text
stringlengths 791
228k
| parts
listlengths 6
567
|
|---|---|
Design
------
Protease inhibitors were designed to mimic the [transition state](/wiki/Transition_state "Transition state") of the protease's actual [substrates](/wiki/Substrate_%28biochemistry%29 "Substrate (biochemistry)"). A [peptide linkage](/wiki/Peptide_bond "Peptide bond") consisting of –NH\-CO\- is replaced by an hydroxyethylen group (\-CH2\-CH(OH)\-) which the protease is unable to cleave. HIV protease inhibitors fit the [active site](/wiki/Active_site "Active site") of the HIV aspartic protease and were rationally designed utilizing knowledge of the aspartyl protease's [mode of action](/wiki/Mechanism_of_action "Mechanism of action"). The most promising transition state mimic was hydroxyethylamine which led to the discovery of the first protease inhibitor, [saquinavir](/wiki/Saquinavir "Saquinavir"). Following that discovery, other HIV protease inhibitors were designed using the same principle.De Clercq, E. (2009\) The history of antiretrovirals: key discoveries over the past 25 years. *Reviews in Medical Virology*. 19; 287–299\.
### Binding site
[thumb\|300px\|right\|A schematic structure of a HIV\-1 protease. The monomers are shown in green and cyan, the Asp\-25 and Asp\-25´ residues are shown in red, and Ile50 and Ile50´ residues linked to a water molecule are shown in purple.](/wiki/File:HIV_protease_1KJF.png "HIV protease 1KJF.png")
The HIV protease is a C2\-symmetric homodimeric enzyme consisting of two 99 [amino acid](/wiki/Amino_acid "Amino acid") [monomers](/wiki/Monomers "Monomers"). Each monomer contributes an [aspartic acid](/wiki/Aspartic_acid "Aspartic acid") residue that is essential for catalysis, Asp\-25 and Asp\-25´. The HIV protease has the sequence Asp\-[Thr](/wiki/Threonine "Threonine")\-[Gly](/wiki/Glycine "Glycine"), which is conserved among other mammalian aspartic protease enzymes. An extended [beta\-sheet](/wiki/Beta_sheet "Beta sheet") region on the monomers, known as the flap, constitutes in part the substrate binding site with the two aspartyl residues lying on the bottom of a [hydrophobic](/wiki/Hydrophobe "Hydrophobe") cavity.Mimoto, T., Hattori, N., Takaku, H. et al. (2000\) Structure\-activity relationship of orally potent tripeptide\-based HIV protease inhibitors containing hydroxymethylcarbonyl isostere. *Chemical \& Pharmaceutical Bulletin*. 48(9\); 1310–1326\.Perez, M.A.S., Fernandes, P.A. and Ramos, M.J. (2007\) Drug design: New inhibitors for HIV\-1 protease based on Nelfinavir as lead. *Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling*. 26; 634–642\. Each flexible flap contains three characteristic regions: side chains that extend outward ([Met](/wiki/Methionine "Methionine")46, [Phe](/wiki/Phenylalanin "Phenylalanin")53\), hydrophobic chains extending inward ([Ile](/wiki/Isoleucine "Isoleucine")47, Ile54\), and a glycine rich region (Gly48, 49, 51, 52\). Ile50 remains at the tip of the turn and when the enzyme is unliganded a water molecule makes [hydrogen bonds](/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds "Hydrogen bonds") to the backbone of Ile50 on each monomer.
HIV proteases catalyze the [hydrolysis](/wiki/Hydrolysis "Hydrolysis") of peptide bonds with high sequence selectivity and catalytic proficiency. The mechanism of the HIV protease shares many features with the rest of the aspartic protease family although the full detailed mechanism of this enzyme is not fully understood. The water molecule seems to play a role in the opening and closing of the flaps as well as increasing the affinity between enzyme and substrate. The aspartyl residues are involved in the hydrolysis of the peptide bonds. The preferred cleavage site for this enzyme is the [N\-terminal](/wiki/N-terminus "N-terminus") side of proline residues, especially between phenylalanine and proline or tyrosine and [proline](/wiki/Proline "Proline").
### Development
The first HIV protease inhibitor, saquinavir, is a [peptidomimetic](/wiki/Peptidomimetic "Peptidomimetic") hydroxyethylamine and was marketed in 1995\.Flexner, C. (2007\) HIV drug development: the next 25 years. *Nature Reviews Drug Discovery*. 6; 959–966\. It is a transition state [analogue](/wiki/Transition_state_analog "Transition state analog") of a native substrate of the protease. The observation that HIV\-1 protease cleaves the sequences containing the dipeptides Tyr\-Pro or Phe\-Pro was the basic design criterion.Wlodawer, A. (2002\) Rational approach to AIDS drug design through structural biology. *Annual Review of Medicine*. 53; 595–614\. Addition of the [decahydroisoquinoline](/wiki/Decahydroisoquinoline "Decahydroisoquinoline") (DIQ) group was one of the most significant modifications that led to the discovery of saquinavir. This substituent improves aqueous solubility and potency by limiting the conformational freedom of the inhibitor.Smith, H.J. and Simons, C. (2005\) Enzymes and Their Inhibition: Drug Development (6th edition). United States of America: CRC press Saquinavir is effective against both HIV\-1 and HIV\-2 and is usually well tolerated but high serum concentration is not achieved.
[Ritonavir](/wiki/Ritonavir "Ritonavir"), a peptidomimetic HIV protease inhibitor, was marketed in 1996\. It was designed to fit the C2\-symmetry in the binding site of the protease. The developers of ritonavir, [Abbott Laboratories](/wiki/Abbott_Laboratories "Abbott Laboratories"), started with compounds that were active against the virus but had poor [bioavailability](/wiki/Bioavailability "Bioavailability"). Some improvements were made, for example the terminal phenyl residues were removed and [pyridyl](/wiki/Pyridine "Pyridine") groups put instead to add water solubility. The final product of these improvements was ritonavir. Significant gastrointestinal side effects and a large pill burden are ritonavir's main drawbacks and is therefore not used as a single treatment. However, it is a strong inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 enzyme mediated metabolism and it is only used in a combination therapy with other protease inhibitors for pharmacokinetic boosting.
[Indinavir](/wiki/Indinavir "Indinavir"), which is a peptidomimetic hydroxyethylene HIV protease inhibitor, reached the market in 1996\. The design of indinavir was guided by molecular modeling and the [X\-ray](/wiki/X-ray "X-ray") [crystal structure](/wiki/Crystal_structure "Crystal structure") of the inhibited enzyme complex. The terminal phenyl constituents contribute hydrophobic binding to increase [potency](/wiki/Potency_%28pharmacology%29 "Potency (pharmacology)"). It is an analogue of the phenylalanine\-proline cleavage site of the HIV Gag\-polyprotein.
[Nelfinavir](/wiki/Nelfinavir "Nelfinavir") was the first protease inhibitor that was not peptidomimetic. In the design process of nelfinavir, an orally bioavailable and nonpeptidic inhibitor, iterative protein cocrystal structure analysis of peptidic inhibitors was used and parts of the inhibitors were replaced by nonpeptidic substituents. Nelfinavir contains a novel 2\-methyl\-3\-hydroxybenzamide group, whereas its [carboxyl terminal](/wiki/C-terminus "C-terminus") contains the same DIQ group as saquinavir. Nelfinavir was marketed in 1997 and was the first protease inhibitor to be indicated for [pediatric](/wiki/Pediatric "Pediatric") AIDS.
Amprenavir reached the market in 1999\. It is an *N*,*N*\-disubstituded amino\-[sulfonamide](/wiki/Sulfonamide_%28chemistry%29 "Sulfonamide (chemistry)") nonpeptide HIV protease inhibitor and shares some common features with previous protease inhibitors. It has a core similar to that of saquinavir but with different [functional groups](/wiki/Functional_groups "Functional groups") on both ends. On one end it has a [tetrahydrofuran](/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran "Tetrahydrofuran") carbamate group and on the other end is an isobutylphenyl sulfonamide with an added amide. This structure results in fewer [chiral](/wiki/Chirality_%28chemistry%29 "Chirality (chemistry)") centers, that makes it easier to synthesize and gives it enhanced aqueus solubility. That in turn gives better oral bioavailability. However, amprenavir was withdrawn from the market in 2004 since fosamprenavir, its [prodrug](/wiki/Prodrug "Prodrug"), proved superior in many aspects.
[Lopinavir](/wiki/Lopinavir "Lopinavir") was marketed in 2000 and was originally designed to diminish the interactions of the inhibitor with [Val](/wiki/Valine "Valine")82 of the HIV\-1 protease, a residue that is often [mutated](/wiki/Mutation "Mutation") in the [drug resistant](/wiki/Drug_resistance "Drug resistance") [strains](/wiki/Strain_%28biology%29 "Strain (biology)") of the virus. It is a peptidomimetic HIV protease inhibitor and its core is identical to that of ritonavir. Instead of the 5\-[thiazolyl](/wiki/Thiazole "Thiazole") end group in ritonavir, lopinavir has a phenoxyacetyl group and the 2\-isopropylthiazolyl group in ritonavir was replaced by a modified valine in which the amino terminal had a six\-membered cyclic [urea](/wiki/Urea "Urea") attached.
[Fosamprenavir](/wiki/Fosamprenavir "Fosamprenavir") was marketed in 2003 and is a phosphoester prodrug that is rapidly and extensively metabolized to amprenavir.Luber, A.D. et al. (2007\) Steady\-state pharmacokinetics of once\-daily fosamprenavir/ritonavir and atazanavir/ritonavir alone and in combination with 20mg omeprazole in healthy volunteers. *HIV medicine*. 8;457–464 The solubility and bioavailability is better than of amprenavir which results in reduced daily pill burden.Chapman, T.M., Plosker, G.L. and Perry, C.M. (2004\) Fosamprenavir – A Review of its Use in the Management of Antiretroviral Therapy\-naive Patients with HIV Infection. *Drugs*. 64; 2101–2124\.
[Atazanavir](/wiki/Atazanavir "Atazanavir") was marketed in 2003 and is an azapeptide protease inhibitor designed to fit the C2\-symmetry of the enzyme binding site. Atazanavir showed better resistant profiles than previous HIV protease inhibitors. It is unique among the other protease inhibitors as it can only be [absorbed](/wiki/Absorption_%28pharmacokinetics%29 "Absorption (pharmacokinetics)") in an acidic environment.
[Tipranavir](/wiki/Tipranavir "Tipranavir") is a nonpeptidic HIV\-1 protease inhibitor and reached the market in 2005\. Unlike other HIV protease inhibitors on the market, tipranavir was developed from a nonpeptidic [coumarin](/wiki/Coumarin "Coumarin") template and its antiprotease activity was discovered by [high\-throughput screening](/wiki/High-throughput_screening "High-throughput screening").Larder, B.A. et al. (2000\) Tipranavir inhibits broadly protease inhibitor\-resistant HIV\-1 clinical samples. *AIDS*. 14;1943–1948 This sulfonamide containing 5,6\-dihydro\-4\-hydroxy\-2\-pyrone had emerged from screenings of 3\-substituted coumarins and dihydropyrones.Schobert, R., Stehle, R. and Walter, H. (2008\) Tipranavir analogous 3\-sulfonylanilidotetronic acids: new synthesis and structure\-dependent anti\-HIV activity. *Tetrahedron*. 64;9401–9407\. It possesses broad antiviral activity against multiple protease inhibitor resistant HIV\-1\.Doyon, L. Et al. (2005\) Selection and characterization of HIV\-1 showing reduced susceptibility to the non\-peptidic protease inhibitor tipranavir. *Antiviral Research*. 68;27–35\.
[Darunavir](/wiki/Darunavir "Darunavir") reached the market in 2006 and is a nonpeptidic analogue of amprenavir, with a critical change at the terminal tetrahydrofuran (THF) group. Instead of a single THF group, darunavir contains two THF groups fused in the compound, to form a bis\-THF [moiety](/wiki/Moiety_%28chemistry%29 "Moiety (chemistry)") which makes it more effective than amprenavir. With this structural change, the [stereochemistry](/wiki/Stereochemistry "Stereochemistry") around the bis\-THF moiety confers orientational changes, that allows for continued binding with the protease which has developed a resistance for amprenavir.McCoy, C. (2007\) Darunavir: A nonpeptidic antiretroviral protease inhibitor. *Clinical Therapeutics*. 29(8\); 1559–1576\.
All the FDA approved protease inhibitors are listed below.
| \+ HIV protease inhibitors the FDA has approved |
| --- |
| [225x225px](/wiki/File:Saquinavir_structure.svg "Saquinavir structure.svg") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Nelfinavir_structure.svg "Nelfinavir structure.svg") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Ritonavir_structure.svg "Ritonavir structure.svg") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Lopinavir_structure.svg "Lopinavir structure.svg") |
| [Saquinavir](/wiki/Saquinavir "Saquinavir") | [Nelfinavir](/wiki/Nelfinavir "Nelfinavir") | [Ritonavir](/wiki/Ritonavir "Ritonavir") | [Lopinavir](/wiki/Lopinavir "Lopinavir") |
| [225x225px](/wiki/File:Amprenavir_structure.svg "Amprenavir structure.svg") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Fosamprenavir_structure.svg "Fosamprenavir structure.svg") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Darunavir_structure.svg "Darunavir structure.svg") | |
| [Amprenavir](/wiki/Amprenavir "Amprenavir") | [Fosamprenavir](/wiki/Fosamprenavir "Fosamprenavir") | [Darunavir](/wiki/Darunavir "Darunavir") | |
| [225x225px](/wiki/File:Indinavir_structure.svg "Indinavir structure.svg") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Atazanavir_structure.svg "Atazanavir structure.svg") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Tipranavir_structure_2.svg "Tipranavir structure 2.svg") | |
| [Indinavir](/wiki/Indinavir "Indinavir") | [Atazanavir](/wiki/Atazanavir "Atazanavir") | [Tipranavir](/wiki/Tipranavir "Tipranavir") | |
### Structure\-activity relationship
[thumb\|300px\|right\|A simplified image of a protease inhibitor binding to the active site of the HIV\-1 protease. The central core motif is shown in blue with the hydroxyl group forming hydrogen bonds with Asp\-25 and Asp\-25´. Hydrogen bonds also connect carbonyl groups on the inhibitor to the water molecule linked to Ile50 and Ile50´. Hydrophobic groups are shown in pink and their complementing pockets referred to as S1, S1´, S2 and S2´.](/wiki/File:Sarmynd2.jpg "Sarmynd2.jpg")
All the HIV protease inhibitors on the market contain a central core motif consisting of a hydroxyethylen scaffold, with the only exception being the central core of tipranavir, which is based on a coumarin scaffold. A very important group on the HIV protease inhibitors is a [hydroxyl](/wiki/Hydroxyl "Hydroxyl") group on the core motif which forms a hydrogen bond with the [carboxylic acid](/wiki/Carboxylic_acid "Carboxylic acid") on the Asp\-25 and Asp\-25´ residues in the binding site.Liu, F., Kovalevsky, A.Y., Tie, Y., Ghosh, A.K., Harrison, R.W. and Weber, I.T. (2008\) Effect of Flap Mutations on Structure of HIV\-protease and Inhibition by Saquinavir and Darunavir. *Journal of Molecular Biology*. 381(1\); 102–115 Hydrogen bonds between the water molecule, which is linked to Ile50 and Ile50', and [carbonyl](/wiki/Carbonyl "Carbonyl") groups of the peptidomimetic inhibitors seem to connect them with the flap regions. On the other hand, on the nonpeptidic inhibitors, there is a proton acceptor which replaces the [tetracoordinated](/wiki/Tetracoordinate "Tetracoordinate") water molecule and interacts directly with the two Ile50 residues on the flap of the enzyme.Lebon, F. and Ledecq, M. (2000\) Approaches to the Design of Effective HIV\-1 Protease Inhibitors. *Current Medicinal Chemistry*. 7; 455–477\. Specific pockets in the binding site of the HIV protease, often referred to as S1, S1',S2 and S2', recognize hydrophobic amino acids on natural substrates. The potency of inhibitors bearing hydrophobic groups complementing these areas is therefore increased.Blum, A. et al. (2008\) Achiral oligoamines as versatile tool for the development of aspartic protease inhibitors. *Bioorganic \& Medicinal Chemistry*. 16; 8574–8586\. Some residues in the enzyme binding site are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with hydrophilic groups on the inhibitor, for example with the THF moieties on amprenavir and darunavir. Since darunavir has a bis\-THF moiety, instead of a single THF moiety like on amprenavir, it can form more hydrogen bonds and increase [binding energy](/wiki/Binding_energy "Binding energy").
### Resistance
Mutations that code for alterations of the conformational shape facilitate resistance of HIV to protease inhibitors. The locations of these mutations are primarily in the active site of the HIV protease enzyme as well as outside of the active site, including those at protease cleavage sites in the Gag\-Pol polyprotein precursors. The cleavage sites have highly diverse sequences, so the protease recognizes its substrates not based on sequence but rather the conserved 3D shape the substrates share when bound at the active site. This conserved shape has been named the *substrate envelope*.Prabu\-Jeyabalan, Nalivaika E, Schiffer CA. (2002\) Substrate shape determines specificity of recognition for HIV\-1 protease: analysis of crystal structures of six substrate complexes. "Structure" 10(3\):369\-81\. The active site mutations have been shown to directly change the interactions of the inhibitors, and mostly occur at positions where inhibitors contact protease residues beyond the substrate envelope.King NM, Prabu\-Jeyabalan M, Nalivaika EA, Schiffer CA (2004\) Combating susceptibility to drug resistance: lessons from HIV\-1 protease.Chem Biol. Oct;11(10\):1333\-8\. The non\-active site mutations are considered to affect by other mechanisms, like influencing [dimer](/wiki/Protein_dimer "Protein dimer") stability and conformational flexibility.Bihani, S. C., Das, A., Prashar, V., Ferrer, J.\-L. and Hosur; M.V. (2009\) Resistance mechanism revealed by crystal structures of unliganded nelfinavir\-resistant HIV\-1 protease non\-active site mutants N88D and N88S. *Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications*. 389; 295–300\.de Vera IM, Smith AN, Dancel MC, Huang X, Dunn BM, Fanucci GE. (2013\) Biochemistry.
Elucidating a relationship between conformational sampling and drug resistance in HIV\-1 protease. 14;52(19\):3278\-88\. doi: 10\.1021/bi400109d. Epub 2013 May 1\.
Over 100 single gene [point mutations](/wiki/Point_mutations "Point mutations") have been described, of which at least 26 are specific to protease inhibitors. Of these, there are about 15 primary or major mutations that are significant enough to change drug activity.
Many mutated residues have been found in HIV\-1 protease which cause drug resistance, for example Leu33 changes to Ile, Val, or Phe; Val82 to [Ala](/wiki/Alanine "Alanine"), Phe, Leu, or Thr; Ile84 to Val; and Leu90 to Met.Lemke, T.L., Williams, D.A., Roche, V.F. and Zito, S.W. (2008\) *Foye´s Principles of Medicinal Chemistry* ( 6th edition). United States of America: Lippincott williams \& Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business. Different mutations affects different protease inhibitors. For instance, mutations at Leu90 evidently affect saquinavir and nelfinavir while indinavir activity is affected by mutations at Met46, Val82, and Ile84, and fosamprenavir is affected when Ile50 changes to Val and at Ile84\. A combination of mutations can render high\-level drug resistance but single mutations normally do not equate with drug resistance to protease inhibitors.
The mutations can be divided into primary mutations and secondary mutations. Primary mutations often have only a small effect on resistance. The chemical structures of most protease inhibitors are quite similar, so it is not surprising that some primary mutations lead simultaneously to resistance to multiple protease inhibitors. [Cross\-resistance](/wiki/Cross-resistance "Cross-resistance") is one of the major problems of protease inhibitor treatment.Maarseveen, N.V. and Boucher, C. (2008\) *Antiretroviral Resistance in Clinical Practice*. London: Mediscript Ltd. Additional mutations emerging in the protease during continuous protease inhibitor therapy are commonly referred to as secondary mutations. This can lead to high\-level protease inhibitor resistance.
The Stanford HIV RT and Protease Sequence Database (also called the “HIV Drug Resistance Database”) was formed in 1998 with HIV reverse transcriptase and protease sequences from persons with well\-characterized antiretroviral treatment histories, and is publicly available to query resistance mutations and genotype\-treatment, genotype\-phenotype, and genotype\-outcome correlations{{cn\|date\=April 2021}}
Although the substrate envelope provides the general strategy of designing inhibitors that mimic the substrate and stay within the envelope to avoid resistance conferred by most active site mutations,Kairys V, Gilson MK, Lather V, Schiffer CA, Fernandes MX. (2009\) Toward the design of mutation\-resistant enzyme inhibitors: further evaluation of the substrate envelope hypothesis. Chem Biol Drug Des. Sep;74(3\):234\-45\. doi: 10\.1111/j.1747\-0285\.2009\.00851\.xNalam MN, Ali A, Altman MD, Reddy GS, Chellappan S, Kairys V, Ozen A, Cao H, Gilson MK, Tidor B, Rana TM, Schiffer CA. (2010\) Evaluating the substrate\-envelope hypothesis: structural analysis of novel HIV\-1 protease inhibitors designed to be robust against drug resistance. J Virol. 2010 May;84(10\):5368\-78\. doi: 10\.1128/JVI.02531\-09\. Epub 2010 Mar 17\. there is no general strategy to tackle the problem of drug resistance, especially due to those away from the active site. Researches directed towards development of new therapies to cure AIDS are focused on avoiding cross\-resistance to drugs that are already on the market.
|
[
"Design\n------",
"Protease inhibitors were designed to mimic the [transition state](/wiki/Transition_state \"Transition state\") of the protease's actual [substrates](/wiki/Substrate_%28biochemistry%29 \"Substrate (biochemistry)\"). A [peptide linkage](/wiki/Peptide_bond \"Peptide bond\") consisting of –NH\\-CO\\- is replaced by an hydroxyethylen group (\\-CH2\\-CH(OH)\\-) which the protease is unable to cleave. HIV protease inhibitors fit the [active site](/wiki/Active_site \"Active site\") of the HIV aspartic protease and were rationally designed utilizing knowledge of the aspartyl protease's [mode of action](/wiki/Mechanism_of_action \"Mechanism of action\"). The most promising transition state mimic was hydroxyethylamine which led to the discovery of the first protease inhibitor, [saquinavir](/wiki/Saquinavir \"Saquinavir\"). Following that discovery, other HIV protease inhibitors were designed using the same principle.De Clercq, E. (2009\\) The history of antiretrovirals: key discoveries over the past 25 years. *Reviews in Medical Virology*. 19; 287–299\\.",
"### Binding site",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|A schematic structure of a HIV\\-1 protease. The monomers are shown in green and cyan, the Asp\\-25 and Asp\\-25´ residues are shown in red, and Ile50 and Ile50´ residues linked to a water molecule are shown in purple.](/wiki/File:HIV_protease_1KJF.png \"HIV protease 1KJF.png\")",
"The HIV protease is a C2\\-symmetric homodimeric enzyme consisting of two 99 [amino acid](/wiki/Amino_acid \"Amino acid\") [monomers](/wiki/Monomers \"Monomers\"). Each monomer contributes an [aspartic acid](/wiki/Aspartic_acid \"Aspartic acid\") residue that is essential for catalysis, Asp\\-25 and Asp\\-25´. The HIV protease has the sequence Asp\\-[Thr](/wiki/Threonine \"Threonine\")\\-[Gly](/wiki/Glycine \"Glycine\"), which is conserved among other mammalian aspartic protease enzymes. An extended [beta\\-sheet](/wiki/Beta_sheet \"Beta sheet\") region on the monomers, known as the flap, constitutes in part the substrate binding site with the two aspartyl residues lying on the bottom of a [hydrophobic](/wiki/Hydrophobe \"Hydrophobe\") cavity.Mimoto, T., Hattori, N., Takaku, H. et al. (2000\\) Structure\\-activity relationship of orally potent tripeptide\\-based HIV protease inhibitors containing hydroxymethylcarbonyl isostere. *Chemical \\& Pharmaceutical Bulletin*. 48(9\\); 1310–1326\\.Perez, M.A.S., Fernandes, P.A. and Ramos, M.J. (2007\\) Drug design: New inhibitors for HIV\\-1 protease based on Nelfinavir as lead. *Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling*. 26; 634–642\\. Each flexible flap contains three characteristic regions: side chains that extend outward ([Met](/wiki/Methionine \"Methionine\")46, [Phe](/wiki/Phenylalanin \"Phenylalanin\")53\\), hydrophobic chains extending inward ([Ile](/wiki/Isoleucine \"Isoleucine\")47, Ile54\\), and a glycine rich region (Gly48, 49, 51, 52\\). Ile50 remains at the tip of the turn and when the enzyme is unliganded a water molecule makes [hydrogen bonds](/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds \"Hydrogen bonds\") to the backbone of Ile50 on each monomer.",
"HIV proteases catalyze the [hydrolysis](/wiki/Hydrolysis \"Hydrolysis\") of peptide bonds with high sequence selectivity and catalytic proficiency. The mechanism of the HIV protease shares many features with the rest of the aspartic protease family although the full detailed mechanism of this enzyme is not fully understood. The water molecule seems to play a role in the opening and closing of the flaps as well as increasing the affinity between enzyme and substrate. The aspartyl residues are involved in the hydrolysis of the peptide bonds. The preferred cleavage site for this enzyme is the [N\\-terminal](/wiki/N-terminus \"N-terminus\") side of proline residues, especially between phenylalanine and proline or tyrosine and [proline](/wiki/Proline \"Proline\").",
"### Development",
"The first HIV protease inhibitor, saquinavir, is a [peptidomimetic](/wiki/Peptidomimetic \"Peptidomimetic\") hydroxyethylamine and was marketed in 1995\\.Flexner, C. (2007\\) HIV drug development: the next 25 years. *Nature Reviews Drug Discovery*. 6; 959–966\\. It is a transition state [analogue](/wiki/Transition_state_analog \"Transition state analog\") of a native substrate of the protease. The observation that HIV\\-1 protease cleaves the sequences containing the dipeptides Tyr\\-Pro or Phe\\-Pro was the basic design criterion.Wlodawer, A. (2002\\) Rational approach to AIDS drug design through structural biology. *Annual Review of Medicine*. 53; 595–614\\. Addition of the [decahydroisoquinoline](/wiki/Decahydroisoquinoline \"Decahydroisoquinoline\") (DIQ) group was one of the most significant modifications that led to the discovery of saquinavir. This substituent improves aqueous solubility and potency by limiting the conformational freedom of the inhibitor.Smith, H.J. and Simons, C. (2005\\) Enzymes and Their Inhibition: Drug Development (6th edition). United States of America: CRC press Saquinavir is effective against both HIV\\-1 and HIV\\-2 and is usually well tolerated but high serum concentration is not achieved.",
"[Ritonavir](/wiki/Ritonavir \"Ritonavir\"), a peptidomimetic HIV protease inhibitor, was marketed in 1996\\. It was designed to fit the C2\\-symmetry in the binding site of the protease. The developers of ritonavir, [Abbott Laboratories](/wiki/Abbott_Laboratories \"Abbott Laboratories\"), started with compounds that were active against the virus but had poor [bioavailability](/wiki/Bioavailability \"Bioavailability\"). Some improvements were made, for example the terminal phenyl residues were removed and [pyridyl](/wiki/Pyridine \"Pyridine\") groups put instead to add water solubility. The final product of these improvements was ritonavir. Significant gastrointestinal side effects and a large pill burden are ritonavir's main drawbacks and is therefore not used as a single treatment. However, it is a strong inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 enzyme mediated metabolism and it is only used in a combination therapy with other protease inhibitors for pharmacokinetic boosting.",
"[Indinavir](/wiki/Indinavir \"Indinavir\"), which is a peptidomimetic hydroxyethylene HIV protease inhibitor, reached the market in 1996\\. The design of indinavir was guided by molecular modeling and the [X\\-ray](/wiki/X-ray \"X-ray\") [crystal structure](/wiki/Crystal_structure \"Crystal structure\") of the inhibited enzyme complex. The terminal phenyl constituents contribute hydrophobic binding to increase [potency](/wiki/Potency_%28pharmacology%29 \"Potency (pharmacology)\"). It is an analogue of the phenylalanine\\-proline cleavage site of the HIV Gag\\-polyprotein.",
"[Nelfinavir](/wiki/Nelfinavir \"Nelfinavir\") was the first protease inhibitor that was not peptidomimetic. In the design process of nelfinavir, an orally bioavailable and nonpeptidic inhibitor, iterative protein cocrystal structure analysis of peptidic inhibitors was used and parts of the inhibitors were replaced by nonpeptidic substituents. Nelfinavir contains a novel 2\\-methyl\\-3\\-hydroxybenzamide group, whereas its [carboxyl terminal](/wiki/C-terminus \"C-terminus\") contains the same DIQ group as saquinavir. Nelfinavir was marketed in 1997 and was the first protease inhibitor to be indicated for [pediatric](/wiki/Pediatric \"Pediatric\") AIDS.",
"Amprenavir reached the market in 1999\\. It is an *N*,*N*\\-disubstituded amino\\-[sulfonamide](/wiki/Sulfonamide_%28chemistry%29 \"Sulfonamide (chemistry)\") nonpeptide HIV protease inhibitor and shares some common features with previous protease inhibitors. It has a core similar to that of saquinavir but with different [functional groups](/wiki/Functional_groups \"Functional groups\") on both ends. On one end it has a [tetrahydrofuran](/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran \"Tetrahydrofuran\") carbamate group and on the other end is an isobutylphenyl sulfonamide with an added amide. This structure results in fewer [chiral](/wiki/Chirality_%28chemistry%29 \"Chirality (chemistry)\") centers, that makes it easier to synthesize and gives it enhanced aqueus solubility. That in turn gives better oral bioavailability. However, amprenavir was withdrawn from the market in 2004 since fosamprenavir, its [prodrug](/wiki/Prodrug \"Prodrug\"), proved superior in many aspects.",
"[Lopinavir](/wiki/Lopinavir \"Lopinavir\") was marketed in 2000 and was originally designed to diminish the interactions of the inhibitor with [Val](/wiki/Valine \"Valine\")82 of the HIV\\-1 protease, a residue that is often [mutated](/wiki/Mutation \"Mutation\") in the [drug resistant](/wiki/Drug_resistance \"Drug resistance\") [strains](/wiki/Strain_%28biology%29 \"Strain (biology)\") of the virus. It is a peptidomimetic HIV protease inhibitor and its core is identical to that of ritonavir. Instead of the 5\\-[thiazolyl](/wiki/Thiazole \"Thiazole\") end group in ritonavir, lopinavir has a phenoxyacetyl group and the 2\\-isopropylthiazolyl group in ritonavir was replaced by a modified valine in which the amino terminal had a six\\-membered cyclic [urea](/wiki/Urea \"Urea\") attached.",
"[Fosamprenavir](/wiki/Fosamprenavir \"Fosamprenavir\") was marketed in 2003 and is a phosphoester prodrug that is rapidly and extensively metabolized to amprenavir.Luber, A.D. et al. (2007\\) Steady\\-state pharmacokinetics of once\\-daily fosamprenavir/ritonavir and atazanavir/ritonavir alone and in combination with 20mg omeprazole in healthy volunteers. *HIV medicine*. 8;457–464 The solubility and bioavailability is better than of amprenavir which results in reduced daily pill burden.Chapman, T.M., Plosker, G.L. and Perry, C.M. (2004\\) Fosamprenavir – A Review of its Use in the Management of Antiretroviral Therapy\\-naive Patients with HIV Infection. *Drugs*. 64; 2101–2124\\.",
"[Atazanavir](/wiki/Atazanavir \"Atazanavir\") was marketed in 2003 and is an azapeptide protease inhibitor designed to fit the C2\\-symmetry of the enzyme binding site. Atazanavir showed better resistant profiles than previous HIV protease inhibitors. It is unique among the other protease inhibitors as it can only be [absorbed](/wiki/Absorption_%28pharmacokinetics%29 \"Absorption (pharmacokinetics)\") in an acidic environment.",
"[Tipranavir](/wiki/Tipranavir \"Tipranavir\") is a nonpeptidic HIV\\-1 protease inhibitor and reached the market in 2005\\. Unlike other HIV protease inhibitors on the market, tipranavir was developed from a nonpeptidic [coumarin](/wiki/Coumarin \"Coumarin\") template and its antiprotease activity was discovered by [high\\-throughput screening](/wiki/High-throughput_screening \"High-throughput screening\").Larder, B.A. et al. (2000\\) Tipranavir inhibits broadly protease inhibitor\\-resistant HIV\\-1 clinical samples. *AIDS*. 14;1943–1948 This sulfonamide containing 5,6\\-dihydro\\-4\\-hydroxy\\-2\\-pyrone had emerged from screenings of 3\\-substituted coumarins and dihydropyrones.Schobert, R., Stehle, R. and Walter, H. (2008\\) Tipranavir analogous 3\\-sulfonylanilidotetronic acids: new synthesis and structure\\-dependent anti\\-HIV activity. *Tetrahedron*. 64;9401–9407\\. It possesses broad antiviral activity against multiple protease inhibitor resistant HIV\\-1\\.Doyon, L. Et al. (2005\\) Selection and characterization of HIV\\-1 showing reduced susceptibility to the non\\-peptidic protease inhibitor tipranavir. *Antiviral Research*. 68;27–35\\.",
"[Darunavir](/wiki/Darunavir \"Darunavir\") reached the market in 2006 and is a nonpeptidic analogue of amprenavir, with a critical change at the terminal tetrahydrofuran (THF) group. Instead of a single THF group, darunavir contains two THF groups fused in the compound, to form a bis\\-THF [moiety](/wiki/Moiety_%28chemistry%29 \"Moiety (chemistry)\") which makes it more effective than amprenavir. With this structural change, the [stereochemistry](/wiki/Stereochemistry \"Stereochemistry\") around the bis\\-THF moiety confers orientational changes, that allows for continued binding with the protease which has developed a resistance for amprenavir.McCoy, C. (2007\\) Darunavir: A nonpeptidic antiretroviral protease inhibitor. *Clinical Therapeutics*. 29(8\\); 1559–1576\\.",
"All the FDA approved protease inhibitors are listed below.",
"",
"| \\+ HIV protease inhibitors the FDA has approved |\n| --- |\n| [225x225px](/wiki/File:Saquinavir_structure.svg \"Saquinavir structure.svg\") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Nelfinavir_structure.svg \"Nelfinavir structure.svg\") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Ritonavir_structure.svg \"Ritonavir structure.svg\") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Lopinavir_structure.svg \"Lopinavir structure.svg\") |\n| [Saquinavir](/wiki/Saquinavir \"Saquinavir\") | [Nelfinavir](/wiki/Nelfinavir \"Nelfinavir\") | [Ritonavir](/wiki/Ritonavir \"Ritonavir\") | [Lopinavir](/wiki/Lopinavir \"Lopinavir\") |\n| [225x225px](/wiki/File:Amprenavir_structure.svg \"Amprenavir structure.svg\") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Fosamprenavir_structure.svg \"Fosamprenavir structure.svg\") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Darunavir_structure.svg \"Darunavir structure.svg\") | |\n| [Amprenavir](/wiki/Amprenavir \"Amprenavir\") | [Fosamprenavir](/wiki/Fosamprenavir \"Fosamprenavir\") | [Darunavir](/wiki/Darunavir \"Darunavir\") | |\n| [225x225px](/wiki/File:Indinavir_structure.svg \"Indinavir structure.svg\") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Atazanavir_structure.svg \"Atazanavir structure.svg\") | [225x225px](/wiki/File:Tipranavir_structure_2.svg \"Tipranavir structure 2.svg\") | |\n| [Indinavir](/wiki/Indinavir \"Indinavir\") | [Atazanavir](/wiki/Atazanavir \"Atazanavir\") | [Tipranavir](/wiki/Tipranavir \"Tipranavir\") | |",
"### Structure\\-activity relationship",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|A simplified image of a protease inhibitor binding to the active site of the HIV\\-1 protease. The central core motif is shown in blue with the hydroxyl group forming hydrogen bonds with Asp\\-25 and Asp\\-25´. Hydrogen bonds also connect carbonyl groups on the inhibitor to the water molecule linked to Ile50 and Ile50´. Hydrophobic groups are shown in pink and their complementing pockets referred to as S1, S1´, S2 and S2´.](/wiki/File:Sarmynd2.jpg \"Sarmynd2.jpg\")",
"All the HIV protease inhibitors on the market contain a central core motif consisting of a hydroxyethylen scaffold, with the only exception being the central core of tipranavir, which is based on a coumarin scaffold. A very important group on the HIV protease inhibitors is a [hydroxyl](/wiki/Hydroxyl \"Hydroxyl\") group on the core motif which forms a hydrogen bond with the [carboxylic acid](/wiki/Carboxylic_acid \"Carboxylic acid\") on the Asp\\-25 and Asp\\-25´ residues in the binding site.Liu, F., Kovalevsky, A.Y., Tie, Y., Ghosh, A.K., Harrison, R.W. and Weber, I.T. (2008\\) Effect of Flap Mutations on Structure of HIV\\-protease and Inhibition by Saquinavir and Darunavir. *Journal of Molecular Biology*. 381(1\\); 102–115 Hydrogen bonds between the water molecule, which is linked to Ile50 and Ile50', and [carbonyl](/wiki/Carbonyl \"Carbonyl\") groups of the peptidomimetic inhibitors seem to connect them with the flap regions. On the other hand, on the nonpeptidic inhibitors, there is a proton acceptor which replaces the [tetracoordinated](/wiki/Tetracoordinate \"Tetracoordinate\") water molecule and interacts directly with the two Ile50 residues on the flap of the enzyme.Lebon, F. and Ledecq, M. (2000\\) Approaches to the Design of Effective HIV\\-1 Protease Inhibitors. *Current Medicinal Chemistry*. 7; 455–477\\. Specific pockets in the binding site of the HIV protease, often referred to as S1, S1',S2 and S2', recognize hydrophobic amino acids on natural substrates. The potency of inhibitors bearing hydrophobic groups complementing these areas is therefore increased.Blum, A. et al. (2008\\) Achiral oligoamines as versatile tool for the development of aspartic protease inhibitors. *Bioorganic \\& Medicinal Chemistry*. 16; 8574–8586\\. Some residues in the enzyme binding site are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with hydrophilic groups on the inhibitor, for example with the THF moieties on amprenavir and darunavir. Since darunavir has a bis\\-THF moiety, instead of a single THF moiety like on amprenavir, it can form more hydrogen bonds and increase [binding energy](/wiki/Binding_energy \"Binding energy\").",
"### Resistance",
"Mutations that code for alterations of the conformational shape facilitate resistance of HIV to protease inhibitors. The locations of these mutations are primarily in the active site of the HIV protease enzyme as well as outside of the active site, including those at protease cleavage sites in the Gag\\-Pol polyprotein precursors. The cleavage sites have highly diverse sequences, so the protease recognizes its substrates not based on sequence but rather the conserved 3D shape the substrates share when bound at the active site. This conserved shape has been named the *substrate envelope*.Prabu\\-Jeyabalan, Nalivaika E, Schiffer CA. (2002\\) Substrate shape determines specificity of recognition for HIV\\-1 protease: analysis of crystal structures of six substrate complexes. \"Structure\" 10(3\\):369\\-81\\. The active site mutations have been shown to directly change the interactions of the inhibitors, and mostly occur at positions where inhibitors contact protease residues beyond the substrate envelope.King NM, Prabu\\-Jeyabalan M, Nalivaika EA, Schiffer CA (2004\\) Combating susceptibility to drug resistance: lessons from HIV\\-1 protease.Chem Biol. Oct;11(10\\):1333\\-8\\. The non\\-active site mutations are considered to affect by other mechanisms, like influencing [dimer](/wiki/Protein_dimer \"Protein dimer\") stability and conformational flexibility.Bihani, S. C., Das, A., Prashar, V., Ferrer, J.\\-L. and Hosur; M.V. (2009\\) Resistance mechanism revealed by crystal structures of unliganded nelfinavir\\-resistant HIV\\-1 protease non\\-active site mutants N88D and N88S. *Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications*. 389; 295–300\\.de Vera IM, Smith AN, Dancel MC, Huang X, Dunn BM, Fanucci GE. (2013\\) Biochemistry.\nElucidating a relationship between conformational sampling and drug resistance in HIV\\-1 protease. 14;52(19\\):3278\\-88\\. doi: 10\\.1021/bi400109d. Epub 2013 May 1\\.",
"Over 100 single gene [point mutations](/wiki/Point_mutations \"Point mutations\") have been described, of which at least 26 are specific to protease inhibitors. Of these, there are about 15 primary or major mutations that are significant enough to change drug activity.\nMany mutated residues have been found in HIV\\-1 protease which cause drug resistance, for example Leu33 changes to Ile, Val, or Phe; Val82 to [Ala](/wiki/Alanine \"Alanine\"), Phe, Leu, or Thr; Ile84 to Val; and Leu90 to Met.Lemke, T.L., Williams, D.A., Roche, V.F. and Zito, S.W. (2008\\) *Foye´s Principles of Medicinal Chemistry* ( 6th edition). United States of America: Lippincott williams \\& Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business. Different mutations affects different protease inhibitors. For instance, mutations at Leu90 evidently affect saquinavir and nelfinavir while indinavir activity is affected by mutations at Met46, Val82, and Ile84, and fosamprenavir is affected when Ile50 changes to Val and at Ile84\\. A combination of mutations can render high\\-level drug resistance but single mutations normally do not equate with drug resistance to protease inhibitors.\nThe mutations can be divided into primary mutations and secondary mutations. Primary mutations often have only a small effect on resistance. The chemical structures of most protease inhibitors are quite similar, so it is not surprising that some primary mutations lead simultaneously to resistance to multiple protease inhibitors. [Cross\\-resistance](/wiki/Cross-resistance \"Cross-resistance\") is one of the major problems of protease inhibitor treatment.Maarseveen, N.V. and Boucher, C. (2008\\) *Antiretroviral Resistance in Clinical Practice*. London: Mediscript Ltd. Additional mutations emerging in the protease during continuous protease inhibitor therapy are commonly referred to as secondary mutations. This can lead to high\\-level protease inhibitor resistance.",
"The Stanford HIV RT and Protease Sequence Database (also called the “HIV Drug Resistance Database”) was formed in 1998 with HIV reverse transcriptase and protease sequences from persons with well\\-characterized antiretroviral treatment histories, and is publicly available to query resistance mutations and genotype\\-treatment, genotype\\-phenotype, and genotype\\-outcome correlations{{cn\\|date\\=April 2021}}",
"Although the substrate envelope provides the general strategy of designing inhibitors that mimic the substrate and stay within the envelope to avoid resistance conferred by most active site mutations,Kairys V, Gilson MK, Lather V, Schiffer CA, Fernandes MX. (2009\\) Toward the design of mutation\\-resistant enzyme inhibitors: further evaluation of the substrate envelope hypothesis. Chem Biol Drug Des. Sep;74(3\\):234\\-45\\. doi: 10\\.1111/j.1747\\-0285\\.2009\\.00851\\.xNalam MN, Ali A, Altman MD, Reddy GS, Chellappan S, Kairys V, Ozen A, Cao H, Gilson MK, Tidor B, Rana TM, Schiffer CA. (2010\\) Evaluating the substrate\\-envelope hypothesis: structural analysis of novel HIV\\-1 protease inhibitors designed to be robust against drug resistance. J Virol. 2010 May;84(10\\):5368\\-78\\. doi: 10\\.1128/JVI.02531\\-09\\. Epub 2010 Mar 17\\. there is no general strategy to tackle the problem of drug resistance, especially due to those away from the active site. Researches directed towards development of new therapies to cure AIDS are focused on avoiding cross\\-resistance to drugs that are already on the market.",
""
] |
{{anchor\|The Tommy Westphall Universe Hypothesis}}Tommy Westphall universe hypothesis
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Tommy Westphall universe hypothesis makes the claim that not only does *St. Elsewhere* take place within Tommy's mind, but so do numerous other television series which are directly and indirectly connected to *St. Elsewhere* through [fictional crossovers](/wiki/Crossover_%28fiction%29 "Crossover (fiction)") and spin\-offs, resulting in a large [fictional universe](/wiki/Fictional_universe "Fictional universe") taking place entirely within Tommy's mind.{{cite book \|last1\=Burkhead \|first1\=Cynthia \|title\=Dreams in American Television Narratives: From Dallas to Buffy. \|date\=2013 \|publisher\=Bloomsbury Publishing \|location\=London \|isbn\=9781441125231 \|pages\=71–72 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wQveoaWztAMC\&dq\=auschlander\&pg\=PT65}}{{cite thesis \|last1\=Gravely \|first1\=Gary \|title\=A Multiverse of Narratives: Possible Worlds Theory and Authorship From the Lone Artist to Corporate Authors \|date\=August 2015 \|chapter\=Television and Possible Worlds: Showrunners and Writers\|institution\=\[\[Middle Tennessee State University]] \|via\=ProQuest Dissertations Publishing \|location\=Murfreesboro, TN\|pages\=165–167 \|degree\=Ph.D.\|id\=Document No. 3719757{{ProQuest\|1718228166}}}} This hypothesis was originally put forward by comic book and TV writer [Dwayne McDuffie](/wiki/Dwayne_McDuffie "Dwayne McDuffie") in a 2002 blog post,{{cite web \|last\=McDuffie \|first\=Dwayne \|title\=Six Degrees of St. Elsewhere \|url\=http://www.slushfactory.com/content/EpupypyZAZTDOLwdfz.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625061214/http://www.slushfactory.com/content/EpupypyZAZTDOLwdfz.php \|archive\-date\=2012\-06\-25 \|work\=Slush Factory \|date\=2002\-01\-29 \|accessdate\=2012\-06\-07}} as a *[reductio ad absurdum](/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum "Reductio ad absurdum")* argument *against* making strong statements about fictional continuity based upon guest appearances.
In a 2003 article published on BBC News Online, *St. Elsewhere* writer [Tom Fontana](/wiki/Tom_Fontana "Tom Fontana") was quoted as saying "Someone did the math once... and something like 90 percent of all \[American] television took place in Tommy Westphall's mind. God love him."{{Cite news \|last\=Gallagher \|first\=William \|title\=TV's strangest endings \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2951086\.stm \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2003\-05\-30 \|accessdate\=2006\-07\-20}}
### An example of crossover
The *[St. Elsewhere](/wiki/St._Elsewhere "St. Elsewhere")* characters Dr. Roxanne Turner ([Alfre Woodard](/wiki/Alfre_Woodard "Alfre Woodard")) and Dr. Victor Ehrlich ([Ed Begley Jr.](/wiki/Ed_Begley_Jr. "Ed Begley Jr.")) appeared on *[Homicide: Life on the Street](/wiki/Homicide:Life_on_the_Street "Life on the Street")*. Fontana was the executive producer and [showrunner](/wiki/Showrunner "Showrunner") for *Homicide* for the entirety of its seven\-year run.
Proponents of the Tommy Westphall Universe argue that because of this fictional crossover, the two series exist within the same fictional universe, and within Tommy Westphall's mind because of the final episode of *St. Elsewhere*; by extension this hypothesis can be extended to include the [science fiction](/wiki/Science_fiction "Science fiction") program *[The X\-Files](/wiki/The_X-Files "The X-Files")* and the *[Law \& Order](/wiki/Law_%26_Order_%28franchise%29 "Law & Order (franchise)")* franchise (due to various crossovers with characters from *Homicide*, in particular Det. [John Munch](/wiki/John_Munch "John Munch")). *Law \& Order* creator [Dick Wolf](/wiki/Dick_Wolf "Dick Wolf") is close friends with Fontana and frequently crossed *Homicide* characters over into his own series.
