \"Sam Rapira (boxer)\") on February 17, 2017, for the Vacant UBO Light Heavyweight Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uboboxing.com/upcoming.htm\\|title\\=UBO Upcoming bouts and events}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/RyanTheRealDealFord/photos/a.779426912166195\\.1073741829\\.668602976581923/985741758201375/?type\\=3\\&theater\\|title\\=Ryan Ford vs. Sam Rapira\\|website\\=\\[\\[Facebook]]}} He won the fight via TKO to become the UBO World Light Heavyweight Champion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uboboxing.com/articles/article415\\.htm\\|title\\=UBO Roar in Singapore results}}",
"On November 10, 2016, it was announced that Ford would be facing Mario Baeza for the KO Boxing promotion on December 2, 2016\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.shawconferencecentre.com/events/ko\\-boxing\\-2/\\|title\\=KO Boxing promotion \\- December 2, 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/RyanTheRealDealFord/photos/a.779426912166195\\.1073741829\\.668602976581923/999460880162796/?type\\=3\\&theater\\|title\\=Ford vs. Baeza \\- December 2, 2016\\|website\\=\\[\\[Facebook]]}} He won the fight via unanimous decision.",
"On March 13, 2017, it was announced that Ford would be making the first defense of his title against former [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council \"World Boxing Council\") Asian World Champion New Zealand fighter [Robert Berridge](/wiki/Robert_Berridge \"Robert Berridge\") on May 27, 2017\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uboboxing.com/articles/article421\\.htm\\|title\\=Ryan Ford Defends UBO World Title Against Robert Berridge On May 27}} He won the fight via technical decision after an accidental head butt.",
"On August 10, 2017, it as announced that Ford would be facing British fighter [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization \"World Boxing Organization\") European Light Heavyweight Champion [Anthony Yarde](/wiki/Anthony_Yarde \"Anthony Yarde\") on September 16, 2017, for the vacant [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization \"World Boxing Organization\") Intercontinental Light Heavyweight Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.boxingnews24\\.com/2017/08/yarde\\-faces\\-undefeated\\-ford\\-wbo\\-inter\\-continental\\-clash/\\|title\\=Anthony Yarde vs. Ryan Ford on Saunders\\-Monroe card on Sept 16\\|date\\=9 August 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2017/08/11/edmonton\\-boxer\\-ryan\\-ford\\-to\\-fight\\-for\\-wbo\\-belt\\-next\\-month\\-in\\-england\\|title\\=Edmonton boxer Ryan Ford to fight for WBO belt next month in England}} On August 25, 2017, it was announced that the fight was canceled after a contract dispute.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.instagram.com/p/BYOnQoWheoE/\\|title\\=Ford vs. Yarde canceled due to contract dispute}}",
"On September 6, 2017, it was announced that Ford would be facing Joaquin Murrieta on September 9, 2017, for Rixta Promotions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thefightcity.com/ryan\\-ford\\-mma\\-boxing\\-montreal/\\|title\\=Ryan Ford: Ready To Fight Anytime\\|date\\=9 September 2017}} He won the fight via corner stoppage in the fourth round.",
"On November 17, 2017, it was announced that Ford would be facing former WBA Super Middleweight Champion [Fedor Chudinov](/wiki/Fedor_Chudinov \"Fedor Chudinov\") for the WBA International Super Middleweight Title on December 9, 2017\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.instagram.com/p/Bbm\\-8iqBdTB/\\|title\\=Ford vs. Chudinov Announcement}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://edmontonsun.com/sports/other\\-sports/i\\-feel\\-like\\-the\\-canadian\\-rocky\\-ryan\\-ford\\-in\\-russia\\-for\\-wba\\-title\\-fight\\|title\\='I Feel Like The Canadian Rocky': Ryan Ford in Russia for WBA Title}} Ford lost via twelve round unanimous decision.",
"On February 9, 2019, Ford faced off against [Nick Hannig](/wiki/Nick_Hannig \"Nick Hannig\") for the vacant [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council \"World Boxing Council\") International [light heavyweight](/wiki/Light_heavyweight \"Light heavyweight\") title.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ranfighting.de/boxen/nick\\-hannig\\-vs\\-ryan\\-ford\\|title\\=Nick Hannig vs. Ryan Ford: Ranfighting\\|date\\=18 April 2018}} Ford lost via twelve round unanimous decision.",
"On April 6, 2019, Ford faced off against German Olympic boxer [Serge Michel](/wiki/Serge_Michel \"Serge Michel\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.the13thround.com/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?t\\=129891\\|title\\=Ryan Ford 16\\-4 got the KTFO upset vs Michel 8\\-0 Saturday}} Ford won the fight via knockout to win the WBC International Silver light heavyweight title.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/boxing/story/\\_/id/28283755/golden\\-contract\\-light\\-heavyweight\\-tournament\\-it\\|title\\=ESPN: What's the Golden Contract light\\-heavyweight tournament, and who's in it?\\|date\\=12 December 2019}}",
"On August 31, 2019, Ford faced undefeated [Joshua Buatsi](/wiki/Joshua_Buatsi \"Joshua Buatsi\") which ended in controversy after what appeared to be a low shot from Buatsi, the fight was stopped awarding Buatsi the victory via knockout {{Cite web\\|last\\=Christ\\|first\\=Scott\\|date\\=2019\\-08\\-31\\|title\\=Joshua Buatsi knocks out Ryan Ford in seventh round\\|url\\=https://www.badlefthook.com/2019/8/31/20842424/lomachenko\\-vs\\-campbell\\-results\\-joshua\\-buatsi\\-knocks\\-out\\-ryan\\-ford\\-seven\\-rounds\\-boxing\\-news\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-15\\|website\\=Bad Left Hook\\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### WGEN\-FM
The Quad Cities allocation for 104\.9 [MHz](/wiki/Megahertz "Megahertz") dates to 1977, when the city of license was [Geneseo, Illinois](/wiki/Geneseo%2C_Illinois "Geneseo, Illinois"). The station signed on as WRSQ\-FM, the FM sister station of WGEN (1500 kHz). The station aired country music, along with community and farm news, local sports and [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals "St. Louis Cardinals") baseball. The call letters were changed to WGEN\-FM on October 6, 1980\.
In 1996, both WGEN and WGEN\-FM were sold to Connoisseur Communications, owner of [KJOC](/wiki/KBOB_%28AM%29 "KBOB (AM)"), [KORB](/wiki/KJOC_%28FM%29 "KJOC (FM)"), [WXLP](/wiki/WXLP "WXLP") and [KBOB](/wiki/KBEA-FM "KBEA-FM"). For a time, the FM station was a repeater of KJOC's AM signal, while the AM signal was a simulcast of [KBOB](/wiki/KBEA-FM "KBEA-FM") (at the time, located at 99\.7 FM). By 1997, ownership of the AM and FM frequencies were split, and Connoisseur moved the city of license to DeWitt, Iowa; a new transmitter tower was built near [Long Grove](/wiki/Long_Grove%2C_Iowa "Long Grove, Iowa") (about 7 miles south of DeWitt), and the studios were moved to Davenport in anticipation of its first new format under the new ownership.
### Lite 104\.9 FM\-KQLI (1998–2000\)
KQLI employed an [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary "Adult contemporary") format at 104\.9 for about two years, starting on March 17, 1998\."Radio station debuts new lite rock format," *The Quad\-City Times*, March 18, 1998\. However, the station had minimal listenership, primarily due to its small coverage area and competition from the more powerful [KMXG\-FM](/wiki/KMXG "KMXG").
### First country era (2000–2007\)
In March 2000, when KQLI and sister stations KBOB, WXLP, KORB, and KJOC were sold to [Cumulus Media](/wiki/Cumulus_Media "Cumulus Media"), plans were already being formulated to revamp several of the company's radio stations, including 104\.9 FM. The plan involved dropping KQLI's adult contemporary format and moving KBOB's country format from 99\.7 FM to 104\.9 FM, as 99\.7 FM flipped to [Top 40](/wiki/Top_40 "Top 40")/[CHR](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio "Contemporary hit radio") as "B100". The switch occurred on March 30, 2000\.David Burke, "Cumulus completes changes in Quad\-City radio market," *The Quad\-City Times*, March 31, 2000\.
KBOB's modern country format, in use since it began in March 1994, remained the same until November 2001, when the station adopted a [classic country](/wiki/Classic_country "Classic country") format under the slogan "Great Country 105".David Burke, "Suzy Bogguss sends her best for the holidays," *The Quad\-City Times*, November 25, 2001\. Although "Great Country 105" had a loyal audience (as it played songs from artists such as [George Jones](/wiki/George_Jones "George Jones") and [Merle Haggard](/wiki/Merle_Haggard "Merle Haggard")), the ratings remained low.
On March 31, 2005, the station switched back to a modern country format, branding itself "The River 104\.9", but listenership remained near the bottom of the Quad Cities market's ratings.David Burke, "Radio station switches from country to talk," *The Quad\-City Times*, April 5, 2005\.
### Rock 104\-9 (2007–2014\)
On March 5, 2007, Cumulus moved WXLP's modern rock format to 104\.9 FM as "Rock 104\-9". Included with the switch was WXLP's "Dave and Darren in the Morning" radio show. Other on\-air personalities included Bill Stage and Sean. The station also aired syndicated shows *[hardDrive](/wiki/HardDrive_%28radio_show%29 "HardDrive (radio show)")* and *[The House of Hair with Dee Snider](/wiki/The_House_of_Hair_with_Dee_Snider "The House of Hair with Dee Snider")*. In addition to its music programming, KBOB broadcast [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears "Chicago Bears") football games from 2007 to 2013\.{{cite news\|title\=‘Rock’ rolls to new frequency on FM dial\|url\=http://www.qctimes.com/articles/2007/03/03/news/local/doc45e914a561f16278905691\.txt\|work\=\[\[Quad City Times]]\|date\=2007\-03\-03}}
On August 30, 2013, a deal was announced in which [Townsquare Media](/wiki/Townsquare_Media "Townsquare Media") would acquire 53 Cumulus stations, including KBOB\-FM, for $238 million. The deal was part of Cumulus' acquisition of [Dial Global](/wiki/Dial_Global "Dial Global"); Townsquare and Dial Global are both controlled by [Oaktree Capital Management](/wiki/Oaktree_Capital_Management "Oaktree Capital Management").{{cite news\|title\=Official: Cumulus Buys Dial Global, Spins Some Stations To Townsquare; Peak Stations Sold To Townsquare, Fresno Spun To Cumulus\|url\=http://www.allaccess.com/net\-news/archive/story/121835/official\-cumulus\-buys\-dial\-global\-spins\-some\-stati\|access\-date\=August 30, 2013\|newspaper\=All Access\|date\=August 30, 2013}}{{cite news\|title\=Cumulus Makes Dial Global And Townsquare Deals Official\|url\=http://radioinsight.com/blog/headlines/84851/are\-these\-the\-markets\-in\-the\-cumulustownsquaredial\-global\-deal/\|access\-date\=August 30, 2013\|newspaper\=RadioInsight\|date\=August 30, 2013}} The sale to Townsquare was completed on November 14, 2013\.{{cite news\|title\=Cumulus\-Townsquare\-Peak Deal Closes\|url\=http://www.allaccess.com/net\-news/archive/story/124346/cumulus\-townsquare\-peak\-deal\-closes\|access\-date\=November 16, 2013\|newspaper\=All Access\|date\=November 15, 2013}}
### Return to country (2014–2016\)
On July 9, 2014, at 6 a.m., after playing "[Brain Stew](/wiki/Brain_Stew "Brain Stew")" and "[Jaded](/wiki/Jaded_%28Green_Day%29 "Jaded (Green Day)")", both by [Green Day](/wiki/Green_Day "Green Day"), KBOB began [stunting](/wiki/Stunting_%28broadcasting%29 "Stunting (broadcasting)") with Christmas music. At noon, the station flipped back to country as "104\.9 The Hawk", launching with 10,000 songs in a row, with the first being "[Drink to That All Night](/wiki/Drink_to_That_All_Night "Drink to That All Night")" by [Jerrod Niemann](/wiki/Jerrod_Niemann "Jerrod Niemann"). At the same time, the callsign was changed to KQCS.Burke, David, "Rock 104\-9 flips format to country," *[Quad City Times](/wiki/Quad_City_Times "Quad City Times")*, July 9, 2014\. Accessed 03\-05\-2015 [http://qctimes.com/business/rock\-\-\-flips\-format\-to\-country/article\_36c128cf\-2d66\-544e\-97bf\-1a7ffa5f077c.html](http://qctimes.com/business/rock---flips-format-to-country/article_36c128cf-2d66-544e-97bf-1a7ffa5f077c.html)Burke, David, "Time Will tell whether 'The Hawk' will fly," *[Quad City Times](/wiki/Quad_City_Times "Quad City Times")*, July 12, 2014\. Accessed 03\-05\-2015\. [http://qctimes.com/entertainment/burke\-time\-will\-tell\-whether\-hawk\-will\-fly/article\_d84841e9\-a2bb\-56b2\-a7ab\-10ae9735c192\.html](http://qctimes.com/entertainment/burke-time-will-tell-whether-hawk-will-fly/article_d84841e9-a2bb-56b2-a7ab-10ae9735c192.html)[Hawk Flying into Quad Cities](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/netgnomes/89362/hawk-flying-into-quad-cities/)[Audio of 'The Hawk' Debut](https://formatchange.com/rock-104-9-becomes-the-hawk/)
### KIIK 104\.9 (2016–2021\)
[thumb\|150px\|"KIIK 104\.9" logo (2016–2021\)](/wiki/File:KIIK1049.png "KIIK1049.png")
"The Hawk" failed to take listeners from rival WLLR, garnering a mere 2\.0 in the last Arbitron ratings under the country format for July 2016, miles behind WLLR's 18\.1 rating. On August 29, the station began stunting with songs with the word "talk" in the title, before debuting a [classic hits](/wiki/Classic_hits "Classic hits") format on August 31 as "The New KIIK 104\.9". The first song played under the new format was "[Eye of the Tiger](/wiki/Eye_of_the_Tiger "Eye of the Tiger")" by [Survivor](/wiki/Survivor_%28band%29 "Survivor (band)").[104\.9 KQCS Quad Cities Kicks Off New Classic Hits Identity](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/107932/104-9-the-hawk-quad-cities-talking-about-a-change/) On the same day as KQCS' flip, [WYEC](/wiki/KQCJ "KQCJ"), an oldies\-leaning station, dumped its format for [adult hits](/wiki/Adult_hits "Adult hits"), meaning that KQCS would have no direct classic hits/oldies competitor in the Quad Cities market, although [KMXG](/wiki/KMXG "KMXG"), an adult contemporary station, had (at the time) devoted its weekend programming to music of the 1970s, the 1980s, and the 1990s.
The station changed its call letters to KIIK\-FM on September 7, 2016\.{{cite web\|title\=Call Sign History (KIIK\-FM)\|url\=http://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi\-bin/ws.exe/prod/cdbs/pubacc/prod/call\_hist.pl?Facility\_id\=12234\&Callsign\=KIIK\-FM\|website\=CDBS Public Access\|publisher\=\[\[Federal Communications Commission]]\|access\-date\=September 8, 2016}}
### US 104\.9 (2021–present)
On September 24, 2021, at 9:54 a.m., KIIK\-FM abruptly dropped the classic hits format and played "[The River](/wiki/The_River_%28Garth_Brooks_song%29 "The River (Garth Brooks song)")" by [Garth Brooks](/wiki/Garth_Brooks "Garth Brooks"), followed by "[God Bless America](/wiki/God_Bless_America "God Bless America")". At 10 a.m., the station flipped back to country, this time branded as "US 104\.9". The relaunch of the format began with "5,000 songs in a row", starting with "[When It Rains It Pours](/wiki/When_It_Rains_It_Pours_%28song%29 "When It Rains It Pours (song)")" by [Luke Combs](/wiki/Luke_Combs "Luke Combs").[US 104\.9 is Signed Through the Quad Cities](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/213254/us-104-9-is-signed-through-the-quad-cities/)
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### WGEN\\-FM",
"The Quad Cities allocation for 104\\.9 [MHz](/wiki/Megahertz \"Megahertz\") dates to 1977, when the city of license was [Geneseo, Illinois](/wiki/Geneseo%2C_Illinois \"Geneseo, Illinois\"). The station signed on as WRSQ\\-FM, the FM sister station of WGEN (1500 kHz). The station aired country music, along with community and farm news, local sports and [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals \"St. Louis Cardinals\") baseball. The call letters were changed to WGEN\\-FM on October 6, 1980\\.",
"In 1996, both WGEN and WGEN\\-FM were sold to Connoisseur Communications, owner of [KJOC](/wiki/KBOB_%28AM%29 \"KBOB (AM)\"), [KORB](/wiki/KJOC_%28FM%29 \"KJOC (FM)\"), [WXLP](/wiki/WXLP \"WXLP\") and [KBOB](/wiki/KBEA-FM \"KBEA-FM\"). For a time, the FM station was a repeater of KJOC's AM signal, while the AM signal was a simulcast of [KBOB](/wiki/KBEA-FM \"KBEA-FM\") (at the time, located at 99\\.7 FM). By 1997, ownership of the AM and FM frequencies were split, and Connoisseur moved the city of license to DeWitt, Iowa; a new transmitter tower was built near [Long Grove](/wiki/Long_Grove%2C_Iowa \"Long Grove, Iowa\") (about 7 miles south of DeWitt), and the studios were moved to Davenport in anticipation of its first new format under the new ownership.",
"### Lite 104\\.9 FM\\-KQLI (1998–2000\\)",
"KQLI employed an [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary \"Adult contemporary\") format at 104\\.9 for about two years, starting on March 17, 1998\\.\"Radio station debuts new lite rock format,\" *The Quad\\-City Times*, March 18, 1998\\. However, the station had minimal listenership, primarily due to its small coverage area and competition from the more powerful [KMXG\\-FM](/wiki/KMXG \"KMXG\").",
"### First country era (2000–2007\\)",
"In March 2000, when KQLI and sister stations KBOB, WXLP, KORB, and KJOC were sold to [Cumulus Media](/wiki/Cumulus_Media \"Cumulus Media\"), plans were already being formulated to revamp several of the company's radio stations, including 104\\.9 FM. The plan involved dropping KQLI's adult contemporary format and moving KBOB's country format from 99\\.7 FM to 104\\.9 FM, as 99\\.7 FM flipped to [Top 40](/wiki/Top_40 \"Top 40\")/[CHR](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio \"Contemporary hit radio\") as \"B100\". The switch occurred on March 30, 2000\\.David Burke, \"Cumulus completes changes in Quad\\-City radio market,\" *The Quad\\-City Times*, March 31, 2000\\.",
"KBOB's modern country format, in use since it began in March 1994, remained the same until November 2001, when the station adopted a [classic country](/wiki/Classic_country \"Classic country\") format under the slogan \"Great Country 105\".David Burke, \"Suzy Bogguss sends her best for the holidays,\" *The Quad\\-City Times*, November 25, 2001\\. Although \"Great Country 105\" had a loyal audience (as it played songs from artists such as [George Jones](/wiki/George_Jones \"George Jones\") and [Merle Haggard](/wiki/Merle_Haggard \"Merle Haggard\")), the ratings remained low.",
"On March 31, 2005, the station switched back to a modern country format, branding itself \"The River 104\\.9\", but listenership remained near the bottom of the Quad Cities market's ratings.David Burke, \"Radio station switches from country to talk,\" *The Quad\\-City Times*, April 5, 2005\\.",
"### Rock 104\\-9 (2007–2014\\)",
"On March 5, 2007, Cumulus moved WXLP's modern rock format to 104\\.9 FM as \"Rock 104\\-9\". Included with the switch was WXLP's \"Dave and Darren in the Morning\" radio show. Other on\\-air personalities included Bill Stage and Sean. The station also aired syndicated shows *[hardDrive](/wiki/HardDrive_%28radio_show%29 \"HardDrive (radio show)\")* and *[The House of Hair with Dee Snider](/wiki/The_House_of_Hair_with_Dee_Snider \"The House of Hair with Dee Snider\")*. In addition to its music programming, KBOB broadcast [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears \"Chicago Bears\") football games from 2007 to 2013\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=‘Rock’ rolls to new frequency on FM dial\\|url\\=http://www.qctimes.com/articles/2007/03/03/news/local/doc45e914a561f16278905691\\.txt\\|work\\=\\[\\[Quad City Times]]\\|date\\=2007\\-03\\-03}}",
"On August 30, 2013, a deal was announced in which [Townsquare Media](/wiki/Townsquare_Media \"Townsquare Media\") would acquire 53 Cumulus stations, including KBOB\\-FM, for $238 million. The deal was part of Cumulus' acquisition of [Dial Global](/wiki/Dial_Global \"Dial Global\"); Townsquare and Dial Global are both controlled by [Oaktree Capital Management](/wiki/Oaktree_Capital_Management \"Oaktree Capital Management\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Official: Cumulus Buys Dial Global, Spins Some Stations To Townsquare; Peak Stations Sold To Townsquare, Fresno Spun To Cumulus\\|url\\=http://www.allaccess.com/net\\-news/archive/story/121835/official\\-cumulus\\-buys\\-dial\\-global\\-spins\\-some\\-stati\\|access\\-date\\=August 30, 2013\\|newspaper\\=All Access\\|date\\=August 30, 2013}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Cumulus Makes Dial Global And Townsquare Deals Official\\|url\\=http://radioinsight.com/blog/headlines/84851/are\\-these\\-the\\-markets\\-in\\-the\\-cumulustownsquaredial\\-global\\-deal/\\|access\\-date\\=August 30, 2013\\|newspaper\\=RadioInsight\\|date\\=August 30, 2013}} The sale to Townsquare was completed on November 14, 2013\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Cumulus\\-Townsquare\\-Peak Deal Closes\\|url\\=http://www.allaccess.com/net\\-news/archive/story/124346/cumulus\\-townsquare\\-peak\\-deal\\-closes\\|access\\-date\\=November 16, 2013\\|newspaper\\=All Access\\|date\\=November 15, 2013}}",
"### Return to country (2014–2016\\)",
"On July 9, 2014, at 6 a.m., after playing \"[Brain Stew](/wiki/Brain_Stew \"Brain Stew\")\" and \"[Jaded](/wiki/Jaded_%28Green_Day%29 \"Jaded (Green Day)\")\", both by [Green Day](/wiki/Green_Day \"Green Day\"), KBOB began [stunting](/wiki/Stunting_%28broadcasting%29 \"Stunting (broadcasting)\") with Christmas music. At noon, the station flipped back to country as \"104\\.9 The Hawk\", launching with 10,000 songs in a row, with the first being \"[Drink to That All Night](/wiki/Drink_to_That_All_Night \"Drink to That All Night\")\" by [Jerrod Niemann](/wiki/Jerrod_Niemann \"Jerrod Niemann\"). At the same time, the callsign was changed to KQCS.Burke, David, \"Rock 104\\-9 flips format to country,\" *[Quad City Times](/wiki/Quad_City_Times \"Quad City Times\")*, July 9, 2014\\. Accessed 03\\-05\\-2015 [http://qctimes.com/business/rock\\-\\-\\-flips\\-format\\-to\\-country/article\\_36c128cf\\-2d66\\-544e\\-97bf\\-1a7ffa5f077c.html](http://qctimes.com/business/rock---flips-format-to-country/article_36c128cf-2d66-544e-97bf-1a7ffa5f077c.html)Burke, David, \"Time Will tell whether 'The Hawk' will fly,\" *[Quad City Times](/wiki/Quad_City_Times \"Quad City Times\")*, July 12, 2014\\. Accessed 03\\-05\\-2015\\. [http://qctimes.com/entertainment/burke\\-time\\-will\\-tell\\-whether\\-hawk\\-will\\-fly/article\\_d84841e9\\-a2bb\\-56b2\\-a7ab\\-10ae9735c192\\.html](http://qctimes.com/entertainment/burke-time-will-tell-whether-hawk-will-fly/article_d84841e9-a2bb-56b2-a7ab-10ae9735c192.html)[Hawk Flying into Quad Cities](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/netgnomes/89362/hawk-flying-into-quad-cities/)[Audio of 'The Hawk' Debut](https://formatchange.com/rock-104-9-becomes-the-hawk/)",
"### KIIK 104\\.9 (2016–2021\\)",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|\"KIIK 104\\.9\" logo (2016–2021\\)](/wiki/File:KIIK1049.png \"KIIK1049.png\")\n\"The Hawk\" failed to take listeners from rival WLLR, garnering a mere 2\\.0 in the last Arbitron ratings under the country format for July 2016, miles behind WLLR's 18\\.1 rating. On August 29, the station began stunting with songs with the word \"talk\" in the title, before debuting a [classic hits](/wiki/Classic_hits \"Classic hits\") format on August 31 as \"The New KIIK 104\\.9\". The first song played under the new format was \"[Eye of the Tiger](/wiki/Eye_of_the_Tiger \"Eye of the Tiger\")\" by [Survivor](/wiki/Survivor_%28band%29 \"Survivor (band)\").[104\\.9 KQCS Quad Cities Kicks Off New Classic Hits Identity](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/107932/104-9-the-hawk-quad-cities-talking-about-a-change/) On the same day as KQCS' flip, [WYEC](/wiki/KQCJ \"KQCJ\"), an oldies\\-leaning station, dumped its format for [adult hits](/wiki/Adult_hits \"Adult hits\"), meaning that KQCS would have no direct classic hits/oldies competitor in the Quad Cities market, although [KMXG](/wiki/KMXG \"KMXG\"), an adult contemporary station, had (at the time) devoted its weekend programming to music of the 1970s, the 1980s, and the 1990s.",
"The station changed its call letters to KIIK\\-FM on September 7, 2016\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Call Sign History (KIIK\\-FM)\\|url\\=http://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi\\-bin/ws.exe/prod/cdbs/pubacc/prod/call\\_hist.pl?Facility\\_id\\=12234\\&Callsign\\=KIIK\\-FM\\|website\\=CDBS Public Access\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federal Communications Commission]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 8, 2016}}",
"### US 104\\.9 (2021–present)",
"On September 24, 2021, at 9:54 a.m., KIIK\\-FM abruptly dropped the classic hits format and played \"[The River](/wiki/The_River_%28Garth_Brooks_song%29 \"The River (Garth Brooks song)\")\" by [Garth Brooks](/wiki/Garth_Brooks \"Garth Brooks\"), followed by \"[God Bless America](/wiki/God_Bless_America \"God Bless America\")\". At 10 a.m., the station flipped back to country, this time branded as \"US 104\\.9\". The relaunch of the format began with \"5,000 songs in a row\", starting with \"[When It Rains It Pours](/wiki/When_It_Rains_It_Pours_%28song%29 \"When It Rains It Pours (song)\")\" by [Luke Combs](/wiki/Luke_Combs \"Luke Combs\").[US 104\\.9 is Signed Through the Quad Cities](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/213254/us-104-9-is-signed-through-the-quad-cities/)",
""
] |
Content
-------
There are eight different minigames available in *The Lab*. They exist as [pocket universes](/wiki/Pocket_universes "Pocket universes") within the pocket universe that is the hub area, itself within the [Aperture Science](/wiki/Aperture_Science "Aperture Science") lab.
### *Slingshot*
Compared to the *[Angry Birds](/wiki/Angry_Birds "Angry Birds")* series of games, this minigame uses a [calibration](/wiki/Calibration%23Instrument_calibration_prompts "Calibration#Instrument calibration prompts") machine that shoots [Personality Cores](/wiki/List_of_Portal_characters%23Personality_Cores "List of Portal characters#Personality Cores") at piles of debris and explosives. The goal of the game is to cause as much destruction as possible within the number of fireable cores available.{{cite news \|last\=Jenkins \|first\=David \|date\=April 13, 2016 \|title\=The Lab HTC Vive review – Valve's guide to virtual reality \|url\=http://metro.co.uk/2016/04/13/the\-lab\-htc\-vive\-review\-valves\-guide\-to\-virtual\-reality\-5812957/ \|newspaper\=\[\[Metro (British newspaper)\|Metro]] \|access\-date\=April 20, 2016}} Each core has a different main personality trait, with a variety of voices contributing to the roles.{{cite news \|last1\=Pearce \|first1\=Alanah \|authorlink1\=Alanah Pearce \|last2\=Dyer \|first2\=Mitch \|date\=March 24, 2016 \|title\=The Lab: Valve's Free and Fun VR Mini\-game Collection \|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/03/24/the\-lab\-valves\-free\-and\-fun\-vr\-mini\-game\-collection \|newspaper\=\[\[IGN]] \|access\-date\=April 21, 2016}}
### *Longbow*
An [archery](/wiki/Archery "Archery") based game, the two motion controllers are used to aim and fire a bow, with one controller acting as the bow shaft and the other as the arrow. The player is tasked with defending a castle gate against an invading force while standing on top of the castle walls. It has been praised for its precise controls and range of motion, akin to archery outside of the game. The enemy models were represented by black figures represented in Aperture Science ads that had been illustrated in both *Portal* games. In addition to shooting arrows at these models to defeat them, aimed shots at targets also activate traps, such as burning oil.
### *Xortex*
Described as a [bullet hell](/wiki/Bullet_hell "Bullet hell") type game, *Xortex* involves picking up a spaceship with the motion controllers and moving it around in the virtual space to avoid an increasingly difficult barrage of projectiles. The controlled spaceship can also fire back at enemy ships and the game features various levels, boss encounters, and a scoreboard. The ability to play the game by only using the player's upper body is one of the hallmarks of the minigame.
### *Postcards*
This minigame is described as a "virtual holiday" that transports the player to the top of a mountain or an "Icelandic wilderness" where they can move around with the teleport system. A robot dog accompanies the player and [fetch](/wiki/Fetch_%28game%29 "Fetch (game)") can be played with the canine by using a stick. The mountain area was created by combining many photographs of a mountain range nearby to the Valve headquarters, [Vesper Peak](/wiki/Vesper_Peak "Vesper Peak"). Additional environments can be reached either by manipulating the plug on the Postcard notice board in the Lab or by using the drop down menu presented on the mirror screen on the host PC. These include a Venice town square and a cave listed as "lava tube". The "lava tube" does not feature the robotic dog or sticks but instead has a balloon machine capable of inflating different coloured balloons that float about the cave.{{cite news \|last\=Smith \|first\=Adam \|date\=March 21, 2016 \|title\=Hands On: The Lab, Valve's Portal\-Themed VR Games \|url\=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2016/03/21/valve\-the\-lab\-vive/ \|website\=\[\[Rock Paper Shotgun]] \|access\-date\=April 21, 2016}}
### *Human Medical Scan*
A medical\-based experience, this minigame largely lacks gameplay of any kind, but instead features the future possibilities and application of VR technology in the medical and scientific fields. *Human Medical Scan* involves a 3D human figure that is made up of many [CT scans](/wiki/CT_scans "CT scans") where the player can peel away layers of the body to look at specific biological features.
### *Solar System*
This minigame involves a virtual representation of the [Solar System](/wiki/Solar_System "Solar System") where the planets and other objects can be picked up, moved, and thrown.
### *Robot Repair*
This minigame features a previous Valve\-created tech demo for the HTC Vive that was originally released in March 2016\. It features a human player inside a testing lab run by [GLaDOS](/wiki/GLaDOS "GLaDOS") where they are tasked with repairing the robot Atlas from *[Portal 2](/wiki/Portal_2 "Portal 2")*. The minigame is largely presented as an "interactive comedy sketch" with a set script and events. In contrast with the other minigames, which were made using the [Unity engine](/wiki/Unity_engine "Unity engine"), *Robot Repair* uses Valve's [Source 2](/wiki/Source_2 "Source 2") engine.{{cite web\|last1\=James\|first1\=Paul\|title\=Valve Releases 'The Lab' Unity Renderer for Free\|url\=https://www.roadtovr.com/valve\-releases\-the\-lab\-unity\-renderer\-for\-free/\|website\=RoadToVR\|date\=June 2, 2016\|access\-date\=29 March 2018}}{{cite tweet\|user\=joeludwig\|author\=Joe Ludwig\|title\=Yes, the Aperture demo is in Source 2\. Alex Vlachos gave a talk including some details. Look for it on the vault if you missed it\|number\=573390062731149314\|date\=March 5, 2015}}
### *Secret Shop*
*Secret Shop* puts the player in the item shop from Valve's [multiplayer online battle arena](/wiki/Multiplayer_online_battle_arena "Multiplayer online battle arena") (MOBA) video game *[Dota 2](/wiki/Dota_2 "Dota 2")*, with many objects from the game to interact with and secrets to discover. A number of spells can be set off by the player that will have various effects, including shrinking the player model.
|
[
"Content\n-------",
"There are eight different minigames available in *The Lab*. They exist as [pocket universes](/wiki/Pocket_universes \"Pocket universes\") within the pocket universe that is the hub area, itself within the [Aperture Science](/wiki/Aperture_Science \"Aperture Science\") lab.",
"### *Slingshot*",
"Compared to the *[Angry Birds](/wiki/Angry_Birds \"Angry Birds\")* series of games, this minigame uses a [calibration](/wiki/Calibration%23Instrument_calibration_prompts \"Calibration#Instrument calibration prompts\") machine that shoots [Personality Cores](/wiki/List_of_Portal_characters%23Personality_Cores \"List of Portal characters#Personality Cores\") at piles of debris and explosives. The goal of the game is to cause as much destruction as possible within the number of fireable cores available.{{cite news \\|last\\=Jenkins \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=April 13, 2016 \\|title\\=The Lab HTC Vive review – Valve's guide to virtual reality \\|url\\=http://metro.co.uk/2016/04/13/the\\-lab\\-htc\\-vive\\-review\\-valves\\-guide\\-to\\-virtual\\-reality\\-5812957/ \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Metro (British newspaper)\\|Metro]] \\|access\\-date\\=April 20, 2016}} Each core has a different main personality trait, with a variety of voices contributing to the roles.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Pearce \\|first1\\=Alanah \\|authorlink1\\=Alanah Pearce \\|last2\\=Dyer \\|first2\\=Mitch \\|date\\=March 24, 2016 \\|title\\=The Lab: Valve's Free and Fun VR Mini\\-game Collection \\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/03/24/the\\-lab\\-valves\\-free\\-and\\-fun\\-vr\\-mini\\-game\\-collection \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[IGN]] \\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2016}}",
"### *Longbow*",
"An [archery](/wiki/Archery \"Archery\") based game, the two motion controllers are used to aim and fire a bow, with one controller acting as the bow shaft and the other as the arrow. The player is tasked with defending a castle gate against an invading force while standing on top of the castle walls. It has been praised for its precise controls and range of motion, akin to archery outside of the game. The enemy models were represented by black figures represented in Aperture Science ads that had been illustrated in both *Portal* games. In addition to shooting arrows at these models to defeat them, aimed shots at targets also activate traps, such as burning oil.",
"### *Xortex*",
"Described as a [bullet hell](/wiki/Bullet_hell \"Bullet hell\") type game, *Xortex* involves picking up a spaceship with the motion controllers and moving it around in the virtual space to avoid an increasingly difficult barrage of projectiles. The controlled spaceship can also fire back at enemy ships and the game features various levels, boss encounters, and a scoreboard. The ability to play the game by only using the player's upper body is one of the hallmarks of the minigame.",
"### *Postcards*",
"This minigame is described as a \"virtual holiday\" that transports the player to the top of a mountain or an \"Icelandic wilderness\" where they can move around with the teleport system. A robot dog accompanies the player and [fetch](/wiki/Fetch_%28game%29 \"Fetch (game)\") can be played with the canine by using a stick. The mountain area was created by combining many photographs of a mountain range nearby to the Valve headquarters, [Vesper Peak](/wiki/Vesper_Peak \"Vesper Peak\"). Additional environments can be reached either by manipulating the plug on the Postcard notice board in the Lab or by using the drop down menu presented on the mirror screen on the host PC. These include a Venice town square and a cave listed as \"lava tube\". The \"lava tube\" does not feature the robotic dog or sticks but instead has a balloon machine capable of inflating different coloured balloons that float about the cave.{{cite news \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=March 21, 2016 \\|title\\=Hands On: The Lab, Valve's Portal\\-Themed VR Games \\|url\\=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2016/03/21/valve\\-the\\-lab\\-vive/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Rock Paper Shotgun]] \\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2016}}",
"### *Human Medical Scan*",
"A medical\\-based experience, this minigame largely lacks gameplay of any kind, but instead features the future possibilities and application of VR technology in the medical and scientific fields. *Human Medical Scan* involves a 3D human figure that is made up of many [CT scans](/wiki/CT_scans \"CT scans\") where the player can peel away layers of the body to look at specific biological features.",
"### *Solar System*",
"This minigame involves a virtual representation of the [Solar System](/wiki/Solar_System \"Solar System\") where the planets and other objects can be picked up, moved, and thrown.",
"### *Robot Repair*",
"This minigame features a previous Valve\\-created tech demo for the HTC Vive that was originally released in March 2016\\. It features a human player inside a testing lab run by [GLaDOS](/wiki/GLaDOS \"GLaDOS\") where they are tasked with repairing the robot Atlas from *[Portal 2](/wiki/Portal_2 \"Portal 2\")*. The minigame is largely presented as an \"interactive comedy sketch\" with a set script and events. In contrast with the other minigames, which were made using the [Unity engine](/wiki/Unity_engine \"Unity engine\"), *Robot Repair* uses Valve's [Source 2](/wiki/Source_2 \"Source 2\") engine.{{cite web\\|last1\\=James\\|first1\\=Paul\\|title\\=Valve Releases 'The Lab' Unity Renderer for Free\\|url\\=https://www.roadtovr.com/valve\\-releases\\-the\\-lab\\-unity\\-renderer\\-for\\-free/\\|website\\=RoadToVR\\|date\\=June 2, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2018}}{{cite tweet\\|user\\=joeludwig\\|author\\=Joe Ludwig\\|title\\=Yes, the Aperture demo is in Source 2\\. Alex Vlachos gave a talk including some details. Look for it on the vault if you missed it\\|number\\=573390062731149314\\|date\\=March 5, 2015}}",
"### *Secret Shop*",
"*Secret Shop* puts the player in the item shop from Valve's [multiplayer online battle arena](/wiki/Multiplayer_online_battle_arena \"Multiplayer online battle arena\") (MOBA) video game *[Dota 2](/wiki/Dota_2 \"Dota 2\")*, with many objects from the game to interact with and secrets to discover. A number of spells can be set off by the player that will have various effects, including shrinking the player model.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Planning and Construction
The *Berlin\-Anhalt Railway Company* ({{lang\-de\|Berlin\-Anhaltische Eisenbahn\-Gesellschaft}}) was for more than four decades in the 19th century one of the major railway companies in Germany. It built during this period a network of major rail links between [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") and the northern part of the [Kingdom of Saxony](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony "Kingdom of Saxony") and the [Prussian](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia") [Province of Saxony](/wiki/Province_of_Saxony "Province of Saxony") and the [Duchy of Anhalt](/wiki/Duchy_of_Anhalt "Duchy of Anhalt"), including the [Anhalt trunk line](/wiki/Anhalt_Railway "Anhalt Railway").
Its trunk line ran from Berlin via [Wittenberg](/wiki/Wittenberg "Wittenberg") and [Dessau](/wiki/Dessau "Dessau") to [Köthen](/wiki/K%C3%B6then "Köthen"), where it connected with the [Magdeburg\-Leipzig line](/wiki/Magdeburg-Leipzig_Railway "Magdeburg-Leipzig Railway") to [Halle](/wiki/Halle%2C_Saxony-Anhalt "Halle, Saxony-Anhalt") and Leipzig. In order to shorten the route to Halle and Leipzig, the company built direct lines from Dessau via Bitterfeld to Leipzig and Halle in the late 1850s. The section from Dessau to Bitterfeld was opened on 17 August 1857\. This was followed by the opening of the sections from Bitterfeld to both Halle and Leipzig on 1 February 1859\. A shorter line was opened between Berlin to Leipzig on a direct route between Wittenberg and Bitterfeld on 3 August 1859\.
The parliament of the Duchy of Anhalt decided to build a 13 km long railway from Roßlau to [Zerbst](/wiki/Zerbst "Zerbst") to connect Zerbst to the fast\-growing rail network. This was opened on 1 November 1863\. The line was operated by the Berlin\-Anhalt Railway Company. It acquired the railway on 1 October 1871 for one million [marks](/wiki/German_gold_mark "German gold mark") and extended it from 1 July 1874 to the Anhalt–Prussian border at Trebnitz. At the same time the [Berlin\-Potsdam\-Magdeburg Railway Company](/wiki/Berlin-Potsdam-Magdeburg_Railway_Company "Berlin-Potsdam-Magdeburg Railway Company") (*Potsdam\-Magdeburger Eisenbahngesellschaft*) opened it line from the border to Biederitz, which was already connected by the [Berlin–Potsdam–Magdeburg Railway](/wiki/Berlin%E2%80%93Potsdam%E2%80%93Magdeburg_Railway "Berlin–Potsdam–Magdeburg Railway") to [Magdeburg](/wiki/Magdeburg_Hauptbahnhof "Magdeburg Hauptbahnhof").{{cite book\|author\=Peter Bley \|title\= 150 Jahre Berlin\-Anhaltische Eisenbahn \|publisher\= alba \|location\= Düsseldorf \|year\=1990\|isbn\= 3\-87094\-340\-8 \|page\= 43 \|language\=German}}
A passenger train and a locomotive collided at a Rackwitz on 21 June 1871\. 19 people died and 56 others were injured.{{cite book\|author\=Martin Weltner \|title\=Bahn\-Katastrophen. Folgenschwere Zugunfälle und ihre Ursachen. \|location\=Munich\|year\= 2008 \|isbn\= 978\-3\-7654\-7096\-7 \|page\= 14 \|language\=German}}
### Electrification
The Magdeburg–Dessau–Leipzig–Halle axis was one of the first mainline to be electrified with low\-frequency, single phase power. The [Prussian state railways](/wiki/Prussian_state_railways "Prussian state railways") preferred to electrify the [Euskirchen–Trier](/wiki/Eifel_Railway "Eifel Railway") and the [Altona\-Kiel](/wiki/Hamburg-Altona%E2%80%93Kiel_railway "Hamburg-Altona–Kiel railway") lines, but the army command had objections in both cases. In addition, [lignite](/wiki/Lignite "Lignite") deposits in the area meant that a power station with short supply routes could be constructed at Muldenstein. Construction on the Muldenstein railway power station started on 18 January 1910 and about two months later the construction of a substation in Bitterfeld and the erection of overhead contact wire for the first section from Dessau to Bitterfeld began.{{cite book \|author1\=Andreas Wagner \|author2\=Dieter Bäzold \|author3\=Rainer Zschech \|author4\=Ralph Lüderitz \|title\= Lokomotiv\-Archiv Preußen 1 \- Schnellzug\- und Personenzuglokomotiven \|publisher\= Bechtermünz Verlag \|location\=Augsburg \|year\=1996 \|isbn\= 3\-86047\-573\-8 \|pages\= 96 ff \|language\=German}}
The state police approved the power supply and contact line systems on 4 January 1911 and trial operations with a voltage of 5 kV and a supply line voltage of 30 kV began on 18 January 1911 using a borrowed [Baden State Railways](/wiki/Baden_State_Railways "Baden State Railways") class A1 locomotive, which had previously had test runs on the [Ammergau Railway](/wiki/Ammergau_Railway "Ammergau Railway") with transformers suitable for 5\.5 kV. After increasing the supply line voltage to the designated 60 kV, the catenary voltage was increased to 10 kV for test runs on 25 March and permanent on 28 March the newly built WSL 10502 HALLE and WGL 10204 HALLE locomotives could be reach their full traction effort.{{cite journal\| author\=Christian Tietze\| title\=Elektrisch von Dessau nach Bitterfeld\| journal\=Eisenbahn Magazin\| issue\=5\| publisher\=Alba\| year\=2011\| pages\=26ff \|language\=German}} On 1 April, the line was opened for public operations by the Prussian Minister [Paul von Breitenbach](/wiki/Paul_von_Breitenbach "Paul von Breitenbach") in the presence of members of parliament. After the “Convention relating to the implementation of electric traction" was established by the state railway administrations of [Prussia\-Hesse](/wiki/Prussian-Hessian_Railway_Company "Prussian-Hessian Railway Company"), [Bavaria](/wiki/Royal_Bavarian_State_Railways "Royal Bavarian State Railways") and [Baden](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_State_Railway "Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway") in 1912, it was agreed in the autumn of 1913 that a voltage of 15 kV and frequency of 16 2/3 Hz would be adopted. In order to extend electrified service to the south, a sub\-station was put into operation on 1 May 1914 in Wahren along with a 60 kV feeder line. By 1 June 1914, electric rail operations had been extended to Neuwiederitzsch and beyond to parts of the [Leipzig freight ring](/wiki/Leipzig_freight_ring "Leipzig freight ring"), but after the outbreak of the First World War it was closed in the first few days of August 1914 so that the materials could be completely recovered. According to Tetzlaff,EB 1935, p 4 the whole line to Leipzig Hauptbahnhof was taken into operation by electric traction in June 1914, but this is considered unlikely.{{cite web\| url\=http://elektrische\-bahnen.de/history/mdland/index.htm\| title\=Elektrifizierte Strecken der Preußischen Staatsbahn und der Reichsbahn in Mitteldeutschland\| author\=Thomas Scherrans\| date\=18 May 2014\| accessdate\=20 October 2014 \|language\=German}}
At the beginning of the twenties, the electrification was initially restored between Leipzig and Dessau and soon extended over the whole line towards Magdeburg. To ensure the power supply, another substation was built in [Marke](/wiki/Marke%2C_Germany "Marke, Germany").
### After the Second World War
After the end of World War II, the most urgent war damage was eliminated and electric operations resumed, but it had to be abandoned in March 1946\. The infrastructure was abruptly dismantled and delivered together with the locomotives to the [USSR](/wiki/USSR "USSR") as [war reparations](/wiki/War_reparations "War reparations"). After the return of the electrification equipment in 1952 the line was electrified for a third time. The contact wire between Bitterfeld and Meinsdorf (Roßlau freight yard) was completed on 15 March 1958 and between Leipzig and Bitterfeld on 9 July 1958\. For the connection to Magdeburg, the route via Köthen to Halle was more important, so that the line northwest of Roßlau was not initially electrified.
In 1962, the Bitterfeld–Delitzsch section was moved to allow the development of a new open pit mine at Holzweißig\-West, extending its length by 1498 metres{{cite web\|url\=http://www.klauserbeck.de/Kilometrierung/Tabelle4/BiederitzLeipzig/BiederitzLeipzig.htm \|title\=Chainage of the line \|publisher\= klauserbeck.de \|accessdate\=22 October 2014 \|language\=German}} and Petersroda station was rebuilt. [Federal highway 184](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_184 "Bundesstraße 184") was rebuilt parallel to the line.
From 1 January 1955 to 1 January 1977, the section north of Haideburg yard belonged to *Reichsbahndirektion* ([railway division](/wiki/Railway_divisions_in_Germany "Railway divisions in Germany")) Halle, subsequently the border with the area of *Reichsbahndirektion Magdeburg* corresponded again with the boundary of the [district of Magdeburg](/wiki/Magdeburg_%28Bezirk%29 "Magdeburg (Bezirk)") at Neeken. The second track was restored in the 1970s to the northwest of Roßlau in the district of Magdeburg. For unknown reasons the track was not restored in the area of the [district](/wiki/Halle_%28Bezirk%29 "Halle (Bezirk)") of Halle, so [points](/wiki/Railroad_switch "Railroad switch") had to be installed at Neeken. The line was then re\-electrified. The overhead wire was completed on 4 October 1974 between Roßlau and Zerbst and the remaining section between Zerbst and Magdeburg Neustadt was completed on 15 April 1975\. Preparations were made for the overhead wire for the missing second track between Neeken and Roßlau freight yard, but the section remained single track. Although the missing track was relaid in 1990, two\-track operations were not introduced because the points at the junctions had not been modified for two\-track operations.{{cite book\| author\=Helmut Kintscher\| editor\=Erich Preuß\| chapter\=Roßlau (Elbe)\| title\=Das große Archiv der deutschen Bahnhöfe\| publisher\=GeraNova\| location\=Munich\| language\=German}} (loose\-leaf collection)
In long\-distance traffic between Berlin and Leipzig, the section between Bitterfeld and Leipzig–together with the line from Bitterfeld to Halle–was the busiest in the [GDR](/wiki/GDR "GDR"). They were served by express trains via Leipzig to [Zwickau](/wiki/Zwickau_Hauptbahnhof "Zwickau Hauptbahnhof") and [Aue](/wiki/Aue%2C_Saxony "Aue, Saxony") and to [Gera](/wiki/Gera_Hauptbahnhof "Gera Hauptbahnhof") and [Saalfeld](/wiki/Saalfeld_station "Saalfeld station"). Trains also ran over the network of [Deutsche Reichsbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn_%28East_Germany%29 "Deutsche Reichsbahn (East Germany)") from Berlin to [Karlovy Vary](/wiki/Karlovy_Vary "Karlovy Vary") and [Rostock](/wiki/Rostock_Hauptbahnhof "Rostock Hauptbahnhof") to [Munich](/wiki/Munich_Hauptbahnhof "Munich Hauptbahnhof"). In addition, one or two pairs of express ran daily from Leipzig to Magdeburg and continued towards [Hanover](/wiki/Hanover_Hauptbahnhof "Hanover Hauptbahnhof"). Trains ran towards the [Berlin outer ring](/wiki/Berlin_outer_ring "Berlin outer ring") via Dessau, especially unscheduled services, seasonal trains and transit trains (which did not stop in East Germany) between West Berlin and [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany").
From 1976, the line was included in Deutsche Reichsbahn’s new *Städteexpress* ("city express") network.
**List of Städteexpress (Ex) services on the line** (as of 31 May 1991\)
* Ex 100/107 *Elstertal*: Gera–Leipzig–Berlin
* Ex 160/167 *Sachsenring*: Zwickau–Berlin
* Ex 151/156 *Berliner Bär*: Berlin–Leipzig–Erfurt
* Ex 162/163 *Thomaner*: Leipzig–Berlin
* Ex 166/161 *Lipsia*: Leipzig–Berlin
### After 1990
[thumb\|upright\|High\-speed switch at the southern end of Bitterfeld station, longest in the world when installed in January 1998](/wiki/File:EW_60-16000-6100.jpg "EW 60-16000-6100.jpg")
Following the [reunification of Germany](/wiki/Reunification_of_Germany "Reunification of Germany") the section from Leipzig to Bitterfeld became less important at first; the *Städteexpress* trains were abandoned on 31 May 1991 and replaced by [Intercity](/wiki/Inter-city_rail "Inter-city rail") and [InterRegio](/wiki/InterRegio "InterRegio") services. Later a regular\-interval timetable was introduced. The scheduled travel time between Leipzig and Berlin was around two and a half hours in 1990\.{{cite news\|title\=Power auf allen Gleisen Richtung Berlin \|newspaper\= \[\[Berliner Zeitung]] \|issue\= 230 \|date\= 2 October 1995 \|page\=28 \|language\=German}} As of the summer 1992 timetable, long\-distance line 8 service ran every two hours from Bitterfeld to Leipzig on the Berlin–Leipzig–Nuremberg–Munich route. From 1997 to 1999, this service ran via [Berlin\-Wannsee](/wiki/Berlin-Wannsee_station "Berlin-Wannsee station") and Dessau. After the service returned to running via [Lutherstadt Wittenberg](/wiki/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_station "Lutherstadt Wittenberg station"), Dessau initially received in its place [InterRegio](/wiki/InterRegio "InterRegio") 36 services running between [Stralsund](/wiki/Stralsund_Hauptbahnhof "Stralsund Hauptbahnhof") and [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt_%28Main%29_Hauptbahnhof "Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof") running through Bitterfeld and Halle. In addition, from 1994, there was a single daily InterRegio service running from northwest Germany via Magdeburg, Dessau and Leipzig through Saxony and eastern Thuringia with a stop in Zerbst. During the night, a train ran, depending on the timetable period, from Berlin via Dessau with destinations in Switzerland, Northern Italy or Hungary.
In 1991, upgrading of the line from Berlin to Halle and Leipzig commenced as part of the German Unity Transport Projects: rail project 8\.3\. In the same year, work began at the section between Bitterfeld and Delitzsch, followed in 1992 by work between Zschortau and Delitzsch. The upgrading of the entire 27\.5 km section for 160 km/h was estimated to cost 340 million [Deutsche Marks](/wiki/Deutsche_Mark "Deutsche Mark") in early 1993\.{{cite book\|publisher\=Planungsgesellschaft Bahnbau Deutsche Einheit mbH \|title\= Information zu den Schienenverkehrsprojekten Deutsche Einheit im Freistaat Sachsen (Stand März 1993\) \|language\=German}} The development of the line between Leipzig and Bitterfeld was carried in a total of ten sections. At this time the line between Delitzsch and Zschortau was upgraded for a length of 2\.2 km.{{cite book\|editor\=Planungsgesellschaft Bahnbau Deutsche Einheit \|title\= Schnelle Wege zwischen Halle, Leipzig und Berlin \|publisher\=Sechsseitiges Leporello \|location\= Berlin \|language\=German}}
In the mid\-1990s, the upgrade was sufficiently advanced for speeds on a section of it to be raised to a maximum of 160 km/h. Further work was required for the raising of speeds to 200 km/h, in particular the elimination of many level crossings. Completion of this work in 1999, at a cost of 3\.5 billion marks, cut the travel time between Halle/Leipzig and Berlin to under an hour.{{cite journal\|title\=... und ab 1999 in einer Stunde von Berlin nach Halle/Leipzig (... and from 1999 in an hour from Berlin to Halle/Leipzig) \| journal\= Eisenbahn\-Kurier \|issue \= 278 \|date\= November 1998 \| issn\= 0170\-5288 \|page\= 21 \|language\=German}} Various improvements had been made to the line, including the eliminating of all crossings and the modernisation of all stations. A radio\-based [train protection system](/wiki/Train_protection_system "Train protection system") was installed.{{cite book\|publisher \=Federal Ministry of Transport \|title\= Verkehrsprojekte Deutsche Einheit. Sachstand: 1997 (German Unity Transport Projects. Assessment: 1997\) \|location\= Bonn\|year\= 1997 \|pages\= 20 f\|language\=German}} A timetable change in May 2006 raised speeds largely to 200 km/h on the upgraded section of the line between Bitterfeld and Leipzig.
The upgrade of the Berlin–Bitterfeld–Leipzig line allowed the operation of [ICE T](/wiki/ICE_T "ICE T") tilting trains on IC line 8 from December 2002\. In 2005 and 2006, the line from Bitterfeld to Leipzig was upgraded for operations of up to 200 km/h. A total of €1\.657 billion was invested in the upgrade of line between Halle, Leipzig and Berlin up to the end of 2013\.{{cite book \|publisher\=Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure \|url\=http://www.bmvbs.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/68032/publicationFile/58462/sachstandsbericht\-verkehrsprojekte\-deutsche\-einheit\-stand\-mai\-2012\.pdf \|title\=Sachstandsbericht Verkehrsprojekte Deutsche Einheit \|format\=PDF; 623 kB \|page\=17 \|date\=June 2014 \|language\=German \|accessdate\=22 October 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017174925/http://www.bmvbs.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/68032/publicationFile/58462/sachstandsbericht\-verkehrsprojekte\-deutsche\-einheit\-stand\-mai\-2012\.pdf \|archivedate\=17 October 2013 }}
A curve directly connecting [Leipzig/Halle Airport](/wiki/Leipzig/Halle_Airport "Leipzig/Halle Airport") and the line to the north towards Berlin was contemplated but rejected in 2010\.{{cite news \|url\=http://nachrichten.lvz\-online.de/nachrichten/mitteldeutschland/nordkurve\-der\-ice\-trasse\-berlin\-leipzig\-ist\-vom\-tisch/r\-mitteldeutschland\-a\-19564\.html \|title\=Nordkurve der ICE\-Trasse Berlin\-Leipzig ist vom Tisch \|newspaper\=Leipziger Volkszeitung (Online edition) \|date\= 1 March 2010 \|language\=German\|accessdate\=22 October 2014}}
The [Elbe floods of 2002](/wiki/2002_European_floods "2002 European floods") significantly damaged an already weakened section of the bridge over the [Mulde](/wiki/Mulde "Mulde") between Roßlau and Dessau. Subsequently the embankment and all the bridges were rebuilt from 2008 to 2011 just to the east of the old line and the old works were then dismantled.
Subsequently since 2009 there has been a comprehensive renovation, including a major reconstruction of the track and overhead line equipment of the Roßlau/Dessau railway node. The first section rebuilt covered the line from Dessau to Wolfen, including work to renew and adapt the stations of Dessau\-Süd, Marke, Raguhn, Jeßnitz and Wolfen. On 5 December 2010, [electronic interlockings](/wiki/Electronic_interlocking "Electronic interlocking") were put into operation in Dessau and Raguhn, which replaced all other signal boxes on the section between Dessau and Wolfen. Between the spring of 2012 and the summer of 2013, further work was carried out on the section between Güterglück and Roßlau. Here, the second track was restored between Neeken and Roßlau, Zerbst and Rodleben stations were rebuilt and the overhead contact lines and the signalling systems were renewed. An electronic interlocking for this section of line was built in Güterglück. The remodelling of Roßlau station is planned.