### Objections
There are other possible interpretations of Tommy's "vision" which may suggest something other than the entire series being his dream. For instance, it may be the other way around, and the snow globe scene may itself be the dream. [Brian Weatherson](/wiki/Brian_Weatherson "Brian Weatherson"), professor of philosophy at Cornell University, wrote a piece, "Six Objections to the Westphall Hypothesis", which challenges the logical, factual, and philosophical basis for the existence of the "universe".{{Cite web \|title \= Six Objections to the Westphall Hypothesis \|last \= Weatherson \|first \= Brian \|date \= 2004\-10\-04 \|work \= Thoughts Arguments and Rants \|url \= http://tar.weatherson.org/2004/10/04/six\-objections\-to\-the\-westphall\-hypothesis/ \|accessdate \= 2006\-07\-20 }}
Weatherson's fifth objection holds that the appearance of a person or event in a dream does not mean the person or event cannot exist in real life. If a person dreams about visiting London and meeting [Gordon Brown](/wiki/Gordon_Brown "Gordon Brown"), it does not follow that because the city of London and Gordon Brown appeared in a dream, they do not exist in real life. Specific to the Westphall Hypothesis, even if we accept that *St. Elsewhere* is Westphall's dream, it does not imply that all of the characters on the show exist only in his mind. Therefore, appearances from *St. Elsewhere* characters on other shows are not sufficient to indicate that those shows exist only in Westphall's dream.
The notion that appearances by the same character in two or more series tie those series together in the same fictional universe is also problematic. Weatherson, in his sixth objection, offers the example of [Michael Bloomberg](/wiki/Michael_Bloomberg "Michael Bloomberg") playing the role of New York City Mayor both on *Law \& Order* and in real life, which, if one accepts the logic of the hypothesis, indicates that real life is in the head of Tommy Westphall. Thus, it does not follow that because one person, place, or thing is present in two or more works of fiction that those works are necessarily related.
### Homages
When directing episodes for the [eighth series](/wiki/Doctor_Who_%28series_8%29 "Doctor Who (series 8)") of the revived *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who "Doctor Who")* in 2014, [Ben Wheatley](/wiki/Ben_Wheatley "Ben Wheatley") had the art department create a replica of Tommy Westphall's snowglobe, which Wheatley placed in the [TARDIS](/wiki/TARDIS "TARDIS") set as a reference to the hypothesis.{{cite web \|url\=http://collider.com/director\-ben\-wheatley\-talks\-high\-rise\-doctor\-who\-free\-fire\-and\-more\-at\-tiff/ \|title\=Director Ben Wheatley Talks 'High\-Rise', 'Doctor Who', 'Free Fire' and More at TIFF \|last\=Weintraub \|first\=Steve \|publisher\=\[\[Collider (website)\|Collider]]\|date\=25 September 2015 \|accessdate\=12 July 2016}}
*[NewsRadio](/wiki/NewsRadio "NewsRadio")* episode "Daydream" (season 3 episode 7\) ends with Jimmy James staring into a snow globe that appears to contain a miniature version of the WNYX office, thus seeming to indicate that Jimmy James has imagined the entire episode.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0660186/trivia?ref\_\=tt\_trv\_trv \|title\=NewsRadio (TV Series) Daydream (1996\) Trivia \|last\=Weintraub \|website\=\[\[IMDb]] \|accessdate\=24 February 2020}}
The final scene of *[30 Rock](/wiki/30_Rock "30 Rock")* opens with a view of the eponymous building, which fades into a model of the same, in a snow globe, observed by NBC president [Kenneth Parcell](/wiki/Kenneth_Parcell "Kenneth Parcell") roughly a century into the future, as flying cars whiz past his window. The entire series is revealed to have been based on the stories [Liz Lemon](/wiki/Liz_Lemon "Liz Lemon") told her great\-granddaughter, a future television writer, and as remembered by the more\-or\-less immortal Parcell.
[Dr Pepper](/wiki/Dr_Pepper "Dr Pepper") includes an homage to Tommy Westphall's snowglobe in its 2021 advertising campaign. The commercial titled "Off Season" features the cast of the mock sitcom "[Fansville](/wiki/Fansville "Fansville")" discussing their purpose after the conclusion of the college football season. After the "Fansville" characters exchange meta\-humorous existential comments, the camera pans out to show that the characters in fact exist in a snowglobe sitting on Larry Culpepper's desk. Therefore, the commercial also does homage to the *[Newhart](/wiki/Newhart "Newhart")* finale, as Larry Culpepper's presence from a previous Dr Pepper ad campaign references Bob Newhart's psychiatrist from *[The Bob Newhart Show](/wiki/The_Bob_Newhart_Show "The Bob Newhart Show")* appearing in "The Last *Newhart*".
|
[
"{{anchor\\|The Tommy Westphall Universe Hypothesis}}Tommy Westphall universe hypothesis\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------",
"The Tommy Westphall universe hypothesis makes the claim that not only does *St. Elsewhere* take place within Tommy's mind, but so do numerous other television series which are directly and indirectly connected to *St. Elsewhere* through [fictional crossovers](/wiki/Crossover_%28fiction%29 \"Crossover (fiction)\") and spin\\-offs, resulting in a large [fictional universe](/wiki/Fictional_universe \"Fictional universe\") taking place entirely within Tommy's mind.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Burkhead \\|first1\\=Cynthia \\|title\\=Dreams in American Television Narratives: From Dallas to Buffy. \\|date\\=2013 \\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Publishing \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=9781441125231 \\|pages\\=71–72 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wQveoaWztAMC\\&dq\\=auschlander\\&pg\\=PT65}}{{cite thesis \\|last1\\=Gravely \\|first1\\=Gary \\|title\\=A Multiverse of Narratives: Possible Worlds Theory and Authorship From the Lone Artist to Corporate Authors \\|date\\=August 2015 \\|chapter\\=Television and Possible Worlds: Showrunners and Writers\\|institution\\=\\[\\[Middle Tennessee State University]] \\|via\\=ProQuest Dissertations Publishing \\|location\\=Murfreesboro, TN\\|pages\\=165–167 \\|degree\\=Ph.D.\\|id\\=Document No. 3719757{{ProQuest\\|1718228166}}}} This hypothesis was originally put forward by comic book and TV writer [Dwayne McDuffie](/wiki/Dwayne_McDuffie \"Dwayne McDuffie\") in a 2002 blog post,{{cite web \\|last\\=McDuffie \\|first\\=Dwayne \\|title\\=Six Degrees of St. Elsewhere \\|url\\=http://www.slushfactory.com/content/EpupypyZAZTDOLwdfz.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625061214/http://www.slushfactory.com/content/EpupypyZAZTDOLwdfz.php \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-25 \\|work\\=Slush Factory \\|date\\=2002\\-01\\-29 \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-06\\-07}} as a *[reductio ad absurdum](/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum \"Reductio ad absurdum\")* argument *against* making strong statements about fictional continuity based upon guest appearances.",
"In a 2003 article published on BBC News Online, *St. Elsewhere* writer [Tom Fontana](/wiki/Tom_Fontana \"Tom Fontana\") was quoted as saying \"Someone did the math once... and something like 90 percent of all \\[American] television took place in Tommy Westphall's mind. God love him.\"{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gallagher \\|first\\=William \\|title\\=TV's strangest endings \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2951086\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2003\\-05\\-30 \\|accessdate\\=2006\\-07\\-20}}",
"### An example of crossover",
"The *[St. Elsewhere](/wiki/St._Elsewhere \"St. Elsewhere\")* characters Dr. Roxanne Turner ([Alfre Woodard](/wiki/Alfre_Woodard \"Alfre Woodard\")) and Dr. Victor Ehrlich ([Ed Begley Jr.](/wiki/Ed_Begley_Jr. \"Ed Begley Jr.\")) appeared on *[Homicide: Life on the Street](/wiki/Homicide:Life_on_the_Street \"Life on the Street\")*. Fontana was the executive producer and [showrunner](/wiki/Showrunner \"Showrunner\") for *Homicide* for the entirety of its seven\\-year run.",
"Proponents of the Tommy Westphall Universe argue that because of this fictional crossover, the two series exist within the same fictional universe, and within Tommy Westphall's mind because of the final episode of *St. Elsewhere*; by extension this hypothesis can be extended to include the [science fiction](/wiki/Science_fiction \"Science fiction\") program *[The X\\-Files](/wiki/The_X-Files \"The X-Files\")* and the *[Law \\& Order](/wiki/Law_%26_Order_%28franchise%29 \"Law & Order (franchise)\")* franchise (due to various crossovers with characters from *Homicide*, in particular Det. [John Munch](/wiki/John_Munch \"John Munch\")). *Law \\& Order* creator [Dick Wolf](/wiki/Dick_Wolf \"Dick Wolf\") is close friends with Fontana and frequently crossed *Homicide* characters over into his own series.",
"### Objections",
"There are other possible interpretations of Tommy's \"vision\" which may suggest something other than the entire series being his dream. For instance, it may be the other way around, and the snow globe scene may itself be the dream. [Brian Weatherson](/wiki/Brian_Weatherson \"Brian Weatherson\"), professor of philosophy at Cornell University, wrote a piece, \"Six Objections to the Westphall Hypothesis\", which challenges the logical, factual, and philosophical basis for the existence of the \"universe\".{{Cite web \\|title \\= Six Objections to the Westphall Hypothesis \\|last \\= Weatherson \\|first \\= Brian \\|date \\= 2004\\-10\\-04 \\|work \\= Thoughts Arguments and Rants \\|url \\= http://tar.weatherson.org/2004/10/04/six\\-objections\\-to\\-the\\-westphall\\-hypothesis/ \\|accessdate \\= 2006\\-07\\-20 }}",
"Weatherson's fifth objection holds that the appearance of a person or event in a dream does not mean the person or event cannot exist in real life. If a person dreams about visiting London and meeting [Gordon Brown](/wiki/Gordon_Brown \"Gordon Brown\"), it does not follow that because the city of London and Gordon Brown appeared in a dream, they do not exist in real life. Specific to the Westphall Hypothesis, even if we accept that *St. Elsewhere* is Westphall's dream, it does not imply that all of the characters on the show exist only in his mind. Therefore, appearances from *St. Elsewhere* characters on other shows are not sufficient to indicate that those shows exist only in Westphall's dream.",
"The notion that appearances by the same character in two or more series tie those series together in the same fictional universe is also problematic. Weatherson, in his sixth objection, offers the example of [Michael Bloomberg](/wiki/Michael_Bloomberg \"Michael Bloomberg\") playing the role of New York City Mayor both on *Law \\& Order* and in real life, which, if one accepts the logic of the hypothesis, indicates that real life is in the head of Tommy Westphall. Thus, it does not follow that because one person, place, or thing is present in two or more works of fiction that those works are necessarily related.",
"### Homages",
"When directing episodes for the [eighth series](/wiki/Doctor_Who_%28series_8%29 \"Doctor Who (series 8)\") of the revived *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who \"Doctor Who\")* in 2014, [Ben Wheatley](/wiki/Ben_Wheatley \"Ben Wheatley\") had the art department create a replica of Tommy Westphall's snowglobe, which Wheatley placed in the [TARDIS](/wiki/TARDIS \"TARDIS\") set as a reference to the hypothesis.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://collider.com/director\\-ben\\-wheatley\\-talks\\-high\\-rise\\-doctor\\-who\\-free\\-fire\\-and\\-more\\-at\\-tiff/ \\|title\\=Director Ben Wheatley Talks 'High\\-Rise', 'Doctor Who', 'Free Fire' and More at TIFF \\|last\\=Weintraub \\|first\\=Steve \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Collider (website)\\|Collider]]\\|date\\=25 September 2015 \\|accessdate\\=12 July 2016}}",
"*[NewsRadio](/wiki/NewsRadio \"NewsRadio\")* episode \"Daydream\" (season 3 episode 7\\) ends with Jimmy James staring into a snow globe that appears to contain a miniature version of the WNYX office, thus seeming to indicate that Jimmy James has imagined the entire episode.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0660186/trivia?ref\\_\\=tt\\_trv\\_trv \\|title\\=NewsRadio (TV Series) Daydream (1996\\) Trivia \\|last\\=Weintraub \\|website\\=\\[\\[IMDb]] \\|accessdate\\=24 February 2020}}",
"The final scene of *[30 Rock](/wiki/30_Rock \"30 Rock\")* opens with a view of the eponymous building, which fades into a model of the same, in a snow globe, observed by NBC president [Kenneth Parcell](/wiki/Kenneth_Parcell \"Kenneth Parcell\") roughly a century into the future, as flying cars whiz past his window. The entire series is revealed to have been based on the stories [Liz Lemon](/wiki/Liz_Lemon \"Liz Lemon\") told her great\\-granddaughter, a future television writer, and as remembered by the more\\-or\\-less immortal Parcell.",
"[Dr Pepper](/wiki/Dr_Pepper \"Dr Pepper\") includes an homage to Tommy Westphall's snowglobe in its 2021 advertising campaign. The commercial titled \"Off Season\" features the cast of the mock sitcom \"[Fansville](/wiki/Fansville \"Fansville\")\" discussing their purpose after the conclusion of the college football season. After the \"Fansville\" characters exchange meta\\-humorous existential comments, the camera pans out to show that the characters in fact exist in a snowglobe sitting on Larry Culpepper's desk. Therefore, the commercial also does homage to the *[Newhart](/wiki/Newhart \"Newhart\")* finale, as Larry Culpepper's presence from a previous Dr Pepper ad campaign references Bob Newhart's psychiatrist from *[The Bob Newhart Show](/wiki/The_Bob_Newhart_Show \"The Bob Newhart Show\")* appearing in \"The Last *Newhart*\".",
""
] |
History
-------
Millford Plantation's monumental two\-story [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture "Greek Revival architecture") [mansion](/wiki/Plantation_house_in_the_Southern_United_States "Plantation house in the Southern United States") was built in Clarendon (now [Sumter](/wiki/Sumter_County%2C_South_Carolina "Sumter County, South Carolina")) County between 1839 and 1841 for [John L. Manning](/wiki/John_Lawrence_Manning "John Lawrence Manning") and his wife, Susan Frances Hampton Manning. John Manning enslaved 670 people of African descent, more than almost any of his contemporaries.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.geni.com/projects/American\-slave\-owners/11457\|title\=American slave owners genealogy project\|website\=geni\_family\_tree\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-26}} Manning later served as Governor of South Carolina from 1852 to 1854\.
The builder, Nathaniel F. Potter of [Providence, Rhode Island](/wiki/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island "Providence, Rhode Island"), may have also done the design work.
Its imposing [facade](/wiki/Facade "Facade") features six large carved [Corinthian columns](/wiki/Corinthian_column "Corinthian column") on granite bases that support the [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico"). Its {{convert\|2\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-thick}} walls are of brick made on the premises; the granite was shipped from Rhode Island.
The excellence of Millford's architecture extends throughout the house, from the tall floor\-to\-ceiling windows to a spectacular circular [staircase](/wiki/Staircase "Staircase") rising, seemingly without support, in a domed cylindrical chamber on the rear side of the building.
Susan Frances Hampton was the daughter of General [Wade Hampton I](/wiki/Wade_Hampton_I "Wade Hampton I"), one of the largest slave owners in the United States,{{Cite journal\|last\=DuBose\|first\=William Porcher\|last2\=Ramage\|first2\=B. J.\|date\=1902\|title\=Wade Hampton\|journal\=The Sewanee Review\|volume\=10\|issue\=3\|pages\=364–373\|issn\=0037\-3052\|jstor\=27530503}} and his wife, Mary Cantey; she was half\-sister of Colonel [Wade Hampton II](/wiki/Wade_Hampton_II "Wade Hampton II"). Although by law he inherited from their father after his death in 1835, Wade III shared the estate with Susan and another sister. Much of the money to build the Millford mansion (it cost $125,000, an enormous sum in 1840\) probably came from Susan Hampton Manning's recent inheritance.Classical American Homes Preservation Trust. *Annual Report,* 2008: p. 3
Susan Hampton Manning died in 1845 giving birth to her third child with John L. Manning. In 1848 Manning married Sally Bland Clarke and had four children with her.[Smith, Thomas Gordon, "Living with antiques: Millford Plantation in South Carolina", *Antiques Magazine*, May, 1997\.](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1026/is_n5_v151/ai_19997797)
Near the end of the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), the residence was threatened with destruction by [Union troops](/wiki/Union_Army "Union Army") on April 19, 1865, but was saved by the intervention of their commander, Brigadier General Edward E. Potter of New York. His exchange with Governor Manning was recorded as follows:
Potter: This is a fine structure.
Manning: Well, the house was built by a Potter (Nathaniel Potter, the architect) and it looks as though it will be destroyed by a Potter.
Potter: No, you are protected. Nathaniel Potter was my brother.
When General Potter spared Millford, he did not know that Manning had a copy of the [Articles of Secession](/wiki/s:Index:South_Carolina_Declaration_and_Ordinance_of_Secession.djvu "Index:South Carolina Declaration and Ordinance of Secession.djvu") in his desk. The story of Millford's survival might have ended quite differently had he known.Marguerite Wiegand. *South Carolina Plantations.com*
[thumb\|left\|Another view from the Historic American Buildings Survey](/wiki/File:Millford_Plantation_HABS_color_1.jpg "Millford Plantation HABS color 1.jpg")
Despite economic ruin during and after the Civil War, the Manning family and their descendants managed to retain possession of Millford until 1902\. That year they sold it to Mary Clark Thompson of New York. She bequeathed it to her two nephews upon her death in 1923\. It remained in the Clarks' hands until 1992, used by the family primarily as a winter retreat and for hunting and fishing.nomination form for the National Register accessible only by Internet Explorer through the link on [South Carolina Department of Archives and History listing for Milford (sic) Plantation](http://www.nationalregister.sc.gov/sumter/S10817743012/index.htm)
On November 19, 1971, Millford Plantation, also called the **Governor John L. Manning House**, was added to the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") and on November 7, 1973, it was declared a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark "National Historic Landmark"),[South Carolina Department of Archives and History listing for Milford (sic) Plantation](http://www.nationalregister.sc.gov/sumter/S10817743012/index.htm){{Cite journal\|title\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory\-Nomination: Millford Plantation\|url\={{NHLS url\|id\=71000808}} \|format\=pdf\|date\=June 3, 1971 \|author\=Mrs. James W. Fant \|publisher\=National Park Service}} and {{NHLS url\|id\=71000808\|title\=''Accompanying three photos, exterior, undated''\|photos\=y}} {{small\|(32 KB)}} due to its historic and artistic importance.
The [plantation](/wiki/Plantations_in_the_American_South "Plantations in the American South") is one of three National Historic Landmarks located on SC 261, the Kings Highway, in the [High Hills of Santee](/wiki/High_Hills_of_Santee "High Hills of Santee"). The other two are [Borough House Plantation](/wiki/Borough_House_Plantation "Borough House Plantation") and the [Church of the Holy Cross](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_%28Stateburg%2C_South_Carolina%29 "Church of the Holy Cross (Stateburg, South Carolina)"), both in [Stateburg](/wiki/Stateburg%2C_South_Carolina "Stateburg, South Carolina").
The house, along with 400 acres of surrounding land, was acquired in May 1992 from three of the Clark descendants and was meticulously restored by [Richard Hampton Jenrette](/wiki/Richard_Jenrette "Richard Jenrette"). He is one of the founders of the New York investment banking firm, [Donaldson, Lufkin \& Jenrette](/wiki/Donaldson%2C_Lufkin_%26_Jenrette "Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette"), and a collateral descendant of Susan Hampton Manning. He referred to the estate as "the [Taj Mahal](/wiki/Taj_Mahal "Taj Mahal") of my dreams".Jenrette, Richard Hampton (2005\). [*Adventures with Old Houses*](https://books.google.com/books?id=668GiB6giAwC&lpg=PA179&hl=es&pg=PA179&output=embed), p. 179\. Wyrick \& Company.
In 1995, Jenrette received a South Carolina Historic Preservation Award for Millford. In 2006 he received the Governor's Award for his work on Millford and the [Robert William Roper House](/wiki/Robert_William_Roper_House "Robert William Roper House") in Charleston, another National Historic Landmark which he owns and restored.[Richard Hampton Jenrette biography](http://www.nndb.com/people/738/000123369/){{Cite web \|url\=http://www.state.sc.us/scdah/hpawards1995\.htm \|title\=1995 South Carolina Historic Preservation Awards \|access\-date\=2008\-03\-20 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219194916/http://www.state.sc.us/scdah//hpawards1995\.htm \|archive\-date\=2008\-02\-19 \|url\-status\=dead }}
The mansion was donated in December 2008 to the Classical American Homes Preservation Trust, a foundation established by Jenrette to: "Preserve, protect and open to the public examples of classical American residential architecture, fine and decorative arts of the first half of the 19th century."
In 2012 the "Friends of Millford" was formed as a group of supporters who appreciate the site and are interested in preserving its legacy for future generations.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Millford Plantation's monumental two\\-story [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture \"Greek Revival architecture\") [mansion](/wiki/Plantation_house_in_the_Southern_United_States \"Plantation house in the Southern United States\") was built in Clarendon (now [Sumter](/wiki/Sumter_County%2C_South_Carolina \"Sumter County, South Carolina\")) County between 1839 and 1841 for [John L. Manning](/wiki/John_Lawrence_Manning \"John Lawrence Manning\") and his wife, Susan Frances Hampton Manning. John Manning enslaved 670 people of African descent, more than almost any of his contemporaries.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.geni.com/projects/American\\-slave\\-owners/11457\\|title\\=American slave owners genealogy project\\|website\\=geni\\_family\\_tree\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-26}} Manning later served as Governor of South Carolina from 1852 to 1854\\.",
"The builder, Nathaniel F. Potter of [Providence, Rhode Island](/wiki/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island \"Providence, Rhode Island\"), may have also done the design work.",
"Its imposing [facade](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\") features six large carved [Corinthian columns](/wiki/Corinthian_column \"Corinthian column\") on granite bases that support the [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\"). Its {{convert\\|2\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-thick}} walls are of brick made on the premises; the granite was shipped from Rhode Island.",
"The excellence of Millford's architecture extends throughout the house, from the tall floor\\-to\\-ceiling windows to a spectacular circular [staircase](/wiki/Staircase \"Staircase\") rising, seemingly without support, in a domed cylindrical chamber on the rear side of the building.",
"Susan Frances Hampton was the daughter of General [Wade Hampton I](/wiki/Wade_Hampton_I \"Wade Hampton I\"), one of the largest slave owners in the United States,{{Cite journal\\|last\\=DuBose\\|first\\=William Porcher\\|last2\\=Ramage\\|first2\\=B. J.\\|date\\=1902\\|title\\=Wade Hampton\\|journal\\=The Sewanee Review\\|volume\\=10\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=364–373\\|issn\\=0037\\-3052\\|jstor\\=27530503}} and his wife, Mary Cantey; she was half\\-sister of Colonel [Wade Hampton II](/wiki/Wade_Hampton_II \"Wade Hampton II\"). Although by law he inherited from their father after his death in 1835, Wade III shared the estate with Susan and another sister. Much of the money to build the Millford mansion (it cost $125,000, an enormous sum in 1840\\) probably came from Susan Hampton Manning's recent inheritance.Classical American Homes Preservation Trust. *Annual Report,* 2008: p. 3",
"Susan Hampton Manning died in 1845 giving birth to her third child with John L. Manning. In 1848 Manning married Sally Bland Clarke and had four children with her.[Smith, Thomas Gordon, \"Living with antiques: Millford Plantation in South Carolina\", *Antiques Magazine*, May, 1997\\.](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1026/is_n5_v151/ai_19997797)",
"Near the end of the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), the residence was threatened with destruction by [Union troops](/wiki/Union_Army \"Union Army\") on April 19, 1865, but was saved by the intervention of their commander, Brigadier General Edward E. Potter of New York. His exchange with Governor Manning was recorded as follows:\nPotter: This is a fine structure.\nManning: Well, the house was built by a Potter (Nathaniel Potter, the architect) and it looks as though it will be destroyed by a Potter.\nPotter: No, you are protected. Nathaniel Potter was my brother.",
"When General Potter spared Millford, he did not know that Manning had a copy of the [Articles of Secession](/wiki/s:Index:South_Carolina_Declaration_and_Ordinance_of_Secession.djvu \"Index:South Carolina Declaration and Ordinance of Secession.djvu\") in his desk. The story of Millford's survival might have ended quite differently had he known.Marguerite Wiegand. *South Carolina Plantations.com*",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Another view from the Historic American Buildings Survey](/wiki/File:Millford_Plantation_HABS_color_1.jpg \"Millford Plantation HABS color 1.jpg\")\nDespite economic ruin during and after the Civil War, the Manning family and their descendants managed to retain possession of Millford until 1902\\. That year they sold it to Mary Clark Thompson of New York. She bequeathed it to her two nephews upon her death in 1923\\. It remained in the Clarks' hands until 1992, used by the family primarily as a winter retreat and for hunting and fishing.nomination form for the National Register accessible only by Internet Explorer through the link on [South Carolina Department of Archives and History listing for Milford (sic) Plantation](http://www.nationalregister.sc.gov/sumter/S10817743012/index.htm)",
"On November 19, 1971, Millford Plantation, also called the **Governor John L. Manning House**, was added to the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") and on November 7, 1973, it was declared a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark \"National Historic Landmark\"),[South Carolina Department of Archives and History listing for Milford (sic) Plantation](http://www.nationalregister.sc.gov/sumter/S10817743012/index.htm){{Cite journal\\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory\\-Nomination: Millford Plantation\\|url\\={{NHLS url\\|id\\=71000808}} \\|format\\=pdf\\|date\\=June 3, 1971 \\|author\\=Mrs. James W. Fant \\|publisher\\=National Park Service}} and {{NHLS url\\|id\\=71000808\\|title\\=''Accompanying three photos, exterior, undated''\\|photos\\=y}} {{small\\|(32 KB)}} due to its historic and artistic importance.",
"The [plantation](/wiki/Plantations_in_the_American_South \"Plantations in the American South\") is one of three National Historic Landmarks located on SC 261, the Kings Highway, in the [High Hills of Santee](/wiki/High_Hills_of_Santee \"High Hills of Santee\"). The other two are [Borough House Plantation](/wiki/Borough_House_Plantation \"Borough House Plantation\") and the [Church of the Holy Cross](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_%28Stateburg%2C_South_Carolina%29 \"Church of the Holy Cross (Stateburg, South Carolina)\"), both in [Stateburg](/wiki/Stateburg%2C_South_Carolina \"Stateburg, South Carolina\").",
"The house, along with 400 acres of surrounding land, was acquired in May 1992 from three of the Clark descendants and was meticulously restored by [Richard Hampton Jenrette](/wiki/Richard_Jenrette \"Richard Jenrette\"). He is one of the founders of the New York investment banking firm, [Donaldson, Lufkin \\& Jenrette](/wiki/Donaldson%2C_Lufkin_%26_Jenrette \"Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette\"), and a collateral descendant of Susan Hampton Manning. He referred to the estate as \"the [Taj Mahal](/wiki/Taj_Mahal \"Taj Mahal\") of my dreams\".Jenrette, Richard Hampton (2005\\). [*Adventures with Old Houses*](https://books.google.com/books?id=668GiB6giAwC&lpg=PA179&hl=es&pg=PA179&output=embed), p. 179\\. Wyrick \\& Company.",
"In 1995, Jenrette received a South Carolina Historic Preservation Award for Millford. In 2006 he received the Governor's Award for his work on Millford and the [Robert William Roper House](/wiki/Robert_William_Roper_House \"Robert William Roper House\") in Charleston, another National Historic Landmark which he owns and restored.[Richard Hampton Jenrette biography](http://www.nndb.com/people/738/000123369/){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.state.sc.us/scdah/hpawards1995\\.htm \\|title\\=1995 South Carolina Historic Preservation Awards \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-20 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219194916/http://www.state.sc.us/scdah//hpawards1995\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-19 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"The mansion was donated in December 2008 to the Classical American Homes Preservation Trust, a foundation established by Jenrette to: \"Preserve, protect and open to the public examples of classical American residential architecture, fine and decorative arts of the first half of the 19th century.\"",
"In 2012 the \"Friends of Millford\" was formed as a group of supporters who appreciate the site and are interested in preserving its legacy for future generations.",
""
] |
Duncan Phyfe furnishings
------------------------
John and Susan Manning furnished Millford in the then fashionable Grecian style, including a considerable quantity of furniture made by [Duncan Phyfe](/wiki/Duncan_Phyfe "Duncan Phyfe") (one of America's most celebrated cabinetmakers). Much of the furnishings are still in the house.[*Antiques magazine*, May 1997, "Living with Antiques: Millford Plantation in South Carolina", by Thomas Gordon Smith](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1026/is_n5_v151/ai_19997797) The furniture belongs to the last phase of Duncan Phyfe's career. This period was last studied before the 2011–2012 retrospective exhibition at the [Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art "Metropolitan Museum of Art").Peter M. Kenny, "Changing Perspectives on an Iconic American Craftsman, Duncan Phyfe at the Metropolitan Museum". *Antiques and Fine Art* magazine, winter 2012 anniversary issue: p. 116\.
In 1840, John Laurence Manning made a trip to New York City where he likely visited Phyfe. Between 1840 and 1844, the Mannings placed four separate orders with D. Phyfe \& Son (the name of Phyfe's company between 1840 and 1847\)Kenny (2012\), "Changing Perspectives", pp. 119\-120\. for a total of 72 objects. More than 50 of these remain at the house today.Peter M. Kenny. Lecture held at Millford Plantation on April 1, 2012\.
This period in Phyfe's work is characterized by the use of plainer bands of highly polished wood, with little carving, the use of [volutes](/wiki/Volute "Volute"), deep [cavetto](/wiki/Cavetto "Cavetto") [cornices](/wiki/Cornice "Cornice"), simple square columns, Marlboro feet, and console supports (C\-scrolls) that were known in the Phyfe shop simply as "Grecian scrolls". The latter, lifted directly from the design vocabulary of [French Restoration](/wiki/French_Restoration "French Restoration") furniture of the 1820s, were ubiquitous in Phyfe's Grecian plain\-style furniture.Kenny (2012\), "Changing Perspectives", p. 118
Every room of the mansion was filled with D. Phyfe \& Son furniture, as is documented by an 1841 letter and [bill of lading](/wiki/Bill_of_lading "Bill of lading") from the firm. In most rooms the furniture was in a Grecian plain style. For the double parlor, the Phyfes created something new, blending the Grecian with [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture "Gothic Revival architecture") and French Restoration\-style overtones. This is unusual because the Phyfes did not engage generally with the emerging historical revival styles ([Baroque](/wiki/Baroque "Baroque"), [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture "Gothic Revival architecture"), [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo "Rococo"), etc.) that began in the 1830s.Kenny (2012\), "Changing Perspectives", p. 120
In the entrance hall, most of the furniture is made of [walnut](/wiki/Juglans%23Wood "Juglans#Wood"), an economical and durable wood. In the double [parlors](/wiki/Parlor "Parlor"), however, it is mainly of [rosewood](/wiki/Rosewood "Rosewood"), an expensive and exotic wood from [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America"). The use of luxury woods indicates that the double parlors were a space for formal entertaining, a place for the Mannings to display their taste and wealth.
In the dining room, the [elliptical](/wiki/Ellipse "Ellipse") table, matching the shape of the room, is made of [mahogany](/wiki/Mahogany "Mahogany"); it has four animal–paw feet and six leaves. The other pieces commissioned included, among others, 14 [armchairs](/wiki/Chair%23Armrests "Chair#Armrests") in the French Restoration style. It was uncommon to have armchairs at a dining table—usually there were armchairs only at the head and foot of the table, the others being side chairs.
When Richard Jenrette bought the property in 1992, less than half of the original furnishings remained in the mansion. Through research, documentation, and consultations with scholars, carried out over many years, he found and purchased much of the original furniture and returned it to its place. Other pieces were given by the descendants of the two families who had owned the plantation. This laborious process continues and more pieces are expected to be returned in the future.
Millford and its furnishings are remarkable in that the entire house was decorated with furniture commissioned from a single cabinetmaker (something uncommon in those days). It was one of the largest orders ever from D. Phyfe.Classical American Homes Preservation Trust. *Annual Report, 2008:* p. 4 Most pieces are preserved within the same building they were intended to complement and grace, making it unusual in the US.
|
[
"Duncan Phyfe furnishings\n------------------------",
"John and Susan Manning furnished Millford in the then fashionable Grecian style, including a considerable quantity of furniture made by [Duncan Phyfe](/wiki/Duncan_Phyfe \"Duncan Phyfe\") (one of America's most celebrated cabinetmakers). Much of the furnishings are still in the house.[*Antiques magazine*, May 1997, \"Living with Antiques: Millford Plantation in South Carolina\", by Thomas Gordon Smith](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1026/is_n5_v151/ai_19997797) The furniture belongs to the last phase of Duncan Phyfe's career. This period was last studied before the 2011–2012 retrospective exhibition at the [Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art \"Metropolitan Museum of Art\").Peter M. Kenny, \"Changing Perspectives on an Iconic American Craftsman, Duncan Phyfe at the Metropolitan Museum\". *Antiques and Fine Art* magazine, winter 2012 anniversary issue: p. 116\\.",
"In 1840, John Laurence Manning made a trip to New York City where he likely visited Phyfe. Between 1840 and 1844, the Mannings placed four separate orders with D. Phyfe \\& Son (the name of Phyfe's company between 1840 and 1847\\)Kenny (2012\\), \"Changing Perspectives\", pp. 119\\-120\\. for a total of 72 objects. More than 50 of these remain at the house today.Peter M. Kenny. Lecture held at Millford Plantation on April 1, 2012\\.",
"This period in Phyfe's work is characterized by the use of plainer bands of highly polished wood, with little carving, the use of [volutes](/wiki/Volute \"Volute\"), deep [cavetto](/wiki/Cavetto \"Cavetto\") [cornices](/wiki/Cornice \"Cornice\"), simple square columns, Marlboro feet, and console supports (C\\-scrolls) that were known in the Phyfe shop simply as \"Grecian scrolls\". The latter, lifted directly from the design vocabulary of [French Restoration](/wiki/French_Restoration \"French Restoration\") furniture of the 1820s, were ubiquitous in Phyfe's Grecian plain\\-style furniture.Kenny (2012\\), \"Changing Perspectives\", p. 118",
"Every room of the mansion was filled with D. Phyfe \\& Son furniture, as is documented by an 1841 letter and [bill of lading](/wiki/Bill_of_lading \"Bill of lading\") from the firm. In most rooms the furniture was in a Grecian plain style. For the double parlor, the Phyfes created something new, blending the Grecian with [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture \"Gothic Revival architecture\") and French Restoration\\-style overtones. This is unusual because the Phyfes did not engage generally with the emerging historical revival styles ([Baroque](/wiki/Baroque \"Baroque\"), [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture \"Gothic Revival architecture\"), [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo \"Rococo\"), etc.) that began in the 1830s.Kenny (2012\\), \"Changing Perspectives\", p. 120",
"In the entrance hall, most of the furniture is made of [walnut](/wiki/Juglans%23Wood \"Juglans#Wood\"), an economical and durable wood. In the double [parlors](/wiki/Parlor \"Parlor\"), however, it is mainly of [rosewood](/wiki/Rosewood \"Rosewood\"), an expensive and exotic wood from [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\"). The use of luxury woods indicates that the double parlors were a space for formal entertaining, a place for the Mannings to display their taste and wealth.",
"In the dining room, the [elliptical](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\") table, matching the shape of the room, is made of [mahogany](/wiki/Mahogany \"Mahogany\"); it has four animal–paw feet and six leaves. The other pieces commissioned included, among others, 14 [armchairs](/wiki/Chair%23Armrests \"Chair#Armrests\") in the French Restoration style. It was uncommon to have armchairs at a dining table—usually there were armchairs only at the head and foot of the table, the others being side chairs.",
"When Richard Jenrette bought the property in 1992, less than half of the original furnishings remained in the mansion. Through research, documentation, and consultations with scholars, carried out over many years, he found and purchased much of the original furniture and returned it to its place. Other pieces were given by the descendants of the two families who had owned the plantation. This laborious process continues and more pieces are expected to be returned in the future.",
"Millford and its furnishings are remarkable in that the entire house was decorated with furniture commissioned from a single cabinetmaker (something uncommon in those days). It was one of the largest orders ever from D. Phyfe.Classical American Homes Preservation Trust. *Annual Report, 2008:* p. 4 Most pieces are preserved within the same building they were intended to complement and grace, making it unusual in the US.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Achaemenid Persian Empire
Under the [Achaemenid](/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree "Achaemenid family tree") [Persian](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire "Achaemenid Empire") kings, Adiabene seems for a time to have been a vassal state of the [Persian Empire](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire "Achaemenid Empire"). At times the throne of Adiabene was held by a member of the Achaemenid house; [Artaxerxes III](/wiki/Artaxerxes_III "Artaxerxes III") (king from 358 to 338 BC), before he came to the throne of Persia, had the title "King of Hadyab".Nöldeke, *Geschichte der Perser,* p. 70\. The [Ten Thousand](/wiki/Ten_Thousand_%28Greek%29 "Ten Thousand (Greek)"), an army of [Greek](/wiki/Greek_people "Greek people") [mercenaries](/wiki/Mercenaries "Mercenaries"), retreated through Adiabene on their march to the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea") after the [Battle of Cunaxa](/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa "Battle of Cunaxa").
### Queen Helena's conversion to Judaism
According to Jewish tradition, Helena, the Queen of Adiabene converted to Judaism from paganism in the 1st century.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/helena\|title\=Helena\|website\=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org\|access\-date\=11 April 2018}} Queen [Helena of Adiabene](/wiki/Helena_of_Adiabene "Helena of Adiabene") (known in Jewish sources as {{italic correction\|''Heleni HaMalka''}}) moved to Jerusalem where she built palaces for herself and her sons, Izates bar Monobaz and Monobaz II at the northern part of the city of David, south of the Temple Mount, and aided Jews in their war with Rome. Queen Helena's sarcophagus was discovered in 1863\. A pair of inscriptions on the sarcophagus, "tzaddan malka" and "tzadda malkata," is believed to be a reference to the provisions (tzeda in Hebrew) that Helena supplied to Jerusalem's poor and to the Jewish kingdom in general. According to Josephus, the queen converted to Judaism together with her son Monobaz II, under the influence of two Jews. Another tradition has it that she met a Jewish jewelry merchant in Adiabene by the name of Hananiah ([Ananias](/wiki/Ananias_of_Adiabene "Ananias of Adiabene")) or Eliezer, who told her about the people of Israel and persuaded her to join them.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/israel\-news/a\-royal\-return\-1\.316609\|title\=A Royal Return\|first\=Ran\|last\=Shapira\|date\=1 October 2010\|access\-date\=11 April 2018\|newspaper\=Haaretz}} All historic traces of Jewish royalty in Adiabene ended around 115 CE, but these stories made huge impact on rabbinic literature and Talmud.The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations By Eric Maroney P:97 Nominally Zoroastrian, the people of Adiabene were tolerant toward Judaism, and permitted the establishment of Jewish communities there, The Jews of Edessa, Nisibis, and Adiabene repaid them by being among the most vigorous opponents of Trajan. In late second century Christianity rapidly spread among Zoroastrians and those formerly professing Judaism. When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman empire under Constantine, the position of Adiabenian Christians was naturally exacerbated, since they were seen as potentially disaffected by the zealously Zoroastrian Sasanians.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/adiabene\|title\=ADIABENE – Encyclopaedia Iranica\|last\=electricpulp.com\|website\=www.iranicaonline.org\|access\-date\=11 April 2018}}
### Hellenistic period
The little kingdom may have had a series of native rulers nominally vassal to the [Macedonian](/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians "Ancient Macedonians"), [Seleucid](/wiki/Seleucid "Seleucid") and later [Armenian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_%28antiquity%29 "Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)") (under [Tigranes the Great](/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great "Tigranes the Great")) empires.
### Parthian Empire
It later became one of the client kingdoms of the Parthian empire. During the 1st century BCE{{dubious\|If "under kings descended from Monobaz I", it must be from C1 CE onward, not C1 BCE. Either or.\|date\=February 2015}} and the 1st century CE, it gained a certain prominence under a series of kings descended from [Monobaz I](/wiki/Monobaz_I "Monobaz I") and his son [Izates I](/wiki/Izates_I "Izates I"). Monobaz I is known to have been allied with king [Abennerig](/wiki/Abennerig "Abennerig") of [Characene](/wiki/Characene "Characene"), in whose court his son [Izates II bar Monobaz](/wiki/Izates_II "Izates II") lived for a time and whose daughter [Symacho](/wiki/Symacho "Symacho") Izates married, as well as the rulers of other small kingdoms on the periphery of the [Parthian](/wiki/Parthian_Empire "Parthian Empire") [sphere of influence](/wiki/Sphere_of_influence "Sphere of influence").
#### Roman intermezzo (117–118\)
The chief opponent of [Trajan](/wiki/Trajan "Trajan") in Mesopotamia during the year 115 was the last king of independent Adiabene, [Meharaspes](/wiki/Meharaspes "Meharaspes"). He had made common cause with [Ma'nu](/wiki/Ma%27nu "Ma'nu") (Mannus) of [Singar](/wiki/Singar "Singar") (Singara). Trajan invaded Adiabene, and made it part of the Roman province of [Assyria](/wiki/Assyria "Assyria"); under [Hadrian](/wiki/Hadrian "Hadrian") in 117\.
In the summer of 195 [Septimius Severus](/wiki/Septimius_Severus "Septimius Severus") was again warring in Mesopotamia, and in 196 three divisions of the Roman army fell upon Adiabene. According to [Dio Cassius](/wiki/Dio_Cassius "Dio Cassius"), [Caracalla](/wiki/Caracalla "Caracalla") took Arbela in the year 216, and searched all the graves there, wishing to ascertain whether the [Arsacid](/wiki/Arsacid_Empire "Arsacid Empire") kings were buried there. Many of the ancient royal tombs were destroyed.
### Sasanian rule
Despite the overthrow of the Parthians by the Sasanians in 224 CE, the feudatory dynasties remained loyal to the Parthians, and resisted Sasanian advance into Adiabene and [Atropatene](/wiki/Atropatene "Atropatene"). Due to this, and religious differences, Adiabene was never regarded as an integral part of Iran, even though the Sasanians controlled it for several centuries.
After the Roman Empire gradually made [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") its official religion during the fourth century, the inhabitants of Adiabene, who were primarily [Assyrian Christians](/wiki/Church_of_the_East "Church of the East"), sided with Christian Rome rather than the [Zoroastrian](/wiki/Zoroastrian "Zoroastrian") Sasanians. The Byzantine Empire sent armies to the region during the [Byzantine–Sasanian wars](/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars "Byzantine–Sasanian wars"), but this did nothing to change the territorial boundaries. Adiabene remained a province of the Sasanians Empire until the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia "Muslim conquest of Persia").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.iranica.com/\|title\=Encyclopædia Iranica \- Home\|last\=electricpulp.com\|website\=www.iranica.com\|access\-date\=11 April 2018\|archive\-date\=16 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416193911/http://www.iranica.com/\|url\-status\=dead}}
The region was recorded as *Nod\-Ardadkhshiragan* or *Nod\-Ardashiragan* in Sasanian period.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Achaemenid Persian Empire",
"Under the [Achaemenid](/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree \"Achaemenid family tree\") [Persian](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire \"Achaemenid Empire\") kings, Adiabene seems for a time to have been a vassal state of the [Persian Empire](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire \"Achaemenid Empire\"). At times the throne of Adiabene was held by a member of the Achaemenid house; [Artaxerxes III](/wiki/Artaxerxes_III \"Artaxerxes III\") (king from 358 to 338 BC), before he came to the throne of Persia, had the title \"King of Hadyab\".Nöldeke, *Geschichte der Perser,* p. 70\\. The [Ten Thousand](/wiki/Ten_Thousand_%28Greek%29 \"Ten Thousand (Greek)\"), an army of [Greek](/wiki/Greek_people \"Greek people\") [mercenaries](/wiki/Mercenaries \"Mercenaries\"), retreated through Adiabene on their march to the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea \"Black Sea\") after the [Battle of Cunaxa](/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa \"Battle of Cunaxa\").",
"### Queen Helena's conversion to Judaism",
"According to Jewish tradition, Helena, the Queen of Adiabene converted to Judaism from paganism in the 1st century.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/helena\\|title\\=Helena\\|website\\=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2018}} Queen [Helena of Adiabene](/wiki/Helena_of_Adiabene \"Helena of Adiabene\") (known in Jewish sources as {{italic correction\\|''Heleni HaMalka''}}) moved to Jerusalem where she built palaces for herself and her sons, Izates bar Monobaz and Monobaz II at the northern part of the city of David, south of the Temple Mount, and aided Jews in their war with Rome. Queen Helena's sarcophagus was discovered in 1863\\. A pair of inscriptions on the sarcophagus, \"tzaddan malka\" and \"tzadda malkata,\" is believed to be a reference to the provisions (tzeda in Hebrew) that Helena supplied to Jerusalem's poor and to the Jewish kingdom in general. According to Josephus, the queen converted to Judaism together with her son Monobaz II, under the influence of two Jews. Another tradition has it that she met a Jewish jewelry merchant in Adiabene by the name of Hananiah ([Ananias](/wiki/Ananias_of_Adiabene \"Ananias of Adiabene\")) or Eliezer, who told her about the people of Israel and persuaded her to join them.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/israel\\-news/a\\-royal\\-return\\-1\\.316609\\|title\\=A Royal Return\\|first\\=Ran\\|last\\=Shapira\\|date\\=1 October 2010\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2018\\|newspaper\\=Haaretz}} All historic traces of Jewish royalty in Adiabene ended around 115 CE, but these stories made huge impact on rabbinic literature and Talmud.The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations By Eric Maroney P:97 Nominally Zoroastrian, the people of Adiabene were tolerant toward Judaism, and permitted the establishment of Jewish communities there, The Jews of Edessa, Nisibis, and Adiabene repaid them by being among the most vigorous opponents of Trajan. In late second century Christianity rapidly spread among Zoroastrians and those formerly professing Judaism. When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman empire under Constantine, the position of Adiabenian Christians was naturally exacerbated, since they were seen as potentially disaffected by the zealously Zoroastrian Sasanians.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/adiabene\\|title\\=ADIABENE – Encyclopaedia Iranica\\|last\\=electricpulp.com\\|website\\=www.iranicaonline.org\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2018}}",
"### Hellenistic period",
"The little kingdom may have had a series of native rulers nominally vassal to the [Macedonian](/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians \"Ancient Macedonians\"), [Seleucid](/wiki/Seleucid \"Seleucid\") and later [Armenian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_%28antiquity%29 \"Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)\") (under [Tigranes the Great](/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great \"Tigranes the Great\")) empires.",
"### Parthian Empire",
"It later became one of the client kingdoms of the Parthian empire. During the 1st century BCE{{dubious\\|If \"under kings descended from Monobaz I\", it must be from C1 CE onward, not C1 BCE. Either or.\\|date\\=February 2015}} and the 1st century CE, it gained a certain prominence under a series of kings descended from [Monobaz I](/wiki/Monobaz_I \"Monobaz I\") and his son [Izates I](/wiki/Izates_I \"Izates I\"). Monobaz I is known to have been allied with king [Abennerig](/wiki/Abennerig \"Abennerig\") of [Characene](/wiki/Characene \"Characene\"), in whose court his son [Izates II bar Monobaz](/wiki/Izates_II \"Izates II\") lived for a time and whose daughter [Symacho](/wiki/Symacho \"Symacho\") Izates married, as well as the rulers of other small kingdoms on the periphery of the [Parthian](/wiki/Parthian_Empire \"Parthian Empire\") [sphere of influence](/wiki/Sphere_of_influence \"Sphere of influence\").",
"#### Roman intermezzo (117–118\\)",
"The chief opponent of [Trajan](/wiki/Trajan \"Trajan\") in Mesopotamia during the year 115 was the last king of independent Adiabene, [Meharaspes](/wiki/Meharaspes \"Meharaspes\"). He had made common cause with [Ma'nu](/wiki/Ma%27nu \"Ma'nu\") (Mannus) of [Singar](/wiki/Singar \"Singar\") (Singara). Trajan invaded Adiabene, and made it part of the Roman province of [Assyria](/wiki/Assyria \"Assyria\"); under [Hadrian](/wiki/Hadrian \"Hadrian\") in 117\\.",
"In the summer of 195 [Septimius Severus](/wiki/Septimius_Severus \"Septimius Severus\") was again warring in Mesopotamia, and in 196 three divisions of the Roman army fell upon Adiabene. According to [Dio Cassius](/wiki/Dio_Cassius \"Dio Cassius\"), [Caracalla](/wiki/Caracalla \"Caracalla\") took Arbela in the year 216, and searched all the graves there, wishing to ascertain whether the [Arsacid](/wiki/Arsacid_Empire \"Arsacid Empire\") kings were buried there. Many of the ancient royal tombs were destroyed.",
"### Sasanian rule",
"Despite the overthrow of the Parthians by the Sasanians in 224 CE, the feudatory dynasties remained loyal to the Parthians, and resisted Sasanian advance into Adiabene and [Atropatene](/wiki/Atropatene \"Atropatene\"). Due to this, and religious differences, Adiabene was never regarded as an integral part of Iran, even though the Sasanians controlled it for several centuries.",
"After the Roman Empire gradually made [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") its official religion during the fourth century, the inhabitants of Adiabene, who were primarily [Assyrian Christians](/wiki/Church_of_the_East \"Church of the East\"), sided with Christian Rome rather than the [Zoroastrian](/wiki/Zoroastrian \"Zoroastrian\") Sasanians. The Byzantine Empire sent armies to the region during the [Byzantine–Sasanian wars](/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars \"Byzantine–Sasanian wars\"), but this did nothing to change the territorial boundaries. Adiabene remained a province of the Sasanians Empire until the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia \"Muslim conquest of Persia\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.iranica.com/\\|title\\=Encyclopædia Iranica \\- Home\\|last\\=electricpulp.com\\|website\\=www.iranica.com\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=16 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416193911/http://www.iranica.com/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The region was recorded as *Nod\\-Ardadkhshiragan* or *Nod\\-Ardashiragan* in Sasanian period.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Seetharam owns a popular hotel in Bangkok but has a fierce competitor in Sairam, who owns a rivaling hotel across the street. As his hotel struggles from a lack of guests, Sairam has a bomb planted in Seetharam's hotel in hopes of destroying the competition.
Meanwhile, we meet various guests staying in Seetharam's hotel.
An eager actress Kameshwari, her husband, the stingy producer Thuppu Apparao, and an aspiring writer\-director, Alankar, are staying at the hotel. Over the course of their stay, Alankar pitches the plot of a movie. Kameshwari falls in love with Alankar's enthusiasm and eventually leaves Thuppu Apparao for him.
Veera Shankar is a young man arranged to marry the daughter of [Rayalaseema](/wiki/Rayalaseema "Rayalaseema") factionist Bakka Reddy, but he instead falls in love with Aarti, a staff member in their household. He escapes to Bangkok out of frustration.
Banda Reddy, Baka Reddy's brother, is also staying at the hotel, hiding from enemies seeking to kill him in Rayalaseema.
Gowri Shankar is an unhappily married man. His wife, Kadapa Redamma, another Rayalaseema factionist, forced his hand in marriage and dominates their relationship. Wanting to feel like a man again, he comes to Bangkok alone and arranges to meet a prostitute in the hotel.
Finally, Shankar Dada, a professional assassin, comes to the hotel with his assistant, Kasi, on a job. He has been hired by Gangadharam to kill his wife, Leela Rani, who's also staying at the hotel.
Aarti turns out to be the woman that Gowri Shankar hired as a prostitute. Though she abhors the arrangement, she's desperate to pay her mother's hospital bills. By accident, she goes to Veera Shankar's room instead. Veera Shankar assures her that he doesn't want her services as a prostitute, but would be happy to pay for her mother's hospital bills. Aarti falls in love with Veera Shankar's generosity and the two become a couple.
Meanwhile, Gowri Shankar mistakes a maid at the hotel for the prostitute he hired. Though the maid is confused, she's overjoyed when Gouri Shankar gives her large sums of cash for her company. These two become a couple as well.
Kadapa Rayalamma and her goons arrive in Bangkok and storm the hotel, looking to kill Banda Reddy. When Kadapa Rayalamma runs into Banda Reddy, it's revealed that Banda Reddy was her former flame. Gowri Shankar convinces the two to become a couple rather than fight, allowing both Gowri Shankar and Kadapa Rayalamma to dissolve their marriage and form two happier relationships.
Shankar Dada makes many attempts on Leela Rani's life, but is always thwarted by near misses. When he has a chance to talk with her face to face, the two fall in love and he decides to quit the assassination job.
Bakka Reddy and his goons arrives in the city to hunt down Veera Shankar for running away from the marriage.
He has the entrances and exits of the hotel closed off so he can search for Veera Shankar. Trapped inside Seetharam's hotel, Sairam reveals that he had a bomb planted there, but no\-one believes him. Bakka Reddy's daughter falls in love with the hotel bellboy and convinces her father to forgive Veera Shankar.
Everyone is finally convinced that there's really a bomb, but Bakka Reddy loses the key to the locks he placed on the hotel doors. In a panic, everyone joins forces to search for the bomb and the key, but the bellboy reveals he returned the bomb (which he thought was a cake) to Sairam's hotel as the box it was in had his hotel's name on it. From the safety of Seetharam's hotel, they see Sairam's hotel, luckily empty of guests, explode. Sairam is devastated by the turn of events, but the rest of the guests are pleased with their enmities laid to rest and their new relationships in front of them.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Seetharam owns a popular hotel in Bangkok but has a fierce competitor in Sairam, who owns a rivaling hotel across the street. As his hotel struggles from a lack of guests, Sairam has a bomb planted in Seetharam's hotel in hopes of destroying the competition.",
"Meanwhile, we meet various guests staying in Seetharam's hotel.",
"An eager actress Kameshwari, her husband, the stingy producer Thuppu Apparao, and an aspiring writer\\-director, Alankar, are staying at the hotel. Over the course of their stay, Alankar pitches the plot of a movie. Kameshwari falls in love with Alankar's enthusiasm and eventually leaves Thuppu Apparao for him.",
"Veera Shankar is a young man arranged to marry the daughter of [Rayalaseema](/wiki/Rayalaseema \"Rayalaseema\") factionist Bakka Reddy, but he instead falls in love with Aarti, a staff member in their household. He escapes to Bangkok out of frustration.",
"Banda Reddy, Baka Reddy's brother, is also staying at the hotel, hiding from enemies seeking to kill him in Rayalaseema.",
"Gowri Shankar is an unhappily married man. His wife, Kadapa Redamma, another Rayalaseema factionist, forced his hand in marriage and dominates their relationship. Wanting to feel like a man again, he comes to Bangkok alone and arranges to meet a prostitute in the hotel.",
"Finally, Shankar Dada, a professional assassin, comes to the hotel with his assistant, Kasi, on a job. He has been hired by Gangadharam to kill his wife, Leela Rani, who's also staying at the hotel.",
"Aarti turns out to be the woman that Gowri Shankar hired as a prostitute. Though she abhors the arrangement, she's desperate to pay her mother's hospital bills. By accident, she goes to Veera Shankar's room instead. Veera Shankar assures her that he doesn't want her services as a prostitute, but would be happy to pay for her mother's hospital bills. Aarti falls in love with Veera Shankar's generosity and the two become a couple.",
"Meanwhile, Gowri Shankar mistakes a maid at the hotel for the prostitute he hired. Though the maid is confused, she's overjoyed when Gouri Shankar gives her large sums of cash for her company. These two become a couple as well.",
"Kadapa Rayalamma and her goons arrive in Bangkok and storm the hotel, looking to kill Banda Reddy. When Kadapa Rayalamma runs into Banda Reddy, it's revealed that Banda Reddy was her former flame. Gowri Shankar convinces the two to become a couple rather than fight, allowing both Gowri Shankar and Kadapa Rayalamma to dissolve their marriage and form two happier relationships.",
"Shankar Dada makes many attempts on Leela Rani's life, but is always thwarted by near misses. When he has a chance to talk with her face to face, the two fall in love and he decides to quit the assassination job.",
"Bakka Reddy and his goons arrives in the city to hunt down Veera Shankar for running away from the marriage.\nHe has the entrances and exits of the hotel closed off so he can search for Veera Shankar. Trapped inside Seetharam's hotel, Sairam reveals that he had a bomb planted there, but no\\-one believes him. Bakka Reddy's daughter falls in love with the hotel bellboy and convinces her father to forgive Veera Shankar.",
"Everyone is finally convinced that there's really a bomb, but Bakka Reddy loses the key to the locks he placed on the hotel doors. In a panic, everyone joins forces to search for the bomb and the key, but the bellboy reveals he returned the bomb (which he thought was a cake) to Sairam's hotel as the box it was in had his hotel's name on it. From the safety of Seetharam's hotel, they see Sairam's hotel, luckily empty of guests, explode. Sairam is devastated by the turn of events, but the rest of the guests are pleased with their enmities laid to rest and their new relationships in front of them.",
""
] |
In culture
----------
{{More citations needed section\|date\=October 2016}}
In 2001, [conceptual artist](/wiki/Conceptual_art "Conceptual art") [Jeremy Deller](/wiki/Jeremy_Deller "Jeremy Deller") originated and set in motion the idea of a re\-enactment of the event as an arts project, commissioned by British arts organisation [Artangel](/wiki/Artangel "Artangel"), with the recreations scripted and staged by historical re\-enactment events company EventPlan Limited. The event took place on 17 June 2001 and was filmed by film director [Mike Figgis](/wiki/Mike_Figgis "Mike Figgis") for a [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 "Channel 4") [documentary](/wiki/Television_documentary "Television documentary"). The re\-enactment featured 800 people including 280 local residents, a number of people (police and pickets) from the original encounter and 520 re\-enactors from various groups such as [The Sealed Knot](/wiki/The_Sealed_Knot_%28reenactment%29 "The Sealed Knot (reenactment)"), Legio II Augusta (Romans), [The Vikings (reenactment)](/wiki/The_Vikings_%28reenactment%29 "The Vikings (reenactment)"), [War of the Roses](/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford%2C_1st_Duke_of_Buckingham%23Cultural_references_and_portrayals "Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham#Cultural references and portrayals") and [English Civil War Society](/wiki/English_Civil_War_Society "English Civil War Society"), but with authentic 1980s clothing and techniques. Only the railway crossing was omitted from the re\-enactment, on safety grounds.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2001/jun/19/artsfeatures \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=18 June 2001 \|last\=Jones \|first\=Jonathan \|title\=Missiles fly, truncheons swing, police chase miners as cars burn. It's all very exciting. But why is it art?}}
The [Dire Straits](/wiki/Dire_Straits "Dire Straits") song "[Iron Hand](/wiki/Iron_Hand_%28song%29 "Iron Hand (song)")" from the 1991 album *[On Every Street](/wiki/On_Every_Street "On Every Street")* tells the story of the event.
The [Manic Street Preachers](/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers "Manic Street Preachers") song "30\-Year War" from *[Rewind the Film](/wiki/Rewind_the_Film "Rewind the Film")* mentions the event as an instance of class conflict.
In the video for his song "[Sirens](/wiki/Sirens_%28Dizzee_Rascal_song%29 "Sirens (Dizzee Rascal song)")", [Dizzee Rascal](/wiki/Dizzee_Rascal "Dizzee Rascal") is chased by huntsmen through the fictional 'Orgreave Estate'.
Irvine Welsh's *[Skagboys](/wiki/Skagboys "Skagboys")* opens with a journal entry detailing the lead character Mark Renton's experience at The Battle of Orgreave.
The confrontations at Orgreave form a substantial part of [David Peace](/wiki/David_Peace "David Peace")'s 2004 novel *GB84*.
Orgreave is subject of [protest art](/wiki/Protest_art "Protest art") prints by British artist [Darren Coffield](/wiki/Darren_Coffield "Darren Coffield").{{cite news\|title\=Darren Coffield. Ashes and Diamonds\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Wall Street International\|url\=http://wsimag.com/art/4678\-darren\-coffield\-ashes\-and\-diamonds\|access\-date\=1 November 2016}}
The Orgreave Truth and Justice Campaign has been involved in a number of fundraising and commemorative activities in 2014 and 2015, including live concerts and a fundraising double\-CD compilation album, containing (in part) musical and spoken\-word tracks relating to the events.{{cite web \|last\=Perryman \|first\=Mark \|title\=Mark Perryman welcomes the release of the Orgreave Justice Double CD of rebel music, old and new \|url\=https://usilive.org/opinions/rock\-against\-what\-protest\-music\-makes\-a\-welcome\-return\-for\-orgreave\-justice\-campaign \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308072924/https://usilive.org/opinions/rock\-against\-what\-protest\-music\-makes\-a\-welcome\-return\-for\-orgreave\-justice\-campaign \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=8 March 2021 \|work\=Union Solidarity International \|access\-date\=31 October 2016 }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a\-16ab\-Battle\-of\-Orgreave\-30th\-anniversary\-We\-demand\-justice\-for\-victims\-of\-police\-brutality,\-says\-1,500\-strong\-crowd \|last\=Lazenby \|first\=Peter \|title\=Battle of Orgreave 30th Anniversary: We Demand Justice For Victims of Police Brutality, Says 1,500\-Strong Crowd \|newspaper\=Morning Star \|date\=16 June 2014 \|access\-date\=30 March 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402235359/http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a\-16ab\-Battle\-of\-Orgreave\-30th\-anniversary\-We\-demand\-justice\-for\-victims\-of\-police\-brutality,\-says\-1,500\-strong\-crowd \|archive\-date\=2 April 2015 \|url\-status\=dead }}
|
[
"In culture\n----------",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=October 2016}}\nIn 2001, [conceptual artist](/wiki/Conceptual_art \"Conceptual art\") [Jeremy Deller](/wiki/Jeremy_Deller \"Jeremy Deller\") originated and set in motion the idea of a re\\-enactment of the event as an arts project, commissioned by British arts organisation [Artangel](/wiki/Artangel \"Artangel\"), with the recreations scripted and staged by historical re\\-enactment events company EventPlan Limited. The event took place on 17 June 2001 and was filmed by film director [Mike Figgis](/wiki/Mike_Figgis \"Mike Figgis\") for a [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\") [documentary](/wiki/Television_documentary \"Television documentary\"). The re\\-enactment featured 800 people including 280 local residents, a number of people (police and pickets) from the original encounter and 520 re\\-enactors from various groups such as [The Sealed Knot](/wiki/The_Sealed_Knot_%28reenactment%29 \"The Sealed Knot (reenactment)\"), Legio II Augusta (Romans), [The Vikings (reenactment)](/wiki/The_Vikings_%28reenactment%29 \"The Vikings (reenactment)\"), [War of the Roses](/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford%2C_1st_Duke_of_Buckingham%23Cultural_references_and_portrayals \"Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham#Cultural references and portrayals\") and [English Civil War Society](/wiki/English_Civil_War_Society \"English Civil War Society\"), but with authentic 1980s clothing and techniques. Only the railway crossing was omitted from the re\\-enactment, on safety grounds.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2001/jun/19/artsfeatures \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=18 June 2001 \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|title\\=Missiles fly, truncheons swing, police chase miners as cars burn. It's all very exciting. But why is it art?}}",
"The [Dire Straits](/wiki/Dire_Straits \"Dire Straits\") song \"[Iron Hand](/wiki/Iron_Hand_%28song%29 \"Iron Hand (song)\")\" from the 1991 album *[On Every Street](/wiki/On_Every_Street \"On Every Street\")* tells the story of the event.",
"The [Manic Street Preachers](/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers \"Manic Street Preachers\") song \"30\\-Year War\" from *[Rewind the Film](/wiki/Rewind_the_Film \"Rewind the Film\")* mentions the event as an instance of class conflict.",
"In the video for his song \"[Sirens](/wiki/Sirens_%28Dizzee_Rascal_song%29 \"Sirens (Dizzee Rascal song)\")\", [Dizzee Rascal](/wiki/Dizzee_Rascal \"Dizzee Rascal\") is chased by huntsmen through the fictional 'Orgreave Estate'.",
"Irvine Welsh's *[Skagboys](/wiki/Skagboys \"Skagboys\")* opens with a journal entry detailing the lead character Mark Renton's experience at The Battle of Orgreave.",
"The confrontations at Orgreave form a substantial part of [David Peace](/wiki/David_Peace \"David Peace\")'s 2004 novel *GB84*.",
"Orgreave is subject of [protest art](/wiki/Protest_art \"Protest art\") prints by British artist [Darren Coffield](/wiki/Darren_Coffield \"Darren Coffield\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Darren Coffield. Ashes and Diamonds\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Wall Street International\\|url\\=http://wsimag.com/art/4678\\-darren\\-coffield\\-ashes\\-and\\-diamonds\\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2016}}",
"The Orgreave Truth and Justice Campaign has been involved in a number of fundraising and commemorative activities in 2014 and 2015, including live concerts and a fundraising double\\-CD compilation album, containing (in part) musical and spoken\\-word tracks relating to the events.{{cite web \\|last\\=Perryman \\|first\\=Mark \\|title\\=Mark Perryman welcomes the release of the Orgreave Justice Double CD of rebel music, old and new \\|url\\=https://usilive.org/opinions/rock\\-against\\-what\\-protest\\-music\\-makes\\-a\\-welcome\\-return\\-for\\-orgreave\\-justice\\-campaign \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308072924/https://usilive.org/opinions/rock\\-against\\-what\\-protest\\-music\\-makes\\-a\\-welcome\\-return\\-for\\-orgreave\\-justice\\-campaign \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=8 March 2021 \\|work\\=Union Solidarity International \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2016 }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a\\-16ab\\-Battle\\-of\\-Orgreave\\-30th\\-anniversary\\-We\\-demand\\-justice\\-for\\-victims\\-of\\-police\\-brutality,\\-says\\-1,500\\-strong\\-crowd \\|last\\=Lazenby \\|first\\=Peter \\|title\\=Battle of Orgreave 30th Anniversary: We Demand Justice For Victims of Police Brutality, Says 1,500\\-Strong Crowd \\|newspaper\\=Morning Star \\|date\\=16 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=30 March 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402235359/http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a\\-16ab\\-Battle\\-of\\-Orgreave\\-30th\\-anniversary\\-We\\-demand\\-justice\\-for\\-victims\\-of\\-police\\-brutality,\\-says\\-1,500\\-strong\\-crowd \\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
""
] |
Services
--------
Most Marjaree Mason Center services are offered to victims of domestic violence and their children, though some shelter services are intended for homeless women and batterer's intervention programs are intended for domestic violence offenders.
### Shelter
The Marjaree Mason Center operates three shelters in [Fresno County](/wiki/Fresno_County "Fresno County"). These shelters mainly house women believed to be victims of domestic violence and their children. Alternative housing arrangements are also available for men who are victims of domestic violence.
#### Fresno Emergency and Transitional Living Safe House
The oldest of the Marjaree Mason Center shelters, the Emergency Shelter is confidentially located in the City of Fresno. This {{convert\|21380\|sqft\|m2\|adj\=on}} facility has 93 beds in 40 rooms and is staffed 24\-hours a day.
The Emergency Shelter also features the Enrichment Center, where children can play, learn, and take part in activities organized by center staff.
#### Clovis Transitional Living Safe House
The Clovis Safe House is located in the [City of Clovis](/wiki/Clovis%2C_California "Clovis, California").{{cite news
\| last \= Lopez
\| first \= Pablo
\| date \= 2013\-07\-08
\| title \= Marjaree Mason opens domestic violence shelter in Clovis
\| url \= http://www.fresnobee.com/news/local/community/clovis\-news/article19516902\.html
\| newspaper \= The Fresno Bee
\| access\-date \= 2015\-07\-24
}}
#### Reedley Transitional Living Safe House
Reedley House is an 18\-bed shelter, located in [Reedley, California](/wiki/Reedley%2C_California "Reedley, California").
### Hotline
[thumb\|220px\|[thumbMarjaree](/wiki/File:MMCAdmin.jpg "MMCAdmin.jpg") Mason Center Administrative Offices, located in the Einstein Home](/wiki/File:Marjaree_Mason_Center.jpg "Marjaree Mason Center.jpg")
The Marjaree Mason Center confidential crisis hotline (559\.233\.HELP) is staffed 24\-hours a day, 7 days a week. Marjaree Mason Center staff can offer safety planning tips.
### Therapy
Housed in the Marjaree Mason Center Administrative Offices, therapists bill on a sliding scale to treat victims of domestic violence. The Marjaree Mason Center offers group and individual therapy for children and adults.
### Advocacy
Marjaree Mason Center advocates have offices in both the Fresno Police and Fresno Sheriff's Headquarters. They ride with domestic violence detectives to visit alleged victims and may accompany alleged victims to court.
### Education
The Marjaree Mason Center offers a Legal Options class, a parenting class, and another known as S.A.F.E. Group. Legal Options covers information on restraining orders, criminal charges, and custody questions. The parenting class focuses on promoting positive parenting skills. S.A.F.E. Group provides general information regarding domestic violence. Marjaree Mason Center shelter clients are also invited to take part in life\-skills, and nutrition/cooking classes. Another specific course for Safe House clients is called Expressions Through Art, which is designed to promote healing through art.
### Legal Assistance
Marjaree Mason Center legal advocates assist domestic violence victims in obtaining and renewing restraining orders. Advocates also provide court accompaniment.
### Training
Three times a year, the Marjaree Mason Center offers a 40\-hour domestic violence victim advocate training course that fulfills the State of California's certificate requirement for providing direct services to victims of domestic violence.
### Outreach Presentations
Marjaree Mason Center outreach advocates provide informational presentations on domestic violence and domestic violence services available in Fresno County. Presentations cover the signs of domestic violence and what to do if you believe someone you know may be a victim. These presentations are typically performed for schools, health care providers, law enforcement officers, court officials, social service providers, and other community stakeholders who may be in a position to help victims of domestic violence.
### *kNOw MORE*
The *kNOw MORE* program works within high schools and junior highs to provide teen\-dating\-violence prevention and intervention services to youths. The program began as part of the Fresno County Department of Public Health, but in 2008, lack of funding forced the county to give up the project, and the Marjaree Mason Center took over administration of *kNOw MORE*.
*kNOw MORE* consists of Marjaree Mason Center staff members who train teachers to be *kNOw MORE* facilitators, and students to be *kNOw MORE* educators. The students then travel from school to school presenting the *kNOw MORE* curriculum to students at large.
The *kNOw MORE* program operates in more than 15 Fresno County high schools and more than 10 middle schools. The program reaches more than 15,000 Fresno County youths a year.
### Batterer's Intervention
Located at a separate facility as the services for battered women, the batterer's intervention program consists of a 52\-week, typically court\-mandated, class for domestic violence offenders.
|
[
"Services\n--------",
"Most Marjaree Mason Center services are offered to victims of domestic violence and their children, though some shelter services are intended for homeless women and batterer's intervention programs are intended for domestic violence offenders.",
"### Shelter",
"The Marjaree Mason Center operates three shelters in [Fresno County](/wiki/Fresno_County \"Fresno County\"). These shelters mainly house women believed to be victims of domestic violence and their children. Alternative housing arrangements are also available for men who are victims of domestic violence.",
"#### Fresno Emergency and Transitional Living Safe House",
"The oldest of the Marjaree Mason Center shelters, the Emergency Shelter is confidentially located in the City of Fresno. This {{convert\\|21380\\|sqft\\|m2\\|adj\\=on}} facility has 93 beds in 40 rooms and is staffed 24\\-hours a day.",
"The Emergency Shelter also features the Enrichment Center, where children can play, learn, and take part in activities organized by center staff.",
"#### Clovis Transitional Living Safe House",
"The Clovis Safe House is located in the [City of Clovis](/wiki/Clovis%2C_California \"Clovis, California\").{{cite news\n\\| last \\= Lopez\n\\| first \\= Pablo\n\\| date \\= 2013\\-07\\-08\n\\| title \\= Marjaree Mason opens domestic violence shelter in Clovis\n\\| url \\= http://www.fresnobee.com/news/local/community/clovis\\-news/article19516902\\.html\n\\| newspaper \\= The Fresno Bee\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2015\\-07\\-24\n}}",
"#### Reedley Transitional Living Safe House",
"Reedley House is an 18\\-bed shelter, located in [Reedley, California](/wiki/Reedley%2C_California \"Reedley, California\").",
"### Hotline",
"[thumb\\|220px\\|[thumbMarjaree](/wiki/File:MMCAdmin.jpg \"MMCAdmin.jpg\") Mason Center Administrative Offices, located in the Einstein Home](/wiki/File:Marjaree_Mason_Center.jpg \"Marjaree Mason Center.jpg\")",
"The Marjaree Mason Center confidential crisis hotline (559\\.233\\.HELP) is staffed 24\\-hours a day, 7 days a week. Marjaree Mason Center staff can offer safety planning tips.",
"### Therapy",
"Housed in the Marjaree Mason Center Administrative Offices, therapists bill on a sliding scale to treat victims of domestic violence. The Marjaree Mason Center offers group and individual therapy for children and adults.",
"### Advocacy",
"Marjaree Mason Center advocates have offices in both the Fresno Police and Fresno Sheriff's Headquarters. They ride with domestic violence detectives to visit alleged victims and may accompany alleged victims to court.",
"### Education",
"The Marjaree Mason Center offers a Legal Options class, a parenting class, and another known as S.A.F.E. Group. Legal Options covers information on restraining orders, criminal charges, and custody questions. The parenting class focuses on promoting positive parenting skills. S.A.F.E. Group provides general information regarding domestic violence. Marjaree Mason Center shelter clients are also invited to take part in life\\-skills, and nutrition/cooking classes. Another specific course for Safe House clients is called Expressions Through Art, which is designed to promote healing through art.",
"### Legal Assistance",
"Marjaree Mason Center legal advocates assist domestic violence victims in obtaining and renewing restraining orders. Advocates also provide court accompaniment.",
"### Training",
"Three times a year, the Marjaree Mason Center offers a 40\\-hour domestic violence victim advocate training course that fulfills the State of California's certificate requirement for providing direct services to victims of domestic violence.",
"### Outreach Presentations",
"Marjaree Mason Center outreach advocates provide informational presentations on domestic violence and domestic violence services available in Fresno County. Presentations cover the signs of domestic violence and what to do if you believe someone you know may be a victim. These presentations are typically performed for schools, health care providers, law enforcement officers, court officials, social service providers, and other community stakeholders who may be in a position to help victims of domestic violence.",
"### *kNOw MORE*",
"The *kNOw MORE* program works within high schools and junior highs to provide teen\\-dating\\-violence prevention and intervention services to youths. The program began as part of the Fresno County Department of Public Health, but in 2008, lack of funding forced the county to give up the project, and the Marjaree Mason Center took over administration of *kNOw MORE*.",
"*kNOw MORE* consists of Marjaree Mason Center staff members who train teachers to be *kNOw MORE* facilitators, and students to be *kNOw MORE* educators. The students then travel from school to school presenting the *kNOw MORE* curriculum to students at large.",
"The *kNOw MORE* program operates in more than 15 Fresno County high schools and more than 10 middle schools. The program reaches more than 15,000 Fresno County youths a year.",
"### Batterer's Intervention",
"Located at a separate facility as the services for battered women, the batterer's intervention program consists of a 52\\-week, typically court\\-mandated, class for domestic violence offenders.",
""
] |
Meteorological history
----------------------
{{storm path\|Leon\-Eline 2000 track.png}}
The origins of Cyclone Leon–Eline were from a surge of energy within the [monsoon trough](/wiki/Monsoon_trough "Monsoon trough") that crossed the [equator](/wiki/Equator "Equator") from the northwest, which spawned a [low pressure area](/wiki/Low_pressure_area "Low pressure area") on 1 February in the eastern Indian Ocean, about {{convert\|250\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} south of the [Indonesian](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") island of [Bali](/wiki/Bali "Bali"). Associated [convection](/wiki/Convection_%28meteorology%29 "Convection (meteorology)"), or thunderstorms, was initially sparse due to [wind shear](/wiki/Wind_shear "Wind shear") in the region. Over the next few days, the low tracked west\-southwestward without much development, moving around a large [ridge](/wiki/Ridge_%28meteorology%29 "Ridge (meteorology)") over northwestern Australia. An [anticyclone](/wiki/Anticyclone "Anticyclone") over the system provided [outflow](/wiki/Outflow_%28meteorology%29 "Outflow (meteorology)"), allowing convection to increase despite the wind shear. At 22:00 [UTC](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time "Coordinated Universal Time") on 3 February, Australia's [Bureau of Meteorology](/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology "Bureau of Meteorology") (BoM) {{\#tag:ref\|The \[\[Regional Specialized Meteorological Center\|Tropical Cyclone Warning Center]] in \[\[Perth]], Australia is a branch of the country's \[\[Bureau of Meteorology]], which is the official \[\[Regional Specialized Meteorological Center]] for the \[\[Australian region tropical cyclone climatology\|Australian basin]].{{cite report\|publisher\=\[\[National Hurricane Center]]\|date\=2011\-09\-11\|title\=Worldwide Tropical Cyclone Centers\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-27\|url\=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutrsmc.shtml}}\|group\="nb"}} upgraded the tropical low to a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the [Australian tropical cyclone scale](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales%23Australia_and_Fiji "Tropical cyclone scales#Australia and Fiji"), estimating 10‑minute [sustained winds](/wiki/Maximum_sustained_winds "Maximum sustained winds") of {{convert\|65\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}. At 04:00 UTC the next day, the BoM [named](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_naming "Tropical cyclone naming") the storm Tropical Cyclone Leon. On the same day at 03:00 UTC, the [Joint Typhoon Warning Center](/wiki/Joint_Typhoon_Warning_Center "Joint Typhoon Warning Center") (JTWC){{\#tag:ref\|The \[\[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] is a joint \[\[United States Navy]] – \[\[United States Air Force]] task force that issues tropical cyclone warnings for the region.{{cite web\|publisher\=Joint Typhoon Warning Center\|title\=Joint Typhoon Warning Center Mission Statement\|year\=2011\|access\-date\=2012\-07\-25\|url\=https://metocph.nmci.navy.mil/jtwc/menu/JTWC\_mission.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726103400/https://metocph.nmci.navy.mil/jtwc/menu/JTWC\_mission.html\|archive\-date\=2007\-07\-26}} \|group\="nb"}} began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 11S. Around that time, Leon was located about {{convert\|215\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} south\-southeast of [Christmas Island](/wiki/Christmas_Island "Christmas Island"), moving west\-southwestward. With decreasing wind shear, the convection organized into rainbands, signaling that the storm was strengthening.{{cite report\|title\=Cyclone Season 1999–2000\|url\=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La\_Reunion/webcmrs9\.0/anglais/archives/publications/saisons\_cycloniques/index19992000\.html\|work\=RSMC La Reunion\|publisher\=Meteo\-France\|access\-date\=2014\-07\-15}}{{cite report\|title\=Tropical Cyclone Leon\|publisher\=Australian Bureau of Meteorology\|access\-date\=2014\-07\-15\|url\=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/history/pdf/leon.pdf}}{{cite journal\|page\=2\|author\=Darwin Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre\|publisher\=Bureau of Meteorology\|volume\=19\|number\=2\|date\=February 2000\|title\=Darwin Tropical Diagnostic Statement\|access\-date\=2014\-07\-15\|url\=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/ntregion/statements/tropical/dtds\-200002\.pdf}}{{cite web\|title\=Monthly Global Tropical Cyclone Summary February 2000\|access\-date\=2014\-07\-15\|url\=http://www.australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2000/summ0002\.htm\|author\=Gary Padgett}}
Early on 5 February, the BoM upgraded Leon to a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian scale, estimating 10‑minute winds of {{convert\|120\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}. At 22:00 UTC that day, the agency estimated an initial peak of {{convert\|140\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}. On 6 February, the cyclone developed an [eye](/wiki/Eye_%28cyclone%29 "Eye (cyclone)") in the center of the convection that was only visible on [Special sensor microwave/imager](/wiki/Special_sensor_microwave/imager "Special sensor microwave/imager"), not on satellite imagery. On the same day, the JTWC upgraded Leon to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane, estimating 1‑minute winds of {{convert\|140\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite report\|author\=Kenneth R. Knapp\|author2\=Michael C. Kruk\|author3\=David H. Levinson\|author4\=Howard J. Diamond\|author5\=Charles J. Neumann\|year\=2010\|work\=The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS): Unifying tropical cyclone best track data\|title\=2000 Eline:Leon:Leone\_Eline (2000032S11115\)\|publisher\=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society\|access\-date\=2014\-07\-15\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=2000032S11115}} }} A trough passing to the south increased wind shear, causing the storm to weaken. Around that time, Leon passed about {{convert\|510\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} south of the [Cocos Islands](/wiki/Cocos_%28Keeling%29_Islands "Cocos (Keeling) Islands"), while turning more to the west after the ridge strengthened to the south. By 8 February, the circulation was exposed from the rapidly dwindling thunderstorms. At 18:00 UTC that day, Leon crossed [90° E](/wiki/90th_meridian_east "90th meridian east") into the south\-west Indian Ocean, and as result was renamed Eline by the Mauritius Meteorological Service. By that time, [Météo\-France](/wiki/M%C3%A9t%C3%A9o-France "Météo-France") (MFR){{\#tag:ref\|The \[\[Météo\-France]] office in \[\[Réunion]] is the official \[\[Regional Specialized Meteorological Center]] for the \[\[South\-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone climatology\|basin]].\|group\="nb"}} estimated 10‑minute winds of {{convert\|65\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}.
[thumb\|right\|Satellite image of Leon in the Australian basin](/wiki/File:Leon_2000-02-02_0932Z.png "Leon 2000-02-02 0932Z.png")
Over the subsequent few days, wind shear caused the convection to wax and wane over Eline's center, limiting the thunderstorms to the southern periphery. The track shifted more to the west\-northwest. On 11 February, Eline had weakened into a minimal tropical storm according to the MFR, about {{convert\|1110\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} south of [Diego Garcia](/wiki/Diego_Garcia "Diego Garcia"), and the JTWC operationally downgraded it to a tropical depression. Later that day, however, a decrease in shear allowed thunderstorms to refire. On 13 February, a weakness in the ridge caused the storm to turn back to the west\-southwest. Moving back beneath an anticyclone, conditions became more favorable for strengthening, allowing [outflow](/wiki/Outflow_%28meteorology%29 "Outflow (meteorology)") and a [central dense overcast](/wiki/Central_dense_overcast "Central dense overcast") to form, with the beginnings of an eye feature. Eline quickly intensified into a [severe tropical storm](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales%23South-West_Indian_Ocean "Tropical cyclone scales#South-West Indian Ocean") later the same day. At 00:00 UTC the next day, the JTWC upgraded Eline to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane with 1‑minute winds of {{convert\|120\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}. The MFR held off upgrading the storm, due to a passing trough increasing wind shear again. On 14 February, Eline passed about {{convert\|85\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} south of [St. Brandon](/wiki/St._Brandon "St. Brandon"), and shortly thereafter resumed its strengthening after the shear dropped. Later that day, the storm bypassed [Mauritius](/wiki/Mauritius "Mauritius") about {{convert\|180\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} to the northwest, with the storm's small structure sparing the island from the strongest winds. Early on 16 February, Eline attained tropical cyclone status, with 10‑minute winds of {{convert\|120\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}, while passing about {{convert\|160\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} northwest of Réunion. This was nine days after it had weakened to tropical storm status the first time.
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone, Eline was still encountering wind shear and dry air. Despite these factors, the eye became better defined and the storm intensified as upper\-level conditions improved. The cyclone turned more to the west toward Madagascar, despite a weakness in the ridge to the south. While approaching the country, Eline quickly intensified, reaching 10‑minute winds of {{convert\|165\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}} by 18:00 UTC on 17 February. Around that time, the cyclone made [landfall](/wiki/Landfall_%28meteorology%29 "Landfall (meteorology)") on eastern Madagascar near [Mahanoro](/wiki/Mahanoro "Mahanoro"). Eline rapidly weakened over land while moving to the west\-southwest, and the JTWC downgraded the storm to tropical depression status within 18 hours of moving ashore.
After crossing Madagascar for 26 hours, Eline emerged into the [Mozambique Channel](/wiki/Mozambique_Channel "Mozambique Channel") near [Belo](/wiki/Belo_sur_Mer "Belo sur Mer"), still maintaining good outflow. With warm waters and a favorable upper\-level environment, the depression quickly re\-intensified as convection increased. At 12:00 UTC on 19 February, Eline re\-attained moderate tropical storm status. While in the central Mozambique Channel, Eline passed about {{convert\|35\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} north of [Europa Island](/wiki/Europa_Island "Europa Island"), which recorded a [barometric pressure](/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure "Atmospheric pressure") of {{convert\|992\|mbar\|inHg\|abbr\=on}}. Shortly thereafter, the storm turned more to the west\-northwest due to a strengthening ridge to the south. A brief increase in wind shear delayed the strengthening trend, but Eline resumed intensifying on 21 February while slowly approaching southeastern Africa. Over a 24‑hour period, the pressure dropped by {{convert\|45\|mbar\|inHg\|abbr\=on}}, indicative of [rapid deepening](/wiki/Rapid_deepening "Rapid deepening"). During that time, the convection organized into an intense eyewall around a well\-defined {{convert\|60\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} eye. Eline had re\-attained tropical cyclone status at 12:00 UTC of the same day, and 18 hours later reached [intense tropical cyclone](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales%23South-West_Indian_Ocean "Tropical cyclone scales#South-West Indian Ocean") status. The MFR estimated peak 10‑minute winds of {{convert\|185\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}; in contrast, the JTWC estimated peak 1‑minute winds of {{convert\|215\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}, the equivalent of a Category 4 tropical cyclone on the [Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale](/wiki/Saffir%E2%80%93Simpson_scale "Saffir–Simpson scale") (SSHWS). While at peak intensity, Eline made landfall about {{convert\|80\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} south of [Beira, Mozambique](/wiki/Beira%2C_Mozambique "Beira, Mozambique"), where a central pressure of {{convert\|989\|mbar\|inHg\|abbr\=on}} was recorded. Gusts at landfall were estimated at {{convert\|260\|km/h\|mph\|abbr\=on}}.
Although the winds rapidly decreased after landfall, the storm maintained a well\-defined structure as it crossed from Mozambique into [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe "Zimbabwe") late on 22 February. Weakening to tropical depression status, Eline crossed Zimbabwe and maintained its circulation, entering [Botswana](/wiki/Botswana "Botswana") on 24 February. Three days later, the center drifted into eastern [Namibia](/wiki/Namibia "Namibia") and turned to the south, finally dissipating on 29 February. After the circulation dissipated, the residual system merged with a [heat low](/wiki/Thermal_low "Thermal low") and an approaching [cold front](/wiki/Cold_front "Cold front").
### Records and statistics
Throughout its duration, Leon\-Eline lasted 29 days, a record longevity for a storm in the southern Indian Ocean. The track was over {{convert\|11,000\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, or about 25% of the Earth's circumference. However, Eline was in the south\-west Indian Ocean for 21 days, which is the third most on record. It was behind [Cyclone Alibera](/wiki/Cyclone_Alibera "Cyclone Alibera") in 1989 and [Cyclone Georgette](/wiki/Tropical_Cyclone_Georgette_%281968%29 "Tropical Cyclone Georgette (1968)") in 1968, the latter of which lasted 24 days in the basin, later surpassed by 2023's [Cyclone Freddy](/wiki/Cyclone_Freddy "Cyclone Freddy"), which lasted 36 days in the basin.{{cite web\|author\=Neal Dorst\|author2\=Anne\-Claire Fontan\|series\=Records relatifs aux cyclones tropicaux\|title\=Sujet E6\) Which tropical cyclone lasted the longest?\|access\-date\=2014\-10\-07\|url\=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La\_Reunion/webcmrs9\.0/anglais/faq/FAQ\_Ang\_E.html}} The MFR noted that Eline was the strongest cyclone to strike the nation in several decades. The storm was uncommon in its landfall on mainland Africa; only 5% of storms in the basin do so, and most that cross or form in the Mozambique Channel turn to the south. Eline was unusual in maintaining its identity so far inland, aided by increased moisture and enhanced upper\-level environmental conditions over southern Africa.