Between early 2010 and mid\-2013, alterations were carried out between [Leipzig Messe](/wiki/Leipzig_Messe_railway_station "Leipzig Messe railway station") and Leipzig Hauptbahnhof for the integration of the [Leipzig City Tunnel](/wiki/Leipzig_City_Tunnel "Leipzig City Tunnel") in place of the existing route. In this context, the new [Leipzig Nord](/wiki/Leipzig_Nord_railway_station "Leipzig Nord railway station") (planning name: *Theresienstraße*) station at Berliner Bridge was brought into operation at the end of 2013 together with the City Tunnel. The route to Bitterfeld was integrated into the network of the [S\-Bahn Mitteldeutschland](/wiki/S-Bahn_Mitteldeutschland "S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland"). By 2017, further development is planned within the city of Leipzig as part of German Unity Transport Project 8\.3\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Planning and Construction",
"The *Berlin\\-Anhalt Railway Company* ({{lang\\-de\\|Berlin\\-Anhaltische Eisenbahn\\-Gesellschaft}}) was for more than four decades in the 19th century one of the major railway companies in Germany. It built during this period a network of major rail links between [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") and the northern part of the [Kingdom of Saxony](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony \"Kingdom of Saxony\") and the [Prussian](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\") [Province of Saxony](/wiki/Province_of_Saxony \"Province of Saxony\") and the [Duchy of Anhalt](/wiki/Duchy_of_Anhalt \"Duchy of Anhalt\"), including the [Anhalt trunk line](/wiki/Anhalt_Railway \"Anhalt Railway\").",
"Its trunk line ran from Berlin via [Wittenberg](/wiki/Wittenberg \"Wittenberg\") and [Dessau](/wiki/Dessau \"Dessau\") to [Köthen](/wiki/K%C3%B6then \"Köthen\"), where it connected with the [Magdeburg\\-Leipzig line](/wiki/Magdeburg-Leipzig_Railway \"Magdeburg-Leipzig Railway\") to [Halle](/wiki/Halle%2C_Saxony-Anhalt \"Halle, Saxony-Anhalt\") and Leipzig. In order to shorten the route to Halle and Leipzig, the company built direct lines from Dessau via Bitterfeld to Leipzig and Halle in the late 1850s. The section from Dessau to Bitterfeld was opened on 17 August 1857\\. This was followed by the opening of the sections from Bitterfeld to both Halle and Leipzig on 1 February 1859\\. A shorter line was opened between Berlin to Leipzig on a direct route between Wittenberg and Bitterfeld on 3 August 1859\\.",
"The parliament of the Duchy of Anhalt decided to build a 13 km long railway from Roßlau to [Zerbst](/wiki/Zerbst \"Zerbst\") to connect Zerbst to the fast\\-growing rail network. This was opened on 1 November 1863\\. The line was operated by the Berlin\\-Anhalt Railway Company. It acquired the railway on 1 October 1871 for one million [marks](/wiki/German_gold_mark \"German gold mark\") and extended it from 1 July 1874 to the Anhalt–Prussian border at Trebnitz. At the same time the [Berlin\\-Potsdam\\-Magdeburg Railway Company](/wiki/Berlin-Potsdam-Magdeburg_Railway_Company \"Berlin-Potsdam-Magdeburg Railway Company\") (*Potsdam\\-Magdeburger Eisenbahngesellschaft*) opened it line from the border to Biederitz, which was already connected by the [Berlin–Potsdam–Magdeburg Railway](/wiki/Berlin%E2%80%93Potsdam%E2%80%93Magdeburg_Railway \"Berlin–Potsdam–Magdeburg Railway\") to [Magdeburg](/wiki/Magdeburg_Hauptbahnhof \"Magdeburg Hauptbahnhof\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Peter Bley \\|title\\= 150 Jahre Berlin\\-Anhaltische Eisenbahn \\|publisher\\= alba \\|location\\= Düsseldorf \\|year\\=1990\\|isbn\\= 3\\-87094\\-340\\-8 \\|page\\= 43 \\|language\\=German}}",
"A passenger train and a locomotive collided at a Rackwitz on 21 June 1871\\. 19 people died and 56 others were injured.{{cite book\\|author\\=Martin Weltner \\|title\\=Bahn\\-Katastrophen. Folgenschwere Zugunfälle und ihre Ursachen. \\|location\\=Munich\\|year\\= 2008 \\|isbn\\= 978\\-3\\-7654\\-7096\\-7 \\|page\\= 14 \\|language\\=German}}",
"### Electrification",
"The Magdeburg–Dessau–Leipzig–Halle axis was one of the first mainline to be electrified with low\\-frequency, single phase power. The [Prussian state railways](/wiki/Prussian_state_railways \"Prussian state railways\") preferred to electrify the [Euskirchen–Trier](/wiki/Eifel_Railway \"Eifel Railway\") and the [Altona\\-Kiel](/wiki/Hamburg-Altona%E2%80%93Kiel_railway \"Hamburg-Altona–Kiel railway\") lines, but the army command had objections in both cases. In addition, [lignite](/wiki/Lignite \"Lignite\") deposits in the area meant that a power station with short supply routes could be constructed at Muldenstein. Construction on the Muldenstein railway power station started on 18 January 1910 and about two months later the construction of a substation in Bitterfeld and the erection of overhead contact wire for the first section from Dessau to Bitterfeld began.{{cite book \\|author1\\=Andreas Wagner \\|author2\\=Dieter Bäzold \\|author3\\=Rainer Zschech \\|author4\\=Ralph Lüderitz \\|title\\= Lokomotiv\\-Archiv Preußen 1 \\- Schnellzug\\- und Personenzuglokomotiven \\|publisher\\= Bechtermünz Verlag \\|location\\=Augsburg \\|year\\=1996 \\|isbn\\= 3\\-86047\\-573\\-8 \\|pages\\= 96 ff \\|language\\=German}}",
"The state police approved the power supply and contact line systems on 4 January 1911 and trial operations with a voltage of 5 kV and a supply line voltage of 30 kV began on 18 January 1911 using a borrowed [Baden State Railways](/wiki/Baden_State_Railways \"Baden State Railways\") class A1 locomotive, which had previously had test runs on the [Ammergau Railway](/wiki/Ammergau_Railway \"Ammergau Railway\") with transformers suitable for 5\\.5 kV. After increasing the supply line voltage to the designated 60 kV, the catenary voltage was increased to 10 kV for test runs on 25 March and permanent on 28 March the newly built WSL 10502 HALLE and WGL 10204 HALLE locomotives could be reach their full traction effort.{{cite journal\\| author\\=Christian Tietze\\| title\\=Elektrisch von Dessau nach Bitterfeld\\| journal\\=Eisenbahn Magazin\\| issue\\=5\\| publisher\\=Alba\\| year\\=2011\\| pages\\=26ff \\|language\\=German}} On 1 April, the line was opened for public operations by the Prussian Minister [Paul von Breitenbach](/wiki/Paul_von_Breitenbach \"Paul von Breitenbach\") in the presence of members of parliament. After the “Convention relating to the implementation of electric traction\" was established by the state railway administrations of [Prussia\\-Hesse](/wiki/Prussian-Hessian_Railway_Company \"Prussian-Hessian Railway Company\"), [Bavaria](/wiki/Royal_Bavarian_State_Railways \"Royal Bavarian State Railways\") and [Baden](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_State_Railway \"Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway\") in 1912, it was agreed in the autumn of 1913 that a voltage of 15 kV and frequency of 16 2/3 Hz would be adopted. In order to extend electrified service to the south, a sub\\-station was put into operation on 1 May 1914 in Wahren along with a 60 kV feeder line. By 1 June 1914, electric rail operations had been extended to Neuwiederitzsch and beyond to parts of the [Leipzig freight ring](/wiki/Leipzig_freight_ring \"Leipzig freight ring\"), but after the outbreak of the First World War it was closed in the first few days of August 1914 so that the materials could be completely recovered. According to Tetzlaff,EB 1935, p 4 the whole line to Leipzig Hauptbahnhof was taken into operation by electric traction in June 1914, but this is considered unlikely.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://elektrische\\-bahnen.de/history/mdland/index.htm\\| title\\=Elektrifizierte Strecken der Preußischen Staatsbahn und der Reichsbahn in Mitteldeutschland\\| author\\=Thomas Scherrans\\| date\\=18 May 2014\\| accessdate\\=20 October 2014 \\|language\\=German}}",
"At the beginning of the twenties, the electrification was initially restored between Leipzig and Dessau and soon extended over the whole line towards Magdeburg. To ensure the power supply, another substation was built in [Marke](/wiki/Marke%2C_Germany \"Marke, Germany\").",
"### After the Second World War",
"After the end of World War II, the most urgent war damage was eliminated and electric operations resumed, but it had to be abandoned in March 1946\\. The infrastructure was abruptly dismantled and delivered together with the locomotives to the [USSR](/wiki/USSR \"USSR\") as [war reparations](/wiki/War_reparations \"War reparations\"). After the return of the electrification equipment in 1952 the line was electrified for a third time. The contact wire between Bitterfeld and Meinsdorf (Roßlau freight yard) was completed on 15 March 1958 and between Leipzig and Bitterfeld on 9 July 1958\\. For the connection to Magdeburg, the route via Köthen to Halle was more important, so that the line northwest of Roßlau was not initially electrified.",
"In 1962, the Bitterfeld–Delitzsch section was moved to allow the development of a new open pit mine at Holzweißig\\-West, extending its length by 1498 metres{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.klauserbeck.de/Kilometrierung/Tabelle4/BiederitzLeipzig/BiederitzLeipzig.htm \\|title\\=Chainage of the line \\|publisher\\= klauserbeck.de \\|accessdate\\=22 October 2014 \\|language\\=German}} and Petersroda station was rebuilt. [Federal highway 184](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_184 \"Bundesstraße 184\") was rebuilt parallel to the line.",
"From 1 January 1955 to 1 January 1977, the section north of Haideburg yard belonged to *Reichsbahndirektion* ([railway division](/wiki/Railway_divisions_in_Germany \"Railway divisions in Germany\")) Halle, subsequently the border with the area of *Reichsbahndirektion Magdeburg* corresponded again with the boundary of the [district of Magdeburg](/wiki/Magdeburg_%28Bezirk%29 \"Magdeburg (Bezirk)\") at Neeken. The second track was restored in the 1970s to the northwest of Roßlau in the district of Magdeburg. For unknown reasons the track was not restored in the area of the [district](/wiki/Halle_%28Bezirk%29 \"Halle (Bezirk)\") of Halle, so [points](/wiki/Railroad_switch \"Railroad switch\") had to be installed at Neeken. The line was then re\\-electrified. The overhead wire was completed on 4 October 1974 between Roßlau and Zerbst and the remaining section between Zerbst and Magdeburg Neustadt was completed on 15 April 1975\\. Preparations were made for the overhead wire for the missing second track between Neeken and Roßlau freight yard, but the section remained single track. Although the missing track was relaid in 1990, two\\-track operations were not introduced because the points at the junctions had not been modified for two\\-track operations.{{cite book\\| author\\=Helmut Kintscher\\| editor\\=Erich Preuß\\| chapter\\=Roßlau (Elbe)\\| title\\=Das große Archiv der deutschen Bahnhöfe\\| publisher\\=GeraNova\\| location\\=Munich\\| language\\=German}} (loose\\-leaf collection)",
"In long\\-distance traffic between Berlin and Leipzig, the section between Bitterfeld and Leipzig–together with the line from Bitterfeld to Halle–was the busiest in the [GDR](/wiki/GDR \"GDR\"). They were served by express trains via Leipzig to [Zwickau](/wiki/Zwickau_Hauptbahnhof \"Zwickau Hauptbahnhof\") and [Aue](/wiki/Aue%2C_Saxony \"Aue, Saxony\") and to [Gera](/wiki/Gera_Hauptbahnhof \"Gera Hauptbahnhof\") and [Saalfeld](/wiki/Saalfeld_station \"Saalfeld station\"). Trains also ran over the network of [Deutsche Reichsbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn_%28East_Germany%29 \"Deutsche Reichsbahn (East Germany)\") from Berlin to [Karlovy Vary](/wiki/Karlovy_Vary \"Karlovy Vary\") and [Rostock](/wiki/Rostock_Hauptbahnhof \"Rostock Hauptbahnhof\") to [Munich](/wiki/Munich_Hauptbahnhof \"Munich Hauptbahnhof\"). In addition, one or two pairs of express ran daily from Leipzig to Magdeburg and continued towards [Hanover](/wiki/Hanover_Hauptbahnhof \"Hanover Hauptbahnhof\"). Trains ran towards the [Berlin outer ring](/wiki/Berlin_outer_ring \"Berlin outer ring\") via Dessau, especially unscheduled services, seasonal trains and transit trains (which did not stop in East Germany) between West Berlin and [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\").",
"From 1976, the line was included in Deutsche Reichsbahn’s new *Städteexpress* (\"city express\") network.",
"**List of Städteexpress (Ex) services on the line** (as of 31 May 1991\\)\n* Ex 100/107 *Elstertal*: Gera–Leipzig–Berlin\n* Ex 160/167 *Sachsenring*: Zwickau–Berlin\n* Ex 151/156 *Berliner Bär*: Berlin–Leipzig–Erfurt\n* Ex 162/163 *Thomaner*: Leipzig–Berlin\n* Ex 166/161 *Lipsia*: Leipzig–Berlin",
"### After 1990",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|High\\-speed switch at the southern end of Bitterfeld station, longest in the world when installed in January 1998](/wiki/File:EW_60-16000-6100.jpg \"EW 60-16000-6100.jpg\")\nFollowing the [reunification of Germany](/wiki/Reunification_of_Germany \"Reunification of Germany\") the section from Leipzig to Bitterfeld became less important at first; the *Städteexpress* trains were abandoned on 31 May 1991 and replaced by [Intercity](/wiki/Inter-city_rail \"Inter-city rail\") and [InterRegio](/wiki/InterRegio \"InterRegio\") services. Later a regular\\-interval timetable was introduced. The scheduled travel time between Leipzig and Berlin was around two and a half hours in 1990\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Power auf allen Gleisen Richtung Berlin \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[Berliner Zeitung]] \\|issue\\= 230 \\|date\\= 2 October 1995 \\|page\\=28 \\|language\\=German}} As of the summer 1992 timetable, long\\-distance line 8 service ran every two hours from Bitterfeld to Leipzig on the Berlin–Leipzig–Nuremberg–Munich route. From 1997 to 1999, this service ran via [Berlin\\-Wannsee](/wiki/Berlin-Wannsee_station \"Berlin-Wannsee station\") and Dessau. After the service returned to running via [Lutherstadt Wittenberg](/wiki/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_station \"Lutherstadt Wittenberg station\"), Dessau initially received in its place [InterRegio](/wiki/InterRegio \"InterRegio\") 36 services running between [Stralsund](/wiki/Stralsund_Hauptbahnhof \"Stralsund Hauptbahnhof\") and [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt_%28Main%29_Hauptbahnhof \"Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof\") running through Bitterfeld and Halle. In addition, from 1994, there was a single daily InterRegio service running from northwest Germany via Magdeburg, Dessau and Leipzig through Saxony and eastern Thuringia with a stop in Zerbst. During the night, a train ran, depending on the timetable period, from Berlin via Dessau with destinations in Switzerland, Northern Italy or Hungary.",
"In 1991, upgrading of the line from Berlin to Halle and Leipzig commenced as part of the German Unity Transport Projects: rail project 8\\.3\\. In the same year, work began at the section between Bitterfeld and Delitzsch, followed in 1992 by work between Zschortau and Delitzsch. The upgrading of the entire 27\\.5 km section for 160 km/h was estimated to cost 340 million [Deutsche Marks](/wiki/Deutsche_Mark \"Deutsche Mark\") in early 1993\\.{{cite book\\|publisher\\=Planungsgesellschaft Bahnbau Deutsche Einheit mbH \\|title\\= Information zu den Schienenverkehrsprojekten Deutsche Einheit im Freistaat Sachsen (Stand März 1993\\) \\|language\\=German}} The development of the line between Leipzig and Bitterfeld was carried in a total of ten sections. At this time the line between Delitzsch and Zschortau was upgraded for a length of 2\\.2 km.{{cite book\\|editor\\=Planungsgesellschaft Bahnbau Deutsche Einheit \\|title\\= Schnelle Wege zwischen Halle, Leipzig und Berlin \\|publisher\\=Sechsseitiges Leporello \\|location\\= Berlin \\|language\\=German}}",
"In the mid\\-1990s, the upgrade was sufficiently advanced for speeds on a section of it to be raised to a maximum of 160 km/h. Further work was required for the raising of speeds to 200 km/h, in particular the elimination of many level crossings. Completion of this work in 1999, at a cost of 3\\.5 billion marks, cut the travel time between Halle/Leipzig and Berlin to under an hour.{{cite journal\\|title\\=... und ab 1999 in einer Stunde von Berlin nach Halle/Leipzig (... and from 1999 in an hour from Berlin to Halle/Leipzig) \\| journal\\= Eisenbahn\\-Kurier \\|issue \\= 278 \\|date\\= November 1998 \\| issn\\= 0170\\-5288 \\|page\\= 21 \\|language\\=German}} Various improvements had been made to the line, including the eliminating of all crossings and the modernisation of all stations. A radio\\-based [train protection system](/wiki/Train_protection_system \"Train protection system\") was installed.{{cite book\\|publisher \\=Federal Ministry of Transport \\|title\\= Verkehrsprojekte Deutsche Einheit. Sachstand: 1997 (German Unity Transport Projects. Assessment: 1997\\) \\|location\\= Bonn\\|year\\= 1997 \\|pages\\= 20 f\\|language\\=German}} A timetable change in May 2006 raised speeds largely to 200 km/h on the upgraded section of the line between Bitterfeld and Leipzig.",
"The upgrade of the Berlin–Bitterfeld–Leipzig line allowed the operation of [ICE T](/wiki/ICE_T \"ICE T\") tilting trains on IC line 8 from December 2002\\. In 2005 and 2006, the line from Bitterfeld to Leipzig was upgraded for operations of up to 200 km/h. A total of €1\\.657 billion was invested in the upgrade of line between Halle, Leipzig and Berlin up to the end of 2013\\.{{cite book \\|publisher\\=Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure \\|url\\=http://www.bmvbs.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/68032/publicationFile/58462/sachstandsbericht\\-verkehrsprojekte\\-deutsche\\-einheit\\-stand\\-mai\\-2012\\.pdf \\|title\\=Sachstandsbericht Verkehrsprojekte Deutsche Einheit \\|format\\=PDF; 623 kB \\|page\\=17 \\|date\\=June 2014 \\|language\\=German \\|accessdate\\=22 October 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017174925/http://www.bmvbs.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/68032/publicationFile/58462/sachstandsbericht\\-verkehrsprojekte\\-deutsche\\-einheit\\-stand\\-mai\\-2012\\.pdf \\|archivedate\\=17 October 2013 }}",
"A curve directly connecting [Leipzig/Halle Airport](/wiki/Leipzig/Halle_Airport \"Leipzig/Halle Airport\") and the line to the north towards Berlin was contemplated but rejected in 2010\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nachrichten.lvz\\-online.de/nachrichten/mitteldeutschland/nordkurve\\-der\\-ice\\-trasse\\-berlin\\-leipzig\\-ist\\-vom\\-tisch/r\\-mitteldeutschland\\-a\\-19564\\.html \\|title\\=Nordkurve der ICE\\-Trasse Berlin\\-Leipzig ist vom Tisch \\|newspaper\\=Leipziger Volkszeitung (Online edition) \\|date\\= 1 March 2010 \\|language\\=German\\|accessdate\\=22 October 2014}}",
"The [Elbe floods of 2002](/wiki/2002_European_floods \"2002 European floods\") significantly damaged an already weakened section of the bridge over the [Mulde](/wiki/Mulde \"Mulde\") between Roßlau and Dessau. Subsequently the embankment and all the bridges were rebuilt from 2008 to 2011 just to the east of the old line and the old works were then dismantled.",
"Subsequently since 2009 there has been a comprehensive renovation, including a major reconstruction of the track and overhead line equipment of the Roßlau/Dessau railway node. The first section rebuilt covered the line from Dessau to Wolfen, including work to renew and adapt the stations of Dessau\\-Süd, Marke, Raguhn, Jeßnitz and Wolfen. On 5 December 2010, [electronic interlockings](/wiki/Electronic_interlocking \"Electronic interlocking\") were put into operation in Dessau and Raguhn, which replaced all other signal boxes on the section between Dessau and Wolfen. Between the spring of 2012 and the summer of 2013, further work was carried out on the section between Güterglück and Roßlau. Here, the second track was restored between Neeken and Roßlau, Zerbst and Rodleben stations were rebuilt and the overhead contact lines and the signalling systems were renewed. An electronic interlocking for this section of line was built in Güterglück. The remodelling of Roßlau station is planned.",
"Between early 2010 and mid\\-2013, alterations were carried out between [Leipzig Messe](/wiki/Leipzig_Messe_railway_station \"Leipzig Messe railway station\") and Leipzig Hauptbahnhof for the integration of the [Leipzig City Tunnel](/wiki/Leipzig_City_Tunnel \"Leipzig City Tunnel\") in place of the existing route. In this context, the new [Leipzig Nord](/wiki/Leipzig_Nord_railway_station \"Leipzig Nord railway station\") (planning name: *Theresienstraße*) station at Berliner Bridge was brought into operation at the end of 2013 together with the City Tunnel. The route to Bitterfeld was integrated into the network of the [S\\-Bahn Mitteldeutschland](/wiki/S-Bahn_Mitteldeutschland \"S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland\"). By 2017, further development is planned within the city of Leipzig as part of German Unity Transport Project 8\\.3\\.",
""
] |
Work on effects of acceleration
-------------------------------
As early as 1945, service personnel realized the need for a comprehensive and controlled series of studies into the effects of deceleration on the human body. This led to fundamental concepts that could be applied to better safeguard aircraft occupants during a crash. The initial phase of the program, as set up by the Aero Medical Laboratory of the Wright [Air Development Center](/wiki/Aeronautical_Systems_Center "Aeronautical Systems Center"), was to develop equipment and instrumentation. This was so aircraft crashes might be simulated, and to study the strength factors of seats and harnesses. Human tolerance to the deceleration encountered in simulated aircraft crashes could also be simulated.{{Cite journal \|author\=Stapp JP \|title\=Problems of human engineering in regard to sudden declarative forces on man \|journal\=Mil Surg \|volume\=103 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=99–102 \|date\=August 1948 \|pmid\=18876408}}
The first run on the [rocket sled](/wiki/Rocket_sled "Rocket sled") took place on 30 April 1947 with ballast. The sled ran off the tracks. The first human run took place the following December. Instrumentation on all the early runs was in the developmental stage, and it was not until August 1948 that it was adequate to begin recording. By August 1948, sixteen human runs had completed, all in the backward\-facing position. Forward\-facing runs started in August 1949\. Most of the earlier tests ran to compare the standard Air Force harnesses with a series of modified harnesses. This was to determine which type gave the best protection to the pilot.
By June 8, 1951, 74 human runs had been made on the decelerator, 19 with the subjects in the backward position, and 55 in the forward position. Stapp, one of the most frequent volunteers on the runs, sustained a fracture of his right wrist during the runs on two separate occasions, also broke ribs, lost fillings from his teeth and developed bleeding into his retinas that caused temporary vision loss; in one run he survived forces up to 38 g.{{Cite web \|title\=Space Men: They were the first to brave the unknown (Transcript) \|url\=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/spacemen/ \|website\=\[\[American Experience]] \|publisher\=\[\[PBS]] \|access\-date\=8 April 2022 \|date\=1 March 2016}}
[thumb\|upright\=0\.9\|Buckling a three\-point seat belt](/wiki/File:Female_driver_buckling_seatbelt.jpg "Female driver buckling seatbelt.jpg")
Stapp's research on the decelerator had profound implications for both civilian and military aviation. For instance, the backward\-facing seat concept, which was known before, was given great impetus by the crash research program. It proved beyond a doubt that this position was the safest for aircraft passengers and required little harness support, and that a human can withstand much greater deceleration than in the forward position. As a result, many [Military Air Transport Service](/wiki/Military_Air_Transport_Service "Military Air Transport Service") (MATS) aircraft in USAF and carrier on\-board delivery aircraft in USN were equipped or retrofitted with this type of seat. Commercial airlines were made aware of these findings, but still use forward\-facing seats. The [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") also installed it on many of their military transport aircraft.
As a result of Stapp's findings, the acceleration requirement for fighter seats was increased considerably up to 32 g (310 m/s²). His work showed that a pilot could walk away from crashes when properly protected by harnesses if the seat does not break loose.
The "side saddle" or sideways\-facing harness was also developed by Stapp. The new triangular\-shaped harness gave vastly increased protection to fully equipped paratroopers. It was made of nylon mesh webbing, fit snugly over the shoulder facing the forward part of the aircraft. It protected the wearer from the force of crash impacts, takeoffs and landing bumps. It withstood a crash force of approximately {{Convert\|8000\|lbf\|\-2\|abbr\=on}} of force and was developed to replace the old\-fashioned lap belts, which gave inadequate protection to their wearers.
By riding the decelerator sled, in his 29th and last ride at [Holloman Air Force Base](/wiki/Holloman_Air_Force_Base "Holloman Air Force Base") in [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico "New Mexico"), Stapp demonstrated that a human can withstand at least 46\.2 g (in the forward position, with adequate harnessing). This is the highest known acceleration voluntarily encountered by a human, set on December 10, 1954\.*[Aviation Week](/wiki/Aviation_Week "Aviation Week")* for 3 January 1955 says he accelerated to {{Convert\|632\|mph\|abbr\=on}} in five seconds and {{Convert\|2800\|ft}}, then coasted for half a second, then slowed to a stop in 1\.4 seconds. It says the track was {{Convert\|3500\|ft}} long.Hall, L. (2017\) Early Human Factors Studies for Spaceflight at the Aeromedical Field Laboratory at Holloman Air Force Base. Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance, 88(6\), 608\-609\. [https://doi.org/10\.3357/AMHP.4766\.2017](https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.4766.2017) Stapp reached a speed of {{Convert\|632\|mph\|abbr\=on}}, which broke the land speed record and made him the fastest man on Earth.{{Cite news \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=lidWAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6610%2C4802335 \|newspaper\=\[\[Eugene Register\-Guard]] \|location\=\[\[Oregon]] \|agency\=Associated Press \|last\=Thompson \|first\=Ronnie \|title\='Fastest Man' Title Stands \|date\=July 23, 1964 \|page\=8B \|access\-date\=8 April 2022 \|via\=\[\[Google News]]}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=iEIfAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4123%2C5598453 \|newspaper\=\[\[Spartanburg Herald\-Journal]] \|location\=\[\[South Carolina]] \|agency\=Wire reports \|title\=Base re\-enacts rocket sled test \|date\=December 12, 2004 \|page\=A5 \|access\-date\=8 April 2022 \|via\=Google News}} Stapp believed that the tolerance of humans to acceleration had not yet been reached in tests. He believed it is much greater than thought possible. He said "I felt a sensation in the eyes, somewhat like the extraction of a molar without anesthetic," but his survival without any permanent injuries supported the development of further safety technologies including the [ejection seat](/wiki/Ejection_seat "Ejection seat").{{Cite book \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Steven \|authorlink\=Steven Johnson (author) \|title\=Extra Life \|publisher\=\[\[Riverhead Books]] \|year\=2021 \|isbn\=978\-0\-525\-53885\-1 \|edition\=1st \|pages\=183–184 \|language\=en}}
Also developed by Stapp as an added safety measure was an improved version of the currently used [shoulder strap and lap belt](/wiki/Seat_belt%23Three-point "Seat belt#Three-point"). The new high\-strength harness withstood 45\.4 g (445 m/s²), compared to the 17 g (167 m/s²), which was the limit that could be tolerated with the old combination. Basically, the new pilot harness added an inverted "V" strap crossing the pilot's thighs added to the standard lap belt and shoulder straps. The leg and shoulder straps and the lap belt all fastened together at one point, and pressure was distributed evenly over the stronger body surfaces, rather than on the [solar plexus](/wiki/Celiac_plexus "Celiac plexus"), as was the case with the old harness.
|
[
"Work on effects of acceleration\n-------------------------------",
"As early as 1945, service personnel realized the need for a comprehensive and controlled series of studies into the effects of deceleration on the human body. This led to fundamental concepts that could be applied to better safeguard aircraft occupants during a crash. The initial phase of the program, as set up by the Aero Medical Laboratory of the Wright [Air Development Center](/wiki/Aeronautical_Systems_Center \"Aeronautical Systems Center\"), was to develop equipment and instrumentation. This was so aircraft crashes might be simulated, and to study the strength factors of seats and harnesses. Human tolerance to the deceleration encountered in simulated aircraft crashes could also be simulated.{{Cite journal \\|author\\=Stapp JP \\|title\\=Problems of human engineering in regard to sudden declarative forces on man \\|journal\\=Mil Surg \\|volume\\=103 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=99–102 \\|date\\=August 1948 \\|pmid\\=18876408}}",
"The first run on the [rocket sled](/wiki/Rocket_sled \"Rocket sled\") took place on 30 April 1947 with ballast. The sled ran off the tracks. The first human run took place the following December. Instrumentation on all the early runs was in the developmental stage, and it was not until August 1948 that it was adequate to begin recording. By August 1948, sixteen human runs had completed, all in the backward\\-facing position. Forward\\-facing runs started in August 1949\\. Most of the earlier tests ran to compare the standard Air Force harnesses with a series of modified harnesses. This was to determine which type gave the best protection to the pilot.",
"By June 8, 1951, 74 human runs had been made on the decelerator, 19 with the subjects in the backward position, and 55 in the forward position. Stapp, one of the most frequent volunteers on the runs, sustained a fracture of his right wrist during the runs on two separate occasions, also broke ribs, lost fillings from his teeth and developed bleeding into his retinas that caused temporary vision loss; in one run he survived forces up to 38 g.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Space Men: They were the first to brave the unknown (Transcript) \\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/spacemen/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[American Experience]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[PBS]] \\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2022 \\|date\\=1 March 2016}}",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.9\\|Buckling a three\\-point seat belt](/wiki/File:Female_driver_buckling_seatbelt.jpg \"Female driver buckling seatbelt.jpg\")",
"Stapp's research on the decelerator had profound implications for both civilian and military aviation. For instance, the backward\\-facing seat concept, which was known before, was given great impetus by the crash research program. It proved beyond a doubt that this position was the safest for aircraft passengers and required little harness support, and that a human can withstand much greater deceleration than in the forward position. As a result, many [Military Air Transport Service](/wiki/Military_Air_Transport_Service \"Military Air Transport Service\") (MATS) aircraft in USAF and carrier on\\-board delivery aircraft in USN were equipped or retrofitted with this type of seat. Commercial airlines were made aware of these findings, but still use forward\\-facing seats. The [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") also installed it on many of their military transport aircraft.",
"As a result of Stapp's findings, the acceleration requirement for fighter seats was increased considerably up to 32 g (310 m/s²). His work showed that a pilot could walk away from crashes when properly protected by harnesses if the seat does not break loose.",
"The \"side saddle\" or sideways\\-facing harness was also developed by Stapp. The new triangular\\-shaped harness gave vastly increased protection to fully equipped paratroopers. It was made of nylon mesh webbing, fit snugly over the shoulder facing the forward part of the aircraft. It protected the wearer from the force of crash impacts, takeoffs and landing bumps. It withstood a crash force of approximately {{Convert\\|8000\\|lbf\\|\\-2\\|abbr\\=on}} of force and was developed to replace the old\\-fashioned lap belts, which gave inadequate protection to their wearers.",
"By riding the decelerator sled, in his 29th and last ride at [Holloman Air Force Base](/wiki/Holloman_Air_Force_Base \"Holloman Air Force Base\") in [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico \"New Mexico\"), Stapp demonstrated that a human can withstand at least 46\\.2 g (in the forward position, with adequate harnessing). This is the highest known acceleration voluntarily encountered by a human, set on December 10, 1954\\.*[Aviation Week](/wiki/Aviation_Week \"Aviation Week\")* for 3 January 1955 says he accelerated to {{Convert\\|632\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}} in five seconds and {{Convert\\|2800\\|ft}}, then coasted for half a second, then slowed to a stop in 1\\.4 seconds. It says the track was {{Convert\\|3500\\|ft}} long.Hall, L. (2017\\) Early Human Factors Studies for Spaceflight at the Aeromedical Field Laboratory at Holloman Air Force Base. Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance, 88(6\\), 608\\-609\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.3357/AMHP.4766\\.2017](https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.4766.2017) Stapp reached a speed of {{Convert\\|632\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}, which broke the land speed record and made him the fastest man on Earth.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=lidWAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6610%2C4802335 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Eugene Register\\-Guard]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[Oregon]] \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|last\\=Thompson \\|first\\=Ronnie \\|title\\='Fastest Man' Title Stands \\|date\\=July 23, 1964 \\|page\\=8B \\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2022 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Google News]]}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=iEIfAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4123%2C5598453 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Spartanburg Herald\\-Journal]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[South Carolina]] \\|agency\\=Wire reports \\|title\\=Base re\\-enacts rocket sled test \\|date\\=December 12, 2004 \\|page\\=A5 \\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2022 \\|via\\=Google News}} Stapp believed that the tolerance of humans to acceleration had not yet been reached in tests. He believed it is much greater than thought possible. He said \"I felt a sensation in the eyes, somewhat like the extraction of a molar without anesthetic,\" but his survival without any permanent injuries supported the development of further safety technologies including the [ejection seat](/wiki/Ejection_seat \"Ejection seat\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Steven \\|authorlink\\=Steven Johnson (author) \\|title\\=Extra Life \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Riverhead Books]] \\|year\\=2021 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-525\\-53885\\-1 \\|edition\\=1st \\|pages\\=183–184 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Also developed by Stapp as an added safety measure was an improved version of the currently used [shoulder strap and lap belt](/wiki/Seat_belt%23Three-point \"Seat belt#Three-point\"). The new high\\-strength harness withstood 45\\.4 g (445 m/s²), compared to the 17 g (167 m/s²), which was the limit that could be tolerated with the old combination. Basically, the new pilot harness added an inverted \"V\" strap crossing the pilot's thighs added to the standard lap belt and shoulder straps. The leg and shoulder straps and the lap belt all fastened together at one point, and pressure was distributed evenly over the stronger body surfaces, rather than on the [solar plexus](/wiki/Celiac_plexus \"Celiac plexus\"), as was the case with the old harness.",
""
] |
Awards
------
[thumb\|Stapp's brother (right) accepting on his behalf the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers award in 2012](/wiki/File:Air_Force_Space_Command%E2%80%99s_30th_anniversary_celebration_%287987404369%29.jpg "Air Force Space Command’s 30th anniversary celebration (7987404369).jpg")
In 1957, he was presented with the [Gorgas Medal](/wiki/Gorgas_Medal "Gorgas Medal") from the [Association of Military Surgeons of the United States](/wiki/Association_of_Military_Surgeons_of_the_United_States "Association of Military Surgeons of the United States") (AMSUS).
In 1973 Stapp was awarded the [Franklin Institute](/wiki/Franklin_Institute "Franklin Institute")'s [Elliott Cresson Medal](/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal "Elliott Cresson Medal").
In 1979 Stapp was inducted into the [International Space Hall of Fame](/wiki/International_Space_Hall_of_Fame "International Space Hall of Fame").{{ cite web \| title \= International Space Hall of Fame Inductee Profile: John P. Stapp \| publisher \= New Mexico Museum of Space History \| url \= http://www.nmspacemuseum.org/halloffame/detail.php?id\=46 \| access\-date \= 2008\-06\-13 }} The [New Mexico Museum of Space History](/wiki/New_Mexico_Museum_of_Space_History "New Mexico Museum of Space History"), which houses the International Space Hall of Fame, includes a John P. Stapp Air \& Space Park which holds Sonic Wind No. 1, a rocket sled ridden by Stapp.
In 1985, Stapp was inducted into the [National Aviation Hall of Fame](/wiki/National_Aviation_Hall_of_Fame "National Aviation Hall of Fame") for his work in aviation safety.
In 1991, Stapp was awarded the [National Medal of Technology](/wiki/National_Medal_of_Technology "National Medal of Technology"), "for his research on the effects of mechanical force on living tissues leading to safety developments in crash protection technology".
In 2012, 13 years after his death, Stapp was awarded the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers award. The award recognizes individuals for their significant role in the history of Air Force space and missile programs.
|
[
"Awards\n------",
"[thumb\\|Stapp's brother (right) accepting on his behalf the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers award in 2012](/wiki/File:Air_Force_Space_Command%E2%80%99s_30th_anniversary_celebration_%287987404369%29.jpg \"Air Force Space Command’s 30th anniversary celebration (7987404369).jpg\")\nIn 1957, he was presented with the [Gorgas Medal](/wiki/Gorgas_Medal \"Gorgas Medal\") from the [Association of Military Surgeons of the United States](/wiki/Association_of_Military_Surgeons_of_the_United_States \"Association of Military Surgeons of the United States\") (AMSUS).",
"In 1973 Stapp was awarded the [Franklin Institute](/wiki/Franklin_Institute \"Franklin Institute\")'s [Elliott Cresson Medal](/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal \"Elliott Cresson Medal\").",
"In 1979 Stapp was inducted into the [International Space Hall of Fame](/wiki/International_Space_Hall_of_Fame \"International Space Hall of Fame\").{{ cite web \\| title \\= International Space Hall of Fame Inductee Profile: John P. Stapp \\| publisher \\= New Mexico Museum of Space History \\| url \\= http://www.nmspacemuseum.org/halloffame/detail.php?id\\=46 \\| access\\-date \\= 2008\\-06\\-13 }} The [New Mexico Museum of Space History](/wiki/New_Mexico_Museum_of_Space_History \"New Mexico Museum of Space History\"), which houses the International Space Hall of Fame, includes a John P. Stapp Air \\& Space Park which holds Sonic Wind No. 1, a rocket sled ridden by Stapp.",
"In 1985, Stapp was inducted into the [National Aviation Hall of Fame](/wiki/National_Aviation_Hall_of_Fame \"National Aviation Hall of Fame\") for his work in aviation safety.",
"In 1991, Stapp was awarded the [National Medal of Technology](/wiki/National_Medal_of_Technology \"National Medal of Technology\"), \"for his research on the effects of mechanical force on living tissues leading to safety developments in crash protection technology\".",
"In 2012, 13 years after his death, Stapp was awarded the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers award. The award recognizes individuals for their significant role in the history of Air Force space and missile programs.",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
### Minor hockey
Horton grew up in Dunnville, Ontario, playing much of his minor hockey with the Welland Tigers of the OMHA South Central AAA League until his Minor Peewee year before making the move to play in the [Greater Toronto Hockey League](/wiki/Greater_Toronto_Hockey_League "Greater Toronto Hockey League") with the Toronto Red Wings. Entering his peewee season, he left the Red Wings to go play for the Thorold Blackhawks Jr. B. club of the [Ontario Hockey Association](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_Association "Ontario Hockey Association") (OHA)'s Golden Horseshoe League at age 13\. For much of his career with Welland, Horton played up on the "'84" Tigers team with future NHLers [Dan Girardi](/wiki/Daniel_Girardi "Daniel Girardi"), [Daniel Paille](/wiki/Daniel_Paille "Daniel Paille") (a future Bruins teammate) and [Andre Deveaux](/wiki/Andre_Deveaux "Andre Deveaux").
### Junior career
Horton first entered junior hockey as a player for the Thorold Blackhawks. In one season with Thorold, he scored 16 goals and registered 31 assists in 41 games.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/player.htm?id\=8470596\|title\=Nathan Horton's NHL Profile\|access\-date\=2009\-11\-19\|publisher\=National Hockey League\|year\=2009\|archive\-date\=2016\-01\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183345/http://www.nhl.com/ice/player.htm?id\=8470596\|url\-status\=live}} Prior to the 2001 [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League "Ontario Hockey League") Draft, a 16\-year\-old Horton stated that if he was drafted first overall by the [Mississauga Ice Dogs](/wiki/Mississauga_Ice_Dogs "Mississauga Ice Dogs"), he would not report to the team.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/3189/hockeys\_future\_profiles\_oshawas\_nathan\_horton/\|title\=Hockey's Future profiles Oshawa's Nathan Horton\|last\=Moore\|first\=Robert\|date\=November 6, 2001\|website\=Hockey's Future\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911073820/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/3189/hockeys\_future\_profiles\_oshawas\_nathan\_horton/\|archive\-date\=September 11, 2017\|url\-status\=live}} He was instead selected second overall in the draft by the [Oshawa Generals](/wiki/Oshawa_Generals "Oshawa Generals").{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/426046771\.html?dids\=426046771:426046771\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Sep\+12%2C\+2001\&author\=Sunaya\+Sapurji\&pub\=Toronto\+Star\&desc\=OHL\+teams%3A\+The\+good%2C\+the\+bad%2C\+the\+ugly\&pqatl\=google\|title\=OHL teams: The good, the bad, the ugly\|last\=Sapurji\|first\=Sunaya\|date\=September 12, 2001\|work\=\[\[Toronto Star]]\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023050901/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/426046771\.html?dids\=426046771:426046771\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Sep\+12,\+2001\&author\=Sunaya\+Sapurji\&pub\=Toronto\+Star\&desc\=OHL\+teams:\+The\+good,\+the\+bad,\+the\+ugly\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} As a rookie in the OHL, Horton totaled 31 goals and 36 assists in 64 games for the Generals. During two seasons with Oshawa, Horton would score 64 [goals](/wiki/Goal_%28ice_hockey%29 "Goal (ice hockey)") and record 71 [assists](/wiki/Assist_%28ice_hockey%29 "Assist (ice hockey)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/pdisplay.php?pid\=59739\|title\=Nathan Horton\|work\=Internet Hockey Database\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410165414/http://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/pdisplay.php?pid\=59739\|archive\-date\=April 10, 2017\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009}}
To begin the [2002–03 season](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_OHL_season "2002–03 OHL season"), Horton missed 13 games out of 22 but still ended up scoring 9 goals with 18 [points](/wiki/Point_%28ice_hockey%29 "Point (ice hockey)") during that span.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/5354/the\_draft\_document\_featuring\_nathan\_horton/\|title\=The Draft Document Featuring Nathan Horton\|last\=Allen\|first\=Trent\|date\=November 25, 2002\|website\=Hockey's Future\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021005600/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/5354/the\_draft\_document\_featuring\_nathan\_horton/\|archive\-date\=October 21, 2017\|url\-status\=live}} Horton was named to the [Canadian national junior team](/wiki/Canada_men%27s_national_junior_ice_hockey_team "Canada men's national junior ice hockey team")'s selection camp in December but was one of the first cuts.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/canadian\-juniors\-make\-first\-cuts\-1\.354511\|title\=Canadian juniors make first cuts\|date\=December 15, 2002\|work\=\[\[CBC Sports]]\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105152128/http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2002/12/14/canhockey021214\.html\|archive\-date\=November 5, 2012\|url\-status\=live}} He ended his final season in Oshawa with 33 goals and 35 assists in 54 games.
### 2003 NHL Entry Draft
In January 2002, Horton, along with [Patrick O'Sullivan](/wiki/Patrick_O%27Sullivan_%28ice_hockey%29 "Patrick O'Sullivan (ice hockey)") and [Kevin Klein](/wiki/Kevin_Klein "Kevin Klein"), was regarded as a top prospect from the OHL for the [2003 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2003_NHL_Entry_Draft "2003 NHL Entry Draft").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/3817/hfs\_interview\_with\_st\_michaels\_major\_kevin\_klein/\|title\=HF's Interview with St. Michael's Major Kevin Klein\|last\=Coccimigilo\|first\=Brad\|date\=January 25, 2002\|website\=Hockey's Future\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310074857/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/3817/hfs\_interview\_with\_st\_michaels\_major\_kevin\_klein/\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=live}} Eleven months later in December, Horton was called "an almost sure\-fire top\-five pick" by *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today "USA Today")*.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/columnist/woodlief/2002\-12\-09\-woodlief\_x.htm\|title\=Top 5 prospect Horton is center of attention\|last\=Woodlief\|first\=Kyle\|date\=December 9, 2002\|work\=\[\[USA Today]]\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025141118/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/columnist/woodlief/2002\-12\-09\-woodlief\_x.htm\|archive\-date\=October 25, 2012\|url\-status\=live}} Midway through the 2002–03 season, Horton was regarded as a top\-five North American prospect by the [NHL Central Scouting Bureau](/wiki/NHL_Central_Scouting_Bureau "NHL Central Scouting Bureau").{{cite news\|url\=https://assets.espn.go.com/nhl/news/2003/0128/1500313\.html\|title\=Staal, Fleury top\-ranked prospects at midseason\|date\=January 28, 2003\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310135551/http://assets.espn.go.com/nhl/news/2003/0128/1500313\.html\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]]}} Scouts likened Horton, who considered him a "power forward", to [John LeClair](/wiki/John_LeClair "John LeClair"), considered to be one of the best power forwards in the NHL. However, Horton said he saw himself to be more like [Jeremy Roenick](/wiki/Jeremy_Roenick "Jeremy Roenick") or [Peter Forsberg](/wiki/Peter_Forsberg "Peter Forsberg"), both of whom were faster than LeClair.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/penguins/20030618nhldraft0618p2\.asp\|title\=Horton turns up power to become possible No. 1 selection\|last\=Kovacevic\|first\=Dejan\|date\=June 18, 2003\|work\=\[\[Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette]]\|access\-date\=October 11, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311021051/http://old.post\-gazette.com/penguins/20030618nhldraft0618p2\.asp\|archive\-date\=March 11, 2018\|url\-status\=live}}
The [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers "Florida Panthers") originally held the first overall pick, but traded it and the 73rd pick (used to select [Daniel Carcillo](/wiki/Daniel_Carcillo "Daniel Carcillo")) to the [Pittsburgh Penguins](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Penguins "Pittsburgh Penguins") for the third pick (Horton), the 55th pick ([Stefan Meyer](/wiki/Stefan_Meyer_%28ice_hockey%29 "Stefan Meyer (ice hockey)")) and [Mikael Samuelsson](/wiki/Mikael_Samuelsson "Mikael Samuelsson").{{cite web\|last\=Spence \|first\=Rob \|title\=TRADING UP FOR MARC\-ANDRE FLEURY \|publisher\=CrashingTheGoalie \|date\=26 June 2009 \|url\=http://crashingthegoalie.com/2009/06/26/the\-fleury\-trade/ \|access\-date\=16 April 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416181412/http://crashingthegoalie.com/2009/06/26/the\-fleury\-trade/ \|archive\-date\=16 April 2014}} [Goaltender](/wiki/Goaltender "Goaltender") [Marc\-André Fleury](/wiki/Marc-Andr%C3%A9_Fleury "Marc-André Fleury") (Pittsburgh) and [centre](/wiki/Centre_%28ice_hockey%29 "Centre (ice hockey)") [Eric Staal](/wiki/Eric_Staal "Eric Staal") ([Carolina](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes "Carolina Hurricanes")) were selected before him.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/draft/2003\-06\-22\-first\-round\_x.htm\|title\=First\-round breakdown\|last\=Allen\|first\=Kevin\|date\=June 22, 2003\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020232124/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/draft/2003\-06\-22\-first\-round\_x.htm\|archive\-date\=October 20, 2012\|url\-status\=live}}
### Florida Panthers
Horton signed with the Panthers on October 6, 2003\.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/419440611\.html?dids\=419440611:419440611\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+06%2C\+2003\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=TOP\+ROOKIE\+HORTON\+SET\+TO\+SIGN\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Top Rookie Horton set to Sign\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=October 6, 2003\|work\=\[\[South Florida Sun\-Sentinel]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023051117/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/419440611\.html?dids\=419440611:419440611\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+06,\+2003\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=TOP\+ROOKIE\+HORTON\+SET\+TO\+SIGN\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} After his signing, Panthers head coach [Mike Keenan](/wiki/Mike_Keenan "Mike Keenan") compared Horton to future [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers "New York Rangers") [Hall of Famer](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame "Hockey Hall of Fame") [Mark Messier](/wiki/Mark_Messier "Mark Messier").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/penguins/20031107pens1107p2\.asp\|title\=Horton upholds his part of deal\|last\=Molinari\|first\=Dave\|date\=November 7, 2003\|work\=Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201616/http://old.post\-gazette.com/penguins/20031107pens1107p2\.asp\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=live}}
Against the [Minnesota Wild](/wiki/Minnesota_Wild "Minnesota Wild") on October 24, Horton recorded his first career point with an assist on an [Ivan Novoseltsev](/wiki/Ivan_Novoseltsev "Ivan Novoseltsev") goal.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sptimes.com/2003/10/25/Sports/Wild\_comeback\_drops\_P.shtml\|title\=Wild comeback drops Panthers\|date\=October 25, 2003\|work\=\[\[St. Petersburg Times]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040427230035/http://www.sptimes.com/2003/10/25/Sports/Wild\_comeback\_drops\_P.shtml\|archive\-date\=April 27, 2004\|url\-status\=dead}} Horton recorded his first career goal on November 1 against the [San Jose Sharks](/wiki/San_Jose_Sharks "San Jose Sharks").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1\-86547484\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102075751/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1\-86547484\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=November 2, 2012\|title\=Nathan Horton first NHL goal \|last\=Schecter\|first\=Eliot J.\|date\=November 1, 2003\|work\=\[\[Getty Images]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12}} In the next game for the Panthers, against the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings "Los Angeles Kings"), Horton scored his second goal in as many games.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=231105026\|title\=Kings take advantage of power plays\|date\=November 5, 2003\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201610/http://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=231105026\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=dead\|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]]\|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}} On January 9, 2004, Horton became the first rookie in NHL history to record a goal on a [penalty shot](/wiki/Penalty_shot "Penalty shot"), scoring against [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers "Philadelphia Flyers") goaltender [Jeff Hackett](/wiki/Jeff_Hackett "Jeff Hackett").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/games/2004\-01\-09\-panthers\-flyers\_x.htm\|title\=Teen\-ager skates to NHL record\|date\=January 9, 2004\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025141808/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/games/2004\-01\-09\-panthers\-flyers\_x.htm\|archive\-date\=October 25, 2012\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Three seasons later, on October 22, 2006, Penguins rookie [Jordan Staal](/wiki/Jordan_Staal "Jordan Staal") matched the feat and surpassed Horton as the youngest player to score; Staal was 183 days younger than Horton was when he scored.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id\=2634615\|title\=Elias Says ...\|date\=October 22, 2006\|work\=\[\[Elias Sports Bureau]]\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201743/http://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id\=2634615\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=live}} Four days after his penalty shot goal, Horton suffered a [torn rotator cuff](/wiki/Torn_rotator_cuff "Torn rotator cuff") and [labrum](/wiki/Glenoid_labrum "Glenoid labrum") which could potentially have ended his season.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/524749701\.html?dids\=524749701:524749701\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+15%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=OUTLOOK\+FOR\+HORTON\+ISN%27T\+ENCOURAGING\&pqatl\=google\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130131202518/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/524749701\.html?dids\=524749701:524749701\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+15,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=OUTLOOK\+FOR\+HORTON\+ISN'T\+ENCOURAGING\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 31, 2013\|title\=Outlook for Horton isn't Encouraging\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=January 15, 2004\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009}}{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/523890671\.html?dids\=523890671:523890671\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+13%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON%27S\+YEAR\+MAY\+BE\+OVER\&pqatl\=google\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130131172135/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/523890671\.html?dids\=523890671:523890671\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+13,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON'S\+YEAR\+MAY\+BE\+OVER\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 31, 2013\|title\=Horton's year may be over\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=January 13, 2004\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009}} At the time, he was third on the Panthers with ten goals.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/525224481\.html?dids\=525224481:525224481\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+16%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+OUT\+FOR\+SEASON\+PANTHERS\+ROOKIE\+FORWARD\+HAS\+MULTIPLE\+SHOULDER\+INJURIES%2C\+FACES\+SURGERY\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Horton out for season: Panthers rookie Forward has multiple shoulder injuries, faces surgery\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=January 16, 2004\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054513/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/525224481\.html?dids\=525224481:525224481\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+16,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+OUT\+FOR\+SEASON\+PANTHERS\+ROOKIE\+FORWARD\+HAS\+MULTIPLE\+SHOULDER\+INJURIES,\+FACES\+SURGERY\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} Following an examination by surgeon Tony Miniaci, Horton was told he could rehabilitate naturally and did not require surgery on his shoulder.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/591135381\.html?dids\=591135381:591135381\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Mar\+28%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+LIKELY\+TO\+REQUIRE\+SURGERY\+SHOULDER\+STILL\+HURTS\+ROOKIE\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Horton Likely to Require Surgery, Shoulder still Hurts Rookie\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=March 28, 2004\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054525/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/591135381\.html?dids\=591135381:591135381\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Mar\+28,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+LIKELY\+TO\+REQUIRE\+SURGERY\+SHOULDER\+STILL\+HURTS\+ROOKIE\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} He returned to the Panthers in early March and scored in one of his first games back against the [Tampa Bay Lightning](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Lightning "Tampa Bay Lightning").{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/552028531\.html?dids\=552028531:552028531\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Feb\+27%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=CULLEN\+BECOMING\+A\+PLAYMAKER\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Lightning extend franchise\-best win streak to eight\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=March 7, 2004\|work\=\[\[Seattle Post\-Intelligencer]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023055000/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/552028531\.html?dids\=552028531:552028531\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Feb\+27,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=CULLEN\+BECOMING\+A\+PLAYMAKER\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} However, his shoulder troubles continued and it was determined that surgery was ultimately required. Horton ended his rookie campaign with 14 goals and 8 assists in 55 games.
The [2004–05 NHL season](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_NHL_season "2004–05 NHL season") ended up being [locked out](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_NHL_Lockout "2004–05 NHL Lockout") which forced Horton and other players to sign with other teams. Horton eventually signed with the Panthers' [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League "American Hockey League") (AHL) affiliate, the [San Antonio Rampage](/wiki/San_Antonio_Rampage "San Antonio Rampage"),{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3096960\&l\_id\=\&t\_id\=\|title\=Rampage sign Nathan Horton to AHL contract\|date\=October 29, 2004\|work\=Our Sports Central\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183347/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\-sign\-nathan\-horton\-to\-ahl\-contract/n\-3096960\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2016\|url\-status\=live}} after a controversy ensued as to whether junior\-hockey\-eligible players such as Horton were obligated to return to their junior teams.{{cite news\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/09/29/pf\-648500\.html\|title\=CHL wants its NHLers back in fold\|last\=Koshan\|first\=Terry\|date\=September 29, 2004\|newspaper\=\[\[Toronto Sun]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120716015556/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/09/29/pf\-648500\.html\|archive\-date\=July 16, 2012\|url\-status\=usurped\|publisher\=Slam! Sports}} Despite not signing with the Rampage until October 29, Horton still participated in their training camp.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/stories/2004/09/20/daily35\.html?jst\=b\_ln\_hl\|title\=Rampage drop the puck Sunday\|last\=Bailey\|first\=W. Scott\|date\=September 24, 2004\|work\=\[\[San Antonio Business Journal]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805044848/https://www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/stories/2004/09/20/daily35\.html?jst\=b\_ln\_hl\|archive\-date\=August 5, 2011\|url\-status\=live}} Seven minutes into his second AHL game, Horton scored his first goal of the season.{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/back\-to\-back\-wins\-have\-rampage\-rolling/n\-3097647\|title\=Back to back wins have Rampage rolling\|date\=November 1, 2004\|work\=Our Sports Central\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822132142/http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/back\-to\-back\-wins\-have\-rampage\-rolling/n\-3097647\|archive\-date\=August 22, 2016\|url\-status\=live}} He recorded his first
career AHL assist on a [Gregory Campbell](/wiki/Gregory_Campbell_%28ice_hockey%29 "Gregory Campbell (ice hockey)") goal.{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\-win\-west\-shootout\-split\-games\-for\-the\-week/n\-3101452\|title\=Rampage Win West Shootout, Split Games for the Week\|date\=November 15, 2004\|work\=Our Sports Central\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183346/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\-win\-west\-shootout\-split\-games\-for\-the\-week/n\-3101452\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2016\|url\-status\=live}} On December 3, 2004, against the [Houston Aeros](/wiki/Houston_Aeros_%281994%E2%80%932013%29 "Houston Aeros (1994–2013)"), Horton scored both of the Rampage's goals to help the team win in overtime.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/horton\-sinks\-aeros\-in\-ot/n\-3106581\|title\=Horton sinks Aeros in OT\|date\=December 3, 2004\|work\=Our Sports Central\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183346/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/horton\-sinks\-aeros\-in\-ot/n\-3106581\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2016\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Horton with the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers "Florida Panthers") in November 2007](/wiki/image:Nathan_Horton.jpg "Nathan Horton.jpg")
For the second straight season, the Panthers did not allow Horton to play for the Canadian national junior team. He and Houston Aeros [defenceman](/wiki/Defenceman "Defenceman") [Brent Burns](/wiki/Brent_Burns "Brent Burns") were the only two players not allowed to play for the team.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/horton\-burns\-left\-off\-canada\-s\-world\-junior\-roster\-1\.482723\|title\=Horton, Burns left off Canada's world junior roster\|date\=December 5, 2004\|work\=CBC Sports\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423195605/http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2004/12/04/horton041204\.html\|archive\-date\=April 23, 2008\|url\-status\=live}} Days before the announcement Horton would not play for Team Canada, he suffered another shoulder injury which allegedly played into the Panthers' decision.{{cite news\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/12/07/pf\-769994\.html\|title\=Juniors ecstatic after being named to selection camp\|last\=Koshan\|first\=Terry\|date\=December 7, 2004\|newspaper\=Toronto Sun\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120719113643/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/12/07/pf\-769994\.html\|archive\-date\=July 19, 2012\|publisher\=Slam! Sports\|url\-status\=usurped}} Horton suffered the shoulder injury in a fight in December and missed 14 games. He was informed he would again have to undergo surgery.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2005\-02\-01\-0501310447\-story.html\|title\=Once again, shoulder surgery ends year for Panthers' Horton\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=January 31, 2005\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527234617/https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2005\-02\-01\-0501310447\-story.html\|archive\-date\=May 27, 2019\|url\-status\=live}} In 21 games for San Antonio, Horton scored five goals and recorded four assists.