|
[
"Meteorological history\n----------------------",
"{{storm path\\|Leon\\-Eline 2000 track.png}}\nThe origins of Cyclone Leon–Eline were from a surge of energy within the [monsoon trough](/wiki/Monsoon_trough \"Monsoon trough\") that crossed the [equator](/wiki/Equator \"Equator\") from the northwest, which spawned a [low pressure area](/wiki/Low_pressure_area \"Low pressure area\") on 1 February in the eastern Indian Ocean, about {{convert\\|250\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} south of the [Indonesian](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\") island of [Bali](/wiki/Bali \"Bali\"). Associated [convection](/wiki/Convection_%28meteorology%29 \"Convection (meteorology)\"), or thunderstorms, was initially sparse due to [wind shear](/wiki/Wind_shear \"Wind shear\") in the region. Over the next few days, the low tracked west\\-southwestward without much development, moving around a large [ridge](/wiki/Ridge_%28meteorology%29 \"Ridge (meteorology)\") over northwestern Australia. An [anticyclone](/wiki/Anticyclone \"Anticyclone\") over the system provided [outflow](/wiki/Outflow_%28meteorology%29 \"Outflow (meteorology)\"), allowing convection to increase despite the wind shear. At 22:00 [UTC](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time \"Coordinated Universal Time\") on 3 February, Australia's [Bureau of Meteorology](/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology \"Bureau of Meteorology\") (BoM) {{\\#tag:ref\\|The \\[\\[Regional Specialized Meteorological Center\\|Tropical Cyclone Warning Center]] in \\[\\[Perth]], Australia is a branch of the country's \\[\\[Bureau of Meteorology]], which is the official \\[\\[Regional Specialized Meteorological Center]] for the \\[\\[Australian region tropical cyclone climatology\\|Australian basin]].{{cite report\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Hurricane Center]]\\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-11\\|title\\=Worldwide Tropical Cyclone Centers\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-27\\|url\\=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutrsmc.shtml}}\\|group\\=\"nb\"}} upgraded the tropical low to a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the [Australian tropical cyclone scale](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales%23Australia_and_Fiji \"Tropical cyclone scales#Australia and Fiji\"), estimating 10‑minute [sustained winds](/wiki/Maximum_sustained_winds \"Maximum sustained winds\") of {{convert\\|65\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}. At 04:00 UTC the next day, the BoM [named](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_naming \"Tropical cyclone naming\") the storm Tropical Cyclone Leon. On the same day at 03:00 UTC, the [Joint Typhoon Warning Center](/wiki/Joint_Typhoon_Warning_Center \"Joint Typhoon Warning Center\") (JTWC){{\\#tag:ref\\|The \\[\\[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] is a joint \\[\\[United States Navy]] – \\[\\[United States Air Force]] task force that issues tropical cyclone warnings for the region.{{cite web\\|publisher\\=Joint Typhoon Warning Center\\|title\\=Joint Typhoon Warning Center Mission Statement\\|year\\=2011\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-25\\|url\\=https://metocph.nmci.navy.mil/jtwc/menu/JTWC\\_mission.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726103400/https://metocph.nmci.navy.mil/jtwc/menu/JTWC\\_mission.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-07\\-26}} \\|group\\=\"nb\"}} began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 11S. Around that time, Leon was located about {{convert\\|215\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} south\\-southeast of [Christmas Island](/wiki/Christmas_Island \"Christmas Island\"), moving west\\-southwestward. With decreasing wind shear, the convection organized into rainbands, signaling that the storm was strengthening.{{cite report\\|title\\=Cyclone Season 1999–2000\\|url\\=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La\\_Reunion/webcmrs9\\.0/anglais/archives/publications/saisons\\_cycloniques/index19992000\\.html\\|work\\=RSMC La Reunion\\|publisher\\=Meteo\\-France\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-15}}{{cite report\\|title\\=Tropical Cyclone Leon\\|publisher\\=Australian Bureau of Meteorology\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-15\\|url\\=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/history/pdf/leon.pdf}}{{cite journal\\|page\\=2\\|author\\=Darwin Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre\\|publisher\\=Bureau of Meteorology\\|volume\\=19\\|number\\=2\\|date\\=February 2000\\|title\\=Darwin Tropical Diagnostic Statement\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-15\\|url\\=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/ntregion/statements/tropical/dtds\\-200002\\.pdf}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Monthly Global Tropical Cyclone Summary February 2000\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-15\\|url\\=http://www.australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2000/summ0002\\.htm\\|author\\=Gary Padgett}}",
"Early on 5 February, the BoM upgraded Leon to a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian scale, estimating 10‑minute winds of {{convert\\|120\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}. At 22:00 UTC that day, the agency estimated an initial peak of {{convert\\|140\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}. On 6 February, the cyclone developed an [eye](/wiki/Eye_%28cyclone%29 \"Eye (cyclone)\") in the center of the convection that was only visible on [Special sensor microwave/imager](/wiki/Special_sensor_microwave/imager \"Special sensor microwave/imager\"), not on satellite imagery. On the same day, the JTWC upgraded Leon to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane, estimating 1‑minute winds of {{convert\\|140\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite report\\|author\\=Kenneth R. Knapp\\|author2\\=Michael C. Kruk\\|author3\\=David H. Levinson\\|author4\\=Howard J. Diamond\\|author5\\=Charles J. Neumann\\|year\\=2010\\|work\\=The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS): Unifying tropical cyclone best track data\\|title\\=2000 Eline:Leon:Leone\\_Eline (2000032S11115\\)\\|publisher\\=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-15\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=2000032S11115}} }} A trough passing to the south increased wind shear, causing the storm to weaken. Around that time, Leon passed about {{convert\\|510\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} south of the [Cocos Islands](/wiki/Cocos_%28Keeling%29_Islands \"Cocos (Keeling) Islands\"), while turning more to the west after the ridge strengthened to the south. By 8 February, the circulation was exposed from the rapidly dwindling thunderstorms. At 18:00 UTC that day, Leon crossed [90° E](/wiki/90th_meridian_east \"90th meridian east\") into the south\\-west Indian Ocean, and as result was renamed Eline by the Mauritius Meteorological Service. By that time, [Météo\\-France](/wiki/M%C3%A9t%C3%A9o-France \"Météo-France\") (MFR){{\\#tag:ref\\|The \\[\\[Météo\\-France]] office in \\[\\[Réunion]] is the official \\[\\[Regional Specialized Meteorological Center]] for the \\[\\[South\\-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone climatology\\|basin]].\\|group\\=\"nb\"}} estimated 10‑minute winds of {{convert\\|65\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Satellite image of Leon in the Australian basin](/wiki/File:Leon_2000-02-02_0932Z.png \"Leon 2000-02-02 0932Z.png\")\nOver the subsequent few days, wind shear caused the convection to wax and wane over Eline's center, limiting the thunderstorms to the southern periphery. The track shifted more to the west\\-northwest. On 11 February, Eline had weakened into a minimal tropical storm according to the MFR, about {{convert\\|1110\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} south of [Diego Garcia](/wiki/Diego_Garcia \"Diego Garcia\"), and the JTWC operationally downgraded it to a tropical depression. Later that day, however, a decrease in shear allowed thunderstorms to refire. On 13 February, a weakness in the ridge caused the storm to turn back to the west\\-southwest. Moving back beneath an anticyclone, conditions became more favorable for strengthening, allowing [outflow](/wiki/Outflow_%28meteorology%29 \"Outflow (meteorology)\") and a [central dense overcast](/wiki/Central_dense_overcast \"Central dense overcast\") to form, with the beginnings of an eye feature. Eline quickly intensified into a [severe tropical storm](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales%23South-West_Indian_Ocean \"Tropical cyclone scales#South-West Indian Ocean\") later the same day. At 00:00 UTC the next day, the JTWC upgraded Eline to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane with 1‑minute winds of {{convert\\|120\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}. The MFR held off upgrading the storm, due to a passing trough increasing wind shear again. On 14 February, Eline passed about {{convert\\|85\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} south of [St. Brandon](/wiki/St._Brandon \"St. Brandon\"), and shortly thereafter resumed its strengthening after the shear dropped. Later that day, the storm bypassed [Mauritius](/wiki/Mauritius \"Mauritius\") about {{convert\\|180\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} to the northwest, with the storm's small structure sparing the island from the strongest winds. Early on 16 February, Eline attained tropical cyclone status, with 10‑minute winds of {{convert\\|120\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}, while passing about {{convert\\|160\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} northwest of Réunion. This was nine days after it had weakened to tropical storm status the first time.",
"Upon becoming a tropical cyclone, Eline was still encountering wind shear and dry air. Despite these factors, the eye became better defined and the storm intensified as upper\\-level conditions improved. The cyclone turned more to the west toward Madagascar, despite a weakness in the ridge to the south. While approaching the country, Eline quickly intensified, reaching 10‑minute winds of {{convert\\|165\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}} by 18:00 UTC on 17 February. Around that time, the cyclone made [landfall](/wiki/Landfall_%28meteorology%29 \"Landfall (meteorology)\") on eastern Madagascar near [Mahanoro](/wiki/Mahanoro \"Mahanoro\"). Eline rapidly weakened over land while moving to the west\\-southwest, and the JTWC downgraded the storm to tropical depression status within 18 hours of moving ashore.",
"After crossing Madagascar for 26 hours, Eline emerged into the [Mozambique Channel](/wiki/Mozambique_Channel \"Mozambique Channel\") near [Belo](/wiki/Belo_sur_Mer \"Belo sur Mer\"), still maintaining good outflow. With warm waters and a favorable upper\\-level environment, the depression quickly re\\-intensified as convection increased. At 12:00 UTC on 19 February, Eline re\\-attained moderate tropical storm status. While in the central Mozambique Channel, Eline passed about {{convert\\|35\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} north of [Europa Island](/wiki/Europa_Island \"Europa Island\"), which recorded a [barometric pressure](/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure \"Atmospheric pressure\") of {{convert\\|992\\|mbar\\|inHg\\|abbr\\=on}}. Shortly thereafter, the storm turned more to the west\\-northwest due to a strengthening ridge to the south. A brief increase in wind shear delayed the strengthening trend, but Eline resumed intensifying on 21 February while slowly approaching southeastern Africa. Over a 24‑hour period, the pressure dropped by {{convert\\|45\\|mbar\\|inHg\\|abbr\\=on}}, indicative of [rapid deepening](/wiki/Rapid_deepening \"Rapid deepening\"). During that time, the convection organized into an intense eyewall around a well\\-defined {{convert\\|60\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} eye. Eline had re\\-attained tropical cyclone status at 12:00 UTC of the same day, and 18 hours later reached [intense tropical cyclone](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales%23South-West_Indian_Ocean \"Tropical cyclone scales#South-West Indian Ocean\") status. The MFR estimated peak 10‑minute winds of {{convert\\|185\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}; in contrast, the JTWC estimated peak 1‑minute winds of {{convert\\|215\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}, the equivalent of a Category 4 tropical cyclone on the [Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale](/wiki/Saffir%E2%80%93Simpson_scale \"Saffir–Simpson scale\") (SSHWS). While at peak intensity, Eline made landfall about {{convert\\|80\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} south of [Beira, Mozambique](/wiki/Beira%2C_Mozambique \"Beira, Mozambique\"), where a central pressure of {{convert\\|989\\|mbar\\|inHg\\|abbr\\=on}} was recorded. Gusts at landfall were estimated at {{convert\\|260\\|km/h\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"Although the winds rapidly decreased after landfall, the storm maintained a well\\-defined structure as it crossed from Mozambique into [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\") late on 22 February. Weakening to tropical depression status, Eline crossed Zimbabwe and maintained its circulation, entering [Botswana](/wiki/Botswana \"Botswana\") on 24 February. Three days later, the center drifted into eastern [Namibia](/wiki/Namibia \"Namibia\") and turned to the south, finally dissipating on 29 February. After the circulation dissipated, the residual system merged with a [heat low](/wiki/Thermal_low \"Thermal low\") and an approaching [cold front](/wiki/Cold_front \"Cold front\").",
"### Records and statistics",
"Throughout its duration, Leon\\-Eline lasted 29 days, a record longevity for a storm in the southern Indian Ocean. The track was over {{convert\\|11,000\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, or about 25% of the Earth's circumference. However, Eline was in the south\\-west Indian Ocean for 21 days, which is the third most on record. It was behind [Cyclone Alibera](/wiki/Cyclone_Alibera \"Cyclone Alibera\") in 1989 and [Cyclone Georgette](/wiki/Tropical_Cyclone_Georgette_%281968%29 \"Tropical Cyclone Georgette (1968)\") in 1968, the latter of which lasted 24 days in the basin, later surpassed by 2023's [Cyclone Freddy](/wiki/Cyclone_Freddy \"Cyclone Freddy\"), which lasted 36 days in the basin.{{cite web\\|author\\=Neal Dorst\\|author2\\=Anne\\-Claire Fontan\\|series\\=Records relatifs aux cyclones tropicaux\\|title\\=Sujet E6\\) Which tropical cyclone lasted the longest?\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-07\\|url\\=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La\\_Reunion/webcmrs9\\.0/anglais/faq/FAQ\\_Ang\\_E.html}} The MFR noted that Eline was the strongest cyclone to strike the nation in several decades. The storm was uncommon in its landfall on mainland Africa; only 5% of storms in the basin do so, and most that cross or form in the Mozambique Channel turn to the south. Eline was unusual in maintaining its identity so far inland, aided by increased moisture and enhanced upper\\-level environmental conditions over southern Africa.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early life
Brown was born in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California"). At age four she moved with her family to [Spring Branch, Houston](/wiki/Spring_Branch%2C_Houston "Spring Branch, Houston"). Brown lived in [Houston City Council](/wiki/Houston_City_Council "Houston City Council") District A for almost all of her life. Brown's parents [homeschooled](/wiki/Homeschool "Homeschool") her. She had served as the [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") chair of precinct \#577, a 13\-city block area, since age 18\. Precinct chairs get their party's votes within their jurisdictions. Brown had volunteered for several Republican Party campaigns. In 2001,DePrang, Emily. "[Helena Handbasket: One Bizarre Year In the Life of Houston's Strangest Politician](http://www.texasobserver.org/helena-handbasket-one-bizarre-year-in-the-life-of-houstons-strangest-politician/)." *[Texas Observer](/wiki/Texas_Observer "Texas Observer")*. Wednesday December 19, 2012\. Retrieved on June 5, 2013\. she graduated from the [University of St. Thomas](/wiki/University_of_St._Thomas_%28Texas%29 "University of St. Thomas (Texas)"),"[City Council District A](http://www.houstontx.gov/council/a/index.html)." ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20130529141340/http://www.houstontx.gov/council/a/index.html)) City of Houston. Retrieved on July 5, 2013\. gaining a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts") degree in history. In 2001 she started a nonprofit organization called *Turris Davidica* which aimed to distribute Roman Catholic religious media and assist needy people. In 2010 the organization defaulted on its charter. Emily DePrang of the *[Texas Observer](/wiki/Texas_Observer "Texas Observer")* said that the accomplishments of the organization were unclear.
According to the city administrator of [Bunker Hill Village](/wiki/Bunker_Hill_Village%2C_Texas "Bunker Hill Village, Texas"), a municipality in [Greater Houston](/wiki/Greater_Houston "Greater Houston"), Brown worked in the city government as a part\-time receptionist for one year in 2007\. The office of the [Texas Secretary of State](/wiki/Texas_Secretary_of_State "Texas Secretary of State") states that Brown had been a member\-at\-large of the Moritz Village Townhomes Association since 2007; her official website stated that she was the president of the association while her city council page on the City of Houston website said that she was a former president of the association.
### Election
She was elected to her city council post in November 2011\. She ran against Brenda Stardig and campaigned on a platform of fiscal conservatism. There was an 8% turnout in her district. Voters favored Brown because Stardig supported a "rain tax," passed in 2010, that taxed churches. The taxation of churches had a negative reception with political conservatives in Spring Branch. The voting base is politically conservative despite the presence of large Hispanic neighborhoods within District A. McCoy said that Stardig's re\-election campaign was "ineffectual" so that also harmed her prospects.
Brown won the runoff election with 3,042 votes in December 2011\. Since District A had 200,000 people, the winning votes represented fewer than 2% of the district's total population. Stardig had a ten\-point loss.Shauk, Zain. "[Houston runoff shows voters want change](http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Houston-runoff-shows-voters-want-change-2396071.php)." *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle "Houston Chronicle")*. December 11, 2011\. Retrieved on June 6, 2013\. Emily DePrang of the *[Texas Observer](/wiki/Texas_Observer "Texas Observer")* said that Brown had been lucky because of circumstances which had been favorable for her. The city council post was the first political post which Brown had been elected to.McCoy, Terence. "Who's Behind Helena Brown?" *[Houston Press](/wiki/Houston_Press "Houston Press")*. Wednesday July 4, 2012\. [1](http://www.houstonpress.com/2012-07-05/news/helena-brown-william-park/). Retrieved on June 5, 2013\. "Rather, an outside volunteer "senior adviser" named William Park — a man who popped into her life a few years back — appears to dictate her office, and some say her life. Brown's speeches, laced with demagoguery, aren't extemporaneous. By nearly all accounts, Park plans, if not writes, them."
### Political career
In January 2012 she took office. Chris Moran of the *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle "Houston Chronicle")* said that she "has stood out for her numerous "no" votes against spending and her tags to hold up other votes."Moran, Chris. "[City Council quashes Helena Brown's delays](http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Council-quashes-Brown-s-delays-delivers-rebukes-3372321.php)." *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle "Houston Chronicle")*. February 29, 2012\. Retrieved on June 5, 2013\.
During her career she voted against many goods and services she characterized as being "luxury", opposing around 50% of the spending proposals in the city government. On many occasions she voted against proposals that every other council member voted on, making them 16–1\. DePrang said "Brown made waves for her nearly satirical level of budget hawkery. She made simplistic government\-bad, free\-market\-good speeches that evoked *[The Colbert Report](/wiki/The_Colbert_Report "The Colbert Report")* to justify voting against funding meals for the elderly, storm sewers, and fire trucks." In order to end the budget deficit in the city government, Brown proposed outsourcing emergency services and defaulting on tax bonds and city pensions. Brown also became known for using *tags*, parliamentary procedures used to delay votes, with any rationale on agenda items so they occur one week later than without the tag. In February the city council admonished Brown and began overriding her tags; the previous such override occurred in the summer of 2011\. Moran said that an override is very "unusual" and that it "generally is frowned upon as a break from council decorum." Brown named a man, William Park, as her "senior adviser." Park is a film producer who was previously involved in financial securities, but had been banned from the industry. Several former employees and critics accused Park of having *[de facto](/wiki/De_facto "De facto")* control over Brown's city council post and actions.
In 2012 Mario Diaz, the head of the [Houston Airport System](/wiki/Houston_Airport_System "Houston Airport System"), invited her to travel to Korea to meet with airline representatives for expanding service into Houston. Brown's district has a large [Korean American](/wiki/Korean_American "Korean American") population. After the airlines cancelled the meetings, Diaz ended the Korea trip but Brown went anyway, spending $11,000 in public money on her airfare. Jessica Michan, the press secretary of the City of Houston, said that she never met airline representatives. Terrence McCoy of the *[Houston Press](/wiki/Houston_Press "Houston Press")* said "It's unclear what, if anything, Brown accomplished while in Asia."McCoy, Terrence. "[Helena Brown's Asian Adventures: DMZ, Fighter Jets \-\- But What About The Airlines?](http://blogs.houstonpress.com/hairballs/2012/07/city_cm_helena_brown_never_vis.php)" ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20131225101734/http://blogs.houstonpress.com/hairballs/2012/07/city_cm_helena_brown_never_vis.php)) *[Houston Press](/wiki/Houston_Press "Houston Press")*. Monday July 9, 2012\. Retrieved on July 25, 2012\. In 2012 Greg Groogan of the [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company "Fox Broadcasting Company") [O\&O](/wiki/Owned-and-operated_station "Owned-and-operated station") [television station](/wiki/Television_station "Television station") [KRIV](/wiki/KRIV_%28TV%29 "KRIV (TV)") said that Brown "has been labeled both a hypocritical penny pincher and the bumbling puppet of a shady financier" and that she had "taken quite a beating in the local press". In an interview Brown said "I am very much my own person and as many who know me and watch me on city council I stick by my principles and I do not get bullied. I do not get pressured."
In 2014, Brown was replaced as Houston City Council representative for District A by Brenda Stardig following a December 2013 runoff election.{{cite web\|last\=Kuffner \|first\=Charles \|url\=http://blog.chron.com/kuffsworld/2013/12/runoff\-results\-rough\-day\-for\-incumbents/ \|title\=Runoff results: Rough day for incumbents \|publisher\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|date\= December 15, 2013 \|accessdate\=February 8, 2014 \|work\=blog.chron.com}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early life",
"Brown was born in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\"). At age four she moved with her family to [Spring Branch, Houston](/wiki/Spring_Branch%2C_Houston \"Spring Branch, Houston\"). Brown lived in [Houston City Council](/wiki/Houston_City_Council \"Houston City Council\") District A for almost all of her life. Brown's parents [homeschooled](/wiki/Homeschool \"Homeschool\") her. She had served as the [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") chair of precinct \\#577, a 13\\-city block area, since age 18\\. Precinct chairs get their party's votes within their jurisdictions. Brown had volunteered for several Republican Party campaigns. In 2001,DePrang, Emily. \"[Helena Handbasket: One Bizarre Year In the Life of Houston's Strangest Politician](http://www.texasobserver.org/helena-handbasket-one-bizarre-year-in-the-life-of-houstons-strangest-politician/).\" *[Texas Observer](/wiki/Texas_Observer \"Texas Observer\")*. Wednesday December 19, 2012\\. Retrieved on June 5, 2013\\. she graduated from the [University of St. Thomas](/wiki/University_of_St._Thomas_%28Texas%29 \"University of St. Thomas (Texas)\"),\"[City Council District A](http://www.houstontx.gov/council/a/index.html).\" ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20130529141340/http://www.houstontx.gov/council/a/index.html)) City of Houston. Retrieved on July 5, 2013\\. gaining a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") degree in history. In 2001 she started a nonprofit organization called *Turris Davidica* which aimed to distribute Roman Catholic religious media and assist needy people. In 2010 the organization defaulted on its charter. Emily DePrang of the *[Texas Observer](/wiki/Texas_Observer \"Texas Observer\")* said that the accomplishments of the organization were unclear.",
"According to the city administrator of [Bunker Hill Village](/wiki/Bunker_Hill_Village%2C_Texas \"Bunker Hill Village, Texas\"), a municipality in [Greater Houston](/wiki/Greater_Houston \"Greater Houston\"), Brown worked in the city government as a part\\-time receptionist for one year in 2007\\. The office of the [Texas Secretary of State](/wiki/Texas_Secretary_of_State \"Texas Secretary of State\") states that Brown had been a member\\-at\\-large of the Moritz Village Townhomes Association since 2007; her official website stated that she was the president of the association while her city council page on the City of Houston website said that she was a former president of the association.",
"### Election",
"She was elected to her city council post in November 2011\\. She ran against Brenda Stardig and campaigned on a platform of fiscal conservatism. There was an 8% turnout in her district. Voters favored Brown because Stardig supported a \"rain tax,\" passed in 2010, that taxed churches. The taxation of churches had a negative reception with political conservatives in Spring Branch. The voting base is politically conservative despite the presence of large Hispanic neighborhoods within District A. McCoy said that Stardig's re\\-election campaign was \"ineffectual\" so that also harmed her prospects.",
"Brown won the runoff election with 3,042 votes in December 2011\\. Since District A had 200,000 people, the winning votes represented fewer than 2% of the district's total population. Stardig had a ten\\-point loss.Shauk, Zain. \"[Houston runoff shows voters want change](http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Houston-runoff-shows-voters-want-change-2396071.php).\" *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle \"Houston Chronicle\")*. December 11, 2011\\. Retrieved on June 6, 2013\\. Emily DePrang of the *[Texas Observer](/wiki/Texas_Observer \"Texas Observer\")* said that Brown had been lucky because of circumstances which had been favorable for her. The city council post was the first political post which Brown had been elected to.McCoy, Terence. \"Who's Behind Helena Brown?\" *[Houston Press](/wiki/Houston_Press \"Houston Press\")*. Wednesday July 4, 2012\\. [1](http://www.houstonpress.com/2012-07-05/news/helena-brown-william-park/). Retrieved on June 5, 2013\\. \"Rather, an outside volunteer \"senior adviser\" named William Park — a man who popped into her life a few years back — appears to dictate her office, and some say her life. Brown's speeches, laced with demagoguery, aren't extemporaneous. By nearly all accounts, Park plans, if not writes, them.\"",
"### Political career",
"In January 2012 she took office. Chris Moran of the *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle \"Houston Chronicle\")* said that she \"has stood out for her numerous \"no\" votes against spending and her tags to hold up other votes.\"Moran, Chris. \"[City Council quashes Helena Brown's delays](http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Council-quashes-Brown-s-delays-delivers-rebukes-3372321.php).\" *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle \"Houston Chronicle\")*. February 29, 2012\\. Retrieved on June 5, 2013\\.",
"During her career she voted against many goods and services she characterized as being \"luxury\", opposing around 50% of the spending proposals in the city government. On many occasions she voted against proposals that every other council member voted on, making them 16–1\\. DePrang said \"Brown made waves for her nearly satirical level of budget hawkery. She made simplistic government\\-bad, free\\-market\\-good speeches that evoked *[The Colbert Report](/wiki/The_Colbert_Report \"The Colbert Report\")* to justify voting against funding meals for the elderly, storm sewers, and fire trucks.\" In order to end the budget deficit in the city government, Brown proposed outsourcing emergency services and defaulting on tax bonds and city pensions. Brown also became known for using *tags*, parliamentary procedures used to delay votes, with any rationale on agenda items so they occur one week later than without the tag. In February the city council admonished Brown and began overriding her tags; the previous such override occurred in the summer of 2011\\. Moran said that an override is very \"unusual\" and that it \"generally is frowned upon as a break from council decorum.\" Brown named a man, William Park, as her \"senior adviser.\" Park is a film producer who was previously involved in financial securities, but had been banned from the industry. Several former employees and critics accused Park of having *[de facto](/wiki/De_facto \"De facto\")* control over Brown's city council post and actions.",
"In 2012 Mario Diaz, the head of the [Houston Airport System](/wiki/Houston_Airport_System \"Houston Airport System\"), invited her to travel to Korea to meet with airline representatives for expanding service into Houston. Brown's district has a large [Korean American](/wiki/Korean_American \"Korean American\") population. After the airlines cancelled the meetings, Diaz ended the Korea trip but Brown went anyway, spending $11,000 in public money on her airfare. Jessica Michan, the press secretary of the City of Houston, said that she never met airline representatives. Terrence McCoy of the *[Houston Press](/wiki/Houston_Press \"Houston Press\")* said \"It's unclear what, if anything, Brown accomplished while in Asia.\"McCoy, Terrence. \"[Helena Brown's Asian Adventures: DMZ, Fighter Jets \\-\\- But What About The Airlines?](http://blogs.houstonpress.com/hairballs/2012/07/city_cm_helena_brown_never_vis.php)\" ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20131225101734/http://blogs.houstonpress.com/hairballs/2012/07/city_cm_helena_brown_never_vis.php)) *[Houston Press](/wiki/Houston_Press \"Houston Press\")*. Monday July 9, 2012\\. Retrieved on July 25, 2012\\. In 2012 Greg Groogan of the [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company \"Fox Broadcasting Company\") [O\\&O](/wiki/Owned-and-operated_station \"Owned-and-operated station\") [television station](/wiki/Television_station \"Television station\") [KRIV](/wiki/KRIV_%28TV%29 \"KRIV (TV)\") said that Brown \"has been labeled both a hypocritical penny pincher and the bumbling puppet of a shady financier\" and that she had \"taken quite a beating in the local press\". In an interview Brown said \"I am very much my own person and as many who know me and watch me on city council I stick by my principles and I do not get bullied. I do not get pressured.\"",
"In 2014, Brown was replaced as Houston City Council representative for District A by Brenda Stardig following a December 2013 runoff election.{{cite web\\|last\\=Kuffner \\|first\\=Charles \\|url\\=http://blog.chron.com/kuffsworld/2013/12/runoff\\-results\\-rough\\-day\\-for\\-incumbents/ \\|title\\=Runoff results: Rough day for incumbents \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|date\\= December 15, 2013 \\|accessdate\\=February 8, 2014 \\|work\\=blog.chron.com}}",
""
] |
Origins and arguments
---------------------
### Background and composition
[thumb\|right\|Kant's book sums up the work of his [Albertus Universität](/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg "University of Königsberg") course and its philosophical explorations, the writing evaluating the intersections of [morality](/wiki/Morality "Morality") and [nature](/wiki/Nature "Nature") within human experience.](/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_%281724-1804%29_engraving.jpg "Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) engraving.jpg")
{{expand\-section\|date\=April 2020}}
Kant's work distills the content that he taught in an annual course at the [Albertus Universität](/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg "University of Königsberg") in then [Königsberg](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg "Königsberg"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), a program which Kant set forth from 1772 until his retirement in 1796\. The book came out in 1798 with the intent of exposing Kant's viewpoints on the then embryonic intellectual field of [anthropology](/wiki/Anthropology "Anthropology") to a wider audience. Despite not being free, unlike other speaking engagements by Kant, the philosopher's classes on the topic had achieved widespread popular interest in contrast to previous attempts to spread his general ideas to the masses.
*Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View* wound up being the last major work of Kant that was edited by the philosopher himself. The strain of his age and the state of his health had significantly affected his writing. Despite the meaning that he attached to the book, those factors meant that he found himself unable to do more much than arrange his lecture notes for publication.
Summing up Kant's views on [ideals](/wiki/Ideal_%28ethics%29 "Ideal (ethics)") in the context of the book's composition, scholar Frederick P. Van De Pitte has written,
{{quote\|"Kant realized that man's rational capacity alone is not sufficient to constitute his dignity and elevate him above the brutes. If reason only enables him to do for himself what instinct does for the animal, then it would indicate for man no higher aim or destiny than that of the brute but only a different way of attaining the same end. However, reason is man's most essential attribute because it is the means by which a truly distinctive dimension is made possible for him. Reason, that is, reflective awareness, makes it possible to distinguish between good and bad, and thus morality can be made the ruling purpose of life. Because man can consider an array of possibilities, and which among them is the most desirable, he can strive to make himself and his world into a realization of his ideals."}}
### Methodology and views expressed
Within the work, Kant remarks that anthropology seeks to answer the fundamental question "what is the human being" and thus can be considered the academic discipline with the highest intellectual scope. A later reviewer commented about Kant's opinions that "\[o]ne of the many lessons... is that at the empirical level of application, there is no sharp dividing line between morality and nature, since empirical psychology can function as empirical ethics for this purpose." In conclusion, according to the reviewer, "\[h]uman beings in nature are acting, moral beings".
Exploring in multiple aspects the causes and effects of people's behavior, Kant spends many pages on topics such as the [biological](/wiki/Biology "Biology") as well as [psychological](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology") capacity for individuals to live through and comprehend experiences. For instance, the writing details Kant's views on the [external senses](/wiki/Sense%23Human_sensation "Sense#Human sensation") as well as the particular nature of different mental states from [drunkenness](/wiki/Drunkenness "Drunkenness") to [sleep](/wiki/Sleep "Sleep"). He expands to discussions on social organization and interpersonal relations while inserting numerous comments about different types of people as well as various life events. Many of these relate to observations of humanity itself, generally speaking.
Specifically, Kant states that "a mind of slow apprehension is therefore not necessarily a weak mind" since "the one who is alert with
abstractions is not always profound" but "is more often very superficial." He argues, "\[t]he deceiver is really the fool." On determination and mental resolve, in addition, Kant asserts that "\[t]hrough failures one becomes intelligent" and "the one who has trained himself in this subject so that he can make others wise through their own failures... \[thus] has used his intelligence." Kant defends what he describes as the seeking of knowledge by even the uncertain layperson, the philosopher arguing "\[i]gnorance is not stupidity."
The book additionally features detailed accounts by Kant of him applying his "[categorical imperative](/wiki/Categorical_imperative "Categorical imperative")" concept to various issues in real experience. For example, he writes about the contrast between striving idealism and personal [vice](/wiki/Vice "Vice"), the philosopher writing,
{{quote\|"Young man! Deny yourself satisfaction (of amusement, of debauchery, of love, etc.), not with the Stoical intention of complete abstinence, but with the refined Epicurean intention of having in view an ever\-growing pleasure. This stinginess with the cash of your vital urge makes you definitely richer through the postponement of pleasure, even if you should, for the most part, renounce the indulgence of it until the end of your life. The awareness of having pleasure under your control is, like everything idealistic, more fruitful and more abundant than everything that satisfies the sense through indulgence because it is thereby simultaneously consumed and consequently lost from the aggregate of totality."{{cite book\|title\=Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View\|authorlink\=Immanuel Kant\|first\=Immanuel\|last\=Kant\|date\=1996\|translator\=Victor Lyle Dowdell\|publisher\=\[\[Southern Illinois University Press]]\|isbn\=9780809320608\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TbkVBMKz418C}}}}
On the subject of [religion](/wiki/Religion "Religion"), he laments what he sees as unnecessary conflict in terms of cognitive purposes and the regular practice of devotion, Kant remarking,
{{quote\|"What vexations there are in the external customs which are thought to belong to religion, but which in reality are related to ecclesiastical form! The merits of piety have been set up in such away that the ritual is of no use at all except for the simple submission of the believers to ceremonies and observances, expiations and mortifications (the more the better). But such compulsory services, which are mechanically easy (because no vicious inclination is thus sacrificed), must be found morally very difficult and burdensome to the rational man. When, therefore, the great moral teacher said, 'My commandments are not difficult,' he did not mean that they require only limited exercise of strength in order to be fulfilled. As a matter of fact, as commandments which require pure dispositions of the heart, they are the hardest that can be given. Yet, for a rational man, they are nevertheless infinitely easier to keep than the commandments involving activity which accomplishes nothing... \[since] the mechanically easy feels like lifting hundredweights to the rational man when he sees that all the energy spent is wasted."}}
Comparing and contrasting different human groups, Kant makes a variety of assertions about [men](/wiki/Man "Man") and [women](/wiki/Woman "Woman") as well as different [ethnicities](/wiki/Ethnicity "Ethnicity"), [nationalities](/wiki/Nationality "Nationality"), and [races](/wiki/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29 "Race (classification of human beings)"). For instance, he writes about the sexes, "\[t]he woman wants to dominate, \[and] the man wants to be dominated". The philosopher argues in depth that nature "made women mature early and had them demand gentle and polite treatment from men, so that they would find themselves imperceptibly fettered by a child due to their own magnanimity" and additionally "would find themselves brought, if not quite to morality itself, then at least to that which cloaks it, moral behavior". In Kant's eyes, ideal [marriage](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") exists in such a way that a woman acts like a [monarch](/wiki/Monarchy "Monarchy") while a man acts like a [cabinet minister](/wiki/Cabinet_%28government%29 "Cabinet (government)").
In terms of differing nations, Kant asserts that important generalities can be made about the peoples of various areas, stating specifically,
{{quote\|"England and France, the two most civilized nations on earth, who are in contrast to each other because of their different characters, are, perhaps chiefly for that reason, in constant feud with one another. Also, England and France, because of their inborn characters, of which the acquired and artificial character is only the result, are probably the only nations who can be assumed to have a particular and, as long as both national characters are not blended by the force of war, unalterable characteristics. That French has become the universal language of conversation, especially in the feminine world, and that English is the most widely used language of commerce among tradesmen, probably reflects the difference in their continental and insular geographic situation."}}
In sum, the philosopher views [ethical analysis](/wiki/Ethics "Ethics") fundamentally as constituting "practical anthropology". He aims not to necessarily assign [duties](/wiki/Duty "Duty") to individuals but to empower them intellectually so that they can properly set their own paths themselves. Dovetailing on the same issues, the concluding section of *Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View* discusses "the character of the species" and evaluates the necessity of giving space for personal [freedom](/wiki/Freedom "Freedom") as a key element in broader social advancement.
|
[
"Origins and arguments\n---------------------",
"### Background and composition",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Kant's book sums up the work of his [Albertus Universität](/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg \"University of Königsberg\") course and its philosophical explorations, the writing evaluating the intersections of [morality](/wiki/Morality \"Morality\") and [nature](/wiki/Nature \"Nature\") within human experience.](/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_%281724-1804%29_engraving.jpg \"Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) engraving.jpg\")",
"{{expand\\-section\\|date\\=April 2020}}",
"Kant's work distills the content that he taught in an annual course at the [Albertus Universität](/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg \"University of Königsberg\") in then [Königsberg](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg \"Königsberg\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), a program which Kant set forth from 1772 until his retirement in 1796\\. The book came out in 1798 with the intent of exposing Kant's viewpoints on the then embryonic intellectual field of [anthropology](/wiki/Anthropology \"Anthropology\") to a wider audience. Despite not being free, unlike other speaking engagements by Kant, the philosopher's classes on the topic had achieved widespread popular interest in contrast to previous attempts to spread his general ideas to the masses.",
"*Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View* wound up being the last major work of Kant that was edited by the philosopher himself. The strain of his age and the state of his health had significantly affected his writing. Despite the meaning that he attached to the book, those factors meant that he found himself unable to do more much than arrange his lecture notes for publication.",
"Summing up Kant's views on [ideals](/wiki/Ideal_%28ethics%29 \"Ideal (ethics)\") in the context of the book's composition, scholar Frederick P. Van De Pitte has written,\n{{quote\\|\"Kant realized that man's rational capacity alone is not sufficient to constitute his dignity and elevate him above the brutes. If reason only enables him to do for himself what instinct does for the animal, then it would indicate for man no higher aim or destiny than that of the brute but only a different way of attaining the same end. However, reason is man's most essential attribute because it is the means by which a truly distinctive dimension is made possible for him. Reason, that is, reflective awareness, makes it possible to distinguish between good and bad, and thus morality can be made the ruling purpose of life. Because man can consider an array of possibilities, and which among them is the most desirable, he can strive to make himself and his world into a realization of his ideals.\"}}",
"### Methodology and views expressed",
"Within the work, Kant remarks that anthropology seeks to answer the fundamental question \"what is the human being\" and thus can be considered the academic discipline with the highest intellectual scope. A later reviewer commented about Kant's opinions that \"\\[o]ne of the many lessons... is that at the empirical level of application, there is no sharp dividing line between morality and nature, since empirical psychology can function as empirical ethics for this purpose.\" In conclusion, according to the reviewer, \"\\[h]uman beings in nature are acting, moral beings\".",
"Exploring in multiple aspects the causes and effects of people's behavior, Kant spends many pages on topics such as the [biological](/wiki/Biology \"Biology\") as well as [psychological](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\") capacity for individuals to live through and comprehend experiences. For instance, the writing details Kant's views on the [external senses](/wiki/Sense%23Human_sensation \"Sense#Human sensation\") as well as the particular nature of different mental states from [drunkenness](/wiki/Drunkenness \"Drunkenness\") to [sleep](/wiki/Sleep \"Sleep\"). He expands to discussions on social organization and interpersonal relations while inserting numerous comments about different types of people as well as various life events. Many of these relate to observations of humanity itself, generally speaking.",
"Specifically, Kant states that \"a mind of slow apprehension is therefore not necessarily a weak mind\" since \"the one who is alert with\nabstractions is not always profound\" but \"is more often very superficial.\" He argues, \"\\[t]he deceiver is really the fool.\" On determination and mental resolve, in addition, Kant asserts that \"\\[t]hrough failures one becomes intelligent\" and \"the one who has trained himself in this subject so that he can make others wise through their own failures... \\[thus] has used his intelligence.\" Kant defends what he describes as the seeking of knowledge by even the uncertain layperson, the philosopher arguing \"\\[i]gnorance is not stupidity.\"",
"The book additionally features detailed accounts by Kant of him applying his \"[categorical imperative](/wiki/Categorical_imperative \"Categorical imperative\")\" concept to various issues in real experience. For example, he writes about the contrast between striving idealism and personal [vice](/wiki/Vice \"Vice\"), the philosopher writing,\n{{quote\\|\"Young man! Deny yourself satisfaction (of amusement, of debauchery, of love, etc.), not with the Stoical intention of complete abstinence, but with the refined Epicurean intention of having in view an ever\\-growing pleasure. This stinginess with the cash of your vital urge makes you definitely richer through the postponement of pleasure, even if you should, for the most part, renounce the indulgence of it until the end of your life. The awareness of having pleasure under your control is, like everything idealistic, more fruitful and more abundant than everything that satisfies the sense through indulgence because it is thereby simultaneously consumed and consequently lost from the aggregate of totality.\"{{cite book\\|title\\=Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View\\|authorlink\\=Immanuel Kant\\|first\\=Immanuel\\|last\\=Kant\\|date\\=1996\\|translator\\=Victor Lyle Dowdell\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Southern Illinois University Press]]\\|isbn\\=9780809320608\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TbkVBMKz418C}}}}",
"On the subject of [religion](/wiki/Religion \"Religion\"), he laments what he sees as unnecessary conflict in terms of cognitive purposes and the regular practice of devotion, Kant remarking,\n{{quote\\|\"What vexations there are in the external customs which are thought to belong to religion, but which in reality are related to ecclesiastical form! The merits of piety have been set up in such away that the ritual is of no use at all except for the simple submission of the believers to ceremonies and observances, expiations and mortifications (the more the better). But such compulsory services, which are mechanically easy (because no vicious inclination is thus sacrificed), must be found morally very difficult and burdensome to the rational man. When, therefore, the great moral teacher said, 'My commandments are not difficult,' he did not mean that they require only limited exercise of strength in order to be fulfilled. As a matter of fact, as commandments which require pure dispositions of the heart, they are the hardest that can be given. Yet, for a rational man, they are nevertheless infinitely easier to keep than the commandments involving activity which accomplishes nothing... \\[since] the mechanically easy feels like lifting hundredweights to the rational man when he sees that all the energy spent is wasted.\"}}",
"Comparing and contrasting different human groups, Kant makes a variety of assertions about [men](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and [women](/wiki/Woman \"Woman\") as well as different [ethnicities](/wiki/Ethnicity \"Ethnicity\"), [nationalities](/wiki/Nationality \"Nationality\"), and [races](/wiki/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29 \"Race (classification of human beings)\"). For instance, he writes about the sexes, \"\\[t]he woman wants to dominate, \\[and] the man wants to be dominated\". The philosopher argues in depth that nature \"made women mature early and had them demand gentle and polite treatment from men, so that they would find themselves imperceptibly fettered by a child due to their own magnanimity\" and additionally \"would find themselves brought, if not quite to morality itself, then at least to that which cloaks it, moral behavior\". In Kant's eyes, ideal [marriage](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") exists in such a way that a woman acts like a [monarch](/wiki/Monarchy \"Monarchy\") while a man acts like a [cabinet minister](/wiki/Cabinet_%28government%29 \"Cabinet (government)\").",
"In terms of differing nations, Kant asserts that important generalities can be made about the peoples of various areas, stating specifically,\n{{quote\\|\"England and France, the two most civilized nations on earth, who are in contrast to each other because of their different characters, are, perhaps chiefly for that reason, in constant feud with one another. Also, England and France, because of their inborn characters, of which the acquired and artificial character is only the result, are probably the only nations who can be assumed to have a particular and, as long as both national characters are not blended by the force of war, unalterable characteristics. That French has become the universal language of conversation, especially in the feminine world, and that English is the most widely used language of commerce among tradesmen, probably reflects the difference in their continental and insular geographic situation.\"}}",
"In sum, the philosopher views [ethical analysis](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\") fundamentally as constituting \"practical anthropology\". He aims not to necessarily assign [duties](/wiki/Duty \"Duty\") to individuals but to empower them intellectually so that they can properly set their own paths themselves. Dovetailing on the same issues, the concluding section of *Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View* discusses \"the character of the species\" and evaluates the necessity of giving space for personal [freedom](/wiki/Freedom \"Freedom\") as a key element in broader social advancement.",
""
] |
Issues and limitations
----------------------
There are numerous issues and limitations associated with the use of growing degree\-days. First, the Winkler index and its classification of climate regions by growing degree\-days only describe one aspect of an area's climate—mean daily temperature. Many other important factors which contribute to a region's suitability for viticulture (and its [terroir](/wiki/Terroir "Terroir")) are excluded; among them sun exposure, [latitude](/wiki/Latitude "Latitude"), [precipitation](/wiki/Precipitation_%28meteorology%29 "Precipitation (meteorology)"), soil conditions, and the risk of extreme weather which might damage grapevines (e.g., winter freezes, spring and fall frosts, hail, etc.).
As originally developed the climates of California were defined for relatively large areas using only one or two climate stations. This macroscale approach will invariably not capture the microscale influences that are an important aspect of growing any crop. To address these issues research has been increasingly using spatial climate data to better depict within region and even within vineyard differences in climate and therefore ripening and wine style potential.
To create spatially appropriate climate data, numerous stations and/or sensors are used to collect data which can then be interpolated over the landscape due to known interactions with elevation, aspect, slope, and distance to the coast or other water bodies using [Geographic Information Systems](/wiki/Geographic_information_system "Geographic information system") (GIS).{{Cite journal\|last1\=Daly\|first1\=C.\|last2\=Halbleib\|first2\=M.\|last3\=Smith\|first3\=J.I.\|last4\=Gibson\|first4\=W.P.\|last5\=Doggett\|first5\=M.K.\|last6\=Taylor\|first6\=G.H.\|last7\=Curtis\|first7\=J.\|last8\=Pasteris\|first8\=P.P.\|year\=2008\|title\=Physiographically sensitive mapping of climatological temperature and precipitation across the conterminous United States\|journal\=International Journal of Climatology\|language\=en\|volume\=28\|issue\=15\|pages\=2031–2064\|doi\=10\.1002/joc.1688\|bibcode\=2008IJCli..28\.2031D\|s2cid\=17681312 \|issn\=1097\-0088}} Instead of depicting a region as all one Winkler region ([Napa Valley AVA](/wiki/Napa_Valley_AVA "Napa Valley AVA") being a Region III for example), spatial data summaries show the Napa Valley having a full range of Winkler regions, 12% a Region II, 56% a Region III, and 30% a Region IV (whereas the table above shows one station in Napa, St. Helena as being a Region IV).
Other significant differences exist depending on the time period of the data and formula used for calculating growing degree\-days. First, to be comparable growing degree\-day numbers from various sources need to come from the same time period. Due to both a variable climate and [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change "Climate change"), a comparison of a ten\-year period from the 1970s and the 2000s would be inappropriate as the variation and trends over time would make them incomparable. A sufficient time period is suggested to allow the averaging to smooth out some of the variability. The standard time period in use is the [climatological normal](/wiki/Climatological_normal "Climatological normal") period of 30 years,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.weather.gov/grr/climatenormals\|title\=About Climate Normals\|last\=National Weather Service\|first\=US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather\|website\=www.weather.gov\|language\=EN\-US\|access\-date\=2017\-01\-04}} however if 30 years of data is not available then at the minimum five years should be used.
However a five\-year period is not directly comparable to a 30\-year period. How data are averaged (i.e., hourly, daily, or monthly) is also very important. While weather stations today can average data to an hour, a minutes or even seconds, historical data used to calculate growing degree\-days has been done mostly on daily or monthly averages (the table above was done using monthly climatological normals). Shorter term averaging to minutes, or more commonly hourly, arguably better reflects the true thermal effects on the crops, but will result in growing degree\-day values that are lower than both daily and monthly.{{Cite journal\|last\=Battany\|first\=M.\|year\=2009\|title\=Improving degree\-day calculations\|journal\=Practical Winery Vineyard\|volume\=May/June\|pages\=25–26}} Monthly averaged data can be very problematic as it can underestimate heat accumulation during the first and last months of the growing season. Therefore, it is paramount that one know the time period that the growing degree\-day values are calculated from so as to be comparable.
The Winkler index uses the standard method of calculating growing degree\-days in viticulture and is based on using a base temperature of 50 °F (10 °C) with no upper temperature cut\-off. The first issue is that 50 °F (10 °C) is not likely the best base temperature even though it is the most commonly used value. Even the early research on this topic stressed that the base temperature threshold for accumulation for early versus late budding varieties is likely strongly cultivar specific. Various research worldwide has pointed to base temperatures ranging from 39 to 45 °F (4 to 7 °C), but there has been little confirmation of these thresholds across numerous wine regions and for a wider range of varieties.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Garcia de Cortázar\-Atauri\|first1\=I.\|last2\=Brisson\|first2\=N.\|last3\=Gaudillere\|first3\=J.P.\|year\=2009\|title\=Performance of several models for predicting budburst date of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.)\|journal\=International Journal of Biometeorology\|language\=en\|volume\=53\|issue\=4\|pages\=317–326\|doi\=10\.1007/s00484\-009\-0217\-4\|pmid\=19280231\|bibcode\=2009IJBm...53\..317G\|s2cid\=25168485\|issn\=0020\-7128}}
At the other end of the formula, the calculation for growing degree\-days used in [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture "Viticulture") and [wine production](/wiki/Winemaking "Winemaking") does not normally use an upper cut\-off. Conceptually an upper cut\-off would be applied if the plant system stopped being photosynthetically active at some point due to heat stress from high temperatures. While this may be proven for some crops, there is not a universal number for an upper threshold for grapes so the majority of the published data for comparison purposes in [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture "Viticulture") and [wine production](/wiki/Wine_production "Wine production") does not limit maximum temperatures.{{Cite book\|title\=Wine science : principles, practice, perception\|last\=Jackson\|first\=R.S.\|publisher\=Academic Press\|year\=2000\|isbn\=978\-0123790620\|location\=San Diego\|oclc\=162129379}} This issue is problematic because many weather stations today have integrated the corn growing degree\-day method in their software. The corn growing degree\-day method uses both a base temperature adjustment and an upper threshold,{{Cite web\|url\=https://ndawn.ndsu.nodak.edu/help\-corn\-growing\-degree\-days.html\|title\=NDAWN Corn Growing Degree Days Information\|website\=ndawn.ndsu.nodak.edu\|access\-date\=2017\-01\-04}} neither of which are common in [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture "Viticulture") and wine production use, and can confound any comparison with published data using the simple average method.
Furthermore, more complex climate indices have been introduced to address perceived shortcomings in the Winkler index including the Huglin Index, the Biologically Effective Degree\-Day Index,{{Cite book\|title\=Viticulture and Environment\|last\=Gladstones\|first\=J.S.\|publisher\=Winetitles\|year\=1992\|isbn\=9781875130122\|oclc\=38326786}} and the Multicriteria Climatic Classification system (Geoviticulture MCC).{{Cite journal\|last1\=Tonietto\|first1\=J.\|last2\=Carbonneau\|first2\=A.\|year\=2004\|title\=A multicriteria climatic classification system for grape\-growing regions worldwide\|journal\=Agricultural and Forest Meteorology\|volume\=124\|issue\=1–2\|pages\=81–97\|doi\=10\.1016/j.agrformet.2003\.06\.001\|bibcode\=2004AgFM..124\...81T\|s2cid\=86709875 \|url\=http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/alice/handle/doc/1008614}} These indices attempt to account for day length and solar, frost, and drought variability that can be found in different locations. Each have been used in various research settings, but have some limitations to the general user in that some variables needed to calculate the indices are not readily available from all weather/climate stations and/or to the general public.
Overall each of these issues needs to be carefully considered when comparing growing degree\-day values from published data in magazines, books, scientific articles, and even from growers in the same region.
|
[
"Issues and limitations\n----------------------",
"There are numerous issues and limitations associated with the use of growing degree\\-days. First, the Winkler index and its classification of climate regions by growing degree\\-days only describe one aspect of an area's climate—mean daily temperature. Many other important factors which contribute to a region's suitability for viticulture (and its [terroir](/wiki/Terroir \"Terroir\")) are excluded; among them sun exposure, [latitude](/wiki/Latitude \"Latitude\"), [precipitation](/wiki/Precipitation_%28meteorology%29 \"Precipitation (meteorology)\"), soil conditions, and the risk of extreme weather which might damage grapevines (e.g., winter freezes, spring and fall frosts, hail, etc.).",
"As originally developed the climates of California were defined for relatively large areas using only one or two climate stations. This macroscale approach will invariably not capture the microscale influences that are an important aspect of growing any crop. To address these issues research has been increasingly using spatial climate data to better depict within region and even within vineyard differences in climate and therefore ripening and wine style potential.",
"To create spatially appropriate climate data, numerous stations and/or sensors are used to collect data which can then be interpolated over the landscape due to known interactions with elevation, aspect, slope, and distance to the coast or other water bodies using [Geographic Information Systems](/wiki/Geographic_information_system \"Geographic information system\") (GIS).{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Daly\\|first1\\=C.\\|last2\\=Halbleib\\|first2\\=M.\\|last3\\=Smith\\|first3\\=J.I.\\|last4\\=Gibson\\|first4\\=W.P.\\|last5\\=Doggett\\|first5\\=M.K.\\|last6\\=Taylor\\|first6\\=G.H.\\|last7\\=Curtis\\|first7\\=J.\\|last8\\=Pasteris\\|first8\\=P.P.\\|year\\=2008\\|title\\=Physiographically sensitive mapping of climatological temperature and precipitation across the conterminous United States\\|journal\\=International Journal of Climatology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=28\\|issue\\=15\\|pages\\=2031–2064\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/joc.1688\\|bibcode\\=2008IJCli..28\\.2031D\\|s2cid\\=17681312 \\|issn\\=1097\\-0088}} Instead of depicting a region as all one Winkler region ([Napa Valley AVA](/wiki/Napa_Valley_AVA \"Napa Valley AVA\") being a Region III for example), spatial data summaries show the Napa Valley having a full range of Winkler regions, 12% a Region II, 56% a Region III, and 30% a Region IV (whereas the table above shows one station in Napa, St. Helena as being a Region IV).",
"Other significant differences exist depending on the time period of the data and formula used for calculating growing degree\\-days. First, to be comparable growing degree\\-day numbers from various sources need to come from the same time period. Due to both a variable climate and [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change \"Climate change\"), a comparison of a ten\\-year period from the 1970s and the 2000s would be inappropriate as the variation and trends over time would make them incomparable. A sufficient time period is suggested to allow the averaging to smooth out some of the variability. The standard time period in use is the [climatological normal](/wiki/Climatological_normal \"Climatological normal\") period of 30 years,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.weather.gov/grr/climatenormals\\|title\\=About Climate Normals\\|last\\=National Weather Service\\|first\\=US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather\\|website\\=www.weather.gov\\|language\\=EN\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-04}} however if 30 years of data is not available then at the minimum five years should be used.",
"However a five\\-year period is not directly comparable to a 30\\-year period. How data are averaged (i.e., hourly, daily, or monthly) is also very important. While weather stations today can average data to an hour, a minutes or even seconds, historical data used to calculate growing degree\\-days has been done mostly on daily or monthly averages (the table above was done using monthly climatological normals). Shorter term averaging to minutes, or more commonly hourly, arguably better reflects the true thermal effects on the crops, but will result in growing degree\\-day values that are lower than both daily and monthly.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Battany\\|first\\=M.\\|year\\=2009\\|title\\=Improving degree\\-day calculations\\|journal\\=Practical Winery Vineyard\\|volume\\=May/June\\|pages\\=25–26}} Monthly averaged data can be very problematic as it can underestimate heat accumulation during the first and last months of the growing season. Therefore, it is paramount that one know the time period that the growing degree\\-day values are calculated from so as to be comparable.",
"The Winkler index uses the standard method of calculating growing degree\\-days in viticulture and is based on using a base temperature of 50 °F (10 °C) with no upper temperature cut\\-off. The first issue is that 50 °F (10 °C) is not likely the best base temperature even though it is the most commonly used value. Even the early research on this topic stressed that the base temperature threshold for accumulation for early versus late budding varieties is likely strongly cultivar specific. Various research worldwide has pointed to base temperatures ranging from 39 to 45 °F (4 to 7 °C), but there has been little confirmation of these thresholds across numerous wine regions and for a wider range of varieties.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Garcia de Cortázar\\-Atauri\\|first1\\=I.\\|last2\\=Brisson\\|first2\\=N.\\|last3\\=Gaudillere\\|first3\\=J.P.\\|year\\=2009\\|title\\=Performance of several models for predicting budburst date of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.)\\|journal\\=International Journal of Biometeorology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=53\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=317–326\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s00484\\-009\\-0217\\-4\\|pmid\\=19280231\\|bibcode\\=2009IJBm...53\\..317G\\|s2cid\\=25168485\\|issn\\=0020\\-7128}}",
"At the other end of the formula, the calculation for growing degree\\-days used in [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture \"Viticulture\") and [wine production](/wiki/Winemaking \"Winemaking\") does not normally use an upper cut\\-off. Conceptually an upper cut\\-off would be applied if the plant system stopped being photosynthetically active at some point due to heat stress from high temperatures. While this may be proven for some crops, there is not a universal number for an upper threshold for grapes so the majority of the published data for comparison purposes in [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture \"Viticulture\") and [wine production](/wiki/Wine_production \"Wine production\") does not limit maximum temperatures.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Wine science : principles, practice, perception\\|last\\=Jackson\\|first\\=R.S.\\|publisher\\=Academic Press\\|year\\=2000\\|isbn\\=978\\-0123790620\\|location\\=San Diego\\|oclc\\=162129379}} This issue is problematic because many weather stations today have integrated the corn growing degree\\-day method in their software. The corn growing degree\\-day method uses both a base temperature adjustment and an upper threshold,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ndawn.ndsu.nodak.edu/help\\-corn\\-growing\\-degree\\-days.html\\|title\\=NDAWN Corn Growing Degree Days Information\\|website\\=ndawn.ndsu.nodak.edu\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-04}} neither of which are common in [viticulture](/wiki/Viticulture \"Viticulture\") and wine production use, and can confound any comparison with published data using the simple average method.",
"Furthermore, more complex climate indices have been introduced to address perceived shortcomings in the Winkler index including the Huglin Index, the Biologically Effective Degree\\-Day Index,{{Cite book\\|title\\=Viticulture and Environment\\|last\\=Gladstones\\|first\\=J.S.\\|publisher\\=Winetitles\\|year\\=1992\\|isbn\\=9781875130122\\|oclc\\=38326786}} and the Multicriteria Climatic Classification system (Geoviticulture MCC).{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Tonietto\\|first1\\=J.\\|last2\\=Carbonneau\\|first2\\=A.\\|year\\=2004\\|title\\=A multicriteria climatic classification system for grape\\-growing regions worldwide\\|journal\\=Agricultural and Forest Meteorology\\|volume\\=124\\|issue\\=1–2\\|pages\\=81–97\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.agrformet.2003\\.06\\.001\\|bibcode\\=2004AgFM..124\\...81T\\|s2cid\\=86709875 \\|url\\=http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/alice/handle/doc/1008614}} These indices attempt to account for day length and solar, frost, and drought variability that can be found in different locations. Each have been used in various research settings, but have some limitations to the general user in that some variables needed to calculate the indices are not readily available from all weather/climate stations and/or to the general public.",
"Overall each of these issues needs to be carefully considered when comparing growing degree\\-day values from published data in magazines, books, scientific articles, and even from growers in the same region.",
""
] |
Space career
------------
### In ESA
Mogensen was selected to become the first Danish astronaut by the [European Space Agency](/wiki/European_Space_Agency "European Space Agency") in May 2009\. He completed initial training and became a member of the [European Astronaut Corps](/wiki/European_Astronaut_Corps "European Astronaut Corps") in November 2010\.
In 2013, Mogensen served as cavenaut into the [ESA CAVES](/wiki/ESA_CAVES "ESA CAVES"){{Cite journal \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576521001478 \|title\=Speleology as an analogue to space exploration: The ESA CAVES training programme \|last1\=Sauro \|first1\=Francesco \|last2\=De Waele \|first2\=Jo \|last3\=Payler \|first3\=Samuel J. \|last4\=Vattano \|first4\=Marco \|last5\=Sauro \|first5\=Francesco Maria \|last6\=Turchi \|first6\=Leonardo \|last7\=Bessone \|first7\=Loredana \|date\=1 July 2021 \|pages\=150–166 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.actaastro.2021\.04\.003 \|journal\=\[\[Acta Astronautica]] \|issn\=0094\-5765 \|volume\=184 \|s2cid\=234819922 \|hdl\=11585/819077 \|hdl\-access\=free }} training in [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia "Sardinia"), alongside [David Saint\-Jaques](/wiki/David_Saint-Jacques "David Saint-Jacques"), [Soichi Noguchi](/wiki/Soichi_Noguchi "Soichi Noguchi"), [Nikolai Tikhonov](/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov_%28cosmonaut%29 "Nikolai Tikhonov (cosmonaut)"), [Andrew Feustel](/wiki/Andrew_J._Feustel "Andrew J. Feustel") and [Michael Fincke](/wiki/Michael_Fincke "Michael Fincke").
On 10 June 2014, NASA announced that Mogensen would serve as an [aquanaut](/wiki/Aquanaut "Aquanaut") aboard the [Aquarius](/wiki/Aquarius_%28laboratory%29 "Aquarius (laboratory)") [underwater laboratory](/wiki/Underwater_habitat "Underwater habitat") during the [NEEMO 19](/wiki/NEEMO%23NEEMO_19:September_7%E2%80%9313%2C_2014 "September 7–13, 2014") undersea exploration mission, which began on 7 September 2014 and lasted seven days.{{Cite press release \|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/news\-release/nasa\-announces\-two\-upcoming\-undersea\-missions/ \|title\=NASA Announces Two Upcoming Undersea Missions \|last\=Lewis \|first\=Robert E. \|date\=10 June 2014 \|publisher\=\[\[NASA]] \|id\=14\-158 \|access\-date\=24 June 2014 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126083508/https://www.nasa.gov/news\-release/nasa\-announces\-two\-upcoming\-undersea\-missions/ \|archive\-date\=26 November 2023 }}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/06/neemo\-returns\-two\-new\-underwater\-missions/ \|title\=NEEMO returns with two new underwater missions \|last\=Bergin \|first\=Chris \|date\=11 June 2014 \|access\-date\=24 June 2014 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026215232/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/06/neemo\-returns\-two\-new\-underwater\-missions/ \|archive\-date\=26 October 2023 \|work\=\[\[NASASpaceFlight.com]] }}
Between September and November 2021, Mogensen participated in the fourth edition of [ESA PANGAEA](/wiki/ESA_PANGAEA "ESA PANGAEA") training program.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.esa.int/Science\_Exploration/Human\_and\_Robotic\_Exploration/CAVES\_and\_Pangaea/What\_is\_Pangaea \|title\=What is Pangaea? \|publisher\=\[\[European Space Agency]] \|access\-date\=8 December 2021 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102215249/https://www.esa.int/Science\_Exploration/Human\_and\_Robotic\_Exploration/CAVES\_and\_Pangaea/What\_is\_PANGAEA \|archive\-date\=2 November 2023 }} Together with the NASA astronaut [Kathleen Rubins](/wiki/Kathleen_Rubins "Kathleen Rubins"), Mogensen went to the Italian Dolomites, to the Ries Crater in Germany and the volcanic landscapes of Lanzarote, Spain.{{Cite web \|url\=https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/astronaut\-training\-in\-the\-land\-of\-volcanoes/ \|title\=Astronaut training in the land of volcanoes \|publisher\=\[\[European Space Agency]] \|access\-date\=8 December 2021 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525091151/https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/astronaut\-training\-in\-the\-land\-of\-volcanoes/ \|archive\-date\=25 May 2023 \|website\=Caves \& pangaea blog }} ESA's Pangaea program prepares astronauts and space engineers to identify planetary geological features for future missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids.{{Cite web \|url\=https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/17/back\-to\-the\-future/ \|title\=Back to the future \|publisher\=\[\[European Space Agency]] \|access\-date\=8 December 2021 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926122234/https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/17/back\-to\-the\-future/ \|archive\-date\=26 September 2023 \|website\=Caves \& pangaea blog }}
[thumbnail\|Mogensen (second from right) during [NEEMO 19](/wiki/NEEMO%23NEEMO_19:September_7%E2%80%9313%2C_2014 "September 7–13, 2014")](/wiki/File:NASA_NEEMO_19_Aquanaut_Crew.jpg "NASA NEEMO 19 Aquanaut Crew.jpg")
### Iriss
Mogensen's mission to the ISS was called "Iriss". The mission name was chosen from suggestions received from across Europe. "Iriss" had two logos, one to highlight the overall mission and one for the educational outreach activities.
[thumb\|left\| Mogensen exercising in the Destiny Laboratory](/wiki/File:ISS-44_Andreas_Mogensen_in_the_Destiny_lab.jpg "ISS-44 Andreas Mogensen in the Destiny lab.jpg")
On 2 September 2015, Mogensen launched with [Soyuz TMA\-18M](/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-18M "Soyuz TMA-18M") to ISS and landed with [Soyuz TMA\-16M](/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-16M "Soyuz TMA-16M") ten days later. He was traveling with another visiting flight engineer, [Aidyn Aimbetov](/wiki/Aidyn_Aimbetov "Aidyn Aimbetov"). Among the items Andreas brought along were [LEGO](/wiki/LEGO "LEGO") figures{{Cite web \|url\=https://blogs.esa.int/iriss/2015/09/14/the\-story\-behind\-the\-lego\-astronauts/ \|title\=The story behind the LEGO astronauts \|publisher\=\[\[European Space Agency]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162423/https://blogs.esa.int/iriss/2015/09/14/the\-story\-behind\-the\-lego\-astronauts/ \|archive\-date\=7 July 2023 \|website\=iriss mission blog }} and a poster for [Copenhagen Suborbitals](/wiki/Copenhagen_Suborbitals "Copenhagen Suborbitals").{{Cite tweet \|title\=Held og lykke til @CopSub i deres forsøg på at nå rummet! Personlig erfaring siger det er det hårde arbejde værd! \|trans\-title\=Good luck to @CopSub in their attempt to reach space! Personal experience says it's worth the hard work!" \|last\=Mogensen \|first\=Andreas \|language\=da \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916080348/https://twitter.com/Astro\_Andreas/status/643873701935644672 \|archive\-date\=16 September 2015 \|number\=643873701935644672 \|user\=Astro\_Andreas }}
Because of the short mission duration, Mogensen worked up to 9\.5\-hour days instead of the 8\-hour workdays that are normal on the station.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.esa.int/Science\_Exploration/Human\_and\_Robotic\_Exploration/iriss/A\_sprint\_mission \|title\=A ‘sprint’ mission \|publisher\=\[\[European Space Agency]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162349/https://www.esa.int/Science\_Exploration/Human\_and\_Robotic\_Exploration/iriss/A\_sprint\_mission \|archive\-date\=7 July 2023 \|website\=IRISS }} His missions included remote control of a robot on Earth,{{Cite news \|url\=https://ing.dk/artikel/video\-saadan\-udfoerte\-andreas\-robotforsoeget\-fra\-rummet \|title\=VIDEO: Sådan udførte Andreas robotforsøget fra rummet \|trans\-title\=VIDEO: This is how Andreas performed the robot experiment from space \|language\=da \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708130135/https://ing.dk/artikel/video\-saadan\-udfoerte\-andreas\-robotforsoeget\-fra\-rummet \|archive\-date\=8 July 2023 \|work\=Ingeniøren }} and filming [Red Sprites and Blue Jets](/wiki/Sprite_%28lightning%29 "Sprite (lightning)") lightnings above thunderclouds,{{Cite web \|url\=http://rumrejsen.dk/nyhed/k%C3%A6mpelyn \|title\=Andreas Mogensen har optaget en enestående video af kæmpelyn \|trans\-title\=Andreas Mogensen has recorded unique video of super\-lightning \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923133805/http://rumrejsen.dk/nyhed/k%C3%A6mpelyn \|archive\-date\=23 September 2015 \|website\=Rumrejsen 2015 }} directed from Earth.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.dmi.dk/nyheder/arkiv/nyheder\-2015/09/saadan\-fandt\-dmi\-kaempelynet\-til\-astro\-andreas/ \|title\=How DMI found giant lightning for Andreas \|date\=17 September 2015 \|publisher\=\[\[Danish Meteorological Institute]] \|language\=da \|access\-date\=17 September 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921003938/http://www.dmi.dk/nyheder/arkiv/nyheder\-2015/09/saadan\-fandt\-dmi\-kaempelynet\-til\-astro\-andreas/ \|archive\-date\=21 September 2015 }} He also tried a new kind of Skinsuit to alleviate back\-pain astronauts feel due to the lengthening of their spine and used augmented reality goggles during his maintenance tasks.
Mogensen left the station on 11 September 2015\. [Sergey Volkov](/wiki/Sergey_Alexandrovich_Volkov "Sergey Alexandrovich Volkov") was the ascent pilot (TMA\-18M), and [Gennady Padalka](/wiki/Gennady_Padalka "Gennady Padalka") was the descent pilot (TMA\-16M).{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/05/uks\-major\-peake\-delighted\-by\-historic\-iss\-assignment/ \|title\=UK's Major Peake delighted by historic ISS assignment \|date\=20 May 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604100213/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/05/uks\-major\-peake\-delighted\-by\-historic\-iss\-assignment/ \|archive\-date\=4 June 2023 \|work\=\[\[NASASpaceFlight.com]] }} The crew landed at 00:51 UTC on 12 September 2015, just over three hours after departing the ISS.
Mogensen received the [Danish Royal Medal of Recompense](/wiki/Royal_Medal_of_Recompense "Royal Medal of Recompense") for his efforts.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.kongehuset.dk/Menu/nyheder/astronaut\-andreas\-mogensen\-modtager\-den\-kongelige\-belonningsmedalje\-i\-guld\-med\-krone\-og\-in \|title\=Astronaut Andreas Mogensen modtager Den Kongelige Belønningsmedalje i guld med krone og inskription \|trans\-title\=Astronaut Andreas Mogensen receives The Royal Commemorative Medal in gold with crown and inscription \|date\=16 September 2015 \|publisher\=\[\[Danish royal family\|Kongehuset]] \|language\=da \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311173235/https://www.kongehuset.dk/menu/nyheder/astronaut\-andreas\-mogensen\-modtager\-den\-kongelige\-belonningsmedalje\-i\-guld\-med\-krone\-og\-in \|archive\-date\=11 March 2023 }}
### Huginn
In March 2022, he was selected as pilot of [SpaceX Crew\-7](/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-7 "SpaceX Crew-7"). On its launch in August 2023, he became the first European pilot of a spacecraft and the first pilot of a US spacecraft who is not a US citizen. He also served as the ISS [Expedition 70](/wiki/Expedition_70 "Expedition 70") commander. The European segment of the mission is called "Huginn".{{Cite press release \|url\=https://www.esa.int/Science\_Exploration/Human\_and\_Robotic\_Exploration/Introducing\_Huginn \|title\=Introducing Huginn \|date\=18 August 2022 \|publisher\=\[\[European Space Agency]] \|access\-date\=18 August 2022 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924211941/https://www.esa.int/Science\_Exploration/Human\_and\_Robotic\_Exploration/Introducing\_Huginn \|archive\-date\=24 September 2023 }} Crew\-7 and Mogensen returned to Earth on 12 March 2024\.{{Cite press release \|last\=Dooren \|first\=Jennifer M. \|date\=12 March 2024 \|title\=Splashdown! NASA’s SpaceX Crew\-7 Finishes Mission, Returns to Earth \|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/news\-release/splashdown\-nasas\-spacex\-crew\-7\-finishes\-mission\-returns\-to\-earth/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240411003549/https://www.nasa.gov/news\-release/splashdown\-nasas\-spacex\-crew\-7\-finishes\-mission\-returns\-to\-earth/ \|archive\-date\=11 April 2024 \|publisher\=\[\[NASA]] \|id\=24\-040 }}
|
[
"Space career\n------------",
"### In ESA",
"Mogensen was selected to become the first Danish astronaut by the [European Space Agency](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") in May 2009\\. He completed initial training and became a member of the [European Astronaut Corps](/wiki/European_Astronaut_Corps \"European Astronaut Corps\") in November 2010\\.",
"In 2013, Mogensen served as cavenaut into the [ESA CAVES](/wiki/ESA_CAVES \"ESA CAVES\"){{Cite journal \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576521001478 \\|title\\=Speleology as an analogue to space exploration: The ESA CAVES training programme \\|last1\\=Sauro \\|first1\\=Francesco \\|last2\\=De Waele \\|first2\\=Jo \\|last3\\=Payler \\|first3\\=Samuel J. \\|last4\\=Vattano \\|first4\\=Marco \\|last5\\=Sauro \\|first5\\=Francesco Maria \\|last6\\=Turchi \\|first6\\=Leonardo \\|last7\\=Bessone \\|first7\\=Loredana \\|date\\=1 July 2021 \\|pages\\=150–166 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.actaastro.2021\\.04\\.003 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Acta Astronautica]] \\|issn\\=0094\\-5765 \\|volume\\=184 \\|s2cid\\=234819922 \\|hdl\\=11585/819077 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }} training in [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia \"Sardinia\"), alongside [David Saint\\-Jaques](/wiki/David_Saint-Jacques \"David Saint-Jacques\"), [Soichi Noguchi](/wiki/Soichi_Noguchi \"Soichi Noguchi\"), [Nikolai Tikhonov](/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov_%28cosmonaut%29 \"Nikolai Tikhonov (cosmonaut)\"), [Andrew Feustel](/wiki/Andrew_J._Feustel \"Andrew J. Feustel\") and [Michael Fincke](/wiki/Michael_Fincke \"Michael Fincke\").",
"On 10 June 2014, NASA announced that Mogensen would serve as an [aquanaut](/wiki/Aquanaut \"Aquanaut\") aboard the [Aquarius](/wiki/Aquarius_%28laboratory%29 \"Aquarius (laboratory)\") [underwater laboratory](/wiki/Underwater_habitat \"Underwater habitat\") during the [NEEMO 19](/wiki/NEEMO%23NEEMO_19:September_7%E2%80%9313%2C_2014 \"September 7–13, 2014\") undersea exploration mission, which began on 7 September 2014 and lasted seven days.{{Cite press release \\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/news\\-release/nasa\\-announces\\-two\\-upcoming\\-undersea\\-missions/ \\|title\\=NASA Announces Two Upcoming Undersea Missions \\|last\\=Lewis \\|first\\=Robert E. \\|date\\=10 June 2014 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NASA]] \\|id\\=14\\-158 \\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126083508/https://www.nasa.gov/news\\-release/nasa\\-announces\\-two\\-upcoming\\-undersea\\-missions/ \\|archive\\-date\\=26 November 2023 }}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/06/neemo\\-returns\\-two\\-new\\-underwater\\-missions/ \\|title\\=NEEMO returns with two new underwater missions \\|last\\=Bergin \\|first\\=Chris \\|date\\=11 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026215232/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/06/neemo\\-returns\\-two\\-new\\-underwater\\-missions/ \\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[NASASpaceFlight.com]] }}",
"Between September and November 2021, Mogensen participated in the fourth edition of [ESA PANGAEA](/wiki/ESA_PANGAEA \"ESA PANGAEA\") training program.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.esa.int/Science\\_Exploration/Human\\_and\\_Robotic\\_Exploration/CAVES\\_and\\_Pangaea/What\\_is\\_Pangaea \\|title\\=What is Pangaea? \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[European Space Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102215249/https://www.esa.int/Science\\_Exploration/Human\\_and\\_Robotic\\_Exploration/CAVES\\_and\\_Pangaea/What\\_is\\_PANGAEA \\|archive\\-date\\=2 November 2023 }} Together with the NASA astronaut [Kathleen Rubins](/wiki/Kathleen_Rubins \"Kathleen Rubins\"), Mogensen went to the Italian Dolomites, to the Ries Crater in Germany and the volcanic landscapes of Lanzarote, Spain.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/astronaut\\-training\\-in\\-the\\-land\\-of\\-volcanoes/ \\|title\\=Astronaut training in the land of volcanoes \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[European Space Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525091151/https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/astronaut\\-training\\-in\\-the\\-land\\-of\\-volcanoes/ \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2023 \\|website\\=Caves \\& pangaea blog }} ESA's Pangaea program prepares astronauts and space engineers to identify planetary geological features for future missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/17/back\\-to\\-the\\-future/ \\|title\\=Back to the future \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[European Space Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926122234/https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/17/back\\-to\\-the\\-future/ \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2023 \\|website\\=Caves \\& pangaea blog }}\n[thumbnail\\|Mogensen (second from right) during [NEEMO 19](/wiki/NEEMO%23NEEMO_19:September_7%E2%80%9313%2C_2014 \"September 7–13, 2014\")](/wiki/File:NASA_NEEMO_19_Aquanaut_Crew.jpg \"NASA NEEMO 19 Aquanaut Crew.jpg\")",
"### Iriss",
"Mogensen's mission to the ISS was called \"Iriss\". The mission name was chosen from suggestions received from across Europe. \"Iriss\" had two logos, one to highlight the overall mission and one for the educational outreach activities.",
"[thumb\\|left\\| Mogensen exercising in the Destiny Laboratory](/wiki/File:ISS-44_Andreas_Mogensen_in_the_Destiny_lab.jpg \"ISS-44 Andreas Mogensen in the Destiny lab.jpg\")",
"On 2 September 2015, Mogensen launched with [Soyuz TMA\\-18M](/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-18M \"Soyuz TMA-18M\") to ISS and landed with [Soyuz TMA\\-16M](/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-16M \"Soyuz TMA-16M\") ten days later. He was traveling with another visiting flight engineer, [Aidyn Aimbetov](/wiki/Aidyn_Aimbetov \"Aidyn Aimbetov\"). Among the items Andreas brought along were [LEGO](/wiki/LEGO \"LEGO\") figures{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://blogs.esa.int/iriss/2015/09/14/the\\-story\\-behind\\-the\\-lego\\-astronauts/ \\|title\\=The story behind the LEGO astronauts \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[European Space Agency]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162423/https://blogs.esa.int/iriss/2015/09/14/the\\-story\\-behind\\-the\\-lego\\-astronauts/ \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2023 \\|website\\=iriss mission blog }} and a poster for [Copenhagen Suborbitals](/wiki/Copenhagen_Suborbitals \"Copenhagen Suborbitals\").{{Cite tweet \\|title\\=Held og lykke til @CopSub i deres forsøg på at nå rummet! Personlig erfaring siger det er det hårde arbejde værd! \\|trans\\-title\\=Good luck to @CopSub in their attempt to reach space! Personal experience says it's worth the hard work!\" \\|last\\=Mogensen \\|first\\=Andreas \\|language\\=da \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916080348/https://twitter.com/Astro\\_Andreas/status/643873701935644672 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 September 2015 \\|number\\=643873701935644672 \\|user\\=Astro\\_Andreas }}",
"Because of the short mission duration, Mogensen worked up to 9\\.5\\-hour days instead of the 8\\-hour workdays that are normal on the station.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.esa.int/Science\\_Exploration/Human\\_and\\_Robotic\\_Exploration/iriss/A\\_sprint\\_mission \\|title\\=A ‘sprint’ mission \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[European Space Agency]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162349/https://www.esa.int/Science\\_Exploration/Human\\_and\\_Robotic\\_Exploration/iriss/A\\_sprint\\_mission \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2023 \\|website\\=IRISS }} His missions included remote control of a robot on Earth,{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://ing.dk/artikel/video\\-saadan\\-udfoerte\\-andreas\\-robotforsoeget\\-fra\\-rummet \\|title\\=VIDEO: Sådan udførte Andreas robotforsøget fra rummet \\|trans\\-title\\=VIDEO: This is how Andreas performed the robot experiment from space \\|language\\=da \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708130135/https://ing.dk/artikel/video\\-saadan\\-udfoerte\\-andreas\\-robotforsoeget\\-fra\\-rummet \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|work\\=Ingeniøren }} and filming [Red Sprites and Blue Jets](/wiki/Sprite_%28lightning%29 \"Sprite (lightning)\") lightnings above thunderclouds,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://rumrejsen.dk/nyhed/k%C3%A6mpelyn \\|title\\=Andreas Mogensen har optaget en enestående video af kæmpelyn \\|trans\\-title\\=Andreas Mogensen has recorded unique video of super\\-lightning \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923133805/http://rumrejsen.dk/nyhed/k%C3%A6mpelyn \\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015 \\|website\\=Rumrejsen 2015 }} directed from Earth.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dmi.dk/nyheder/arkiv/nyheder\\-2015/09/saadan\\-fandt\\-dmi\\-kaempelynet\\-til\\-astro\\-andreas/ \\|title\\=How DMI found giant lightning for Andreas \\|date\\=17 September 2015 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Danish Meteorological Institute]] \\|language\\=da \\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921003938/http://www.dmi.dk/nyheder/arkiv/nyheder\\-2015/09/saadan\\-fandt\\-dmi\\-kaempelynet\\-til\\-astro\\-andreas/ \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2015 }} He also tried a new kind of Skinsuit to alleviate back\\-pain astronauts feel due to the lengthening of their spine and used augmented reality goggles during his maintenance tasks.",
"Mogensen left the station on 11 September 2015\\. [Sergey Volkov](/wiki/Sergey_Alexandrovich_Volkov \"Sergey Alexandrovich Volkov\") was the ascent pilot (TMA\\-18M), and [Gennady Padalka](/wiki/Gennady_Padalka \"Gennady Padalka\") was the descent pilot (TMA\\-16M).{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/05/uks\\-major\\-peake\\-delighted\\-by\\-historic\\-iss\\-assignment/ \\|title\\=UK's Major Peake delighted by historic ISS assignment \\|date\\=20 May 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604100213/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/05/uks\\-major\\-peake\\-delighted\\-by\\-historic\\-iss\\-assignment/ \\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[NASASpaceFlight.com]] }} The crew landed at 00:51 UTC on 12 September 2015, just over three hours after departing the ISS.",
"Mogensen received the [Danish Royal Medal of Recompense](/wiki/Royal_Medal_of_Recompense \"Royal Medal of Recompense\") for his efforts.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.kongehuset.dk/Menu/nyheder/astronaut\\-andreas\\-mogensen\\-modtager\\-den\\-kongelige\\-belonningsmedalje\\-i\\-guld\\-med\\-krone\\-og\\-in \\|title\\=Astronaut Andreas Mogensen modtager Den Kongelige Belønningsmedalje i guld med krone og inskription \\|trans\\-title\\=Astronaut Andreas Mogensen receives The Royal Commemorative Medal in gold with crown and inscription \\|date\\=16 September 2015 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Danish royal family\\|Kongehuset]] \\|language\\=da \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311173235/https://www.kongehuset.dk/menu/nyheder/astronaut\\-andreas\\-mogensen\\-modtager\\-den\\-kongelige\\-belonningsmedalje\\-i\\-guld\\-med\\-krone\\-og\\-in \\|archive\\-date\\=11 March 2023 }}",
"### Huginn",
"In March 2022, he was selected as pilot of [SpaceX Crew\\-7](/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-7 \"SpaceX Crew-7\"). On its launch in August 2023, he became the first European pilot of a spacecraft and the first pilot of a US spacecraft who is not a US citizen. He also served as the ISS [Expedition 70](/wiki/Expedition_70 \"Expedition 70\") commander. The European segment of the mission is called \"Huginn\".{{Cite press release \\|url\\=https://www.esa.int/Science\\_Exploration/Human\\_and\\_Robotic\\_Exploration/Introducing\\_Huginn \\|title\\=Introducing Huginn \\|date\\=18 August 2022 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[European Space Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924211941/https://www.esa.int/Science\\_Exploration/Human\\_and\\_Robotic\\_Exploration/Introducing\\_Huginn \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2023 }} Crew\\-7 and Mogensen returned to Earth on 12 March 2024\\.{{Cite press release \\|last\\=Dooren \\|first\\=Jennifer M. \\|date\\=12 March 2024 \\|title\\=Splashdown! NASA’s SpaceX Crew\\-7 Finishes Mission, Returns to Earth \\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/news\\-release/splashdown\\-nasas\\-spacex\\-crew\\-7\\-finishes\\-mission\\-returns\\-to\\-earth/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240411003549/https://www.nasa.gov/news\\-release/splashdown\\-nasas\\-spacex\\-crew\\-7\\-finishes\\-mission\\-returns\\-to\\-earth/ \\|archive\\-date\\=11 April 2024 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NASA]] \\|id\\=24\\-040 }}",
""
] |
Extracurricular activities
--------------------------
### Athletics
The athletic teams are known as the Ralston Rams. Ralston participates in Nebraska's second\-largest class.
The school's baseball teams have experienced success, with 18 appearances in the state tournament, their most recent appearance in 2006\. The Rams have been in the finals seven times, and captured the state title seven times, holding the second most state titles in baseball, behind [Creighton Prep](/wiki/Creighton_Preparatory_School "Creighton Preparatory School")'s eight. The football team has been successful as well since Head Coach Tyler Zahn took over. They made an appearance in the State Finals in 2002, where they beat their rival Gross to make it to [Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Memorial_Stadium_%28Lincoln%29 "Memorial Stadium (Lincoln)") in Lincoln. Ralston played tough but lost to [McCook](/wiki/McCook_High_School "McCook High School"). The closest the Rams have come to the finals again was in 2011, when the Rams beat [Scottsbluff](/wiki/Scottsbluff_Public_Schools "Scottsbluff Public Schools") in Scottsbluff and came home to face the top seed Gretna, where they lost. Ralston basketball has also had some fantastic success lately, winning the State Title in 2008 against [Beatrice](/wiki/Beatrice_High_School "Beatrice High School"). From that team, two top athletes went on to play Division 1 Basketball at Colorado State. Brothers Greg and Dwight Smith led the team that year, and they were both nominated as All\-State in 2008\. Ralston Basketball is one of the top programs in the last decade behind Beatrice and Gretna, with a winning percentage of 64\.3% and a win total of 146 in the last 10 years. The Rams' student section known as the "Rowdies" attends every major sporting event.
### Arts
The Ralston Performing Arts Centre is located inside Ralston High School. This stage is used once a year in the summer by the Ralston Community Theatre, and is used throughout the school year by Ralston Drama students. The theatre, along with the entire school, was recently renovated and now seats 600\+ people. The new theatre's first show was *Les Misérables*, in May 2005\.
The Ralston Fine Arts Department has had success in recent years. The band has almost tripled in size, received numerous awards including best drumline, best drum major, and has had continuous success at competitions, receiving all "superior" and "excellent" ratings.
Ralston High School has two competing show choirs: Runway and Rush. Rush has had successful competition seasons, often placing in the top of their division and competing in finals. In recent years Rush has been named grand champion at Millard West Singsation and at Bishop Heelan High School show choir invitational. Ralston now hosts a show choir invitational of their own, called Ramageddon.
The theater department is also one of the best in Omaha Nebraska with numerous awards and an astounding director Todd Uhrmacher.
### Debate
The Ralston Debate Team has had much success in recent years under the coaching of Jennifer Stark. She has earned Nebraska Coach of the Year honors on two occasions, 2009–10 and 2013–14\. The team has qualified for national tournaments multiple times, and took home third place Sweepstakes at the start of the 2013 season. Kurt Cronican placed fifth in the nation at the National Forensic League tournament. The team has rapidly grown in size in recent years, increasing the number of students and participants in a wide variety of events. The team competes in Lincoln–Douglas, Public Forum, Policy and Congressional Debate at the state and national level. For the 2015–2016 school year, Jennifer Stark was replaced by Jeff Garst, one of her most successful debaters.
|
[
"Extracurricular activities\n--------------------------",
"### Athletics",
"The athletic teams are known as the Ralston Rams. Ralston participates in Nebraska's second\\-largest class.",
"The school's baseball teams have experienced success, with 18 appearances in the state tournament, their most recent appearance in 2006\\. The Rams have been in the finals seven times, and captured the state title seven times, holding the second most state titles in baseball, behind [Creighton Prep](/wiki/Creighton_Preparatory_School \"Creighton Preparatory School\")'s eight. The football team has been successful as well since Head Coach Tyler Zahn took over. They made an appearance in the State Finals in 2002, where they beat their rival Gross to make it to [Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Memorial_Stadium_%28Lincoln%29 \"Memorial Stadium (Lincoln)\") in Lincoln. Ralston played tough but lost to [McCook](/wiki/McCook_High_School \"McCook High School\"). The closest the Rams have come to the finals again was in 2011, when the Rams beat [Scottsbluff](/wiki/Scottsbluff_Public_Schools \"Scottsbluff Public Schools\") in Scottsbluff and came home to face the top seed Gretna, where they lost. Ralston basketball has also had some fantastic success lately, winning the State Title in 2008 against [Beatrice](/wiki/Beatrice_High_School \"Beatrice High School\"). From that team, two top athletes went on to play Division 1 Basketball at Colorado State. Brothers Greg and Dwight Smith led the team that year, and they were both nominated as All\\-State in 2008\\. Ralston Basketball is one of the top programs in the last decade behind Beatrice and Gretna, with a winning percentage of 64\\.3% and a win total of 146 in the last 10 years. The Rams' student section known as the \"Rowdies\" attends every major sporting event.",
"### Arts",
"The Ralston Performing Arts Centre is located inside Ralston High School. This stage is used once a year in the summer by the Ralston Community Theatre, and is used throughout the school year by Ralston Drama students. The theatre, along with the entire school, was recently renovated and now seats 600\\+ people. The new theatre's first show was *Les Misérables*, in May 2005\\.",
"The Ralston Fine Arts Department has had success in recent years. The band has almost tripled in size, received numerous awards including best drumline, best drum major, and has had continuous success at competitions, receiving all \"superior\" and \"excellent\" ratings.",
"Ralston High School has two competing show choirs: Runway and Rush. Rush has had successful competition seasons, often placing in the top of their division and competing in finals. In recent years Rush has been named grand champion at Millard West Singsation and at Bishop Heelan High School show choir invitational. Ralston now hosts a show choir invitational of their own, called Ramageddon.",
"The theater department is also one of the best in Omaha Nebraska with numerous awards and an astounding director Todd Uhrmacher.",
"### Debate",
"The Ralston Debate Team has had much success in recent years under the coaching of Jennifer Stark. She has earned Nebraska Coach of the Year honors on two occasions, 2009–10 and 2013–14\\. The team has qualified for national tournaments multiple times, and took home third place Sweepstakes at the start of the 2013 season. Kurt Cronican placed fifth in the nation at the National Forensic League tournament. The team has rapidly grown in size in recent years, increasing the number of students and participants in a wide variety of events. The team competes in Lincoln–Douglas, Public Forum, Policy and Congressional Debate at the state and national level. For the 2015–2016 school year, Jennifer Stark was replaced by Jeff Garst, one of her most successful debaters.",
""
] |
History
-------
Despite its reputation as one of the nation's premiere women's athletic program, the UNA volleyball program claims humble beginnings. It began in 1969 as an extramural program of the Physical Education Department of what was then known as Florence State University. During this period, the team competed against all state schools as a member of the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women. The team competed in the Northern District against [Jacksonville State](/wiki/Jacksonville_State_University "Jacksonville State University"), [Alabama A\&M](/wiki/Alabama_A%26M_University "Alabama A&M University"), [Montevallo](/wiki/University_of_Montevallo "University of Montevallo"), Southern Benedictine and [Stillman](/wiki/Stillman_College "Stillman College").
Coached by Physical Education instructor Don McBrayer, the Lady Lions posted numerous successes, including a state championship win over the [University of Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama "University of Alabama") in 1975\. The Lady Lions also defeated [Troy State](/wiki/Troy_University "Troy University"), [Auburn](/wiki/Auburn_University "Auburn University") and [Montevallo](/wiki/University_of_Montevallo "University of Montevallo") before prevailing over Alabama.
Another milestone in the program was crossed in 1976, when Lillian Goodlow, a premiere basketball and volleyball player at Bradshaw High School in Florence, became the first female athlete in UNA history to be awarded an athletic scholarship.
### First Conference Title in 1982
Yet another major step was taken in 1982, when the [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference "Gulf South Conference") first began awarding championships in women's sports. UNA's volleyball team earned the first official lead title for women with a 3\-0 win over Jacksonville State.
The Lady Lions went on to win six of the first seven GSC volleyball championships.
In 1995, Matt Peck was hired as head coach. Over the following decade, Peck led the Lions to eight NCAA appearances, four trips to the Elite Eight, two Final Fours and the 2003 [Division II](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II "NCAA Division II") National Championship.
In 1996, the Lions amassed a 44\-4 record that included UNA's seventh GSC championship and the first ever NCAA Tournament appearance by an Alabama team. In 1997, UNA claimed its second GSC Tournament title and earned its second NCAA Regional bid.
UNA became the first GSC institution to advance to the NCAA Division II Elite Eight in 1998\. Moreover, the Lions earned their third straight GSC title and first\-ever NCAA regional championship. UNA player also became the first volleyball player in GSC history to be selected a first\-team All\-American.
In 1999, with a 35\-7 record, UNA won its fourth straight GSC title and completed its fourth straight NCAA appearance, advancing to the Elite Eight for the second time.
UNA won its fifth straight GSC title, completed a fifth straight NCAA trip and ascended to the Division II Final Four for the first time. Team members Ashley Moffitt and Nesrin Secklin also earned All\-American Honors in 2000 and 2001\.
The following year, UNA made GSC history, winning its seventh straight conference title and 13th overall volleyball crown.
### First National Title for a UNA Women's Team
However, 2003 was a year marked with irony. While the team failed to win a GSC title for the first time in eight years, it excelled in the NCAA South Central Regional, Elite Eight and Final Four to secure the first national championship ever claimed by a UNA women's athletic team.
The team regained its GSC title in 2004\.
In 2006, the Lions lacked only one victory winning the national championship, falling to top\-ranked Tampa in the finals of the NCAA Tournament in Pensacola, Florida.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Despite its reputation as one of the nation's premiere women's athletic program, the UNA volleyball program claims humble beginnings. It began in 1969 as an extramural program of the Physical Education Department of what was then known as Florence State University. During this period, the team competed against all state schools as a member of the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women. The team competed in the Northern District against [Jacksonville State](/wiki/Jacksonville_State_University \"Jacksonville State University\"), [Alabama A\\&M](/wiki/Alabama_A%26M_University \"Alabama A&M University\"), [Montevallo](/wiki/University_of_Montevallo \"University of Montevallo\"), Southern Benedictine and [Stillman](/wiki/Stillman_College \"Stillman College\").",
"Coached by Physical Education instructor Don McBrayer, the Lady Lions posted numerous successes, including a state championship win over the [University of Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama \"University of Alabama\") in 1975\\. The Lady Lions also defeated [Troy State](/wiki/Troy_University \"Troy University\"), [Auburn](/wiki/Auburn_University \"Auburn University\") and [Montevallo](/wiki/University_of_Montevallo \"University of Montevallo\") before prevailing over Alabama.",
"Another milestone in the program was crossed in 1976, when Lillian Goodlow, a premiere basketball and volleyball player at Bradshaw High School in Florence, became the first female athlete in UNA history to be awarded an athletic scholarship.",
"### First Conference Title in 1982",
"Yet another major step was taken in 1982, when the [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference \"Gulf South Conference\") first began awarding championships in women's sports. UNA's volleyball team earned the first official lead title for women with a 3\\-0 win over Jacksonville State.",
"The Lady Lions went on to win six of the first seven GSC volleyball championships.",
"In 1995, Matt Peck was hired as head coach. Over the following decade, Peck led the Lions to eight NCAA appearances, four trips to the Elite Eight, two Final Fours and the 2003 [Division II](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II \"NCAA Division II\") National Championship.",
"In 1996, the Lions amassed a 44\\-4 record that included UNA's seventh GSC championship and the first ever NCAA Tournament appearance by an Alabama team. In 1997, UNA claimed its second GSC Tournament title and earned its second NCAA Regional bid.",
"UNA became the first GSC institution to advance to the NCAA Division II Elite Eight in 1998\\. Moreover, the Lions earned their third straight GSC title and first\\-ever NCAA regional championship. UNA player also became the first volleyball player in GSC history to be selected a first\\-team All\\-American.",
"In 1999, with a 35\\-7 record, UNA won its fourth straight GSC title and completed its fourth straight NCAA appearance, advancing to the Elite Eight for the second time.",
"UNA won its fifth straight GSC title, completed a fifth straight NCAA trip and ascended to the Division II Final Four for the first time. Team members Ashley Moffitt and Nesrin Secklin also earned All\\-American Honors in 2000 and 2001\\.",
"The following year, UNA made GSC history, winning its seventh straight conference title and 13th overall volleyball crown.",
"### First National Title for a UNA Women's Team",
"However, 2003 was a year marked with irony. While the team failed to win a GSC title for the first time in eight years, it excelled in the NCAA South Central Regional, Elite Eight and Final Four to secure the first national championship ever claimed by a UNA women's athletic team.",
"The team regained its GSC title in 2004\\.",
"In 2006, the Lions lacked only one victory winning the national championship, falling to top\\-ranked Tampa in the finals of the NCAA Tournament in Pensacola, Florida.",
""
] |
### First Conference Title in 1982
Yet another major step was taken in 1982, when the [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference "Gulf South Conference") first began awarding championships in women's sports. UNA's volleyball team earned the first official lead title for women with a 3\-0 win over Jacksonville State.
The Lady Lions went on to win six of the first seven GSC volleyball championships.
In 1995, Matt Peck was hired as head coach. Over the following decade, Peck led the Lions to eight NCAA appearances, four trips to the Elite Eight, two Final Fours and the 2003 [Division II](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II "NCAA Division II") National Championship.
In 1996, the Lions amassed a 44\-4 record that included UNA's seventh GSC championship and the first ever NCAA Tournament appearance by an Alabama team. In 1997, UNA claimed its second GSC Tournament title and earned its second NCAA Regional bid.
UNA became the first GSC institution to advance to the NCAA Division II Elite Eight in 1998\. Moreover, the Lions earned their third straight GSC title and first\-ever NCAA regional championship. UNA player also became the first volleyball player in GSC history to be selected a first\-team All\-American.
In 1999, with a 35\-7 record, UNA won its fourth straight GSC title and completed its fourth straight NCAA appearance, advancing to the Elite Eight for the second time.
UNA won its fifth straight GSC title, completed a fifth straight NCAA trip and ascended to the Division II Final Four for the first time. Team members Ashley Moffitt and Nesrin Secklin also earned All\-American Honors in 2000 and 2001\.
The following year, UNA made GSC history, winning its seventh straight conference title and 13th overall volleyball crown.
|
[
"### First Conference Title in 1982",
"Yet another major step was taken in 1982, when the [Gulf South Conference](/wiki/Gulf_South_Conference \"Gulf South Conference\") first began awarding championships in women's sports. UNA's volleyball team earned the first official lead title for women with a 3\\-0 win over Jacksonville State.",
"The Lady Lions went on to win six of the first seven GSC volleyball championships.",
"In 1995, Matt Peck was hired as head coach. Over the following decade, Peck led the Lions to eight NCAA appearances, four trips to the Elite Eight, two Final Fours and the 2003 [Division II](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II \"NCAA Division II\") National Championship.",
"In 1996, the Lions amassed a 44\\-4 record that included UNA's seventh GSC championship and the first ever NCAA Tournament appearance by an Alabama team. In 1997, UNA claimed its second GSC Tournament title and earned its second NCAA Regional bid.",
"UNA became the first GSC institution to advance to the NCAA Division II Elite Eight in 1998\\. Moreover, the Lions earned their third straight GSC title and first\\-ever NCAA regional championship. UNA player also became the first volleyball player in GSC history to be selected a first\\-team All\\-American.",
"In 1999, with a 35\\-7 record, UNA won its fourth straight GSC title and completed its fourth straight NCAA appearance, advancing to the Elite Eight for the second time.",
"UNA won its fifth straight GSC title, completed a fifth straight NCAA trip and ascended to the Division II Final Four for the first time. Team members Ashley Moffitt and Nesrin Secklin also earned All\\-American Honors in 2000 and 2001\\.",
"The following year, UNA made GSC history, winning its seventh straight conference title and 13th overall volleyball crown.",
""
] |
Belcher family
--------------
The **Belcher family** is a family who runs the family business called Bob's Burgers. [Loren Bouchard](/wiki/Loren_Bouchard "Loren Bouchard") described their ethnicity as follows:
{{cquote\|For better, for worse we gave \[the main characters] the name Belcher so at least one of Bob's parents hails from some French or French\-Canadian lineage. But in a perfect world, we'd have the show about a sort of Greek\-Armenian\-Italian\-Jewish\-German polyglot.http://www.tvguide.com/News/Bobs\-Burgers\-Kind\-1027563\.aspx {{Dead link\|date\=February 2022}}}}
The Belcher family consists of:
### Bob Belcher
{{Main\|Bob Belcher}}
**Robert "Bob" Belcher Jr.** (voiced by [H. Jon Benjamin](/wiki/H._Jon_Benjamin "H. Jon Benjamin")) is the main character of the series. He is the son of Robert Belcher Sr. (nicknamed "Big Bob") and Lily Belcher, the husband of Linda, and the father of Tina, Gene, and Louise. He is a third\-generation restaurateur and currently the proprietor of his eponymous burger restaurant (Bob's Burgers) in a shore town. The Season 5 episode "[Father of the Bob](/wiki/Father_of_the_Bob "Father of the Bob")", begins with a flashback set 30 years prior in which a young Bob states he is 14 years old, making him 44 until the episode "The Laser\-inth", in which he turns 45 and then again in the episode "Are You There Bob? It's Me, Birthday", where he turns 46 years old. The episode also mentions that Bob's mother Lily died prior to the series' beginning. As revealed in "[Bob Fires the Kids](/wiki/Bob_Fires_the_Kids "Bob Fires the Kids")", his childhood has been described as "crappy," as his father discouraged play. However, in *[The Bob's Burgers Movie](/wiki/The_Bob%27s_Burgers_Movie "The Bob's Burgers Movie")*, he implies that he loved spending time with his mother as she would take him on long walks. Bob's mother went unnamed until the Season 13 episode "Show Mama From the Grave", where the Belchers go to visit her gravesite.