Entering the [2005–06 season](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NHL_season "2005–06 NHL season"), Horton stated in response to a question about his shoulders: "I feel better. I feel stronger, bigger."{{cite news\|url\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article\-1G1\-136430307/horton\-health\-questions\-issue.html\|title\=For Horton, health questions will be the issue\|last\=Neal\|first\=David J.\|date\=September 20, 2005\|work\=\[\[The Miami Herald]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009}} In the season opener against the [Atlanta Thrashers](/wiki/Atlanta_Thrashers "Atlanta Thrashers"), Horton scored the first goal for the Panthers.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105278/NHL17090\.htm\|title\=Panthers 2, Thrashers 0\|date\=October 5, 2005\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215041324/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105278/NHL17090\.htm\|archive\-date\=December 15, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Through the first games of the season, Horton was tied for the team lead in goals.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/8025/trio\_strong\_out\_of\_the\_gate/\|title\=Trio strong out of the gate\|last\=Brown\|first\=E. M.\|date\=October 17, 2005\|website\=Hockey's Future\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-date\=2008\-10\-06\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006234111/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/8025/trio\_strong\_out\_of\_the\_gate/\|url\-status\=live}} On November 8, 2005, he was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve "Injured reserve") because of a knee injury.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=251109026\|title\=Prucha scores only goal in shootout\|date\=November 9, 2005\|agency\=Associated Press\|publisher\=ESPN\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103091016/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=251109026\|url\-status\=dead}} He was activated on December 1{{cite magazine\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/hockey/nhl/12/01/players.of.the.month/\|title\=Roundup: Alfredsson, Turco named Players of the Month\|date\=December 1, 2005\|magazine\=Sports Illustrated\|access\-date\=October 3, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20131003222702/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/hockey/nhl/12/01/players.of.the.month/\|archive\-date\=October 3, 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} and scored in his first game back against the [Washington Capitals](/wiki/Washington_Capitals "Washington Capitals") to help the Panthers win 3–2\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/sports/nhl\-roundup\-new\-bruin\-has\-impact\-in\-victory.html\|title\=Capitals lose Fifth Straight\|date\=December 2, 2005\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623225216/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/sports/nhl\-roundup\-new\-bruin\-has\-impact\-in\-victory.html\|archive\-date\=June 23, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Horton added two goals against the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks "Chicago Blackhawks") in the Panthers' next game to bring his season total to 10 in 17 games.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105339/NHL17203\.htm\|title\=Senators\-Panthers Preview\|date\=December 5, 2005\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-date\=2021\-11\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107123301/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105339/NHL17203\.htm\|url\-status\=live}} Against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators") on December 13, Horton recorded his first career [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick") and stated after the game: "It's a pretty nice feeling. I felt like there was no one on me. I just tried to get it to the net and it went in every time."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105347/NHL17532\.htm\|title\=Panthers 7, Predators 3\|date\=December 13, 2005\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214131854/http://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105347/NHL17532\.htm\|archive\-date\=December 14, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Despite missing ten games to injury, Horton was tied with teammate [Olli Jokinen](/wiki/Olli_Jokinen "Olli Jokinen") for the team lead in goals with 16 after 38 games.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt\=65588\&tid\=28\&t\=0\|title\=Preview: Bruins vs. Panthers\|date\=December 28, 2005\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716192702/http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt\=65588\&tid\=28\&t\=0\|archive\-date\=July 16, 2011\|url\-status\=live\|publisher\=Covers.com\|agency\=Associated Press}} Against Washington on January 9, Horton and [Joe Nieuwendyk](/wiki/Joe_Nieuwendyk "Joe Nieuwendyk") scored a goal in the [shootout](/wiki/Shootout_%28ice_hockey%29 "Shootout (ice hockey)") to help the Panthers win 4–3\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/sports/nhl\-roundup\-rangers\-get\-a\-scorer\-in\-sykora.html\|title\=Luongo saves Panthers\|last\=Diamos\|first\=Jason\|date\=January 9, 2006\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623223920/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/sports/nhl\-roundup\-rangers\-get\-a\-scorer\-in\-sykora.html\|archive\-date\=June 23, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Two days after his shootout goal, Horton was promoted to the Panthers' [first line](/wiki/Line_%28ice_hockey%29 "Line (ice hockey)").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/yourturn/viewtopic.php?t\=52377\|title\=Fantasy: Goalies make poolies bonkers\|last\=Dennis\|first\=Greg\|date\=January 11, 2006\|agency\=\[\[The Canadian Press]]\|publisher\=\[\[Sporting News]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-13}}{{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Despite his promotion to the first line, Horton's name was mentioned in a potential trade with the [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks "Vancouver Canucks"),{{cite news\|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=150056\&hubname\=nhl\|title\=NHL Mail: Looking for a Shake\-Up\|last\=Cullen\|first\=Scott\|date\=January 9, 2006\|work\=\[\[The Sports Network\|TSN]]\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009}} but nothing materialized. In a 6–2 win over the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators "Ottawa Senators"), Horton scored two goals including one on a [rebound](/wiki/Rebound_%28sports%29 "Rebound (sports)"), after which he said: "It just popped right out to me. It was a long time coming for goals for me. I got lucky tonight and hopefully they keep going in."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106067/NHL18014\.htm\|title\=Panthers 6, Senators 2\|date\=March 8, 2006\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217021331/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106067/NHL18014\.htm\|archive\-date\=December 17, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} In March, Horton began playing in [penalty kill](/wiki/Penalty_kill "Penalty kill") situations for the first time in his career.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary\_0286\-14563588\_ITM\|title\=Spirits high despite loss\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=April 5, 2006\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009}} Also against the Lightning, Horton scored the Panthers' only goal with his 27th goal of the season.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/preview?gameId\=260405026\|title\=Atlanta 5, Florida 2\|date\=April 5, 2006\|agency\=Associated Press\|publisher\=ESPN\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-13\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103091127/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/preview?gameId\=260405026\|url\-status\=live}} Horton completed the season playing 71 games, scoring 28 goals and adding 19 assists.
Following the 2005–06 season, Horton's rookie contract expired. He was re\-signed by Florida on July 12, 2006, to a one\-year, $1\.1 million contract.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article\-1G1\-148113155/horton\-agrees\-roberts\-stay.html\|title\=Horton agrees; Roberts to stay: Florida retained winger Nathan Horton with a $1\.1 million deal, and GM Mike Keenan expects winger Gary Roberts to remain\|last\=Richards\|first\=George\|date\=July 12, 2006\|work\=The Miami Herald\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009}} Against the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins "Boston Bruins"), Horton scored his first goal of the season to help the Panthers win 8–3\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct07/0,4670,NHLRdp,00\.html\|title\=Panthers 8, Bruins 3\|last\=Beard\|first\=Aaron\|date\=October 7, 2006\|agency\=Associated Press\|publisher\=\[\[Fox News Channel]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-13\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-23\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023125720/http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct07/0,4670,NHLRdp,00\.html\|url\-status\=live}} He scored his third goal of the season on October 18 in a 5–2 loss against the Washington Capitals, who the Panthers had not lost to in regulation since the 2004–05 season.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106291/NHL705355\.htm\|title\=Capitals 5, Panthers 2\|date\=October 18, 2006\|agency\=Associated Press\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-13\|archive\-date\=2021\-11\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107123304/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106291/NHL705355\.htm\|url\-status\=live}} After Horton was called for a second\-period penalty against Atlanta, head coach [Jacques Martin](/wiki/Jacques_Martin_%28ice_hockey%29 "Jacques Martin (ice hockey)") demoted Horton to the fourth line in an attempt to send a message to Horton. However, before long, Horton was again promoted to the first line, alongside Finnish players Olli Jokinen and [Ville Peltonen](/wiki/Ville_Peltonen "Ville Peltonen"), who jokingly gave Horton the name "Nathan Hortonen" in an attempt to make his name Finnish.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/scorecard/11/29/truth.rumors.nhl/\|title\=Truth \& Rumors\|date\=November 29, 2006\|access\-date\=October 14, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122122/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/scorecard/11/29/truth.rumors.nhl/\|archive\-date\=October 25, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|magazine\=Sports Illustrated}} Against the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens "Montreal Canadiens") on November 16, Horton assisted on all goals that Jokinen recorded.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.foxreno.com/sports/10340969/detail.html\|title\=NHL: Minnesota Wins In Wild Shootout\|date\=November 16, 2006\|work\=Fox Reno\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723223729/http://www.foxreno.com/sports/10340969/detail.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-23}} Against Tampa Bay on February 17, Horton scored the game\-winning goal for Florida, 29 seconds into overtime.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\-bin/article.cgi?f\=/n/a/2007/02/17/sports/s192205S71\.DTL\|title\=Horton Makes Quick Work of Lightning\|date\=February 17, 2007\|work\=\[\[San Francisco Chronicle]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14}} {{Dead link\|date\=October 2010\|bot\=H3llBot}}
For the second straight season, Horton's name was brought up in trade offers. However, Canadian sports writer Bruce Garrioch called it "doubtful" Horton would be traded{{cite news\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Ottawa/2007/02/15/3627552\-sun.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120717063848/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Ottawa/2007/02/15/3627552\-sun.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=July 17, 2012\|title\=Ont. rivals may battle for Roberts\|last\=Garrioch\|first\=Bruce\|work\=Sun Media\|publisher\=Slam! Sports\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14}} despite Horton being unhappy playing in Florida.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\-144116448\.html\|title\=Spirits high despite loss\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=April 5, 2006\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=2009\-11\-06}}{{dead link\|date\=February 2019\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} Against Tampa Bay on March 28, Horton scored two goals, which brought his season total for goals against the Lightning up to eight.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/28/Lightning/Ranger\_nearing\_an\_ear.shtml\|title\=Ranger nearing an early return\|last\=Cristodero\|first\=Damian\|date\=March 28, 2007\|work\=\[\[St. Petersburg Times]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14\|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917030306/http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/28/Lightning/Ranger\_nearing\_an\_ear.shtml\|url\-status\=live}} In the Panthers' next game against the Lightning, Horton had one goal which made it nine goals and three assists for him against Tampa Bay in the 2006–07 season. The goal also gave Horton his career\-high 31st goal on the season.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.boston.com/sports/hockey/articles/2007/04/07/thrashers\_top\_hurricanes\_clinch\_division/\|title\=Thrashers top Hurricanes, clinch division\|date\=April 7, 2007\|agency\=Associated Press\|work\=\[\[Boston Globe]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024123752/http://www.boston.com/sports/hockey/articles/2007/04/07/thrashers\_top\_hurricanes\_clinch\_division/\|url\-status\=live}} He ended the season with 31 goals and 31 assists in 82 games.
Horton re\-signed with the Panthers on June 21, 2007, to a six\-year, [US](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")$24 million contract.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/news/story?id\=2912280\|title\=Horton signs six\-year, $24 million deal with Panthers\|access\-date\=2007\-08\-15\|publisher\=ESPN\|date\=June 21, 2007\|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-01\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901083916/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/news/story?id\=2912280\|url\-status\=live}} despite previous rumours he would not.{{cite news\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/web/COM1059136/index.htm\|title\=Truth \& Rumors\|date\=February 1, 2007\|work\=\[\[The Palm Beach Post]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122132/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/web/COM1059136/index.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} Through seven games for the Panthers to open the [2007–08 NHL season](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_NHL_season "2007–08 NHL season"), Horton recorded three goals and three assists, during which he had a four\-game point streak.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2007\-10\-20/sens\-riding\-hot\-goalie\-gerber\|title\=Sens riding hot goalie in Gerber\|date\=October 20, 2007\|work\=Sporting News\|access\-date\=October 14, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121915/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2007\-10\-20/sens\-riding\-hot\-goalie\-gerber\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|agency\=Associated Press}} Horton scored the only goal for the Panthers in a 2–1 loss against the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes "Carolina Hurricanes") on November 18\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theindychannel.com/nhl/14628355/detail.html\|title\=Brind'Amour Boosts Carolina Over Florida\|date\=November 18, 2007\|work\=The Indy Channel\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119115110/http://www.theindychannel.com/nhl/14628355/detail.html\|archive\-date\=November 19, 2007}} Against the Washington Capitals on November 28, Horton, along with teammates Olli Jokinen, [Kamil Kreps](/wiki/Kamil_Kreps "Kamil Kreps") and [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss "Stephen Weiss"), scored shootout goals to help Florida win the game.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2007\-11\-30/panthers\-enter\-december\-hot\-streak\-after\-strong\-november\|title\=Panthers enter December on hot streak after strong November\|date\=November 30, 2007\|work\=Sporting News\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121927/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2007\-11\-30/panthers\-enter\-december\-hot\-streak\-after\-strong\-november\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|agency\=Associated Press}} For the first time since March 2007, Horton scored two goals in a game to help the Panthers win over the Atlanta Thrashers on December 28\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.foxnews.com/printer\_friendly\_wires/2007Dec28/0,4675,HKNNHLRdp,00\.html\|title\=Another Night, Another Wings Win\|date\=December 28, 2007\|publisher\=Fox News Channel\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310074251/https://www.foxnews.com/printer\_friendly\_wires/2007Dec28/0,4675,HKNNHLRdp,00\.html\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Horton and linemate [David Booth](/wiki/David_Booth_%28ice_hockey%29 "David Booth (ice hockey)") combined for three goals against the [New York Islanders](/wiki/New_York_Islanders "New York Islanders"), of which Horton scored two.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2008\-01\-03/panthers\-end\-skid\-ot\-win\-over\-isles\|title\=Panthers end skid with OT win over Isles\|date\=January 3, 2008\|work\=Sporting News\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121938/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2008\-01\-03/panthers\-end\-skid\-ot\-win\-over\-isles\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|agency\=Associated Press}} In the Panthers' 5–3 win over the Ottawa Senators on January 22, 2008, Horton recorded four assists,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\-Rookie\-Russell\-leads\-Blue\-Jackets\-past\-Stars\-1673197\.php\|title\=Rookie Russell leads Blue Jackets past Stars\|date\=January 23, 2008\|work\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024051312/https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\-Rookie\-Russell\-leads\-Blue\-Jackets\-past\-Stars\-1673197\.php\|archive\-date\=October 24, 2012\|url\-status\=live}} which was a career–high.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.seattlepi.com/scorecard/hockeynews.asp?articleID\=48795\|title\=Edmonton wraps road swing in Florida\|date\=January 24, 2008\|work\=Seattle Post\-Intelligencer\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15}} {{Dead link\|date\=December 2011\|bot\=RjwilmsiBot}} Horton scored against Vancouver Canucks goaltender and former Panther [Roberto Luongo](/wiki/Roberto_Luongo "Roberto Luongo") in a shootout to help the Panthers win 4–3, giving them their first win over Vancouver since 1999\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\=nhl\&id\=3226755\|title\=Nathan Horton scores in shootout and Panthers beat Canucks 4\-3\|date\=February 1, 2008\|agency\=Associated Press\|publisher\=ESPN\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103093658/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section\=nhl\&id\=3226755\|url\-status\=live}} Horton scored a goal against the Washington Capitals to help Florida win 4–2 in the game after [Richard Zedník](/wiki/Richard_Zedn%C3%ADk "Richard Zedník") suffered a neck injury in which he had his [external carotid artery](/wiki/External_carotid_artery "External carotid artery") cut by a skate.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.modbee.com/sports/story/213262\.html\|title\=Sharks ready for tough road\|date\=February 16, 2008\|work\=\[\[Modesto Bee]]\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130129151702/http://www.modbee.com/sports/story/213262\.html\|archive\-date\=January 29, 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} Twenty\-two seconds into overtime against the Boston Bruins on March 5, Horton scored to give the Panthers a 1–0 victory.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Forsberg\-sharp\-in\-first\-game\-3292494\.php\|title\=Forsberg sharp in first game Penguins' Crosby returns triumphant 0\|date\=March 5, 2008\|work\=San Francisco Chronicle\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623221921/https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Forsberg\-sharp\-in\-first\-game\-3292494\.php\|archive\-date\=June 23, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Four days later on March 9, Horton scored again in overtime with 23 seconds left, prompting the *[Miami Herald](/wiki/Miami_Herald "Miami Herald")* to nickname him the "King of Overtime".{{cite news\|url\=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\-search/we/Archives?p\_product\=MH\&s\_site\=miami\&p\_multi\=MH\&p\_theme\=realcities\&p\_action\=search\&p\_maxdocs\=200\&p\_topdoc\=1\&p\_text\_direct\-0\=11F4DBEF0E41B050\&p\_field\_direct\-0\=document\_id\&p\_perpage\=10\&p\_sort\=YMD\_date:D\&s\_trackval\=GooglePM\|title\=Horton sparks Florida, Nathan Horton scored with 23 seconds left in overtime, and the surging Panthers rallied from a 2\-0 deficit for their fourth consecutive victory\|date\=March 9, 2008\|work\=The Miami Herald\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-20\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020200559/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\-search/we/Archives?p\_product\=MH\&s\_site\=miami\&p\_multi\=MH\&p\_theme\=realcities\&p\_action\=search\&p\_maxdocs\=200\&p\_topdoc\=1\&p\_text\_direct\-0\=11F4DBEF0E41B050\&p\_field\_direct\-0\=document\_id\&p\_perpage\=10\&p\_sort\=YMD\_date:D\&s\_trackval\=GooglePM\|url\-status\=live}} On April 5, Horton scored his 100th career goal.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\-NOTES\-Blackhawks\-Eager\-misses\-12th\-straight\-1762680\.php\|title\=Blackhawks' Eager misses 12 straight game\|date\=April 5, 2008\|work\=Houston Chronicle\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183347/http://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\-NOTES\-Blackhawks\-Eager\-misses\-12th\-straight\-1762680\.php\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2016\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|right\|Horton standing next to teammate [Ville Peltonen](/wiki/Ville_Peltonen "Ville Peltonen") in [February 2009](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season "2008–09 NHL season")\|alt\=Canadian male in white uniform and white helmet standing next to European male also in white uniform and helmet](/wiki/File:Ville_Peltonen_and_Nathan_Horton.jpg "Ville Peltonen and Nathan Horton.jpg")
Prior to the start of the [2008–09 NHL season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season "2008–09 NHL season"), Panthers head coach [Peter DeBoer](/wiki/Peter_DeBoer "Peter DeBoer"), who first saw Horton play at seven years old, said about his hopes for Horton: "If I'm looking for guys to do more, he wouldn't be at the top of the list. If he can give us 30\-plus, I'd be happy with Nathan. There's a group of guys underneath him that I think can make a lot bigger jumps than I need out of Nathan Horton goal\-wise."{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/1571055171\.html?dids\=1571055171:1571055171\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+10%2C\+2008\&author\=Steve\+Gorten\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=ONUS\+IS\+ON\+HORTON\+TALENTED\+YOUNG\+CENTER\+BEING\+COUNTED\+ON\+TO\+FILL\+SCORING\+VOID\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Onus is on Horton: Talented Young Center being counted on to fill scoring void\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=October 10, 2008\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023112228/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/1571055171\.html?dids\=1571055171:1571055171\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+10,\+2008\&author\=Steve\+Gorten\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=ONUS\+IS\+ON\+HORTON\+TALENTED\+YOUNG\+CENTER\+BEING\+COUNTED\+ON\+TO\+FILL\+SCORING\+VOID\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} Horton was also moved from his position of [right wing](/wiki/Right_Wing_%28ice_hockey%29 "Right Wing (ice hockey)") to [centre](/wiki/Centre_%28ice_hockey%29 "Centre (ice hockey)") before the season. After playing a few games at centre, Horton said: "It's not as easy as wing. You can play wing and all you have to concentrate on is getting the puck and shooting it. At center, you have more responsibilities."{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/1581187181\.html?dids\=1581187181:1581187181\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+21%2C\+2008\&author\=Posted\+by\+Steve\+Gorten\+at\+6%3A21\+PM\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+STILL\+GETTING\+COMFY\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Horton still getting comfy\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=October 21, 2008\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023112239/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/1581187181\.html?dids\=1581187181:1581187181\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+21,\+2008\&author\=Posted\+by\+Steve\+Gorten\+at\+6:21\+PM\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+STILL\+GETTING\+COMFY\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} Against the Nashville Predators on November 1, Horton played in his 300th career game, but failed to record a point.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores108/108306/NHL829996\.htm\|title\=Erat scores lone goal of shootout in Preds' win\|date\=November 1, 2008\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172222/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores108/108306/NHL829996\.htm\|archive\-date\=October 25, 2012\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} On November 26, Horton suffered a deep cut in his leg after it was stepped on by a skate. At the time of the injury, Horton had six goals and seven assists.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/panthers/content/sports/epaper/2008/11/27/a9b\_panthers\_1128\.html\|title\=Panthers center Nathan Horton won't play tonight vs. Rangers\|date\=November 27, 2008\|work\=The Miami Herald\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617020955/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/panthers/content/sports/epaper/2008/11/27/a9b\_panthers\_1128\.html\|archive\-date\=June 17, 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} In early December, the *[Ottawa Sun](/wiki/Ottawa_Sun "Ottawa Sun")* reported that the Panthers might have been looking to trade Horton after he was reportedly unhappy playing for the team.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.thefourthperiod.com/news/fla081207\.html\|title\=Panthers shopping Horton?\|date\=December 7, 2008\|publisher\=TheFourthPeriod.com\|access\-date\=2009\-11\-01\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122075825/http://www.thefourthperiod.com/news/fla081207\.html\|archive\-date\=January 22, 2009}} Horton returned to the lineup on December 17 after missing eight games. After the game, Horton commented, "I'm excited to play. It's kind of a different Panthers team than the past. It's really changed in a matter of a month. Things are going good now, and everybody's really buying into what Pete has been telling us all year."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2008\-12\-16\-0812150385\-story.html\|title\=Loss in Vancouver 'Missed Opportunity'\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=December 16, 2008\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527230249/https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2008\-12\-16\-0812150385\-story.html\|archive\-date\=May 27, 2019\|url\-status\=live}} On January 17, Horton recorded three assists to help the Panthers defeat Tampa Bay, 4–3\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.upi.com/Sports\_News/2009/01/17/NHL\-Florida\-4\-Tampa\-Bay\-3/UPI\-30171232251330/\|title\=NHL: Florida 4, Tampa Bay 3\|date\=January 17, 2009\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605084638/https://www.upi.com/Sports\_News/2009/01/17/NHL\-Florida\-4\-Tampa\-Bay\-3/UPI\-30171232251330/\|archive\-date\=June 5, 2011\|url\-status\=live\|work\=\[\[United Press International]]}} For the second time during the season, Horton's name came up in trade rumours, this time with the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks "Chicago Blackhawks").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2009\-02\-21/blackhawks\-chief\-looking\-shore\-lineup\|title\=Blackhawks chief looking to shore up lineup\|last\=Slover\|first\=Ray\|date\=February 21, 2009\|work\=Sporting News\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603122028/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2009\-02\-21/blackhawks\-chief\-looking\-shore\-lineup\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} In early March, days after the trade deadline, Horton suffered a finger injury that forced him to have surgery.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/sports/epaper/2009/03/09/0309panthers.html\|title\=Panthers' Nathan Horton out 2\-4 weeks; Bryan McCabe out at least two games\|last\=Biggane\|first\=Brian\|date\=March 9, 2009\|work\=\[\[The Palm Beach Post]]\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617021012/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/sports/epaper/2009/03/09/0309panthers.html\|archive\-date\=June 17, 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} He returned to the lineup on March 23, recording an assist in a Panthers loss to the Carolina Hurricanes.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores109/109082/NHL830751\.htm\|title\=Whitney's OT goal lifts Canes to win over Panthers\|date\=March 23, 2009\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315022411/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores109/109082/NHL830751\.htm\|archive\-date\=March 15, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Horton ended the season with 22 goals and 23 assists in 67 games.
### Boston Bruins
[thumb\|upright\|left\|Horton with the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins "Boston Bruins") in January 2012](/wiki/File:NathanHortonBruins2012.jpg "NathanHortonBruins2012.jpg") Horton was traded to the Boston Bruins on June 22, 2010, along with Gregory Campbell, in exchange for [Dennis Wideman](/wiki/Dennis_Wideman "Dennis Wideman"), the Bruins' first\-round pick (15th overall) in the [2010 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2010_NHL_Entry_Draft "2010 NHL Entry Draft") and a third\-round pick in the [2011 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2011_NHL_Entry_Draft "2011 NHL Entry Draft").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=325375\|title\=Panthers Deal Horton, Campbell to Bruins for Wideman, Picks\|date\=June 23, 2010\|work\=The Sports Network\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629065404/http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=325375\|archive\-date\=June 29, 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} He got off to a great start in his first season in Boston, with seven goals and six assists, including a six\-game point streak, in the first 12 games of the season. He finished second on the team in goals and fourth in assists.
During the first round of the [2011 Stanley Cup playoffs](/wiki/2011_Stanley_Cup_playoffs "2011 Stanley Cup playoffs"), Horton scored a game\-winning overtime goal for the Bruins in both games five and seven to help the Bruins win the series over the Montreal Canadiens.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.cbssports.com/nhl/gametracker/recap/NHL\_20110427\_MON@BOS\|title\=Horton finishes Game 7 win over Habs in OT for B's\|date\=April 27, 2011\|work\=CBS Sports\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311021558/https://www.cbssports.com/nhl/gametracker/recap/NHL\_20110427\_MON@BOS\|archive\-date\=March 11, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=\[\[STATS LLC]], Associated Press}} A third period goal by Horton against the Tampa Bay Lightning in Eastern Conference Finals Game 7, the lone goal of the game, later sent the Bruins to the [Stanley Cup Finals](/wiki/2011_Stanley_Cup_Finals "2011 Stanley Cup Finals").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/icetracker.htm?id\=2010030317 \|title\=Tampa Bay Lightning at Boston Bruins \- May 27th, 2011 {{!}} NHL.com \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-28 \|archive\-date\=2011\-05\-28 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110528144346/http://www.nhl.com/ice/icetracker.htm?id\=2010030317 \|url\-status\=live }}
In game three of the [2011 Stanley Cup Finals](/wiki/2011_Stanley_Cup_Finals "2011 Stanley Cup Finals"), Horton was seriously injured on a late hit by Vancouver Canucks defenceman [Aaron Rome](/wiki/Aaron_Rome "Aaron Rome"). Rome received a five\-minute major for interference and a game misconduct. Horton was unresponsive as he was carried out on a stretcher and put into an ambulance. He was moving all his extremities in the ambulance.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/nhl/2011\-06\-06\-horton\-stretcher\_N.htm\|title\=Bruins' Nathan Horton taken off the Boston ice on stretcher\|last\=Allen\|first\=Kevin\|date\=June 6, 2011\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=June 7, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514030540/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/nhl/2011\-06\-06\-horton\-stretcher\_N.htm\|archive\-date\=May 14, 2016\|url\-status\=live}} He was later diagnosed with a severe [concussion](/wiki/Concussion "Concussion") and missed the remainder of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals. This was arguably the turning point in the series, as the Bruins would go on to win four of the next five games and score 21 of the next 25 goals after the hit. Rome was suspended for four games.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.espn.com/boston/nhl/news/story?id\=6634296 \|title\=2011 Stanley Cup playoffs: Vancouver Canucks' Aaron Rome suspended 4 games, Boston Bruins' Nathan Horton to miss rest of playoffs \|date\=7 June 2011 \|access\-date\=2011\-06\-07 \|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608201301/http://sports.espn.go.com/boston/nhl/news/story?id\=6634296 \|url\-status\=live }} Although Horton missed the remainder of the finals, he was able to hoist the Stanley Cup in [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver "Vancouver") on June 15 after the Bruins won Game 7\.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2019}}
On January 22, 2012, Horton sustained another concussion, this time from Philadelphia Flyers forward [Tom Sestito](/wiki/Tom_Sestito "Tom Sestito"). Horton would not return for the remainder of the season or for the playoffs. Nathan Horton did not play for another team during the [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout "2012–13 NHL lockout") and made his 2013 season debut for the Bruins on January 19, 2013, opening night against the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers "New York Rangers").{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2019}}
On the day of the [2013 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2013_NHL_Entry_Draft "2013 NHL Entry Draft"), Horton's representatives confirmed he had informed Bruins general manager [Peter Chiarelli](/wiki/Peter_Chiarelli_%28ice_hockey%29 "Peter Chiarelli (ice hockey)") he would not be re\-signing with Boston.["Horton out; B's willing to listen on Seguin."](https://www.espn.com/blog/nhl/post/_/id/25794/horton-out-bs-willing-to-listen-on-seguin) ESPN. Retrieved 2013\-June\-30\.
### Columbus Blue Jackets
On July 5, 2013, Horton signed a seven\-year free agent contract worth $37\.1 million with the [Columbus Blue Jackets](/wiki/Columbus_Blue_Jackets "Columbus Blue Jackets").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.cbssports.com/nhl/blog/eye\-on\-hockey/22648612/nathan\-horton\-signs\-with\-blue\-jackets\-for\-seven\-seasons\|title\=Nathan Horton signs with Blue Jackets for seven seasons\|last\=Stubits\|first\=Brian\|date\=July 5, 2013\|work\=CBS Sports\|access\-date\=July 5, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919225500/http://www.cbssports.com/nhl/news/nathan\-horton\-signs\-with\-blue\-jackets\-for\-seven\-seasons/\|archive\-date\=September 19, 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} However, off\-season shoulder surgery would sideline Horton until January 2, 2014, when he finally made his Blue Jackets debut and scored the game\-winning goal in a 2–0 victory over the [Phoenix Coyotes](/wiki/Arizona_Coyotes "Arizona Coyotes").{{Cite news\|url\=https://nesn.com/2014/01/nathan\-horton\-scores\-in\-blue\-jackets\-debut\-says\-its\-so\-exciting\-to\-be\-back\-in\-return\-to\-nhl\-play/\|title\=Nathan Horton Scores in Blue Jackets Debut, Says 'It's So Exciting to Be Back' in Return to NHL Play\|date\=January 3, 2014\|work\=\[\[New England Sports Network]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813071045/https://nesn.com/2014/01/nathan\-horton\-scores\-in\-blue\-jackets\-debut\-says\-its\-so\-exciting\-to\-be\-back\-in\-return\-to\-nhl\-play/\|archive\-date\=August 13, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}}
During the first period of a March 10, 2014 game against the Dallas Stars, Horton scored a goal to put the Blue Jackets ahead, 1–0\. Shortly thereafter, Dallas Stars center (and Horton's former Bruins teammate) [Rich Peverley](/wiki/Rich_Peverley "Rich Peverley") collapsed on the bench. Play was suspended, and on April 9, 2014, the game restarted from the beginning, with the Blue Jackets leading, 1–0\. Horton was unavailable for the restarted game due to an injury, but his goal from the original game was still recorded in official statistics, making him the only NHL player known to score in a game in which he did not play.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.nhl.com/news/columbus\-f\-nathan\-horton\-credited\-with\-goal\-despite\-missing\-makeup\-game\-in\-dallas\-with\-injury/c\-713641 \|title\=Columbus F Nathan Horton credited with goal despite missing makeup game in Dallas with injury \|access\-date\=2020\-03\-24 \|archive\-date\=2020\-03\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324015302/https://www.nhl.com/news/columbus\-f\-nathan\-horton\-credited\-with\-goal\-despite\-missing\-makeup\-game\-in\-dallas\-with\-injury/c\-713641 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-04\-09 \|title\=Nathan Horton out vs. Stars, will have goal in game he doesn't play \|url\=https://www.cbssports.com/nhl/news/nathan\-horton\-out\-vs\-stars\-will\-have\-goal\-in\-game\-he\-doesnt\-play/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-19 \|website\=CBSSports.com \|language\=en}}
In October 2014, Horton was diagnosed with a degenerative back injury of the [lumbar region](/wiki/Lumbar "Lumbar") that ended his [2014–15 season](/wiki/2014-15_NHL_season "2014-15 NHL season") and threatened to end his career.{{Cite news\|url \= http://bluejacketsxtra.dispatch.com/content/stories/2014/10/22/1021\-blue\-jackets\-horton.html\|title \= Blue Jackets: Back injury threatening Nathan Horton's season, and career\|last \= Portzline\|first \= Aaron\|date \= October 21, 2014\|work \= Columbus Dispatch\|access\-date \= October 21, 2014\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20141022004742/http://bluejacketsxtra.dispatch.com/content/stories/2014/10/22/1021\-blue\-jackets\-horton.html\|archive\-date \= October 22, 2014\|url\-status \= dead}}
### Toronto Maple Leafs
On February 26, 2015, with Horton on the long\-term injured list and with no sign of return, he was traded due to financial considerations by the Blue Jackets to the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs") in exchange for [David Clarkson](/wiki/David_Clarkson_%28ice_hockey%29 "David Clarkson (ice hockey)"). The trade allowed the Maple Leafs to get rid of Clarkson's unfavorable contract, while Horton's presence on the long\-term injury list meant Toronto would not need to count his contract towards the salary cap.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/leafs\-trade\-clarkson\-to\-jackets\-for\-horton\-1\.217149\|title\=Leafs ship Clarkson to Columbus for Horton\|date\=February 26, 2015\|work\=\[\[The Sports Network]]\|access\-date\=February 26, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724183555/https://www.tsn.ca/leafs\-trade\-clarkson\-to\-jackets\-for\-horton\-1\.217149\|archive\-date\=July 24, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=\[\[The Canadian Press]]}} Horton would not play a single game for the Leafs; he failed every single physical before each season with the team.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.cbssports.com/fantasy/hockey/news/maple\-leafs\-nathan\-horton\-fails\-medical/\|title\=Maple Leafs' Nathan Horton: Fails medical\|date\=September 14, 2017\|work\=\[\[CBS Sports]]\|access\-date\=July 24, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724183640/https://www.cbssports.com/fantasy/hockey/news/maple\-leafs\-nathan\-horton\-fails\-medical/\|archive\-date\=July 24, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=\[\[RotoWire]]}}
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"### Minor hockey",
"Horton grew up in Dunnville, Ontario, playing much of his minor hockey with the Welland Tigers of the OMHA South Central AAA League until his Minor Peewee year before making the move to play in the [Greater Toronto Hockey League](/wiki/Greater_Toronto_Hockey_League \"Greater Toronto Hockey League\") with the Toronto Red Wings. Entering his peewee season, he left the Red Wings to go play for the Thorold Blackhawks Jr. B. club of the [Ontario Hockey Association](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_Association \"Ontario Hockey Association\") (OHA)'s Golden Horseshoe League at age 13\\. For much of his career with Welland, Horton played up on the \"'84\" Tigers team with future NHLers [Dan Girardi](/wiki/Daniel_Girardi \"Daniel Girardi\"), [Daniel Paille](/wiki/Daniel_Paille \"Daniel Paille\") (a future Bruins teammate) and [Andre Deveaux](/wiki/Andre_Deveaux \"Andre Deveaux\").",
"### Junior career",
"Horton first entered junior hockey as a player for the Thorold Blackhawks. In one season with Thorold, he scored 16 goals and registered 31 assists in 41 games.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/player.htm?id\\=8470596\\|title\\=Nathan Horton's NHL Profile\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-11\\-19\\|publisher\\=National Hockey League\\|year\\=2009\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183345/http://www.nhl.com/ice/player.htm?id\\=8470596\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Prior to the 2001 [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League \"Ontario Hockey League\") Draft, a 16\\-year\\-old Horton stated that if he was drafted first overall by the [Mississauga Ice Dogs](/wiki/Mississauga_Ice_Dogs \"Mississauga Ice Dogs\"), he would not report to the team.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/3189/hockeys\\_future\\_profiles\\_oshawas\\_nathan\\_horton/\\|title\\=Hockey's Future profiles Oshawa's Nathan Horton\\|last\\=Moore\\|first\\=Robert\\|date\\=November 6, 2001\\|website\\=Hockey's Future\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911073820/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/3189/hockeys\\_future\\_profiles\\_oshawas\\_nathan\\_horton/\\|archive\\-date\\=September 11, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He was instead selected second overall in the draft by the [Oshawa Generals](/wiki/Oshawa_Generals \"Oshawa Generals\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/426046771\\.html?dids\\=426046771:426046771\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Sep\\+12%2C\\+2001\\&author\\=Sunaya\\+Sapurji\\&pub\\=Toronto\\+Star\\&desc\\=OHL\\+teams%3A\\+The\\+good%2C\\+the\\+bad%2C\\+the\\+ugly\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=OHL teams: The good, the bad, the ugly\\|last\\=Sapurji\\|first\\=Sunaya\\|date\\=September 12, 2001\\|work\\=\\[\\[Toronto Star]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023050901/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/426046771\\.html?dids\\=426046771:426046771\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Sep\\+12,\\+2001\\&author\\=Sunaya\\+Sapurji\\&pub\\=Toronto\\+Star\\&desc\\=OHL\\+teams:\\+The\\+good,\\+the\\+bad,\\+the\\+ugly\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} As a rookie in the OHL, Horton totaled 31 goals and 36 assists in 64 games for the Generals. During two seasons with Oshawa, Horton would score 64 [goals](/wiki/Goal_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Goal (ice hockey)\") and record 71 [assists](/wiki/Assist_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Assist (ice hockey)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/pdisplay.php?pid\\=59739\\|title\\=Nathan Horton\\|work\\=Internet Hockey Database\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410165414/http://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/pdisplay.php?pid\\=59739\\|archive\\-date\\=April 10, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009}}",
"To begin the [2002–03 season](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_OHL_season \"2002–03 OHL season\"), Horton missed 13 games out of 22 but still ended up scoring 9 goals with 18 [points](/wiki/Point_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Point (ice hockey)\") during that span.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/5354/the\\_draft\\_document\\_featuring\\_nathan\\_horton/\\|title\\=The Draft Document Featuring Nathan Horton\\|last\\=Allen\\|first\\=Trent\\|date\\=November 25, 2002\\|website\\=Hockey's Future\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021005600/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/5354/the\\_draft\\_document\\_featuring\\_nathan\\_horton/\\|archive\\-date\\=October 21, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Horton was named to the [Canadian national junior team](/wiki/Canada_men%27s_national_junior_ice_hockey_team \"Canada men's national junior ice hockey team\")'s selection camp in December but was one of the first cuts.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/canadian\\-juniors\\-make\\-first\\-cuts\\-1\\.354511\\|title\\=Canadian juniors make first cuts\\|date\\=December 15, 2002\\|work\\=\\[\\[CBC Sports]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105152128/http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2002/12/14/canhockey021214\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=November 5, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He ended his final season in Oshawa with 33 goals and 35 assists in 54 games.",
"### 2003 NHL Entry Draft",
"In January 2002, Horton, along with [Patrick O'Sullivan](/wiki/Patrick_O%27Sullivan_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Patrick O'Sullivan (ice hockey)\") and [Kevin Klein](/wiki/Kevin_Klein \"Kevin Klein\"), was regarded as a top prospect from the OHL for the [2003 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2003_NHL_Entry_Draft \"2003 NHL Entry Draft\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/3817/hfs\\_interview\\_with\\_st\\_michaels\\_major\\_kevin\\_klein/\\|title\\=HF's Interview with St. Michael's Major Kevin Klein\\|last\\=Coccimigilo\\|first\\=Brad\\|date\\=January 25, 2002\\|website\\=Hockey's Future\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310074857/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/3817/hfs\\_interview\\_with\\_st\\_michaels\\_major\\_kevin\\_klein/\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Eleven months later in December, Horton was called \"an almost sure\\-fire top\\-five pick\" by *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today \"USA Today\")*.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/columnist/woodlief/2002\\-12\\-09\\-woodlief\\_x.htm\\|title\\=Top 5 prospect Horton is center of attention\\|last\\=Woodlief\\|first\\=Kyle\\|date\\=December 9, 2002\\|work\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025141118/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/columnist/woodlief/2002\\-12\\-09\\-woodlief\\_x.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Midway through the 2002–03 season, Horton was regarded as a top\\-five North American prospect by the [NHL Central Scouting Bureau](/wiki/NHL_Central_Scouting_Bureau \"NHL Central Scouting Bureau\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://assets.espn.go.com/nhl/news/2003/0128/1500313\\.html\\|title\\=Staal, Fleury top\\-ranked prospects at midseason\\|date\\=January 28, 2003\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310135551/http://assets.espn.go.com/nhl/news/2003/0128/1500313\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]}} Scouts likened Horton, who considered him a \"power forward\", to [John LeClair](/wiki/John_LeClair \"John LeClair\"), considered to be one of the best power forwards in the NHL. However, Horton said he saw himself to be more like [Jeremy Roenick](/wiki/Jeremy_Roenick \"Jeremy Roenick\") or [Peter Forsberg](/wiki/Peter_Forsberg \"Peter Forsberg\"), both of whom were faster than LeClair.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/penguins/20030618nhldraft0618p2\\.asp\\|title\\=Horton turns up power to become possible No. 1 selection\\|last\\=Kovacevic\\|first\\=Dejan\\|date\\=June 18, 2003\\|work\\=\\[\\[Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311021051/http://old.post\\-gazette.com/penguins/20030618nhldraft0618p2\\.asp\\|archive\\-date\\=March 11, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers \"Florida Panthers\") originally held the first overall pick, but traded it and the 73rd pick (used to select [Daniel Carcillo](/wiki/Daniel_Carcillo \"Daniel Carcillo\")) to the [Pittsburgh Penguins](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Penguins \"Pittsburgh Penguins\") for the third pick (Horton), the 55th pick ([Stefan Meyer](/wiki/Stefan_Meyer_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Stefan Meyer (ice hockey)\")) and [Mikael Samuelsson](/wiki/Mikael_Samuelsson \"Mikael Samuelsson\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Spence \\|first\\=Rob \\|title\\=TRADING UP FOR MARC\\-ANDRE FLEURY \\|publisher\\=CrashingTheGoalie \\|date\\=26 June 2009 \\|url\\=http://crashingthegoalie.com/2009/06/26/the\\-fleury\\-trade/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416181412/http://crashingthegoalie.com/2009/06/26/the\\-fleury\\-trade/ \\|archive\\-date\\=16 April 2014}} [Goaltender](/wiki/Goaltender \"Goaltender\") [Marc\\-André Fleury](/wiki/Marc-Andr%C3%A9_Fleury \"Marc-André Fleury\") (Pittsburgh) and [centre](/wiki/Centre_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Centre (ice hockey)\") [Eric Staal](/wiki/Eric_Staal \"Eric Staal\") ([Carolina](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes \"Carolina Hurricanes\")) were selected before him.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/draft/2003\\-06\\-22\\-first\\-round\\_x.htm\\|title\\=First\\-round breakdown\\|last\\=Allen\\|first\\=Kevin\\|date\\=June 22, 2003\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020232124/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/draft/2003\\-06\\-22\\-first\\-round\\_x.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 20, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Florida Panthers",
"Horton signed with the Panthers on October 6, 2003\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/419440611\\.html?dids\\=419440611:419440611\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+06%2C\\+2003\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=TOP\\+ROOKIE\\+HORTON\\+SET\\+TO\\+SIGN\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Top Rookie Horton set to Sign\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=October 6, 2003\\|work\\=\\[\\[South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023051117/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/419440611\\.html?dids\\=419440611:419440611\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+06,\\+2003\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=TOP\\+ROOKIE\\+HORTON\\+SET\\+TO\\+SIGN\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} After his signing, Panthers head coach [Mike Keenan](/wiki/Mike_Keenan \"Mike Keenan\") compared Horton to future [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers \"New York Rangers\") [Hall of Famer](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"Hockey Hall of Fame\") [Mark Messier](/wiki/Mark_Messier \"Mark Messier\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/penguins/20031107pens1107p2\\.asp\\|title\\=Horton upholds his part of deal\\|last\\=Molinari\\|first\\=Dave\\|date\\=November 7, 2003\\|work\\=Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201616/http://old.post\\-gazette.com/penguins/20031107pens1107p2\\.asp\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Against the [Minnesota Wild](/wiki/Minnesota_Wild \"Minnesota Wild\") on October 24, Horton recorded his first career point with an assist on an [Ivan Novoseltsev](/wiki/Ivan_Novoseltsev \"Ivan Novoseltsev\") goal.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sptimes.com/2003/10/25/Sports/Wild\\_comeback\\_drops\\_P.shtml\\|title\\=Wild comeback drops Panthers\\|date\\=October 25, 2003\\|work\\=\\[\\[St. Petersburg Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040427230035/http://www.sptimes.com/2003/10/25/Sports/Wild\\_comeback\\_drops\\_P.shtml\\|archive\\-date\\=April 27, 2004\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Horton recorded his first career goal on November 1 against the [San Jose Sharks](/wiki/San_Jose_Sharks \"San Jose Sharks\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1\\-86547484\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102075751/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1\\-86547484\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=November 2, 2012\\|title\\=Nathan Horton first NHL goal \\|last\\=Schecter\\|first\\=Eliot J.\\|date\\=November 1, 2003\\|work\\=\\[\\[Getty Images]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12}} In the next game for the Panthers, against the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings \"Los Angeles Kings\"), Horton scored his second goal in as many games.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=231105026\\|title\\=Kings take advantage of power plays\\|date\\=November 5, 2003\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201610/http://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=231105026\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}} On January 9, 2004, Horton became the first rookie in NHL history to record a goal on a [penalty shot](/wiki/Penalty_shot \"Penalty shot\"), scoring against [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers \"Philadelphia Flyers\") goaltender [Jeff Hackett](/wiki/Jeff_Hackett \"Jeff Hackett\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/games/2004\\-01\\-09\\-panthers\\-flyers\\_x.htm\\|title\\=Teen\\-ager skates to NHL record\\|date\\=January 9, 2004\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025141808/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/games/2004\\-01\\-09\\-panthers\\-flyers\\_x.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Three seasons later, on October 22, 2006, Penguins rookie [Jordan Staal](/wiki/Jordan_Staal \"Jordan Staal\") matched the feat and surpassed Horton as the youngest player to score; Staal was 183 days younger than Horton was when he scored.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id\\=2634615\\|title\\=Elias Says ...\\|date\\=October 22, 2006\\|work\\=\\[\\[Elias Sports Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201743/http://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id\\=2634615\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Four days after his penalty shot goal, Horton suffered a [torn rotator cuff](/wiki/Torn_rotator_cuff \"Torn rotator cuff\") and [labrum](/wiki/Glenoid_labrum \"Glenoid labrum\") which could potentially have ended his season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/524749701\\.html?dids\\=524749701:524749701\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+15%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=OUTLOOK\\+FOR\\+HORTON\\+ISN%27T\\+ENCOURAGING\\&pqatl\\=google\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130131202518/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/524749701\\.html?dids\\=524749701:524749701\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+15,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=OUTLOOK\\+FOR\\+HORTON\\+ISN'T\\+ENCOURAGING\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2013\\|title\\=Outlook for Horton isn't Encouraging\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=January 15, 2004\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/523890671\\.html?dids\\=523890671:523890671\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+13%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON%27S\\+YEAR\\+MAY\\+BE\\+OVER\\&pqatl\\=google\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130131172135/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/523890671\\.html?dids\\=523890671:523890671\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+13,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON'S\\+YEAR\\+MAY\\+BE\\+OVER\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2013\\|title\\=Horton's year may be over\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=January 13, 2004\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009}} At the time, he was third on the Panthers with ten goals.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/525224481\\.html?dids\\=525224481:525224481\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+16%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+OUT\\+FOR\\+SEASON\\+PANTHERS\\+ROOKIE\\+FORWARD\\+HAS\\+MULTIPLE\\+SHOULDER\\+INJURIES%2C\\+FACES\\+SURGERY\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Horton out for season: Panthers rookie Forward has multiple shoulder injuries, faces surgery\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=January 16, 2004\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054513/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/525224481\\.html?dids\\=525224481:525224481\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+16,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+OUT\\+FOR\\+SEASON\\+PANTHERS\\+ROOKIE\\+FORWARD\\+HAS\\+MULTIPLE\\+SHOULDER\\+INJURIES,\\+FACES\\+SURGERY\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Following an examination by surgeon Tony Miniaci, Horton was told he could rehabilitate naturally and did not require surgery on his shoulder.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/591135381\\.html?dids\\=591135381:591135381\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Mar\\+28%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+LIKELY\\+TO\\+REQUIRE\\+SURGERY\\+SHOULDER\\+STILL\\+HURTS\\+ROOKIE\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Horton Likely to Require Surgery, Shoulder still Hurts Rookie\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=March 28, 2004\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054525/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/591135381\\.html?dids\\=591135381:591135381\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Mar\\+28,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+LIKELY\\+TO\\+REQUIRE\\+SURGERY\\+SHOULDER\\+STILL\\+HURTS\\+ROOKIE\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He returned to the Panthers in early March and scored in one of his first games back against the [Tampa Bay Lightning](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Lightning \"Tampa Bay Lightning\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/552028531\\.html?dids\\=552028531:552028531\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Feb\\+27%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=CULLEN\\+BECOMING\\+A\\+PLAYMAKER\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Lightning extend franchise\\-best win streak to eight\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=March 7, 2004\\|work\\=\\[\\[Seattle Post\\-Intelligencer]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023055000/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/552028531\\.html?dids\\=552028531:552028531\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Feb\\+27,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=CULLEN\\+BECOMING\\+A\\+PLAYMAKER\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, his shoulder troubles continued and it was determined that surgery was ultimately required. Horton ended his rookie campaign with 14 goals and 8 assists in 55 games.",
"The [2004–05 NHL season](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_NHL_season \"2004–05 NHL season\") ended up being [locked out](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_NHL_Lockout \"2004–05 NHL Lockout\") which forced Horton and other players to sign with other teams. Horton eventually signed with the Panthers' [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League \"American Hockey League\") (AHL) affiliate, the [San Antonio Rampage](/wiki/San_Antonio_Rampage \"San Antonio Rampage\"),{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3096960\\&l\\_id\\=\\&t\\_id\\=\\|title\\=Rampage sign Nathan Horton to AHL contract\\|date\\=October 29, 2004\\|work\\=Our Sports Central\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183347/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\\-sign\\-nathan\\-horton\\-to\\-ahl\\-contract/n\\-3096960\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} after a controversy ensued as to whether junior\\-hockey\\-eligible players such as Horton were obligated to return to their junior teams.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/09/29/pf\\-648500\\.html\\|title\\=CHL wants its NHLers back in fold\\|last\\=Koshan\\|first\\=Terry\\|date\\=September 29, 2004\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Toronto Sun]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120716015556/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/09/29/pf\\-648500\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|publisher\\=Slam! Sports}} Despite not signing with the Rampage until October 29, Horton still participated in their training camp.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/stories/2004/09/20/daily35\\.html?jst\\=b\\_ln\\_hl\\|title\\=Rampage drop the puck Sunday\\|last\\=Bailey\\|first\\=W. Scott\\|date\\=September 24, 2004\\|work\\=\\[\\[San Antonio Business Journal]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805044848/https://www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/stories/2004/09/20/daily35\\.html?jst\\=b\\_ln\\_hl\\|archive\\-date\\=August 5, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Seven minutes into his second AHL game, Horton scored his first goal of the season.{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/back\\-to\\-back\\-wins\\-have\\-rampage\\-rolling/n\\-3097647\\|title\\=Back to back wins have Rampage rolling\\|date\\=November 1, 2004\\|work\\=Our Sports Central\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822132142/http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/back\\-to\\-back\\-wins\\-have\\-rampage\\-rolling/n\\-3097647\\|archive\\-date\\=August 22, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He recorded his first \ncareer AHL assist on a [Gregory Campbell](/wiki/Gregory_Campbell_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Gregory Campbell (ice hockey)\") goal.{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\\-win\\-west\\-shootout\\-split\\-games\\-for\\-the\\-week/n\\-3101452\\|title\\=Rampage Win West Shootout, Split Games for the Week\\|date\\=November 15, 2004\\|work\\=Our Sports Central\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183346/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\\-win\\-west\\-shootout\\-split\\-games\\-for\\-the\\-week/n\\-3101452\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On December 3, 2004, against the [Houston Aeros](/wiki/Houston_Aeros_%281994%E2%80%932013%29 \"Houston Aeros (1994–2013)\"), Horton scored both of the Rampage's goals to help the team win in overtime.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/horton\\-sinks\\-aeros\\-in\\-ot/n\\-3106581\\|title\\=Horton sinks Aeros in OT\\|date\\=December 3, 2004\\|work\\=Our Sports Central\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183346/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/horton\\-sinks\\-aeros\\-in\\-ot/n\\-3106581\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Horton with the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers \"Florida Panthers\") in November 2007](/wiki/image:Nathan_Horton.jpg \"Nathan Horton.jpg\")\nFor the second straight season, the Panthers did not allow Horton to play for the Canadian national junior team. He and Houston Aeros [defenceman](/wiki/Defenceman \"Defenceman\") [Brent Burns](/wiki/Brent_Burns \"Brent Burns\") were the only two players not allowed to play for the team.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/horton\\-burns\\-left\\-off\\-canada\\-s\\-world\\-junior\\-roster\\-1\\.482723\\|title\\=Horton, Burns left off Canada's world junior roster\\|date\\=December 5, 2004\\|work\\=CBC Sports\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423195605/http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2004/12/04/horton041204\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=April 23, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Days before the announcement Horton would not play for Team Canada, he suffered another shoulder injury which allegedly played into the Panthers' decision.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/12/07/pf\\-769994\\.html\\|title\\=Juniors ecstatic after being named to selection camp\\|last\\=Koshan\\|first\\=Terry\\|date\\=December 7, 2004\\|newspaper\\=Toronto Sun\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120719113643/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/12/07/pf\\-769994\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 19, 2012\\|publisher\\=Slam! Sports\\|url\\-status\\=usurped}} Horton suffered the shoulder injury in a fight in December and missed 14 games. He was informed he would again have to undergo surgery.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2005\\-02\\-01\\-0501310447\\-story.html\\|title\\=Once again, shoulder surgery ends year for Panthers' Horton\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=January 31, 2005\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527234617/https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2005\\-02\\-01\\-0501310447\\-story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 21 games for San Antonio, Horton scored five goals and recorded four assists.",
"Entering the [2005–06 season](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NHL_season \"2005–06 NHL season\"), Horton stated in response to a question about his shoulders: \"I feel better. I feel stronger, bigger.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article\\-1G1\\-136430307/horton\\-health\\-questions\\-issue.html\\|title\\=For Horton, health questions will be the issue\\|last\\=Neal\\|first\\=David J.\\|date\\=September 20, 2005\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Miami Herald]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009}} In the season opener against the [Atlanta Thrashers](/wiki/Atlanta_Thrashers \"Atlanta Thrashers\"), Horton scored the first goal for the Panthers.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105278/NHL17090\\.htm\\|title\\=Panthers 2, Thrashers 0\\|date\\=October 5, 2005\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215041324/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105278/NHL17090\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 15, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Through the first games of the season, Horton was tied for the team lead in goals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/8025/trio\\_strong\\_out\\_of\\_the\\_gate/\\|title\\=Trio strong out of the gate\\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=E. M.\\|date\\=October 17, 2005\\|website\\=Hockey's Future\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-06\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006234111/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/8025/trio\\_strong\\_out\\_of\\_the\\_gate/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On November 8, 2005, he was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve \"Injured reserve\") because of a knee injury.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=251109026\\|title\\=Prucha scores only goal in shootout\\|date\\=November 9, 2005\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103091016/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=251109026\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was activated on December 1{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/hockey/nhl/12/01/players.of.the.month/\\|title\\=Roundup: Alfredsson, Turco named Players of the Month\\|date\\=December 1, 2005\\|magazine\\=Sports Illustrated\\|access\\-date\\=October 3, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20131003222702/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/hockey/nhl/12/01/players.of.the.month/\\|archive\\-date\\=October 3, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and scored in his first game back against the [Washington Capitals](/wiki/Washington_Capitals \"Washington Capitals\") to help the Panthers win 3–2\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/sports/nhl\\-roundup\\-new\\-bruin\\-has\\-impact\\-in\\-victory.html\\|title\\=Capitals lose Fifth Straight\\|date\\=December 2, 2005\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623225216/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/sports/nhl\\-roundup\\-new\\-bruin\\-has\\-impact\\-in\\-victory.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 23, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Horton added two goals against the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks \"Chicago Blackhawks\") in the Panthers' next game to bring his season total to 10 in 17 games.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105339/NHL17203\\.htm\\|title\\=Senators\\-Panthers Preview\\|date\\=December 5, 2005\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107123301/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105339/NHL17203\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\") on December 13, Horton recorded his first career [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") and stated after the game: \"It's a pretty nice feeling. I felt like there was no one on me. I just tried to get it to the net and it went in every time.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105347/NHL17532\\.htm\\|title\\=Panthers 7, Predators 3\\|date\\=December 13, 2005\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214131854/http://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105347/NHL17532\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 14, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Despite missing ten games to injury, Horton was tied with teammate [Olli Jokinen](/wiki/Olli_Jokinen \"Olli Jokinen\") for the team lead in goals with 16 after 38 games.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt\\=65588\\&tid\\=28\\&t\\=0\\|title\\=Preview: Bruins vs. Panthers\\|date\\=December 28, 2005\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716192702/http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt\\=65588\\&tid\\=28\\&t\\=0\\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|publisher\\=Covers.com\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Against Washington on January 9, Horton and [Joe Nieuwendyk](/wiki/Joe_Nieuwendyk \"Joe Nieuwendyk\") scored a goal in the [shootout](/wiki/Shootout_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Shootout (ice hockey)\") to help the Panthers win 4–3\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/sports/nhl\\-roundup\\-rangers\\-get\\-a\\-scorer\\-in\\-sykora.html\\|title\\=Luongo saves Panthers\\|last\\=Diamos\\|first\\=Jason\\|date\\=January 9, 2006\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623223920/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/sports/nhl\\-roundup\\-rangers\\-get\\-a\\-scorer\\-in\\-sykora.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 23, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Two days after his shootout goal, Horton was promoted to the Panthers' [first line](/wiki/Line_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Line (ice hockey)\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/yourturn/viewtopic.php?t\\=52377\\|title\\=Fantasy: Goalies make poolies bonkers\\|last\\=Dennis\\|first\\=Greg\\|date\\=January 11, 2006\\|agency\\=\\[\\[The Canadian Press]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sporting News]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-13}}{{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Despite his promotion to the first line, Horton's name was mentioned in a potential trade with the [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks \"Vancouver Canucks\"),{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=150056\\&hubname\\=nhl\\|title\\=NHL Mail: Looking for a Shake\\-Up\\|last\\=Cullen\\|first\\=Scott\\|date\\=January 9, 2006\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sports Network\\|TSN]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009}} but nothing materialized. In a 6–2 win over the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators \"Ottawa Senators\"), Horton scored two goals including one on a [rebound](/wiki/Rebound_%28sports%29 \"Rebound (sports)\"), after which he said: \"It just popped right out to me. It was a long time coming for goals for me. I got lucky tonight and hopefully they keep going in.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106067/NHL18014\\.htm\\|title\\=Panthers 6, Senators 2\\|date\\=March 8, 2006\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217021331/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106067/NHL18014\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 17, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} In March, Horton began playing in [penalty kill](/wiki/Penalty_kill \"Penalty kill\") situations for the first time in his career.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary\\_0286\\-14563588\\_ITM\\|title\\=Spirits high despite loss\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=April 5, 2006\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009}} Also against the Lightning, Horton scored the Panthers' only goal with his 27th goal of the season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/preview?gameId\\=260405026\\|title\\=Atlanta 5, Florida 2\\|date\\=April 5, 2006\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103091127/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/preview?gameId\\=260405026\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Horton completed the season playing 71 games, scoring 28 goals and adding 19 assists.",
"Following the 2005–06 season, Horton's rookie contract expired. He was re\\-signed by Florida on July 12, 2006, to a one\\-year, $1\\.1 million contract.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article\\-1G1\\-148113155/horton\\-agrees\\-roberts\\-stay.html\\|title\\=Horton agrees; Roberts to stay: Florida retained winger Nathan Horton with a $1\\.1 million deal, and GM Mike Keenan expects winger Gary Roberts to remain\\|last\\=Richards\\|first\\=George\\|date\\=July 12, 2006\\|work\\=The Miami Herald\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009}} Against the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins \"Boston Bruins\"), Horton scored his first goal of the season to help the Panthers win 8–3\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct07/0,4670,NHLRdp,00\\.html\\|title\\=Panthers 8, Bruins 3\\|last\\=Beard\\|first\\=Aaron\\|date\\=October 7, 2006\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fox News Channel]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-23\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023125720/http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct07/0,4670,NHLRdp,00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He scored his third goal of the season on October 18 in a 5–2 loss against the Washington Capitals, who the Panthers had not lost to in regulation since the 2004–05 season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106291/NHL705355\\.htm\\|title\\=Capitals 5, Panthers 2\\|date\\=October 18, 2006\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107123304/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106291/NHL705355\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}} After Horton was called for a second\\-period penalty against Atlanta, head coach [Jacques Martin](/wiki/Jacques_Martin_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Jacques Martin (ice hockey)\") demoted Horton to the fourth line in an attempt to send a message to Horton. However, before long, Horton was again promoted to the first line, alongside Finnish players Olli Jokinen and [Ville Peltonen](/wiki/Ville_Peltonen \"Ville Peltonen\"), who jokingly gave Horton the name \"Nathan Hortonen\" in an attempt to make his name Finnish.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/scorecard/11/29/truth.rumors.nhl/\\|title\\=Truth \\& Rumors\\|date\\=November 29, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122122/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/scorecard/11/29/truth.rumors.nhl/\\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|magazine\\=Sports Illustrated}} Against the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens \"Montreal Canadiens\") on November 16, Horton assisted on all goals that Jokinen recorded.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.foxreno.com/sports/10340969/detail.html\\|title\\=NHL: Minnesota Wins In Wild Shootout\\|date\\=November 16, 2006\\|work\\=Fox Reno\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723223729/http://www.foxreno.com/sports/10340969/detail.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-23}} Against Tampa Bay on February 17, Horton scored the game\\-winning goal for Florida, 29 seconds into overtime.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\\-bin/article.cgi?f\\=/n/a/2007/02/17/sports/s192205S71\\.DTL\\|title\\=Horton Makes Quick Work of Lightning\\|date\\=February 17, 2007\\|work\\=\\[\\[San Francisco Chronicle]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14}} {{Dead link\\|date\\=October 2010\\|bot\\=H3llBot}}",