Bob has a tendency to entertain himself by having conversations with inanimate objects, mainly food, and then speak back as the inanimate object, usually in a high, squeaky voice. He also enjoys making puns, using this talent to name his burger specials (e.g. "If Looks Could Kale", "She's A Super Leek", "The Cauliflower's Cumin from Inside the House", etc.). While poor with business management, and cursed with an unlucky streak, his skills at burger cooking are excellent; he has even been referred to as a "beef artist" by Mr. Fischoeder. His primary business rival is Jimmy Pesto, who owns an Italian restaurant (Jimmy Pesto's Pizzeria) across the street from Bob's Burgers. In the episode "[Moody Foodie](/wiki/Moody_Foodie "Moody Foodie")", it's mentioned that his eyes are brown.
As shown in the flashback during "[Father of the Bob](/wiki/Father_of_the_Bob "Father of the Bob")", the Burger of the Day special stems from an incident in which he customized a burger by adding chives and sour cream to it, calling it "Baby You Can Chive My Car". He tried to serve it to one of Big Bob's regular customers who normally ordered a [tuna melt](/wiki/Tuna_melt "Tuna melt"), but Big Bob threw the burger away in front of the whole diner. Ten years later, still resentful over not being allowed to cook the way he wanted, Bob turned down Big Bob's offer of a partnership in the diner and opened his own restaurant.
Bob prides himself on giving the customer a quality meal and goes the extra mile to ensure that by choosing fresh ingredients he gets from the local farmer's markets and co\-ops. His biggest accomplishment is the 'Meatsiah', a concoction that consists of a [steak tartare](/wiki/Steak_tartare "Steak tartare") center with a medium\-well cooked burger surrounding it and a [burger Wellington](/wiki/Beef_Wellington "Beef Wellington") surrounding the burger. Bob is allergic to shellfish, particularly [lobster](/wiki/Lobster "Lobster"), as it causes his face to swell any time he eats it. This is a problem, as the seaside town where the Belchers live has an annual lobster festival (which Bob hates because it takes away from his business). Bob, along with Linda, enjoys drinking and many of the episode gags involve Bob or Linda getting drunk, usually from [wine](/wiki/Wine "Wine"). Bob also has a tendency to take mind\-altering substances such as [crack](/wiki/Crack_cocaine "Crack cocaine") in "[Sheesh! Cab, Bob?](/wiki/Sheesh%21_Cab%2C_Bob%3F "Sheesh! Cab, Bob?")", [absinthe](/wiki/Absinthe "Absinthe") in "[An Indecent Thanksgiving Proposal](/wiki/An_Indecent_Thanksgiving_Proposal "An Indecent Thanksgiving Proposal")", pain relievers in "[Housetrap](/wiki/Housetrap "Housetrap")", and his pain medication in "[Burgerboss](/wiki/Burgerboss "Burgerboss")".
Bob is a tall, paunchy, and swarthy chef. He has [male pattern baldness](/wiki/Male_pattern_baldness "Male pattern baldness") and a bushy mustache (which is what initially attracted his bride\-to\-be to him). He has olive skin, and feathered bangs swooping down on his forehead. He wears a pale\-grey, short\-sleeved t\-shirt usually donned with a white apron with a breast pocket with a pen peeking out of it; dark\-grey chefs pants; and black kitchen clogs with white socks shown on the top near where his pants end.
### Linda Belcher
**Linda "Lin" Belcher** (née Genarro) (voiced by [John Roberts](/wiki/John_Roberts_%28actor%29 "John Roberts (actor)")) is the happy\-go\-lucky and supportive wife of Bob and the mother of Tina, Gene, and Louise. Before her marriage to Bob, she was engaged to Hugo, who is now a local health inspector ("[Human Flesh](/wiki/Human_Flesh_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 "Human Flesh (Bob's Burgers)")"). In the season 5 episode "[Eat, Spray, Linda](/wiki/Eat%2C_Spray%2C_Linda "Eat, Spray, Linda")" she turned 44 years old. She has also referred to herself as a "pre\-middle\-aged mother" ("[Lindapendent Woman](/wiki/Lindapendent_Woman "Lindapendent Woman")"). In early seasons, Linda wears her everyday outfit top with a button up while in newer seasons it is a V\-neck instead.
Linda's attraction to Bob, whom she often refers to as "Bobby", is in part due to his passion for his work, and also due to his "[Tom Selleckian](/wiki/Tom_Selleck "Tom Selleck")" mustache. Linda remains a loyal and devoted wife despite their frequent financial problems, and never having had a honeymoon or a day off in 10 years ("[Weekend at Mort's](/wiki/Weekend_at_Mort%27s "Weekend at Mort's")"). She has a preference for mustaches, and says Bob "made himself ugly" when he shaved it off ("[Sheesh! Cab, Bob?](/wiki/Sheesh%21_Cab%2C_Bob%3F "Sheesh! Cab, Bob?")"). Her passions include singing, dinner theater, porcelain baby figurines, [Tom Selleck](/wiki/Tom_Selleck "Tom Selleck"), nautically themed romance novels, and prenatal yoga. She handles the accounting for the restaurant, though her bookkeeping methods are overly complicated. She is fond of alcohol and is known to say that "Mommy doesn't get drunk; she just has fun."
Linda is extroverted, has a thick [New Jersey accent](/wiki/New_Jersey_accent "New Jersey accent"),[The Voice Behind Linda Belcher of 'Bob's Burgers' \- Supporting Players \- YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KhoA1_EEKXE) and is fond of tackling problems using unconventional methods, though her methods are frequently over\-optimistic and things sometimes go awry. She often encourages her kids to engage in behavior that Bob finds annoying, and though she wants what's best for her kids, she tends to be scatterbrained. Bob has described her as a "pushover" because she allows people (particularly the kids) to take advantage of her. She has a contentious relationship with Louise and often misunderstands her, even once organizing a slumber party for Louise against her will. She is a talented lyricist, as shown in "Lil Hard Dad". She has a tendency to spontaneously burst into song, a trait she shares with her voice actor John Roberts. Many of the songs she is known for are improvised by Roberts, including her "Thanksgiving Song", "Dish\-a\-Dee\-Doo" (a jazzy ditty sung while washing the dishes, as seen in "[Mother Daughter Laser Razor](/wiki/Mother_Daughter_Laser_Razor "Mother Daughter Laser Razor")"), and a hair\-braiding ditty that references the late [Harry Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman "Harry S. Truman"). Her songs are frequently remade and set to music for the episode's end credits.
In the newer seasons, Linda's mouth was drawn less tucked\-in in the theme\-music intro than the earlier seasons.
In the Season 12 episode "Sauce Side Story", Linda's maiden name is revealed to be Genarro and that she is of Italian descent.
She has a friend who's only mentioned but never seen or heard named Ginger.
### Tina Belcher
**Tina Ruth Belcher** (voiced by [Dan Mintz](/wiki/Dan_Mintz "Dan Mintz")) is the eldest Belcher child. She is 13 years old. She generally speaks in a masculine tone, wears glasses, works part\-time at the family restaurant, and is often the voice of reason among the Belcher children. However, it is made quite clear Tina's own characteristics rival those of her siblings. She is trying to come to grips with her entry into adulthood and claims to have a complicated relationship with [zombies](/wiki/Zombies "Zombies"). She typically wears a sky\-blue, short\-sleeved t\-shirt; a short, navy\-blue pencil skirt; white tube socks with red stripes on the bottom; black sneakers with white tips; and a yellow [barrette](/wiki/Hair_clip "Hair clip") on the right side of her head, which she dons typically with her thick and black\-framed glasses to help her see better. Like the rest of her Italian\-looking family, she has black hair and olive skin. She also wears her hair in a "bob cut" with loose curls at the ends. Despite seeming reticent and shy around her peers, Tina has an active social and romantic life. She has an on\-again off\-again relationship with Jimmy Jr., and has dated, kissed, or flirted with several other boys. She is obsessed with horses, boys (particularly Jimmy Jr.), and [buttocks](/wiki/Buttocks "Buttocks"); in various episodes, she writes in her journal about touching people's butts, which, to her, is the height of sexual contact. According to her siblings,{{cite episode \|season\=2 \|series\=Bob's Burgers \|title\=Bad Tina}} Tina has written erotic fanfiction of several television shows and movies and has moved on to "erotic friend fiction", in which she uses real\-life people. She is a member of the Hormone\-iums, a musical revue at Wagstaff that sings songs about puberty, and was formerly a member of the Thundergirls, a [Girl Scout](/wiki/Girl_Scouts_of_the_USA "Girl Scouts of the USA")\-like organization. Tina was aged 12 in early episodes and now 13 since the episode "[Sheesh! Cab, Bob?](/wiki/Sheesh%21_Cab%2C_Bob%3F "Sheesh! Cab, Bob?")". She is generally soft\-spoken and reserved, often in contrast to her more strident siblings. In the show's early developmental stages, the eldest Belcher child was originally written as a boy,{{cite web\|url\=http://longislandweekly.com/extended\-q\-cast\-bobs\-burgers/\|title\=Extended Q\-and\-A With The Cast Of 'Bob's Burgers' – Long Island Weekly\|website\=longislandweekly.com\|date\=21 September 2016\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-21}} named Daniel Belcher, who was also voiced by Mintz, whose personality in the never\-broadcast pilot is said to have been similar to that of Tina's. She is also shown to have difficulties with her schoolwork despite working hard at it, as shown in "[Can't Buy Me Math](/wiki/Can%27t_Buy_Me_Math "Can't Buy Me Math")" when she is put into remedial math and "[Bob and Deliver](/wiki/Bob_and_Deliver "Bob and Deliver")" when guidance counselor Mr. Frond refers to her as a "dum\-dum".
### Gene Belcher
**Eugene "Gene" Belcher** (voiced by [Eugene Mirman](/wiki/Eugene_Mirman "Eugene Mirman")) is the middle child and only son in the family, revealed to be 11 years old in season 3\.{{cite episode \|series\=Bob's Burgers \|title\=\[\[Full Bars]] \|season\=3 \|number\=24 \|date\=7 October 2012}} Like Linda, he has an upbeat and enthusiastic attitude about almost everything; however, he closely resembles Bob and has inherited his lobster allergy. He often promotes the restaurant by wearing a burger costume, which he uses to run in a mascot race in the season 1 episode "[Torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 "Torpedo (Bob's Burgers)")" and using a toy megaphone to hand out samples.
Gene has a variety of interests and hobbies, with his most well\-known being food and music. Though he has no training, he occasionally demonstrates great skill in music and aspires to be a [musician](/wiki/Musician "Musician"); he enjoys playing a Casio\-type [keyboard](/wiki/Electronic_keyboard "Electronic keyboard") and makes fart sounds using it, and creates an elaborate love duet in "[Topsy](/wiki/Topsy_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 "Topsy (Bob's Burgers)")" as well as a one\-man show in "[Work Hard or Die Trying, Girl](/wiki/Work_Hard_or_Die_Trying%2C_Girl "Work Hard or Die Trying, Girl")". Despite this, Gene is not without his flaws, namely a tendency to be easily distracted, which the family refers to as "Gene\-ing out" in "[Best Burger](/wiki/Best_Burger "Best Burger")", but he is loving and loyal toward his family. He is also unathletic, as seen in several episodes including "[Synchronized Swimming](/wiki/Synchronized_Swimming_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 "Synchronized Swimming (Bob's Burgers)")", when he has trouble opening a door which Tina then opens with ease and "[Spaghetti Western and Meatballs](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western_and_Meatballs "Spaghetti Western and Meatballs")", when he runs away from a fight in fear. In "[It Snakes a Village](/wiki/It_Snakes_a_Village "It Snakes a Village")", it is shown that he suffers from [a fear of snakes](/wiki/Ophidiophobia "Ophidiophobia").
Gene has an occasional tendency towards making unintentionally sexual [double entendres](/wiki/Double_entendre "Double entendre"), which his father Bob corrects or tells him not to repeat,Gene: Channel Six News, they'll finger anything with a pulse! Bob: I'm pretty sure their slogan is 'their finger's on the pulse', Gene. From season 2, episode 2: "[Bob Day Afternoon](/wiki/Bob_Day_Afternoon "Bob Day Afternoon")" often admonishing the boy by simply saying, "Gene...". He is also fond of making wisecracks and pop culture references. Like his father and mother, he has olive skin and dark black hair. He has his hair in a short "bowl cut" with long flips at each side of his head. He sports a pale\-yellow, almost\-beige, short\-sleeved t\-shirt; a pair of slightly lengthy, light\-blue denim shorts; short white socks; and, like his older sister, white and red sneakers.
### Louise Belcher
{{Infobox character
\| name \= Louise Belcher
\| series \= \[\[Bob's Burgers]]
\| image \=
\| creator \= \[\[Loren Bouchard]]
\| designer \=
\| voice \= \[\[Kristen Schaal]]
\| occupation \=
\| family \= {{unbulleted list
\|\[\[Bob Belcher]] (father)
\|Linda Belcher (mother)
\|Gene Belcher (brother)
\|Tina Belcher (sister)
}}
\| nationality \= American
\| gender \= Female
\| full\_name \= Louise Belcher
\| first \= "\[\[Human Flesh (Bob's Burgers)\|Human Flesh]]" (2011\)
}}
**Louise Belcher** (voiced by [Kristen Schaal](/wiki/Kristen_Schaal "Kristen Schaal")) is the youngest child of the Belcher family and is revealed to be 9 years old in season 1{{cite episode \|series\=Bob's Burgers \|title\="\[\[Torpedo (Bob's Burgers)\|Torpedo]]" \|season\=1 \|number\=13 \|date\=22 May 2011}} and is still 9 by Christmas five seasons later.{{cite episode \|title\=\[\[Nice\-Capades]] \|series\=Bob's Burgers \|season\=6 \|date\=15 November 2015 \|number\=93 \|first\=Louise \|last\=Belcher \|quote\=You got to be ten to get a shark, is that it? Okay, I can wait, starter shark, love it. Next year though, I want a great white}} She typically wears a short\-sleeved, olive\-green dress slightly below the knees; black, mary\-jane flats; and a hot pink beanie hat with rabbit ears on top of it. Like the rest of her Italian\-looking family, she has black hair and olive skin. Her black hair peeks out from her large hat, slightly exposing the hair\-ties holding up her pigtails; her yellow hair\-ties in the front covered up by the long ends of her bunny hat along with the aglets of her hat. Like her mother and older sister, her hair has curls at the ends, specifically her pigtails have curls at the ends.
Despite being the youngest, she usually dominates her two older siblings by "wear\[ing] down \[their] self\-esteem over a period of years". Precociously intelligent, manipulative, and aggressive (even toward adults), she is more than willing to exploit people if there is anything to be gained, and has a history of [gaslighting](/wiki/Gaslighting "Gaslighting") her siblings, especially Tina.
She has an offbeat and dark sense of humor, and [picks locks](/wiki/Lockpicking "Lockpicking") as a hobby. She tends to be very loud, and often shouts at the top of her lungs to get her points across. Louise always wears her signature pink hat with bunny ears, regardless of the time of day or situation; to date, viewers have never seen her uncovered head. She claims that she has "a raging [staph infection](/wiki/Staphylococcal_infection "Staphylococcal infection") under here" in the episode "[Synchronized Swimming](/wiki/Synchronized_Swimming_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 "Synchronized Swimming (Bob's Burgers)")" when they try to make her take it off. In "[Ear\-sy Rider](/wiki/Ear-sy_Rider "Ear-sy Rider")", when a high\-schooler stole her hat from her, her head was off\-screen, then she wore a [hoodie](/wiki/Hoodie "Hoodie") until she got it back.
In *[The Bob's Burgers Movie](/wiki/The_Bob%27s_Burgers_Movie "The Bob's Burgers Movie")*, she believes that her hat makes her brave and that she got it in order to be able to face preschool. However, this turns out to be untrue, as she got it *after* her first day of preschool and that Linda made it in honor of Bob's mother Lily, who often wore a similar beanie; though Louise's hat had bunny ears added due to Linda having extra fabric. Louise is not immune to breaking her tough character persona, however: she called Bob "daddy" until she was eight, felt guilty about almost electrocuting her sister, still believes in [Santa Claus](/wiki/Santa_Claus "Santa Claus"), has a disturbing crush on a boy\-band member, becomes enamored with puppies, and proclaims at the end of season 4, in the face of death, that she does love her family. Since she was a baby, Louise has always liked Bob more than Linda, opting to spend more time with him as she finds him much more interesting; it can generally be assumed that Louise and Bob have a very strong relationship, although she is the most prone amongst her siblings to mock him. In "[Carpe Museum](/wiki/Carpe_Museum "Carpe Museum")", Louise accidentally reveals her plan to take over the family restaurant when Bob retires, after renaming it to "Louise's Burgers".
### Relatives of the Belcher family
* **Gayle Genarro** (voiced by [Megan Mullally](/wiki/Megan_Mullally "Megan Mullally")) – Linda's neurotic artist sister, the aunt of Tina, Gene and Louise and the sister\-in\-law of Bob. Bob dislikes her, much to Linda's consternation. She is desperately lonely, and once fell in love with Bob because, Linda explains, she always wants what Linda has. However, men often take an interest in her, including Dr. Yap, Mort, Mr. Frond, and Mr. Fischoeder. She loves cats and may suffer from some form of [factitious disorder](/wiki/Factitious_disorder "Factitious disorder"), as she often fakes injuries.
* **Al Genarro** (voiced by [Sam Seder](/wiki/Sam_Seder "Sam Seder")) – Linda's father, father\-in\-law of Bob, and the maternal grandfather of Tina, Gene, and Louise. He rarely speaks, is hard of hearing, and wears a hearing aid. He accompanies Gloria everywhere. He has a fetish for women inflating balloons and then sitting on them until they pop.
* **Gloria Genarro** (née Rinaldi) (voiced by [Renée Taylor](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_Taylor "Renée Taylor")) – Linda's mother, mother\-in\-law of Bob, and maternal grandmother of Tina, Gene, and Louise. Bob doesn't like her very much and he always tries to hide from her when she and Al come over to visit. She convinces her husband to move to a retirement community of [swingers](/wiki/Swinging_%28sexual_practice%29 "Swinging (sexual practice)"). Her recent appearances validate Bob's view of her as she is shown to be constantly demanding, thankless and immature.
* **Robert "Big Bob" Belcher Sr.** (voiced by H. Jon Benjamin in "Bob Fires the Kids", [Bill Hader](/wiki/Bill_Hader "Bill Hader") in "Father of the Bob", [Eric Bauza](/wiki/Eric_Bauza "Eric Bauza") in "Interview with a Pop\-pop\-pire") – Big Bob is Bob's widowed father, the father\-in\-law of Linda, and the paternal grandfather of Tina, Gene, and Louise. Like his son, Big Bob is a restaurateur who owns his own business called "Big Bob's Diner". He's shown to be a tough\-loving father towards his own son, as shown in flashbacks. Since his pre\-teens, Big Bob has been very controlling of Bob and has put him to work most of the time. He enjoys line\-dancing which he practices at the gay bar next to his diner. He found life to be difficult since the death of his wife, Lily. In conversations with his son, he revealed that he proposed to Lily after a tree almost fell on them while they were camping.
* **Lily Belcher** – Bob's deceased mother, mother\-in\-law of Linda, paternal grandmother of Tina, Gene, and Louise. She went unnamed until the Season 13 episode "Show Mama From the Grave". Most information about her comes from flashbacks and memories: She and Big Bob once went camping and a tree almost fell on them, causing Big Bob to know he wanted to marry her. She and Bob would make gingerbread houses together, a fond memory Bob has of her. Big Bob also found life and running the restaurant to be difficult following her death. She appears fully on screen for the first time in the *Bob's Burgers* movie, where she is depicted wearing her favorite pink hat. Bob tells Louise that her own bunny ear hat reminds him of Lily.
|
[
"Belcher family\n--------------",
"The **Belcher family** is a family who runs the family business called Bob's Burgers. [Loren Bouchard](/wiki/Loren_Bouchard \"Loren Bouchard\") described their ethnicity as follows:",
"{{cquote\\|For better, for worse we gave \\[the main characters] the name Belcher so at least one of Bob's parents hails from some French or French\\-Canadian lineage. But in a perfect world, we'd have the show about a sort of Greek\\-Armenian\\-Italian\\-Jewish\\-German polyglot.http://www.tvguide.com/News/Bobs\\-Burgers\\-Kind\\-1027563\\.aspx {{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2022}}}}",
"The Belcher family consists of:",
"### Bob Belcher",
"{{Main\\|Bob Belcher}}\n**Robert \"Bob\" Belcher Jr.** (voiced by [H. Jon Benjamin](/wiki/H._Jon_Benjamin \"H. Jon Benjamin\")) is the main character of the series. He is the son of Robert Belcher Sr. (nicknamed \"Big Bob\") and Lily Belcher, the husband of Linda, and the father of Tina, Gene, and Louise. He is a third\\-generation restaurateur and currently the proprietor of his eponymous burger restaurant (Bob's Burgers) in a shore town. The Season 5 episode \"[Father of the Bob](/wiki/Father_of_the_Bob \"Father of the Bob\")\", begins with a flashback set 30 years prior in which a young Bob states he is 14 years old, making him 44 until the episode \"The Laser\\-inth\", in which he turns 45 and then again in the episode \"Are You There Bob? It's Me, Birthday\", where he turns 46 years old. The episode also mentions that Bob's mother Lily died prior to the series' beginning. As revealed in \"[Bob Fires the Kids](/wiki/Bob_Fires_the_Kids \"Bob Fires the Kids\")\", his childhood has been described as \"crappy,\" as his father discouraged play. However, in *[The Bob's Burgers Movie](/wiki/The_Bob%27s_Burgers_Movie \"The Bob's Burgers Movie\")*, he implies that he loved spending time with his mother as she would take him on long walks. Bob's mother went unnamed until the Season 13 episode \"Show Mama From the Grave\", where the Belchers go to visit her gravesite.",
"Bob has a tendency to entertain himself by having conversations with inanimate objects, mainly food, and then speak back as the inanimate object, usually in a high, squeaky voice. He also enjoys making puns, using this talent to name his burger specials (e.g. \"If Looks Could Kale\", \"She's A Super Leek\", \"The Cauliflower's Cumin from Inside the House\", etc.). While poor with business management, and cursed with an unlucky streak, his skills at burger cooking are excellent; he has even been referred to as a \"beef artist\" by Mr. Fischoeder. His primary business rival is Jimmy Pesto, who owns an Italian restaurant (Jimmy Pesto's Pizzeria) across the street from Bob's Burgers. In the episode \"[Moody Foodie](/wiki/Moody_Foodie \"Moody Foodie\")\", it's mentioned that his eyes are brown.",
"As shown in the flashback during \"[Father of the Bob](/wiki/Father_of_the_Bob \"Father of the Bob\")\", the Burger of the Day special stems from an incident in which he customized a burger by adding chives and sour cream to it, calling it \"Baby You Can Chive My Car\". He tried to serve it to one of Big Bob's regular customers who normally ordered a [tuna melt](/wiki/Tuna_melt \"Tuna melt\"), but Big Bob threw the burger away in front of the whole diner. Ten years later, still resentful over not being allowed to cook the way he wanted, Bob turned down Big Bob's offer of a partnership in the diner and opened his own restaurant.",
"Bob prides himself on giving the customer a quality meal and goes the extra mile to ensure that by choosing fresh ingredients he gets from the local farmer's markets and co\\-ops. His biggest accomplishment is the 'Meatsiah', a concoction that consists of a [steak tartare](/wiki/Steak_tartare \"Steak tartare\") center with a medium\\-well cooked burger surrounding it and a [burger Wellington](/wiki/Beef_Wellington \"Beef Wellington\") surrounding the burger. Bob is allergic to shellfish, particularly [lobster](/wiki/Lobster \"Lobster\"), as it causes his face to swell any time he eats it. This is a problem, as the seaside town where the Belchers live has an annual lobster festival (which Bob hates because it takes away from his business). Bob, along with Linda, enjoys drinking and many of the episode gags involve Bob or Linda getting drunk, usually from [wine](/wiki/Wine \"Wine\"). Bob also has a tendency to take mind\\-altering substances such as [crack](/wiki/Crack_cocaine \"Crack cocaine\") in \"[Sheesh! Cab, Bob?](/wiki/Sheesh%21_Cab%2C_Bob%3F \"Sheesh! Cab, Bob?\")\", [absinthe](/wiki/Absinthe \"Absinthe\") in \"[An Indecent Thanksgiving Proposal](/wiki/An_Indecent_Thanksgiving_Proposal \"An Indecent Thanksgiving Proposal\")\", pain relievers in \"[Housetrap](/wiki/Housetrap \"Housetrap\")\", and his pain medication in \"[Burgerboss](/wiki/Burgerboss \"Burgerboss\")\".",
"Bob is a tall, paunchy, and swarthy chef. He has [male pattern baldness](/wiki/Male_pattern_baldness \"Male pattern baldness\") and a bushy mustache (which is what initially attracted his bride\\-to\\-be to him). He has olive skin, and feathered bangs swooping down on his forehead. He wears a pale\\-grey, short\\-sleeved t\\-shirt usually donned with a white apron with a breast pocket with a pen peeking out of it; dark\\-grey chefs pants; and black kitchen clogs with white socks shown on the top near where his pants end.",
"### Linda Belcher",
"**Linda \"Lin\" Belcher** (née Genarro) (voiced by [John Roberts](/wiki/John_Roberts_%28actor%29 \"John Roberts (actor)\")) is the happy\\-go\\-lucky and supportive wife of Bob and the mother of Tina, Gene, and Louise. Before her marriage to Bob, she was engaged to Hugo, who is now a local health inspector (\"[Human Flesh](/wiki/Human_Flesh_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 \"Human Flesh (Bob's Burgers)\")\"). In the season 5 episode \"[Eat, Spray, Linda](/wiki/Eat%2C_Spray%2C_Linda \"Eat, Spray, Linda\")\" she turned 44 years old. She has also referred to herself as a \"pre\\-middle\\-aged mother\" (\"[Lindapendent Woman](/wiki/Lindapendent_Woman \"Lindapendent Woman\")\"). In early seasons, Linda wears her everyday outfit top with a button up while in newer seasons it is a V\\-neck instead.",
"Linda's attraction to Bob, whom she often refers to as \"Bobby\", is in part due to his passion for his work, and also due to his \"[Tom Selleckian](/wiki/Tom_Selleck \"Tom Selleck\")\" mustache. Linda remains a loyal and devoted wife despite their frequent financial problems, and never having had a honeymoon or a day off in 10 years (\"[Weekend at Mort's](/wiki/Weekend_at_Mort%27s \"Weekend at Mort's\")\"). She has a preference for mustaches, and says Bob \"made himself ugly\" when he shaved it off (\"[Sheesh! Cab, Bob?](/wiki/Sheesh%21_Cab%2C_Bob%3F \"Sheesh! Cab, Bob?\")\"). Her passions include singing, dinner theater, porcelain baby figurines, [Tom Selleck](/wiki/Tom_Selleck \"Tom Selleck\"), nautically themed romance novels, and prenatal yoga. She handles the accounting for the restaurant, though her bookkeeping methods are overly complicated. She is fond of alcohol and is known to say that \"Mommy doesn't get drunk; she just has fun.\"",
"Linda is extroverted, has a thick [New Jersey accent](/wiki/New_Jersey_accent \"New Jersey accent\"),[The Voice Behind Linda Belcher of 'Bob's Burgers' \\- Supporting Players \\- YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KhoA1_EEKXE) and is fond of tackling problems using unconventional methods, though her methods are frequently over\\-optimistic and things sometimes go awry. She often encourages her kids to engage in behavior that Bob finds annoying, and though she wants what's best for her kids, she tends to be scatterbrained. Bob has described her as a \"pushover\" because she allows people (particularly the kids) to take advantage of her. She has a contentious relationship with Louise and often misunderstands her, even once organizing a slumber party for Louise against her will. She is a talented lyricist, as shown in \"Lil Hard Dad\". She has a tendency to spontaneously burst into song, a trait she shares with her voice actor John Roberts. Many of the songs she is known for are improvised by Roberts, including her \"Thanksgiving Song\", \"Dish\\-a\\-Dee\\-Doo\" (a jazzy ditty sung while washing the dishes, as seen in \"[Mother Daughter Laser Razor](/wiki/Mother_Daughter_Laser_Razor \"Mother Daughter Laser Razor\")\"), and a hair\\-braiding ditty that references the late [Harry Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman \"Harry S. Truman\"). Her songs are frequently remade and set to music for the episode's end credits.",
"In the newer seasons, Linda's mouth was drawn less tucked\\-in in the theme\\-music intro than the earlier seasons.",
"In the Season 12 episode \"Sauce Side Story\", Linda's maiden name is revealed to be Genarro and that she is of Italian descent.",
"She has a friend who's only mentioned but never seen or heard named Ginger.",
"### Tina Belcher",
"**Tina Ruth Belcher** (voiced by [Dan Mintz](/wiki/Dan_Mintz \"Dan Mintz\")) is the eldest Belcher child. She is 13 years old. She generally speaks in a masculine tone, wears glasses, works part\\-time at the family restaurant, and is often the voice of reason among the Belcher children. However, it is made quite clear Tina's own characteristics rival those of her siblings. She is trying to come to grips with her entry into adulthood and claims to have a complicated relationship with [zombies](/wiki/Zombies \"Zombies\"). She typically wears a sky\\-blue, short\\-sleeved t\\-shirt; a short, navy\\-blue pencil skirt; white tube socks with red stripes on the bottom; black sneakers with white tips; and a yellow [barrette](/wiki/Hair_clip \"Hair clip\") on the right side of her head, which she dons typically with her thick and black\\-framed glasses to help her see better. Like the rest of her Italian\\-looking family, she has black hair and olive skin. She also wears her hair in a \"bob cut\" with loose curls at the ends. Despite seeming reticent and shy around her peers, Tina has an active social and romantic life. She has an on\\-again off\\-again relationship with Jimmy Jr., and has dated, kissed, or flirted with several other boys. She is obsessed with horses, boys (particularly Jimmy Jr.), and [buttocks](/wiki/Buttocks \"Buttocks\"); in various episodes, she writes in her journal about touching people's butts, which, to her, is the height of sexual contact. According to her siblings,{{cite episode \\|season\\=2 \\|series\\=Bob's Burgers \\|title\\=Bad Tina}} Tina has written erotic fanfiction of several television shows and movies and has moved on to \"erotic friend fiction\", in which she uses real\\-life people. She is a member of the Hormone\\-iums, a musical revue at Wagstaff that sings songs about puberty, and was formerly a member of the Thundergirls, a [Girl Scout](/wiki/Girl_Scouts_of_the_USA \"Girl Scouts of the USA\")\\-like organization. Tina was aged 12 in early episodes and now 13 since the episode \"[Sheesh! Cab, Bob?](/wiki/Sheesh%21_Cab%2C_Bob%3F \"Sheesh! Cab, Bob?\")\". She is generally soft\\-spoken and reserved, often in contrast to her more strident siblings. In the show's early developmental stages, the eldest Belcher child was originally written as a boy,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://longislandweekly.com/extended\\-q\\-cast\\-bobs\\-burgers/\\|title\\=Extended Q\\-and\\-A With The Cast Of 'Bob's Burgers' – Long Island Weekly\\|website\\=longislandweekly.com\\|date\\=21 September 2016\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-21}} named Daniel Belcher, who was also voiced by Mintz, whose personality in the never\\-broadcast pilot is said to have been similar to that of Tina's. She is also shown to have difficulties with her schoolwork despite working hard at it, as shown in \"[Can't Buy Me Math](/wiki/Can%27t_Buy_Me_Math \"Can't Buy Me Math\")\" when she is put into remedial math and \"[Bob and Deliver](/wiki/Bob_and_Deliver \"Bob and Deliver\")\" when guidance counselor Mr. Frond refers to her as a \"dum\\-dum\".",
"### Gene Belcher",
"**Eugene \"Gene\" Belcher** (voiced by [Eugene Mirman](/wiki/Eugene_Mirman \"Eugene Mirman\")) is the middle child and only son in the family, revealed to be 11 years old in season 3\\.{{cite episode \\|series\\=Bob's Burgers \\|title\\=\\[\\[Full Bars]] \\|season\\=3 \\|number\\=24 \\|date\\=7 October 2012}} Like Linda, he has an upbeat and enthusiastic attitude about almost everything; however, he closely resembles Bob and has inherited his lobster allergy. He often promotes the restaurant by wearing a burger costume, which he uses to run in a mascot race in the season 1 episode \"[Torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 \"Torpedo (Bob's Burgers)\")\" and using a toy megaphone to hand out samples.",
"Gene has a variety of interests and hobbies, with his most well\\-known being food and music. Though he has no training, he occasionally demonstrates great skill in music and aspires to be a [musician](/wiki/Musician \"Musician\"); he enjoys playing a Casio\\-type [keyboard](/wiki/Electronic_keyboard \"Electronic keyboard\") and makes fart sounds using it, and creates an elaborate love duet in \"[Topsy](/wiki/Topsy_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 \"Topsy (Bob's Burgers)\")\" as well as a one\\-man show in \"[Work Hard or Die Trying, Girl](/wiki/Work_Hard_or_Die_Trying%2C_Girl \"Work Hard or Die Trying, Girl\")\". Despite this, Gene is not without his flaws, namely a tendency to be easily distracted, which the family refers to as \"Gene\\-ing out\" in \"[Best Burger](/wiki/Best_Burger \"Best Burger\")\", but he is loving and loyal toward his family. He is also unathletic, as seen in several episodes including \"[Synchronized Swimming](/wiki/Synchronized_Swimming_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 \"Synchronized Swimming (Bob's Burgers)\")\", when he has trouble opening a door which Tina then opens with ease and \"[Spaghetti Western and Meatballs](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western_and_Meatballs \"Spaghetti Western and Meatballs\")\", when he runs away from a fight in fear. In \"[It Snakes a Village](/wiki/It_Snakes_a_Village \"It Snakes a Village\")\", it is shown that he suffers from [a fear of snakes](/wiki/Ophidiophobia \"Ophidiophobia\").",
"Gene has an occasional tendency towards making unintentionally sexual [double entendres](/wiki/Double_entendre \"Double entendre\"), which his father Bob corrects or tells him not to repeat,Gene: Channel Six News, they'll finger anything with a pulse! Bob: I'm pretty sure their slogan is 'their finger's on the pulse', Gene. From season 2, episode 2: \"[Bob Day Afternoon](/wiki/Bob_Day_Afternoon \"Bob Day Afternoon\")\" often admonishing the boy by simply saying, \"Gene...\". He is also fond of making wisecracks and pop culture references. Like his father and mother, he has olive skin and dark black hair. He has his hair in a short \"bowl cut\" with long flips at each side of his head. He sports a pale\\-yellow, almost\\-beige, short\\-sleeved t\\-shirt; a pair of slightly lengthy, light\\-blue denim shorts; short white socks; and, like his older sister, white and red sneakers.",
"### Louise Belcher",
"{{Infobox character\n\\| name \\= Louise Belcher\n\\| series \\= \\[\\[Bob's Burgers]]\n\\| image \\= \n\\| creator \\= \\[\\[Loren Bouchard]]\n\\| designer \\= \n\\| voice \\= \\[\\[Kristen Schaal]]\n\\| occupation \\= \n\\| family \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|\\[\\[Bob Belcher]] (father)\n \\|Linda Belcher (mother)\n \\|Gene Belcher (brother)\n \\|Tina Belcher (sister)\n}}\n\\| nationality \\= American\n\\| gender \\= Female\n\\| full\\_name \\= Louise Belcher\n\\| first \\= \"\\[\\[Human Flesh (Bob's Burgers)\\|Human Flesh]]\" (2011\\)\n}}\n**Louise Belcher** (voiced by [Kristen Schaal](/wiki/Kristen_Schaal \"Kristen Schaal\")) is the youngest child of the Belcher family and is revealed to be 9 years old in season 1{{cite episode \\|series\\=Bob's Burgers \\|title\\=\"\\[\\[Torpedo (Bob's Burgers)\\|Torpedo]]\" \\|season\\=1 \\|number\\=13 \\|date\\=22 May 2011}} and is still 9 by Christmas five seasons later.{{cite episode \\|title\\=\\[\\[Nice\\-Capades]] \\|series\\=Bob's Burgers \\|season\\=6 \\|date\\=15 November 2015 \\|number\\=93 \\|first\\=Louise \\|last\\=Belcher \\|quote\\=You got to be ten to get a shark, is that it? Okay, I can wait, starter shark, love it. Next year though, I want a great white}} She typically wears a short\\-sleeved, olive\\-green dress slightly below the knees; black, mary\\-jane flats; and a hot pink beanie hat with rabbit ears on top of it. Like the rest of her Italian\\-looking family, she has black hair and olive skin. Her black hair peeks out from her large hat, slightly exposing the hair\\-ties holding up her pigtails; her yellow hair\\-ties in the front covered up by the long ends of her bunny hat along with the aglets of her hat. Like her mother and older sister, her hair has curls at the ends, specifically her pigtails have curls at the ends.",
"Despite being the youngest, she usually dominates her two older siblings by \"wear\\[ing] down \\[their] self\\-esteem over a period of years\". Precociously intelligent, manipulative, and aggressive (even toward adults), she is more than willing to exploit people if there is anything to be gained, and has a history of [gaslighting](/wiki/Gaslighting \"Gaslighting\") her siblings, especially Tina.",
"She has an offbeat and dark sense of humor, and [picks locks](/wiki/Lockpicking \"Lockpicking\") as a hobby. She tends to be very loud, and often shouts at the top of her lungs to get her points across. Louise always wears her signature pink hat with bunny ears, regardless of the time of day or situation; to date, viewers have never seen her uncovered head. She claims that she has \"a raging [staph infection](/wiki/Staphylococcal_infection \"Staphylococcal infection\") under here\" in the episode \"[Synchronized Swimming](/wiki/Synchronized_Swimming_%28Bob%27s_Burgers%29 \"Synchronized Swimming (Bob's Burgers)\")\" when they try to make her take it off. In \"[Ear\\-sy Rider](/wiki/Ear-sy_Rider \"Ear-sy Rider\")\", when a high\\-schooler stole her hat from her, her head was off\\-screen, then she wore a [hoodie](/wiki/Hoodie \"Hoodie\") until she got it back.",
"In *[The Bob's Burgers Movie](/wiki/The_Bob%27s_Burgers_Movie \"The Bob's Burgers Movie\")*, she believes that her hat makes her brave and that she got it in order to be able to face preschool. However, this turns out to be untrue, as she got it *after* her first day of preschool and that Linda made it in honor of Bob's mother Lily, who often wore a similar beanie; though Louise's hat had bunny ears added due to Linda having extra fabric. Louise is not immune to breaking her tough character persona, however: she called Bob \"daddy\" until she was eight, felt guilty about almost electrocuting her sister, still believes in [Santa Claus](/wiki/Santa_Claus \"Santa Claus\"), has a disturbing crush on a boy\\-band member, becomes enamored with puppies, and proclaims at the end of season 4, in the face of death, that she does love her family. Since she was a baby, Louise has always liked Bob more than Linda, opting to spend more time with him as she finds him much more interesting; it can generally be assumed that Louise and Bob have a very strong relationship, although she is the most prone amongst her siblings to mock him. In \"[Carpe Museum](/wiki/Carpe_Museum \"Carpe Museum\")\", Louise accidentally reveals her plan to take over the family restaurant when Bob retires, after renaming it to \"Louise's Burgers\".",
"### Relatives of the Belcher family",
"* **Gayle Genarro** (voiced by [Megan Mullally](/wiki/Megan_Mullally \"Megan Mullally\")) – Linda's neurotic artist sister, the aunt of Tina, Gene and Louise and the sister\\-in\\-law of Bob. Bob dislikes her, much to Linda's consternation. She is desperately lonely, and once fell in love with Bob because, Linda explains, she always wants what Linda has. However, men often take an interest in her, including Dr. Yap, Mort, Mr. Frond, and Mr. Fischoeder. She loves cats and may suffer from some form of [factitious disorder](/wiki/Factitious_disorder \"Factitious disorder\"), as she often fakes injuries.\n* **Al Genarro** (voiced by [Sam Seder](/wiki/Sam_Seder \"Sam Seder\")) – Linda's father, father\\-in\\-law of Bob, and the maternal grandfather of Tina, Gene, and Louise. He rarely speaks, is hard of hearing, and wears a hearing aid. He accompanies Gloria everywhere. He has a fetish for women inflating balloons and then sitting on them until they pop.\n* **Gloria Genarro** (née Rinaldi) (voiced by [Renée Taylor](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_Taylor \"Renée Taylor\")) – Linda's mother, mother\\-in\\-law of Bob, and maternal grandmother of Tina, Gene, and Louise. Bob doesn't like her very much and he always tries to hide from her when she and Al come over to visit. She convinces her husband to move to a retirement community of [swingers](/wiki/Swinging_%28sexual_practice%29 \"Swinging (sexual practice)\"). Her recent appearances validate Bob's view of her as she is shown to be constantly demanding, thankless and immature.\n* **Robert \"Big Bob\" Belcher Sr.** (voiced by H. Jon Benjamin in \"Bob Fires the Kids\", [Bill Hader](/wiki/Bill_Hader \"Bill Hader\") in \"Father of the Bob\", [Eric Bauza](/wiki/Eric_Bauza \"Eric Bauza\") in \"Interview with a Pop\\-pop\\-pire\") – Big Bob is Bob's widowed father, the father\\-in\\-law of Linda, and the paternal grandfather of Tina, Gene, and Louise. Like his son, Big Bob is a restaurateur who owns his own business called \"Big Bob's Diner\". He's shown to be a tough\\-loving father towards his own son, as shown in flashbacks. Since his pre\\-teens, Big Bob has been very controlling of Bob and has put him to work most of the time. He enjoys line\\-dancing which he practices at the gay bar next to his diner. He found life to be difficult since the death of his wife, Lily. In conversations with his son, he revealed that he proposed to Lily after a tree almost fell on them while they were camping.\n* **Lily Belcher** – Bob's deceased mother, mother\\-in\\-law of Linda, paternal grandmother of Tina, Gene, and Louise. She went unnamed until the Season 13 episode \"Show Mama From the Grave\". Most information about her comes from flashbacks and memories: She and Big Bob once went camping and a tree almost fell on them, causing Big Bob to know he wanted to marry her. She and Bob would make gingerbread houses together, a fond memory Bob has of her. Big Bob also found life and running the restaurant to be difficult following her death. She appears fully on screen for the first time in the *Bob's Burgers* movie, where she is depicted wearing her favorite pink hat. Bob tells Louise that her own bunny ear hat reminds him of Lily."
] |
Political motivations
---------------------
The Acts of Union may be seen within a wider European context of increasing state centralisation during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including the monarchies of [France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France "Kingdom of France"), [Sweden](/wiki/Swedish_Empire "Swedish Empire"), [Denmark\-Norway](/wiki/Denmark-Norway "Denmark-Norway") and [Spain](/wiki/History_of_Spain_%281700-1808%29 "History of Spain (1700-1808)"). While there were exceptions, such as the Dutch Republic or the [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice "Republic of Venice"), the trend was clear.{{sfn\|Munck\|2005\|pp\=429–431}}
The dangers of the monarch using one parliament against the other first became apparent in 1647 and 1651\. It resurfaced during the 1679 to 1681 [Exclusion Crisis](/wiki/Exclusion_Crisis "Exclusion Crisis"), caused by English resistance to the Catholic [James](/wiki/James_II_of_England "James II of England") II (of England, VII of Scotland) succeeding his brother Charles. James was sent to Edinburgh in 1681 as [Lord High Commissioner](/wiki/Lord_High_Commissioner_to_the_Parliament_of_Scotland "Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland"); in August, the Scottish Parliament passed the Succession Act, confirming the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir "regardless of religion", the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king, and the independence of the Scottish Crown. It then went beyond ensuring James's succession to the Scottish throne by explicitly stating the aim was to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without "the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war".{{sfn\|Jackson\|2003\|pp\=38–54}}
The issue reappeared during the 1688 [Glorious Revolution](/wiki/Glorious_Revolution "Glorious Revolution"). The English Parliament generally supported replacing James with his Protestant daughter [Mary](/wiki/Mary_II "Mary II"), but resisted making her Dutch husband [William of Orange](/wiki/William_III_of_England "William III of England") joint ruler. They gave way only when he threatened to return to the Netherlands, and Mary refused to rule without him.{{sfn\|Horwitz\|1986\|pp\=10–11}}
In Scotland, conflict over control of the kirk between [Presbyterians](/wiki/Presbyterianism "Presbyterianism") and [Episcopalians](/wiki/Episcopalians "Episcopalians") and William's position as a fellow Calvinist put him in a much stronger position. He originally insisted on retaining Episcopacy, and the [Committee of the Articles](/wiki/Committee_of_the_Articles "Committee of the Articles"), an unelected body that controlled what legislation Parliament could debate. Both would have given the Crown far greater control than in England but he withdrew his demands due to the 1689–1692 [Jacobite Rising](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1689 "Jacobite rising of 1689").{{sfn\|Lynch\|1992\|pp\=300–303}}
### English perspective
[thumb\|upright\|right\|[Queen Anne](/wiki/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain "Anne, Queen of Great Britain") in 1702](/wiki/File:Closterman%2C_John_-_Queen_Anne_-_NPG_215.jpg "Closterman, John - Queen Anne - NPG 215.jpg")
The English succession was provided for by the English [Act of Settlement 1701](/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701 "Act of Settlement 1701"), which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the [House of Hanover](/wiki/House_of_Hanover "House of Hanover"). Until the Union of Parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after [Queen Anne](/wiki/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain "Anne, Queen of Great Britain"), who had said in her first speech to the English parliament that a Union was "very necessary". The Scottish [Act of Security 1704](/wiki/Act_of_Security_1704 "Act of Security 1704"), however, was passed after the English parliament, without consultation with Scotland, had designated Electoress [Sophia of Hanover](/wiki/Sophia_of_Hanover "Sophia of Hanover") (granddaughter of James I and VI) as Anne's successor, if Anne died childless. The Act of Security granted the [Parliament of Scotland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Scotland "Parliament of Scotland"), the [three Estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm "Estates of the realm"), the right to choose a successor and explicitly required a choice different from the English monarch unless the English were to grant free trade and navigation. Then the [Alien Act 1705](/wiki/Alien_Act_1705 "Alien Act 1705") was passed in the English parliament, designating Scots in England as "foreign nationals" and blocking about half of all Scottish trade by boycotting exports to England or its colonies, unless Scotland came back to negotiate a Union. To encourage a Union, "honours, appointments, pensions and even arrears of pay and other expenses were distributed to clinch support from Scottish peers and MPs".{{Cite web\|title\=Ratification, October 1706 – March 1707\|url\=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living\-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/act\-of\-union\-1707/overview/ratification\-october\-1706\-\-\-march\-1707/\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-27\|publisher\=Parliament of the United Kingdom\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=22 September 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922184448/https://www.parliament.uk/about/living\-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/act\-of\-union\-1707/overview/ratification\-october\-1706\-\-\-march\-1707/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Scottish perspective
The Scottish economy was severely impacted by [privateers](/wiki/Privateer "Privateer") during the 1688–1697 [Nine Years' War](/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War "Nine Years' War") and the 1701 [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession "War of the Spanish Succession"), with the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") focusing on protecting English ships. This compounded the economic pressure caused by the [Darien scheme](/wiki/Darien_scheme "Darien scheme"), and the [seven ill years](/wiki/Seven_ill_years "Seven ill years") of the 1690s, when 5–15% of the population died of starvation.{{sfn\|Cullen\|2010\|p\=117}} The Scottish Parliament was promised financial assistance, protection for its maritime trade, and an end to economic restrictions on trade with England.{{sfn\|Whatley\|2001\|p\=48}}
The votes of the Court party, influenced by Queen Anne's favourite, [James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry](/wiki/James_Douglas%2C_2nd_Duke_of_Queensberry "James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry"), combined with the majority of the [Squadrone Volante](/wiki/Squadrone_Volante_%28Scotland%29 "Squadrone Volante (Scotland)"), were sufficient to ensure passage of the treaty. Article 15 granted £398,085 and ten shillings sterling to Scotland,{{efn\|About £{{inflation\|UK\-GDP\|0\.398\|1706\|r\=0}} million in {{Inflation/year\|UK\-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\|UK\-GDP}}}} a sum known as [The Equivalent](/wiki/The_Equivalent "The Equivalent"), to offset future liability towards the English national debt, which at the time was £18 million,{{efn\|About £{{inflation\|UK\-GDP\|0\.018\|1706\|r\=1}} billion in {{Inflation/year\|UK\-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\|UK\-GDP}}}} but as Scotland had no national debt, most of the sum was used to compensate the investors in the Darien scheme, with 58\.6% of the fund allocated to its shareholders and creditors.{{sfn\|Watt\|2007\|p\=?}}{{page?\|date\=May 2024}}
[thumb\|left\|18th\-century French illustration of an opening of the Scottish Parliament](/wiki/File:Downsitting_of_the_Scottish_Parliament_detail.JPG "Downsitting of the Scottish Parliament detail.JPG")
The role played by bribery has long been debated. £20,000 was distributed by [David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow](/wiki/David_Boyle%2C_1st_Earl_of_Glasgow "David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow"),{{efn\|About £{{inflation\|UK\-GDP\|0\.020\|1706\|r\=1}} million in {{Inflation/year\|UK\-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\|UK\-GDP}}}} of which 60% went to the Duke of Queensberry, the [Queen's Commissioner in Parliament](/wiki/Queen%27s_Commissioner_in_Parliament "Queen's Commissioner in Parliament"). Another negotiator, [John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll](/wiki/John_Campbell%2C_2nd_Duke_of_Argyll "John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll") was given an [English dukedom](/wiki/Peerage_of_England "Peerage of England").
[Robert Burns](/wiki/Robert_Burns "Robert Burns") is commonly quoted in support of the argument of corruption: "We're bought and sold for English Gold, Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation." As historian [Christopher Whatley](/wiki/Christopher_Whatley "Christopher Whatley") points out, this was actually a 17th\-century Scots folk song; but he agrees money was paid, though suggests the economic benefits were supported by most Scots MPs, with the promises made for benefits to peers and MPs, even if it was reluctantly.{{sfn\|Whatley \|1989\|pp\=160–165}} Professor Sir [Tom Devine](/wiki/Tom_Devine "Tom Devine") agreed that promises of "favours, sinecures, pensions, offices and straightforward cash bribes became indispensable to secure government majorities".{{Cite book\|last\=Devine\|first\=Thomas Martin\|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1004568536\|title\=The Scottish nation: a modern history\|year\= 2012\|publisher\=Penguin\|isbn\=978\-0\-7181\-9673\-8\|location\=London\|oclc\=1004568536}}
As for representation going forwards, Scotland was, in the new united parliament, only to get 45 MPs, one more than Cornwall, and only 16 (unelected) peers in the House of Lords.
The Union was carried by members of the Scottish elite against the wishes of the great majority. [Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath](/wiki/George_Lockhart_%28politician%29 "George Lockhart (politician)"), the only Scottish negotiator to oppose Union, noted "the whole nation appears against (it)". Another negotiator, [Sir John Clerk of Penicuik](/wiki/Sir_John_Clerk%2C_2nd_Baronet "Sir John Clerk, 2nd Baronet"), who was an ardent Unionist, observed it was "contrary to the inclinations of at least three\-fourths of the Kingdom".{{cite web \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/devolution/scotland/briefing/1707\.shtml \|title\=Scottish Referendums \|publisher\=BBC \|access\-date\=16 March 2016 \|archive\-date\=12 November 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021734/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/devolution/scotland/briefing/1707\.shtml \|url\-status\=live }} As the seat of the Scottish Parliament, demonstrators in Edinburgh feared the impact of its loss on the local economy. Elsewhere, there was widespread concern about the independence of the kirk, and possible tax rises.{{sfn\|Bambery\|2014\|p\=?}}{{page?\|date\=May 2024}}
As the treaty passed through the Scottish Parliament, opposition was voiced by petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The [Convention of Royal Burghs](/wiki/Convention_of_Royal_Burghs "Convention of Royal Burghs") claimed:
{{blockquote\|we are not against an honourable and safe union with England, \[... but] the condition of the people of Scotland, (cannot be) improved without a Scots Parliament.The Humble Address of the Commissioners to the General Convention of the Royal Burrows of this Ancient Kingdom Convened the Twenty\-Ninth of October 1706, at Edinburgh.}}
Not one petition in favour of Union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the [carillonneur](/wiki/Carillonneur "Carillonneur") in [St Giles Cathedral](/wiki/St_Giles_Cathedral "St Giles Cathedral"), Edinburgh, rang the bells in the tune "Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?"Notes by [John Purser](/wiki/John_Purser_%28musician%29 "John Purser (musician)") to CD *Scotland's Music*, [Facts about Edinburgh](http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/magazine/augsep2003/edinburgh.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107025416/http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/magazine/augsep2003/edinburgh.htm \|date\=7 January 2021 }}. Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing [martial law](/wiki/Martial_law "Martial law").
Virtually all of the print discourses of 1699–1706 spoke against incorporating union, creating the conditions for wide spread rejection of the treaty in 1706 and 1707\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Bowie \|first1\=Karin \|date\=2003 \|title\=Public Opinion, Popular Politics and the Union of 1707 \|url\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25529719 \|publisher\=Edinburgh University Press \|journal\=The Scottish Historical Review \|volume\=82 \|issue\=214 \|pages\=226–260\|doi\=10\.3366/shr.2003\.82\.2\.226 \|jstor\=25529719 }} Country party tracts condemned English influence within the existing framework of the Union of the Crowns and asserted the need to renegotiate this union. During this period, the Darien failure, the succession issue and the [Worcester seizure](/wiki/Thomas_Green_%28captain%29 "Thomas Green (captain)") all provided opportunities for Scottish writers to attack the Court Party as unpatriotic and reaffirm the need to fight for true interests of Scotland.
According to Scottish historian [William Ferguson](/wiki/William_Ferguson_%28historian%29 "William Ferguson (historian)"), the Acts of Union were a "political job" by England that was achieved by economic incentives, patronage and bribery to secure the passage of the Union treaty in the Scottish Parliament in order satisfy English political imperatives, with the union being unacceptable to the Scottish people, including both the [Jacobites](/wiki/Jacobitism "Jacobitism") and [Covenanters](/wiki/Covenanters "Covenanters"). The differences between Scottish were "subsumed by the same sort of patriotism or nationalism that first appeared in the [Declaration of Arbroath](/wiki/Declaration_of_Arbroath "Declaration of Arbroath") of 1320\." Ferguson highlights the well\-timed payments of salary arrears to members of Parliament as proof of bribery and argues that the Scottish people had been betrayed by their Parliament.
### Ireland
[Ireland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland "Kingdom of Ireland"), though a kingdom under the same crown, was not included in the union. It remained a separate kingdom, unrepresented in Parliament, and was legally subordinate to Great Britain until the [Renunciation Act of 1783](/wiki/Irish_Appeals_Act_1783 "Irish Appeals Act 1783").
In July 1707 each House of the [Parliament of Ireland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland "Parliament of Ireland") passed a congratulatory address to Queen Anne, praying that "May God put it in your royal heart to add greater strength and lustre to your crown, by a still more comprehensive Union".[The Parliamentary Register; Or, History of the Proceedings and Debates of the Houses of Lords and Commons](https://books.google.com/books?id=kaVRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA448), p. 448Journals of the Irish Commons, vol. iii. p. 421 The British government did not respond to the invitation and an equal union between Great Britain and Ireland was out of consideration until the 1790s. The [union with Ireland](/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800 "Acts of Union 1800") finally came about on 1 January 1801\.
|
[
"Political motivations\n---------------------",
"The Acts of Union may be seen within a wider European context of increasing state centralisation during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including the monarchies of [France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France \"Kingdom of France\"), [Sweden](/wiki/Swedish_Empire \"Swedish Empire\"), [Denmark\\-Norway](/wiki/Denmark-Norway \"Denmark-Norway\") and [Spain](/wiki/History_of_Spain_%281700-1808%29 \"History of Spain (1700-1808)\"). While there were exceptions, such as the Dutch Republic or the [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\"), the trend was clear.{{sfn\\|Munck\\|2005\\|pp\\=429–431}}",
"The dangers of the monarch using one parliament against the other first became apparent in 1647 and 1651\\. It resurfaced during the 1679 to 1681 [Exclusion Crisis](/wiki/Exclusion_Crisis \"Exclusion Crisis\"), caused by English resistance to the Catholic [James](/wiki/James_II_of_England \"James II of England\") II (of England, VII of Scotland) succeeding his brother Charles. James was sent to Edinburgh in 1681 as [Lord High Commissioner](/wiki/Lord_High_Commissioner_to_the_Parliament_of_Scotland \"Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland\"); in August, the Scottish Parliament passed the Succession Act, confirming the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir \"regardless of religion\", the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king, and the independence of the Scottish Crown. It then went beyond ensuring James's succession to the Scottish throne by explicitly stating the aim was to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without \"the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war\".{{sfn\\|Jackson\\|2003\\|pp\\=38–54}}",
"The issue reappeared during the 1688 [Glorious Revolution](/wiki/Glorious_Revolution \"Glorious Revolution\"). The English Parliament generally supported replacing James with his Protestant daughter [Mary](/wiki/Mary_II \"Mary II\"), but resisted making her Dutch husband [William of Orange](/wiki/William_III_of_England \"William III of England\") joint ruler. They gave way only when he threatened to return to the Netherlands, and Mary refused to rule without him.{{sfn\\|Horwitz\\|1986\\|pp\\=10–11}} \nIn Scotland, conflict over control of the kirk between [Presbyterians](/wiki/Presbyterianism \"Presbyterianism\") and [Episcopalians](/wiki/Episcopalians \"Episcopalians\") and William's position as a fellow Calvinist put him in a much stronger position. He originally insisted on retaining Episcopacy, and the [Committee of the Articles](/wiki/Committee_of_the_Articles \"Committee of the Articles\"), an unelected body that controlled what legislation Parliament could debate. Both would have given the Crown far greater control than in England but he withdrew his demands due to the 1689–1692 [Jacobite Rising](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1689 \"Jacobite rising of 1689\").{{sfn\\|Lynch\\|1992\\|pp\\=300–303}}",
"### English perspective",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|[Queen Anne](/wiki/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain \"Anne, Queen of Great Britain\") in 1702](/wiki/File:Closterman%2C_John_-_Queen_Anne_-_NPG_215.jpg \"Closterman, John - Queen Anne - NPG 215.jpg\")",
"The English succession was provided for by the English [Act of Settlement 1701](/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701 \"Act of Settlement 1701\"), which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the [House of Hanover](/wiki/House_of_Hanover \"House of Hanover\"). Until the Union of Parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after [Queen Anne](/wiki/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain \"Anne, Queen of Great Britain\"), who had said in her first speech to the English parliament that a Union was \"very necessary\". The Scottish [Act of Security 1704](/wiki/Act_of_Security_1704 \"Act of Security 1704\"), however, was passed after the English parliament, without consultation with Scotland, had designated Electoress [Sophia of Hanover](/wiki/Sophia_of_Hanover \"Sophia of Hanover\") (granddaughter of James I and VI) as Anne's successor, if Anne died childless. The Act of Security granted the [Parliament of Scotland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Scotland \"Parliament of Scotland\"), the [three Estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm \"Estates of the realm\"), the right to choose a successor and explicitly required a choice different from the English monarch unless the English were to grant free trade and navigation. Then the [Alien Act 1705](/wiki/Alien_Act_1705 \"Alien Act 1705\") was passed in the English parliament, designating Scots in England as \"foreign nationals\" and blocking about half of all Scottish trade by boycotting exports to England or its colonies, unless Scotland came back to negotiate a Union. To encourage a Union, \"honours, appointments, pensions and even arrears of pay and other expenses were distributed to clinch support from Scottish peers and MPs\".{{Cite web\\|title\\=Ratification, October 1706 – March 1707\\|url\\=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living\\-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/act\\-of\\-union\\-1707/overview/ratification\\-october\\-1706\\-\\-\\-march\\-1707/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-27\\|publisher\\=Parliament of the United Kingdom\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=22 September 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922184448/https://www.parliament.uk/about/living\\-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/act\\-of\\-union\\-1707/overview/ratification\\-october\\-1706\\-\\-\\-march\\-1707/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Scottish perspective",
"The Scottish economy was severely impacted by [privateers](/wiki/Privateer \"Privateer\") during the 1688–1697 [Nine Years' War](/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War \"Nine Years' War\") and the 1701 [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession \"War of the Spanish Succession\"), with the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") focusing on protecting English ships. This compounded the economic pressure caused by the [Darien scheme](/wiki/Darien_scheme \"Darien scheme\"), and the [seven ill years](/wiki/Seven_ill_years \"Seven ill years\") of the 1690s, when 5–15% of the population died of starvation.{{sfn\\|Cullen\\|2010\\|p\\=117}} The Scottish Parliament was promised financial assistance, protection for its maritime trade, and an end to economic restrictions on trade with England.{{sfn\\|Whatley\\|2001\\|p\\=48}}",
"The votes of the Court party, influenced by Queen Anne's favourite, [James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry](/wiki/James_Douglas%2C_2nd_Duke_of_Queensberry \"James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry\"), combined with the majority of the [Squadrone Volante](/wiki/Squadrone_Volante_%28Scotland%29 \"Squadrone Volante (Scotland)\"), were sufficient to ensure passage of the treaty. Article 15 granted £398,085 and ten shillings sterling to Scotland,{{efn\\|About £{{inflation\\|UK\\-GDP\\|0\\.398\\|1706\\|r\\=0}} million in {{Inflation/year\\|UK\\-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\\|UK\\-GDP}}}} a sum known as [The Equivalent](/wiki/The_Equivalent \"The Equivalent\"), to offset future liability towards the English national debt, which at the time was £18 million,{{efn\\|About £{{inflation\\|UK\\-GDP\\|0\\.018\\|1706\\|r\\=1}} billion in {{Inflation/year\\|UK\\-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\\|UK\\-GDP}}}} but as Scotland had no national debt, most of the sum was used to compensate the investors in the Darien scheme, with 58\\.6% of the fund allocated to its shareholders and creditors.{{sfn\\|Watt\\|2007\\|p\\=?}}{{page?\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|18th\\-century French illustration of an opening of the Scottish Parliament](/wiki/File:Downsitting_of_the_Scottish_Parliament_detail.JPG \"Downsitting of the Scottish Parliament detail.JPG\")\nThe role played by bribery has long been debated. £20,000 was distributed by [David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow](/wiki/David_Boyle%2C_1st_Earl_of_Glasgow \"David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow\"),{{efn\\|About £{{inflation\\|UK\\-GDP\\|0\\.020\\|1706\\|r\\=1}} million in {{Inflation/year\\|UK\\-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\\|UK\\-GDP}}}} of which 60% went to the Duke of Queensberry, the [Queen's Commissioner in Parliament](/wiki/Queen%27s_Commissioner_in_Parliament \"Queen's Commissioner in Parliament\"). Another negotiator, [John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll](/wiki/John_Campbell%2C_2nd_Duke_of_Argyll \"John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll\") was given an [English dukedom](/wiki/Peerage_of_England \"Peerage of England\").",
"[Robert Burns](/wiki/Robert_Burns \"Robert Burns\") is commonly quoted in support of the argument of corruption: \"We're bought and sold for English Gold, Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation.\" As historian [Christopher Whatley](/wiki/Christopher_Whatley \"Christopher Whatley\") points out, this was actually a 17th\\-century Scots folk song; but he agrees money was paid, though suggests the economic benefits were supported by most Scots MPs, with the promises made for benefits to peers and MPs, even if it was reluctantly.{{sfn\\|Whatley \\|1989\\|pp\\=160–165}} Professor Sir [Tom Devine](/wiki/Tom_Devine \"Tom Devine\") agreed that promises of \"favours, sinecures, pensions, offices and straightforward cash bribes became indispensable to secure government majorities\".{{Cite book\\|last\\=Devine\\|first\\=Thomas Martin\\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1004568536\\|title\\=The Scottish nation: a modern history\\|year\\= 2012\\|publisher\\=Penguin\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7181\\-9673\\-8\\|location\\=London\\|oclc\\=1004568536}}",
"As for representation going forwards, Scotland was, in the new united parliament, only to get 45 MPs, one more than Cornwall, and only 16 (unelected) peers in the House of Lords.",
"The Union was carried by members of the Scottish elite against the wishes of the great majority. [Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath](/wiki/George_Lockhart_%28politician%29 \"George Lockhart (politician)\"), the only Scottish negotiator to oppose Union, noted \"the whole nation appears against (it)\". Another negotiator, [Sir John Clerk of Penicuik](/wiki/Sir_John_Clerk%2C_2nd_Baronet \"Sir John Clerk, 2nd Baronet\"), who was an ardent Unionist, observed it was \"contrary to the inclinations of at least three\\-fourths of the Kingdom\".{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/devolution/scotland/briefing/1707\\.shtml \\|title\\=Scottish Referendums \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021734/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/devolution/scotland/briefing/1707\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }} As the seat of the Scottish Parliament, demonstrators in Edinburgh feared the impact of its loss on the local economy. Elsewhere, there was widespread concern about the independence of the kirk, and possible tax rises.{{sfn\\|Bambery\\|2014\\|p\\=?}}{{page?\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"As the treaty passed through the Scottish Parliament, opposition was voiced by petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The [Convention of Royal Burghs](/wiki/Convention_of_Royal_Burghs \"Convention of Royal Burghs\") claimed:",
"{{blockquote\\|we are not against an honourable and safe union with England, \\[... but] the condition of the people of Scotland, (cannot be) improved without a Scots Parliament.The Humble Address of the Commissioners to the General Convention of the Royal Burrows of this Ancient Kingdom Convened the Twenty\\-Ninth of October 1706, at Edinburgh.}}",
"Not one petition in favour of Union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the [carillonneur](/wiki/Carillonneur \"Carillonneur\") in [St Giles Cathedral](/wiki/St_Giles_Cathedral \"St Giles Cathedral\"), Edinburgh, rang the bells in the tune \"Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?\"Notes by [John Purser](/wiki/John_Purser_%28musician%29 \"John Purser (musician)\") to CD *Scotland's Music*, [Facts about Edinburgh](http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/magazine/augsep2003/edinburgh.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107025416/http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/magazine/augsep2003/edinburgh.htm \\|date\\=7 January 2021 }}. Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing [martial law](/wiki/Martial_law \"Martial law\").",
"Virtually all of the print discourses of 1699–1706 spoke against incorporating union, creating the conditions for wide spread rejection of the treaty in 1706 and 1707\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bowie \\|first1\\=Karin \\|date\\=2003 \\|title\\=Public Opinion, Popular Politics and the Union of 1707 \\|url\\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25529719 \\|publisher\\=Edinburgh University Press \\|journal\\=The Scottish Historical Review \\|volume\\=82 \\|issue\\=214 \\|pages\\=226–260\\|doi\\=10\\.3366/shr.2003\\.82\\.2\\.226 \\|jstor\\=25529719 }} Country party tracts condemned English influence within the existing framework of the Union of the Crowns and asserted the need to renegotiate this union. During this period, the Darien failure, the succession issue and the [Worcester seizure](/wiki/Thomas_Green_%28captain%29 \"Thomas Green (captain)\") all provided opportunities for Scottish writers to attack the Court Party as unpatriotic and reaffirm the need to fight for true interests of Scotland.",
"According to Scottish historian [William Ferguson](/wiki/William_Ferguson_%28historian%29 \"William Ferguson (historian)\"), the Acts of Union were a \"political job\" by England that was achieved by economic incentives, patronage and bribery to secure the passage of the Union treaty in the Scottish Parliament in order satisfy English political imperatives, with the union being unacceptable to the Scottish people, including both the [Jacobites](/wiki/Jacobitism \"Jacobitism\") and [Covenanters](/wiki/Covenanters \"Covenanters\"). The differences between Scottish were \"subsumed by the same sort of patriotism or nationalism that first appeared in the [Declaration of Arbroath](/wiki/Declaration_of_Arbroath \"Declaration of Arbroath\") of 1320\\.\" Ferguson highlights the well\\-timed payments of salary arrears to members of Parliament as proof of bribery and argues that the Scottish people had been betrayed by their Parliament.",
"### Ireland",
"[Ireland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland \"Kingdom of Ireland\"), though a kingdom under the same crown, was not included in the union. It remained a separate kingdom, unrepresented in Parliament, and was legally subordinate to Great Britain until the [Renunciation Act of 1783](/wiki/Irish_Appeals_Act_1783 \"Irish Appeals Act 1783\").",
"In July 1707 each House of the [Parliament of Ireland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland \"Parliament of Ireland\") passed a congratulatory address to Queen Anne, praying that \"May God put it in your royal heart to add greater strength and lustre to your crown, by a still more comprehensive Union\".[The Parliamentary Register; Or, History of the Proceedings and Debates of the Houses of Lords and Commons](https://books.google.com/books?id=kaVRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA448), p. 448Journals of the Irish Commons, vol. iii. p. 421 The British government did not respond to the invitation and an equal union between Great Britain and Ireland was out of consideration until the 1790s. The [union with Ireland](/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800 \"Acts of Union 1800\") finally came about on 1 January 1801\\.",
""
] |
The Mosques of Lamu Archipelago
-------------------------------
For centuries, the Swahili coast of East Africa has been a cultural crossroads. The mosques, central to the religious life of the region, bear witness to this rich heritage. Their architecture reflects not only Islamic traditions but also the artistic influences of various trading partners. This is particularly evident in the design of the mihrab, the prayer niche of symbolic importance within a mosque.Pradines, Stéphane. "The Mosques of the Indian Ocean Coast". Historical Mosques of Sub\-Saharan Africa. Brill, 2022\. 146\-289\.
The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed a period of significant change on the Swahili coast, particularly in the Lamu archipelago. The rise of Pate as a major political force, challenging Portuguese control of Mombasa, is thought to have been the catalyst for a distinct "new Swahili mihrab" style.Lienhardt and Phil, "The mosque college of Lamu and its social background" (1959\): 228\-242\. This essay examines the development of this unique style, exploring its key features, the influences that shaped it, and prominent examples.
The period was marked by a surge in mosque construction, with 22 mosques built in Lamu town and 12 in Pate between 1750 and 1820\.Ghaidan, Lamu. A study in conservation (1976\): 35\. A new style of mihrab (prayer niche) was developed, characterised by two key elements: a pronounced use of stucco for decoration and the adoption of the trilobal arch.
The trilobal arch, a more elaborate design than the broken arch used previously, emerged in the 17th century under the influence of Indian traders.Allen, "Swahili architecture in the later Middle Ages" (1974\): 42\-47, 66\-68, 83\-84\. By the late 18th century this form had evolved into a polylobal design. The construction techniques for the mihrab arches involved ashlar blocks of coral bound with mortar, covered with a thick layer of stucco, and topped with pointed arches with a central boss.Ghaidan, "Swahili plasterwork" (1973\): 46\-49\.
Decoration played an important role in the new style. The tympanums, the recessed areas above the arch, continued the tradition of using inlaid ceramics as seen in Pate. However, there was a change in the material used for the central boss, from coral to stucco. The frame of the mihrab itself was decorated with stucco panels with geometric designs. The interior of the mihrab apse was decorated with triangular plaster mouldings, while the semi\-dome vault had a fluted surface.
Examples of this style include a Lamu mihrab with an inscription dated 1753, and mihrabs at Simambaya and Utondwe (Tanzania) dated 1796 and 1782 respectively.Siravo and Pulver, Planning Lamu: conservation of an East African Seaport (1986\): 57\. Interestingly, Omani mosques built during this period showed a strong resemblance to the Swahili models, with bays parallel to the qibla wall and a projecting mihrab.Costa \& Kite, "The Architecture of Salalah and the Dhofar Littoral" (1985\): 148\-149\. The Omani Simambaya Mosque, built between 1725 and 1765, is an example of this similarity.
A later example, the Swahili Wa Deule mosque at Shela (Lamu), built in 1848 according to an inscription in the mihrab, demonstrates the continued use of the trilobal arch.Ghaidan, Lamu. A study in conservation (1976\). This particular mihrab was framed by semicircular mouldings and decorated with panels of floral and geometric motifs.
The influence of external factors is also evident in this architectural development. The flowering of this new style finds parallels in Yemeni mosques, particularly in Surat, where mihrabs with finely carved trilobal arches suggest a growing economic relationship with India.Bonnenfant, "La marque de l'Inde à Zabîd" (2000\). Pradines, "L'influence indienne dans l'architecture swahili" (1999 b): 103\-120\. The Ndia Kuu Mosque in Mombasa, excavated in 1985, reinforces this external influence. This 17th century mosque, probably used by Indian and Pakistani mercenaries, had a square plan, a small mihrab decorated with Indian\-style volutes and blind arcades, and two small pillars flanking the mihrab projection.Abungu, Islam on the Kenyan coast: an archaeological study of mosques (1986\).
In conclusion, the 18th and 19th centuries witnessed a dynamic change in the design of mihrabs within the mosques of the Lamu archipelago. The emergence of Pate, changing political landscapes and external influences from India and Oman all contributed to the development of a distinct 'Lamu style', characterised by the widespread adoption of the trilobal arch and the use of stucco ornamentation.
|
[
"The Mosques of Lamu Archipelago\n-------------------------------",
"For centuries, the Swahili coast of East Africa has been a cultural crossroads. The mosques, central to the religious life of the region, bear witness to this rich heritage. Their architecture reflects not only Islamic traditions but also the artistic influences of various trading partners. This is particularly evident in the design of the mihrab, the prayer niche of symbolic importance within a mosque.Pradines, Stéphane. \"The Mosques of the Indian Ocean Coast\". Historical Mosques of Sub\\-Saharan Africa. Brill, 2022\\. 146\\-289\\.",
"The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed a period of significant change on the Swahili coast, particularly in the Lamu archipelago. The rise of Pate as a major political force, challenging Portuguese control of Mombasa, is thought to have been the catalyst for a distinct \"new Swahili mihrab\" style.Lienhardt and Phil, \"The mosque college of Lamu and its social background\" (1959\\): 228\\-242\\. This essay examines the development of this unique style, exploring its key features, the influences that shaped it, and prominent examples.",
"The period was marked by a surge in mosque construction, with 22 mosques built in Lamu town and 12 in Pate between 1750 and 1820\\.Ghaidan, Lamu. A study in conservation (1976\\): 35\\. A new style of mihrab (prayer niche) was developed, characterised by two key elements: a pronounced use of stucco for decoration and the adoption of the trilobal arch.",
"The trilobal arch, a more elaborate design than the broken arch used previously, emerged in the 17th century under the influence of Indian traders.Allen, \"Swahili architecture in the later Middle Ages\" (1974\\): 42\\-47, 66\\-68, 83\\-84\\. By the late 18th century this form had evolved into a polylobal design. The construction techniques for the mihrab arches involved ashlar blocks of coral bound with mortar, covered with a thick layer of stucco, and topped with pointed arches with a central boss.Ghaidan, \"Swahili plasterwork\" (1973\\): 46\\-49\\.",
"Decoration played an important role in the new style. The tympanums, the recessed areas above the arch, continued the tradition of using inlaid ceramics as seen in Pate. However, there was a change in the material used for the central boss, from coral to stucco. The frame of the mihrab itself was decorated with stucco panels with geometric designs. The interior of the mihrab apse was decorated with triangular plaster mouldings, while the semi\\-dome vault had a fluted surface.",
"Examples of this style include a Lamu mihrab with an inscription dated 1753, and mihrabs at Simambaya and Utondwe (Tanzania) dated 1796 and 1782 respectively.Siravo and Pulver, Planning Lamu: conservation of an East African Seaport (1986\\): 57\\. Interestingly, Omani mosques built during this period showed a strong resemblance to the Swahili models, with bays parallel to the qibla wall and a projecting mihrab.Costa \\& Kite, \"The Architecture of Salalah and the Dhofar Littoral\" (1985\\): 148\\-149\\. The Omani Simambaya Mosque, built between 1725 and 1765, is an example of this similarity.",
"A later example, the Swahili Wa Deule mosque at Shela (Lamu), built in 1848 according to an inscription in the mihrab, demonstrates the continued use of the trilobal arch.Ghaidan, Lamu. A study in conservation (1976\\). This particular mihrab was framed by semicircular mouldings and decorated with panels of floral and geometric motifs.",
"The influence of external factors is also evident in this architectural development. The flowering of this new style finds parallels in Yemeni mosques, particularly in Surat, where mihrabs with finely carved trilobal arches suggest a growing economic relationship with India.Bonnenfant, \"La marque de l'Inde à Zabîd\" (2000\\). Pradines, \"L'influence indienne dans l'architecture swahili\" (1999 b): 103\\-120\\. The Ndia Kuu Mosque in Mombasa, excavated in 1985, reinforces this external influence. This 17th century mosque, probably used by Indian and Pakistani mercenaries, had a square plan, a small mihrab decorated with Indian\\-style volutes and blind arcades, and two small pillars flanking the mihrab projection.Abungu, Islam on the Kenyan coast: an archaeological study of mosques (1986\\).",
"In conclusion, the 18th and 19th centuries witnessed a dynamic change in the design of mihrabs within the mosques of the Lamu archipelago. The emergence of Pate, changing political landscapes and external influences from India and Oman all contributed to the development of a distinct 'Lamu style', characterised by the widespread adoption of the trilobal arch and the use of stucco ornamentation.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Sparks was born in Darrah parish, [County Wexford](/wiki/County_Wexford "County Wexford") in [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") and came to Canada in 1816\.{{cite encyclopedia \|last \= Cross \|first \= Michael S. \|title \= Nicholas Sparks \|encyclopedia \= \[\[Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online]] \|year \= 1976 \|url \= http://www.biographi.ca/009004\-119\.01\-e.php?\&id\_nbr\=4714 \|access\-date \= 2011\-01\-11}} He was recruited by [Ruggles Wright](/wiki/Ruggles_Wright "Ruggles Wright"){{sfn\|Bond\|1984\|pp\=28}} (or by other accounts Ruggles' brother Philemon Jr.) at age twenty\-four to voyage to Canada as a labourer in the Wright family's logging and farming enterprises in the location of modern [Gatineau](/wiki/Gatineau "Gatineau"). By 1819 he was traveling to Montreal and Quebec, purchasing supplies for Wright.
On 25 September 1823, after saving his salary for several years, Sparks purchased 200 acres (0\.8 km2) of land \- along with some food and chattels \- on the south side of the [Ottawa River](/wiki/Ottawa_River "Ottawa River"). He purchased the lot from John Burrows Honey (later known as John Burrows), a surveyor. The land was lot C, concession C, [Nepean Township](/wiki/Nepean_Township "Nepean Township"),{{sfn\|Haig\|1975\|pp\=53}} which covered much of what is today downtown Ottawa stretching from what is today [Wellington Street](/wiki/Wellington_Street%2C_Ottawa "Wellington Street, Ottawa") in the north to [Laurier Avenue](/wiki/Laurier_Avenue "Laurier Avenue") in the south.{{sfn\|Keshen\|St\-Onge\|2001\|pp\=74\-75}}{{sfn\|Hill\|1919\|pp\=6}} It stretched west to modern [Bronson Avenue](/wiki/Bronson_Avenue "Bronson Avenue") and extended eastwards further than the [Rideau Canal](/wiki/Rideau_Canal "Rideau Canal"){{sfn\|Keshen\|St\-Onge\|2001\|pp\=74\-75}} (to Waller){{sfn\|Bond\|1984\|pp\=36}} into what is today [Sandy Hill](/wiki/Sandy_Hill%2C_Ottawa "Sandy Hill, Ottawa"). South of his land was the land of [Colonel By](/wiki/Colonel_By "Colonel By").{{sfn\|Scott\|1911\|pp\=5}} Sparks borrowed £95,{{sfn\|Woods\|1980\|pp\=52}} to complete the transaction for land that today is in the central business core of Ottawa.
Historian Michael S. Cross wrote:
*Lot C would become Sparks' life, the basis of his fortune and status. Defending his right to the property would preoccupy him for much of his career. Indeed Sparks' difficulties over the lot began immediately. Burrows Honey, it appears, had sold land he did not own. Although the original sale took place on 25 Sept. 1821, Burrows Honey did not receive clear title until 1823 for the south half and 1824 for the north half. The sale to Sparks, therefore, was not recorded at the county registry office until 20 June 1824\. The confusion, which has led to considerable controversy among local historians over the purchase date, did not end there. Burrows Honey's title remained in doubt. As a result, Sparks repurchased the south 100 acres on 20 June 1826\. Still there were doubts; Sparks made token payments of 5s. to John Burrows Honey and to his wife for title to the full 200 acres on 6 May and 10 July 1830 respectively. Out of this tangle it appears the famous purchase was not made on the usually accepted date of 20 June 1826 but rather nearly five years earlier on 25 Sept. 1821, although the legal technicalities were not resolved until 1830\.*
*The 1826 date, however, has a fine touch of drama about it. Late in 1826 the decision was made to build the Rideau Canal through lot C. As the village of Bytown (Ottawa) sprang up around the canal terminus, Sparks became landlord for a whole community. Those months also saw Sparks cement the other foundation of his fortune. On 2 Nov. 1826 a marriage license was issued to Sparks and Sally Olmstead, widow of Philemon Wright Jr. The marriage solidified Sparks' link with the leadership of the Ottawa timber trade.*
*It was in land that Sparks reaped the greatest dividends. He began to sell portions of lot C as early as 18 Dec. 1826 when he sold land west of the canal mouth for £200 an acre, the same land he had bought for 9s. 6d. an acre. Land sales and leases quickly made Sparks wealthy. As one of the few people with ready cash he also became Bytown's leading moneylender and often enough was able to regain land he had sold. For example, in January 1832 he accepted a lot in payment of a debt of £75\. In May 1832 Sparks sold an adjacent lot for £600\. The nicest irony in all of Sparks' complex dealings came in July 1844 when he leased part of a town lot, 66 ft by 99 ft, for £200 to John Burrows.*
The building of the final section of the canal saw the government expropriate the eastern section of his land, taking everything east of modern [Elgin Street](/wiki/Elgin_Street_%28Ottawa%29 "Elgin Street (Ottawa)") (then known as Biddy's Lane). While losing some of his land, this proved a benefit for Sparks as the location of the canal greatly increased the value of his other holdings. Sparks donated about 20 acres of land{{sfn\|Taylor\|1986\|pp\=15}} towards the canal's construction.
Sparks also donated land for civic buildings. He donated land for [St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church](/wiki/St._Andrew%27s_Presbyterian_Church_%28Ottawa%29 "St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church (Ottawa)"), and for a new [court house](/wiki/Court_house "Court house") and [fire station](/wiki/Fire_station "Fire station").{{sfn\|Keshen\|St\-Onge\|2001\|pp\=74\-75}} When his [West Ward Market](/wiki/First_City_Hall_%28Ottawa%29 "First City Hall (Ottawa)"), unable to compete with [Lower Town](/wiki/Lower_Town_%28Ottawa%29 "Lower Town (Ottawa)")'s [Byward Market](/wiki/Byward_Market "Byward Market"), failed he donated the building to become Bytown's first city hall.{{sfn\|Keshen\|St\-Onge\|2001\|pp\=74\-75}} In 1832, he donated some land at the northwest corner of his property to the [Anglican Church](/wiki/Anglican_Church "Anglican Church") and that is still the site of Ottawa's [Christ Church Cathedral](/wiki/Christ_Church_Cathedral_%28Ottawa%29 "Christ Church Cathedral (Ottawa)").{{sfn\|Keshen\|St\-Onge\|2001\|pp\=74\-75}}
Sparks set out to encourage the establishment of commercial ventures on his property, which had proven to be poor farmland. Thus he established a market. While Ottawa remained a small town and commerce centered somewhat to the north of Sparks' holdings he became wealthy as a result of his land; further enhanced after 1857, with the selection of Ottawa as the capital of [Province of Canada](/wiki/Province_of_Canada "Province of Canada").
In 1827, the government had seized some of Sparks' holdings intending to construct a fortress to defend the new canal. Sparks challenged this appropriation of the land, between Bank Street and the Canal, which lay unused for years. He succeeded and was awarded a fortune of 27,000 pounds for the land. With this money he invested in enterprises across the region, and became a financier in the town. The Rideau Canal Act of February 1827, by the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada expropriated 104 acres of Nicholas Sparks' land, not returned to him until 1847{{sfn\|Mika\|1982\|pp\=85}} or late 1849\.{{sfn\|Haig\|1975}}
Around 1848, he had a street created through the center of his holdings; this would later be known as [Sparks Street](/wiki/Sparks_Street "Sparks Street"), one of Ottawa's central commercial areas.
[In 1847, he became a member of Bytown's first town council](/wiki/1847_Bytown_municipal_election "1847 Bytown municipal election"). When the new city of Ottawa was created to replace Bytown in 1855, Sparks also served on its council until 1860\.
Sparks' descendants continued to be prominent citizens in Ottawa for many generations, for example [Percy Sparks](/wiki/Percy_Sparks "Percy Sparks") spearheaded the creation of [Gatineau Park](/wiki/Gatineau_Park "Gatineau Park"). Today there are many Sparks still living in Ottawa.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Sparks was born in Darrah parish, [County Wexford](/wiki/County_Wexford \"County Wexford\") in [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") and came to Canada in 1816\\.{{cite encyclopedia \\|last \\= Cross \\|first \\= Michael S. \\|title \\= Nicholas Sparks \\|encyclopedia \\= \\[\\[Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online]] \\|year \\= 1976 \\|url \\= http://www.biographi.ca/009004\\-119\\.01\\-e.php?\\&id\\_nbr\\=4714 \\|access\\-date \\= 2011\\-01\\-11}} He was recruited by [Ruggles Wright](/wiki/Ruggles_Wright \"Ruggles Wright\"){{sfn\\|Bond\\|1984\\|pp\\=28}} (or by other accounts Ruggles' brother Philemon Jr.) at age twenty\\-four to voyage to Canada as a labourer in the Wright family's logging and farming enterprises in the location of modern [Gatineau](/wiki/Gatineau \"Gatineau\"). By 1819 he was traveling to Montreal and Quebec, purchasing supplies for Wright.",
"On 25 September 1823, after saving his salary for several years, Sparks purchased 200 acres (0\\.8 km2) of land \\- along with some food and chattels \\- on the south side of the [Ottawa River](/wiki/Ottawa_River \"Ottawa River\"). He purchased the lot from John Burrows Honey (later known as John Burrows), a surveyor. The land was lot C, concession C, [Nepean Township](/wiki/Nepean_Township \"Nepean Township\"),{{sfn\\|Haig\\|1975\\|pp\\=53}} which covered much of what is today downtown Ottawa stretching from what is today [Wellington Street](/wiki/Wellington_Street%2C_Ottawa \"Wellington Street, Ottawa\") in the north to [Laurier Avenue](/wiki/Laurier_Avenue \"Laurier Avenue\") in the south.{{sfn\\|Keshen\\|St\\-Onge\\|2001\\|pp\\=74\\-75}}{{sfn\\|Hill\\|1919\\|pp\\=6}} It stretched west to modern [Bronson Avenue](/wiki/Bronson_Avenue \"Bronson Avenue\") and extended eastwards further than the [Rideau Canal](/wiki/Rideau_Canal \"Rideau Canal\"){{sfn\\|Keshen\\|St\\-Onge\\|2001\\|pp\\=74\\-75}} (to Waller){{sfn\\|Bond\\|1984\\|pp\\=36}} into what is today [Sandy Hill](/wiki/Sandy_Hill%2C_Ottawa \"Sandy Hill, Ottawa\"). South of his land was the land of [Colonel By](/wiki/Colonel_By \"Colonel By\").{{sfn\\|Scott\\|1911\\|pp\\=5}} Sparks borrowed £95,{{sfn\\|Woods\\|1980\\|pp\\=52}} to complete the transaction for land that today is in the central business core of Ottawa.",
"Historian Michael S. Cross wrote:\n*Lot C would become Sparks' life, the basis of his fortune and status. Defending his right to the property would preoccupy him for much of his career. Indeed Sparks' difficulties over the lot began immediately. Burrows Honey, it appears, had sold land he did not own. Although the original sale took place on 25 Sept. 1821, Burrows Honey did not receive clear title until 1823 for the south half and 1824 for the north half. The sale to Sparks, therefore, was not recorded at the county registry office until 20 June 1824\\. The confusion, which has led to considerable controversy among local historians over the purchase date, did not end there. Burrows Honey's title remained in doubt. As a result, Sparks repurchased the south 100 acres on 20 June 1826\\. Still there were doubts; Sparks made token payments of 5s. to John Burrows Honey and to his wife for title to the full 200 acres on 6 May and 10 July 1830 respectively. Out of this tangle it appears the famous purchase was not made on the usually accepted date of 20 June 1826 but rather nearly five years earlier on 25 Sept. 1821, although the legal technicalities were not resolved until 1830\\.*",
"*The 1826 date, however, has a fine touch of drama about it. Late in 1826 the decision was made to build the Rideau Canal through lot C. As the village of Bytown (Ottawa) sprang up around the canal terminus, Sparks became landlord for a whole community. Those months also saw Sparks cement the other foundation of his fortune. On 2 Nov. 1826 a marriage license was issued to Sparks and Sally Olmstead, widow of Philemon Wright Jr. The marriage solidified Sparks' link with the leadership of the Ottawa timber trade.*\n*It was in land that Sparks reaped the greatest dividends. He began to sell portions of lot C as early as 18 Dec. 1826 when he sold land west of the canal mouth for £200 an acre, the same land he had bought for 9s. 6d. an acre. Land sales and leases quickly made Sparks wealthy. As one of the few people with ready cash he also became Bytown's leading moneylender and often enough was able to regain land he had sold. For example, in January 1832 he accepted a lot in payment of a debt of £75\\. In May 1832 Sparks sold an adjacent lot for £600\\. The nicest irony in all of Sparks' complex dealings came in July 1844 when he leased part of a town lot, 66 ft by 99 ft, for £200 to John Burrows.*\nThe building of the final section of the canal saw the government expropriate the eastern section of his land, taking everything east of modern [Elgin Street](/wiki/Elgin_Street_%28Ottawa%29 \"Elgin Street (Ottawa)\") (then known as Biddy's Lane). While losing some of his land, this proved a benefit for Sparks as the location of the canal greatly increased the value of his other holdings. Sparks donated about 20 acres of land{{sfn\\|Taylor\\|1986\\|pp\\=15}} towards the canal's construction.",
"Sparks also donated land for civic buildings. He donated land for [St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church](/wiki/St._Andrew%27s_Presbyterian_Church_%28Ottawa%29 \"St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church (Ottawa)\"), and for a new [court house](/wiki/Court_house \"Court house\") and [fire station](/wiki/Fire_station \"Fire station\").{{sfn\\|Keshen\\|St\\-Onge\\|2001\\|pp\\=74\\-75}} When his [West Ward Market](/wiki/First_City_Hall_%28Ottawa%29 \"First City Hall (Ottawa)\"), unable to compete with [Lower Town](/wiki/Lower_Town_%28Ottawa%29 \"Lower Town (Ottawa)\")'s [Byward Market](/wiki/Byward_Market \"Byward Market\"), failed he donated the building to become Bytown's first city hall.{{sfn\\|Keshen\\|St\\-Onge\\|2001\\|pp\\=74\\-75}} In 1832, he donated some land at the northwest corner of his property to the [Anglican Church](/wiki/Anglican_Church \"Anglican Church\") and that is still the site of Ottawa's [Christ Church Cathedral](/wiki/Christ_Church_Cathedral_%28Ottawa%29 \"Christ Church Cathedral (Ottawa)\").{{sfn\\|Keshen\\|St\\-Onge\\|2001\\|pp\\=74\\-75}}",
"Sparks set out to encourage the establishment of commercial ventures on his property, which had proven to be poor farmland. Thus he established a market. While Ottawa remained a small town and commerce centered somewhat to the north of Sparks' holdings he became wealthy as a result of his land; further enhanced after 1857, with the selection of Ottawa as the capital of [Province of Canada](/wiki/Province_of_Canada \"Province of Canada\").",
"In 1827, the government had seized some of Sparks' holdings intending to construct a fortress to defend the new canal. Sparks challenged this appropriation of the land, between Bank Street and the Canal, which lay unused for years. He succeeded and was awarded a fortune of 27,000 pounds for the land. With this money he invested in enterprises across the region, and became a financier in the town. The Rideau Canal Act of February 1827, by the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada expropriated 104 acres of Nicholas Sparks' land, not returned to him until 1847{{sfn\\|Mika\\|1982\\|pp\\=85}} or late 1849\\.{{sfn\\|Haig\\|1975}}",
"Around 1848, he had a street created through the center of his holdings; this would later be known as [Sparks Street](/wiki/Sparks_Street \"Sparks Street\"), one of Ottawa's central commercial areas.",
"[In 1847, he became a member of Bytown's first town council](/wiki/1847_Bytown_municipal_election \"1847 Bytown municipal election\"). When the new city of Ottawa was created to replace Bytown in 1855, Sparks also served on its council until 1860\\.",
"Sparks' descendants continued to be prominent citizens in Ottawa for many generations, for example [Percy Sparks](/wiki/Percy_Sparks \"Percy Sparks\") spearheaded the creation of [Gatineau Park](/wiki/Gatineau_Park \"Gatineau Park\"). Today there are many Sparks still living in Ottawa.",
""
] |
Works
-----
[thumb\|upright\|Sannazaro's [humanist minuscule](/wiki/Humanist_minuscule "Humanist minuscule") hand in a collection of Roman poems he copied in 1501–1503](/wiki/File:Pervigilium_Veneris_codex_V_page_1.png "Pervigilium Veneris codex V page 1.png")
[thumb\|upright\|An edition of Sannazaro's collected works, printed in 1602](/wiki/File:1602_Bogardus_Duaci_opera_Iacobi_Sannazarii_12%2C7_x_7%2C2_cm.JPG "1602 Bogardus Duaci opera Iacobi Sannazarii 12,7 x 7,2 cm.JPG")
The *Arcadia* of Sannazaro was written in the 1480s, completed about 1489 and circulated in manuscript before its initial publication. Begun in early life and published in [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples") in 1504, the *Arcadia* is a [pastoral Romance](/wiki/Romance_%28heroic_literature%29 "Romance (heroic literature)"), in which Sincero, the *persona* of the poet, disappointed in love, withdraws from the city (Naples in this case) to pursue in [Arcadia](/wiki/Arcadia_%28utopia%29 "Arcadia (utopia)") an idealized pastoral existence among the shepherd\-poets, in the manner of the Idylls of [Theocritus](/wiki/Theocritus "Theocritus"). But a frightful dream induces him to return to the city, traversing a dark tunnel to his native Naples, where he learns of the death of his beloved. The events are amplified by extensive imagery drawn from classic sources, by the poet's languid melancholy and by atmospheric elegiac descriptions of the lost world of Arcadia. It was the first *[pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral "Pastoral")* work in [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") Europe to gain international success. Inspired in part by classical authors who wrote in the pastoral mode— in addition to [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil "Virgil") and [Theocritus](/wiki/Theocritus "Theocritus") including comparatively obscure recently rediscovered Latin poets [Calpurnius](/wiki/Calpurnius "Calpurnius") and [Nemesianus](/wiki/Nemesianus "Nemesianus")— and by [Boccaccio](/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio "Giovanni Boccaccio")'s *Ameto*, Sannazaro depicts a lovelorn first\-person narrator ("Sincero") wandering the countryside ([Arcadia](/wiki/Arcadia_%28ancient_region%29 "Arcadia (ancient region)")) and listening to the amorous or mournful songs of the shepherds he meets. In addition to its pastoral setting, the other great originality of the work stems from its novel structure of alternating prose and verse.