"For the second straight season, Horton's name was brought up in trade offers. However, Canadian sports writer Bruce Garrioch called it \"doubtful\" Horton would be traded{{cite news\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Ottawa/2007/02/15/3627552\\-sun.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120717063848/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Ottawa/2007/02/15/3627552\\-sun.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=July 17, 2012\\|title\\=Ont. rivals may battle for Roberts\\|last\\=Garrioch\\|first\\=Bruce\\|work\\=Sun Media\\|publisher\\=Slam! Sports\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14}} despite Horton being unhappy playing in Florida.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\\-144116448\\.html\\|title\\=Spirits high despite loss\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=April 5, 2006\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-11\\-06}}{{dead link\\|date\\=February 2019\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}} Against Tampa Bay on March 28, Horton scored two goals, which brought his season total for goals against the Lightning up to eight.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/28/Lightning/Ranger\\_nearing\\_an\\_ear.shtml\\|title\\=Ranger nearing an early return\\|last\\=Cristodero\\|first\\=Damian\\|date\\=March 28, 2007\\|work\\=\\[\\[St. Petersburg Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917030306/http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/28/Lightning/Ranger\\_nearing\\_an\\_ear.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the Panthers' next game against the Lightning, Horton had one goal which made it nine goals and three assists for him against Tampa Bay in the 2006–07 season. The goal also gave Horton his career\\-high 31st goal on the season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.boston.com/sports/hockey/articles/2007/04/07/thrashers\\_top\\_hurricanes\\_clinch\\_division/\\|title\\=Thrashers top Hurricanes, clinch division\\|date\\=April 7, 2007\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|work\\=\\[\\[Boston Globe]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024123752/http://www.boston.com/sports/hockey/articles/2007/04/07/thrashers\\_top\\_hurricanes\\_clinch\\_division/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He ended the season with 31 goals and 31 assists in 82 games.",
"Horton re\\-signed with the Panthers on June 21, 2007, to a six\\-year, [US](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")$24 million contract.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/news/story?id\\=2912280\\|title\\=Horton signs six\\-year, $24 million deal with Panthers\\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-15\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|date\\=June 21, 2007\\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-01\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901083916/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/news/story?id\\=2912280\\|url\\-status\\=live}} despite previous rumours he would not.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/web/COM1059136/index.htm\\|title\\=Truth \\& Rumors\\|date\\=February 1, 2007\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Palm Beach Post]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122132/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/web/COM1059136/index.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Through seven games for the Panthers to open the [2007–08 NHL season](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_NHL_season \"2007–08 NHL season\"), Horton recorded three goals and three assists, during which he had a four\\-game point streak.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2007\\-10\\-20/sens\\-riding\\-hot\\-goalie\\-gerber\\|title\\=Sens riding hot goalie in Gerber\\|date\\=October 20, 2007\\|work\\=Sporting News\\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121915/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2007\\-10\\-20/sens\\-riding\\-hot\\-goalie\\-gerber\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Horton scored the only goal for the Panthers in a 2–1 loss against the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes \"Carolina Hurricanes\") on November 18\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theindychannel.com/nhl/14628355/detail.html\\|title\\=Brind'Amour Boosts Carolina Over Florida\\|date\\=November 18, 2007\\|work\\=The Indy Channel\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119115110/http://www.theindychannel.com/nhl/14628355/detail.html\\|archive\\-date\\=November 19, 2007}} Against the Washington Capitals on November 28, Horton, along with teammates Olli Jokinen, [Kamil Kreps](/wiki/Kamil_Kreps \"Kamil Kreps\") and [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss \"Stephen Weiss\"), scored shootout goals to help Florida win the game.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2007\\-11\\-30/panthers\\-enter\\-december\\-hot\\-streak\\-after\\-strong\\-november\\|title\\=Panthers enter December on hot streak after strong November\\|date\\=November 30, 2007\\|work\\=Sporting News\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121927/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2007\\-11\\-30/panthers\\-enter\\-december\\-hot\\-streak\\-after\\-strong\\-november\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} For the first time since March 2007, Horton scored two goals in a game to help the Panthers win over the Atlanta Thrashers on December 28\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.foxnews.com/printer\\_friendly\\_wires/2007Dec28/0,4675,HKNNHLRdp,00\\.html\\|title\\=Another Night, Another Wings Win\\|date\\=December 28, 2007\\|publisher\\=Fox News Channel\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310074251/https://www.foxnews.com/printer\\_friendly\\_wires/2007Dec28/0,4675,HKNNHLRdp,00\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Horton and linemate [David Booth](/wiki/David_Booth_%28ice_hockey%29 \"David Booth (ice hockey)\") combined for three goals against the [New York Islanders](/wiki/New_York_Islanders \"New York Islanders\"), of which Horton scored two.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2008\\-01\\-03/panthers\\-end\\-skid\\-ot\\-win\\-over\\-isles\\|title\\=Panthers end skid with OT win over Isles\\|date\\=January 3, 2008\\|work\\=Sporting News\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121938/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2008\\-01\\-03/panthers\\-end\\-skid\\-ot\\-win\\-over\\-isles\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} In the Panthers' 5–3 win over the Ottawa Senators on January 22, 2008, Horton recorded four assists,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\\-Rookie\\-Russell\\-leads\\-Blue\\-Jackets\\-past\\-Stars\\-1673197\\.php\\|title\\=Rookie Russell leads Blue Jackets past Stars\\|date\\=January 23, 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024051312/https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\\-Rookie\\-Russell\\-leads\\-Blue\\-Jackets\\-past\\-Stars\\-1673197\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=October 24, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live}} which was a career–high.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.seattlepi.com/scorecard/hockeynews.asp?articleID\\=48795\\|title\\=Edmonton wraps road swing in Florida\\|date\\=January 24, 2008\\|work\\=Seattle Post\\-Intelligencer\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15}} {{Dead link\\|date\\=December 2011\\|bot\\=RjwilmsiBot}} Horton scored against Vancouver Canucks goaltender and former Panther [Roberto Luongo](/wiki/Roberto_Luongo \"Roberto Luongo\") in a shootout to help the Panthers win 4–3, giving them their first win over Vancouver since 1999\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\\=nhl\\&id\\=3226755\\|title\\=Nathan Horton scores in shootout and Panthers beat Canucks 4\\-3\\|date\\=February 1, 2008\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103093658/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section\\=nhl\\&id\\=3226755\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Horton scored a goal against the Washington Capitals to help Florida win 4–2 in the game after [Richard Zedník](/wiki/Richard_Zedn%C3%ADk \"Richard Zedník\") suffered a neck injury in which he had his [external carotid artery](/wiki/External_carotid_artery \"External carotid artery\") cut by a skate.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.modbee.com/sports/story/213262\\.html\\|title\\=Sharks ready for tough road\\|date\\=February 16, 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[Modesto Bee]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130129151702/http://www.modbee.com/sports/story/213262\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=January 29, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Twenty\\-two seconds into overtime against the Boston Bruins on March 5, Horton scored to give the Panthers a 1–0 victory.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Forsberg\\-sharp\\-in\\-first\\-game\\-3292494\\.php\\|title\\=Forsberg sharp in first game Penguins' Crosby returns triumphant 0\\|date\\=March 5, 2008\\|work\\=San Francisco Chronicle\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623221921/https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Forsberg\\-sharp\\-in\\-first\\-game\\-3292494\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=June 23, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Four days later on March 9, Horton scored again in overtime with 23 seconds left, prompting the *[Miami Herald](/wiki/Miami_Herald \"Miami Herald\")* to nickname him the \"King of Overtime\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\\-search/we/Archives?p\\_product\\=MH\\&s\\_site\\=miami\\&p\\_multi\\=MH\\&p\\_theme\\=realcities\\&p\\_action\\=search\\&p\\_maxdocs\\=200\\&p\\_topdoc\\=1\\&p\\_text\\_direct\\-0\\=11F4DBEF0E41B050\\&p\\_field\\_direct\\-0\\=document\\_id\\&p\\_perpage\\=10\\&p\\_sort\\=YMD\\_date:D\\&s\\_trackval\\=GooglePM\\|title\\=Horton sparks Florida, Nathan Horton scored with 23 seconds left in overtime, and the surging Panthers rallied from a 2\\-0 deficit for their fourth consecutive victory\\|date\\=March 9, 2008\\|work\\=The Miami Herald\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-20\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020200559/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\\-search/we/Archives?p\\_product\\=MH\\&s\\_site\\=miami\\&p\\_multi\\=MH\\&p\\_theme\\=realcities\\&p\\_action\\=search\\&p\\_maxdocs\\=200\\&p\\_topdoc\\=1\\&p\\_text\\_direct\\-0\\=11F4DBEF0E41B050\\&p\\_field\\_direct\\-0\\=document\\_id\\&p\\_perpage\\=10\\&p\\_sort\\=YMD\\_date:D\\&s\\_trackval\\=GooglePM\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On April 5, Horton scored his 100th career goal.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\\-NOTES\\-Blackhawks\\-Eager\\-misses\\-12th\\-straight\\-1762680\\.php\\|title\\=Blackhawks' Eager misses 12 straight game\\|date\\=April 5, 2008\\|work\\=Houston Chronicle\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183347/http://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\\-NOTES\\-Blackhawks\\-Eager\\-misses\\-12th\\-straight\\-1762680\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Horton standing next to teammate [Ville Peltonen](/wiki/Ville_Peltonen \"Ville Peltonen\") in [February 2009](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season \"2008–09 NHL season\")\\|alt\\=Canadian male in white uniform and white helmet standing next to European male also in white uniform and helmet](/wiki/File:Ville_Peltonen_and_Nathan_Horton.jpg \"Ville Peltonen and Nathan Horton.jpg\")",
"Prior to the start of the [2008–09 NHL season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season \"2008–09 NHL season\"), Panthers head coach [Peter DeBoer](/wiki/Peter_DeBoer \"Peter DeBoer\"), who first saw Horton play at seven years old, said about his hopes for Horton: \"If I'm looking for guys to do more, he wouldn't be at the top of the list. If he can give us 30\\-plus, I'd be happy with Nathan. There's a group of guys underneath him that I think can make a lot bigger jumps than I need out of Nathan Horton goal\\-wise.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/1571055171\\.html?dids\\=1571055171:1571055171\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+10%2C\\+2008\\&author\\=Steve\\+Gorten\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=ONUS\\+IS\\+ON\\+HORTON\\+TALENTED\\+YOUNG\\+CENTER\\+BEING\\+COUNTED\\+ON\\+TO\\+FILL\\+SCORING\\+VOID\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Onus is on Horton: Talented Young Center being counted on to fill scoring void\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=October 10, 2008\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023112228/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/1571055171\\.html?dids\\=1571055171:1571055171\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+10,\\+2008\\&author\\=Steve\\+Gorten\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=ONUS\\+IS\\+ON\\+HORTON\\+TALENTED\\+YOUNG\\+CENTER\\+BEING\\+COUNTED\\+ON\\+TO\\+FILL\\+SCORING\\+VOID\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Horton was also moved from his position of [right wing](/wiki/Right_Wing_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Right Wing (ice hockey)\") to [centre](/wiki/Centre_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Centre (ice hockey)\") before the season. After playing a few games at centre, Horton said: \"It's not as easy as wing. You can play wing and all you have to concentrate on is getting the puck and shooting it. At center, you have more responsibilities.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/1581187181\\.html?dids\\=1581187181:1581187181\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+21%2C\\+2008\\&author\\=Posted\\+by\\+Steve\\+Gorten\\+at\\+6%3A21\\+PM\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+STILL\\+GETTING\\+COMFY\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Horton still getting comfy\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=October 21, 2008\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023112239/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/1581187181\\.html?dids\\=1581187181:1581187181\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+21,\\+2008\\&author\\=Posted\\+by\\+Steve\\+Gorten\\+at\\+6:21\\+PM\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+STILL\\+GETTING\\+COMFY\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Against the Nashville Predators on November 1, Horton played in his 300th career game, but failed to record a point.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores108/108306/NHL829996\\.htm\\|title\\=Erat scores lone goal of shootout in Preds' win\\|date\\=November 1, 2008\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172222/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores108/108306/NHL829996\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} On November 26, Horton suffered a deep cut in his leg after it was stepped on by a skate. At the time of the injury, Horton had six goals and seven assists.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/panthers/content/sports/epaper/2008/11/27/a9b\\_panthers\\_1128\\.html\\|title\\=Panthers center Nathan Horton won't play tonight vs. Rangers\\|date\\=November 27, 2008\\|work\\=The Miami Herald\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617020955/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/panthers/content/sports/epaper/2008/11/27/a9b\\_panthers\\_1128\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 17, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In early December, the *[Ottawa Sun](/wiki/Ottawa_Sun \"Ottawa Sun\")* reported that the Panthers might have been looking to trade Horton after he was reportedly unhappy playing for the team.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.thefourthperiod.com/news/fla081207\\.html\\|title\\=Panthers shopping Horton?\\|date\\=December 7, 2008\\|publisher\\=TheFourthPeriod.com\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-11\\-01\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122075825/http://www.thefourthperiod.com/news/fla081207\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=January 22, 2009}} Horton returned to the lineup on December 17 after missing eight games. After the game, Horton commented, \"I'm excited to play. It's kind of a different Panthers team than the past. It's really changed in a matter of a month. Things are going good now, and everybody's really buying into what Pete has been telling us all year.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2008\\-12\\-16\\-0812150385\\-story.html\\|title\\=Loss in Vancouver 'Missed Opportunity'\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=December 16, 2008\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527230249/https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2008\\-12\\-16\\-0812150385\\-story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On January 17, Horton recorded three assists to help the Panthers defeat Tampa Bay, 4–3\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.upi.com/Sports\\_News/2009/01/17/NHL\\-Florida\\-4\\-Tampa\\-Bay\\-3/UPI\\-30171232251330/\\|title\\=NHL: Florida 4, Tampa Bay 3\\|date\\=January 17, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605084638/https://www.upi.com/Sports\\_News/2009/01/17/NHL\\-Florida\\-4\\-Tampa\\-Bay\\-3/UPI\\-30171232251330/\\|archive\\-date\\=June 5, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|work\\=\\[\\[United Press International]]}} For the second time during the season, Horton's name came up in trade rumours, this time with the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks \"Chicago Blackhawks\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2009\\-02\\-21/blackhawks\\-chief\\-looking\\-shore\\-lineup\\|title\\=Blackhawks chief looking to shore up lineup\\|last\\=Slover\\|first\\=Ray\\|date\\=February 21, 2009\\|work\\=Sporting News\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603122028/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2009\\-02\\-21/blackhawks\\-chief\\-looking\\-shore\\-lineup\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In early March, days after the trade deadline, Horton suffered a finger injury that forced him to have surgery.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/sports/epaper/2009/03/09/0309panthers.html\\|title\\=Panthers' Nathan Horton out 2\\-4 weeks; Bryan McCabe out at least two games\\|last\\=Biggane\\|first\\=Brian\\|date\\=March 9, 2009\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Palm Beach Post]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617021012/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/sports/epaper/2009/03/09/0309panthers.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 17, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He returned to the lineup on March 23, recording an assist in a Panthers loss to the Carolina Hurricanes.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores109/109082/NHL830751\\.htm\\|title\\=Whitney's OT goal lifts Canes to win over Panthers\\|date\\=March 23, 2009\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315022411/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores109/109082/NHL830751\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=March 15, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Horton ended the season with 22 goals and 23 assists in 67 games.",
"### Boston Bruins",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|Horton with the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins \"Boston Bruins\") in January 2012](/wiki/File:NathanHortonBruins2012.jpg \"NathanHortonBruins2012.jpg\") Horton was traded to the Boston Bruins on June 22, 2010, along with Gregory Campbell, in exchange for [Dennis Wideman](/wiki/Dennis_Wideman \"Dennis Wideman\"), the Bruins' first\\-round pick (15th overall) in the [2010 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2010_NHL_Entry_Draft \"2010 NHL Entry Draft\") and a third\\-round pick in the [2011 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2011_NHL_Entry_Draft \"2011 NHL Entry Draft\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=325375\\|title\\=Panthers Deal Horton, Campbell to Bruins for Wideman, Picks\\|date\\=June 23, 2010\\|work\\=The Sports Network\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629065404/http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=325375\\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He got off to a great start in his first season in Boston, with seven goals and six assists, including a six\\-game point streak, in the first 12 games of the season. He finished second on the team in goals and fourth in assists.",
"During the first round of the [2011 Stanley Cup playoffs](/wiki/2011_Stanley_Cup_playoffs \"2011 Stanley Cup playoffs\"), Horton scored a game\\-winning overtime goal for the Bruins in both games five and seven to help the Bruins win the series over the Montreal Canadiens.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cbssports.com/nhl/gametracker/recap/NHL\\_20110427\\_MON@BOS\\|title\\=Horton finishes Game 7 win over Habs in OT for B's\\|date\\=April 27, 2011\\|work\\=CBS Sports\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311021558/https://www.cbssports.com/nhl/gametracker/recap/NHL\\_20110427\\_MON@BOS\\|archive\\-date\\=March 11, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=\\[\\[STATS LLC]], Associated Press}} A third period goal by Horton against the Tampa Bay Lightning in Eastern Conference Finals Game 7, the lone goal of the game, later sent the Bruins to the [Stanley Cup Finals](/wiki/2011_Stanley_Cup_Finals \"2011 Stanley Cup Finals\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/icetracker.htm?id\\=2010030317 \\|title\\=Tampa Bay Lightning at Boston Bruins \\- May 27th, 2011 {{!}} NHL.com \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-28 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-28 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110528144346/http://www.nhl.com/ice/icetracker.htm?id\\=2010030317 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In game three of the [2011 Stanley Cup Finals](/wiki/2011_Stanley_Cup_Finals \"2011 Stanley Cup Finals\"), Horton was seriously injured on a late hit by Vancouver Canucks defenceman [Aaron Rome](/wiki/Aaron_Rome \"Aaron Rome\"). Rome received a five\\-minute major for interference and a game misconduct. Horton was unresponsive as he was carried out on a stretcher and put into an ambulance. He was moving all his extremities in the ambulance.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/nhl/2011\\-06\\-06\\-horton\\-stretcher\\_N.htm\\|title\\=Bruins' Nathan Horton taken off the Boston ice on stretcher\\|last\\=Allen\\|first\\=Kevin\\|date\\=June 6, 2011\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=June 7, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514030540/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/nhl/2011\\-06\\-06\\-horton\\-stretcher\\_N.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=May 14, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He was later diagnosed with a severe [concussion](/wiki/Concussion \"Concussion\") and missed the remainder of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals. This was arguably the turning point in the series, as the Bruins would go on to win four of the next five games and score 21 of the next 25 goals after the hit. Rome was suspended for four games.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/boston/nhl/news/story?id\\=6634296 \\|title\\=2011 Stanley Cup playoffs: Vancouver Canucks' Aaron Rome suspended 4 games, Boston Bruins' Nathan Horton to miss rest of playoffs \\|date\\=7 June 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608201301/http://sports.espn.go.com/boston/nhl/news/story?id\\=6634296 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Although Horton missed the remainder of the finals, he was able to hoist the Stanley Cup in [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver \"Vancouver\") on June 15 after the Bruins won Game 7\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2019}}",
"On January 22, 2012, Horton sustained another concussion, this time from Philadelphia Flyers forward [Tom Sestito](/wiki/Tom_Sestito \"Tom Sestito\"). Horton would not return for the remainder of the season or for the playoffs. Nathan Horton did not play for another team during the [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout \"2012–13 NHL lockout\") and made his 2013 season debut for the Bruins on January 19, 2013, opening night against the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers \"New York Rangers\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2019}}",
"On the day of the [2013 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2013_NHL_Entry_Draft \"2013 NHL Entry Draft\"), Horton's representatives confirmed he had informed Bruins general manager [Peter Chiarelli](/wiki/Peter_Chiarelli_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Peter Chiarelli (ice hockey)\") he would not be re\\-signing with Boston.[\"Horton out; B's willing to listen on Seguin.\"](https://www.espn.com/blog/nhl/post/_/id/25794/horton-out-bs-willing-to-listen-on-seguin) ESPN. Retrieved 2013\\-June\\-30\\.",
"### Columbus Blue Jackets",
"On July 5, 2013, Horton signed a seven\\-year free agent contract worth $37\\.1 million with the [Columbus Blue Jackets](/wiki/Columbus_Blue_Jackets \"Columbus Blue Jackets\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cbssports.com/nhl/blog/eye\\-on\\-hockey/22648612/nathan\\-horton\\-signs\\-with\\-blue\\-jackets\\-for\\-seven\\-seasons\\|title\\=Nathan Horton signs with Blue Jackets for seven seasons\\|last\\=Stubits\\|first\\=Brian\\|date\\=July 5, 2013\\|work\\=CBS Sports\\|access\\-date\\=July 5, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919225500/http://www.cbssports.com/nhl/news/nathan\\-horton\\-signs\\-with\\-blue\\-jackets\\-for\\-seven\\-seasons/\\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, off\\-season shoulder surgery would sideline Horton until January 2, 2014, when he finally made his Blue Jackets debut and scored the game\\-winning goal in a 2–0 victory over the [Phoenix Coyotes](/wiki/Arizona_Coyotes \"Arizona Coyotes\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://nesn.com/2014/01/nathan\\-horton\\-scores\\-in\\-blue\\-jackets\\-debut\\-says\\-its\\-so\\-exciting\\-to\\-be\\-back\\-in\\-return\\-to\\-nhl\\-play/\\|title\\=Nathan Horton Scores in Blue Jackets Debut, Says 'It's So Exciting to Be Back' in Return to NHL Play\\|date\\=January 3, 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[New England Sports Network]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813071045/https://nesn.com/2014/01/nathan\\-horton\\-scores\\-in\\-blue\\-jackets\\-debut\\-says\\-its\\-so\\-exciting\\-to\\-be\\-back\\-in\\-return\\-to\\-nhl\\-play/\\|archive\\-date\\=August 13, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}}",
"During the first period of a March 10, 2014 game against the Dallas Stars, Horton scored a goal to put the Blue Jackets ahead, 1–0\\. Shortly thereafter, Dallas Stars center (and Horton's former Bruins teammate) [Rich Peverley](/wiki/Rich_Peverley \"Rich Peverley\") collapsed on the bench. Play was suspended, and on April 9, 2014, the game restarted from the beginning, with the Blue Jackets leading, 1–0\\. Horton was unavailable for the restarted game due to an injury, but his goal from the original game was still recorded in official statistics, making him the only NHL player known to score in a game in which he did not play.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nhl.com/news/columbus\\-f\\-nathan\\-horton\\-credited\\-with\\-goal\\-despite\\-missing\\-makeup\\-game\\-in\\-dallas\\-with\\-injury/c\\-713641 \\|title\\=Columbus F Nathan Horton credited with goal despite missing makeup game in Dallas with injury \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-24 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324015302/https://www.nhl.com/news/columbus\\-f\\-nathan\\-horton\\-credited\\-with\\-goal\\-despite\\-missing\\-makeup\\-game\\-in\\-dallas\\-with\\-injury/c\\-713641 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-04\\-09 \\|title\\=Nathan Horton out vs. Stars, will have goal in game he doesn't play \\|url\\=https://www.cbssports.com/nhl/news/nathan\\-horton\\-out\\-vs\\-stars\\-will\\-have\\-goal\\-in\\-game\\-he\\-doesnt\\-play/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-19 \\|website\\=CBSSports.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"In October 2014, Horton was diagnosed with a degenerative back injury of the [lumbar region](/wiki/Lumbar \"Lumbar\") that ended his [2014–15 season](/wiki/2014-15_NHL_season \"2014-15 NHL season\") and threatened to end his career.{{Cite news\\|url \\= http://bluejacketsxtra.dispatch.com/content/stories/2014/10/22/1021\\-blue\\-jackets\\-horton.html\\|title \\= Blue Jackets: Back injury threatening Nathan Horton's season, and career\\|last \\= Portzline\\|first \\= Aaron\\|date \\= October 21, 2014\\|work \\= Columbus Dispatch\\|access\\-date \\= October 21, 2014\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20141022004742/http://bluejacketsxtra.dispatch.com/content/stories/2014/10/22/1021\\-blue\\-jackets\\-horton.html\\|archive\\-date \\= October 22, 2014\\|url\\-status \\= dead}}",
"### Toronto Maple Leafs",
"On February 26, 2015, with Horton on the long\\-term injured list and with no sign of return, he was traded due to financial considerations by the Blue Jackets to the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\") in exchange for [David Clarkson](/wiki/David_Clarkson_%28ice_hockey%29 \"David Clarkson (ice hockey)\"). The trade allowed the Maple Leafs to get rid of Clarkson's unfavorable contract, while Horton's presence on the long\\-term injury list meant Toronto would not need to count his contract towards the salary cap.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/leafs\\-trade\\-clarkson\\-to\\-jackets\\-for\\-horton\\-1\\.217149\\|title\\=Leafs ship Clarkson to Columbus for Horton\\|date\\=February 26, 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sports Network]]\\|access\\-date\\=February 26, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724183555/https://www.tsn.ca/leafs\\-trade\\-clarkson\\-to\\-jackets\\-for\\-horton\\-1\\.217149\\|archive\\-date\\=July 24, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=\\[\\[The Canadian Press]]}} Horton would not play a single game for the Leafs; he failed every single physical before each season with the team.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cbssports.com/fantasy/hockey/news/maple\\-leafs\\-nathan\\-horton\\-fails\\-medical/\\|title\\=Maple Leafs' Nathan Horton: Fails medical\\|date\\=September 14, 2017\\|work\\=\\[\\[CBS Sports]]\\|access\\-date\\=July 24, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724183640/https://www.cbssports.com/fantasy/hockey/news/maple\\-leafs\\-nathan\\-horton\\-fails\\-medical/\\|archive\\-date\\=July 24, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=\\[\\[RotoWire]]}}",
""
] |
### Florida Panthers
Horton signed with the Panthers on October 6, 2003\.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/419440611\.html?dids\=419440611:419440611\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+06%2C\+2003\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=TOP\+ROOKIE\+HORTON\+SET\+TO\+SIGN\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Top Rookie Horton set to Sign\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=October 6, 2003\|work\=\[\[South Florida Sun\-Sentinel]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023051117/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/419440611\.html?dids\=419440611:419440611\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+06,\+2003\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=TOP\+ROOKIE\+HORTON\+SET\+TO\+SIGN\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} After his signing, Panthers head coach [Mike Keenan](/wiki/Mike_Keenan "Mike Keenan") compared Horton to future [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers "New York Rangers") [Hall of Famer](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame "Hockey Hall of Fame") [Mark Messier](/wiki/Mark_Messier "Mark Messier").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/penguins/20031107pens1107p2\.asp\|title\=Horton upholds his part of deal\|last\=Molinari\|first\=Dave\|date\=November 7, 2003\|work\=Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201616/http://old.post\-gazette.com/penguins/20031107pens1107p2\.asp\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=live}}
Against the [Minnesota Wild](/wiki/Minnesota_Wild "Minnesota Wild") on October 24, Horton recorded his first career point with an assist on an [Ivan Novoseltsev](/wiki/Ivan_Novoseltsev "Ivan Novoseltsev") goal.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sptimes.com/2003/10/25/Sports/Wild\_comeback\_drops\_P.shtml\|title\=Wild comeback drops Panthers\|date\=October 25, 2003\|work\=\[\[St. Petersburg Times]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040427230035/http://www.sptimes.com/2003/10/25/Sports/Wild\_comeback\_drops\_P.shtml\|archive\-date\=April 27, 2004\|url\-status\=dead}} Horton recorded his first career goal on November 1 against the [San Jose Sharks](/wiki/San_Jose_Sharks "San Jose Sharks").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1\-86547484\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102075751/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1\-86547484\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=November 2, 2012\|title\=Nathan Horton first NHL goal \|last\=Schecter\|first\=Eliot J.\|date\=November 1, 2003\|work\=\[\[Getty Images]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12}} In the next game for the Panthers, against the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings "Los Angeles Kings"), Horton scored his second goal in as many games.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=231105026\|title\=Kings take advantage of power plays\|date\=November 5, 2003\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201610/http://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=231105026\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=dead\|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]]\|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}} On January 9, 2004, Horton became the first rookie in NHL history to record a goal on a [penalty shot](/wiki/Penalty_shot "Penalty shot"), scoring against [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers "Philadelphia Flyers") goaltender [Jeff Hackett](/wiki/Jeff_Hackett "Jeff Hackett").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/games/2004\-01\-09\-panthers\-flyers\_x.htm\|title\=Teen\-ager skates to NHL record\|date\=January 9, 2004\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025141808/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/games/2004\-01\-09\-panthers\-flyers\_x.htm\|archive\-date\=October 25, 2012\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Three seasons later, on October 22, 2006, Penguins rookie [Jordan Staal](/wiki/Jordan_Staal "Jordan Staal") matched the feat and surpassed Horton as the youngest player to score; Staal was 183 days younger than Horton was when he scored.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id\=2634615\|title\=Elias Says ...\|date\=October 22, 2006\|work\=\[\[Elias Sports Bureau]]\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201743/http://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id\=2634615\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=live}} Four days after his penalty shot goal, Horton suffered a [torn rotator cuff](/wiki/Torn_rotator_cuff "Torn rotator cuff") and [labrum](/wiki/Glenoid_labrum "Glenoid labrum") which could potentially have ended his season.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/524749701\.html?dids\=524749701:524749701\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+15%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=OUTLOOK\+FOR\+HORTON\+ISN%27T\+ENCOURAGING\&pqatl\=google\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130131202518/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/524749701\.html?dids\=524749701:524749701\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+15,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=OUTLOOK\+FOR\+HORTON\+ISN'T\+ENCOURAGING\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 31, 2013\|title\=Outlook for Horton isn't Encouraging\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=January 15, 2004\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009}}{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/523890671\.html?dids\=523890671:523890671\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+13%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON%27S\+YEAR\+MAY\+BE\+OVER\&pqatl\=google\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130131172135/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/523890671\.html?dids\=523890671:523890671\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+13,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON'S\+YEAR\+MAY\+BE\+OVER\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 31, 2013\|title\=Horton's year may be over\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=January 13, 2004\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009}} At the time, he was third on the Panthers with ten goals.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/525224481\.html?dids\=525224481:525224481\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+16%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+OUT\+FOR\+SEASON\+PANTHERS\+ROOKIE\+FORWARD\+HAS\+MULTIPLE\+SHOULDER\+INJURIES%2C\+FACES\+SURGERY\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Horton out for season: Panthers rookie Forward has multiple shoulder injuries, faces surgery\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=January 16, 2004\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054513/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/525224481\.html?dids\=525224481:525224481\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Jan\+16,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+OUT\+FOR\+SEASON\+PANTHERS\+ROOKIE\+FORWARD\+HAS\+MULTIPLE\+SHOULDER\+INJURIES,\+FACES\+SURGERY\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} Following an examination by surgeon Tony Miniaci, Horton was told he could rehabilitate naturally and did not require surgery on his shoulder.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/591135381\.html?dids\=591135381:591135381\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Mar\+28%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+LIKELY\+TO\+REQUIRE\+SURGERY\+SHOULDER\+STILL\+HURTS\+ROOKIE\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Horton Likely to Require Surgery, Shoulder still Hurts Rookie\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=March 28, 2004\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054525/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/591135381\.html?dids\=591135381:591135381\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Mar\+28,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+LIKELY\+TO\+REQUIRE\+SURGERY\+SHOULDER\+STILL\+HURTS\+ROOKIE\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} He returned to the Panthers in early March and scored in one of his first games back against the [Tampa Bay Lightning](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Lightning "Tampa Bay Lightning").{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/552028531\.html?dids\=552028531:552028531\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Feb\+27%2C\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=CULLEN\+BECOMING\+A\+PLAYMAKER\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Lightning extend franchise\-best win streak to eight\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=March 7, 2004\|work\=\[\[Seattle Post\-Intelligencer]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023055000/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/552028531\.html?dids\=552028531:552028531\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Feb\+27,\+2004\&author\=Michael\+Russo\+Staff\+Writer\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=CULLEN\+BECOMING\+A\+PLAYMAKER\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} However, his shoulder troubles continued and it was determined that surgery was ultimately required. Horton ended his rookie campaign with 14 goals and 8 assists in 55 games.
The [2004–05 NHL season](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_NHL_season "2004–05 NHL season") ended up being [locked out](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_NHL_Lockout "2004–05 NHL Lockout") which forced Horton and other players to sign with other teams. Horton eventually signed with the Panthers' [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League "American Hockey League") (AHL) affiliate, the [San Antonio Rampage](/wiki/San_Antonio_Rampage "San Antonio Rampage"),{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3096960\&l\_id\=\&t\_id\=\|title\=Rampage sign Nathan Horton to AHL contract\|date\=October 29, 2004\|work\=Our Sports Central\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183347/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\-sign\-nathan\-horton\-to\-ahl\-contract/n\-3096960\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2016\|url\-status\=live}} after a controversy ensued as to whether junior\-hockey\-eligible players such as Horton were obligated to return to their junior teams.{{cite news\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/09/29/pf\-648500\.html\|title\=CHL wants its NHLers back in fold\|last\=Koshan\|first\=Terry\|date\=September 29, 2004\|newspaper\=\[\[Toronto Sun]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120716015556/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/09/29/pf\-648500\.html\|archive\-date\=July 16, 2012\|url\-status\=usurped\|publisher\=Slam! Sports}} Despite not signing with the Rampage until October 29, Horton still participated in their training camp.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/stories/2004/09/20/daily35\.html?jst\=b\_ln\_hl\|title\=Rampage drop the puck Sunday\|last\=Bailey\|first\=W. Scott\|date\=September 24, 2004\|work\=\[\[San Antonio Business Journal]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805044848/https://www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/stories/2004/09/20/daily35\.html?jst\=b\_ln\_hl\|archive\-date\=August 5, 2011\|url\-status\=live}} Seven minutes into his second AHL game, Horton scored his first goal of the season.{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/back\-to\-back\-wins\-have\-rampage\-rolling/n\-3097647\|title\=Back to back wins have Rampage rolling\|date\=November 1, 2004\|work\=Our Sports Central\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822132142/http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/back\-to\-back\-wins\-have\-rampage\-rolling/n\-3097647\|archive\-date\=August 22, 2016\|url\-status\=live}} He recorded his first
career AHL assist on a [Gregory Campbell](/wiki/Gregory_Campbell_%28ice_hockey%29 "Gregory Campbell (ice hockey)") goal.{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\-win\-west\-shootout\-split\-games\-for\-the\-week/n\-3101452\|title\=Rampage Win West Shootout, Split Games for the Week\|date\=November 15, 2004\|work\=Our Sports Central\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183346/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\-win\-west\-shootout\-split\-games\-for\-the\-week/n\-3101452\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2016\|url\-status\=live}} On December 3, 2004, against the [Houston Aeros](/wiki/Houston_Aeros_%281994%E2%80%932013%29 "Houston Aeros (1994–2013)"), Horton scored both of the Rampage's goals to help the team win in overtime.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/horton\-sinks\-aeros\-in\-ot/n\-3106581\|title\=Horton sinks Aeros in OT\|date\=December 3, 2004\|work\=Our Sports Central\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183346/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/horton\-sinks\-aeros\-in\-ot/n\-3106581\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2016\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Horton with the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers "Florida Panthers") in November 2007](/wiki/image:Nathan_Horton.jpg "Nathan Horton.jpg")
For the second straight season, the Panthers did not allow Horton to play for the Canadian national junior team. He and Houston Aeros [defenceman](/wiki/Defenceman "Defenceman") [Brent Burns](/wiki/Brent_Burns "Brent Burns") were the only two players not allowed to play for the team.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/horton\-burns\-left\-off\-canada\-s\-world\-junior\-roster\-1\.482723\|title\=Horton, Burns left off Canada's world junior roster\|date\=December 5, 2004\|work\=CBC Sports\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423195605/http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2004/12/04/horton041204\.html\|archive\-date\=April 23, 2008\|url\-status\=live}} Days before the announcement Horton would not play for Team Canada, he suffered another shoulder injury which allegedly played into the Panthers' decision.{{cite news\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/12/07/pf\-769994\.html\|title\=Juniors ecstatic after being named to selection camp\|last\=Koshan\|first\=Terry\|date\=December 7, 2004\|newspaper\=Toronto Sun\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120719113643/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/12/07/pf\-769994\.html\|archive\-date\=July 19, 2012\|publisher\=Slam! Sports\|url\-status\=usurped}} Horton suffered the shoulder injury in a fight in December and missed 14 games. He was informed he would again have to undergo surgery.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2005\-02\-01\-0501310447\-story.html\|title\=Once again, shoulder surgery ends year for Panthers' Horton\|last\=Russo\|first\=Michael\|date\=January 31, 2005\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527234617/https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2005\-02\-01\-0501310447\-story.html\|archive\-date\=May 27, 2019\|url\-status\=live}} In 21 games for San Antonio, Horton scored five goals and recorded four assists.
Entering the [2005–06 season](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NHL_season "2005–06 NHL season"), Horton stated in response to a question about his shoulders: "I feel better. I feel stronger, bigger."{{cite news\|url\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article\-1G1\-136430307/horton\-health\-questions\-issue.html\|title\=For Horton, health questions will be the issue\|last\=Neal\|first\=David J.\|date\=September 20, 2005\|work\=\[\[The Miami Herald]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009}} In the season opener against the [Atlanta Thrashers](/wiki/Atlanta_Thrashers "Atlanta Thrashers"), Horton scored the first goal for the Panthers.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105278/NHL17090\.htm\|title\=Panthers 2, Thrashers 0\|date\=October 5, 2005\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215041324/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105278/NHL17090\.htm\|archive\-date\=December 15, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Through the first games of the season, Horton was tied for the team lead in goals.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/8025/trio\_strong\_out\_of\_the\_gate/\|title\=Trio strong out of the gate\|last\=Brown\|first\=E. M.\|date\=October 17, 2005\|website\=Hockey's Future\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-date\=2008\-10\-06\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006234111/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/8025/trio\_strong\_out\_of\_the\_gate/\|url\-status\=live}} On November 8, 2005, he was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve "Injured reserve") because of a knee injury.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=251109026\|title\=Prucha scores only goal in shootout\|date\=November 9, 2005\|agency\=Associated Press\|publisher\=ESPN\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103091016/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=251109026\|url\-status\=dead}} He was activated on December 1{{cite magazine\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/hockey/nhl/12/01/players.of.the.month/\|title\=Roundup: Alfredsson, Turco named Players of the Month\|date\=December 1, 2005\|magazine\=Sports Illustrated\|access\-date\=October 3, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20131003222702/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/hockey/nhl/12/01/players.of.the.month/\|archive\-date\=October 3, 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} and scored in his first game back against the [Washington Capitals](/wiki/Washington_Capitals "Washington Capitals") to help the Panthers win 3–2\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/sports/nhl\-roundup\-new\-bruin\-has\-impact\-in\-victory.html\|title\=Capitals lose Fifth Straight\|date\=December 2, 2005\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623225216/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/sports/nhl\-roundup\-new\-bruin\-has\-impact\-in\-victory.html\|archive\-date\=June 23, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Horton added two goals against the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks "Chicago Blackhawks") in the Panthers' next game to bring his season total to 10 in 17 games.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105339/NHL17203\.htm\|title\=Senators\-Panthers Preview\|date\=December 5, 2005\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-date\=2021\-11\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107123301/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105339/NHL17203\.htm\|url\-status\=live}} Against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators") on December 13, Horton recorded his first career [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick") and stated after the game: "It's a pretty nice feeling. I felt like there was no one on me. I just tried to get it to the net and it went in every time."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105347/NHL17532\.htm\|title\=Panthers 7, Predators 3\|date\=December 13, 2005\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 12, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214131854/http://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105347/NHL17532\.htm\|archive\-date\=December 14, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Despite missing ten games to injury, Horton was tied with teammate [Olli Jokinen](/wiki/Olli_Jokinen "Olli Jokinen") for the team lead in goals with 16 after 38 games.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt\=65588\&tid\=28\&t\=0\|title\=Preview: Bruins vs. Panthers\|date\=December 28, 2005\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716192702/http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt\=65588\&tid\=28\&t\=0\|archive\-date\=July 16, 2011\|url\-status\=live\|publisher\=Covers.com\|agency\=Associated Press}} Against Washington on January 9, Horton and [Joe Nieuwendyk](/wiki/Joe_Nieuwendyk "Joe Nieuwendyk") scored a goal in the [shootout](/wiki/Shootout_%28ice_hockey%29 "Shootout (ice hockey)") to help the Panthers win 4–3\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/sports/nhl\-roundup\-rangers\-get\-a\-scorer\-in\-sykora.html\|title\=Luongo saves Panthers\|last\=Diamos\|first\=Jason\|date\=January 9, 2006\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623223920/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/sports/nhl\-roundup\-rangers\-get\-a\-scorer\-in\-sykora.html\|archive\-date\=June 23, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Two days after his shootout goal, Horton was promoted to the Panthers' [first line](/wiki/Line_%28ice_hockey%29 "Line (ice hockey)").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/yourturn/viewtopic.php?t\=52377\|title\=Fantasy: Goalies make poolies bonkers\|last\=Dennis\|first\=Greg\|date\=January 11, 2006\|agency\=\[\[The Canadian Press]]\|publisher\=\[\[Sporting News]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-13}}{{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Despite his promotion to the first line, Horton's name was mentioned in a potential trade with the [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks "Vancouver Canucks"),{{cite news\|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=150056\&hubname\=nhl\|title\=NHL Mail: Looking for a Shake\-Up\|last\=Cullen\|first\=Scott\|date\=January 9, 2006\|work\=\[\[The Sports Network\|TSN]]\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009}} but nothing materialized. In a 6–2 win over the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators "Ottawa Senators"), Horton scored two goals including one on a [rebound](/wiki/Rebound_%28sports%29 "Rebound (sports)"), after which he said: "It just popped right out to me. It was a long time coming for goals for me. I got lucky tonight and hopefully they keep going in."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106067/NHL18014\.htm\|title\=Panthers 6, Senators 2\|date\=March 8, 2006\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217021331/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106067/NHL18014\.htm\|archive\-date\=December 17, 2013\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} In March, Horton began playing in [penalty kill](/wiki/Penalty_kill "Penalty kill") situations for the first time in his career.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary\_0286\-14563588\_ITM\|title\=Spirits high despite loss\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=April 5, 2006\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009}} Also against the Lightning, Horton scored the Panthers' only goal with his 27th goal of the season.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/preview?gameId\=260405026\|title\=Atlanta 5, Florida 2\|date\=April 5, 2006\|agency\=Associated Press\|publisher\=ESPN\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-13\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103091127/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/preview?gameId\=260405026\|url\-status\=live}} Horton completed the season playing 71 games, scoring 28 goals and adding 19 assists.
Following the 2005–06 season, Horton's rookie contract expired. He was re\-signed by Florida on July 12, 2006, to a one\-year, $1\.1 million contract.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article\-1G1\-148113155/horton\-agrees\-roberts\-stay.html\|title\=Horton agrees; Roberts to stay: Florida retained winger Nathan Horton with a $1\.1 million deal, and GM Mike Keenan expects winger Gary Roberts to remain\|last\=Richards\|first\=George\|date\=July 12, 2006\|work\=The Miami Herald\|access\-date\=October 13, 2009}} Against the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins "Boston Bruins"), Horton scored his first goal of the season to help the Panthers win 8–3\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct07/0,4670,NHLRdp,00\.html\|title\=Panthers 8, Bruins 3\|last\=Beard\|first\=Aaron\|date\=October 7, 2006\|agency\=Associated Press\|publisher\=\[\[Fox News Channel]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-13\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-23\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023125720/http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct07/0,4670,NHLRdp,00\.html\|url\-status\=live}} He scored his third goal of the season on October 18 in a 5–2 loss against the Washington Capitals, who the Panthers had not lost to in regulation since the 2004–05 season.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106291/NHL705355\.htm\|title\=Capitals 5, Panthers 2\|date\=October 18, 2006\|agency\=Associated Press\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-13\|archive\-date\=2021\-11\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107123304/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106291/NHL705355\.htm\|url\-status\=live}} After Horton was called for a second\-period penalty against Atlanta, head coach [Jacques Martin](/wiki/Jacques_Martin_%28ice_hockey%29 "Jacques Martin (ice hockey)") demoted Horton to the fourth line in an attempt to send a message to Horton. However, before long, Horton was again promoted to the first line, alongside Finnish players Olli Jokinen and [Ville Peltonen](/wiki/Ville_Peltonen "Ville Peltonen"), who jokingly gave Horton the name "Nathan Hortonen" in an attempt to make his name Finnish.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/scorecard/11/29/truth.rumors.nhl/\|title\=Truth \& Rumors\|date\=November 29, 2006\|access\-date\=October 14, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122122/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/scorecard/11/29/truth.rumors.nhl/\|archive\-date\=October 25, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|magazine\=Sports Illustrated}} Against the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens "Montreal Canadiens") on November 16, Horton assisted on all goals that Jokinen recorded.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.foxreno.com/sports/10340969/detail.html\|title\=NHL: Minnesota Wins In Wild Shootout\|date\=November 16, 2006\|work\=Fox Reno\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723223729/http://www.foxreno.com/sports/10340969/detail.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-23}} Against Tampa Bay on February 17, Horton scored the game\-winning goal for Florida, 29 seconds into overtime.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\-bin/article.cgi?f\=/n/a/2007/02/17/sports/s192205S71\.DTL\|title\=Horton Makes Quick Work of Lightning\|date\=February 17, 2007\|work\=\[\[San Francisco Chronicle]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14}} {{Dead link\|date\=October 2010\|bot\=H3llBot}}
For the second straight season, Horton's name was brought up in trade offers. However, Canadian sports writer Bruce Garrioch called it "doubtful" Horton would be traded{{cite news\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Ottawa/2007/02/15/3627552\-sun.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120717063848/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Ottawa/2007/02/15/3627552\-sun.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=July 17, 2012\|title\=Ont. rivals may battle for Roberts\|last\=Garrioch\|first\=Bruce\|work\=Sun Media\|publisher\=Slam! Sports\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14}} despite Horton being unhappy playing in Florida.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\-144116448\.html\|title\=Spirits high despite loss\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=April 5, 2006\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=2009\-11\-06}}{{dead link\|date\=February 2019\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} Against Tampa Bay on March 28, Horton scored two goals, which brought his season total for goals against the Lightning up to eight.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/28/Lightning/Ranger\_nearing\_an\_ear.shtml\|title\=Ranger nearing an early return\|last\=Cristodero\|first\=Damian\|date\=March 28, 2007\|work\=\[\[St. Petersburg Times]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14\|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917030306/http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/28/Lightning/Ranger\_nearing\_an\_ear.shtml\|url\-status\=live}} In the Panthers' next game against the Lightning, Horton had one goal which made it nine goals and three assists for him against Tampa Bay in the 2006–07 season. The goal also gave Horton his career\-high 31st goal on the season.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.boston.com/sports/hockey/articles/2007/04/07/thrashers\_top\_hurricanes\_clinch\_division/\|title\=Thrashers top Hurricanes, clinch division\|date\=April 7, 2007\|agency\=Associated Press\|work\=\[\[Boston Globe]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024123752/http://www.boston.com/sports/hockey/articles/2007/04/07/thrashers\_top\_hurricanes\_clinch\_division/\|url\-status\=live}} He ended the season with 31 goals and 31 assists in 82 games.
Horton re\-signed with the Panthers on June 21, 2007, to a six\-year, [US](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")$24 million contract.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/news/story?id\=2912280\|title\=Horton signs six\-year, $24 million deal with Panthers\|access\-date\=2007\-08\-15\|publisher\=ESPN\|date\=June 21, 2007\|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-01\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901083916/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/news/story?id\=2912280\|url\-status\=live}} despite previous rumours he would not.{{cite news\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/web/COM1059136/index.htm\|title\=Truth \& Rumors\|date\=February 1, 2007\|work\=\[\[The Palm Beach Post]]\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-14\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122132/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/web/COM1059136/index.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} Through seven games for the Panthers to open the [2007–08 NHL season](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_NHL_season "2007–08 NHL season"), Horton recorded three goals and three assists, during which he had a four\-game point streak.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2007\-10\-20/sens\-riding\-hot\-goalie\-gerber\|title\=Sens riding hot goalie in Gerber\|date\=October 20, 2007\|work\=Sporting News\|access\-date\=October 14, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121915/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2007\-10\-20/sens\-riding\-hot\-goalie\-gerber\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|agency\=Associated Press}} Horton scored the only goal for the Panthers in a 2–1 loss against the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes "Carolina Hurricanes") on November 18\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theindychannel.com/nhl/14628355/detail.html\|title\=Brind'Amour Boosts Carolina Over Florida\|date\=November 18, 2007\|work\=The Indy Channel\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119115110/http://www.theindychannel.com/nhl/14628355/detail.html\|archive\-date\=November 19, 2007}} Against the Washington Capitals on November 28, Horton, along with teammates Olli Jokinen, [Kamil Kreps](/wiki/Kamil_Kreps "Kamil Kreps") and [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss "Stephen Weiss"), scored shootout goals to help Florida win the game.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2007\-11\-30/panthers\-enter\-december\-hot\-streak\-after\-strong\-november\|title\=Panthers enter December on hot streak after strong November\|date\=November 30, 2007\|work\=Sporting News\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121927/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2007\-11\-30/panthers\-enter\-december\-hot\-streak\-after\-strong\-november\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|agency\=Associated Press}} For the first time since March 2007, Horton scored two goals in a game to help the Panthers win over the Atlanta Thrashers on December 28\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.foxnews.com/printer\_friendly\_wires/2007Dec28/0,4675,HKNNHLRdp,00\.html\|title\=Another Night, Another Wings Win\|date\=December 28, 2007\|publisher\=Fox News Channel\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310074251/https://www.foxnews.com/printer\_friendly\_wires/2007Dec28/0,4675,HKNNHLRdp,00\.html\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Horton and linemate [David Booth](/wiki/David_Booth_%28ice_hockey%29 "David Booth (ice hockey)") combined for three goals against the [New York Islanders](/wiki/New_York_Islanders "New York Islanders"), of which Horton scored two.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2008\-01\-03/panthers\-end\-skid\-ot\-win\-over\-isles\|title\=Panthers end skid with OT win over Isles\|date\=January 3, 2008\|work\=Sporting News\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121938/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2008\-01\-03/panthers\-end\-skid\-ot\-win\-over\-isles\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|agency\=Associated Press}} In the Panthers' 5–3 win over the Ottawa Senators on January 22, 2008, Horton recorded four assists,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\-Rookie\-Russell\-leads\-Blue\-Jackets\-past\-Stars\-1673197\.php\|title\=Rookie Russell leads Blue Jackets past Stars\|date\=January 23, 2008\|work\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024051312/https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\-Rookie\-Russell\-leads\-Blue\-Jackets\-past\-Stars\-1673197\.php\|archive\-date\=October 24, 2012\|url\-status\=live}} which was a career–high.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.seattlepi.com/scorecard/hockeynews.asp?articleID\=48795\|title\=Edmonton wraps road swing in Florida\|date\=January 24, 2008\|work\=Seattle Post\-Intelligencer\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15}} {{Dead link\|date\=December 2011\|bot\=RjwilmsiBot}} Horton scored against Vancouver Canucks goaltender and former Panther [Roberto Luongo](/wiki/Roberto_Luongo "Roberto Luongo") in a shootout to help the Panthers win 4–3, giving them their first win over Vancouver since 1999\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\=nhl\&id\=3226755\|title\=Nathan Horton scores in shootout and Panthers beat Canucks 4\-3\|date\=February 1, 2008\|agency\=Associated Press\|publisher\=ESPN\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103093658/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section\=nhl\&id\=3226755\|url\-status\=live}} Horton scored a goal against the Washington Capitals to help Florida win 4–2 in the game after [Richard Zedník](/wiki/Richard_Zedn%C3%ADk "Richard Zedník") suffered a neck injury in which he had his [external carotid artery](/wiki/External_carotid_artery "External carotid artery") cut by a skate.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.modbee.com/sports/story/213262\.html\|title\=Sharks ready for tough road\|date\=February 16, 2008\|work\=\[\[Modesto Bee]]\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130129151702/http://www.modbee.com/sports/story/213262\.html\|archive\-date\=January 29, 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} Twenty\-two seconds into overtime against the Boston Bruins on March 5, Horton scored to give the Panthers a 1–0 victory.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Forsberg\-sharp\-in\-first\-game\-3292494\.php\|title\=Forsberg sharp in first game Penguins' Crosby returns triumphant 0\|date\=March 5, 2008\|work\=San Francisco Chronicle\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623221921/https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Forsberg\-sharp\-in\-first\-game\-3292494\.php\|archive\-date\=June 23, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Four days later on March 9, Horton scored again in overtime with 23 seconds left, prompting the *[Miami Herald](/wiki/Miami_Herald "Miami Herald")* to nickname him the "King of Overtime".{{cite news\|url\=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\-search/we/Archives?p\_product\=MH\&s\_site\=miami\&p\_multi\=MH\&p\_theme\=realcities\&p\_action\=search\&p\_maxdocs\=200\&p\_topdoc\=1\&p\_text\_direct\-0\=11F4DBEF0E41B050\&p\_field\_direct\-0\=document\_id\&p\_perpage\=10\&p\_sort\=YMD\_date:D\&s\_trackval\=GooglePM\|title\=Horton sparks Florida, Nathan Horton scored with 23 seconds left in overtime, and the surging Panthers rallied from a 2\-0 deficit for their fourth consecutive victory\|date\=March 9, 2008\|work\=The Miami Herald\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-15\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-20\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020200559/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\-search/we/Archives?p\_product\=MH\&s\_site\=miami\&p\_multi\=MH\&p\_theme\=realcities\&p\_action\=search\&p\_maxdocs\=200\&p\_topdoc\=1\&p\_text\_direct\-0\=11F4DBEF0E41B050\&p\_field\_direct\-0\=document\_id\&p\_perpage\=10\&p\_sort\=YMD\_date:D\&s\_trackval\=GooglePM\|url\-status\=live}} On April 5, Horton scored his 100th career goal.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\-NOTES\-Blackhawks\-Eager\-misses\-12th\-straight\-1762680\.php\|title\=Blackhawks' Eager misses 12 straight game\|date\=April 5, 2008\|work\=Houston Chronicle\|access\-date\=October 15, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183347/http://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\-NOTES\-Blackhawks\-Eager\-misses\-12th\-straight\-1762680\.php\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2016\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|right\|Horton standing next to teammate [Ville Peltonen](/wiki/Ville_Peltonen "Ville Peltonen") in [February 2009](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season "2008–09 NHL season")\|alt\=Canadian male in white uniform and white helmet standing next to European male also in white uniform and helmet](/wiki/File:Ville_Peltonen_and_Nathan_Horton.jpg "Ville Peltonen and Nathan Horton.jpg")
Prior to the start of the [2008–09 NHL season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season "2008–09 NHL season"), Panthers head coach [Peter DeBoer](/wiki/Peter_DeBoer "Peter DeBoer"), who first saw Horton play at seven years old, said about his hopes for Horton: "If I'm looking for guys to do more, he wouldn't be at the top of the list. If he can give us 30\-plus, I'd be happy with Nathan. There's a group of guys underneath him that I think can make a lot bigger jumps than I need out of Nathan Horton goal\-wise."{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/1571055171\.html?dids\=1571055171:1571055171\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+10%2C\+2008\&author\=Steve\+Gorten\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=ONUS\+IS\+ON\+HORTON\+TALENTED\+YOUNG\+CENTER\+BEING\+COUNTED\+ON\+TO\+FILL\+SCORING\+VOID\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Onus is on Horton: Talented Young Center being counted on to fill scoring void\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=October 10, 2008\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023112228/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/1571055171\.html?dids\=1571055171:1571055171\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+10,\+2008\&author\=Steve\+Gorten\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=ONUS\+IS\+ON\+HORTON\+TALENTED\+YOUNG\+CENTER\+BEING\+COUNTED\+ON\+TO\+FILL\+SCORING\+VOID\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} Horton was also moved from his position of [right wing](/wiki/Right_Wing_%28ice_hockey%29 "Right Wing (ice hockey)") to [centre](/wiki/Centre_%28ice_hockey%29 "Centre (ice hockey)") before the season. After playing a few games at centre, Horton said: "It's not as easy as wing. You can play wing and all you have to concentrate on is getting the puck and shooting it. At center, you have more responsibilities."{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/1581187181\.html?dids\=1581187181:1581187181\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+21%2C\+2008\&author\=Posted\+by\+Steve\+Gorten\+at\+6%3A21\+PM\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+STILL\+GETTING\+COMFY\&pqatl\=google\|title\=Horton still getting comfy\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=October 21, 2008\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023112239/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\_sentinel/access/1581187181\.html?dids\=1581187181:1581187181\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Oct\+21,\+2008\&author\=Posted\+by\+Steve\+Gorten\+at\+6:21\+PM\&pub\=South\+Florida\+Sun\+\-\+Sentinel\&desc\=HORTON\+STILL\+GETTING\+COMFY\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead}} Against the Nashville Predators on November 1, Horton played in his 300th career game, but failed to record a point.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores108/108306/NHL829996\.htm\|title\=Erat scores lone goal of shootout in Preds' win\|date\=November 1, 2008\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172222/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores108/108306/NHL829996\.htm\|archive\-date\=October 25, 2012\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} On November 26, Horton suffered a deep cut in his leg after it was stepped on by a skate. At the time of the injury, Horton had six goals and seven assists.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/panthers/content/sports/epaper/2008/11/27/a9b\_panthers\_1128\.html\|title\=Panthers center Nathan Horton won't play tonight vs. Rangers\|date\=November 27, 2008\|work\=The Miami Herald\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617020955/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/panthers/content/sports/epaper/2008/11/27/a9b\_panthers\_1128\.html\|archive\-date\=June 17, 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} In early December, the *[Ottawa Sun](/wiki/Ottawa_Sun "Ottawa Sun")* reported that the Panthers might have been looking to trade Horton after he was reportedly unhappy playing for the team.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.thefourthperiod.com/news/fla081207\.html\|title\=Panthers shopping Horton?\|date\=December 7, 2008\|publisher\=TheFourthPeriod.com\|access\-date\=2009\-11\-01\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122075825/http://www.thefourthperiod.com/news/fla081207\.html\|archive\-date\=January 22, 2009}} Horton returned to the lineup on December 17 after missing eight games. After the game, Horton commented, "I'm excited to play. It's kind of a different Panthers team than the past. It's really changed in a matter of a month. Things are going good now, and everybody's really buying into what Pete has been telling us all year."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2008\-12\-16\-0812150385\-story.html\|title\=Loss in Vancouver 'Missed Opportunity'\|last\=Gorten\|first\=Steve\|date\=December 16, 2008\|work\=South Florida Sun\-Sentinel\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527230249/https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2008\-12\-16\-0812150385\-story.html\|archive\-date\=May 27, 2019\|url\-status\=live}} On January 17, Horton recorded three assists to help the Panthers defeat Tampa Bay, 4–3\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.upi.com/Sports\_News/2009/01/17/NHL\-Florida\-4\-Tampa\-Bay\-3/UPI\-30171232251330/\|title\=NHL: Florida 4, Tampa Bay 3\|date\=January 17, 2009\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605084638/https://www.upi.com/Sports\_News/2009/01/17/NHL\-Florida\-4\-Tampa\-Bay\-3/UPI\-30171232251330/\|archive\-date\=June 5, 2011\|url\-status\=live\|work\=\[\[United Press International]]}} For the second time during the season, Horton's name came up in trade rumours, this time with the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks "Chicago Blackhawks").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2009\-02\-21/blackhawks\-chief\-looking\-shore\-lineup\|title\=Blackhawks chief looking to shore up lineup\|last\=Slover\|first\=Ray\|date\=February 21, 2009\|work\=Sporting News\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603122028/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2009\-02\-21/blackhawks\-chief\-looking\-shore\-lineup\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} In early March, days after the trade deadline, Horton suffered a finger injury that forced him to have surgery.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/sports/epaper/2009/03/09/0309panthers.html\|title\=Panthers' Nathan Horton out 2\-4 weeks; Bryan McCabe out at least two games\|last\=Biggane\|first\=Brian\|date\=March 9, 2009\|work\=\[\[The Palm Beach Post]]\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617021012/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/sports/epaper/2009/03/09/0309panthers.html\|archive\-date\=June 17, 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} He returned to the lineup on March 23, recording an assist in a Panthers loss to the Carolina Hurricanes.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores109/109082/NHL830751\.htm\|title\=Whitney's OT goal lifts Canes to win over Panthers\|date\=March 23, 2009\|work\=USA Today\|access\-date\=November 1, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315022411/https://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/scores109/109082/NHL830751\.htm\|archive\-date\=March 15, 2016\|url\-status\=live\|agency\=Associated Press}} Horton ended the season with 22 goals and 23 assists in 67 games.
|
[
"### Florida Panthers",
"Horton signed with the Panthers on October 6, 2003\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/419440611\\.html?dids\\=419440611:419440611\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+06%2C\\+2003\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=TOP\\+ROOKIE\\+HORTON\\+SET\\+TO\\+SIGN\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Top Rookie Horton set to Sign\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=October 6, 2003\\|work\\=\\[\\[South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023051117/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/419440611\\.html?dids\\=419440611:419440611\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+06,\\+2003\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=TOP\\+ROOKIE\\+HORTON\\+SET\\+TO\\+SIGN\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} After his signing, Panthers head coach [Mike Keenan](/wiki/Mike_Keenan \"Mike Keenan\") compared Horton to future [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers \"New York Rangers\") [Hall of Famer](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"Hockey Hall of Fame\") [Mark Messier](/wiki/Mark_Messier \"Mark Messier\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/penguins/20031107pens1107p2\\.asp\\|title\\=Horton upholds his part of deal\\|last\\=Molinari\\|first\\=Dave\\|date\\=November 7, 2003\\|work\\=Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201616/http://old.post\\-gazette.com/penguins/20031107pens1107p2\\.asp\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Against the [Minnesota Wild](/wiki/Minnesota_Wild \"Minnesota Wild\") on October 24, Horton recorded his first career point with an assist on an [Ivan Novoseltsev](/wiki/Ivan_Novoseltsev \"Ivan Novoseltsev\") goal.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sptimes.com/2003/10/25/Sports/Wild\\_comeback\\_drops\\_P.shtml\\|title\\=Wild comeback drops Panthers\\|date\\=October 25, 2003\\|work\\=\\[\\[St. Petersburg Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040427230035/http://www.sptimes.com/2003/10/25/Sports/Wild\\_comeback\\_drops\\_P.shtml\\|archive\\-date\\=April 27, 2004\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Horton recorded his first career goal on November 1 against the [San Jose Sharks](/wiki/San_Jose_Sharks \"San Jose Sharks\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1\\-86547484\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102075751/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1\\-86547484\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=November 2, 2012\\|title\\=Nathan Horton first NHL goal \\|last\\=Schecter\\|first\\=Eliot J.\\|date\\=November 1, 2003\\|work\\=\\[\\[Getty Images]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12}} In the next game for the Panthers, against the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings \"Los Angeles Kings\"), Horton scored his second goal in as many games.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=231105026\\|title\\=Kings take advantage of power plays\\|date\\=November 5, 2003\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201610/http://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=231105026\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}} On January 9, 2004, Horton became the first rookie in NHL history to record a goal on a [penalty shot](/wiki/Penalty_shot \"Penalty shot\"), scoring against [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers \"Philadelphia Flyers\") goaltender [Jeff Hackett](/wiki/Jeff_Hackett \"Jeff Hackett\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/games/2004\\-01\\-09\\-panthers\\-flyers\\_x.htm\\|title\\=Teen\\-ager skates to NHL record\\|date\\=January 9, 2004\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025141808/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/games/2004\\-01\\-09\\-panthers\\-flyers\\_x.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Three seasons later, on October 22, 2006, Penguins rookie [Jordan Staal](/wiki/Jordan_Staal \"Jordan Staal\") matched the feat and surpassed Horton as the youngest player to score; Staal was 183 days younger than Horton was when he scored.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id\\=2634615\\|title\\=Elias Says ...\\|date\\=October 22, 2006\\|work\\=\\[\\[Elias Sports Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310201743/http://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id\\=2634615\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Four days after his penalty shot goal, Horton suffered a [torn rotator cuff](/wiki/Torn_rotator_cuff \"Torn rotator cuff\") and [labrum](/wiki/Glenoid_labrum \"Glenoid labrum\") which could potentially have ended his season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/524749701\\.html?dids\\=524749701:524749701\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+15%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=OUTLOOK\\+FOR\\+HORTON\\+ISN%27T\\+ENCOURAGING\\&pqatl\\=google\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130131202518/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/524749701\\.html?dids\\=524749701:524749701\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+15,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=OUTLOOK\\+FOR\\+HORTON\\+ISN'T\\+ENCOURAGING\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2013\\|title\\=Outlook for Horton isn't Encouraging\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=January 15, 2004\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/523890671\\.html?dids\\=523890671:523890671\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+13%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON%27S\\+YEAR\\+MAY\\+BE\\+OVER\\&pqatl\\=google\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130131172135/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/523890671\\.html?dids\\=523890671:523890671\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+13,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON'S\\+YEAR\\+MAY\\+BE\\+OVER\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2013\\|title\\=Horton's year may be over\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=January 13, 2004\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009}} At the time, he was third on the Panthers with ten goals.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/525224481\\.html?dids\\=525224481:525224481\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+16%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+OUT\\+FOR\\+SEASON\\+PANTHERS\\+ROOKIE\\+FORWARD\\+HAS\\+MULTIPLE\\+SHOULDER\\+INJURIES%2C\\+FACES\\+SURGERY\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Horton out for season: Panthers rookie Forward has multiple shoulder injuries, faces surgery\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=January 16, 2004\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054513/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/525224481\\.html?dids\\=525224481:525224481\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Jan\\+16,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+OUT\\+FOR\\+SEASON\\+PANTHERS\\+ROOKIE\\+FORWARD\\+HAS\\+MULTIPLE\\+SHOULDER\\+INJURIES,\\+FACES\\+SURGERY\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Following an examination by surgeon Tony Miniaci, Horton was told he could rehabilitate naturally and did not require surgery on his shoulder.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/591135381\\.html?dids\\=591135381:591135381\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Mar\\+28%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+LIKELY\\+TO\\+REQUIRE\\+SURGERY\\+SHOULDER\\+STILL\\+HURTS\\+ROOKIE\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Horton Likely to Require Surgery, Shoulder still Hurts Rookie\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=March 28, 2004\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054525/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/591135381\\.html?dids\\=591135381:591135381\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Mar\\+28,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+LIKELY\\+TO\\+REQUIRE\\+SURGERY\\+SHOULDER\\+STILL\\+HURTS\\+ROOKIE\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He returned to the Panthers in early March and scored in one of his first games back against the [Tampa Bay Lightning](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Lightning \"Tampa Bay Lightning\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/552028531\\.html?dids\\=552028531:552028531\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Feb\\+27%2C\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=CULLEN\\+BECOMING\\+A\\+PLAYMAKER\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Lightning extend franchise\\-best win streak to eight\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=March 7, 2004\\|work\\=\\[\\[Seattle Post\\-Intelligencer]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023055000/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/552028531\\.html?dids\\=552028531:552028531\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Feb\\+27,\\+2004\\&author\\=Michael\\+Russo\\+Staff\\+Writer\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=CULLEN\\+BECOMING\\+A\\+PLAYMAKER\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, his shoulder troubles continued and it was determined that surgery was ultimately required. Horton ended his rookie campaign with 14 goals and 8 assists in 55 games.",
"The [2004–05 NHL season](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_NHL_season \"2004–05 NHL season\") ended up being [locked out](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_NHL_Lockout \"2004–05 NHL Lockout\") which forced Horton and other players to sign with other teams. Horton eventually signed with the Panthers' [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League \"American Hockey League\") (AHL) affiliate, the [San Antonio Rampage](/wiki/San_Antonio_Rampage \"San Antonio Rampage\"),{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3096960\\&l\\_id\\=\\&t\\_id\\=\\|title\\=Rampage sign Nathan Horton to AHL contract\\|date\\=October 29, 2004\\|work\\=Our Sports Central\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183347/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\\-sign\\-nathan\\-horton\\-to\\-ahl\\-contract/n\\-3096960\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} after a controversy ensued as to whether junior\\-hockey\\-eligible players such as Horton were obligated to return to their junior teams.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/09/29/pf\\-648500\\.html\\|title\\=CHL wants its NHLers back in fold\\|last\\=Koshan\\|first\\=Terry\\|date\\=September 29, 2004\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Toronto Sun]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120716015556/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/09/29/pf\\-648500\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|publisher\\=Slam! Sports}} Despite not signing with the Rampage until October 29, Horton still participated in their training camp.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/stories/2004/09/20/daily35\\.html?jst\\=b\\_ln\\_hl\\|title\\=Rampage drop the puck Sunday\\|last\\=Bailey\\|first\\=W. Scott\\|date\\=September 24, 2004\\|work\\=\\[\\[San Antonio Business Journal]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805044848/https://www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/stories/2004/09/20/daily35\\.html?jst\\=b\\_ln\\_hl\\|archive\\-date\\=August 5, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Seven minutes into his second AHL game, Horton scored his first goal of the season.{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/back\\-to\\-back\\-wins\\-have\\-rampage\\-rolling/n\\-3097647\\|title\\=Back to back wins have Rampage rolling\\|date\\=November 1, 2004\\|work\\=Our Sports Central\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822132142/http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/back\\-to\\-back\\-wins\\-have\\-rampage\\-rolling/n\\-3097647\\|archive\\-date\\=August 22, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He recorded his first \ncareer AHL assist on a [Gregory Campbell](/wiki/Gregory_Campbell_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Gregory Campbell (ice hockey)\") goal.{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\\-win\\-west\\-shootout\\-split\\-games\\-for\\-the\\-week/n\\-3101452\\|title\\=Rampage Win West Shootout, Split Games for the Week\\|date\\=November 15, 2004\\|work\\=Our Sports Central\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183346/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/rampage\\-win\\-west\\-shootout\\-split\\-games\\-for\\-the\\-week/n\\-3101452\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On December 3, 2004, against the [Houston Aeros](/wiki/Houston_Aeros_%281994%E2%80%932013%29 \"Houston Aeros (1994–2013)\"), Horton scored both of the Rampage's goals to help the team win in overtime.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/horton\\-sinks\\-aeros\\-in\\-ot/n\\-3106581\\|title\\=Horton sinks Aeros in OT\\|date\\=December 3, 2004\\|work\\=Our Sports Central\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183346/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/horton\\-sinks\\-aeros\\-in\\-ot/n\\-3106581\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Horton with the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers \"Florida Panthers\") in November 2007](/wiki/image:Nathan_Horton.jpg \"Nathan Horton.jpg\")\nFor the second straight season, the Panthers did not allow Horton to play for the Canadian national junior team. He and Houston Aeros [defenceman](/wiki/Defenceman \"Defenceman\") [Brent Burns](/wiki/Brent_Burns \"Brent Burns\") were the only two players not allowed to play for the team.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/horton\\-burns\\-left\\-off\\-canada\\-s\\-world\\-junior\\-roster\\-1\\.482723\\|title\\=Horton, Burns left off Canada's world junior roster\\|date\\=December 5, 2004\\|work\\=CBC Sports\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423195605/http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2004/12/04/horton041204\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=April 23, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Days before the announcement Horton would not play for Team Canada, he suffered another shoulder injury which allegedly played into the Panthers' decision.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/12/07/pf\\-769994\\.html\\|title\\=Juniors ecstatic after being named to selection camp\\|last\\=Koshan\\|first\\=Terry\\|date\\=December 7, 2004\\|newspaper\\=Toronto Sun\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120719113643/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/Junior/2004/12/07/pf\\-769994\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 19, 2012\\|publisher\\=Slam! Sports\\|url\\-status\\=usurped}} Horton suffered the shoulder injury in a fight in December and missed 14 games. He was informed he would again have to undergo surgery.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2005\\-02\\-01\\-0501310447\\-story.html\\|title\\=Once again, shoulder surgery ends year for Panthers' Horton\\|last\\=Russo\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=January 31, 2005\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527234617/https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2005\\-02\\-01\\-0501310447\\-story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 21 games for San Antonio, Horton scored five goals and recorded four assists.",
"Entering the [2005–06 season](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NHL_season \"2005–06 NHL season\"), Horton stated in response to a question about his shoulders: \"I feel better. I feel stronger, bigger.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article\\-1G1\\-136430307/horton\\-health\\-questions\\-issue.html\\|title\\=For Horton, health questions will be the issue\\|last\\=Neal\\|first\\=David J.\\|date\\=September 20, 2005\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Miami Herald]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009}} In the season opener against the [Atlanta Thrashers](/wiki/Atlanta_Thrashers \"Atlanta Thrashers\"), Horton scored the first goal for the Panthers.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105278/NHL17090\\.htm\\|title\\=Panthers 2, Thrashers 0\\|date\\=October 5, 2005\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215041324/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105278/NHL17090\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 15, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Through the first games of the season, Horton was tied for the team lead in goals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/8025/trio\\_strong\\_out\\_of\\_the\\_gate/\\|title\\=Trio strong out of the gate\\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=E. M.\\|date\\=October 17, 2005\\|website\\=Hockey's Future\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-06\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006234111/http://www.hockeysfuture.com/articles/8025/trio\\_strong\\_out\\_of\\_the\\_gate/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On November 8, 2005, he was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve \"Injured reserve\") because of a knee injury.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=251109026\\|title\\=Prucha scores only goal in shootout\\|date\\=November 9, 2005\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103091016/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=251109026\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was activated on December 1{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/hockey/nhl/12/01/players.of.the.month/\\|title\\=Roundup: Alfredsson, Turco named Players of the Month\\|date\\=December 1, 2005\\|magazine\\=Sports Illustrated\\|access\\-date\\=October 3, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20131003222702/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/hockey/nhl/12/01/players.of.the.month/\\|archive\\-date\\=October 3, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and scored in his first game back against the [Washington Capitals](/wiki/Washington_Capitals \"Washington Capitals\") to help the Panthers win 3–2\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/sports/nhl\\-roundup\\-new\\-bruin\\-has\\-impact\\-in\\-victory.html\\|title\\=Capitals lose Fifth Straight\\|date\\=December 2, 2005\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623225216/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/sports/nhl\\-roundup\\-new\\-bruin\\-has\\-impact\\-in\\-victory.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 23, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Horton added two goals against the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks \"Chicago Blackhawks\") in the Panthers' next game to bring his season total to 10 in 17 games.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105339/NHL17203\\.htm\\|title\\=Senators\\-Panthers Preview\\|date\\=December 5, 2005\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107123301/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105339/NHL17203\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\") on December 13, Horton recorded his first career [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") and stated after the game: \"It's a pretty nice feeling. I felt like there was no one on me. I just tried to get it to the net and it went in every time.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105347/NHL17532\\.htm\\|title\\=Panthers 7, Predators 3\\|date\\=December 13, 2005\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214131854/http://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores105/105347/NHL17532\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 14, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Despite missing ten games to injury, Horton was tied with teammate [Olli Jokinen](/wiki/Olli_Jokinen \"Olli Jokinen\") for the team lead in goals with 16 after 38 games.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt\\=65588\\&tid\\=28\\&t\\=0\\|title\\=Preview: Bruins vs. Panthers\\|date\\=December 28, 2005\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716192702/http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt\\=65588\\&tid\\=28\\&t\\=0\\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|publisher\\=Covers.com\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Against Washington on January 9, Horton and [Joe Nieuwendyk](/wiki/Joe_Nieuwendyk \"Joe Nieuwendyk\") scored a goal in the [shootout](/wiki/Shootout_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Shootout (ice hockey)\") to help the Panthers win 4–3\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/sports/nhl\\-roundup\\-rangers\\-get\\-a\\-scorer\\-in\\-sykora.html\\|title\\=Luongo saves Panthers\\|last\\=Diamos\\|first\\=Jason\\|date\\=January 9, 2006\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623223920/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/sports/nhl\\-roundup\\-rangers\\-get\\-a\\-scorer\\-in\\-sykora.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 23, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Two days after his shootout goal, Horton was promoted to the Panthers' [first line](/wiki/Line_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Line (ice hockey)\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/yourturn/viewtopic.php?t\\=52377\\|title\\=Fantasy: Goalies make poolies bonkers\\|last\\=Dennis\\|first\\=Greg\\|date\\=January 11, 2006\\|agency\\=\\[\\[The Canadian Press]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sporting News]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-13}}{{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Despite his promotion to the first line, Horton's name was mentioned in a potential trade with the [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks \"Vancouver Canucks\"),{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=150056\\&hubname\\=nhl\\|title\\=NHL Mail: Looking for a Shake\\-Up\\|last\\=Cullen\\|first\\=Scott\\|date\\=January 9, 2006\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sports Network\\|TSN]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009}} but nothing materialized. In a 6–2 win over the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators \"Ottawa Senators\"), Horton scored two goals including one on a [rebound](/wiki/Rebound_%28sports%29 \"Rebound (sports)\"), after which he said: \"It just popped right out to me. It was a long time coming for goals for me. I got lucky tonight and hopefully they keep going in.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106067/NHL18014\\.htm\\|title\\=Panthers 6, Senators 2\\|date\\=March 8, 2006\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217021331/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106067/NHL18014\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 17, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} In March, Horton began playing in [penalty kill](/wiki/Penalty_kill \"Penalty kill\") situations for the first time in his career.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary\\_0286\\-14563588\\_ITM\\|title\\=Spirits high despite loss\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=April 5, 2006\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009}} Also against the Lightning, Horton scored the Panthers' only goal with his 27th goal of the season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/preview?gameId\\=260405026\\|title\\=Atlanta 5, Florida 2\\|date\\=April 5, 2006\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103091127/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/preview?gameId\\=260405026\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Horton completed the season playing 71 games, scoring 28 goals and adding 19 assists.",
"Following the 2005–06 season, Horton's rookie contract expired. He was re\\-signed by Florida on July 12, 2006, to a one\\-year, $1\\.1 million contract.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article\\-1G1\\-148113155/horton\\-agrees\\-roberts\\-stay.html\\|title\\=Horton agrees; Roberts to stay: Florida retained winger Nathan Horton with a $1\\.1 million deal, and GM Mike Keenan expects winger Gary Roberts to remain\\|last\\=Richards\\|first\\=George\\|date\\=July 12, 2006\\|work\\=The Miami Herald\\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2009}} Against the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins \"Boston Bruins\"), Horton scored his first goal of the season to help the Panthers win 8–3\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct07/0,4670,NHLRdp,00\\.html\\|title\\=Panthers 8, Bruins 3\\|last\\=Beard\\|first\\=Aaron\\|date\\=October 7, 2006\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fox News Channel]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-23\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023125720/http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct07/0,4670,NHLRdp,00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He scored his third goal of the season on October 18 in a 5–2 loss against the Washington Capitals, who the Panthers had not lost to in regulation since the 2004–05 season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106291/NHL705355\\.htm\\|title\\=Capitals 5, Panthers 2\\|date\\=October 18, 2006\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107123304/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores106/106291/NHL705355\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}} After Horton was called for a second\\-period penalty against Atlanta, head coach [Jacques Martin](/wiki/Jacques_Martin_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Jacques Martin (ice hockey)\") demoted Horton to the fourth line in an attempt to send a message to Horton. However, before long, Horton was again promoted to the first line, alongside Finnish players Olli Jokinen and [Ville Peltonen](/wiki/Ville_Peltonen \"Ville Peltonen\"), who jokingly gave Horton the name \"Nathan Hortonen\" in an attempt to make his name Finnish.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/scorecard/11/29/truth.rumors.nhl/\\|title\\=Truth \\& Rumors\\|date\\=November 29, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122122/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/scorecard/11/29/truth.rumors.nhl/\\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|magazine\\=Sports Illustrated}} Against the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens \"Montreal Canadiens\") on November 16, Horton assisted on all goals that Jokinen recorded.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.foxreno.com/sports/10340969/detail.html\\|title\\=NHL: Minnesota Wins In Wild Shootout\\|date\\=November 16, 2006\\|work\\=Fox Reno\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723223729/http://www.foxreno.com/sports/10340969/detail.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-23}} Against Tampa Bay on February 17, Horton scored the game\\-winning goal for Florida, 29 seconds into overtime.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\\-bin/article.cgi?f\\=/n/a/2007/02/17/sports/s192205S71\\.DTL\\|title\\=Horton Makes Quick Work of Lightning\\|date\\=February 17, 2007\\|work\\=\\[\\[San Francisco Chronicle]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14}} {{Dead link\\|date\\=October 2010\\|bot\\=H3llBot}}",
"For the second straight season, Horton's name was brought up in trade offers. However, Canadian sports writer Bruce Garrioch called it \"doubtful\" Horton would be traded{{cite news\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Ottawa/2007/02/15/3627552\\-sun.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120717063848/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Ottawa/2007/02/15/3627552\\-sun.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=July 17, 2012\\|title\\=Ont. rivals may battle for Roberts\\|last\\=Garrioch\\|first\\=Bruce\\|work\\=Sun Media\\|publisher\\=Slam! Sports\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14}} despite Horton being unhappy playing in Florida.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\\-144116448\\.html\\|title\\=Spirits high despite loss\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=April 5, 2006\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-11\\-06}}{{dead link\\|date\\=February 2019\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}} Against Tampa Bay on March 28, Horton scored two goals, which brought his season total for goals against the Lightning up to eight.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/28/Lightning/Ranger\\_nearing\\_an\\_ear.shtml\\|title\\=Ranger nearing an early return\\|last\\=Cristodero\\|first\\=Damian\\|date\\=March 28, 2007\\|work\\=\\[\\[St. Petersburg Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917030306/http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/28/Lightning/Ranger\\_nearing\\_an\\_ear.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the Panthers' next game against the Lightning, Horton had one goal which made it nine goals and three assists for him against Tampa Bay in the 2006–07 season. The goal also gave Horton his career\\-high 31st goal on the season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.boston.com/sports/hockey/articles/2007/04/07/thrashers\\_top\\_hurricanes\\_clinch\\_division/\\|title\\=Thrashers top Hurricanes, clinch division\\|date\\=April 7, 2007\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|work\\=\\[\\[Boston Globe]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024123752/http://www.boston.com/sports/hockey/articles/2007/04/07/thrashers\\_top\\_hurricanes\\_clinch\\_division/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He ended the season with 31 goals and 31 assists in 82 games.",
"Horton re\\-signed with the Panthers on June 21, 2007, to a six\\-year, [US](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")$24 million contract.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nhl/news/story?id\\=2912280\\|title\\=Horton signs six\\-year, $24 million deal with Panthers\\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-15\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|date\\=June 21, 2007\\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-01\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901083916/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/news/story?id\\=2912280\\|url\\-status\\=live}} despite previous rumours he would not.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/web/COM1059136/index.htm\\|title\\=Truth \\& Rumors\\|date\\=February 1, 2007\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Palm Beach Post]]\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-14\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122132/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/web/COM1059136/index.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Through seven games for the Panthers to open the [2007–08 NHL season](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_NHL_season \"2007–08 NHL season\"), Horton recorded three goals and three assists, during which he had a four\\-game point streak.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2007\\-10\\-20/sens\\-riding\\-hot\\-goalie\\-gerber\\|title\\=Sens riding hot goalie in Gerber\\|date\\=October 20, 2007\\|work\\=Sporting News\\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121915/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2007\\-10\\-20/sens\\-riding\\-hot\\-goalie\\-gerber\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Horton scored the only goal for the Panthers in a 2–1 loss against the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes \"Carolina Hurricanes\") on November 18\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theindychannel.com/nhl/14628355/detail.html\\|title\\=Brind'Amour Boosts Carolina Over Florida\\|date\\=November 18, 2007\\|work\\=The Indy Channel\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119115110/http://www.theindychannel.com/nhl/14628355/detail.html\\|archive\\-date\\=November 19, 2007}} Against the Washington Capitals on November 28, Horton, along with teammates Olli Jokinen, [Kamil Kreps](/wiki/Kamil_Kreps \"Kamil Kreps\") and [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss \"Stephen Weiss\"), scored shootout goals to help Florida win the game.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2007\\-11\\-30/panthers\\-enter\\-december\\-hot\\-streak\\-after\\-strong\\-november\\|title\\=Panthers enter December on hot streak after strong November\\|date\\=November 30, 2007\\|work\\=Sporting News\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121927/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2007\\-11\\-30/panthers\\-enter\\-december\\-hot\\-streak\\-after\\-strong\\-november\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} For the first time since March 2007, Horton scored two goals in a game to help the Panthers win over the Atlanta Thrashers on December 28\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.foxnews.com/printer\\_friendly\\_wires/2007Dec28/0,4675,HKNNHLRdp,00\\.html\\|title\\=Another Night, Another Wings Win\\|date\\=December 28, 2007\\|publisher\\=Fox News Channel\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310074251/https://www.foxnews.com/printer\\_friendly\\_wires/2007Dec28/0,4675,HKNNHLRdp,00\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Horton and linemate [David Booth](/wiki/David_Booth_%28ice_hockey%29 \"David Booth (ice hockey)\") combined for three goals against the [New York Islanders](/wiki/New_York_Islanders \"New York Islanders\"), of which Horton scored two.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2008\\-01\\-03/panthers\\-end\\-skid\\-ot\\-win\\-over\\-isles\\|title\\=Panthers end skid with OT win over Isles\\|date\\=January 3, 2008\\|work\\=Sporting News\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121938/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2008\\-01\\-03/panthers\\-end\\-skid\\-ot\\-win\\-over\\-isles\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} In the Panthers' 5–3 win over the Ottawa Senators on January 22, 2008, Horton recorded four assists,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\\-Rookie\\-Russell\\-leads\\-Blue\\-Jackets\\-past\\-Stars\\-1673197\\.php\\|title\\=Rookie Russell leads Blue Jackets past Stars\\|date\\=January 23, 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024051312/https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\\-Rookie\\-Russell\\-leads\\-Blue\\-Jackets\\-past\\-Stars\\-1673197\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=October 24, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live}} which was a career–high.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.seattlepi.com/scorecard/hockeynews.asp?articleID\\=48795\\|title\\=Edmonton wraps road swing in Florida\\|date\\=January 24, 2008\\|work\\=Seattle Post\\-Intelligencer\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15}} {{Dead link\\|date\\=December 2011\\|bot\\=RjwilmsiBot}} Horton scored against Vancouver Canucks goaltender and former Panther [Roberto Luongo](/wiki/Roberto_Luongo \"Roberto Luongo\") in a shootout to help the Panthers win 4–3, giving them their first win over Vancouver since 1999\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\\=nhl\\&id\\=3226755\\|title\\=Nathan Horton scores in shootout and Panthers beat Canucks 4\\-3\\|date\\=February 1, 2008\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103093658/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section\\=nhl\\&id\\=3226755\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Horton scored a goal against the Washington Capitals to help Florida win 4–2 in the game after [Richard Zedník](/wiki/Richard_Zedn%C3%ADk \"Richard Zedník\") suffered a neck injury in which he had his [external carotid artery](/wiki/External_carotid_artery \"External carotid artery\") cut by a skate.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.modbee.com/sports/story/213262\\.html\\|title\\=Sharks ready for tough road\\|date\\=February 16, 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[Modesto Bee]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130129151702/http://www.modbee.com/sports/story/213262\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=January 29, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Twenty\\-two seconds into overtime against the Boston Bruins on March 5, Horton scored to give the Panthers a 1–0 victory.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Forsberg\\-sharp\\-in\\-first\\-game\\-3292494\\.php\\|title\\=Forsberg sharp in first game Penguins' Crosby returns triumphant 0\\|date\\=March 5, 2008\\|work\\=San Francisco Chronicle\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623221921/https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Forsberg\\-sharp\\-in\\-first\\-game\\-3292494\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=June 23, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Four days later on March 9, Horton scored again in overtime with 23 seconds left, prompting the *[Miami Herald](/wiki/Miami_Herald \"Miami Herald\")* to nickname him the \"King of Overtime\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\\-search/we/Archives?p\\_product\\=MH\\&s\\_site\\=miami\\&p\\_multi\\=MH\\&p\\_theme\\=realcities\\&p\\_action\\=search\\&p\\_maxdocs\\=200\\&p\\_topdoc\\=1\\&p\\_text\\_direct\\-0\\=11F4DBEF0E41B050\\&p\\_field\\_direct\\-0\\=document\\_id\\&p\\_perpage\\=10\\&p\\_sort\\=YMD\\_date:D\\&s\\_trackval\\=GooglePM\\|title\\=Horton sparks Florida, Nathan Horton scored with 23 seconds left in overtime, and the surging Panthers rallied from a 2\\-0 deficit for their fourth consecutive victory\\|date\\=March 9, 2008\\|work\\=The Miami Herald\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-20\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020200559/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\\-search/we/Archives?p\\_product\\=MH\\&s\\_site\\=miami\\&p\\_multi\\=MH\\&p\\_theme\\=realcities\\&p\\_action\\=search\\&p\\_maxdocs\\=200\\&p\\_topdoc\\=1\\&p\\_text\\_direct\\-0\\=11F4DBEF0E41B050\\&p\\_field\\_direct\\-0\\=document\\_id\\&p\\_perpage\\=10\\&p\\_sort\\=YMD\\_date:D\\&s\\_trackval\\=GooglePM\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On April 5, Horton scored his 100th career goal.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\\-NOTES\\-Blackhawks\\-Eager\\-misses\\-12th\\-straight\\-1762680\\.php\\|title\\=Blackhawks' Eager misses 12 straight game\\|date\\=April 5, 2008\\|work\\=Houston Chronicle\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113183347/http://www.chron.com/sports/article/NHL\\-NOTES\\-Blackhawks\\-Eager\\-misses\\-12th\\-straight\\-1762680\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Horton standing next to teammate [Ville Peltonen](/wiki/Ville_Peltonen \"Ville Peltonen\") in [February 2009](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season \"2008–09 NHL season\")\\|alt\\=Canadian male in white uniform and white helmet standing next to European male also in white uniform and helmet](/wiki/File:Ville_Peltonen_and_Nathan_Horton.jpg \"Ville Peltonen and Nathan Horton.jpg\")",
"Prior to the start of the [2008–09 NHL season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season \"2008–09 NHL season\"), Panthers head coach [Peter DeBoer](/wiki/Peter_DeBoer \"Peter DeBoer\"), who first saw Horton play at seven years old, said about his hopes for Horton: \"If I'm looking for guys to do more, he wouldn't be at the top of the list. If he can give us 30\\-plus, I'd be happy with Nathan. There's a group of guys underneath him that I think can make a lot bigger jumps than I need out of Nathan Horton goal\\-wise.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/1571055171\\.html?dids\\=1571055171:1571055171\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+10%2C\\+2008\\&author\\=Steve\\+Gorten\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=ONUS\\+IS\\+ON\\+HORTON\\+TALENTED\\+YOUNG\\+CENTER\\+BEING\\+COUNTED\\+ON\\+TO\\+FILL\\+SCORING\\+VOID\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Onus is on Horton: Talented Young Center being counted on to fill scoring void\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=October 10, 2008\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023112228/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/1571055171\\.html?dids\\=1571055171:1571055171\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+10,\\+2008\\&author\\=Steve\\+Gorten\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=ONUS\\+IS\\+ON\\+HORTON\\+TALENTED\\+YOUNG\\+CENTER\\+BEING\\+COUNTED\\+ON\\+TO\\+FILL\\+SCORING\\+VOID\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Horton was also moved from his position of [right wing](/wiki/Right_Wing_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Right Wing (ice hockey)\") to [centre](/wiki/Centre_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Centre (ice hockey)\") before the season. After playing a few games at centre, Horton said: \"It's not as easy as wing. You can play wing and all you have to concentrate on is getting the puck and shooting it. At center, you have more responsibilities.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/1581187181\\.html?dids\\=1581187181:1581187181\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+21%2C\\+2008\\&author\\=Posted\\+by\\+Steve\\+Gorten\\+at\\+6%3A21\\+PM\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+STILL\\+GETTING\\+COMFY\\&pqatl\\=google\\|title\\=Horton still getting comfy\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=October 21, 2008\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023112239/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun\\_sentinel/access/1581187181\\.html?dids\\=1581187181:1581187181\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Oct\\+21,\\+2008\\&author\\=Posted\\+by\\+Steve\\+Gorten\\+at\\+6:21\\+PM\\&pub\\=South\\+Florida\\+Sun\\+\\-\\+Sentinel\\&desc\\=HORTON\\+STILL\\+GETTING\\+COMFY\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Against the Nashville Predators on November 1, Horton played in his 300th career game, but failed to record a point.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores108/108306/NHL829996\\.htm\\|title\\=Erat scores lone goal of shootout in Preds' win\\|date\\=November 1, 2008\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172222/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores108/108306/NHL829996\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} On November 26, Horton suffered a deep cut in his leg after it was stepped on by a skate. At the time of the injury, Horton had six goals and seven assists.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/panthers/content/sports/epaper/2008/11/27/a9b\\_panthers\\_1128\\.html\\|title\\=Panthers center Nathan Horton won't play tonight vs. Rangers\\|date\\=November 27, 2008\\|work\\=The Miami Herald\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617020955/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/panthers/content/sports/epaper/2008/11/27/a9b\\_panthers\\_1128\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 17, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In early December, the *[Ottawa Sun](/wiki/Ottawa_Sun \"Ottawa Sun\")* reported that the Panthers might have been looking to trade Horton after he was reportedly unhappy playing for the team.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.thefourthperiod.com/news/fla081207\\.html\\|title\\=Panthers shopping Horton?\\|date\\=December 7, 2008\\|publisher\\=TheFourthPeriod.com\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-11\\-01\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122075825/http://www.thefourthperiod.com/news/fla081207\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=January 22, 2009}} Horton returned to the lineup on December 17 after missing eight games. After the game, Horton commented, \"I'm excited to play. It's kind of a different Panthers team than the past. It's really changed in a matter of a month. Things are going good now, and everybody's really buying into what Pete has been telling us all year.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2008\\-12\\-16\\-0812150385\\-story.html\\|title\\=Loss in Vancouver 'Missed Opportunity'\\|last\\=Gorten\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=December 16, 2008\\|work\\=South Florida Sun\\-Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527230249/https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2008\\-12\\-16\\-0812150385\\-story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On January 17, Horton recorded three assists to help the Panthers defeat Tampa Bay, 4–3\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.upi.com/Sports\\_News/2009/01/17/NHL\\-Florida\\-4\\-Tampa\\-Bay\\-3/UPI\\-30171232251330/\\|title\\=NHL: Florida 4, Tampa Bay 3\\|date\\=January 17, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605084638/https://www.upi.com/Sports\\_News/2009/01/17/NHL\\-Florida\\-4\\-Tampa\\-Bay\\-3/UPI\\-30171232251330/\\|archive\\-date\\=June 5, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|work\\=\\[\\[United Press International]]}} For the second time during the season, Horton's name came up in trade rumours, this time with the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks \"Chicago Blackhawks\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl/article/2009\\-02\\-21/blackhawks\\-chief\\-looking\\-shore\\-lineup\\|title\\=Blackhawks chief looking to shore up lineup\\|last\\=Slover\\|first\\=Ray\\|date\\=February 21, 2009\\|work\\=Sporting News\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603122028/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2009\\-02\\-21/blackhawks\\-chief\\-looking\\-shore\\-lineup\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In early March, days after the trade deadline, Horton suffered a finger injury that forced him to have surgery.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/sports/epaper/2009/03/09/0309panthers.html\\|title\\=Panthers' Nathan Horton out 2\\-4 weeks; Bryan McCabe out at least two games\\|last\\=Biggane\\|first\\=Brian\\|date\\=March 9, 2009\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Palm Beach Post]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617021012/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/sports/epaper/2009/03/09/0309panthers.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 17, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He returned to the lineup on March 23, recording an assist in a Panthers loss to the Carolina Hurricanes.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/scores109/109082/NHL830751\\.htm\\|title\\=Whitney's OT goal lifts Canes to win over Panthers\\|date\\=March 23, 2009\\|work\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315022411/https://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/scores109/109082/NHL830751\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=March 15, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|agency\\=Associated Press}} Horton ended the season with 22 goals and 23 assists in 67 games.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 2001–2003: Formation and *At Sixes and Sevens*
In January 2001, Veland, a founding member of [Tristania](/wiki/Tristania_%28band%29 "Tristania (band)") left the band, within a few weeks Veland had a new band along with three other members. He had written material for Tristania's next release but because of the split, he used it towards Sirenia's debut album *[At Sixes and Sevens](/wiki/At_Sixes_and_Sevens "At Sixes and Sevens")* with other new material written for it as well. The band entered the studio by November or December 2001\. The band failed to find a suitable singer prior to recording in [France](/wiki/France "France"), so they hired a session female singer named Fabienne Gondamin.{{cite web\|title\= Sirenia\- Old Is New Again\|url\=http://www.deadrhetoric.com/features/sirenia\-old\-is\-new\-again/\|work\=deadrhetoric\|date\=10 May 2015 }}
### 2004–2007: *An Elixir for Existence* and *Nine Destinies and a Downfall*
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Henriette Bordvik in *[Inferno Metal Festival](/wiki/Inferno_Metal_Festival "Inferno Metal Festival")* in 2003](/wiki/File:Henriette_Bordvik_Sirenia.png "Henriette Bordvik Sirenia.png")
On the subsequent tour Fabienne Gondamin was replaced by Henriette Bordvik, with whom the band recorded the album *[An Elixir for Existence](/wiki/An_Elixir_for_Existence "An Elixir for Existence")* and the EP *[Sirenian Shores](/wiki/Sirenian_Shores "Sirenian Shores")*.
The band signed with [Nuclear Blast](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast "Nuclear Blast") in May 2005\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\-sign\-with\-nuclear\-blast\-records\|title\=Sirenia Sign With Nuclear Blast Records – Blabbermouth.net\|work\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\|date\=18 March 2005 \|access\-date\=19 September 2014}}
In November 2005, Henriette Bordvik left the band, citing personal reasons.
In 2007 they released a third album – *[Nine Destinies and a Downfall](/wiki/Nine_Destinies_and_a_Downfall "Nine Destinies and a Downfall")*. The album features new singer, [Monika Pedersen](/wiki/Monika_Pedersen "Monika Pedersen") from [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"), who joined the band in April 2006, and new guitarist Bjørnar Landa (from Artifact), who joined the band during the recording.
On 5 November 2007 Monika Pedersen quit the band over musical disagreements. Her departure caused Sirenia to pull out of a planned European tour with [Therion](/wiki/Therion_%28band%29 "Therion (band)").
### 2008–2011: *The 13th Floor* and *The Enigma of Life*
Sirenia began looking for a new singer in November 2007\.{{cite web\|url\=http://heavymetal.about.com/od/interviews/a/sirenia\-mortenvelandinterview.htm \|title\=Sirenia Interview \|publisher\=about.com \|access\-date\=27 June 2014}} The process in finding their newest member took about six months. About 500 applied, at the end they wanted to find someone from the EU region for practical reasons. On 9 April 2008 Sirenia announced Spanish *[X Factor](/wiki/The_X_Factor "The X Factor")* contestant [Ailyn](/wiki/Ailyn "Ailyn") as their new female vocalist.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\-enlists\-x\-factor\-singer\-from\-spain/ \|title\= Sirenia Enlists 'XFactor Singer From Spain \|date\= 9 April 2008 \|publisher\=blabbermouth.com \|access\-date\=27 June 2014}}
On 19 May 2008 it was announced that Bjørnar Landa left the band in order to have more time for his family and studies. He was replaced by Michael S. Krumins ([Green Carnation](/wiki/Green_Carnation "Green Carnation")).
On 12 June 2008 Sirenia announced that for the first time in their career, they had decided to work with a bass player for their live shows. The session bass player will be Kristian Olav Torp.
Sirenia started recording their fourth album in July 2008\. It was recorded in Sound Suite Studios, France and Stargoth Studios, Norway. The mixing and mastering took place in Antfarm Studios, Denmark with Tue Madsen. The album, called *[The 13th Floor](/wiki/The_13th_Floor_%28album%29 "The 13th Floor (album)")*, was completed in September and the release date was 23 January 2009\. The album features guest appearances by Jan Kenneth Barkved. The first single, "The Path to Decay", was released on 26 December 2008 as a digital download.
[thumb\|left\|200px\|[Ailyn](/wiki/Ailyn "Ailyn") and [Morten Veland](/wiki/Morten_Veland "Morten Veland") in March 2010](/wiki/File:Sirenia-flickr002.jpg "Sirenia-flickr002.jpg")
On 8 July 2010, the band announced that they started recording a new album. It was finished in November, and will be titled *[The Enigma of Life](/wiki/The_Enigma_of_Life "The Enigma of Life")*. It was released on 21 January 2011\.
The first single, "The End of It All", was released on 21 December 2010 as a digital download.
[thumb\|right\|200px\|Michael S. Krumins in *Global East Rock Festival* in September 2010](/wiki/File:Sirenia_at_Global_East_Rock_Festival_2010_%282%29.jpg "Sirenia at Global East Rock Festival 2010 (2).jpg")
On 19 April 2011, Michael left Sirenia to put in more time on his own bands and projects. Jan Erik Soltvedt joined the band and filled in as the lead guitarist. Soltvedt accompanied Sirenia on their American and European tours in 2011, including the *Gallus Sonorus Musicallis* festival (GSM Fest) held in June 2011 in [Barcelos, Portugal](/wiki/Barcelos%2C_Portugal "Barcelos, Portugal"), and the *[Wacken Festival](/wiki/Wacken_Open_Air "Wacken Open Air")* in [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), held in August.
On 16 July 2011, and as one of their most important performances of that year, was held at the famous heavy metal festival *[Masters of Rock](/wiki/Masters_of_Rock_%28festival%29 "Masters of Rock (festival)")*, which takes place annually in the city of [Vizovice](/wiki/Vizovice "Vizovice"), [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"). Previously, their first and only participation dates from 2008\.
By the end of July and the beginning of August 2011, Sirenia made their second Latin American tour, which took them back to countries such as [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"), [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") and for the first time to [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") and [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile") in October.
### 2012–2016: *Perils of the Deep Blue*, *The Seventh Life Path* and Ailyn's departure
On 16 October 2012 Sirenia announced that they have entered the studio to record their next album for an early 2013 release. The band on their sixth album, "The progress on the new album is going very well — we feel confident that the sixth Sirenia album will have some nice surprises up its sleeve, as we've been determined to make this record somewhat different from the previous two albums".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=180891/\|title\=Sirenia recording New Album \|work\=http://blabbermouth.net \|date\=16 October 2012\|access\-date\= 14 February 2013}}
On 13 April 2013 the band announced the title of their album on their Facebook page: *[Perils of the Deep Blue](/wiki/Perils_of_the_Deep_Blue "Perils of the Deep Blue")*.{{cite web \|title\=Facebook post\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/sirenia/posts/10151574835461154 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/30365096153/10151574835461154 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|work\=Facebook\|publisher\=Sirenia}}{{cbignore}} Their single "Seven Widows Weep" was released through [Nuclear Blast](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast "Nuclear Blast") on 12 May 2013\. On 3 June 2013, the official music video of the song was released. It was filmed in April of the same year in [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia") by iCODE Team.
*Perils of the Deep Blue* represented the first Sirenia album in US charts, such as the [Billboard Hard Rock Albums](/wiki/Billboard_200 "Billboard 200") and the [Heatseekers Albums](/wiki/Top_Heatseekers "Top Heatseekers").[SIRENIA – Perils Of The Deep Blue Enters The Charts In The US](http://www.bravewords.com/news/207545)
The band announced they had returned to [Napalm Records](/wiki/Napalm_Records "Napalm Records") on 3 April 2014 with a pending album release for early 2015\. On 10 February 2015 Sirenia announced the title of their next record called *[The Seventh Life Path](/wiki/The_Seventh_Life_Path "The Seventh Life Path")*. On 12 March 2015 the band announced on their Facebook page that Nightwatcher Films has signed Sirenia for the use of their song "Ducere Me In Lucem" of *Perils of the Deep Blue* for its soundtrack. The song will come out in the opening title sequence of a film called Abandoned Dead penned for release January 2016\.{{cite web\|title\=Abandoned Dead Nears Completion\- Inks Sirenia For Film Soundtrack\|url\=http://www.abandoned\-dead.com/\|work\=AbandonedDead}}
On 5 July 2016 Sirenia announced that after 8 years they were parting ways in good terms with longtime vocalist Ailyn{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\-parts\-ways\-with\-singer\-ailyn\-gimenez\-garcia/\|title\=SIRENIA Parts Ways With Singer AILYN GIMÉNEZ GARCÍA\|date\=5 July 2016\|work\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\|access\-date\=13 April 2018\|language\=en\-US}} but that the work with the upcoming album will proceed as normal. The same day, Ailyn released a statement disputing the bands claim, saying that the decision was not hers and she was not a part of it.
### 2016–2020: *Dim Days of Dolor*, new singer and *Arcane Astral Aeons*
[thumb\|right\|220px\|[Emmanuelle Zoldan](/wiki/Emmanuelle_Zoldan "Emmanuelle Zoldan") performing live in [Kherson](/wiki/Kherson "Kherson"), Ukraine, in June 2016](/wiki/File:Sirenia_Live_2016.png "Sirenia Live 2016.png")
On 29 August 2016 Sirenia revealed eighth full\-length album *[Dim Days of Dolor](/wiki/Dim_Days_of_Dolor "Dim Days of Dolor")* before their official announcement of their new singer.
On 8 September 2016 Sirenia announced their new singer [Emmanuelle Zoldan](/wiki/Emmanuelle_Zoldan "Emmanuelle Zoldan"), a French mezzo\-soprano singer from [Aix\-en\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence "Aix-en-Provence") who has worked with Sirenia for 13 years and is part of The Sirenian Choir.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\-recruits\-singer\-emmanuelle\-zoldan\-releases\-dim\-days\-of\-dolor\-album\-samples/\|title\=SIRENIA Recruits Singer EMMANUELLE ZOLDAN, Releases 'Dim Days Of Dolor' Album Samples\|date\=9 September 2016\|work\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\|access\-date\=13 April 2018\|language\=en\-US}} She has contributed to lead vocals before on the *[Sirenian Shores](/wiki/Sirenian_Shores "Sirenian Shores")* EP cover of "[First We Take Manhattan](/wiki/First_We_Take_Manhattan "First We Take Manhattan")" by [Leonard Cohen](/wiki/Leonard_Cohen "Leonard Cohen").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/sirenia/photos/a.10151403137571154\.527510\.30365096153/10154288022591154/?type\=3\&theater \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/30365096153/10154288022591154 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=Sirenia\|website\=www.facebook.com}}{{cbignore}}
Sirenia toured with [Arkona](/wiki/Arkona_%28band%29 "Arkona (band)") and [MindMaze](/wiki/Mindmaze "Mindmaze") in May 2017 for their debut in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") and [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\=131611 \|title\=Arkona, Sirenia Announce North American Tour \|date\=14 February 2017 \|publisher\=Metal Underground \|access\-date\=14 February 2017 }}
In October 2017 before a European tour, French guitarist Nils Courbaron unexpectedly was invited to participate in the live performances replacing Jan Erik Soltvedt. In November, longtime drummer [Jonathan Pérez](/wiki/Jonathan_P%C3%A9rez_%28musician%29 "Jonathan Pérez (musician)") left the band and joined [Green Carnation](/wiki/Green_Carnation "Green Carnation"). Consequently, Sirenia temporarily again included Austrian drummer Roland Navratil, a live member who had performed with the band before.
The band returned to North America to join various bands on the heavy metal cruise, [70000 Tons of Metal](/wiki/70000_Tons_of_Metal "70000 Tons of Metal") for two shows on 2 and 3 February 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\=137987\|title\=Sirenia Confirmed For 70000 Tons Of Metal 2018\|publisher\=Metal Underground\|date\=9 November 2017\|access\-date\=9 November 2017}}
Sirenia toured North America for the second time with Canadian metal band [Threat Signal](/wiki/Threat_Signal "Threat Signal") in April 2018, with support from Valinor Excelsior, Graveshadow, Niviane and Dire Peril.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\=139218\|title\=Threat Signal Announced As Support For North American Tour With Sirenia\|publisher\=Metal Underground\|date\=10 February 2018\|access\-date\=14 February 2018}}
[thumb\|left\|220px\|Nils Courbaron in *La Boule Noire*, Paris, November 2018](/wiki/File:Nils_Sirenia.jpg "Nils Sirenia.jpg")
On 14 August 2018, Sirenia had revealed the title of their ninth studio album *[Arcane Astral Aeons](/wiki/Arcane_Astral_Aeons "Arcane Astral Aeons")*, along with a European tour in the fall. The album was released 26 October of the same year.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalinsider.net/touring/sirenia\-to\-release\-arcane\-astral\-aeons\-in\-october\|title\=Sirenia to release 'Arcane Astral Aeons' in October\|publisher\=Metal Insider\|date\=14 August 2018\|access\-date\=14 August 2018}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\-to\-release\-arcane\-astral\-aeons\-album\-in\-october/\|title\=SIRENIA To Release 'Arcane Astral Aeons' Album In October\|work\=Blabbermouth\|date\=14 August 2018\|access\-date\=14 August 2018}}
A [lyric video](/wiki/Lyric_video "Lyric video") was made for the single "Love Like Cyanide" released on 21 September 2018\. The song features a guest appearance by Yannis Papadopoulos from Finnish band [Beast in Black](/wiki/Beast_in_Black "Beast in Black").[SIRENIA: Lyric Video For New Song 'Love Like Cyanide'](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia-lyric-video-for-new-song-love-like-cyanide/) On 12 October, "Into the Night" was released as the second single, followed by a music video. Both videos were directed by Swedish filmmaker and musician Owe Lingvall. [Sirenia Premiere 'Into the Night' Music Video](http://www.metalforcesmagazine.com/site/news-sirenia-release-ninth-studio-album-arcane-astral-aeons/)
In the fall of 2019, Sirenia went an extensive European tour with bands such as [Leaves' Eyes](/wiki/Leaves%27_Eyes "Leaves' Eyes"), [Forever Still](/wiki/Forever_Still "Forever Still") and Lost in Grey.{{cite web\|url\=http://bravewords.com/news/leaves\-eyes\-and\-sirenia\-to\-headline\-female\-metal\-voices\-tour\-2019\-with\-forever\-still\-lost\-in\-grey\-and\-more\|title\=LEAVES' EYES And SIRENIA To Headline Female Metal Voices Tour 2019 With FOREVER STILL, LOST IN GREY And More\|publisher\=Bravewords\|date\=17 September 2019\|access\-date\=11 December 2019}} During the tour, a new official member was introduced, British drummer Michael Brush from [Magic Kingdom](/wiki/Magic_Kingdom_%28band%29 "Magic Kingdom (band)").[Sirenia welcomes new drummer](https://www.metalinsider.net/news/sirenia-welcomes-new-drummer)
### 2020–present: *Riddles, Ruins \& Revelations* and *1977*
On 8 December 2020, Sirenia announced the title of their tenth studio album *[Riddles, Ruins \& Revelations](/wiki/Riddles%2C_Ruins_%26_Revelations "Riddles, Ruins & Revelations")*, with the release of their first single off of the album, "Addiction No. 1". The album was released on 12 February 2021\.{{cite web \|last1\=Bauer \|first1\=Simon \|title\=SIRENIA: "Riddles, Ruins \& Revelations"\-Album für Februar 2021 angekündigt \|url\=https://www.rockhard.de/artikel/sirenia\-riddles\-ruins\-und\-revelations\-album\-fuer\-februar\-2021\-angekuendigt\_527851\.html \|website\=Rock Hard Magazine \|access\-date\=8 December 2020 \|date\=8 December 2020}}{{cite web \|last1\=Pessina \|first1\=Luca \|title\=SIRENIA: ascolta la nuova "Addiction No. 1" \|url\=https://metalitalia.com/articolo/sirenia\-ascolta\-la\-nuova\-addiction\-no\-1/ \|website\=Metalitalia \|access\-date\=8 December 2020 \|language\=it\-IT}} The second single off of the album, "We Come to Ruins", was released on 12 January 2021\.{{cite web \|title\=Sirenia to unveil new single next week \|url\=https://www.metalinsider.net/news/sirenia\-to\-unveil\-new\-single\-next\-week \|website\=Metal Insider \|access\-date\=5 January 2021 \|date\=4 January 2021}}{{cite web \|title\=SIRENIA: 'We Come To Ruins'\-Single is online \|url\=https://www.rockhard.de/artikel/sirenia\-we\-come\-to\-ruins\-single\-is\-online\_530735\.html \|website\=Rock Hard Megazine \|access\-date\=12 January 2021 \|language\=en}} On 10 February 2021, the band released their third single off of the album which is a cover of [Desireless](/wiki/Desireless "Desireless")' "[Voyage, voyage](/wiki/Voyage%2C_voyage "Voyage, voyage")".{{cite web \|title\=SIRENIA Release Cover of DESIRELESS' '80s Hit 'Voyage Voyage'; Music Video \|url\=https://bravewords.com/news/sirenia\-release\-cover\-of\-desireless\-80s\-hit\-voyage\-voyage\-music\-video \|website\=BraveWords \|access\-date\=10 February 2021 \|language\=en \|date\=10 February 2021}} The tenth album was a remarkable stylistic shift for Sirenia, adding [synth\-pop](/wiki/Synth-pop "Synth-pop") to their usual symphonic metal musical style, opting for a more commercial bet.
On 22 March 2023, the band simultaneously announced the first single which is a cover of English singer [Tanita Tikaram](/wiki/Tanita_Tikaram "Tanita Tikaram")'s "[Twist in My Sobriety](/wiki/Twist_in_My_Sobriety "Twist in My Sobriety")".{{cite web \|title\=Sirenia Set May Release For 1977 Album; "Twist In My Sobriety" Performance Video Revealed \|url\=https://bravewords.com/news/sirenia\-set\-may\-release\-for\-1977\-album\-twist\-in\-my\-sobriety\-performance\-video\-revealed \|website\=\[\[Brave Words \& Bloody Knuckles]] \|access\-date\=22 March 2023 \|language\=en}} It is the first single that was featured on the eleventh studio album, *[1977](/wiki/1977_%28Sirenia_album%29 "1977 (Sirenia album)")*, which was released on 26 May 2023\.{{cite web \|title\=Sirenia To Release New Studio Album '1977' In May; Music Video For Cover Of Tanita Tikaram's 'Twist In My Sobriety' Launched \|url\=https://www.metalforcesmagazine.com/site/news\-sirenia\-release\-11th\-studio\-album\-1977/ \|website\=Metal Forces Magazine \|access\-date\=29 March 2023 \|date\=22 March 2023}} The other two singles were "Deadlight" and "Wintry Heart".{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.metalforcesmagazine.com/site/news\-sirenia\-release\-11th\-studio\-album\-1977/\|title\=SIRENIA Release Music Video For New Track 'Wintry Heart' (May 25th, 2023\) \| News @ Metal Forces Magazine\|accessdate\=18 August 2023}} The album followed in the same vein as the previous *Riddles, Ruins \& Revelations*, but with a style influenced by the rock bands of the 70s\-80s.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 2001–2003: Formation and *At Sixes and Sevens*",
"In January 2001, Veland, a founding member of [Tristania](/wiki/Tristania_%28band%29 \"Tristania (band)\") left the band, within a few weeks Veland had a new band along with three other members. He had written material for Tristania's next release but because of the split, he used it towards Sirenia's debut album *[At Sixes and Sevens](/wiki/At_Sixes_and_Sevens \"At Sixes and Sevens\")* with other new material written for it as well. The band entered the studio by November or December 2001\\. The band failed to find a suitable singer prior to recording in [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), so they hired a session female singer named Fabienne Gondamin.{{cite web\\|title\\= Sirenia\\- Old Is New Again\\|url\\=http://www.deadrhetoric.com/features/sirenia\\-old\\-is\\-new\\-again/\\|work\\=deadrhetoric\\|date\\=10 May 2015 }}",
"### 2004–2007: *An Elixir for Existence* and *Nine Destinies and a Downfall*",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Henriette Bordvik in *[Inferno Metal Festival](/wiki/Inferno_Metal_Festival \"Inferno Metal Festival\")* in 2003](/wiki/File:Henriette_Bordvik_Sirenia.png \"Henriette Bordvik Sirenia.png\")\nOn the subsequent tour Fabienne Gondamin was replaced by Henriette Bordvik, with whom the band recorded the album *[An Elixir for Existence](/wiki/An_Elixir_for_Existence \"An Elixir for Existence\")* and the EP *[Sirenian Shores](/wiki/Sirenian_Shores \"Sirenian Shores\")*.",
"The band signed with [Nuclear Blast](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast \"Nuclear Blast\") in May 2005\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\\-sign\\-with\\-nuclear\\-blast\\-records\\|title\\=Sirenia Sign With Nuclear Blast Records – Blabbermouth.net\\|work\\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\\|date\\=18 March 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2014}}",
"In November 2005, Henriette Bordvik left the band, citing personal reasons.",
"In 2007 they released a third album – *[Nine Destinies and a Downfall](/wiki/Nine_Destinies_and_a_Downfall \"Nine Destinies and a Downfall\")*. The album features new singer, [Monika Pedersen](/wiki/Monika_Pedersen \"Monika Pedersen\") from [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\"), who joined the band in April 2006, and new guitarist Bjørnar Landa (from Artifact), who joined the band during the recording.",
"On 5 November 2007 Monika Pedersen quit the band over musical disagreements. Her departure caused Sirenia to pull out of a planned European tour with [Therion](/wiki/Therion_%28band%29 \"Therion (band)\").",
"### 2008–2011: *The 13th Floor* and *The Enigma of Life*",
"Sirenia began looking for a new singer in November 2007\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://heavymetal.about.com/od/interviews/a/sirenia\\-mortenvelandinterview.htm \\|title\\=Sirenia Interview \\|publisher\\=about.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2014}} The process in finding their newest member took about six months. About 500 applied, at the end they wanted to find someone from the EU region for practical reasons. On 9 April 2008 Sirenia announced Spanish *[X Factor](/wiki/The_X_Factor \"The X Factor\")* contestant [Ailyn](/wiki/Ailyn \"Ailyn\") as their new female vocalist.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\\-enlists\\-x\\-factor\\-singer\\-from\\-spain/ \\|title\\= Sirenia Enlists 'XFactor Singer From Spain \\|date\\= 9 April 2008 \\|publisher\\=blabbermouth.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2014}}",
"On 19 May 2008 it was announced that Bjørnar Landa left the band in order to have more time for his family and studies. He was replaced by Michael S. Krumins ([Green Carnation](/wiki/Green_Carnation \"Green Carnation\")).",
"On 12 June 2008 Sirenia announced that for the first time in their career, they had decided to work with a bass player for their live shows. The session bass player will be Kristian Olav Torp.",
"Sirenia started recording their fourth album in July 2008\\. It was recorded in Sound Suite Studios, France and Stargoth Studios, Norway. The mixing and mastering took place in Antfarm Studios, Denmark with Tue Madsen. The album, called *[The 13th Floor](/wiki/The_13th_Floor_%28album%29 \"The 13th Floor (album)\")*, was completed in September and the release date was 23 January 2009\\. The album features guest appearances by Jan Kenneth Barkved. The first single, \"The Path to Decay\", was released on 26 December 2008 as a digital download.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|[Ailyn](/wiki/Ailyn \"Ailyn\") and [Morten Veland](/wiki/Morten_Veland \"Morten Veland\") in March 2010](/wiki/File:Sirenia-flickr002.jpg \"Sirenia-flickr002.jpg\")\nOn 8 July 2010, the band announced that they started recording a new album. It was finished in November, and will be titled *[The Enigma of Life](/wiki/The_Enigma_of_Life \"The Enigma of Life\")*. It was released on 21 January 2011\\.",
"The first single, \"The End of It All\", was released on 21 December 2010 as a digital download.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Michael S. Krumins in *Global East Rock Festival* in September 2010](/wiki/File:Sirenia_at_Global_East_Rock_Festival_2010_%282%29.jpg \"Sirenia at Global East Rock Festival 2010 (2).jpg\")\nOn 19 April 2011, Michael left Sirenia to put in more time on his own bands and projects. Jan Erik Soltvedt joined the band and filled in as the lead guitarist. Soltvedt accompanied Sirenia on their American and European tours in 2011, including the *Gallus Sonorus Musicallis* festival (GSM Fest) held in June 2011 in [Barcelos, Portugal](/wiki/Barcelos%2C_Portugal \"Barcelos, Portugal\"), and the *[Wacken Festival](/wiki/Wacken_Open_Air \"Wacken Open Air\")* in [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), held in August.",
"On 16 July 2011, and as one of their most important performances of that year, was held at the famous heavy metal festival *[Masters of Rock](/wiki/Masters_of_Rock_%28festival%29 \"Masters of Rock (festival)\")*, which takes place annually in the city of [Vizovice](/wiki/Vizovice \"Vizovice\"), [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\"). Previously, their first and only participation dates from 2008\\.",
"By the end of July and the beginning of August 2011, Sirenia made their second Latin American tour, which took them back to countries such as [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") and for the first time to [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") and [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") in October.",
"### 2012–2016: *Perils of the Deep Blue*, *The Seventh Life Path* and Ailyn's departure",
"On 16 October 2012 Sirenia announced that they have entered the studio to record their next album for an early 2013 release. The band on their sixth album, \"The progress on the new album is going very well — we feel confident that the sixth Sirenia album will have some nice surprises up its sleeve, as we've been determined to make this record somewhat different from the previous two albums\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=180891/\\|title\\=Sirenia recording New Album \\|work\\=http://blabbermouth.net \\|date\\=16 October 2012\\|access\\-date\\= 14 February 2013}}",
"On 13 April 2013 the band announced the title of their album on their Facebook page: *[Perils of the Deep Blue](/wiki/Perils_of_the_Deep_Blue \"Perils of the Deep Blue\")*.{{cite web \\|title\\=Facebook post\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/sirenia/posts/10151574835461154 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/30365096153/10151574835461154 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|work\\=Facebook\\|publisher\\=Sirenia}}{{cbignore}} Their single \"Seven Widows Weep\" was released through [Nuclear Blast](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast \"Nuclear Blast\") on 12 May 2013\\. On 3 June 2013, the official music video of the song was released. It was filmed in April of the same year in [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia \"Serbia\") by iCODE Team.",
"*Perils of the Deep Blue* represented the first Sirenia album in US charts, such as the [Billboard Hard Rock Albums](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") and the [Heatseekers Albums](/wiki/Top_Heatseekers \"Top Heatseekers\").[SIRENIA – Perils Of The Deep Blue Enters The Charts In The US](http://www.bravewords.com/news/207545)",
"The band announced they had returned to [Napalm Records](/wiki/Napalm_Records \"Napalm Records\") on 3 April 2014 with a pending album release for early 2015\\. On 10 February 2015 Sirenia announced the title of their next record called *[The Seventh Life Path](/wiki/The_Seventh_Life_Path \"The Seventh Life Path\")*. On 12 March 2015 the band announced on their Facebook page that Nightwatcher Films has signed Sirenia for the use of their song \"Ducere Me In Lucem\" of *Perils of the Deep Blue* for its soundtrack. The song will come out in the opening title sequence of a film called Abandoned Dead penned for release January 2016\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Abandoned Dead Nears Completion\\- Inks Sirenia For Film Soundtrack\\|url\\=http://www.abandoned\\-dead.com/\\|work\\=AbandonedDead}}",
"On 5 July 2016 Sirenia announced that after 8 years they were parting ways in good terms with longtime vocalist Ailyn{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\\-parts\\-ways\\-with\\-singer\\-ailyn\\-gimenez\\-garcia/\\|title\\=SIRENIA Parts Ways With Singer AILYN GIMÉNEZ GARCÍA\\|date\\=5 July 2016\\|work\\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US}} but that the work with the upcoming album will proceed as normal. The same day, Ailyn released a statement disputing the bands claim, saying that the decision was not hers and she was not a part of it.",
"### 2016–2020: *Dim Days of Dolor*, new singer and *Arcane Astral Aeons*",
"[thumb\\|right\\|220px\\|[Emmanuelle Zoldan](/wiki/Emmanuelle_Zoldan \"Emmanuelle Zoldan\") performing live in [Kherson](/wiki/Kherson \"Kherson\"), Ukraine, in June 2016](/wiki/File:Sirenia_Live_2016.png \"Sirenia Live 2016.png\")\nOn 29 August 2016 Sirenia revealed eighth full\\-length album *[Dim Days of Dolor](/wiki/Dim_Days_of_Dolor \"Dim Days of Dolor\")* before their official announcement of their new singer.",
"On 8 September 2016 Sirenia announced their new singer [Emmanuelle Zoldan](/wiki/Emmanuelle_Zoldan \"Emmanuelle Zoldan\"), a French mezzo\\-soprano singer from [Aix\\-en\\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence \"Aix-en-Provence\") who has worked with Sirenia for 13 years and is part of The Sirenian Choir.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\\-recruits\\-singer\\-emmanuelle\\-zoldan\\-releases\\-dim\\-days\\-of\\-dolor\\-album\\-samples/\\|title\\=SIRENIA Recruits Singer EMMANUELLE ZOLDAN, Releases 'Dim Days Of Dolor' Album Samples\\|date\\=9 September 2016\\|work\\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US}} She has contributed to lead vocals before on the *[Sirenian Shores](/wiki/Sirenian_Shores \"Sirenian Shores\")* EP cover of \"[First We Take Manhattan](/wiki/First_We_Take_Manhattan \"First We Take Manhattan\")\" by [Leonard Cohen](/wiki/Leonard_Cohen \"Leonard Cohen\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/sirenia/photos/a.10151403137571154\\.527510\\.30365096153/10154288022591154/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/30365096153/10154288022591154 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=Sirenia\\|website\\=www.facebook.com}}{{cbignore}}",
"Sirenia toured with [Arkona](/wiki/Arkona_%28band%29 \"Arkona (band)\") and [MindMaze](/wiki/Mindmaze \"Mindmaze\") in May 2017 for their debut in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\\=131611 \\|title\\=Arkona, Sirenia Announce North American Tour \\|date\\=14 February 2017 \\|publisher\\=Metal Underground \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2017 }}",
"In October 2017 before a European tour, French guitarist Nils Courbaron unexpectedly was invited to participate in the live performances replacing Jan Erik Soltvedt. In November, longtime drummer [Jonathan Pérez](/wiki/Jonathan_P%C3%A9rez_%28musician%29 \"Jonathan Pérez (musician)\") left the band and joined [Green Carnation](/wiki/Green_Carnation \"Green Carnation\"). Consequently, Sirenia temporarily again included Austrian drummer Roland Navratil, a live member who had performed with the band before.",
"The band returned to North America to join various bands on the heavy metal cruise, [70000 Tons of Metal](/wiki/70000_Tons_of_Metal \"70000 Tons of Metal\") for two shows on 2 and 3 February 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\\=137987\\|title\\=Sirenia Confirmed For 70000 Tons Of Metal 2018\\|publisher\\=Metal Underground\\|date\\=9 November 2017\\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2017}}",
"Sirenia toured North America for the second time with Canadian metal band [Threat Signal](/wiki/Threat_Signal \"Threat Signal\") in April 2018, with support from Valinor Excelsior, Graveshadow, Niviane and Dire Peril.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\\=139218\\|title\\=Threat Signal Announced As Support For North American Tour With Sirenia\\|publisher\\=Metal Underground\\|date\\=10 February 2018\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2018}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|220px\\|Nils Courbaron in *La Boule Noire*, Paris, November 2018](/wiki/File:Nils_Sirenia.jpg \"Nils Sirenia.jpg\")\nOn 14 August 2018, Sirenia had revealed the title of their ninth studio album *[Arcane Astral Aeons](/wiki/Arcane_Astral_Aeons \"Arcane Astral Aeons\")*, along with a European tour in the fall. The album was released 26 October of the same year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalinsider.net/touring/sirenia\\-to\\-release\\-arcane\\-astral\\-aeons\\-in\\-october\\|title\\=Sirenia to release 'Arcane Astral Aeons' in October\\|publisher\\=Metal Insider\\|date\\=14 August 2018\\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2018}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\\-to\\-release\\-arcane\\-astral\\-aeons\\-album\\-in\\-october/\\|title\\=SIRENIA To Release 'Arcane Astral Aeons' Album In October\\|work\\=Blabbermouth\\|date\\=14 August 2018\\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2018}}",
"A [lyric video](/wiki/Lyric_video \"Lyric video\") was made for the single \"Love Like Cyanide\" released on 21 September 2018\\. The song features a guest appearance by Yannis Papadopoulos from Finnish band [Beast in Black](/wiki/Beast_in_Black \"Beast in Black\").[SIRENIA: Lyric Video For New Song 'Love Like Cyanide'](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia-lyric-video-for-new-song-love-like-cyanide/) On 12 October, \"Into the Night\" was released as the second single, followed by a music video. Both videos were directed by Swedish filmmaker and musician Owe Lingvall. [Sirenia Premiere 'Into the Night' Music Video](http://www.metalforcesmagazine.com/site/news-sirenia-release-ninth-studio-album-arcane-astral-aeons/)",
"In the fall of 2019, Sirenia went an extensive European tour with bands such as [Leaves' Eyes](/wiki/Leaves%27_Eyes \"Leaves' Eyes\"), [Forever Still](/wiki/Forever_Still \"Forever Still\") and Lost in Grey.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bravewords.com/news/leaves\\-eyes\\-and\\-sirenia\\-to\\-headline\\-female\\-metal\\-voices\\-tour\\-2019\\-with\\-forever\\-still\\-lost\\-in\\-grey\\-and\\-more\\|title\\=LEAVES' EYES And SIRENIA To Headline Female Metal Voices Tour 2019 With FOREVER STILL, LOST IN GREY And More\\|publisher\\=Bravewords\\|date\\=17 September 2019\\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019}} During the tour, a new official member was introduced, British drummer Michael Brush from [Magic Kingdom](/wiki/Magic_Kingdom_%28band%29 \"Magic Kingdom (band)\").[Sirenia welcomes new drummer](https://www.metalinsider.net/news/sirenia-welcomes-new-drummer)",
"### 2020–present: *Riddles, Ruins \\& Revelations* and *1977*",
"On 8 December 2020, Sirenia announced the title of their tenth studio album *[Riddles, Ruins \\& Revelations](/wiki/Riddles%2C_Ruins_%26_Revelations \"Riddles, Ruins & Revelations\")*, with the release of their first single off of the album, \"Addiction No. 1\". The album was released on 12 February 2021\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Bauer \\|first1\\=Simon \\|title\\=SIRENIA: \"Riddles, Ruins \\& Revelations\"\\-Album für Februar 2021 angekündigt \\|url\\=https://www.rockhard.de/artikel/sirenia\\-riddles\\-ruins\\-und\\-revelations\\-album\\-fuer\\-februar\\-2021\\-angekuendigt\\_527851\\.html \\|website\\=Rock Hard Magazine \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2020 \\|date\\=8 December 2020}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Pessina \\|first1\\=Luca \\|title\\=SIRENIA: ascolta la nuova \"Addiction No. 1\" \\|url\\=https://metalitalia.com/articolo/sirenia\\-ascolta\\-la\\-nuova\\-addiction\\-no\\-1/ \\|website\\=Metalitalia \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2020 \\|language\\=it\\-IT}} The second single off of the album, \"We Come to Ruins\", was released on 12 January 2021\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Sirenia to unveil new single next week \\|url\\=https://www.metalinsider.net/news/sirenia\\-to\\-unveil\\-new\\-single\\-next\\-week \\|website\\=Metal Insider \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2021 \\|date\\=4 January 2021}}{{cite web \\|title\\=SIRENIA: 'We Come To Ruins'\\-Single is online \\|url\\=https://www.rockhard.de/artikel/sirenia\\-we\\-come\\-to\\-ruins\\-single\\-is\\-online\\_530735\\.html \\|website\\=Rock Hard Megazine \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2021 \\|language\\=en}} On 10 February 2021, the band released their third single off of the album which is a cover of [Desireless](/wiki/Desireless \"Desireless\")' \"[Voyage, voyage](/wiki/Voyage%2C_voyage \"Voyage, voyage\")\".{{cite web \\|title\\=SIRENIA Release Cover of DESIRELESS' '80s Hit 'Voyage Voyage'; Music Video \\|url\\=https://bravewords.com/news/sirenia\\-release\\-cover\\-of\\-desireless\\-80s\\-hit\\-voyage\\-voyage\\-music\\-video \\|website\\=BraveWords \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2021 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=10 February 2021}} The tenth album was a remarkable stylistic shift for Sirenia, adding [synth\\-pop](/wiki/Synth-pop \"Synth-pop\") to their usual symphonic metal musical style, opting for a more commercial bet.",
"On 22 March 2023, the band simultaneously announced the first single which is a cover of English singer [Tanita Tikaram](/wiki/Tanita_Tikaram \"Tanita Tikaram\")'s \"[Twist in My Sobriety](/wiki/Twist_in_My_Sobriety \"Twist in My Sobriety\")\".{{cite web \\|title\\=Sirenia Set May Release For 1977 Album; \"Twist In My Sobriety\" Performance Video Revealed \\|url\\=https://bravewords.com/news/sirenia\\-set\\-may\\-release\\-for\\-1977\\-album\\-twist\\-in\\-my\\-sobriety\\-performance\\-video\\-revealed \\|website\\=\\[\\[Brave Words \\& Bloody Knuckles]] \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2023 \\|language\\=en}} It is the first single that was featured on the eleventh studio album, *[1977](/wiki/1977_%28Sirenia_album%29 \"1977 (Sirenia album)\")*, which was released on 26 May 2023\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Sirenia To Release New Studio Album '1977' In May; Music Video For Cover Of Tanita Tikaram's 'Twist In My Sobriety' Launched \\|url\\=https://www.metalforcesmagazine.com/site/news\\-sirenia\\-release\\-11th\\-studio\\-album\\-1977/ \\|website\\=Metal Forces Magazine \\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2023 \\|date\\=22 March 2023}} The other two singles were \"Deadlight\" and \"Wintry Heart\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.metalforcesmagazine.com/site/news\\-sirenia\\-release\\-11th\\-studio\\-album\\-1977/\\|title\\=SIRENIA Release Music Video For New Track 'Wintry Heart' (May 25th, 2023\\) \\| News @ Metal Forces Magazine\\|accessdate\\=18 August 2023}} The album followed in the same vein as the previous *Riddles, Ruins \\& Revelations*, but with a style influenced by the rock bands of the 70s\\-80s.",
""
] |
### 2008–2011: *The 13th Floor* and *The Enigma of Life*
Sirenia began looking for a new singer in November 2007\.{{cite web\|url\=http://heavymetal.about.com/od/interviews/a/sirenia\-mortenvelandinterview.htm \|title\=Sirenia Interview \|publisher\=about.com \|access\-date\=27 June 2014}} The process in finding their newest member took about six months. About 500 applied, at the end they wanted to find someone from the EU region for practical reasons. On 9 April 2008 Sirenia announced Spanish *[X Factor](/wiki/The_X_Factor "The X Factor")* contestant [Ailyn](/wiki/Ailyn "Ailyn") as their new female vocalist.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\-enlists\-x\-factor\-singer\-from\-spain/ \|title\= Sirenia Enlists 'XFactor Singer From Spain \|date\= 9 April 2008 \|publisher\=blabbermouth.com \|access\-date\=27 June 2014}}
On 19 May 2008 it was announced that Bjørnar Landa left the band in order to have more time for his family and studies. He was replaced by Michael S. Krumins ([Green Carnation](/wiki/Green_Carnation "Green Carnation")).
On 12 June 2008 Sirenia announced that for the first time in their career, they had decided to work with a bass player for their live shows. The session bass player will be Kristian Olav Torp.
Sirenia started recording their fourth album in July 2008\. It was recorded in Sound Suite Studios, France and Stargoth Studios, Norway. The mixing and mastering took place in Antfarm Studios, Denmark with Tue Madsen. The album, called *[The 13th Floor](/wiki/The_13th_Floor_%28album%29 "The 13th Floor (album)")*, was completed in September and the release date was 23 January 2009\. The album features guest appearances by Jan Kenneth Barkved. The first single, "The Path to Decay", was released on 26 December 2008 as a digital download.
[thumb\|left\|200px\|[Ailyn](/wiki/Ailyn "Ailyn") and [Morten Veland](/wiki/Morten_Veland "Morten Veland") in March 2010](/wiki/File:Sirenia-flickr002.jpg "Sirenia-flickr002.jpg")
On 8 July 2010, the band announced that they started recording a new album. It was finished in November, and will be titled *[The Enigma of Life](/wiki/The_Enigma_of_Life "The Enigma of Life")*. It was released on 21 January 2011\.
The first single, "The End of It All", was released on 21 December 2010 as a digital download.
[thumb\|right\|200px\|Michael S. Krumins in *Global East Rock Festival* in September 2010](/wiki/File:Sirenia_at_Global_East_Rock_Festival_2010_%282%29.jpg "Sirenia at Global East Rock Festival 2010 (2).jpg")
On 19 April 2011, Michael left Sirenia to put in more time on his own bands and projects. Jan Erik Soltvedt joined the band and filled in as the lead guitarist. Soltvedt accompanied Sirenia on their American and European tours in 2011, including the *Gallus Sonorus Musicallis* festival (GSM Fest) held in June 2011 in [Barcelos, Portugal](/wiki/Barcelos%2C_Portugal "Barcelos, Portugal"), and the *[Wacken Festival](/wiki/Wacken_Open_Air "Wacken Open Air")* in [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), held in August.
On 16 July 2011, and as one of their most important performances of that year, was held at the famous heavy metal festival *[Masters of Rock](/wiki/Masters_of_Rock_%28festival%29 "Masters of Rock (festival)")*, which takes place annually in the city of [Vizovice](/wiki/Vizovice "Vizovice"), [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"). Previously, their first and only participation dates from 2008\.
By the end of July and the beginning of August 2011, Sirenia made their second Latin American tour, which took them back to countries such as [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"), [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") and for the first time to [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") and [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile") in October.
|
[
"### 2008–2011: *The 13th Floor* and *The Enigma of Life*",
"Sirenia began looking for a new singer in November 2007\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://heavymetal.about.com/od/interviews/a/sirenia\\-mortenvelandinterview.htm \\|title\\=Sirenia Interview \\|publisher\\=about.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2014}} The process in finding their newest member took about six months. About 500 applied, at the end they wanted to find someone from the EU region for practical reasons. On 9 April 2008 Sirenia announced Spanish *[X Factor](/wiki/The_X_Factor \"The X Factor\")* contestant [Ailyn](/wiki/Ailyn \"Ailyn\") as their new female vocalist.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/sirenia\\-enlists\\-x\\-factor\\-singer\\-from\\-spain/ \\|title\\= Sirenia Enlists 'XFactor Singer From Spain \\|date\\= 9 April 2008 \\|publisher\\=blabbermouth.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2014}}",
"On 19 May 2008 it was announced that Bjørnar Landa left the band in order to have more time for his family and studies. He was replaced by Michael S. Krumins ([Green Carnation](/wiki/Green_Carnation \"Green Carnation\")).",
"On 12 June 2008 Sirenia announced that for the first time in their career, they had decided to work with a bass player for their live shows. The session bass player will be Kristian Olav Torp.",
"Sirenia started recording their fourth album in July 2008\\. It was recorded in Sound Suite Studios, France and Stargoth Studios, Norway. The mixing and mastering took place in Antfarm Studios, Denmark with Tue Madsen. The album, called *[The 13th Floor](/wiki/The_13th_Floor_%28album%29 \"The 13th Floor (album)\")*, was completed in September and the release date was 23 January 2009\\. The album features guest appearances by Jan Kenneth Barkved. The first single, \"The Path to Decay\", was released on 26 December 2008 as a digital download.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|[Ailyn](/wiki/Ailyn \"Ailyn\") and [Morten Veland](/wiki/Morten_Veland \"Morten Veland\") in March 2010](/wiki/File:Sirenia-flickr002.jpg \"Sirenia-flickr002.jpg\")\nOn 8 July 2010, the band announced that they started recording a new album. It was finished in November, and will be titled *[The Enigma of Life](/wiki/The_Enigma_of_Life \"The Enigma of Life\")*. It was released on 21 January 2011\\.",
"The first single, \"The End of It All\", was released on 21 December 2010 as a digital download.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Michael S. Krumins in *Global East Rock Festival* in September 2010](/wiki/File:Sirenia_at_Global_East_Rock_Festival_2010_%282%29.jpg \"Sirenia at Global East Rock Festival 2010 (2).jpg\")\nOn 19 April 2011, Michael left Sirenia to put in more time on his own bands and projects. Jan Erik Soltvedt joined the band and filled in as the lead guitarist. Soltvedt accompanied Sirenia on their American and European tours in 2011, including the *Gallus Sonorus Musicallis* festival (GSM Fest) held in June 2011 in [Barcelos, Portugal](/wiki/Barcelos%2C_Portugal \"Barcelos, Portugal\"), and the *[Wacken Festival](/wiki/Wacken_Open_Air \"Wacken Open Air\")* in [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), held in August.",
"On 16 July 2011, and as one of their most important performances of that year, was held at the famous heavy metal festival *[Masters of Rock](/wiki/Masters_of_Rock_%28festival%29 \"Masters of Rock (festival)\")*, which takes place annually in the city of [Vizovice](/wiki/Vizovice \"Vizovice\"), [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\"). Previously, their first and only participation dates from 2008\\.",
"By the end of July and the beginning of August 2011, Sirenia made their second Latin American tour, which took them back to countries such as [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") and for the first time to [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") and [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") in October.",
""
] |
Main game
---------
Two contestants competed. The object of the game was to correctly identify words based on videotaped definitions given by [elementary school](/wiki/Primary_education "Primary education")\-age children (ages 5–9\). The game was played in two rounds.
### Round 1
In the first round, a word was given to the home audience, and a video clip of a child defining that word was played (e.g. a child stating "it's something you use to unlock a door to a house or a car" to define "key"). If the child said the word or any form of it, or any other words that were judged unsuitable for broadcast, the audio was bleeped out and an oval marked "OOPS" was superimposed over the child's mouth to prevent the contestants from trying to guess the word through [lip reading](/wiki/Lip_reading "Lip reading").
Once the clip ended, the contestant had a chance to guess the word; a correct response earned one point. If the contestant was incorrect, a clip of another child defining the same word was played and the opponent could offer a guess. A miss resulted in a third clip being played and gave the first contestant one last chance to guess. If the contestant was still wrong, no points were awarded.
The champion had initial control for the first word, and control alternated between the two contestants on each new word until the round ended at the second commercial break. Originally, the contestant who guessed each word won control for the next one.
### Round 2: Fast Play
A video clip of a child defining a word was played, and either contestant could buzz in at any time to stop the playback and guess the word. A correct guess awarded two points, while a miss allowed the opponent to see the rest of the clip before offering a guess. The round continued until a school bell rang, whereupon the contestant in the lead won $500 and advanced to the bonus round.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.game\-show\-utopia.net/childsplay/Childsplay.htm\|title \= Game show utopia \- Ideas for Life}} If the game ended in a tie, one additional word was played to determine the winner.
In the first three episodes, Fast Play was played in two halves, each of which ended at the bell. Correct answers were worth one point each in the first half, and two points in the second; in addition, if a contestant guessed incorrectly, the entire clip was played for the opponent.
|
[
"Main game\n---------",
"Two contestants competed. The object of the game was to correctly identify words based on videotaped definitions given by [elementary school](/wiki/Primary_education \"Primary education\")\\-age children (ages 5–9\\). The game was played in two rounds.",
"### Round 1",
"In the first round, a word was given to the home audience, and a video clip of a child defining that word was played (e.g. a child stating \"it's something you use to unlock a door to a house or a car\" to define \"key\"). If the child said the word or any form of it, or any other words that were judged unsuitable for broadcast, the audio was bleeped out and an oval marked \"OOPS\" was superimposed over the child's mouth to prevent the contestants from trying to guess the word through [lip reading](/wiki/Lip_reading \"Lip reading\").",
"Once the clip ended, the contestant had a chance to guess the word; a correct response earned one point. If the contestant was incorrect, a clip of another child defining the same word was played and the opponent could offer a guess. A miss resulted in a third clip being played and gave the first contestant one last chance to guess. If the contestant was still wrong, no points were awarded.",
"The champion had initial control for the first word, and control alternated between the two contestants on each new word until the round ended at the second commercial break. Originally, the contestant who guessed each word won control for the next one.",
"### Round 2: Fast Play",
"A video clip of a child defining a word was played, and either contestant could buzz in at any time to stop the playback and guess the word. A correct guess awarded two points, while a miss allowed the opponent to see the rest of the clip before offering a guess. The round continued until a school bell rang, whereupon the contestant in the lead won $500 and advanced to the bonus round.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.game\\-show\\-utopia.net/childsplay/Childsplay.htm\\|title \\= Game show utopia \\- Ideas for Life}} If the game ended in a tie, one additional word was played to determine the winner.",
"In the first three episodes, Fast Play was played in two halves, each of which ended at the bell. Correct answers were worth one point each in the first half, and two points in the second; in addition, if a contestant guessed incorrectly, the entire clip was played for the opponent.",
""
] |
Bonus round
-----------
Two different bonus round formats were used, each with a $5,000 top prize and a 45\-second time limit.
Champions returned until they were defeated, had played five bonus rounds, or reached the $25,000 winnings limit in force for CBS game shows at the time.
### Format 1: Triple Play
The champion attempted to guess words based on definitions written by three children, identified only as A, B, or C. Once the champion selected a child, the corresponding definition would be displayed on a screen and read aloud by Cullen, after which he/she could either guess or select again. If the champion was unable to identify the word after hearing all three definitions, it was removed and play continued with a new word.
The champion won $5,000 for guessing six words before time ran out, or $100 per correct guess otherwise.
### Format 2: Turnabout
This format replaced Triple Play starting with the April 25, 1983 episode. Five of the children who had appeared in the film clips used during the main game joined the champion onstage, and the champion had to describe seven words for them to guess, addressing one child at a time in sequence. Words were displayed for the home audience. Each correct answer from any child won $100 for the champion, plus $100 to be split equally among the children. The champion could pass on a word and return to it if time permitted; an illegal clue, such as saying the word or any form of it, eliminated that word from play.
If the children guessed all seven words before time ran out, the bonus round winnings for them and the champion were respectively increased to $1,000 and $5,000\.
|
[
"Bonus round\n-----------",
"Two different bonus round formats were used, each with a $5,000 top prize and a 45\\-second time limit.",
"Champions returned until they were defeated, had played five bonus rounds, or reached the $25,000 winnings limit in force for CBS game shows at the time.",
"### Format 1: Triple Play",
"The champion attempted to guess words based on definitions written by three children, identified only as A, B, or C. Once the champion selected a child, the corresponding definition would be displayed on a screen and read aloud by Cullen, after which he/she could either guess or select again. If the champion was unable to identify the word after hearing all three definitions, it was removed and play continued with a new word.",
"The champion won $5,000 for guessing six words before time ran out, or $100 per correct guess otherwise.",
"### Format 2: Turnabout",
"This format replaced Triple Play starting with the April 25, 1983 episode. Five of the children who had appeared in the film clips used during the main game joined the champion onstage, and the champion had to describe seven words for them to guess, addressing one child at a time in sequence. Words were displayed for the home audience. Each correct answer from any child won $100 for the champion, plus $100 to be split equally among the children. The champion could pass on a word and return to it if time permitted; an illegal clue, such as saying the word or any form of it, eliminated that word from play.",
"If the children guessed all seven words before time ran out, the bonus round winnings for them and the champion were respectively increased to $1,000 and $5,000\\.",
""
] |
International versions
----------------------
| Country | Local Name | Host | Channel | Year Aired |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{Flag\|Australia}} | *[Child's Play](/wiki/Child%27s_Play_%28Australian_game_show%29 "Child's Play (Australian game show)")* | [Jeff Phillips](/wiki/Jeff_Phillips_%28singer%29 "Jeff Phillips (singer)") | [Seven Network](/wiki/Seven_Network "Seven Network") | 1984 |
| {{Flag\|Germany}}
*[Dingsda](/wiki/Dingsda "Dingsda")*
[Fritz Egner](/wiki/Fritz_Egner "Fritz Egner")[Werner Schimidbauer](/wiki/Werner_Schimidbauer "Werner Schimidbauer") |
[Bayerisches Rundfunk](/wiki/Bayerisches_Rundfunk_%28Ferensehen%29 "Bayerisches Rundfunk (Ferensehen)") |
1985–19941994–2000 |
| [Thomas Ohner](/wiki/Thomas_Ohner "Thomas Ohner") | [kabel eins](/wiki/Kabel_eins "Kabel eins") | 2001–2002 |
| [Mareile Höppner](/wiki/Mareile_H%C3%B6ppner "Mareile Höppner") | [Das Erste](/wiki/Das_Erste "Das Erste") | 2018–2019 |
| {{Flag\|Greece}}
*Τα παiδíα παíζεi*
Ta paidía paízei
Lefteris Eleftheriadis |
[ERT2](/wiki/ERT2 "ERT2") |
1987–1988 |
| Isabella Vlassiadou | [ANT1](/wiki/ANT1 "ANT1") | 1998 |
| {{Flag\|Indonesia}} | *[Kata Si Kecil](/wiki/Kata_Si_Kecil "Kata Si Kecil")* | [Kepra](/wiki/Kepra "Kepra") | [antv](/wiki/ANTV "ANTV") | 1996–1998 |
| *Celoteh Anak* | Dewi Hughes | [Indosiar](/wiki/Indosiar "Indosiar") | 2001–2005 |
| *Apa.. Apa.. Apa??* | Harsya Subandrio | [antv](/wiki/ANTV "ANTV") | 2010–2011 |
| {{Flag\|Kazakhstan}} | *Балалы үй \- базар*Balal’ uj \- bazar | Rahman Omarov | NTK | 2013 |
| {{Flag\|Netherlands}} | *'t Is Kinderspel* | Fred van de Graaf | [NCRV](/wiki/Nederlandse_Christelijke_Radio_Vereniging "Nederlandse Christelijke Radio Vereniging") | 1984 |
| *[Dinges](/wiki/Dinges "Dinges")* | Martine Bijl (1986–1988\)Frank Masmeijer (1989–1993\)Jo de Poorter (1995\) | 1986–19931995 |
|{{Flag\|Russia}}
*[Устами младенца](/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0 "Устами младенца")*
Ustamy mladentsa
[Alexander Gurevich](/wiki/Alexander_Gurevich_%28TV_presenter%29 "Alexander Gurevich (TV presenter)") |
[RTR](/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F-1 "Россия-1")[NTV](/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%A2%D0%92 "НТВ") |
1992–1996, 1999–20001997–1998 |
| Maxim Vitorgan | [Disney Channel](/wiki/Disney_Channel "Disney Channel") | 2013–2014 |
| Alexey Kortnev (2016–2017\)Aleksander Oleshko (2017–2018\) | [NTV](/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%A2%D0%92 "НТВ") | 2016–2018 |
| Olga Shelest (2020\)Evgeniy Rybov (2020–2022\) | [Russia 1](/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F-1 "Россия-1") | 2020–2022 |
| {{Flag\|Spain}} | [*Juego de niños*](/wiki/Juego_de_ni%C3%B1os_%28programa_de_televisi%C3%B3n%29 "Juego de niños (programa de televisión)") | [Amparo Soler Leal](/wiki/Amparo_Soler_Leal "Amparo Soler Leal") (1988\)[Tina Sainz](/wiki/Tina_Sainz "Tina Sainz") (1989\)[Ignacio Salas](/wiki/Ignacio_Salas "Ignacio Salas") (1989–1990\)[Javier Sardà](/wiki/Javier_Sard%C3%A0 "Javier Sardà") (1991–1992, 2019\) | [La 1](/wiki/Televisi%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola "Televisión Española") | 1988–19922019 |
| {{Flag\|Sweden}} | [*Lekande lätt*](/wiki/Lekande_l%C3%A4tt "Lekande lätt") | [Kjell Lönnå](/wiki/Kjell_L%C3%B6nn%C3%A5 "Kjell Lönnå")[Erik Nyberg](/wiki/Erik_Nyberg "Erik Nyberg") | [Sveriges Television](/wiki/Sveriges_Television "Sveriges Television") | 1987–20012002–2003 |
| {{Flag\|Ukraine}} | *Еники\-Беники*Eniki\-Beniki | [Bohdan Beniuk](/wiki/Bohdan_Beniuk "Bohdan Beniuk") | [STB](/wiki/STB_%28TV_channel%29 "STB (TV channel)") | 2007–2009 |
| {{Flag\|United Kingdom}} | *[Child's Play](/wiki/Child%27s_Play_%28British_game_show%29 "Child's Play (British game show)")* | [Michael Aspel](/wiki/Michael_Aspel "Michael Aspel") | [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 "ITV (TV network)") | 1984–1988 |
| {{Flag\|United States}} (Spanish) | *Dame la pista* | [Alessandra Rosaldo](/wiki/Alessandra_Rosaldo "Alessandra Rosaldo") | [TeleFutura](/wiki/TeleFutura "TeleFutura") | 2008 |
| {{Flag\|Vietnam}} | *Chuyện nhỏ* | Thanh Bạch | [HTV7](/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Television "Ho Chi Minh City Television") | 2005–20072010–2014 |
|
### Australia
Australia ran their version for a brief period in 1984, hosted by former pop star and host of *[Happening '71 and '72](/wiki/Happening_%28Australian_TV_series%29 "Happening (Australian TV series)")* [Jeff Phillips](/wiki/Jeff_Phillips_%28singer%29 "Jeff Phillips (singer)").
### Germany
Germany ran their successful version of *Child's Play* under the name *[Dingsda](/wiki/Dingsda "Dingsda")* ("Gizmo/Whatsit") on [Bayerischer Rundfunk](/wiki/Bayerischer_Rundfunk_%28Fernsehen%29 "Bayerischer Rundfunk (Fernsehen)") from 1985–2000 with [Fritz Egner](/wiki/Fritz_Egner "Fritz Egner") from 1985–1994, followed by [Werner Schmidbauer](/wiki/Werner_Schmidbauer "Werner Schmidbauer") from 1994–2000\. Then a year later, a revival of the show ran on [kabel eins](/wiki/Kabel_eins "Kabel eins") with [Thomas Ohrner](/wiki/Thomas_Ohrner "Thomas Ohrner") for a brief period from 2001–2002\. Sixteen years later, the show has now been remade for [Das Erste](/wiki/Das_Erste "Das Erste") with [Mareile Höppner](/wiki/Mareile_H%C3%B6ppner "Mareile Höppner") since 2018\.
### Greece
Their short\-lived version titled *Tα παiδíα παíζεi* (Children Play) originally ran on ERT2 from 1987–1988 with Lefteris Eleftheriadis as host. Ten years later, its revival ran on [ANT1](/wiki/ANT1 "ANT1") for a brief period in 1998 hosted by Isabella Vlassiadou.
### Indonesia
The Indonesian version of *Child's Play* ran from 1996–1998 on [antv](/wiki/Antv "Antv") under the name *[Kata Si Kecil](/wiki/Kata_Si_Kecil "Kata Si Kecil")* ("The Little's Says"), hosted by [Kepra](/wiki/Kepra "Kepra"). In 2001\-2005, Indosiar reincarnated the show again under the name *Celoteh Anak* ("Child's Talk"), with [Dewi Hughes](/wiki/Dewi_Hughes "Dewi Hughes") as the host. Then back to the "host of the show", antv again revival this shows with a new concept and atmosphere with the name *Apa..?? Apa..?? Apa..??* ("What...?? What...?? What...???") with host Harsya Subandrio from 2010 to 2011\.
### Netherlands
Netherlands had two different versions of *Child's Play* running on [NCRV](/wiki/NCRV "NCRV"), the first version was called '*t Is Kinderspel* ("It's Child's Play") running for a brief period in 1984 hosted by Fred van de Graaf. One year later, the show was revived under the new name of *Dinges* ("Whatchamacallit") which had a much more successful run than its precursor from 1986\-1995\. the original host was Martine Bijl from 1986\-1988 followed by Frank Masmeijer from 1989–1993\. Its third and final host of the series was Jo de Poorter (of Familieraad fame) in 1995\.
### Russia
*[Уcтaми млaденцa](/wiki/%D0%A3c%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0 "Уcтами младенца")* (Mouths of Babes/Baby Lips) hosted by Alexander Gurevich originally ran from 1992–1996 and 1999–2000 on [RTR](/wiki/P%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F-1 "Pоссия-1") and on [NTV](/wiki/HTB "HTB") from 1997–1998\. Thirteen years later, the show had a short\-lived revival on [Disney Channel Russia](/wiki/Disney_Channel_Russia "Disney Channel Russia") hosted by Maxim Vitorgan in 2013–2014\. Two years later, the series was revived again on channel NTV now hosted by Alexey Kortnev from 2016 until 2017 then he was later replaced by Alexander Oleshko from 2017 until 2018\. In 2020, the series was revived on Russia\-1, hosted by Olga Shelest who was later replaced by Evgeniy Rybov since season 2\.
It was the first game show officially licensed in Russia.{{Cite web\|url\=https://lenizdat.ru/articles/1034625/\|script\-title\=ru:Петр Кулешов: "Моя голова \- помойная яма"\|publisher\=Lenizdat\|language\=ru\|date\=2005\-10\-12}}
### Spain
Their version is called *[Juego de niños](/wiki/Juego_de_ni%C3%B1os_%28programa_de_televisi%C3%B3n%29 "Juego de niños (programa de televisión)")* ("Child's Play") running on [TVE](/wiki/Televisi%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola "Televisión Española") from 1988–1992\. unlike previous international versions, when a contestant guesses a word correctly he or she earns a "Gallifantes" (a puppet like creature) and at the end of the show, whoever gets the most "Gallifantes'" was the winner of the day also unlike the other previous international versions, this one in particular had four host the first host was [Amparo Soler Leal](/wiki/Amparo_Soler_Leal "Amparo Soler Leal") from 1988 then he was replaced by [Tina Sainz](/wiki/Tina_Sainz "Tina Sainz") from 1989 then [Ignacio Salas](/wiki/Ignacio_Salas "Ignacio Salas") from 1989–1990 and finally, [Javier Sardá](/wiki/Javier_Sard%C3%A1 "Javier Sardá") from 1991–1992 and on 2019\.
### Sweden
Their version is called *[Lekande lätt](/wiki/Lekande_l%C3%A4tt "Lekande lätt")* ("Swimmingly/Light as") aired on [Sveriges Television](/wiki/Sveriges_Television "Sveriges Television") from 1987–2001, hosted by [Kjell Lönnå](/wiki/Kjell_L%C3%B6nn%C3%A5 "Kjell Lönnå") then from 2002 until 2003 hosted by [Erik Nyberg](/wiki/Erik_Nyberg "Erik Nyberg").
### Spanish (US)
On September 15, 2008, [FremantleMedia](/wiki/FremantleMedia "FremantleMedia"), owners of the Goodson\-Todman catalog of games, revived *Child's Play* in the [Spanish\-speaking](/wiki/Spanish_%28language%29 "Spanish (language)") market as *Dame la pista* ("Give Me a Clue"), hosted by [Alessandra Rosaldo](/wiki/Alessandra_Rosaldo "Alessandra Rosaldo") on [Univision](/wiki/Univision "Univision")\-owned [TeleFutura](/wiki/TeleFutura "TeleFutura"). This show was the lead\-in to *[¿Qué dice la gente?](/wiki/%C2%BFQu%C3%A9_dice_la_gente%3F "¿Qué dice la gente?")*, a Spanish\-language version of *[Family Feud](/wiki/Family_Feud "Family Feud")*, during its run. The show was eventually cancelled.
### United Kingdom
see under:{{main\|Child's Play (British game show)}} the long\-running 1984\-1988 [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") version, hosted by Michael Aspel. Clips from this version were seen in the 1985 special called *TV's Funniest Game Show Moments \#2*.
### Vietnam
The Vietnamese version, called *Chuyện nhỏ* (Small Story) was aired in two separate runs (2005–2007; 2010–2014\) on [HTV7](/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Television "Ho Chi Minh City Television") at 7 p.m. every Saturday and hosted by Thanh Bạch in both runs. Repeats of the 2005–2007 episodes had been aired on [HTV3](/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Television "Ho Chi Minh City Television") (Entertainment for Kids and Families channel) since 2013\.
|
[
"International versions\n----------------------",
"",
"| Country | Local Name | Host | Channel | Year Aired |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{Flag\\|Australia}} | *[Child's Play](/wiki/Child%27s_Play_%28Australian_game_show%29 \"Child's Play (Australian game show)\")* | [Jeff Phillips](/wiki/Jeff_Phillips_%28singer%29 \"Jeff Phillips (singer)\") | [Seven Network](/wiki/Seven_Network \"Seven Network\") | 1984 |\n| {{Flag\\|Germany}}",
"*[Dingsda](/wiki/Dingsda \"Dingsda\")*",
"[Fritz Egner](/wiki/Fritz_Egner \"Fritz Egner\")[Werner Schimidbauer](/wiki/Werner_Schimidbauer \"Werner Schimidbauer\") |\n [Bayerisches Rundfunk](/wiki/Bayerisches_Rundfunk_%28Ferensehen%29 \"Bayerisches Rundfunk (Ferensehen)\") |\n 1985–19941994–2000 |\n| [Thomas Ohner](/wiki/Thomas_Ohner \"Thomas Ohner\") | [kabel eins](/wiki/Kabel_eins \"Kabel eins\") | 2001–2002 |\n| [Mareile Höppner](/wiki/Mareile_H%C3%B6ppner \"Mareile Höppner\") | [Das Erste](/wiki/Das_Erste \"Das Erste\") | 2018–2019 |\n| {{Flag\\|Greece}}",
"*Τα παiδíα παíζεi* \nTa paidía paízei",
"Lefteris Eleftheriadis |\n [ERT2](/wiki/ERT2 \"ERT2\") |\n 1987–1988 |\n| Isabella Vlassiadou | [ANT1](/wiki/ANT1 \"ANT1\") | 1998 |\n| {{Flag\\|Indonesia}} | *[Kata Si Kecil](/wiki/Kata_Si_Kecil \"Kata Si Kecil\")* | [Kepra](/wiki/Kepra \"Kepra\") | [antv](/wiki/ANTV \"ANTV\") | 1996–1998 |\n| *Celoteh Anak* | Dewi Hughes | [Indosiar](/wiki/Indosiar \"Indosiar\") | 2001–2005 |\n| *Apa.. Apa.. Apa??* | Harsya Subandrio | [antv](/wiki/ANTV \"ANTV\") | 2010–2011 |\n| {{Flag\\|Kazakhstan}} | *Балалы үй \\- базар*Balal’ uj \\- bazar | Rahman Omarov | NTK | 2013 |\n| {{Flag\\|Netherlands}} | *'t Is Kinderspel* | Fred van de Graaf | [NCRV](/wiki/Nederlandse_Christelijke_Radio_Vereniging \"Nederlandse Christelijke Radio Vereniging\") | 1984 |\n| *[Dinges](/wiki/Dinges \"Dinges\")* | Martine Bijl (1986–1988\\)Frank Masmeijer (1989–1993\\)Jo de Poorter (1995\\) | 1986–19931995 |\n|{{Flag\\|Russia}}",
"*[Устами младенца](/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0 \"Устами младенца\")* \nUstamy mladentsa",
"[Alexander Gurevich](/wiki/Alexander_Gurevich_%28TV_presenter%29 \"Alexander Gurevich (TV presenter)\") |\n [RTR](/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F-1 \"Россия-1\")[NTV](/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%A2%D0%92 \"НТВ\") |\n 1992–1996, 1999–20001997–1998 |\n| Maxim Vitorgan | [Disney Channel](/wiki/Disney_Channel \"Disney Channel\") | 2013–2014 |\n| Alexey Kortnev (2016–2017\\)Aleksander Oleshko (2017–2018\\) | [NTV](/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%A2%D0%92 \"НТВ\") | 2016–2018 |\n| Olga Shelest (2020\\)Evgeniy Rybov (2020–2022\\) | [Russia 1](/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F-1 \"Россия-1\") | 2020–2022 |\n| {{Flag\\|Spain}} | [*Juego de niños*](/wiki/Juego_de_ni%C3%B1os_%28programa_de_televisi%C3%B3n%29 \"Juego de niños (programa de televisión)\") | [Amparo Soler Leal](/wiki/Amparo_Soler_Leal \"Amparo Soler Leal\") (1988\\)[Tina Sainz](/wiki/Tina_Sainz \"Tina Sainz\") (1989\\)[Ignacio Salas](/wiki/Ignacio_Salas \"Ignacio Salas\") (1989–1990\\)[Javier Sardà](/wiki/Javier_Sard%C3%A0 \"Javier Sardà\") (1991–1992, 2019\\) | [La 1](/wiki/Televisi%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola \"Televisión Española\") | 1988–19922019 |\n| {{Flag\\|Sweden}} | [*Lekande lätt*](/wiki/Lekande_l%C3%A4tt \"Lekande lätt\") | [Kjell Lönnå](/wiki/Kjell_L%C3%B6nn%C3%A5 \"Kjell Lönnå\")[Erik Nyberg](/wiki/Erik_Nyberg \"Erik Nyberg\") | [Sveriges Television](/wiki/Sveriges_Television \"Sveriges Television\") | 1987–20012002–2003 |\n| {{Flag\\|Ukraine}} | *Еники\\-Беники*Eniki\\-Beniki | [Bohdan Beniuk](/wiki/Bohdan_Beniuk \"Bohdan Beniuk\") | [STB](/wiki/STB_%28TV_channel%29 \"STB (TV channel)\") | 2007–2009 |\n| {{Flag\\|United Kingdom}} | *[Child's Play](/wiki/Child%27s_Play_%28British_game_show%29 \"Child's Play (British game show)\")* | [Michael Aspel](/wiki/Michael_Aspel \"Michael Aspel\") | [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\") | 1984–1988 |\n| {{Flag\\|United States}} (Spanish) | *Dame la pista* | [Alessandra Rosaldo](/wiki/Alessandra_Rosaldo \"Alessandra Rosaldo\") | [TeleFutura](/wiki/TeleFutura \"TeleFutura\") | 2008 |\n| {{Flag\\|Vietnam}} | *Chuyện nhỏ* | Thanh Bạch | [HTV7](/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Television \"Ho Chi Minh City Television\") | 2005–20072010–2014 |\n|",
"### Australia",
"Australia ran their version for a brief period in 1984, hosted by former pop star and host of *[Happening '71 and '72](/wiki/Happening_%28Australian_TV_series%29 \"Happening (Australian TV series)\")* [Jeff Phillips](/wiki/Jeff_Phillips_%28singer%29 \"Jeff Phillips (singer)\").",
"### Germany",
"Germany ran their successful version of *Child's Play* under the name *[Dingsda](/wiki/Dingsda \"Dingsda\")* (\"Gizmo/Whatsit\") on [Bayerischer Rundfunk](/wiki/Bayerischer_Rundfunk_%28Fernsehen%29 \"Bayerischer Rundfunk (Fernsehen)\") from 1985–2000 with [Fritz Egner](/wiki/Fritz_Egner \"Fritz Egner\") from 1985–1994, followed by [Werner Schmidbauer](/wiki/Werner_Schmidbauer \"Werner Schmidbauer\") from 1994–2000\\. Then a year later, a revival of the show ran on [kabel eins](/wiki/Kabel_eins \"Kabel eins\") with [Thomas Ohrner](/wiki/Thomas_Ohrner \"Thomas Ohrner\") for a brief period from 2001–2002\\. Sixteen years later, the show has now been remade for [Das Erste](/wiki/Das_Erste \"Das Erste\") with [Mareile Höppner](/wiki/Mareile_H%C3%B6ppner \"Mareile Höppner\") since 2018\\.",
"### Greece",
"Their short\\-lived version titled *Tα παiδíα παíζεi* (Children Play) originally ran on ERT2 from 1987–1988 with Lefteris Eleftheriadis as host. Ten years later, its revival ran on [ANT1](/wiki/ANT1 \"ANT1\") for a brief period in 1998 hosted by Isabella Vlassiadou.",
"### Indonesia",
"The Indonesian version of *Child's Play* ran from 1996–1998 on [antv](/wiki/Antv \"Antv\") under the name *[Kata Si Kecil](/wiki/Kata_Si_Kecil \"Kata Si Kecil\")* (\"The Little's Says\"), hosted by [Kepra](/wiki/Kepra \"Kepra\"). In 2001\\-2005, Indosiar reincarnated the show again under the name *Celoteh Anak* (\"Child's Talk\"), with [Dewi Hughes](/wiki/Dewi_Hughes \"Dewi Hughes\") as the host. Then back to the \"host of the show\", antv again revival this shows with a new concept and atmosphere with the name *Apa..?? Apa..?? Apa..??* (\"What...?? What...?? What...???\") with host Harsya Subandrio from 2010 to 2011\\.",
"### Netherlands",
"Netherlands had two different versions of *Child's Play* running on [NCRV](/wiki/NCRV \"NCRV\"), the first version was called '*t Is Kinderspel* (\"It's Child's Play\") running for a brief period in 1984 hosted by Fred van de Graaf. One year later, the show was revived under the new name of *Dinges* (\"Whatchamacallit\") which had a much more successful run than its precursor from 1986\\-1995\\. the original host was Martine Bijl from 1986\\-1988 followed by Frank Masmeijer from 1989–1993\\. Its third and final host of the series was Jo de Poorter (of Familieraad fame) in 1995\\.",
"### Russia",
"*[Уcтaми млaденцa](/wiki/%D0%A3c%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0 \"Уcтами младенца\")* (Mouths of Babes/Baby Lips) hosted by Alexander Gurevich originally ran from 1992–1996 and 1999–2000 on [RTR](/wiki/P%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F-1 \"Pоссия-1\") and on [NTV](/wiki/HTB \"HTB\") from 1997–1998\\. Thirteen years later, the show had a short\\-lived revival on [Disney Channel Russia](/wiki/Disney_Channel_Russia \"Disney Channel Russia\") hosted by Maxim Vitorgan in 2013–2014\\. Two years later, the series was revived again on channel NTV now hosted by Alexey Kortnev from 2016 until 2017 then he was later replaced by Alexander Oleshko from 2017 until 2018\\. In 2020, the series was revived on Russia\\-1, hosted by Olga Shelest who was later replaced by Evgeniy Rybov since season 2\\.",
"It was the first game show officially licensed in Russia.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://lenizdat.ru/articles/1034625/\\|script\\-title\\=ru:Петр Кулешов: \"Моя голова \\- помойная яма\"\\|publisher\\=Lenizdat\\|language\\=ru\\|date\\=2005\\-10\\-12}}",
"### Spain",
"Their version is called *[Juego de niños](/wiki/Juego_de_ni%C3%B1os_%28programa_de_televisi%C3%B3n%29 \"Juego de niños (programa de televisión)\")* (\"Child's Play\") running on [TVE](/wiki/Televisi%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola \"Televisión Española\") from 1988–1992\\. unlike previous international versions, when a contestant guesses a word correctly he or she earns a \"Gallifantes\" (a puppet like creature) and at the end of the show, whoever gets the most \"Gallifantes'\" was the winner of the day also unlike the other previous international versions, this one in particular had four host the first host was [Amparo Soler Leal](/wiki/Amparo_Soler_Leal \"Amparo Soler Leal\") from 1988 then he was replaced by [Tina Sainz](/wiki/Tina_Sainz \"Tina Sainz\") from 1989 then [Ignacio Salas](/wiki/Ignacio_Salas \"Ignacio Salas\") from 1989–1990 and finally, [Javier Sardá](/wiki/Javier_Sard%C3%A1 \"Javier Sardá\") from 1991–1992 and on 2019\\.",
"### Sweden",
"Their version is called *[Lekande lätt](/wiki/Lekande_l%C3%A4tt \"Lekande lätt\")* (\"Swimmingly/Light as\") aired on [Sveriges Television](/wiki/Sveriges_Television \"Sveriges Television\") from 1987–2001, hosted by [Kjell Lönnå](/wiki/Kjell_L%C3%B6nn%C3%A5 \"Kjell Lönnå\") then from 2002 until 2003 hosted by [Erik Nyberg](/wiki/Erik_Nyberg \"Erik Nyberg\").",
"### Spanish (US)",
"On September 15, 2008, [FremantleMedia](/wiki/FremantleMedia \"FremantleMedia\"), owners of the Goodson\\-Todman catalog of games, revived *Child's Play* in the [Spanish\\-speaking](/wiki/Spanish_%28language%29 \"Spanish (language)\") market as *Dame la pista* (\"Give Me a Clue\"), hosted by [Alessandra Rosaldo](/wiki/Alessandra_Rosaldo \"Alessandra Rosaldo\") on [Univision](/wiki/Univision \"Univision\")\\-owned [TeleFutura](/wiki/TeleFutura \"TeleFutura\"). This show was the lead\\-in to *[¿Qué dice la gente?](/wiki/%C2%BFQu%C3%A9_dice_la_gente%3F \"¿Qué dice la gente?\")*, a Spanish\\-language version of *[Family Feud](/wiki/Family_Feud \"Family Feud\")*, during its run. The show was eventually cancelled.",
"### United Kingdom",
"see under:{{main\\|Child's Play (British game show)}} the long\\-running 1984\\-1988 [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") version, hosted by Michael Aspel. Clips from this version were seen in the 1985 special called *TV's Funniest Game Show Moments \\#2*.",
"### Vietnam",
"The Vietnamese version, called *Chuyện nhỏ* (Small Story) was aired in two separate runs (2005–2007; 2010–2014\\) on [HTV7](/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Television \"Ho Chi Minh City Television\") at 7 p.m. every Saturday and hosted by Thanh Bạch in both runs. Repeats of the 2005–2007 episodes had been aired on [HTV3](/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Television \"Ho Chi Minh City Television\") (Entertainment for Kids and Families channel) since 2013\\.",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Hornblower has just finished his tour blockading Brest in command of the Royal Navy sloop *Hotspur*. As he travels back to England for his next assignment (and his promised elevation to post rank), he is asked to participate in the [court martial](/wiki/Court_martial "Court martial") of *Hotspur's* new captain. *Hotspur* ran aground and was lost the day after Hornblower turned over command.
Following the court martial, the *Hotspur's* officers, now without a ship, travel back to England with Hornblower in a supply ship. On the way, they are pursued by a French brig, which they board and disable. During the battle, Hornblower finds important papers in the French captain's cabin. Back in England, he travels to the Admiralty with the documents. He arrives at the same time as the disappointing news that the French fleet under Admiral [Pierre\-Charles Villeneuve](/wiki/Pierre-Charles_Villeneuve "Pierre-Charles Villeneuve") has escaped into [Ferrol, Spain](/wiki/Ferrol%2C_Spain "Ferrol, Spain") after an [indecisive engagement](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Finisterre_%281805%29 "Battle of Cape Finisterre (1805)").
Hornblower presents a daring plan to the first and second secretaries to the Admiralty \- [William Marsden](/wiki/William_Marsden_%28orientalist%29 "William Marsden (orientalist)") and [John Barrow](/wiki/Sir_John_Barrow%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet"). He proposes sending agents to Spain, posing as messengers, to deliver false orders from [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France "Napoleon I of France") to Villeneuve. These will command Villeneuve to take his fleet out of their safe harbour of Ferrol and so bring about a decisive engagement with [Admiral Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson"). This plan has been made possible because the papers captured by Hornblower include a routine letter from Napoleon, whose form can be copied.
The plan is authorized. The Reverent Doctor Claudius \- a disgraced clergyman and expert forger \- is recruited to create the false letter from Napoleon. He was in prison awaiting execution for fraud and agrees to assist in exchange for a reprieve. The unfinished book stops at the point where Hornblower is persuaded to attempt the mission himself. Notes left by Forester indicate that Hornblower would carry out the mission accompanied by South American revolutionary [Francisco de Miranda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Miranda "Francisco de Miranda"), with Hornblower posing as his servant. They deliver the false orders to Villeneuve without arousing suspicion, prompting him to take his fleet to sea; this ultimately leads the destruction of the Franco–Spanish fleet at the [Battle of Trafalgar](/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar "Battle of Trafalgar").
This book also includes two short\-stories, "[Hornblower and the Widow McCool](/wiki/Hornblower_and_the_Widow_McCool "Hornblower and the Widow McCool")" (a.k.a. "Hornblower’s Temptation"), set early in Hornblower's career, and "[The Last Encounter](/wiki/The_Last_Encounter "The Last Encounter")", set in 1848 when he is living on his country estate in old age and retirement.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Hornblower has just finished his tour blockading Brest in command of the Royal Navy sloop *Hotspur*. As he travels back to England for his next assignment (and his promised elevation to post rank), he is asked to participate in the [court martial](/wiki/Court_martial \"Court martial\") of *Hotspur's* new captain. *Hotspur* ran aground and was lost the day after Hornblower turned over command.",
"Following the court martial, the *Hotspur's* officers, now without a ship, travel back to England with Hornblower in a supply ship. On the way, they are pursued by a French brig, which they board and disable. During the battle, Hornblower finds important papers in the French captain's cabin. Back in England, he travels to the Admiralty with the documents. He arrives at the same time as the disappointing news that the French fleet under Admiral [Pierre\\-Charles Villeneuve](/wiki/Pierre-Charles_Villeneuve \"Pierre-Charles Villeneuve\") has escaped into [Ferrol, Spain](/wiki/Ferrol%2C_Spain \"Ferrol, Spain\") after an [indecisive engagement](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Finisterre_%281805%29 \"Battle of Cape Finisterre (1805)\").",
"Hornblower presents a daring plan to the first and second secretaries to the Admiralty \\- [William Marsden](/wiki/William_Marsden_%28orientalist%29 \"William Marsden (orientalist)\") and [John Barrow](/wiki/Sir_John_Barrow%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet\"). He proposes sending agents to Spain, posing as messengers, to deliver false orders from [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France \"Napoleon I of France\") to Villeneuve. These will command Villeneuve to take his fleet out of their safe harbour of Ferrol and so bring about a decisive engagement with [Admiral Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\"). This plan has been made possible because the papers captured by Hornblower include a routine letter from Napoleon, whose form can be copied.",
"The plan is authorized. The Reverent Doctor Claudius \\- a disgraced clergyman and expert forger \\- is recruited to create the false letter from Napoleon. He was in prison awaiting execution for fraud and agrees to assist in exchange for a reprieve. The unfinished book stops at the point where Hornblower is persuaded to attempt the mission himself. Notes left by Forester indicate that Hornblower would carry out the mission accompanied by South American revolutionary [Francisco de Miranda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Miranda \"Francisco de Miranda\"), with Hornblower posing as his servant. They deliver the false orders to Villeneuve without arousing suspicion, prompting him to take his fleet to sea; this ultimately leads the destruction of the Franco–Spanish fleet at the [Battle of Trafalgar](/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar \"Battle of Trafalgar\").",
"This book also includes two short\\-stories, \"[Hornblower and the Widow McCool](/wiki/Hornblower_and_the_Widow_McCool \"Hornblower and the Widow McCool\")\" (a.k.a. \"Hornblower’s Temptation\"), set early in Hornblower's career, and \"[The Last Encounter](/wiki/The_Last_Encounter \"The Last Encounter\")\", set in 1848 when he is living on his country estate in old age and retirement.",
""
] |
Career
------
Her husband James was elected a [Member of Parliament for Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Cardiff (UK Parliament constituency)") in 1945 and she was at his side throughout his career. She was somewhat derided, described as "the Yorkshire Pudding", ostensibly for her skill in cooking, but also as a reference to her perceived poor dress sense and mildly disorganised appearance; she was ridiculed for her hobby of keeping pigs. Audrey remained very private, and shunned the limelight. However, she was engaged with her husband's jobs and was said to be instrumental in dissuading him from resigning after the 1967 [devaluation](/wiki/Devaluation "Devaluation") of the pound.
In [1958](/wiki/1958_London_County_Council_election "1958 London County Council election"), Audrey was elected as the Labour member for [Lewisham North](/wiki/Lewisham_North_%28London_County_Council_constituency%29 "Lewisham North (London County Council constituency)") for the [London County Council](/wiki/London_County_Council "London County Council"). She took a special interest in children's homes and the Children's Committee. She was an [alderman](/wiki/Alderman "Alderman") of the [Greater London Council](/wiki/Greater_London_Council "Greater London Council") from 1964 and became chairman of Lewisham Council's children's committee, where she was also an alderman, when the GLC was abolished.
In 1969, Callaghan became the chair of the board of governors of [Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children](/wiki/Great_Ormond_Street_Hospital_for_Sick_Children "Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children"). She continued raising funds for the hospital for the next thirty years, most notably securing an extension of copyright on *[Peter Pan](/wiki/Peter_Pan "Peter Pan")* for the hospital by a Lords amendment moved by her husband.
In 1987, when James was created Baron Callaghan of Cardiff, she became Lady Callaghan. She herself declined a [damehood](/wiki/Dame "Dame") from Prime Minister [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher "Margaret Thatcher"). They retired to a farm in [Ringmer](/wiki/Ringmer "Ringmer"), [East Sussex](/wiki/East_Sussex "East Sussex"), where she kept pigs and he kept cows and sheep, and grew barley. Along with her husband, she supported causes relating to the [University College of Swansea](/wiki/University_College_of_Swansea "University College of Swansea"), of which James Callaghan was president.
During her eighties, Callaghan developed [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease"). In July 2001, when her condition had deteriorated, she entered a care home in nearby [Burgess Hill](/wiki/Burgess_Hill "Burgess Hill"), West Sussex, where her husband visited her every day until her death on 15 March 2005,{{cite news\|last\=Langdon\|first\=Julia\|title\=Obituary: Audrey Callaghan\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/mar/17/guardianobituaries.health\|accessdate\=10 April 2013\|newspaper\=The Guardian\|date\=17 March 2005}} by which time they had been married for 66 years and together for well over 70\.{{cite ODNB\|title \= Callaghan, Leonard James \[Jim], Baron Callaghan of Cardiff (1912–2005\), prime minister\|date \= 2009\|doi \= 10\.1093/ref:odnb/94837\|last \= Hattersley\|first \= Roy\|authorlink \= Roy Hattersley}} James Callaghan died on 26 March 2005, eleven days after Audrey's death, and the day before his 93rd birthday.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Her husband James was elected a [Member of Parliament for Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Cardiff (UK Parliament constituency)\") in 1945 and she was at his side throughout his career. She was somewhat derided, described as \"the Yorkshire Pudding\", ostensibly for her skill in cooking, but also as a reference to her perceived poor dress sense and mildly disorganised appearance; she was ridiculed for her hobby of keeping pigs. Audrey remained very private, and shunned the limelight. However, she was engaged with her husband's jobs and was said to be instrumental in dissuading him from resigning after the 1967 [devaluation](/wiki/Devaluation \"Devaluation\") of the pound.",
"In [1958](/wiki/1958_London_County_Council_election \"1958 London County Council election\"), Audrey was elected as the Labour member for [Lewisham North](/wiki/Lewisham_North_%28London_County_Council_constituency%29 \"Lewisham North (London County Council constituency)\") for the [London County Council](/wiki/London_County_Council \"London County Council\"). She took a special interest in children's homes and the Children's Committee. She was an [alderman](/wiki/Alderman \"Alderman\") of the [Greater London Council](/wiki/Greater_London_Council \"Greater London Council\") from 1964 and became chairman of Lewisham Council's children's committee, where she was also an alderman, when the GLC was abolished.",
"In 1969, Callaghan became the chair of the board of governors of [Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children](/wiki/Great_Ormond_Street_Hospital_for_Sick_Children \"Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children\"). She continued raising funds for the hospital for the next thirty years, most notably securing an extension of copyright on *[Peter Pan](/wiki/Peter_Pan \"Peter Pan\")* for the hospital by a Lords amendment moved by her husband.",
"In 1987, when James was created Baron Callaghan of Cardiff, she became Lady Callaghan. She herself declined a [damehood](/wiki/Dame \"Dame\") from Prime Minister [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher \"Margaret Thatcher\"). They retired to a farm in [Ringmer](/wiki/Ringmer \"Ringmer\"), [East Sussex](/wiki/East_Sussex \"East Sussex\"), where she kept pigs and he kept cows and sheep, and grew barley. Along with her husband, she supported causes relating to the [University College of Swansea](/wiki/University_College_of_Swansea \"University College of Swansea\"), of which James Callaghan was president.",
"During her eighties, Callaghan developed [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\"). In July 2001, when her condition had deteriorated, she entered a care home in nearby [Burgess Hill](/wiki/Burgess_Hill \"Burgess Hill\"), West Sussex, where her husband visited her every day until her death on 15 March 2005,{{cite news\\|last\\=Langdon\\|first\\=Julia\\|title\\=Obituary: Audrey Callaghan\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/mar/17/guardianobituaries.health\\|accessdate\\=10 April 2013\\|newspaper\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=17 March 2005}} by which time they had been married for 66 years and together for well over 70\\.{{cite ODNB\\|title \\= Callaghan, Leonard James \\[Jim], Baron Callaghan of Cardiff (1912–2005\\), prime minister\\|date \\= 2009\\|doi \\= 10\\.1093/ref:odnb/94837\\|last \\= Hattersley\\|first \\= Roy\\|authorlink \\= Roy Hattersley}} James Callaghan died on 26 March 2005, eleven days after Audrey's death, and the day before his 93rd birthday.",
""
] |
Report
------
### Background
After the [2014 race](/wiki/2014_Brazilian_Grand_Prix "2014 Brazilian Grand Prix") had been held at a resurfaced circuit, causing the teams to fight with the soft tyre choice by [Pirelli](/wiki/Pirelli "Pirelli"), speculations arose if drivers would be able to challenge the eleven\-year old track record set by [Rubens Barrichello](/wiki/Rubens_Barrichello "Rubens Barrichello") in [2004](/wiki/2004_Brazilian_Grand_Prix "2004 Brazilian Grand Prix").{{cite web\|last1\=Esler\|first1\=William\|title\=Pirelli have opted to change their Brazilian GP tyre choice to softer compounds\|url\=http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12527/9520351/pirelli\-have\-opted\-to\-change\-their\-brazilian\-gp\-tyre\-choice\-to\-softer\-compounds\|publisher\=Sky Sports\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114234822/http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12527/9520351/pirelli\-have\-opted\-to\-change\-their\-brazilian\-gp\-tyre\-choice\-to\-softer\-compounds\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=17 October 2014}}{{cite web\|last1\=Collantine\|first1\=Keith\|title\=Track record could fall at Interlagos this weekend\|url\=http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/11/track\-record\-could\-fall\-at\-interlagos\-this\-weekend/\|publisher\=F1Fanatic\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114235145/http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/11/track\-record\-could\-fall\-at\-interlagos\-this\-weekend/\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=11 November 2015}} However, practice showed that lap times actually slowed due to changes to the kerbs, forcing the drivers to stay away from the insides of the corners.{{cite web\|last1\=Parkes\|first1\=Ian\|last2\=Anderson\|first2\=Ben\|last3\=Barretto\|first3\=Lawrence\|title\=Brazilian GP: F1 drivers blame kerbs for slower Interlagos times\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121793\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114235312/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121793\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=13 November 2015}} [Pirelli](/wiki/Pirelli "Pirelli") chose the soft and medium compounds for the event.{{cite web\|title\=Brazilian Grand Prix Preview: Sao Paulo, November 12\-15, 2015\|url\=http://www.pirelli.com/tyre/ww/en/news/2015/11/09/brazilian\-grand\-prix\-preview\-sao\-paulo\-november\-12\-15\-2015/\|publisher\=Pirelli\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114233808/http://www.pirelli.com/tyre/ww/en/news/2015/11/09/brazilian\-grand\-prix\-preview\-sao\-paulo\-november\-12\-15\-2015/\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=9 November 2015}}
In the wake of the [terrorist attacks in Paris](/wiki/November_2015_Paris_attacks "November 2015 Paris attacks") on the Friday evening of the race weekend, Formula One decided to honour the victims with all drivers wearing black armbands during the parade lap on race day as well as [the French *tricolore*](/wiki/Flag_of_France "Flag of France") being displayed on the truck that took the drivers around the track.{{cite web\|last1\=Parkes\|first1\=Ian\|title\=F1 to honour Paris attack victims before Brazilian Grand Prix\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121810\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114235520/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121810\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=14 November 2015}} French driver [Romain Grosjean](/wiki/Romain_Grosjean "Romain Grosjean") had already worn an armband with the flag of his country during Saturday's sessions. However, a long planned minute of silence for the World Day of Remembrance for Road Traffic Victims was upheld and plans to dedicate the salute to the Paris attacks discarded.
After passing on using [Renault](/wiki/Renault_in_Formula_One "Renault in Formula One")'s new power unit in [the United States](/wiki/2015_United_States_Grand_Prix "2015 United States Grand Prix") and [Mexico](/wiki/2015_Mexican_Grand_Prix "2015 Mexican Grand Prix"), [Red Bull](/wiki/Red_Bull_Racing "Red Bull Racing") equipped [Daniel Ricciardo](/wiki/Daniel_Ricciardo "Daniel Ricciardo")'s car with the new specification unit, which earned him a ten\-place grid penalty in the process.{{cite web\|title\=Renault engine upgrade means grid drop for Ricciardo\|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/latest/headlines/2015/11/ricciardo\-cautious\-on\-renaults\-engine\-upgrade.html\|website\=formula1\.com\|access\-date\=15 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115000704/https://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/latest/headlines/2015/11/ricciardo\-cautious\-on\-renaults\-engine\-upgrade.html\|archive\-date\=15 November 2015\|date\=13 November 2015}} Once he had tried the new unit during the free practice and qualifying sessions, Ricciardo lamented that the upgrade had not improved the performance.{{cite web\|last1\=Barretto\|first1\=Lawrence\|title\=Upgraded Renault F1 power unit no better, says Red Bull's Ricciardo\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121805\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=15 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114235936/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121805\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=14 November 2015}} He said: "In hindsight, it didn't give us any laptime, it's just for now a penalty for a little bit of knowledge." During the first practice session on Friday, [Mercedes](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_in_Formula_One "Mercedes-Benz in Formula One") tried out what was dubbed a "S\-duct", a vent to channel airflow through the nose of the car, a feature already seen at other cars over the course of the season. However, Mercedes decided not to run the device over the whole weekend.{{cite web\|last1\=Noble\|first1\=Jonathan\|title\=Mercedes removes S\-duct after first practice trial\|url\=http://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/mercedes\-removes\-s\-duct\-after\-first\-practice\-trial/\|website\=motorsport.com\|access\-date\=15 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115001248/http://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/mercedes\-removes\-s\-duct\-after\-first\-practice\-trial/\|archive\-date\=15 November 2015\|date\=13 November 2015}}
Going into the weekend [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton "Lewis Hamilton") and his Mercedes team had already secured their respective World Championships. Fellow Mercedes driver [Nico Rosberg](/wiki/Nico_Rosberg "Nico Rosberg") was second in the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions"), 21 points ahead of [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari")'s [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel "Sebastian Vettel").{{cite web\|title\=2015 Driver Standings\|url\=http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/results/2015\-driver\-standings.html\|website\=formula1\.com\|publisher\=FOM\|access\-date\=4 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104104216/http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/results/2015\-driver\-standings.html\|archive\-date\=4 November 2015}} The two were followed by Finns [Valtteri Bottas](/wiki/Valtteri_Bottas "Valtteri Bottas") ([Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering "Williams Grand Prix Engineering")) and [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen "Kimi Räikkönen") (Ferrari), three points apart from each other, with [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa "Felipe Massa") another six points behind in sixth. In the [Constructors' standings](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions"), Ferrari was second on 374 points, followed by Williams with 243 points.{{cite web\|title\=2015 Constructor Standings\|url\=http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/results/2015\-constructor\-standings.html\|website\=formula1\.com\|publisher\=FOM\|access\-date\=4 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104104421/http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/results/2015\-constructor\-standings.html\|archive\-date\=4 November 2015}}
### Free practice
Per the regulations for the 2015 season, three practice sessions were scheduled, two 1\.5\-hour sessions on Friday and another one\-hour session before qualifying on Saturday.{{cite web\|title\=Practice and qualifying\|url\=http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/inside\-f1/rules\-regs/Practice\_qualifying\_and\_race\_start\_procedure.html\|website\=formula1\.com\|publisher\=FOM\|access\-date\=25 October 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905082403/http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/inside\-f1/rules\-regs/Practice\_qualifying\_and\_race\_start\_procedure.html\|archive\-date\=5 September 2015}} [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton "Lewis Hamilton") was fastest in the first session on Friday morning, setting a time of 1:13\.543, more than half a second clear of his teammate [Nico Rosberg](/wiki/Nico_Rosberg "Nico Rosberg"), who was second fastest.{{cite web\|last1\=Parkes\|first1\=Ian\|title\=Brazilian GP: Lewis Hamilton leads opening Friday F1 practice\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121780\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114231923/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121780\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=13 November 2015}} [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel "Sebastian Vettel") and [Daniel Ricciardo](/wiki/Daniel_Ricciardo "Daniel Ricciardo") in third and fourth respectively were the only other drivers to lap inside one second of Hamilton. The session was held in dry conditions, albeit earlier reports had indicated that thunderstorms could interrupt the weekend.{{cite web\|last1\=Collantine\|first1\=Keith\|title\=Thunderstorms should clear before race day\|url\=http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/12/thunderstorms\-should\-clear\-before\-race\-day/\|publisher\=F1Fanatic\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114232342/http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/12/thunderstorms\-should\-clear\-before\-race\-day/\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=12 November 2015}} Hamilton set his fastest time on the medium compound, but was caught out twice on other laps, locking up and running wide in the Senna S. In the later parts of the session, he also complained about a "weird" feeling clutch, but returned to the track soon after. [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen "Kimi Räikkönen"), who was fifth fastest, spun out ten minutes before the end of the session, while eighth\-placed [Max Verstappen](/wiki/Max_Verstappen "Max Verstappen") had done the same early in the session at turn three. [Jolyon Palmer](/wiki/Jolyon_Palmer "Jolyon Palmer") replaced [Romain Grosjean](/wiki/Romain_Grosjean "Romain Grosjean") at [Lotus](/wiki/Lotus_F1 "Lotus F1"), finishing twelfth fastest.
It was Hamilton's teammate and defending race winner Rosberg who topped the time sheets at the second session on Friday afternoon, setting a 1:12\.385 lap time.{{cite web\|last1\=Barretto\|first1\=Lawrence\|title\=Brazilian GP: Nico Rosberg heads Lewis Hamilton in F1 practice two\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121785\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114232946/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121785\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=13 November 2015}} He led Hamilton by almost half a second, with the two [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari") cars of Vettel and Räikkönen about a second adrift. Slight rain saw most drivers head out early, but the conditions never became wet enough to require intermediate tyres. After starting on the medium compound tyres, many drivers switched to the softer compound for race simulations, only for the session to be red flagged shortly after when [Fernando Alonso](/wiki/Fernando_Alonso "Fernando Alonso") spun at turn four, only to pull over at the side of the road with smoke coming from his car some corners later. [Valtteri Bottas](/wiki/Valtteri_Bottas "Valtteri Bottas") was sixth fastest, behind Daniel Ricciardo, suffering a spin at turn nine.
Despite several problems during the third session on Saturday morning, Lewis Hamilton was fastest, setting a time of 1:12\.070, just over a tenth of a second in front of his teammate.{{cite web\|last1\=Parkes\|first1\=Ian\|title\=Brazilian F1 GP: Lewis Hamilton tops practice despite incidents\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121797\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=14 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114234512/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121797\|archive\-date\=14 November 2015\|date\=14 November 2015}} Earlier in the session, he needed to return to pit lane due to a gear\-selection problem which had caused him to temporarily stop on track and later spun at turn eleven. Vettel was again third fastest, more than six\-tenths of a second behind Hamilton. He was followed by teammate Räikkönen, Valtteri Bottas and [Nico Hülkenberg](/wiki/Nico_H%C3%BClkenberg "Nico Hülkenberg") in the [Force India](/wiki/Force_India "Force India"), all more than a second slower than Hamilton.
### Qualifying
[thumb\|Local driver [Felipe Nasr](/wiki/Felipe_Nasr "Felipe Nasr") was penalised after qualifying for impeding compatriot [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa "Felipe Massa").](/wiki/File:Nasr_Brazil_2015.jpg "Nasr Brazil 2015.jpg")
Qualifying consisted of three parts, 18, 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively, with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions. During the first part of qualifying, all drivers used the softer compound tyres at least for their second run of timed laps, including the Mercedes pair. While Valtteri Bottas was the last driver to switch from the medium tyres, his [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering "Williams Grand Prix Engineering") teammate [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa "Felipe Massa") needed a quick lap at the end of the session to secure his participation in the second qualifying round, after he had been held up by compatriot [Felipe Nasr](/wiki/Felipe_Nasr "Felipe Nasr") earlier in the session. Fernando Alonso's [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren "McLaren") broke down due to a loss of power before he was able to set a time, with teammate [Jenson Button](/wiki/Jenson_Button "Jenson Button") likewise unable to proceed. Both [Manor Marussia](/wiki/Marussia_F1 "Marussia F1") drivers failed to advance, while [Pastor Maldonado](/wiki/Pastor_Maldonado "Pastor Maldonado") in fifteenth was the last driver to be eliminated.{{cite web\|last1\=Collantine\|first1\=Keith\|title\=Rosberg pips Hamilton to extend run of pole positions\|url\=http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/14/rosberg\-pips\-hamilton\-to\-extend\-run\-of\-pole\-positions/\|publisher\=F1Fanatic\|access\-date\=15 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115182545/http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/14/rosberg\-pips\-hamilton\-to\-extend\-run\-of\-pole\-positions/\|archive\-date\=15 November 2015\|date\=14 November 2015}}
During the second part, the Mercedes drivers set only one run of timed laps as they were able to save their tyres for the race, well clear of the competition. Lewis Hamilton was fastest, half a second ahead of Rosberg, with Sebastian Vettel between the two. Romain Grosjean was eliminated after a spin at turn six. He was joined on the sidelines by both [Saubers](/wiki/Sauber "Sauber"), [Carlos Sainz Jr.](/wiki/Carlos_Sainz_Jr. "Carlos Sainz Jr.") and [Sergio Pérez](/wiki/Sergio_P%C3%A9rez "Sergio Pérez").
When the top ten drivers took to the track for the third and final part of qualifying, Nico Rosberg was able to beat his teammate Hamilton to pole position by 0\.078 seconds, securing his fifth pole in a row. Third was Sebastian Vettel, ahead of Bottas, who would be demoted three places due to a penalty. Following a mistake on his last timed lap, Kimi Räikkönen finished fifth fastest, ahead of [Nico Hülkenberg](/wiki/Nico_H%C3%BClkenberg "Nico Hülkenberg"). Albeit racing with an updated power unit, Daniel Ricciardo qualified slower than teammate [Daniil Kvyat](/wiki/Daniil_Kvyat "Daniil Kvyat"), and a ten\-place grid penalty for the change left him nineteenth on the grid.{{cite web\|last1\=Anderson\|first1\=Ben\|title\=Brazilian GP: Nico Rosberg extends F1 pole streak at Interlagos\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121799\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=15 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115182427/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121799\|archive\-date\=15 November 2015\|date\=14 November 2015}}
### Race
[thumb\|[Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel "Sebastian Vettel") finished third for [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari").](/wiki/File:Vettel_Brazil_2015.jpg "Vettel Brazil 2015.jpg")
On his way to the starting grid, Carlos Sainz Jr. stopped on track and had to be pushed back to pit lane, where he eventually started, only to retire after just a few hundred metres. At the start, both Mercedes drivers got away well and Hamilton tried to overtake Rosberg for the lead around the outside of the first corner, but were unable to do so. Jenson Button made a good start, moving from 16th to 13th, while [Marcus Ericsson](/wiki/Marcus_Ericsson "Marcus Ericsson") fell from 13th to 18th. Behind the leaders, the Ferrari drivers retained third and fourth place respectively. Bottas moved into fifth after moving around the outside.{{cite web\|last1\=Butler\|first1\=Michael\|title\=F1: Brazil Grand Prix – as it happened\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/live/2015/nov/15/f1\-brazil\-grand\-prix\-live\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|access\-date\=16 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116172459/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/live/2015/nov/15/f1\-brazil\-grand\-prix\-live\|archive\-date\=16 November 2015\|date\=15 November 2015}}{{cite web\|last1\=Brown\|first1\=Luke\|title\=Brazilian Grand Prix \- live: Nico Rosberg denies Lewis Hamilton a maiden victory at Interlagos\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/11997078/Brazilian\-Grand\-Prix\-2015\-live.html\|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]]\|access\-date\=16 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116172509/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/11997078/Brazilian\-Grand\-Prix\-2015\-live.html\|archive\-date\=16 November 2015\|date\=15 November 2015}} Hamilton was able to follow Rosberg closely in the opening laps, while Daniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for new tyres on lap four. One lap later, Grosjean was able to use [drag reduction system](/wiki/Drag_reduction_system "Drag reduction system") (DRS) to overtake Felipe Nasr for eleventh. With his back row start and an early pit stop, Ricciardo overtook the two Manor Marussia cars around lap nine.
Regular pit stops started on lap eleven, with Massa, Kvyat, Pérez and Grosjean being the first to come in. In addition, Nico Hülkenberg made a pit stop and exited ahead of both Massa and Kvyat, who both had been in front of him before their respective stops. Bottas came in a lap later and maintained position. Kimi Räikkönen, who had been complaining about lack of grip in his front tyres, made a pit stop on lap 13\. Race leader Rosberg came in for his tyre change on lap fourteen, simultaneously with Vettel, while Hamilton stayed out for another lap. He was ultimately unable to use his additional lap to come out in front of his teammate and remained second. On lap 18, Nico Hülkenberg, who was suffering from an unstable car, overtook Maldonado for sixth place. Around lap 20, Hamilton was moving closer to Rosberg, being in DRS range for multiple laps before reporting to the garage that his tyres would not last long and eased up. On lap 22, Kvyat moved ahead of Maldonado as well and was now seventh. Lap 24 witnessed Massa go around Maldonado as well, while Felipe Nasr overtook Button for 14th.
[thumb\|left\|Stopping just twice, [Nico Hülkenberg](/wiki/Nico_H%C3%BClkenberg "Nico Hülkenberg") finished in sixth place.](/wiki/File:H%C3%BClkenberg_Brazil_2015.jpg "Hülkenberg Brazil 2015.jpg")
Daniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for a second time on lap 30\. At the same time, a three\-way fight had emerged for ninth place, with Pérez in front of Grosjean and Verstappen. On lap 32, Verstappen moved ahead of Grosjean and took another position from Pérez, who in turn lost another place to Grosjean in the same manoeuvre. Vettel made a pit stop for a second time on lap 33, prompting Rosberg to follow suit one lap later. Hamilton briefly held the lead, but made a pit stop as well soon after, emerging to set a new fastest lap of the race albeit emerging behind both Ferrari cars. Lap 36 saw a collision between Pastor Maldonado and Marcus Ericsson, but both drivers were able to continue the race. Two laps later, Maldonado was in another fight for position with the other Sauber of Felipe Nasr, moving ahead. He ultimately received a five\-second penalty for his part in the incident with Ericsson.
By lap 43, Romain Grosjean had managed to overtake Verstappen for tenth place. Hamilton started to lose ground on Rosberg, trailing him by 3\.4 seconds on lap 44; however, he managed to close the gap in the succeeding laps. Kimi Räikkönen put in his second stop on lap 47, followed by Vettel's third just one lap later, with Rosberg reacting and changing tyres as well. Hamilton changed tyres on lap 50, and went on to set the fastest lap of the race one lap later. On lap 53, Massa moved ahead of Grosjean into eighth place, but was already reported under investigation for his pre\-race tyre temperatures at that point. After serving his penalty, Maldonado managed to overtake Nasr for ninth place on lap 57\. Nasr, who was utilizing a two\-stop strategy, struggled with his tyres and fell back behind Ricciardo on lap 61\. Ricciardo gained another position at Pérez's expense on lap 67, while Verstappen moved into tenth place one lap later, overtaking Maldonado. At the front, Hamilton's tyre started to wear off in the closing stages, enabling Rosberg to take victory 7\.7 seconds ahead of his teammate.
### Post\-race
[thumb\|By finishing fourth, [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen "Kimi Räikkönen") moved within one point of [Valtteri Bottas](/wiki/Valtteri_Bottas "Valtteri Bottas") in the Championship.](/wiki/File:R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen_Brazil_2015.jpg "Räikkönen Brazil 2015.jpg")
At the podium interviews, which were conducted by former Formula One driver [Martin Brundle](/wiki/Martin_Brundle "Martin Brundle"), Nico Rosberg expressed delight about his victory, but also remembered the events of Paris which, as he put it, rendered "everything relative". Replying to Brundle's notion that driving the way he did earlier in the season would have given him a chance for the championship, Rosberg replied: "Thank you very much for that piece of advice, I could figure that out for myself!" Lewis Hamilton on the other hand lamented the fact that he was unable to follow Rosberg closely on track without damaging his tyres too much, saying that he would have otherwise had the pace to pass him. Third placed Sebastian Vettel called it "a good race", but also "not very exciting", since the Ferrari drivers had been "in no\-mans land" behind the Mercedes.{{cite web\|title\=2015 Brazilian Grand Prix \- Sunday Race Press Conference Transcript\|url\=http://www.fia.com/news/2015\-brazilian\-grand\-prix\-sunday\-race\-press\-conference\-transcript\|publisher\=FIA\|access\-date\=19 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119230312/http://www.fia.com/news/2015\-brazilian\-grand\-prix\-sunday\-race\-press\-conference\-transcript\|archive\-date\=19 November 2015\|date\=15 November 2015}}
The main talking point after the race was Hamilton's assertion that he would have preferred to go on a different strategy compared to his teammate to have a chance of passing him, an option denied by his team.{{cite web\|last1\=Galloway\|first1\=James\|title\=Brazilian GP Papers: Mercedes' strategy centre of the debate\|url\=http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/10068376/brazilian\-gp\-papers\-mercedes\-strategy\-centre\-of\-the\-debate\|publisher\=Sky Sports\|access\-date\=19 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119230347/http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/10068376/brazilian\-gp\-papers\-mercedes\-strategy\-centre\-of\-the\-debate\|archive\-date\=19 November 2015\|date\=16 November 2015}} Hamilton lobbied for his team to allow the drivers to take more risks,{{cite web\|last1\=Barretto\|first1\=Lawrence\|last2\=Beer\|first2\=Matt\|title\=Mercedes should allow F1 strategy risks, Hamilton says\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121817\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=19 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119230626/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121817\|archive\-date\=19 November 2015\|date\=15 November 2015}} while his team principal, [Toto Wolff](/wiki/Toto_Wolff "Toto Wolff"), insisted that the team, not the drivers, were at liberty to make calls about strategy.{{cite web\|title\=Toto Wolff Q\&A: Mercedes, not drivers, must decide strategy\|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/latest/interviews/2015/11/toto\-wolff\-q\-a\-\-mercedes\-\-not\-drivers\-\-must\-decide\-strategy.html\|website\=formula1\.com\|access\-date\=19 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119231009/https://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/latest/interviews/2015/11/toto\-wolff\-q\-a\-\-mercedes\-\-not\-drivers\-\-must\-decide\-strategy.html\|archive\-date\=19 November 2015\|date\=15 November 2015}} Opinions on the matter were divided in the following days. {{F1\|1996}} world champion [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill "Damon Hill") shared Hamilton's frustration, saying: "I have some sympathy with what Lewis was saying, the drivers should be allowed to call the shots \- and if he wants to try something different and basically zag when the other guy is zigging."{{cite web\|title\=Damon Hill left frustrated after Mercedes refuse to split strategies\|url\=http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24387/10067922/damon\-hill\-left\-frustrated\-after\-mercedes\-refuse\-to\-split\-strategies\|publisher\=Sky Sports\|access\-date\=19 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119231215/http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24387/10067922/damon\-hill\-left\-frustrated\-after\-mercedes\-refuse\-to\-split\-strategies\|archive\-date\=19 November 2015\|date\=16 November 2015}} Daniel Johnson, writing for *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph "The Daily Telegraph")*, concurred: "It was not just Hamilton's failure to win the Brazilian Grand Prix, following home an obdurate Nico Rosberg; it was the manner of it, lacking the killer move while obeying a Mercedes strategy which rendered the drivers more robots than racers."{{cite news\|last1\=Johnson\|first1\=Daniel\|title\=Lewis Hamilton fails to emulate hero Ayrton Senna as Nico Rosberg triumphs at Brazilian Grand Prix\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lewishamilton/11997455/Lewis\-Hamilton\-fails\-to\-emulate\-hero\-Ayrton\-Senna\-as\-Nico\-Rosberg\-triumphs\-at\-Brazilian\-Grand\-Prix.html\|newspaper\=The Telegraph\|access\-date\=19 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119231452/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lewishamilton/11997455/Lewis\-Hamilton\-fails\-to\-emulate\-hero\-Ayrton\-Senna\-as\-Nico\-Rosberg\-triumphs\-at\-Brazilian\-Grand\-Prix.html\|archive\-date\=19 November 2015\|date\=15 November 2015}}
After the race [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa "Felipe Massa") was disqualified when it was discovered that his tyres were too hot at the start of the race. [Pirelli](/wiki/Pirelli "Pirelli") stated that the highest temperature at his right rear tyre was found to be {{convert\|137\|C\|F}}, while a maximum temperature of {{convert\|110\|C\|F}} was allowed. Williams announced that they would appeal the penalty.{{cite web\|last1\=Elizalde\|first1\=Pablo\|title\=Massa excluded from Brazilian GP\|url\=http://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/massa\-excluded\-from\-brazilian\-gp/\|website\=motorsport.com\|access\-date\=19 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119232352/http://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/massa\-excluded\-from\-brazilian\-gp/\|archive\-date\=19 November 2015\|date\=15 November 2015}} However, on 19 November 2015, Williams decided to drop the appeal, stating that since a decision was unlikely to be made before the end of the year, the matter would draw attention away from the preparations for the {{F1\|2016}} season.{{cite web\|last1\=Parkes\|first1\=Ian\|title\=Williams F1 team drops appeal of Massa's Brazilian GP exclusion\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121879\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=19 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119232357/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121879\|archive\-date\=19 November 2015\|date\=19 November 2015}} Following his collision with Marcus Ericsson, Pastor Maldonado came under criticism by [Sauber](/wiki/Sauber "Sauber") team principal [Monisha Kaltenborn](/wiki/Monisha_Kaltenborn "Monisha Kaltenborn"), who called him "very annoying", pointing to the fact that Maldonado had been involved in similar situations in the past.{{cite web\|last1\=Barretto\|first1\=Lawrence\|title\=Pastor Maldonado 'very, very annoying' \- Sauber F1 boss Kaltenborn\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121835\|website\=autosport.com\|access\-date\=20 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120123455/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121835\|archive\-date\=20 November 2015\|date\=16 November 2015}} By finishing tenth after Massa's disqualification, Maldonado scored his last point in Formula One.
Reception of the race was mainly negative. Italian newspaper *[Corriere dello Sport – Stadio](/wiki/Corriere_dello_Sport_%E2%80%93_Stadio "Corriere dello Sport – Stadio")* called it "boring",{{cite news\|title\=Pressestimmen zur Formel 1: "Rosberg wacht auf"\|trans\-title\=The press on the Formula 1: "Rosberg wakes up"\|url\=http://www.spiegel.de/sport/formel1/formel\-1\-pressestimmen\-zum\-grossen\-preis\-von\-brasilien\-a\-1063021\.html\|work\=Spiegel Online\|access\-date\=16 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116171229/http://www.spiegel.de/sport/formel1/formel\-1\-pressestimmen\-zum\-grossen\-preis\-von\-brasilien\-a\-1063021\.html\|archive\-date\=16 November 2015\|language\=de\|date\=16 November 2015}} while fellow Italian paper *[Corriere della Sera](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera "Corriere della Sera")* wrote of "Formula One like a sleeping pill".{{cite web\|title\=Rosbergs "Roboter\-Sieg" \- "Rennen ohne Hürden"\|trans\-title\=Rosberg's "Robotic victory" \- "race without obstacles"\|url\=http://www.kicker.de/news/formel1/startseite/639316/artikel\_rosbergs\-roboter\-sieg\-\-\-rennen\-ohne\-huerden.html\|publisher\=Kicker\|access\-date\=16 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116214904/http://www.kicker.de/news/formel1/startseite/639316/artikel\_rosbergs\-roboter\-sieg\-\-\-rennen\-ohne\-huerden.html\|archive\-date\=16 November 2015\|language\=de\|date\=16 November 2015}} [Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports "Sky Sports") described the race as "mundane" and "soporific".{{cite web\|last1\=Galloway\|first1\=James\|title\=Lewis Hamilton \& Sebastian Vettel call for F1 aerodynamic overhaul\|url\=http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24181/10068219/lewis\-hamilton\-sebastian\-vettel\-call\-for\-f1\-aerodynamic\-overhaul\|publisher\=Sky Sports\|access\-date\=16 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116171819/http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24181/10068219/lewis\-hamilton\-sebastian\-vettel\-call\-for\-f1\-aerodynamic\-overhaul\|archive\-date\=16 November 2015\|date\=16 November 2015}} Spanish newspaper *[Sport](/wiki/Sport_%28Spanish_newspaper%29 "Sport (Spanish newspaper)")* highlighted Max Verstappen's "spectacular" overtaking as bringing "the only colour" into the race. *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent")* wrote, referring to Hamilton's desperate attempts to pass Rosberg: "If there was ever a race which confirmed that Formula One should be looking at ways to facilitate overtaking, this was it."{{cite news\|last1\=Tremayne\|first1\=David\|author\-link\=David Tremayne\|title\=Brazilian Grand Prix: Nico Rosberg wins second successive race with champion Lewis Hamilton unable to challenge\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/f1\-brazil\-grand\-prix\-2015\-nico\-rosberg\-wins\-second\-successive\-race\-with\-champion\-lewis\-hamilton\-a6735416\.html\|newspaper\=The Independent\|access\-date\=16 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116171345/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/f1\-brazil\-grand\-prix\-2015\-nico\-rosberg\-wins\-second\-successive\-race\-with\-champion\-lewis\-hamilton\-a6735416\.html\|archive\-date\=16 November 2015\|date\=16 November 2015}} In the wake of his experience, Hamilton called for Formula One to adjust rules to enhance overtaking, saying: "I guess for fans it's probably not too exciting to watch. Of course, it's always nice when you're at the front, as we have been for some time now \- but still, being able to race is what... and also down the back, the rest of the field is probably what fans want to see. That's probably a change that would be looked positively on." Sebastian Vettel agreed, calling for more grip created by the tyres to make it easier to follow a car closely.
As a result of the race, Nico Rosberg secured second place in the Drivers' Championship ahead of Vettel. Further back, Kimi Räikkönen closed the gap to fourth placed Valtteri Bottas to just one point ahead of the [final race of the season](/wiki/2015_Abu_Dhabi_Grand_Prix "2015 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix").{{cite web\|title\=2015 Driver Standings\|url\=http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/results/2015\-driver\-standings.html\|website\=formula1\.com\|access\-date\=22 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122141403/http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/results/2015\-driver\-standings.html\|archive\-date\=22 November 2015}} In the Constructors' Championship, Williams and Force India secured their respective third and fifth places, with no team able to overcome them on points.{{cite web\|title\=2015 Constructor Standings\|url\=http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/results/2015\-constructor\-standings.html\|website\=formula1\.com\|access\-date\=22 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122141100/http://www.formula1\.com/content/fom\-website/en/championship/results/2015\-constructor\-standings.html\|archive\-date\=22 November 2015}}
|
[
"Report\n------",
"### Background",
"After the [2014 race](/wiki/2014_Brazilian_Grand_Prix \"2014 Brazilian Grand Prix\") had been held at a resurfaced circuit, causing the teams to fight with the soft tyre choice by [Pirelli](/wiki/Pirelli \"Pirelli\"), speculations arose if drivers would be able to challenge the eleven\\-year old track record set by [Rubens Barrichello](/wiki/Rubens_Barrichello \"Rubens Barrichello\") in [2004](/wiki/2004_Brazilian_Grand_Prix \"2004 Brazilian Grand Prix\").{{cite web\\|last1\\=Esler\\|first1\\=William\\|title\\=Pirelli have opted to change their Brazilian GP tyre choice to softer compounds\\|url\\=http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12527/9520351/pirelli\\-have\\-opted\\-to\\-change\\-their\\-brazilian\\-gp\\-tyre\\-choice\\-to\\-softer\\-compounds\\|publisher\\=Sky Sports\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114234822/http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12527/9520351/pirelli\\-have\\-opted\\-to\\-change\\-their\\-brazilian\\-gp\\-tyre\\-choice\\-to\\-softer\\-compounds\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=17 October 2014}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Collantine\\|first1\\=Keith\\|title\\=Track record could fall at Interlagos this weekend\\|url\\=http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/11/track\\-record\\-could\\-fall\\-at\\-interlagos\\-this\\-weekend/\\|publisher\\=F1Fanatic\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114235145/http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/11/track\\-record\\-could\\-fall\\-at\\-interlagos\\-this\\-weekend/\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=11 November 2015}} However, practice showed that lap times actually slowed due to changes to the kerbs, forcing the drivers to stay away from the insides of the corners.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Parkes\\|first1\\=Ian\\|last2\\=Anderson\\|first2\\=Ben\\|last3\\=Barretto\\|first3\\=Lawrence\\|title\\=Brazilian GP: F1 drivers blame kerbs for slower Interlagos times\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121793\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114235312/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121793\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=13 November 2015}} [Pirelli](/wiki/Pirelli \"Pirelli\") chose the soft and medium compounds for the event.{{cite web\\|title\\=Brazilian Grand Prix Preview: Sao Paulo, November 12\\-15, 2015\\|url\\=http://www.pirelli.com/tyre/ww/en/news/2015/11/09/brazilian\\-grand\\-prix\\-preview\\-sao\\-paulo\\-november\\-12\\-15\\-2015/\\|publisher\\=Pirelli\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114233808/http://www.pirelli.com/tyre/ww/en/news/2015/11/09/brazilian\\-grand\\-prix\\-preview\\-sao\\-paulo\\-november\\-12\\-15\\-2015/\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=9 November 2015}}",
"In the wake of the [terrorist attacks in Paris](/wiki/November_2015_Paris_attacks \"November 2015 Paris attacks\") on the Friday evening of the race weekend, Formula One decided to honour the victims with all drivers wearing black armbands during the parade lap on race day as well as [the French *tricolore*](/wiki/Flag_of_France \"Flag of France\") being displayed on the truck that took the drivers around the track.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Parkes\\|first1\\=Ian\\|title\\=F1 to honour Paris attack victims before Brazilian Grand Prix\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121810\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114235520/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121810\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=14 November 2015}} French driver [Romain Grosjean](/wiki/Romain_Grosjean \"Romain Grosjean\") had already worn an armband with the flag of his country during Saturday's sessions. However, a long planned minute of silence for the World Day of Remembrance for Road Traffic Victims was upheld and plans to dedicate the salute to the Paris attacks discarded.",
"After passing on using [Renault](/wiki/Renault_in_Formula_One \"Renault in Formula One\")'s new power unit in [the United States](/wiki/2015_United_States_Grand_Prix \"2015 United States Grand Prix\") and [Mexico](/wiki/2015_Mexican_Grand_Prix \"2015 Mexican Grand Prix\"), [Red Bull](/wiki/Red_Bull_Racing \"Red Bull Racing\") equipped [Daniel Ricciardo](/wiki/Daniel_Ricciardo \"Daniel Ricciardo\")'s car with the new specification unit, which earned him a ten\\-place grid penalty in the process.{{cite web\\|title\\=Renault engine upgrade means grid drop for Ricciardo\\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/latest/headlines/2015/11/ricciardo\\-cautious\\-on\\-renaults\\-engine\\-upgrade.html\\|website\\=formula1\\.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115000704/https://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/latest/headlines/2015/11/ricciardo\\-cautious\\-on\\-renaults\\-engine\\-upgrade.html\\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|date\\=13 November 2015}} Once he had tried the new unit during the free practice and qualifying sessions, Ricciardo lamented that the upgrade had not improved the performance.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Barretto\\|first1\\=Lawrence\\|title\\=Upgraded Renault F1 power unit no better, says Red Bull's Ricciardo\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121805\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114235936/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121805\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=14 November 2015}} He said: \"In hindsight, it didn't give us any laptime, it's just for now a penalty for a little bit of knowledge.\" During the first practice session on Friday, [Mercedes](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_in_Formula_One \"Mercedes-Benz in Formula One\") tried out what was dubbed a \"S\\-duct\", a vent to channel airflow through the nose of the car, a feature already seen at other cars over the course of the season. However, Mercedes decided not to run the device over the whole weekend.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Noble\\|first1\\=Jonathan\\|title\\=Mercedes removes S\\-duct after first practice trial\\|url\\=http://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/mercedes\\-removes\\-s\\-duct\\-after\\-first\\-practice\\-trial/\\|website\\=motorsport.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115001248/http://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/mercedes\\-removes\\-s\\-duct\\-after\\-first\\-practice\\-trial/\\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|date\\=13 November 2015}}",
"Going into the weekend [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton \"Lewis Hamilton\") and his Mercedes team had already secured their respective World Championships. Fellow Mercedes driver [Nico Rosberg](/wiki/Nico_Rosberg \"Nico Rosberg\") was second in the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\"), 21 points ahead of [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\")'s [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel \"Sebastian Vettel\").{{cite web\\|title\\=2015 Driver Standings\\|url\\=http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/results/2015\\-driver\\-standings.html\\|website\\=formula1\\.com\\|publisher\\=FOM\\|access\\-date\\=4 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104104216/http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/results/2015\\-driver\\-standings.html\\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2015}} The two were followed by Finns [Valtteri Bottas](/wiki/Valtteri_Bottas \"Valtteri Bottas\") ([Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering \"Williams Grand Prix Engineering\")) and [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen \"Kimi Räikkönen\") (Ferrari), three points apart from each other, with [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa \"Felipe Massa\") another six points behind in sixth. In the [Constructors' standings](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\"), Ferrari was second on 374 points, followed by Williams with 243 points.{{cite web\\|title\\=2015 Constructor Standings\\|url\\=http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/results/2015\\-constructor\\-standings.html\\|website\\=formula1\\.com\\|publisher\\=FOM\\|access\\-date\\=4 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104104421/http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/results/2015\\-constructor\\-standings.html\\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2015}}",
"### Free practice",
"Per the regulations for the 2015 season, three practice sessions were scheduled, two 1\\.5\\-hour sessions on Friday and another one\\-hour session before qualifying on Saturday.{{cite web\\|title\\=Practice and qualifying\\|url\\=http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/inside\\-f1/rules\\-regs/Practice\\_qualifying\\_and\\_race\\_start\\_procedure.html\\|website\\=formula1\\.com\\|publisher\\=FOM\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905082403/http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/inside\\-f1/rules\\-regs/Practice\\_qualifying\\_and\\_race\\_start\\_procedure.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2015}} [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton \"Lewis Hamilton\") was fastest in the first session on Friday morning, setting a time of 1:13\\.543, more than half a second clear of his teammate [Nico Rosberg](/wiki/Nico_Rosberg \"Nico Rosberg\"), who was second fastest.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Parkes\\|first1\\=Ian\\|title\\=Brazilian GP: Lewis Hamilton leads opening Friday F1 practice\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121780\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114231923/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121780\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=13 November 2015}} [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel \"Sebastian Vettel\") and [Daniel Ricciardo](/wiki/Daniel_Ricciardo \"Daniel Ricciardo\") in third and fourth respectively were the only other drivers to lap inside one second of Hamilton. The session was held in dry conditions, albeit earlier reports had indicated that thunderstorms could interrupt the weekend.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Collantine\\|first1\\=Keith\\|title\\=Thunderstorms should clear before race day\\|url\\=http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/12/thunderstorms\\-should\\-clear\\-before\\-race\\-day/\\|publisher\\=F1Fanatic\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114232342/http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/12/thunderstorms\\-should\\-clear\\-before\\-race\\-day/\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=12 November 2015}} Hamilton set his fastest time on the medium compound, but was caught out twice on other laps, locking up and running wide in the Senna S. In the later parts of the session, he also complained about a \"weird\" feeling clutch, but returned to the track soon after. [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen \"Kimi Räikkönen\"), who was fifth fastest, spun out ten minutes before the end of the session, while eighth\\-placed [Max Verstappen](/wiki/Max_Verstappen \"Max Verstappen\") had done the same early in the session at turn three. [Jolyon Palmer](/wiki/Jolyon_Palmer \"Jolyon Palmer\") replaced [Romain Grosjean](/wiki/Romain_Grosjean \"Romain Grosjean\") at [Lotus](/wiki/Lotus_F1 \"Lotus F1\"), finishing twelfth fastest.",
"It was Hamilton's teammate and defending race winner Rosberg who topped the time sheets at the second session on Friday afternoon, setting a 1:12\\.385 lap time.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Barretto\\|first1\\=Lawrence\\|title\\=Brazilian GP: Nico Rosberg heads Lewis Hamilton in F1 practice two\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121785\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114232946/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121785\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=13 November 2015}} He led Hamilton by almost half a second, with the two [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\") cars of Vettel and Räikkönen about a second adrift. Slight rain saw most drivers head out early, but the conditions never became wet enough to require intermediate tyres. After starting on the medium compound tyres, many drivers switched to the softer compound for race simulations, only for the session to be red flagged shortly after when [Fernando Alonso](/wiki/Fernando_Alonso \"Fernando Alonso\") spun at turn four, only to pull over at the side of the road with smoke coming from his car some corners later. [Valtteri Bottas](/wiki/Valtteri_Bottas \"Valtteri Bottas\") was sixth fastest, behind Daniel Ricciardo, suffering a spin at turn nine.",
"Despite several problems during the third session on Saturday morning, Lewis Hamilton was fastest, setting a time of 1:12\\.070, just over a tenth of a second in front of his teammate.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Parkes\\|first1\\=Ian\\|title\\=Brazilian F1 GP: Lewis Hamilton tops practice despite incidents\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121797\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114234512/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121797\\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2015\\|date\\=14 November 2015}} Earlier in the session, he needed to return to pit lane due to a gear\\-selection problem which had caused him to temporarily stop on track and later spun at turn eleven. Vettel was again third fastest, more than six\\-tenths of a second behind Hamilton. He was followed by teammate Räikkönen, Valtteri Bottas and [Nico Hülkenberg](/wiki/Nico_H%C3%BClkenberg \"Nico Hülkenberg\") in the [Force India](/wiki/Force_India \"Force India\"), all more than a second slower than Hamilton.",
"### Qualifying",
"[thumb\\|Local driver [Felipe Nasr](/wiki/Felipe_Nasr \"Felipe Nasr\") was penalised after qualifying for impeding compatriot [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa \"Felipe Massa\").](/wiki/File:Nasr_Brazil_2015.jpg \"Nasr Brazil 2015.jpg\")\nQualifying consisted of three parts, 18, 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively, with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions. During the first part of qualifying, all drivers used the softer compound tyres at least for their second run of timed laps, including the Mercedes pair. While Valtteri Bottas was the last driver to switch from the medium tyres, his [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering \"Williams Grand Prix Engineering\") teammate [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa \"Felipe Massa\") needed a quick lap at the end of the session to secure his participation in the second qualifying round, after he had been held up by compatriot [Felipe Nasr](/wiki/Felipe_Nasr \"Felipe Nasr\") earlier in the session. Fernando Alonso's [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren \"McLaren\") broke down due to a loss of power before he was able to set a time, with teammate [Jenson Button](/wiki/Jenson_Button \"Jenson Button\") likewise unable to proceed. Both [Manor Marussia](/wiki/Marussia_F1 \"Marussia F1\") drivers failed to advance, while [Pastor Maldonado](/wiki/Pastor_Maldonado \"Pastor Maldonado\") in fifteenth was the last driver to be eliminated.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Collantine\\|first1\\=Keith\\|title\\=Rosberg pips Hamilton to extend run of pole positions\\|url\\=http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/14/rosberg\\-pips\\-hamilton\\-to\\-extend\\-run\\-of\\-pole\\-positions/\\|publisher\\=F1Fanatic\\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115182545/http://www.f1fanatic.co.uk/2015/11/14/rosberg\\-pips\\-hamilton\\-to\\-extend\\-run\\-of\\-pole\\-positions/\\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|date\\=14 November 2015}}",
"During the second part, the Mercedes drivers set only one run of timed laps as they were able to save their tyres for the race, well clear of the competition. Lewis Hamilton was fastest, half a second ahead of Rosberg, with Sebastian Vettel between the two. Romain Grosjean was eliminated after a spin at turn six. He was joined on the sidelines by both [Saubers](/wiki/Sauber \"Sauber\"), [Carlos Sainz Jr.](/wiki/Carlos_Sainz_Jr. \"Carlos Sainz Jr.\") and [Sergio Pérez](/wiki/Sergio_P%C3%A9rez \"Sergio Pérez\").",
"When the top ten drivers took to the track for the third and final part of qualifying, Nico Rosberg was able to beat his teammate Hamilton to pole position by 0\\.078 seconds, securing his fifth pole in a row. Third was Sebastian Vettel, ahead of Bottas, who would be demoted three places due to a penalty. Following a mistake on his last timed lap, Kimi Räikkönen finished fifth fastest, ahead of [Nico Hülkenberg](/wiki/Nico_H%C3%BClkenberg \"Nico Hülkenberg\"). Albeit racing with an updated power unit, Daniel Ricciardo qualified slower than teammate [Daniil Kvyat](/wiki/Daniil_Kvyat \"Daniil Kvyat\"), and a ten\\-place grid penalty for the change left him nineteenth on the grid.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Anderson\\|first1\\=Ben\\|title\\=Brazilian GP: Nico Rosberg extends F1 pole streak at Interlagos\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121799\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115182427/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121799\\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2015\\|date\\=14 November 2015}}",
"### Race",
"[thumb\\|[Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel \"Sebastian Vettel\") finished third for [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\").](/wiki/File:Vettel_Brazil_2015.jpg \"Vettel Brazil 2015.jpg\")\nOn his way to the starting grid, Carlos Sainz Jr. stopped on track and had to be pushed back to pit lane, where he eventually started, only to retire after just a few hundred metres. At the start, both Mercedes drivers got away well and Hamilton tried to overtake Rosberg for the lead around the outside of the first corner, but were unable to do so. Jenson Button made a good start, moving from 16th to 13th, while [Marcus Ericsson](/wiki/Marcus_Ericsson \"Marcus Ericsson\") fell from 13th to 18th. Behind the leaders, the Ferrari drivers retained third and fourth place respectively. Bottas moved into fifth after moving around the outside.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Butler\\|first1\\=Michael\\|title\\=F1: Brazil Grand Prix – as it happened\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/live/2015/nov/15/f1\\-brazil\\-grand\\-prix\\-live\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116172459/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/live/2015/nov/15/f1\\-brazil\\-grand\\-prix\\-live\\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|date\\=15 November 2015}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Brown\\|first1\\=Luke\\|title\\=Brazilian Grand Prix \\- live: Nico Rosberg denies Lewis Hamilton a maiden victory at Interlagos\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/11997078/Brazilian\\-Grand\\-Prix\\-2015\\-live.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]]\\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116172509/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/11997078/Brazilian\\-Grand\\-Prix\\-2015\\-live.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|date\\=15 November 2015}} Hamilton was able to follow Rosberg closely in the opening laps, while Daniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for new tyres on lap four. One lap later, Grosjean was able to use [drag reduction system](/wiki/Drag_reduction_system \"Drag reduction system\") (DRS) to overtake Felipe Nasr for eleventh. With his back row start and an early pit stop, Ricciardo overtook the two Manor Marussia cars around lap nine.",
"Regular pit stops started on lap eleven, with Massa, Kvyat, Pérez and Grosjean being the first to come in. In addition, Nico Hülkenberg made a pit stop and exited ahead of both Massa and Kvyat, who both had been in front of him before their respective stops. Bottas came in a lap later and maintained position. Kimi Räikkönen, who had been complaining about lack of grip in his front tyres, made a pit stop on lap 13\\. Race leader Rosberg came in for his tyre change on lap fourteen, simultaneously with Vettel, while Hamilton stayed out for another lap. He was ultimately unable to use his additional lap to come out in front of his teammate and remained second. On lap 18, Nico Hülkenberg, who was suffering from an unstable car, overtook Maldonado for sixth place. Around lap 20, Hamilton was moving closer to Rosberg, being in DRS range for multiple laps before reporting to the garage that his tyres would not last long and eased up. On lap 22, Kvyat moved ahead of Maldonado as well and was now seventh. Lap 24 witnessed Massa go around Maldonado as well, while Felipe Nasr overtook Button for 14th.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Stopping just twice, [Nico Hülkenberg](/wiki/Nico_H%C3%BClkenberg \"Nico Hülkenberg\") finished in sixth place.](/wiki/File:H%C3%BClkenberg_Brazil_2015.jpg \"Hülkenberg Brazil 2015.jpg\")\nDaniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for a second time on lap 30\\. At the same time, a three\\-way fight had emerged for ninth place, with Pérez in front of Grosjean and Verstappen. On lap 32, Verstappen moved ahead of Grosjean and took another position from Pérez, who in turn lost another place to Grosjean in the same manoeuvre. Vettel made a pit stop for a second time on lap 33, prompting Rosberg to follow suit one lap later. Hamilton briefly held the lead, but made a pit stop as well soon after, emerging to set a new fastest lap of the race albeit emerging behind both Ferrari cars. Lap 36 saw a collision between Pastor Maldonado and Marcus Ericsson, but both drivers were able to continue the race. Two laps later, Maldonado was in another fight for position with the other Sauber of Felipe Nasr, moving ahead. He ultimately received a five\\-second penalty for his part in the incident with Ericsson.",
"By lap 43, Romain Grosjean had managed to overtake Verstappen for tenth place. Hamilton started to lose ground on Rosberg, trailing him by 3\\.4 seconds on lap 44; however, he managed to close the gap in the succeeding laps. Kimi Räikkönen put in his second stop on lap 47, followed by Vettel's third just one lap later, with Rosberg reacting and changing tyres as well. Hamilton changed tyres on lap 50, and went on to set the fastest lap of the race one lap later. On lap 53, Massa moved ahead of Grosjean into eighth place, but was already reported under investigation for his pre\\-race tyre temperatures at that point. After serving his penalty, Maldonado managed to overtake Nasr for ninth place on lap 57\\. Nasr, who was utilizing a two\\-stop strategy, struggled with his tyres and fell back behind Ricciardo on lap 61\\. Ricciardo gained another position at Pérez's expense on lap 67, while Verstappen moved into tenth place one lap later, overtaking Maldonado. At the front, Hamilton's tyre started to wear off in the closing stages, enabling Rosberg to take victory 7\\.7 seconds ahead of his teammate.",
"### Post\\-race",
"[thumb\\|By finishing fourth, [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen \"Kimi Räikkönen\") moved within one point of [Valtteri Bottas](/wiki/Valtteri_Bottas \"Valtteri Bottas\") in the Championship.](/wiki/File:R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen_Brazil_2015.jpg \"Räikkönen Brazil 2015.jpg\")\nAt the podium interviews, which were conducted by former Formula One driver [Martin Brundle](/wiki/Martin_Brundle \"Martin Brundle\"), Nico Rosberg expressed delight about his victory, but also remembered the events of Paris which, as he put it, rendered \"everything relative\". Replying to Brundle's notion that driving the way he did earlier in the season would have given him a chance for the championship, Rosberg replied: \"Thank you very much for that piece of advice, I could figure that out for myself!\" Lewis Hamilton on the other hand lamented the fact that he was unable to follow Rosberg closely on track without damaging his tyres too much, saying that he would have otherwise had the pace to pass him. Third placed Sebastian Vettel called it \"a good race\", but also \"not very exciting\", since the Ferrari drivers had been \"in no\\-mans land\" behind the Mercedes.{{cite web\\|title\\=2015 Brazilian Grand Prix \\- Sunday Race Press Conference Transcript\\|url\\=http://www.fia.com/news/2015\\-brazilian\\-grand\\-prix\\-sunday\\-race\\-press\\-conference\\-transcript\\|publisher\\=FIA\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119230312/http://www.fia.com/news/2015\\-brazilian\\-grand\\-prix\\-sunday\\-race\\-press\\-conference\\-transcript\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|date\\=15 November 2015}}",
"The main talking point after the race was Hamilton's assertion that he would have preferred to go on a different strategy compared to his teammate to have a chance of passing him, an option denied by his team.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Galloway\\|first1\\=James\\|title\\=Brazilian GP Papers: Mercedes' strategy centre of the debate\\|url\\=http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/10068376/brazilian\\-gp\\-papers\\-mercedes\\-strategy\\-centre\\-of\\-the\\-debate\\|publisher\\=Sky Sports\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119230347/http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/10068376/brazilian\\-gp\\-papers\\-mercedes\\-strategy\\-centre\\-of\\-the\\-debate\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|date\\=16 November 2015}} Hamilton lobbied for his team to allow the drivers to take more risks,{{cite web\\|last1\\=Barretto\\|first1\\=Lawrence\\|last2\\=Beer\\|first2\\=Matt\\|title\\=Mercedes should allow F1 strategy risks, Hamilton says\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121817\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119230626/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121817\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|date\\=15 November 2015}} while his team principal, [Toto Wolff](/wiki/Toto_Wolff \"Toto Wolff\"), insisted that the team, not the drivers, were at liberty to make calls about strategy.{{cite web\\|title\\=Toto Wolff Q\\&A: Mercedes, not drivers, must decide strategy\\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/latest/interviews/2015/11/toto\\-wolff\\-q\\-a\\-\\-mercedes\\-\\-not\\-drivers\\-\\-must\\-decide\\-strategy.html\\|website\\=formula1\\.com\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119231009/https://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/latest/interviews/2015/11/toto\\-wolff\\-q\\-a\\-\\-mercedes\\-\\-not\\-drivers\\-\\-must\\-decide\\-strategy.html\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|date\\=15 November 2015}} Opinions on the matter were divided in the following days. {{F1\\|1996}} world champion [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill \"Damon Hill\") shared Hamilton's frustration, saying: \"I have some sympathy with what Lewis was saying, the drivers should be allowed to call the shots \\- and if he wants to try something different and basically zag when the other guy is zigging.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Damon Hill left frustrated after Mercedes refuse to split strategies\\|url\\=http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24387/10067922/damon\\-hill\\-left\\-frustrated\\-after\\-mercedes\\-refuse\\-to\\-split\\-strategies\\|publisher\\=Sky Sports\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119231215/http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24387/10067922/damon\\-hill\\-left\\-frustrated\\-after\\-mercedes\\-refuse\\-to\\-split\\-strategies\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|date\\=16 November 2015}} Daniel Johnson, writing for *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph \"The Daily Telegraph\")*, concurred: \"It was not just Hamilton's failure to win the Brazilian Grand Prix, following home an obdurate Nico Rosberg; it was the manner of it, lacking the killer move while obeying a Mercedes strategy which rendered the drivers more robots than racers.\"{{cite news\\|last1\\=Johnson\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|title\\=Lewis Hamilton fails to emulate hero Ayrton Senna as Nico Rosberg triumphs at Brazilian Grand Prix\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lewishamilton/11997455/Lewis\\-Hamilton\\-fails\\-to\\-emulate\\-hero\\-Ayrton\\-Senna\\-as\\-Nico\\-Rosberg\\-triumphs\\-at\\-Brazilian\\-Grand\\-Prix.html\\|newspaper\\=The Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119231452/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lewishamilton/11997455/Lewis\\-Hamilton\\-fails\\-to\\-emulate\\-hero\\-Ayrton\\-Senna\\-as\\-Nico\\-Rosberg\\-triumphs\\-at\\-Brazilian\\-Grand\\-Prix.html\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|date\\=15 November 2015}}",
"After the race [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa \"Felipe Massa\") was disqualified when it was discovered that his tyres were too hot at the start of the race. [Pirelli](/wiki/Pirelli \"Pirelli\") stated that the highest temperature at his right rear tyre was found to be {{convert\\|137\\|C\\|F}}, while a maximum temperature of {{convert\\|110\\|C\\|F}} was allowed. Williams announced that they would appeal the penalty.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Elizalde\\|first1\\=Pablo\\|title\\=Massa excluded from Brazilian GP\\|url\\=http://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/massa\\-excluded\\-from\\-brazilian\\-gp/\\|website\\=motorsport.com\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119232352/http://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/massa\\-excluded\\-from\\-brazilian\\-gp/\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|date\\=15 November 2015}} However, on 19 November 2015, Williams decided to drop the appeal, stating that since a decision was unlikely to be made before the end of the year, the matter would draw attention away from the preparations for the {{F1\\|2016}} season.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Parkes\\|first1\\=Ian\\|title\\=Williams F1 team drops appeal of Massa's Brazilian GP exclusion\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121879\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119232357/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121879\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015\\|date\\=19 November 2015}} Following his collision with Marcus Ericsson, Pastor Maldonado came under criticism by [Sauber](/wiki/Sauber \"Sauber\") team principal [Monisha Kaltenborn](/wiki/Monisha_Kaltenborn \"Monisha Kaltenborn\"), who called him \"very annoying\", pointing to the fact that Maldonado had been involved in similar situations in the past.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Barretto\\|first1\\=Lawrence\\|title\\=Pastor Maldonado 'very, very annoying' \\- Sauber F1 boss Kaltenborn\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121835\\|website\\=autosport.com\\|access\\-date\\=20 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120123455/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/121835\\|archive\\-date\\=20 November 2015\\|date\\=16 November 2015}} By finishing tenth after Massa's disqualification, Maldonado scored his last point in Formula One.",
"Reception of the race was mainly negative. Italian newspaper *[Corriere dello Sport – Stadio](/wiki/Corriere_dello_Sport_%E2%80%93_Stadio \"Corriere dello Sport – Stadio\")* called it \"boring\",{{cite news\\|title\\=Pressestimmen zur Formel 1: \"Rosberg wacht auf\"\\|trans\\-title\\=The press on the Formula 1: \"Rosberg wakes up\"\\|url\\=http://www.spiegel.de/sport/formel1/formel\\-1\\-pressestimmen\\-zum\\-grossen\\-preis\\-von\\-brasilien\\-a\\-1063021\\.html\\|work\\=Spiegel Online\\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116171229/http://www.spiegel.de/sport/formel1/formel\\-1\\-pressestimmen\\-zum\\-grossen\\-preis\\-von\\-brasilien\\-a\\-1063021\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|language\\=de\\|date\\=16 November 2015}} while fellow Italian paper *[Corriere della Sera](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera \"Corriere della Sera\")* wrote of \"Formula One like a sleeping pill\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Rosbergs \"Roboter\\-Sieg\" \\- \"Rennen ohne Hürden\"\\|trans\\-title\\=Rosberg's \"Robotic victory\" \\- \"race without obstacles\"\\|url\\=http://www.kicker.de/news/formel1/startseite/639316/artikel\\_rosbergs\\-roboter\\-sieg\\-\\-\\-rennen\\-ohne\\-huerden.html\\|publisher\\=Kicker\\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116214904/http://www.kicker.de/news/formel1/startseite/639316/artikel\\_rosbergs\\-roboter\\-sieg\\-\\-\\-rennen\\-ohne\\-huerden.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|language\\=de\\|date\\=16 November 2015}} [Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports \"Sky Sports\") described the race as \"mundane\" and \"soporific\".{{cite web\\|last1\\=Galloway\\|first1\\=James\\|title\\=Lewis Hamilton \\& Sebastian Vettel call for F1 aerodynamic overhaul\\|url\\=http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24181/10068219/lewis\\-hamilton\\-sebastian\\-vettel\\-call\\-for\\-f1\\-aerodynamic\\-overhaul\\|publisher\\=Sky Sports\\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116171819/http://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24181/10068219/lewis\\-hamilton\\-sebastian\\-vettel\\-call\\-for\\-f1\\-aerodynamic\\-overhaul\\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|date\\=16 November 2015}} Spanish newspaper *[Sport](/wiki/Sport_%28Spanish_newspaper%29 \"Sport (Spanish newspaper)\")* highlighted Max Verstappen's \"spectacular\" overtaking as bringing \"the only colour\" into the race. *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")* wrote, referring to Hamilton's desperate attempts to pass Rosberg: \"If there was ever a race which confirmed that Formula One should be looking at ways to facilitate overtaking, this was it.\"{{cite news\\|last1\\=Tremayne\\|first1\\=David\\|author\\-link\\=David Tremayne\\|title\\=Brazilian Grand Prix: Nico Rosberg wins second successive race with champion Lewis Hamilton unable to challenge\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/f1\\-brazil\\-grand\\-prix\\-2015\\-nico\\-rosberg\\-wins\\-second\\-successive\\-race\\-with\\-champion\\-lewis\\-hamilton\\-a6735416\\.html\\|newspaper\\=The Independent\\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116171345/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/f1\\-brazil\\-grand\\-prix\\-2015\\-nico\\-rosberg\\-wins\\-second\\-successive\\-race\\-with\\-champion\\-lewis\\-hamilton\\-a6735416\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2015\\|date\\=16 November 2015}} In the wake of his experience, Hamilton called for Formula One to adjust rules to enhance overtaking, saying: \"I guess for fans it's probably not too exciting to watch. Of course, it's always nice when you're at the front, as we have been for some time now \\- but still, being able to race is what... and also down the back, the rest of the field is probably what fans want to see. That's probably a change that would be looked positively on.\" Sebastian Vettel agreed, calling for more grip created by the tyres to make it easier to follow a car closely.",
"As a result of the race, Nico Rosberg secured second place in the Drivers' Championship ahead of Vettel. Further back, Kimi Räikkönen closed the gap to fourth placed Valtteri Bottas to just one point ahead of the [final race of the season](/wiki/2015_Abu_Dhabi_Grand_Prix \"2015 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix\").{{cite web\\|title\\=2015 Driver Standings\\|url\\=http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/results/2015\\-driver\\-standings.html\\|website\\=formula1\\.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122141403/http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/results/2015\\-driver\\-standings.html\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2015}} In the Constructors' Championship, Williams and Force India secured their respective third and fifth places, with no team able to overcome them on points.{{cite web\\|title\\=2015 Constructor Standings\\|url\\=http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/results/2015\\-constructor\\-standings.html\\|website\\=formula1\\.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122141100/http://www.formula1\\.com/content/fom\\-website/en/championship/results/2015\\-constructor\\-standings.html\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2015}}",
""
] |
Areas of work and impact
------------------------
The organization exclusively focuses on those in need in the Dominican Republic, more specifically, mothers, the materially poor, and socially marginalized citizens. The four services Esperanza provides are financial, educational, medical, and spiritual. Over the 20 years of operation, Esperanza has dispersed 210,000 loans, outreached to 1,000,000\+ individuals, and distributed over $65,000,000 in loan capital.
### Financial Services
#### Loans
Community banks, or "Banks of Esperanza", each consist of fifteen or more entrepreneurs who have agreed to guarantee each other's loans as a group. The community bank holds its members accountable through saving funds, financial training, and repaying their loans on a regular basis.
Individual entrepreneur loans allow borrowers with good credit to make payments on loans and receive advice from loan officers individually.
Home improvement loans cover construction costs on houses and home businesses such as concrete and plumbing.
School advancement loans are used for the building renovations, technology, and educator training of Christian\-based private schools. Esperanza works with Edify, an education development nonprofit organization, for this loan program.
Water project loans are given to churches for water filtration systems. The churches sell the filtered water at low prices to their local communities, pay off the loans with the funds, and use the remaining profit for investments for their own ministries.
#### Collateral
Mandatory savings is a requirement for loan borrowers to deposit 5% of loan balances into a savings account in order to prepare for emergencies and future investments.
### Complimentary Services
#### Education
Esperanza provides literacy and vocational courses as well as business trainings. Literacy courses consist of basic lifestyle and academic training. Teachers spend four to ten months instructing on good hygiene and healthy diets as well as math, reading, and writing skills. Vocational courses are more focused on specific trades such as sewing, artisanship, decorative art, and baking. This allows the local people to turn their individual abilities into an entrepreneurship. These trades will create, improve, and expand businesses and, as a result, generate wealth for the entrepreneurs and the community. Business trainings provide instruction on fundamental elements that support business operations such as customer service, product quality, appearance and image, and marketing.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.esperanza.org/complementary\-services\|title\=Esperanza International {{!}} Microfinance \+ {{!}} Dominican Republic\|website\=Esperanza International {{!}} Microfinance \+ {{!}} Dominican Republic\|accessdate\=2016\-10\-11}}
#### Health
Esperanza offers medical assistance in two main categories: cervical cancer prevention and dental health. For those who have geographical or financial barriers to easily get medical attention, the organization provides health examinations, cervical cancer tests, teeth extractions, cavity fillings, and preventative dental health information.
Additionally, health trainings are implemented to educate on infection and illness prevention, balanced diets, [STDs](/wiki/Stds "Stds") and [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS"), [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer") detection, and [cervical cancer](/wiki/Cervical_cancer "Cervical cancer") testing.
#### Spiritual
The organization partners with Dominican Republican pastors to provide spiritual guidance and emotional support to the local communities.
|
[
"Areas of work and impact\n------------------------",
"The organization exclusively focuses on those in need in the Dominican Republic, more specifically, mothers, the materially poor, and socially marginalized citizens. The four services Esperanza provides are financial, educational, medical, and spiritual. Over the 20 years of operation, Esperanza has dispersed 210,000 loans, outreached to 1,000,000\\+ individuals, and distributed over $65,000,000 in loan capital.",
"### Financial Services",
"#### Loans",
"Community banks, or \"Banks of Esperanza\", each consist of fifteen or more entrepreneurs who have agreed to guarantee each other's loans as a group. The community bank holds its members accountable through saving funds, financial training, and repaying their loans on a regular basis.",
"Individual entrepreneur loans allow borrowers with good credit to make payments on loans and receive advice from loan officers individually.",
"Home improvement loans cover construction costs on houses and home businesses such as concrete and plumbing.",
"School advancement loans are used for the building renovations, technology, and educator training of Christian\\-based private schools. Esperanza works with Edify, an education development nonprofit organization, for this loan program.",
"Water project loans are given to churches for water filtration systems. The churches sell the filtered water at low prices to their local communities, pay off the loans with the funds, and use the remaining profit for investments for their own ministries.",
"#### Collateral",
"Mandatory savings is a requirement for loan borrowers to deposit 5% of loan balances into a savings account in order to prepare for emergencies and future investments.",
"### Complimentary Services",
"#### Education",
"Esperanza provides literacy and vocational courses as well as business trainings. Literacy courses consist of basic lifestyle and academic training. Teachers spend four to ten months instructing on good hygiene and healthy diets as well as math, reading, and writing skills. Vocational courses are more focused on specific trades such as sewing, artisanship, decorative art, and baking. This allows the local people to turn their individual abilities into an entrepreneurship. These trades will create, improve, and expand businesses and, as a result, generate wealth for the entrepreneurs and the community. Business trainings provide instruction on fundamental elements that support business operations such as customer service, product quality, appearance and image, and marketing.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.esperanza.org/complementary\\-services\\|title\\=Esperanza International {{!}} Microfinance \\+ {{!}} Dominican Republic\\|website\\=Esperanza International {{!}} Microfinance \\+ {{!}} Dominican Republic\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-10\\-11}}",
"#### Health",
"Esperanza offers medical assistance in two main categories: cervical cancer prevention and dental health. For those who have geographical or financial barriers to easily get medical attention, the organization provides health examinations, cervical cancer tests, teeth extractions, cavity fillings, and preventative dental health information.",
"Additionally, health trainings are implemented to educate on infection and illness prevention, balanced diets, [STDs](/wiki/Stds \"Stds\") and [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\"), [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\") detection, and [cervical cancer](/wiki/Cervical_cancer \"Cervical cancer\") testing.",
"#### Spiritual",
"The organization partners with Dominican Republican pastors to provide spiritual guidance and emotional support to the local communities.",
""
] |
### Financial Services
#### Loans
Community banks, or "Banks of Esperanza", each consist of fifteen or more entrepreneurs who have agreed to guarantee each other's loans as a group. The community bank holds its members accountable through saving funds, financial training, and repaying their loans on a regular basis.
Individual entrepreneur loans allow borrowers with good credit to make payments on loans and receive advice from loan officers individually.
Home improvement loans cover construction costs on houses and home businesses such as concrete and plumbing.
School advancement loans are used for the building renovations, technology, and educator training of Christian\-based private schools. Esperanza works with Edify, an education development nonprofit organization, for this loan program.
Water project loans are given to churches for water filtration systems. The churches sell the filtered water at low prices to their local communities, pay off the loans with the funds, and use the remaining profit for investments for their own ministries.
#### Collateral
Mandatory savings is a requirement for loan borrowers to deposit 5% of loan balances into a savings account in order to prepare for emergencies and future investments.
|
[
"### Financial Services",
"#### Loans",
"Community banks, or \"Banks of Esperanza\", each consist of fifteen or more entrepreneurs who have agreed to guarantee each other's loans as a group. The community bank holds its members accountable through saving funds, financial training, and repaying their loans on a regular basis.",
"Individual entrepreneur loans allow borrowers with good credit to make payments on loans and receive advice from loan officers individually.",
"Home improvement loans cover construction costs on houses and home businesses such as concrete and plumbing.",
"School advancement loans are used for the building renovations, technology, and educator training of Christian\\-based private schools. Esperanza works with Edify, an education development nonprofit organization, for this loan program.",
"Water project loans are given to churches for water filtration systems. The churches sell the filtered water at low prices to their local communities, pay off the loans with the funds, and use the remaining profit for investments for their own ministries.",
"#### Collateral",
"Mandatory savings is a requirement for loan borrowers to deposit 5% of loan balances into a savings account in order to prepare for emergencies and future investments.",
""
] |
#### Loans
Community banks, or "Banks of Esperanza", each consist of fifteen or more entrepreneurs who have agreed to guarantee each other's loans as a group. The community bank holds its members accountable through saving funds, financial training, and repaying their loans on a regular basis.
Individual entrepreneur loans allow borrowers with good credit to make payments on loans and receive advice from loan officers individually.
Home improvement loans cover construction costs on houses and home businesses such as concrete and plumbing.
School advancement loans are used for the building renovations, technology, and educator training of Christian\-based private schools. Esperanza works with Edify, an education development nonprofit organization, for this loan program.
Water project loans are given to churches for water filtration systems. The churches sell the filtered water at low prices to their local communities, pay off the loans with the funds, and use the remaining profit for investments for their own ministries.
|
[
"#### Loans",
"Community banks, or \"Banks of Esperanza\", each consist of fifteen or more entrepreneurs who have agreed to guarantee each other's loans as a group. The community bank holds its members accountable through saving funds, financial training, and repaying their loans on a regular basis.",
"Individual entrepreneur loans allow borrowers with good credit to make payments on loans and receive advice from loan officers individually.",
"Home improvement loans cover construction costs on houses and home businesses such as concrete and plumbing.",
"School advancement loans are used for the building renovations, technology, and educator training of Christian\\-based private schools. Esperanza works with Edify, an education development nonprofit organization, for this loan program.",
"Water project loans are given to churches for water filtration systems. The churches sell the filtered water at low prices to their local communities, pay off the loans with the funds, and use the remaining profit for investments for their own ministries.",
""
] |
Use
---
### Alfa Romeo
[Alfa Romeo](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo "Alfa Romeo") has produced successful hemi\-head engines throughout the years. Arguably one of their most beloved examples is [Giuseppe Busso](/wiki/Giuseppe_Busso "Giuseppe Busso")'s original [2\.5\-liter V6](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_V6_engine "Alfa Romeo V6 engine"), which has been cited by some as one of the best and most distinctive sounding production engines (even in its later 24v forms) of all time.*[Evo](/wiki/Evo_%28magazine%29 "Evo (magazine)")*. August 2011\. page 77\. Part of this praise is likely because the hemispherical heads on the original 2\-valve engine allowed for an almost completely straight exhaust port, resulting in a less diluted or muddied engine sound, allowing Alfa Romeo to use quieter stock exhausts without losing much of their distinct and beloved race\-bred engine noise.
### Aston Martin
[thumb\|Aston Martin V8](/wiki/File:Hemi_Aston_Martin.jpg "Hemi Aston Martin.jpg")
[Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin "Aston Martin")'s [DOHC](/wiki/DOHC "DOHC") [V8](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine") used a hemispherical chamber during the late 1960s through to the late 1980s. Each of four cams controlled one set of valves per cylinder bank. The [Aston Martin V8](/wiki/Aston_Martin_V8 "Aston Martin V8") 5\.3 L (5340 cc/325 in3) produced {{convert\|315\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} gross.
### BMW
[BMW](/wiki/BMW "BMW") became a worldwide marque on the strength of its responsive yet durable SOHC hemi\-head inline\-4 [M10](/wiki/BMW_M10 "BMW M10") engine, most famously made in a {{cvt\|2\|L\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} displacement in its [2002](/wiki/BMW_2002 "BMW 2002") sports sedan of the 1960s and 1970s.
### Chrysler
{{main\|Chrysler Hemi engine}}
Perhaps the most widely known proponent of the hemispherical chamber design is the [Chrysler Corporation](/wiki/Chrysler "Chrysler"). Chrysler became identified primarily by trademarking the "Hemi" name and then using it extensively in their advertising campaigns beginning in the 1960s. Chrysler has produced three generations of such engines: the [Chrysler FirePower engine](/wiki/Chrysler_FirePower_engine "Chrysler FirePower engine") in the 1950s; the [426 Hemi](/wiki/Chrysler_Hemi_engine "Chrysler Hemi engine")), developed for [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") in 1964 and produced through the early 1970s; and the "new HEMI" from 2003 to 2024\. The most recent rendition of the Chrysler "Hemi" engine uses part of an [oblate spheroid](/wiki/Oblate_spheroid "Oblate spheroid") (flattened sphere) for its head shape to improve [combustion efficiency](/wiki/Combustion_efficiency "Combustion efficiency") over a true hemispherical head.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.motortrend.com/how\-to/hemi\-engine\-pros\-cons/ \|title\=Hemi Engine Pros and Cons\|website\=Motortrend.com \|date\=April 28, 2020 \|access\-date\=June 10, 2024 }}
### Ford
[thumb\|Massive valvetrain of Ford's 427 cu in/7\.0 L SOHC hemi\-head V8 *[Cammer](/wiki/Ford_FE_engine%23427_SOHC_%22Cammer%22 "Ford FE engine#427 SOHC ")*, showing cam, rockers and timing chains](/wiki/File:Wiki_66_SOHC_timing_chain_and_cam.jpg "Wiki 66 SOHC timing chain and cam.jpg")
In 1964 [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") produced a [single overhead cam](/wiki/Single_overhead_cam "Single overhead cam") 425 cu in [FE\-based](/wiki/Ford_FE_engine "Ford FE engine") hemi V8 known as the "427 [SOHC "Cammer"](/wiki/Ford_FE_engine%23427_SOHC_%22Cammer%22 "Ford FE engine#427 SOHC ")". Designed in 90 days of intensive engineering effort for use in racing,{{cite magazine \|url\=http://www.mustangandfords.com/featuredvehicles/mufp\_0508\_jack\_hazelgren\_1963\_galaxie\_lightweight/427\_sohc.html \|title\=63 Galaxie Lightweight \|magazine\=Mustangs and Fords Magazine \|date\=August 2005 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061228184611/http://www.mustangandfords.com/featuredvehicles/mufp\_0508\_jack\_hazelgren\_1963\_galaxie\_lightweight/427\_sohc.html \|archive\-date\=December 28, 2006}} it never appeared in a production Ford vehicle, instead being sold as an optional engine at Ford parts counters.{{cite web \|title\=427 SOHC \-\- The Ford V\-8 Engine Workshop \|url\=https://phystutor.tripod.com/stang/engines/427sohc.html \|website\=phystutor.tripod.com \|access\-date\=March 14, 2022}} Period dynamometer results claim the SOHC Hemi produced almost 700 hp (522 kW) in crate form (100 hp per liter).{{cite book \|editor\-last\=Flammang \|editor\-first\=James M. \|title\=Muscle Car Chronicle \|page\=168 \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=Publications International \|isbn\=9781412712019}}{{dubious\|date\=May 2024}} It used the side oiler engine block modified to replace an in\-block cam with an idler shaft driving the distributor and oil pump, and accommodate other overhead camshaft issues. The overhead cams meant that it was not as rpm\-limited as the Chrysler Hemis were with their pushrods and heavy and complex valvetrains.{{cite book \| last \= Genat \| first \= Robert \| title \= Hemi: The Ultimate American V\-8 \| publisher \= MBI Publishing \| year \= 2007 \| page \= 14 \| isbn \= 978\-0\-7603\-2747\-0}}
{{dubious span\|text\=Because of its power output, and the fact that Chrysler had showed \[\[NASCAR]] chief Bill France that a DOHC 426 Hemi was in the works, it was banned from NASCAR races, though allowed in certain drag racing classes.\|reason\=None of this uncited passage holds together as a coherent explanation or argument. It needs restating, and a reliable citation.\|date\=June 2024}}
Later Ford engine designs with hemispherical chambers included the *Calliope*, which used two in\-block cams, arranged one over the other, to drive 3 valves per hemispherical chamber.{{cite web \|title\=Ford "Calliope" V\-8 Automobile Engine, 1968 \|url\= https://www.thehenryford.org/collections\-and\-research/digital\-collections/artifact/354918/ \|publisher\=The Henry Ford \|access\-date\=23 October 2019}} The pushrods activating the valves from the top camshaft were almost horizontal. In 1968, Ford brought out the completely new *[385\-series](/wiki/Ford_385_engine "Ford 385 engine")* engine family, which used a modified {{clarification needed span\|text\=''Semi\-Hemi''\|reason\=Just what \*is\* a "semi\-hemi"? What makes it "semi"? Clear layman\-level details, and a reliable citation please.\|date\=June 2024}} form of the hemispherical chamber.{{cite book \|editor\-last\=Flammang \|editor\-first\=James M. \|title\=Muscle Car Chronicle \|page\=214 \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=Publications International \|isbn\=9781412712019}}
[thumb\|The distinctive enormous valve covers on a semi\-hemispherical head [Boss 429](/wiki/Boss_429_Mustang "Boss 429 Mustang") engine](/wiki/File:Boss_429.jpg "Boss 429.jpg")
In the 1970s, Ford designed and produced a [small\-block](/wiki/Ford_small_block_engine "Ford small block engine") "Windsor" engine{{which\|date\=May 2024}} with hemispherical heads{{cn\|date\=May 2024}} to address the growing concerns about fuel economy. Unfortunately, even with an ahead\-of\-its\-time [direct fuel injection](/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injection "Gasoline direct injection") system feeding a [stratified charge](/wiki/HCCI "HCCI") chamber,["Detroit's 'Total Revolution'"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071026075147/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947023-4,00.html), *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")*, March 19, 1979\.["Will gasoline direct injection finally make it?"](http://www.caranddriver.com/columns/8130/the-steering-column.html), [Csaba Csere](/wiki/Csaba_Csere "Csaba Csere"), *[Car and Driver](/wiki/Car_and_Driver "Car and Driver")*, June 2004\. the hemi's emissions could not be made clean enough for compliance with regulations. This plus the cost of the valve actuation systems, along with the cost of the high pressure pump needed to deliver fuel directly into the chamber, as well as the [gilmer belt](/wiki/Gilmer_belt "Gilmer belt") drive system needed to drive the pump, made further development pointless at the time.
Most 1980s 4\-cylinder Fords used the [Ford CVH engine](/wiki/Ford_CVH_engine "Ford CVH engine"), "CVH" meaning Compound Valve, Hemispherical (combustion chamber). Post 1986 the cylinder head of this engine was reworked to heart\-shaped lean\-burn combustion chambers, and used in low\-performance models not benefiting from multipoint fuel injection \- 1\.4, 1\.6, 1\.8 in Europe, though was still referred to colloquially as the CVH.
### Jaguar
[thumb\|Jaguar in\-line 6\-cylinder hemi heads](/wiki/File:Jaguar_6_hemi_chambers.jpg "Jaguar 6 hemi chambers.jpg")
The hemi\-head [Jaguar XK engine](/wiki/Jaguar_XK_engine "Jaguar XK engine"), introduced in 1949, powered cars ranging from the Le Mans winning [D\-Type](/wiki/Jaguar_D-Type "Jaguar D-Type") to the [XJ6](/wiki/XJ6 "XJ6").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jagweb.com/aj6eng/xk\-engine/page2\.php \|title\=A history of the Jaguar DOHC \|publisher\=JagWeb \|access\-date\=March 14, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206212911/http://www.jagweb.com/aj6eng/xk\-engine/page2\.php \|archive\-date\=February 6, 2008 }}
{{clear}}
### Lamborghini
The [Lamborghini V12](/wiki/Lamborghini_V12 "Lamborghini V12"), designed in 1963 and produced for more than 50 years, used hemispherical chambers.
[thumb\|1970 3\.9l Lamborghini V12 heads \- from an S2 Espada](/wiki/File:1970_3.9l_Lamborghini_V12_heads_-_from_an_S2_Espada.png "1970 3.9l Lamborghini V12 heads - from an S2 Espada.png")
{{clear}}
### Lancia
The [Lancia V4](/wiki/Lancia_V4_engine "Lancia V4 engine") and [Lancia V6](/wiki/Lancia_V6_engine "Lancia V6 engine") engines both used hemispherical combustion chambers.
### Lotus
[thumb\|upright\|Lotus "big valve" head with hemispheric chambers](/wiki/File:Lotus_Hemi_BigValve_Chambers.jpg "Lotus Hemi BigValve Chambers.jpg")
Lotus has used hemispherical chambers, as in the [Lotus\-Ford Twin Cam](/wiki/Lotus-Ford_Twin_Cam "Lotus-Ford Twin Cam").
{{clear}}
### Mercedes Benz
Hemispherical chambers were a feature of the [M102](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M102_engine "Mercedes-Benz M102 engine") engine introduced in 1980, which together with the crossflow head design promoted greater efficiency over the [M115](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M115_engine "Mercedes-Benz M115 engine") engine it replaced.{{cite book\|last\=Long \|first\=Brian \|title\=Mercedes\-Benz W123 series: All models 1976 to 1986 \|publisher\=Veloce Publishing \|year\=2015 \|page\=114 \|isbn\=978\-1\-8458\-4792\-0}}
### MG
The [MGA Twin\-Cam](/wiki/MG_MGA%23Twin-Cam "MG MGA#Twin-Cam") was a variant of the pushrod MGA 1600 MkI [MG MGA](/wiki/MG_MGA "MG MGA") line from 1958 to 1960\. The original pushrod 1588 cc cast iron block was fitted with a cast aluminum twin\-cam two\-valve cylinder head. Early versions proved fragile on the street and in competition due to pre\-ignition ([detonation](/wiki/Detonation "Detonation")), and oil loss, which led to decreasing the compression ratio from 9\.1\. to 8\.3 with redesigned pistons. It was a successful update but sales dropped off so rapidly the company halted Twin Cam production and used the matching chassis for some MGAs, with pushrod engines, known as the MGA 1600 MkI and MkII DeLuxe models.
### Mitsubishi
[Mitsubishi](/wiki/Mitsubishi "Mitsubishi") produced several hemi engines including the ['Orion'](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Orion_engine "Mitsubishi Orion engine"), ['Astron'](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Astron_engine "Mitsubishi Astron engine"), and ['Saturn'](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Saturn_engine "Mitsubishi Saturn engine") units.
### Nissan
Nissan's [Z](/wiki/Nissan_Z_engine "Nissan Z engine"), [VG](/wiki/Nissan_VG_engine "Nissan VG engine") (SOHC version only) and DOHC [VQ](/wiki/Nissan_VQ_engine "Nissan VQ engine") engines use hemispherical combustion chambers. The Z and VG are true hemispherical while the VQ uses a compound pent\-roof shape.
### Porsche
[thumb\|upright\|Porsche 6\-cylinder boxer engine heads with hemi chambers](/wiki/File:Porsche_hemi_chambers.jpg "Porsche hemi chambers.jpg")
[Porsche](/wiki/Porsche "Porsche") has made [extensive use of hemi\-head engines](/wiki/List_of_Porsche_engines "List of Porsche engines"), including the air\-cooled [flat\-6](/wiki/Flat-6 "Flat-6") [engine](/wiki/Porsche_911%23Air-cooled_engines_%281964%E2%80%931998%29 "Porsche 911#Air-cooled engines (1964–1998)") in [Porsche 911](/wiki/Porsche_911 "Porsche 911") models from 1963 to 1999\. The 1973 2\.7 L version generated 56 hp per naturally aspirated litre of [piston displacement](/wiki/Engine_displacement "Engine displacement").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.flat\-6\.org/forum/showcar.php?do%3Dview\_specs%26car\_model\_id%3D250 \|url\-status\=dead \|title\=Porsche 911 Technical Specifications \|publisher\=Flat\-6 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-30 \|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240524051221/https://www.webcitation.org/5VGaK6J2L?url\=http://www.flat\-6\.org/forum/showcar.php%3Fdo\=view\_specs\&car\_model\_id\=250 }}
### Toyota
[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota "Toyota")'s [V engine family](/wiki/Toyota_V_engine "Toyota V engine") were longitudinally mounted [V8s](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine") used in the prestigious [Toyota Century](/wiki/Toyota_Century "Toyota Century") from the 1960s through the 1990s. Toyota had worked with Yamaha to produce the first Japanese full aluminum alloy block engine. The V Family is often referred to as the Toyota HEMI as the engine features a similar cylinder head design to those found on the Chrysler's Hemi, even though most of the engine design is completely different.
Other Toyota engines (e.g. [T](/wiki/Toyota_T_engine "Toyota T engine"), [2M](/wiki/Toyota_M_engine%232M "Toyota M engine#2M"), [4M](/wiki/Toyota_M_engine%234M "Toyota M engine#4M") etc.) at the time used a hemispherical combustion chamber.{{cn\|date\=June 2024}} The spark plugs were located at the top of the combustion chamber.
|
[
"Use\n---",
"### Alfa Romeo",
"[Alfa Romeo](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo \"Alfa Romeo\") has produced successful hemi\\-head engines throughout the years. Arguably one of their most beloved examples is [Giuseppe Busso](/wiki/Giuseppe_Busso \"Giuseppe Busso\")'s original [2\\.5\\-liter V6](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_V6_engine \"Alfa Romeo V6 engine\"), which has been cited by some as one of the best and most distinctive sounding production engines (even in its later 24v forms) of all time.*[Evo](/wiki/Evo_%28magazine%29 \"Evo (magazine)\")*. August 2011\\. page 77\\. Part of this praise is likely because the hemispherical heads on the original 2\\-valve engine allowed for an almost completely straight exhaust port, resulting in a less diluted or muddied engine sound, allowing Alfa Romeo to use quieter stock exhausts without losing much of their distinct and beloved race\\-bred engine noise.",
"### Aston Martin",
"[thumb\\|Aston Martin V8](/wiki/File:Hemi_Aston_Martin.jpg \"Hemi Aston Martin.jpg\")",
"[Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin \"Aston Martin\")'s [DOHC](/wiki/DOHC \"DOHC\") [V8](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\") used a hemispherical chamber during the late 1960s through to the late 1980s. Each of four cams controlled one set of valves per cylinder bank. The [Aston Martin V8](/wiki/Aston_Martin_V8 \"Aston Martin V8\") 5\\.3 L (5340 cc/325 in3) produced {{convert\\|315\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} gross.",
"### BMW",
"[BMW](/wiki/BMW \"BMW\") became a worldwide marque on the strength of its responsive yet durable SOHC hemi\\-head inline\\-4 [M10](/wiki/BMW_M10 \"BMW M10\") engine, most famously made in a {{cvt\\|2\\|L\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} displacement in its [2002](/wiki/BMW_2002 \"BMW 2002\") sports sedan of the 1960s and 1970s.",
"### Chrysler",
"{{main\\|Chrysler Hemi engine}}\nPerhaps the most widely known proponent of the hemispherical chamber design is the [Chrysler Corporation](/wiki/Chrysler \"Chrysler\"). Chrysler became identified primarily by trademarking the \"Hemi\" name and then using it extensively in their advertising campaigns beginning in the 1960s. Chrysler has produced three generations of such engines: the [Chrysler FirePower engine](/wiki/Chrysler_FirePower_engine \"Chrysler FirePower engine\") in the 1950s; the [426 Hemi](/wiki/Chrysler_Hemi_engine \"Chrysler Hemi engine\")), developed for [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") in 1964 and produced through the early 1970s; and the \"new HEMI\" from 2003 to 2024\\. The most recent rendition of the Chrysler \"Hemi\" engine uses part of an [oblate spheroid](/wiki/Oblate_spheroid \"Oblate spheroid\") (flattened sphere) for its head shape to improve [combustion efficiency](/wiki/Combustion_efficiency \"Combustion efficiency\") over a true hemispherical head.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.motortrend.com/how\\-to/hemi\\-engine\\-pros\\-cons/ \\|title\\=Hemi Engine Pros and Cons\\|website\\=Motortrend.com \\|date\\=April 28, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=June 10, 2024 }}",
"### Ford",
"[thumb\\|Massive valvetrain of Ford's 427 cu in/7\\.0 L SOHC hemi\\-head V8 *[Cammer](/wiki/Ford_FE_engine%23427_SOHC_%22Cammer%22 \"Ford FE engine#427 SOHC \")*, showing cam, rockers and timing chains](/wiki/File:Wiki_66_SOHC_timing_chain_and_cam.jpg \"Wiki 66 SOHC timing chain and cam.jpg\")",
"In 1964 [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") produced a [single overhead cam](/wiki/Single_overhead_cam \"Single overhead cam\") 425 cu in [FE\\-based](/wiki/Ford_FE_engine \"Ford FE engine\") hemi V8 known as the \"427 [SOHC \"Cammer\"](/wiki/Ford_FE_engine%23427_SOHC_%22Cammer%22 \"Ford FE engine#427 SOHC \")\". Designed in 90 days of intensive engineering effort for use in racing,{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.mustangandfords.com/featuredvehicles/mufp\\_0508\\_jack\\_hazelgren\\_1963\\_galaxie\\_lightweight/427\\_sohc.html \\|title\\=63 Galaxie Lightweight \\|magazine\\=Mustangs and Fords Magazine \\|date\\=August 2005 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061228184611/http://www.mustangandfords.com/featuredvehicles/mufp\\_0508\\_jack\\_hazelgren\\_1963\\_galaxie\\_lightweight/427\\_sohc.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 28, 2006}} it never appeared in a production Ford vehicle, instead being sold as an optional engine at Ford parts counters.{{cite web \\|title\\=427 SOHC \\-\\- The Ford V\\-8 Engine Workshop \\|url\\=https://phystutor.tripod.com/stang/engines/427sohc.html \\|website\\=phystutor.tripod.com \\|access\\-date\\=March 14, 2022}} Period dynamometer results claim the SOHC Hemi produced almost 700 hp (522 kW) in crate form (100 hp per liter).{{cite book \\|editor\\-last\\=Flammang \\|editor\\-first\\=James M. \\|title\\=Muscle Car Chronicle \\|page\\=168 \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Publications International \\|isbn\\=9781412712019}}{{dubious\\|date\\=May 2024}} It used the side oiler engine block modified to replace an in\\-block cam with an idler shaft driving the distributor and oil pump, and accommodate other overhead camshaft issues. The overhead cams meant that it was not as rpm\\-limited as the Chrysler Hemis were with their pushrods and heavy and complex valvetrains.{{cite book \\| last \\= Genat \\| first \\= Robert \\| title \\= Hemi: The Ultimate American V\\-8 \\| publisher \\= MBI Publishing \\| year \\= 2007 \\| page \\= 14 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-7603\\-2747\\-0}}",
"{{dubious span\\|text\\=Because of its power output, and the fact that Chrysler had showed \\[\\[NASCAR]] chief Bill France that a DOHC 426 Hemi was in the works, it was banned from NASCAR races, though allowed in certain drag racing classes.\\|reason\\=None of this uncited passage holds together as a coherent explanation or argument. It needs restating, and a reliable citation.\\|date\\=June 2024}}",
"Later Ford engine designs with hemispherical chambers included the *Calliope*, which used two in\\-block cams, arranged one over the other, to drive 3 valves per hemispherical chamber.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ford \"Calliope\" V\\-8 Automobile Engine, 1968 \\|url\\= https://www.thehenryford.org/collections\\-and\\-research/digital\\-collections/artifact/354918/ \\|publisher\\=The Henry Ford \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2019}} The pushrods activating the valves from the top camshaft were almost horizontal. In 1968, Ford brought out the completely new *[385\\-series](/wiki/Ford_385_engine \"Ford 385 engine\")* engine family, which used a modified {{clarification needed span\\|text\\=''Semi\\-Hemi''\\|reason\\=Just what \\*is\\* a \"semi\\-hemi\"? What makes it \"semi\"? Clear layman\\-level details, and a reliable citation please.\\|date\\=June 2024}} form of the hemispherical chamber.{{cite book \\|editor\\-last\\=Flammang \\|editor\\-first\\=James M. \\|title\\=Muscle Car Chronicle \\|page\\=214 \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Publications International \\|isbn\\=9781412712019}}",
"[thumb\\|The distinctive enormous valve covers on a semi\\-hemispherical head [Boss 429](/wiki/Boss_429_Mustang \"Boss 429 Mustang\") engine](/wiki/File:Boss_429.jpg \"Boss 429.jpg\")",
"In the 1970s, Ford designed and produced a [small\\-block](/wiki/Ford_small_block_engine \"Ford small block engine\") \"Windsor\" engine{{which\\|date\\=May 2024}} with hemispherical heads{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}} to address the growing concerns about fuel economy. Unfortunately, even with an ahead\\-of\\-its\\-time [direct fuel injection](/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injection \"Gasoline direct injection\") system feeding a [stratified charge](/wiki/HCCI \"HCCI\") chamber,[\"Detroit's 'Total Revolution'\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071026075147/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947023-4,00.html), *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")*, March 19, 1979\\.[\"Will gasoline direct injection finally make it?\"](http://www.caranddriver.com/columns/8130/the-steering-column.html), [Csaba Csere](/wiki/Csaba_Csere \"Csaba Csere\"), *[Car and Driver](/wiki/Car_and_Driver \"Car and Driver\")*, June 2004\\. the hemi's emissions could not be made clean enough for compliance with regulations. This plus the cost of the valve actuation systems, along with the cost of the high pressure pump needed to deliver fuel directly into the chamber, as well as the [gilmer belt](/wiki/Gilmer_belt \"Gilmer belt\") drive system needed to drive the pump, made further development pointless at the time.",
"Most 1980s 4\\-cylinder Fords used the [Ford CVH engine](/wiki/Ford_CVH_engine \"Ford CVH engine\"), \"CVH\" meaning Compound Valve, Hemispherical (combustion chamber). Post 1986 the cylinder head of this engine was reworked to heart\\-shaped lean\\-burn combustion chambers, and used in low\\-performance models not benefiting from multipoint fuel injection \\- 1\\.4, 1\\.6, 1\\.8 in Europe, though was still referred to colloquially as the CVH.",
"### Jaguar",
"[thumb\\|Jaguar in\\-line 6\\-cylinder hemi heads](/wiki/File:Jaguar_6_hemi_chambers.jpg \"Jaguar 6 hemi chambers.jpg\")",
"The hemi\\-head [Jaguar XK engine](/wiki/Jaguar_XK_engine \"Jaguar XK engine\"), introduced in 1949, powered cars ranging from the Le Mans winning [D\\-Type](/wiki/Jaguar_D-Type \"Jaguar D-Type\") to the [XJ6](/wiki/XJ6 \"XJ6\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jagweb.com/aj6eng/xk\\-engine/page2\\.php \\|title\\=A history of the Jaguar DOHC \\|publisher\\=JagWeb \\|access\\-date\\=March 14, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206212911/http://www.jagweb.com/aj6eng/xk\\-engine/page2\\.php \\|archive\\-date\\=February 6, 2008 }}\n{{clear}}",
"### Lamborghini",
"The [Lamborghini V12](/wiki/Lamborghini_V12 \"Lamborghini V12\"), designed in 1963 and produced for more than 50 years, used hemispherical chambers.",
"[thumb\\|1970 3\\.9l Lamborghini V12 heads \\- from an S2 Espada](/wiki/File:1970_3.9l_Lamborghini_V12_heads_-_from_an_S2_Espada.png \"1970 3.9l Lamborghini V12 heads - from an S2 Espada.png\")\n{{clear}}",
"### Lancia",
"The [Lancia V4](/wiki/Lancia_V4_engine \"Lancia V4 engine\") and [Lancia V6](/wiki/Lancia_V6_engine \"Lancia V6 engine\") engines both used hemispherical combustion chambers.",
"### Lotus",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Lotus \"big valve\" head with hemispheric chambers](/wiki/File:Lotus_Hemi_BigValve_Chambers.jpg \"Lotus Hemi BigValve Chambers.jpg\")",
"Lotus has used hemispherical chambers, as in the [Lotus\\-Ford Twin Cam](/wiki/Lotus-Ford_Twin_Cam \"Lotus-Ford Twin Cam\"). \n{{clear}}",
"### Mercedes Benz",
"Hemispherical chambers were a feature of the [M102](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M102_engine \"Mercedes-Benz M102 engine\") engine introduced in 1980, which together with the crossflow head design promoted greater efficiency over the [M115](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M115_engine \"Mercedes-Benz M115 engine\") engine it replaced.{{cite book\\|last\\=Long \\|first\\=Brian \\|title\\=Mercedes\\-Benz W123 series: All models 1976 to 1986 \\|publisher\\=Veloce Publishing \\|year\\=2015 \\|page\\=114 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-8458\\-4792\\-0}}",
"### MG",
"The [MGA Twin\\-Cam](/wiki/MG_MGA%23Twin-Cam \"MG MGA#Twin-Cam\") was a variant of the pushrod MGA 1600 MkI [MG MGA](/wiki/MG_MGA \"MG MGA\") line from 1958 to 1960\\. The original pushrod 1588 cc cast iron block was fitted with a cast aluminum twin\\-cam two\\-valve cylinder head. Early versions proved fragile on the street and in competition due to pre\\-ignition ([detonation](/wiki/Detonation \"Detonation\")), and oil loss, which led to decreasing the compression ratio from 9\\.1\\. to 8\\.3 with redesigned pistons. It was a successful update but sales dropped off so rapidly the company halted Twin Cam production and used the matching chassis for some MGAs, with pushrod engines, known as the MGA 1600 MkI and MkII DeLuxe models.",
"### Mitsubishi",
"[Mitsubishi](/wiki/Mitsubishi \"Mitsubishi\") produced several hemi engines including the ['Orion'](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Orion_engine \"Mitsubishi Orion engine\"), ['Astron'](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Astron_engine \"Mitsubishi Astron engine\"), and ['Saturn'](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Saturn_engine \"Mitsubishi Saturn engine\") units.",
"### Nissan",
"Nissan's [Z](/wiki/Nissan_Z_engine \"Nissan Z engine\"), [VG](/wiki/Nissan_VG_engine \"Nissan VG engine\") (SOHC version only) and DOHC [VQ](/wiki/Nissan_VQ_engine \"Nissan VQ engine\") engines use hemispherical combustion chambers. The Z and VG are true hemispherical while the VQ uses a compound pent\\-roof shape.",
"### Porsche",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Porsche 6\\-cylinder boxer engine heads with hemi chambers](/wiki/File:Porsche_hemi_chambers.jpg \"Porsche hemi chambers.jpg\")",
"[Porsche](/wiki/Porsche \"Porsche\") has made [extensive use of hemi\\-head engines](/wiki/List_of_Porsche_engines \"List of Porsche engines\"), including the air\\-cooled [flat\\-6](/wiki/Flat-6 \"Flat-6\") [engine](/wiki/Porsche_911%23Air-cooled_engines_%281964%E2%80%931998%29 \"Porsche 911#Air-cooled engines (1964–1998)\") in [Porsche 911](/wiki/Porsche_911 \"Porsche 911\") models from 1963 to 1999\\. The 1973 2\\.7 L version generated 56 hp per naturally aspirated litre of [piston displacement](/wiki/Engine_displacement \"Engine displacement\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.flat\\-6\\.org/forum/showcar.php?do%3Dview\\_specs%26car\\_model\\_id%3D250 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|title\\=Porsche 911 Technical Specifications \\|publisher\\=Flat\\-6 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-30 \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240524051221/https://www.webcitation.org/5VGaK6J2L?url\\=http://www.flat\\-6\\.org/forum/showcar.php%3Fdo\\=view\\_specs\\&car\\_model\\_id\\=250 }}",
"### Toyota",
"[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota \"Toyota\")'s [V engine family](/wiki/Toyota_V_engine \"Toyota V engine\") were longitudinally mounted [V8s](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\") used in the prestigious [Toyota Century](/wiki/Toyota_Century \"Toyota Century\") from the 1960s through the 1990s. Toyota had worked with Yamaha to produce the first Japanese full aluminum alloy block engine. The V Family is often referred to as the Toyota HEMI as the engine features a similar cylinder head design to those found on the Chrysler's Hemi, even though most of the engine design is completely different.",
"Other Toyota engines (e.g. [T](/wiki/Toyota_T_engine \"Toyota T engine\"), [2M](/wiki/Toyota_M_engine%232M \"Toyota M engine#2M\"), [4M](/wiki/Toyota_M_engine%234M \"Toyota M engine#4M\") etc.) at the time used a hemispherical combustion chamber.{{cn\\|date\\=June 2024}} The spark plugs were located at the top of the combustion chamber.",
""
] |
Plot
----
It is a story about Vinay ([Adinath Kothare](/wiki/Adinath_Kothare "Adinath Kothare")) and Madhura ( [Urmila Kanetkar](/wiki/Urmila_Kanetkar "Urmila Kanetkar")) decide to spend a year in a remote village as per Vinay's late grandfather's wish. As days pass by, the couple encounters strange experiences. Vinay meets his subordinate Kamath who arranges their stay at an old depilated mansion which has its tragedy associated of a previous owner 'Saibu' who died unfulfilled on his first night after marriage due to a snakebite which he received while out in the forest to get fragrant Kewra flowers for his new bride Gulab on her demand. Vinay is a man of science who associates logic and medical science with everything and his wife who is an archaeologist, at times challenges his views with her faith in natural as well as the supernatural.
The couple has a house help Baijama who is a distant relative of the dead previous owner who believes that 'Saibu's restless spirit haunts the mansion and only she can appease it with some rituals. Madhura starts experiencing some unnatural activities in the mansion and starts feeling an unseen presence in the mansion with its frequent power outages which her husband shoves off as her mind playing tricks on her.
The doctor decides to demolish a shrine dedicated to 'Saibu' on the grounds of the hospital to make a reading room in its place to which the local superstitious population protest and warn the doctor of misfortunes if he does so, nevertheless the doctor himself demolishes the shrine in front of the population.
One rainy night, the doctor is at the hospital working late and his wife is visited by Kamath who seems to be possessed by the spirit of Saibu back to fulfil his desires with Gulab. Kamat ties up the doctor's wife to molest her and in the meantime answers the phone call made by the doctor to inform his wife of him being stuck at the hospital and threatens the doctor that he will kill him if he interferes in his quest.
The doctor panics and rushes to the mansion and has a fist fight with the apparently possessed Kamath in which he gets injured and falls down. In the meantime, the doctor's wife sets herself loose and hits Kamath with a rock on his head and helps the injured doctor up to realise that now her husband is possessed by 'Saibu's spirit as he tries to molest her. The doctor's wife panics and runs back into the mansion to pick up a kitchen knife to defend herself and in the meantime the doctor is able to come to his senses to realise that now his wife is possessed by the spirit and is trying to attack him with the kitchen knife. The doctor tries to help his wife as a person having a psychotic episode because of all the stress by trying to calm her down, but she attacks him with the knife wounding him.
In the meantime, Baijama who is conducting rituals to calm Saibu's spirit runs in with some sacred ash and throws it on the doctor's wife calming her down as the spirit leaves her.
Next day, the police investigate the issue and take statements from everyone involved where Kamath declines to press any charges on the doctor's wife and vice versa. The doctor and his wife move from the village soon to a foreign land where they discuss the recent happenings, during which the doctor confides to his wife about a secret. The doctor says that one of the compounder 'Waman' at the hospital told the doctor that the spirit is real for the people who have experienced it and not for them who haven't, and added more insight to Saibu's story. He told that, Saibu's widow Gulab was attempted to be molested by Kamath under the pretext of possession by Saibu's spirit soon after Saibu's death and he himself stopped the attempt as he coincidently went to the mansion to deliver some medicines to Gulab. Soon after Gulab disappeared from the village and nobody knows her whereabouts. Kamath also tried the same game of Saibu's possession to attempt molestation on a previous doctor's wife who was in the village before him and they left abruptly.
The doctor mentions to his wife that everyone involved had their selfish motives. Kamath might have been a latent schizophrenic who made an imaginary world of himself being Saibu and saw Gulab in every woman and his schizophrenia got activated as the doctor reprimanded him a couple of times laxness in his work hurting his ego or he might be just a plain pervert taking advantage of the story and the villagers belief.
Baijama wanted to maintain her importance in the village as the distant relative of Saibu and hence performed the rituals as a medium between the spirit and the superstitious villagers.
The doctor mentions that he acted as being possessed by the spirit as a psychological technique on that night to shock his wife into calmness but was not ready for her to go into a psychotic episode instead.
In the end, the situation is left ambiguous and to the audience interpretation of the movie as the scene cuts back to the village where Kamath watches a marriage procession on his way and sees Gulab instead of the newly wedded bride staring at her incessantly. {{cite news\|url\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/Anvatt\-5\-reasons\-to\-watch\-the\-film/Anvatt\-5\-reasons\-to\-watch\-the\-film/photostory/38548790\.cms\|title\=Anvatt: 5 reasons to watch the film \- The Times of India\|newspaper\=The Times of India \|publisher\=}}
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"It is a story about Vinay ([Adinath Kothare](/wiki/Adinath_Kothare \"Adinath Kothare\")) and Madhura ( [Urmila Kanetkar](/wiki/Urmila_Kanetkar \"Urmila Kanetkar\")) decide to spend a year in a remote village as per Vinay's late grandfather's wish. As days pass by, the couple encounters strange experiences. Vinay meets his subordinate Kamath who arranges their stay at an old depilated mansion which has its tragedy associated of a previous owner 'Saibu' who died unfulfilled on his first night after marriage due to a snakebite which he received while out in the forest to get fragrant Kewra flowers for his new bride Gulab on her demand. Vinay is a man of science who associates logic and medical science with everything and his wife who is an archaeologist, at times challenges his views with her faith in natural as well as the supernatural.",
"The couple has a house help Baijama who is a distant relative of the dead previous owner who believes that 'Saibu's restless spirit haunts the mansion and only she can appease it with some rituals. Madhura starts experiencing some unnatural activities in the mansion and starts feeling an unseen presence in the mansion with its frequent power outages which her husband shoves off as her mind playing tricks on her.",
"The doctor decides to demolish a shrine dedicated to 'Saibu' on the grounds of the hospital to make a reading room in its place to which the local superstitious population protest and warn the doctor of misfortunes if he does so, nevertheless the doctor himself demolishes the shrine in front of the population.",
"One rainy night, the doctor is at the hospital working late and his wife is visited by Kamath who seems to be possessed by the spirit of Saibu back to fulfil his desires with Gulab. Kamat ties up the doctor's wife to molest her and in the meantime answers the phone call made by the doctor to inform his wife of him being stuck at the hospital and threatens the doctor that he will kill him if he interferes in his quest.",
"The doctor panics and rushes to the mansion and has a fist fight with the apparently possessed Kamath in which he gets injured and falls down. In the meantime, the doctor's wife sets herself loose and hits Kamath with a rock on his head and helps the injured doctor up to realise that now her husband is possessed by 'Saibu's spirit as he tries to molest her. The doctor's wife panics and runs back into the mansion to pick up a kitchen knife to defend herself and in the meantime the doctor is able to come to his senses to realise that now his wife is possessed by the spirit and is trying to attack him with the kitchen knife. The doctor tries to help his wife as a person having a psychotic episode because of all the stress by trying to calm her down, but she attacks him with the knife wounding him.",
"In the meantime, Baijama who is conducting rituals to calm Saibu's spirit runs in with some sacred ash and throws it on the doctor's wife calming her down as the spirit leaves her.",
"Next day, the police investigate the issue and take statements from everyone involved where Kamath declines to press any charges on the doctor's wife and vice versa. The doctor and his wife move from the village soon to a foreign land where they discuss the recent happenings, during which the doctor confides to his wife about a secret. The doctor says that one of the compounder 'Waman' at the hospital told the doctor that the spirit is real for the people who have experienced it and not for them who haven't, and added more insight to Saibu's story. He told that, Saibu's widow Gulab was attempted to be molested by Kamath under the pretext of possession by Saibu's spirit soon after Saibu's death and he himself stopped the attempt as he coincidently went to the mansion to deliver some medicines to Gulab. Soon after Gulab disappeared from the village and nobody knows her whereabouts. Kamath also tried the same game of Saibu's possession to attempt molestation on a previous doctor's wife who was in the village before him and they left abruptly.",
"The doctor mentions to his wife that everyone involved had their selfish motives. Kamath might have been a latent schizophrenic who made an imaginary world of himself being Saibu and saw Gulab in every woman and his schizophrenia got activated as the doctor reprimanded him a couple of times laxness in his work hurting his ego or he might be just a plain pervert taking advantage of the story and the villagers belief.",
"Baijama wanted to maintain her importance in the village as the distant relative of Saibu and hence performed the rituals as a medium between the spirit and the superstitious villagers.",
"The doctor mentions that he acted as being possessed by the spirit as a psychological technique on that night to shock his wife into calmness but was not ready for her to go into a psychotic episode instead.",
"In the end, the situation is left ambiguous and to the audience interpretation of the movie as the scene cuts back to the village where Kamath watches a marriage procession on his way and sees Gulab instead of the newly wedded bride staring at her incessantly. {{cite news\\|url\\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/Anvatt\\-5\\-reasons\\-to\\-watch\\-the\\-film/Anvatt\\-5\\-reasons\\-to\\-watch\\-the\\-film/photostory/38548790\\.cms\\|title\\=Anvatt: 5 reasons to watch the film \\- The Times of India\\|newspaper\\=The Times of India \\|publisher\\=}}",
""
] |
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