Sannazaro's *Arcadia* – coupled with the Portuguese author [Jorge de Montemayor](/wiki/Jorge_de_Montemayor "Jorge de Montemayor")'s [*Diana*](/wiki/Diana_%28pastoral_romance%29 "Diana (pastoral romance)") (*Los siete libros de la Diana*, 1559\), itself indebted to Sannazaro's work – had a profound impact on literature throughout Europe up until the middle of the seventeenth century.
With the *Arcadia* behind him, Sannazaro concentrated on [Latin works of classical inspiration](/wiki/Neo-Latin "Neo-Latin"). His [Virgilian](/wiki/Virgil "Virgil") bucolic works include the five *Eclogae piscatoriae*, [eclogues](/wiki/Eclogue "Eclogue") on themes connected with the [Bay of Naples](/wiki/Bay_of_Naples "Bay of Naples"), which originated the genre of the [piscatorial eclogue](/wiki/Piscatorial_eclogue "Piscatorial eclogue"); three books of elegies; and three books of epigrams. Other works in Latin include three books of epigrams, and two short works entitled *Salices* \[Willows] and *De Morte Christi Lamentatio* \["Lament on the Death of Christ"].
Sannazaro's now seldom\-read sacred poem in Latin, *De partu Virginis*, which gained for him the name of the "Christian [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil "Virgil")","The poem is as Virgilian as he could make it", his translator Ralph Nash observes (Nash 1996:13\). was extensively rewritten in 1519–21 and appeared in print, 1526\. It has been characterized as "his version of Mary's [Magnificat](/wiki/Magnificat "Magnificat")".Nash 1996: "General Introduction" p. 10\.
Among his works in Italian and Neapolitan are the recasting of Neapolitan proverbs as *Gliommeri* his *Farse*, and the *Rime* (published as *Sonetti et canzoni di M. Jacopo Sannazaro*, Naples and Rome, 1530\), where the manner of [Petrarch](/wiki/Petrarch "Petrarch") is paramount. He also wrote some savage and caustic epigrams. Most famous is the one he wrote against Pope Alexander VI after the murder of Giovanni Borgia, eldest son of the Pope, whose body was recovered from the Tiber River—Sannazaro cheekily described Alexander VI as a "fisher of men" (playing on the Christ's words to Peter). This epigram caused immense grief to the Pope.
His portrait by [Titian](/wiki/Titian "Titian"), painted ca 1514–18, is in the [Royal Collection](/wiki/Royal_Collection "Royal Collection"), part of the diplomatic "[Dutch Gift](/wiki/Dutch_Gift "Dutch Gift")" to [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England"), in 1660\.
The first complete translation into English of the *Arcadia* is by Ralph Nash, *Jacopo Sannazaro: Arcadia and Piscatorial Eclogues* (Detroit: Wayne State University Press) 1966\. Nash returned to translate into English prose and verse *The Major Latin Poems of Jacopo Sannazaro*, (Detroit: Wayne State University Press) 1996\. The distinguished Latinist [Michael C. J. Putnam](/wiki/Michael_C._J._Putnam "Michael C. J. Putnam") has recently published the first translation of all of Sannazaro's Latin poetry.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2NZpR3EmptkC\&q\=Latin\+poetry\+/\+Jacopo\+Sannazaro\|title\=Latin Poetry\|first\=Jacopo\|last\=Sannazaro\|date\=Aug 11, 2009\|publisher\=Harvard University Press\|isbn\=9780674034068 \|accessdate\=Aug 11, 2022\|via\=Google Books}}
Sannazaro has also a long\-time correspondence with some Italian humanists. The beloved [pen\-friend](/wiki/Pen-friend "Pen-friend") was Antonio Seripando, brother of the Augustinian friar [Girolamo](/wiki/Girolamo_Seripando "Girolamo Seripando") (1493–1563\).{{cite book \| author \= Pierluigi Fiorini \| title \= Lettere inedite de Antonio Seripando, corrispondente prediletto di Jacopo Sannazaro \| trans\-title \= Unedited letters of Antonio Seripando, the beloved correspondent of Jacopo Sannazaro \| language \= it \| pages \= 82 \| publisher \= M.A. State University of New York at Binghamton, Dept. of Romance Languages and Literatures \| year \= 1981 \| url \= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/84285326 \| oclc \= 84285326}}, a graduate dissertation.
|
[
"Works\n-----",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Sannazaro's [humanist minuscule](/wiki/Humanist_minuscule \"Humanist minuscule\") hand in a collection of Roman poems he copied in 1501–1503](/wiki/File:Pervigilium_Veneris_codex_V_page_1.png \"Pervigilium Veneris codex V page 1.png\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|An edition of Sannazaro's collected works, printed in 1602](/wiki/File:1602_Bogardus_Duaci_opera_Iacobi_Sannazarii_12%2C7_x_7%2C2_cm.JPG \"1602 Bogardus Duaci opera Iacobi Sannazarii 12,7 x 7,2 cm.JPG\")\nThe *Arcadia* of Sannazaro was written in the 1480s, completed about 1489 and circulated in manuscript before its initial publication. Begun in early life and published in [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\") in 1504, the *Arcadia* is a [pastoral Romance](/wiki/Romance_%28heroic_literature%29 \"Romance (heroic literature)\"), in which Sincero, the *persona* of the poet, disappointed in love, withdraws from the city (Naples in this case) to pursue in [Arcadia](/wiki/Arcadia_%28utopia%29 \"Arcadia (utopia)\") an idealized pastoral existence among the shepherd\\-poets, in the manner of the Idylls of [Theocritus](/wiki/Theocritus \"Theocritus\"). But a frightful dream induces him to return to the city, traversing a dark tunnel to his native Naples, where he learns of the death of his beloved. The events are amplified by extensive imagery drawn from classic sources, by the poet's languid melancholy and by atmospheric elegiac descriptions of the lost world of Arcadia. It was the first *[pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral \"Pastoral\")* work in [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") Europe to gain international success. Inspired in part by classical authors who wrote in the pastoral mode— in addition to [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil \"Virgil\") and [Theocritus](/wiki/Theocritus \"Theocritus\") including comparatively obscure recently rediscovered Latin poets [Calpurnius](/wiki/Calpurnius \"Calpurnius\") and [Nemesianus](/wiki/Nemesianus \"Nemesianus\")— and by [Boccaccio](/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio \"Giovanni Boccaccio\")'s *Ameto*, Sannazaro depicts a lovelorn first\\-person narrator (\"Sincero\") wandering the countryside ([Arcadia](/wiki/Arcadia_%28ancient_region%29 \"Arcadia (ancient region)\")) and listening to the amorous or mournful songs of the shepherds he meets. In addition to its pastoral setting, the other great originality of the work stems from its novel structure of alternating prose and verse.",
"Sannazaro's *Arcadia* – coupled with the Portuguese author [Jorge de Montemayor](/wiki/Jorge_de_Montemayor \"Jorge de Montemayor\")'s [*Diana*](/wiki/Diana_%28pastoral_romance%29 \"Diana (pastoral romance)\") (*Los siete libros de la Diana*, 1559\\), itself indebted to Sannazaro's work – had a profound impact on literature throughout Europe up until the middle of the seventeenth century.",
"With the *Arcadia* behind him, Sannazaro concentrated on [Latin works of classical inspiration](/wiki/Neo-Latin \"Neo-Latin\"). His [Virgilian](/wiki/Virgil \"Virgil\") bucolic works include the five *Eclogae piscatoriae*, [eclogues](/wiki/Eclogue \"Eclogue\") on themes connected with the [Bay of Naples](/wiki/Bay_of_Naples \"Bay of Naples\"), which originated the genre of the [piscatorial eclogue](/wiki/Piscatorial_eclogue \"Piscatorial eclogue\"); three books of elegies; and three books of epigrams. Other works in Latin include three books of epigrams, and two short works entitled *Salices* \\[Willows] and *De Morte Christi Lamentatio* \\[\"Lament on the Death of Christ\"].",
"Sannazaro's now seldom\\-read sacred poem in Latin, *De partu Virginis*, which gained for him the name of the \"Christian [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil \"Virgil\")\",\"The poem is as Virgilian as he could make it\", his translator Ralph Nash observes (Nash 1996:13\\). was extensively rewritten in 1519–21 and appeared in print, 1526\\. It has been characterized as \"his version of Mary's [Magnificat](/wiki/Magnificat \"Magnificat\")\".Nash 1996: \"General Introduction\" p. 10\\.",
"Among his works in Italian and Neapolitan are the recasting of Neapolitan proverbs as *Gliommeri* his *Farse*, and the *Rime* (published as *Sonetti et canzoni di M. Jacopo Sannazaro*, Naples and Rome, 1530\\), where the manner of [Petrarch](/wiki/Petrarch \"Petrarch\") is paramount. He also wrote some savage and caustic epigrams. Most famous is the one he wrote against Pope Alexander VI after the murder of Giovanni Borgia, eldest son of the Pope, whose body was recovered from the Tiber River—Sannazaro cheekily described Alexander VI as a \"fisher of men\" (playing on the Christ's words to Peter). This epigram caused immense grief to the Pope.",
"His portrait by [Titian](/wiki/Titian \"Titian\"), painted ca 1514–18, is in the [Royal Collection](/wiki/Royal_Collection \"Royal Collection\"), part of the diplomatic \"[Dutch Gift](/wiki/Dutch_Gift \"Dutch Gift\")\" to [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\"), in 1660\\.",
"The first complete translation into English of the *Arcadia* is by Ralph Nash, *Jacopo Sannazaro: Arcadia and Piscatorial Eclogues* (Detroit: Wayne State University Press) 1966\\. Nash returned to translate into English prose and verse *The Major Latin Poems of Jacopo Sannazaro*, (Detroit: Wayne State University Press) 1996\\. The distinguished Latinist [Michael C. J. Putnam](/wiki/Michael_C._J._Putnam \"Michael C. J. Putnam\") has recently published the first translation of all of Sannazaro's Latin poetry.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2NZpR3EmptkC\\&q\\=Latin\\+poetry\\+/\\+Jacopo\\+Sannazaro\\|title\\=Latin Poetry\\|first\\=Jacopo\\|last\\=Sannazaro\\|date\\=Aug 11, 2009\\|publisher\\=Harvard University Press\\|isbn\\=9780674034068 \\|accessdate\\=Aug 11, 2022\\|via\\=Google Books}}",
"Sannazaro has also a long\\-time correspondence with some Italian humanists. The beloved [pen\\-friend](/wiki/Pen-friend \"Pen-friend\") was Antonio Seripando, brother of the Augustinian friar [Girolamo](/wiki/Girolamo_Seripando \"Girolamo Seripando\") (1493–1563\\).{{cite book \\| author \\= Pierluigi Fiorini \\| title \\= Lettere inedite de Antonio Seripando, corrispondente prediletto di Jacopo Sannazaro \\| trans\\-title \\= Unedited letters of Antonio Seripando, the beloved correspondent of Jacopo Sannazaro \\| language \\= it \\| pages \\= 82 \\| publisher \\= M.A. State University of New York at Binghamton, Dept. of Romance Languages and Literatures \\| year \\= 1981 \\| url \\= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/84285326 \\| oclc \\= 84285326}}, a graduate dissertation.",
""
] |
Sample entries
--------------
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Left to right: [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 "Plantain (cooking)"), [Red](/wiki/Red_banana "Red banana"), [Latundan](/wiki/Latundan_banana "Latundan banana"), and [Cavendish bananas](/wiki/Cavendish_banana "Cavendish banana").\|alt\=Photo of four several large green, smaller red, very small yellow, and medium\-sized yellow bananas](/wiki/File:Bananavarieties.jpg "Bananavarieties.jpg")
The best way to elucidate the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* text is to provide some noteworthy entries for bananas, Chinese spinach, oranges, and "herb ferment".
### Banana
The *Gānjiāo* (甘蕉, lit. "sweet banana/plantain") "[banana](/wiki/Banana "Banana"), *Musa paradisiaca*, *Musa sapientum*" entry distinguishes two kinds of dessert\-banana plants and one fiber\-banana plant.
> The Kan\-chiao, seen from afar, resembles a tree. The larger plants are over one armspan in circumference. The leaves are ten feet long, or sometimes seven to eight feet and over one to almost two feet broad. The flowers are as big as a wine cup, with the shape and color of a lotus. Over one hundred pods are attached together at the end of the stem, called a *fang* (房, spathe). They are sweet and palatable and can also be preserved in honey. The roots resemble taro, the largest as big as a carriage wheel. Fruiting follows flowering, and the flowers, which have a cluster of six pods each, develop successively. The pods are not formed simultaneously and the flowers do not drop at the same time. It is also called *Pa\-chiao* 芭蕉 or *Pa\-chü* 巴苴. Removing the peel of the pod, the yellowish\-white interior with a taste like the grape appears, sweet and soft. It satisfies hunger also.
> There are three kinds. The kind with pods the size of a thumb, long and pointed, resembling a sheep's horn in shape, is called *Yang\-chiao\-chiao* 羊角蕉 (sheep's horn banana), and is the sweetest and most delicious in taste. Another kind with pods the size of a hen's egg and resembling a cow's udder is called *Niu\-ju\-chiao* 牛乳蕉 (cow's udder banana), and is slightly inferior to *Yang\-chiao\-chiao*. A third kind is the size of a lotus rootstock; the pods are six to seven inches in length, squarish in shape, not sweet, and considered the most inferior. The stem is separable into fibers, and when treated with lime, can be woven into thin cloth, called *Chiao\-ko* 蕉葛 (banana linen). Although the cloth is soft and good and yellowish\-white in color, it is not comparable to the reddish linen. The plant grows in both Chiao and Kuang. According to the *San\-fu huang\-t'u* 三輔黃圖, "Wu Ti of Han, in the sixth year of the Yüan\-ting period (111 B.C.), conquered Nan\-yüeh and built the Fu\-Ii Palace to plant the rare plants and strange trees obtained. There are two plants Kan\-chiao." (1\)Tr. {{harvnb\|Li\|1979\|pp\=32\-3}}.
This detailed description is of great interest for botanists,{{r\|NeedhamKuhn1988\_49}} but closer observation would have shown that the six fruits in a half\-spiral did not come from one ovary.{{sfn\|Needham\|Lu\|Huang\|1986\|p\=453}} Since banana plants are all sterile hybrid [cultigens](/wiki/Cultigens "Cultigens"), species differentiation is problematic. *[Musa × paradisiaca](/wiki/Musa_%C3%97_paradisiaca "Musa × paradisiaca")* includes the previously differentiated *M. paradisiaca* "cooking/fiber banana; plantain" and *M. sapientum* " dessert banana". Judging from the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* account, the two *yángjiǎojiāo* (羊角蕉 "ram's horn banana") and *niúrǔjiāo* (牛乳蕉 "cow's milk banana") were of the edible *sapientum* type, and the unnamed third was of the fibrous *paradisiaca* type. *Xiāngjiāo* (香蕉 "fragrant banana") is the common name in [Modern Standard Chinese](/wiki/Modern_Standard_Chinese "Modern Standard Chinese") usage.
The most surprising thing is the emphasis placed on the banana as a [fiber plant](/wiki/Fiber_plant "Fiber plant"),{{sfn\|Needham\|Lu\|Huang\|1986\|p\=453}} and the oldest occurrences of the word *jiao* mention no fruit, but only the value of the fiber and the cloth. The (121 CE) *[Shuowen jiezi](/wiki/Shuowen_jiezi "Shuowen jiezi")* first recorded the [Chinese character](/wiki/Chinese_character "Chinese character") *jiāo* (蕉 "plantain; banana"), which combines the "[plant radical](/wiki/Radical_140 "Radical 140")" (艸) and a *jiāo* (焦 "burnt; scorched") phonetic, defined as (生枲, lit. "living/raw male [hemp\-nettle](/wiki/Galeopsis "Galeopsis")") translated "raw plant fiber"{{sfn\|Reynolds\|1940\|p\=165}} or "natural nettle\-hemp".{{sfn\|Needham\|Lu\|Huang\|1986\|p\=453}} [Zuo Si](/wiki/Zuo_Si "Zuo Si")'s (c. 270\) "Wudu fu" (吳都賦 "Rhapsody on the Wu capital", i.e., [Suzhou](/wiki/Suzhou "Suzhou")) mentions *jiāogé* (蕉葛 "linen made from banana/plantain fibers") but not the fruit. Needham, Lu, and Huang say that the banana was primarily a textile\-producer, rather than cultivated for fruit, which could reasonably explain the origin of the name, for *jiāo* (焦) means "heat; burning; boiling", which was how the stems had to be treated with lime water to get the fibers.{{sfn\|Needham\|Lu\|Huang\|1986\|p\=453}}
This entry quotes the *Sanfu huangtu* (三輔黃圖 "Description of palace buildings in \[the Han capital] [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an "Chang'an")"), which is an anonymous text of uncertain date, estimated at from the 3rd century{{sfn\|Reynolds\|1940\|p\=166}} to the 8th century,{{sfn\|Ma\|1978\|p\=231}} says:
> In the sixth year of Yüan\-ting \[i.e., 111 B. C.] of the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Annam was vanquished. The palace Fu\-li kung 扶荔宮 \[so named on account of its lichee plants] was built \[in Ch'ang\-an, the national capital] for transplanting the newly acquired plants ... among which were ... twelve plants of the *kan\-chiao*, etc. ... Because the climates of the North and the South are different, most of the plants soon died.Tr. {{harvnb\|Reynolds\|1940\|p\=166}}.
Parts of this *Nanfang caomu zhuang* banana entry are almost identical with passages in earlier and later texts. The *Nanfang caomu zhuang* source could have been the (2nd\-3rd century) *Yiwu zhi* or (3rd century) *Nanzhou yiwu zhi*; and it could have been copied into the (3rd\-4th century) *Nanfang caowu zhi* and (4th\-5th century) *Guang zhi* (廣志). Yang Fu's *Yiwu zhi* gives this description.
> *Pa\-chiao* has leaves as large as mats. Its stem is like a \[bamboo] shoot. After boiling, the stem breaks into fibres and can be used for weaving cloth. Women weavers make this fibre into fine or coarse linen which is known now as *chiao\-chih* \[Cochin\-China] linen. The center of the plant is shaped like a garlic\-bulb and is as large as a plate\[?]. There the fruit grows and holds the 'stem.' One stem bears several tens of fruits. The fruit has a reddish skin like the color of fire and when peeled the inside pulp is dark. The pulp is edible and is very sweet, like sugar or honey. Four or five of these fruits are enough for a meal. After eating, the flavor lingers on among the teeth. *Kan\-chiao* is another name for it.Tr. {{harvnb\|Reynolds\|1940\|p\=167}}.
The *Nanfang caomu zhuang* has another entry (9\) for an unidentified *shuijiao* (水蕉 "water banana") that "resembles the day\-lily, and is either purple or yellow", which Li suggests might be *[Lycoris](/wiki/Lycoris_%28plant%29 "Lycoris (plant)")*.{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|p\=44}}
### Chinese spinach
[thumb\|*[Ipomoea aquatica](/wiki/Ipomoea_aquatica "Ipomoea aquatica")* water spinach](/wiki/File:Ipomoea_aquatica.jpg "Ipomoea aquatica.jpg")
The *Nanfangcao mu zhuang* entry for *yongcai* (蕹葉 "*[Ipomoea aquatica](/wiki/Ipomoea_aquatica "Ipomoea aquatica")*; Chinese spinach; water spinach; swamp cabbage") is the first record of both this vegetable and of floating gardens.
Chinese spinach is a [semi\-aquatic](/wiki/Aquatic_plant "Aquatic plant") [tropical plant](/wiki/Tropical_plant "Tropical plant") grown, either in water or on wet ground, as a vegetable for its tender shoots and leaves. In southern China it is a very common and popular vegetable, and often escapes from cultivation.{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|p\=71}}
> The Yung has leaves resembling the Lo\-k'uei 落葵 but smaller in size. The nature is cold and the taste sweet. The southerners make rafts by weaving reeds, cutting into the raft small holes and floating it above the water. When seeds are planted in the water, they float above the water like duckweeds. When grown, the stems and leaves rise above the holes in the raft, which undulates with the water. This is a strange vegetable of the south. Yeh\-ko 冶葛 has deadly poison. If juice of the Yung is dropped on the shoot of the latter, it withers instantly. According to traditions, Wei\-wu 魏武 could eat Yeh\-ko up to one foot in length. It is said that this is possible because he ate the vegetable first. (25\)Tr. {{harvnb\|Li\|1979\|p\=71}}.
Wei Wu (魏武 "\[Emperor] Wu of Wei") is the posthumous name of [Cao Cao](/wiki/Cao_Cao "Cao Cao") (155\-220\), the penultimate [Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_%28China%29 "Chancellor (China)") of the [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty "Eastern Han dynasty") and founder of the [Cao Wei](/wiki/Cao_Wei "Cao Wei") dynasty (220\-265\). These plant references are *luòkuí* (落葵 lit. "falling [malva](/wiki/Malvaceae "Malvaceae")") *[Basella alba](/wiki/Basella_alba "Basella alba")* or redvine spinach and *yěgé* (冶葛 lit. "smelting kudzu") *[Gelsemium elegans](/wiki/Gelsemium "Gelsemium")* or heartbreak grass. *Gelsemium* is the subsequent *Nanfang caomu zhuang* entry (26\),Tr. {{harvnb\|Li\|1979\|p\=72}}. which says, "Those who use this to poison people often give it mixed with other raw vegetables. If not discovered quickly and treated with an antidote, the one poisoned will die within half a day." *Gelsemium* roots contain the highly toxic [alkaloid](/wiki/Alkaloid "Alkaloid") [gelsemine](/wiki/Gelsemine "Gelsemine"), which acts as a paralytic and often results in death. Later Chinese works repeatedly mention using Chinese spinach as an antidote for *Gelsemium*, and in India, the juice of this plant is believed to have emetic properties and is used in opium poisoning.{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|p\=72}}
Chinese floating gardens are called *fēngtián* (葑田 "wild\-rice fields") or *jiàtián* (架田 "frame fields"). Many texts, such as [Xu Guangqi](/wiki/Xu_Guangqi "Xu Guangqi")'s (1693\) *Nongzheng chuanshu* (農政全書 "Complete Treatise on Agricultural Administration"), refer to floating gardens.{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|pp\=15\-6}} [Wang Zhen](/wiki/Wang_Zhen_%28inventor%29 "Wang Zhen (inventor)")'s (1313\) *Nongshu* (農書 "Treatise on Agriculture") describes wooden instead of reed rafts as Ji Han mentions. Wang Zhen explains that the frame is like a *fá* (筏 "\[bamboo] raft"), and that *fēng* means the roots of the aquatic plant *gū* (箛 *[Zizania latifolia](/wiki/Zizania_latifolia "Zizania latifolia")*, Manchurian wild rice). He says that floating fields are found more or less everywhere in Southeast China, and quotes a poem by [Su Dongpo](/wiki/Su_Dongpo "Su Dongpo") that describes floating fields on the [West Lake](/wiki/West_Lake "West Lake") at [Hangzhou](/wiki/Hangzhou "Hangzhou"): "'The water drains away, the wild grass sprouts, and gradually a \[*fengtian*] appears".Tr. {{harvnb\|Needham\|Bray\|1984\|p\=119}}.
The *[chinampas](/wiki/Chinampas "Chinampas")*, which have been used by the [Aztecs](/wiki/Aztecs "Aztecs") on shallow lakes in the [Valley of Mexico](/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico "Valley of Mexico") since the [Middle Postclassic period](/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology "Mesoamerican chronology") (1150\-1350\), are the best\-known floating gardens (technically, [artificial islands](/wiki/Artificial_island "Artificial island") separated by canoe\-width channels). Several countries in Asia have actual floating gardens. In China, they are found not only in the [Huai](/wiki/Huai_River "Huai River") and [Yangtze](/wiki/Yangtze "Yangtze") River area but also on [Dian Lake](/wiki/Dian_Lake "Dian Lake") in the [Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau](/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guizhou_Plateau "Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau"). Floating fields are also found on [Kasumigaura, Ibaraki](/wiki/Kasumigaura%2C_Ibaraki "Kasumigaura, Ibaraki") in Japan, [Dal Lake](/wiki/Dal_Lake "Dal Lake") in [Kashmir](/wiki/Kashmir "Kashmir"),{{r\|West1950}} and [Inle Lake](/wiki/Inle_Lake "Inle Lake") in [Myanmar](/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar").{{sfn\|Needham\|Bray\|1984\|p\=121}}
### Oranges
The *Nanfang caomu zhuang* has two entries (62 and 63\) for *[Citrus](/wiki/Citrus "Citrus")* trees: *Jú* (橘 *[Citrus × sinensis](/wiki/Citrus_%C3%97_sinensis "Citrus × sinensis")*, Sweet Orange) and *Gān* (柑 *[Citrus reticulata](/wiki/Citrus_reticulata "Citrus reticulata")*, Mandarin Orange).
> The Chü has white flowers and reddish fruits which have fragrant petals and a delicious taste. Since the time of Wu Ti of Han, there was a Minister of Oranges with a salary of two hundred *shih* \[of rice], responsible for presenting oranges to the royal court. In the Huang\-wu period of Wu (A.D. 222\-229\), Shih Hsieh 士燮, the Governor of Chiao\-chih, once presented an orange specimen with seventeen fruits to one stalk, considered as a symbol of auspiciousness. The entire court entourage presented their congratulations. (62\)Tr. {{harvnb\|Li\|1979\|p\=118}}.
[Shi Xie](/wiki/Shi_Xie "Shi Xie") (137\-226\) was a Han dynasty Administrator of [Jiaozhi](/wiki/Jiaozhi "Jiaozhi") [commandery](/wiki/Commandery_%28China%29 "Commandery (China)") (present\-day northern [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam")). This story about Shi Xie sending as tribute a sweet orange plant with seventeen fruits to [Sun Quan](/wiki/Sun_Quan "Sun Quan") (r. 229\-252\), the founder of the [Eastern Wu](/wiki/Eastern_Wu "Eastern Wu") dynasty, is not recorded elsewhere, and Ma believes it is a forgery based on the (492\-493\) *[Songshu](/wiki/Songshu "Songshu")* history record that in 33I [Yu Liang](/wiki/Yu_Liang "Yu Liang") sent a sweet orange plant with twelve fruits to the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28265%E2%80%93420%29 "Jin dynasty (265–420)") court.{{sfn\|Ma\|1978\|p\=243}}
Li notes{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|p\=119}} that the *[Yiwu Zhi](/wiki/Yiwu_Zhi "Yiwu Zhi")* (quoted in the *Qimin yaoshu*) may possibly be the original source for this *Nanfang caomu zhuang* entry: "the orange tree has white flowers and reddish fruits, which have fragrant peels and also sweet taste. It is produced in Kiangnan and not elsewhere". The *[Taiping Yulan](/wiki/Taiping_Yulan "Taiping Yulan")* quotes this same passage followed by an additional sentence: "There is an orange grove in Chiao\-chih, where an administrative officer is installed, with a salary of 300 *shih* (picul) \[of rice], who is responsible for presenting an annual tribute of oranges to the royal court."
[thumb\|Nest construction by *[Oecophylla smaragdina](/wiki/Oecophylla_smaragdina "Oecophylla smaragdina")* workers](/wiki/File:Nest_construction_by_Oecophylla_smaragdina_workers%2C_Thailand.jpg "Nest construction by Oecophylla smaragdina workers, Thailand.jpg")
> The Kan is a kind of orange with an exceptionally sweet and delicious taste. There are yellow and red kinds. The red ones are called Hu\-kan 壺柑 (jar orange). In the market, the natives of Chiao\-chih sell ants stored in bags of rush mats. The nests are like thin silk. The bags are all attached to twigs and leaves, which, with the ants inside the nests, are for sale. The ants are reddish\-yellow in color, bigger than ordinary ants. In the south, if the Kan trees do not have this kind of ant, the fruits will all be damaged by many harmful insects and not a single fruit will be perfect. There are now two trees of Kan in the Hua\-lin Garden. When in fruit, the Emperor has the court entourage wine and dine by their side and the fruits are picked and given to all. (63\)Tr. {{harvnb\|Li\|1979\|pp\=118\-9}}.
*Húgān* (壺柑) is now called *pènggān* (椪柑 *Citrus poonensis*, [ponkan](/wiki/Ponkan "Ponkan"), Chinese honey orange"). Ma says{{sfn\|Ma\|1978\|pp\=243\-4}} the first few sentences appear [Zhou Chu](/wiki/Zhou_Chu "Zhou Chu")'s (236\-297\) *Fengtuji* (風土記 "Record of Local Conditions"), which is the likely source for this *Nanfang caomu zhuang* entry. Both [Duan Chengshi](/wiki/Duan_Chengshi "Duan Chengshi")'s (9th century) *Yuyang zalu* (酉陽雜俎) and the (early 10th century) Lingbiao luyi (嶺表錄異) retell the citrus ant story.
A number of scholars say this *Nanfang caomu zhuang* mandarin orange entry is the first reference in any literature to the entomological control of plant pests,E.g., {{harvnb\|Needham\|Wang\|1954\|p\=118}}, {{harvnb\|Li\|1979\|p\=120}}. as well as the earliest example of a [biological control agent](/wiki/Biological_control_agent "Biological control agent") as an article of commerce.{{r\|HuangYang1987}}
The arboreal "citrus ant", *[Oecophylla smaragdina](/wiki/Oecophylla_smaragdina "Oecophylla smaragdina")*, Chinese *huángjīngyǐ* (黃猄蟻 "yellow fear ant"), is a [weaver ant](/wiki/Weaver_ant "Weaver ant") that binds leaves and twigs together with silk to form tight nests in a tree. At night, the citrus ants retire into these nests, and during the day, they leave the nests and forage for various insects that attack the orange trees and their fruit. To take advantage of these ants, a citrus grower secures a nest on one tree, then connects it to adjacent trees with bamboo strips for bridges, enabling the citrus ants to travel to and build new nests in neighboring trees, and eventually colonize the whole orchard. In 1915, the [United States Department of Agriculture](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture "United States Department of Agriculture") sent plant physiologist [Walter Tennyson Swingle](/wiki/Walter_Tennyson_Swingle "Walter Tennyson Swingle") to China for research in varieties of orange resistant to [citrus canker](/wiki/Citrus_canker "Citrus canker"). In collaboration with George W. Groff and his students at [Lingnan University](/wiki/Lingnan_University_%28Guangzhou%29 "Lingnan University (Guangzhou)") in [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou"),{{r\|GroffHoward1925}} they became the first Western scientists to encounter the cultivated citrus ant of southern China.
### Herb ferment
The *Cǎoqū* (草麴, lit. "herb ferment") entry in the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* is the earliest description of [wine production](/wiki/Wine_production "Wine production") using a natural [ferment](/wiki/Fermentation%23Etymology "Fermentation#Etymology") made with rice flour and herbs. In Southern Chinese tradition, this special [rice wine](/wiki/Rice_wine "Rice wine") was prepared in advance for marriage ceremonies while the daughter was still young.
The traditional [fermentation starter](/wiki/Fermentation_starter "Fermentation starter") for [Chinese wine](/wiki/Wine_in_China "Wine in China") is called *[jiǔqū](/wiki/Jiuqu "Jiuqu")* (酒麴 "wine ferment", [compounding](/wiki/Compound_%28linguistics%29 "Compound (linguistics)") *jiǔ* "wine; liquor" and *qū* "leaven; yeast") or *jiǔyào* (酒藥 "wine medicament", with *yào* "drug; medicine"), which is produced by inoculating a cereal dough with a previously\-grown [microbial culture](/wiki/Microbial_culture "Microbial culture"),{{sfn\|Needham\|Huang\|2000\|p\=183}} [Yeast in winemaking](/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking "Yeast in winemaking") is divided between natural, ambient [wild yeast](/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking%23Wild_yeasts_and_natural_fermentation "Yeast in winemaking#Wild yeasts and natural fermentation") (such as *caoqu*) and cultured [inoculated yeast](/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking%23Inoculated_yeast "Yeast in winemaking#Inoculated yeast") (such as *jiuqu*).
> In Nan\-hai there are many fine wines, prepared not with yeast leaven but by pounding rice flour mixed with many kinds of herb leaves and soaked in the juice of Yeh\-ko 冶葛. The dough, as big as an egg, is left in dense bushes under the shade. After a month, it is done, and is used to mix with glutinous rice to make wine. Thus if drunk heavily, even after awakening from intoxication, the head is hot and sweaty because there are poisonous herbs in it. Among the southerners, when a daughter reaches several years of age the family starts to brew wine on a large scale. After straining, and when the ponds become dry in the winter, the wine is put in jars, tightly sealed at the top and buried in the side of the ponds. When spring comes and the ponds are full of water, these jars are not removed. When the daughter is getting ready to be married, the pond edges are dug to remove the wine for use in feasting the guests at the marriage ceremony. It is called "girl's wine." The taste is exceedingly fine. (14\)Tr. {{harvnb\|Li\|1979\|p\=59}}.
[Nanhai](/wiki/Nanhai_District "Nanhai District") (南海 "south sea", in [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou")) was the capital of the ancient [Jiaozhou](/wiki/Jiaozhou_%28region%29 "Jiaozhou (region)") province. *Yěgé* (冶葛) *[Gelsemium elegans](/wiki/Gelsemium "Gelsemium")* or Heartbreak grass is a famous poisonous plant of southern China. Besides this "herb ferment" entry mentioning *yege*, the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* has a *yege* entry (26\), and mentions it in the Chinese spinach entry (25, see above). Li notes that while the root contains poison, it is not clear whether *caoqu* used the leaves or the roots.{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|p\=60}} *Nǚjiǔ* (女酒 lit. "women wine") first appears in the *[Zhouli](/wiki/Zhouli "Zhouli")* ritual text meaning "female slave winemaker" who (in *yin* and *yang* gender separation) made wines for women in the royal palace, the staff of the Superintendent of Wines is said to include 10 eunuchs, 30 "wine\-women", and 300 convicts.{{r\|trManjo1991\_236}}
Needham and Huang suggest that since it took one month for the herbal rice\-flour dough to become infected by fungi (presumably [mycelia](/wiki/Mycelia "Mycelia")), the process was probably not easily reproducible in areas outside South China.{{sfn\|Needham\|Huang\|2000\|p\=261}}
The tradition of preparing wines for marriage ceremonies while the daughter was still young continued in the [Shaoxing](/wiki/Shaoxing "Shaoxing") region of [Zhejiang](/wiki/Zhejiang "Zhejiang") province until at least the early 20th century. [Shaoxing wine](/wiki/Shaoxing_wine "Shaoxing wine") is a famous variety of *[huangjiu](/wiki/Huangjiu "Huangjiu")* fermented from rice, and it originated in Shaoxing, an ancient city in the southern [Yue](/wiki/Yue_%28state%29 "Yue (state)") kingdom during the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period "Warring States period"). Qu Dajun's (17th century) *Guangdong xinyu* (廣東新語) confirmed that *caoqu* "herb ferment" was still used in the Guangdong area, and it was made from beans and rice mixed with plant materials such as *shānjié* (山桔 *[Glycosmis citrifolia)](/wiki/Glycosmis "Glycosmis")*), *làliǎo* (辣蓼 *[Persicaria hydropiper](/wiki/Persicaria_hydropiper "Persicaria hydropiper")*), and *mǎliǎo* (馬蓼 *[Persicaria lapathifolia](/wiki/Persicaria_lapathifolia "Persicaria lapathifolia")*).{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|p\=60}}
|
[
"Sample entries\n--------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Left to right: [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 \"Plantain (cooking)\"), [Red](/wiki/Red_banana \"Red banana\"), [Latundan](/wiki/Latundan_banana \"Latundan banana\"), and [Cavendish bananas](/wiki/Cavendish_banana \"Cavendish banana\").\\|alt\\=Photo of four several large green, smaller red, very small yellow, and medium\\-sized yellow bananas](/wiki/File:Bananavarieties.jpg \"Bananavarieties.jpg\")\nThe best way to elucidate the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* text is to provide some noteworthy entries for bananas, Chinese spinach, oranges, and \"herb ferment\".",
"### Banana",
"The *Gānjiāo* (甘蕉, lit. \"sweet banana/plantain\") \"[banana](/wiki/Banana \"Banana\"), *Musa paradisiaca*, *Musa sapientum*\" entry distinguishes two kinds of dessert\\-banana plants and one fiber\\-banana plant.",
"> The Kan\\-chiao, seen from afar, resembles a tree. The larger plants are over one armspan in circumference. The leaves are ten feet long, or sometimes seven to eight feet and over one to almost two feet broad. The flowers are as big as a wine cup, with the shape and color of a lotus. Over one hundred pods are attached together at the end of the stem, called a *fang* (房, spathe). They are sweet and palatable and can also be preserved in honey. The roots resemble taro, the largest as big as a carriage wheel. Fruiting follows flowering, and the flowers, which have a cluster of six pods each, develop successively. The pods are not formed simultaneously and the flowers do not drop at the same time. It is also called *Pa\\-chiao* 芭蕉 or *Pa\\-chü* 巴苴. Removing the peel of the pod, the yellowish\\-white interior with a taste like the grape appears, sweet and soft. It satisfies hunger also. \n> There are three kinds. The kind with pods the size of a thumb, long and pointed, resembling a sheep's horn in shape, is called *Yang\\-chiao\\-chiao* 羊角蕉 (sheep's horn banana), and is the sweetest and most delicious in taste. Another kind with pods the size of a hen's egg and resembling a cow's udder is called *Niu\\-ju\\-chiao* 牛乳蕉 (cow's udder banana), and is slightly inferior to *Yang\\-chiao\\-chiao*. A third kind is the size of a lotus rootstock; the pods are six to seven inches in length, squarish in shape, not sweet, and considered the most inferior. The stem is separable into fibers, and when treated with lime, can be woven into thin cloth, called *Chiao\\-ko* 蕉葛 (banana linen). Although the cloth is soft and good and yellowish\\-white in color, it is not comparable to the reddish linen. The plant grows in both Chiao and Kuang. According to the *San\\-fu huang\\-t'u* 三輔黃圖, \"Wu Ti of Han, in the sixth year of the Yüan\\-ting period (111 B.C.), conquered Nan\\-yüeh and built the Fu\\-Ii Palace to plant the rare plants and strange trees obtained. There are two plants Kan\\-chiao.\" (1\\)Tr. {{harvnb\\|Li\\|1979\\|pp\\=32\\-3}}.",
"This detailed description is of great interest for botanists,{{r\\|NeedhamKuhn1988\\_49}} but closer observation would have shown that the six fruits in a half\\-spiral did not come from one ovary.{{sfn\\|Needham\\|Lu\\|Huang\\|1986\\|p\\=453}} Since banana plants are all sterile hybrid [cultigens](/wiki/Cultigens \"Cultigens\"), species differentiation is problematic. *[Musa × paradisiaca](/wiki/Musa_%C3%97_paradisiaca \"Musa × paradisiaca\")* includes the previously differentiated *M. paradisiaca* \"cooking/fiber banana; plantain\" and *M. sapientum* \" dessert banana\". Judging from the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* account, the two *yángjiǎojiāo* (羊角蕉 \"ram's horn banana\") and *niúrǔjiāo* (牛乳蕉 \"cow's milk banana\") were of the edible *sapientum* type, and the unnamed third was of the fibrous *paradisiaca* type. *Xiāngjiāo* (香蕉 \"fragrant banana\") is the common name in [Modern Standard Chinese](/wiki/Modern_Standard_Chinese \"Modern Standard Chinese\") usage.",
"The most surprising thing is the emphasis placed on the banana as a [fiber plant](/wiki/Fiber_plant \"Fiber plant\"),{{sfn\\|Needham\\|Lu\\|Huang\\|1986\\|p\\=453}} and the oldest occurrences of the word *jiao* mention no fruit, but only the value of the fiber and the cloth. The (121 CE) *[Shuowen jiezi](/wiki/Shuowen_jiezi \"Shuowen jiezi\")* first recorded the [Chinese character](/wiki/Chinese_character \"Chinese character\") *jiāo* (蕉 \"plantain; banana\"), which combines the \"[plant radical](/wiki/Radical_140 \"Radical 140\")\" (艸) and a *jiāo* (焦 \"burnt; scorched\") phonetic, defined as (生枲, lit. \"living/raw male [hemp\\-nettle](/wiki/Galeopsis \"Galeopsis\")\") translated \"raw plant fiber\"{{sfn\\|Reynolds\\|1940\\|p\\=165}} or \"natural nettle\\-hemp\".{{sfn\\|Needham\\|Lu\\|Huang\\|1986\\|p\\=453}} [Zuo Si](/wiki/Zuo_Si \"Zuo Si\")'s (c. 270\\) \"Wudu fu\" (吳都賦 \"Rhapsody on the Wu capital\", i.e., [Suzhou](/wiki/Suzhou \"Suzhou\")) mentions *jiāogé* (蕉葛 \"linen made from banana/plantain fibers\") but not the fruit. Needham, Lu, and Huang say that the banana was primarily a textile\\-producer, rather than cultivated for fruit, which could reasonably explain the origin of the name, for *jiāo* (焦) means \"heat; burning; boiling\", which was how the stems had to be treated with lime water to get the fibers.{{sfn\\|Needham\\|Lu\\|Huang\\|1986\\|p\\=453}}",
"This entry quotes the *Sanfu huangtu* (三輔黃圖 \"Description of palace buildings in \\[the Han capital] [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an \"Chang'an\")\"), which is an anonymous text of uncertain date, estimated at from the 3rd century{{sfn\\|Reynolds\\|1940\\|p\\=166}} to the 8th century,{{sfn\\|Ma\\|1978\\|p\\=231}} says:",
"> In the sixth year of Yüan\\-ting \\[i.e., 111 B. C.] of the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Annam was vanquished. The palace Fu\\-li kung 扶荔宮 \\[so named on account of its lichee plants] was built \\[in Ch'ang\\-an, the national capital] for transplanting the newly acquired plants ... among which were ... twelve plants of the *kan\\-chiao*, etc. ... Because the climates of the North and the South are different, most of the plants soon died.Tr. {{harvnb\\|Reynolds\\|1940\\|p\\=166}}.",
"",
"Parts of this *Nanfang caomu zhuang* banana entry are almost identical with passages in earlier and later texts. The *Nanfang caomu zhuang* source could have been the (2nd\\-3rd century) *Yiwu zhi* or (3rd century) *Nanzhou yiwu zhi*; and it could have been copied into the (3rd\\-4th century) *Nanfang caowu zhi* and (4th\\-5th century) *Guang zhi* (廣志). Yang Fu's *Yiwu zhi* gives this description.",
"> *Pa\\-chiao* has leaves as large as mats. Its stem is like a \\[bamboo] shoot. After boiling, the stem breaks into fibres and can be used for weaving cloth. Women weavers make this fibre into fine or coarse linen which is known now as *chiao\\-chih* \\[Cochin\\-China] linen. The center of the plant is shaped like a garlic\\-bulb and is as large as a plate\\[?]. There the fruit grows and holds the 'stem.' One stem bears several tens of fruits. The fruit has a reddish skin like the color of fire and when peeled the inside pulp is dark. The pulp is edible and is very sweet, like sugar or honey. Four or five of these fruits are enough for a meal. After eating, the flavor lingers on among the teeth. *Kan\\-chiao* is another name for it.Tr. {{harvnb\\|Reynolds\\|1940\\|p\\=167}}.",
"The *Nanfang caomu zhuang* has another entry (9\\) for an unidentified *shuijiao* (水蕉 \"water banana\") that \"resembles the day\\-lily, and is either purple or yellow\", which Li suggests might be *[Lycoris](/wiki/Lycoris_%28plant%29 \"Lycoris (plant)\")*.{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=44}}",
"### Chinese spinach",
"[thumb\\|*[Ipomoea aquatica](/wiki/Ipomoea_aquatica \"Ipomoea aquatica\")* water spinach](/wiki/File:Ipomoea_aquatica.jpg \"Ipomoea aquatica.jpg\")\nThe *Nanfangcao mu zhuang* entry for *yongcai* (蕹葉 \"*[Ipomoea aquatica](/wiki/Ipomoea_aquatica \"Ipomoea aquatica\")*; Chinese spinach; water spinach; swamp cabbage\") is the first record of both this vegetable and of floating gardens.",
"Chinese spinach is a [semi\\-aquatic](/wiki/Aquatic_plant \"Aquatic plant\") [tropical plant](/wiki/Tropical_plant \"Tropical plant\") grown, either in water or on wet ground, as a vegetable for its tender shoots and leaves. In southern China it is a very common and popular vegetable, and often escapes from cultivation.{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=71}}",
"> The Yung has leaves resembling the Lo\\-k'uei 落葵 but smaller in size. The nature is cold and the taste sweet. The southerners make rafts by weaving reeds, cutting into the raft small holes and floating it above the water. When seeds are planted in the water, they float above the water like duckweeds. When grown, the stems and leaves rise above the holes in the raft, which undulates with the water. This is a strange vegetable of the south. Yeh\\-ko 冶葛 has deadly poison. If juice of the Yung is dropped on the shoot of the latter, it withers instantly. According to traditions, Wei\\-wu 魏武 could eat Yeh\\-ko up to one foot in length. It is said that this is possible because he ate the vegetable first. (25\\)Tr. {{harvnb\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=71}}.",
"Wei Wu (魏武 \"\\[Emperor] Wu of Wei\") is the posthumous name of [Cao Cao](/wiki/Cao_Cao \"Cao Cao\") (155\\-220\\), the penultimate [Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_%28China%29 \"Chancellor (China)\") of the [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty \"Eastern Han dynasty\") and founder of the [Cao Wei](/wiki/Cao_Wei \"Cao Wei\") dynasty (220\\-265\\). These plant references are *luòkuí* (落葵 lit. \"falling [malva](/wiki/Malvaceae \"Malvaceae\")\") *[Basella alba](/wiki/Basella_alba \"Basella alba\")* or redvine spinach and *yěgé* (冶葛 lit. \"smelting kudzu\") *[Gelsemium elegans](/wiki/Gelsemium \"Gelsemium\")* or heartbreak grass. *Gelsemium* is the subsequent *Nanfang caomu zhuang* entry (26\\),Tr. {{harvnb\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=72}}. which says, \"Those who use this to poison people often give it mixed with other raw vegetables. If not discovered quickly and treated with an antidote, the one poisoned will die within half a day.\" *Gelsemium* roots contain the highly toxic [alkaloid](/wiki/Alkaloid \"Alkaloid\") [gelsemine](/wiki/Gelsemine \"Gelsemine\"), which acts as a paralytic and often results in death. Later Chinese works repeatedly mention using Chinese spinach as an antidote for *Gelsemium*, and in India, the juice of this plant is believed to have emetic properties and is used in opium poisoning.{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=72}}",
"Chinese floating gardens are called *fēngtián* (葑田 \"wild\\-rice fields\") or *jiàtián* (架田 \"frame fields\"). Many texts, such as [Xu Guangqi](/wiki/Xu_Guangqi \"Xu Guangqi\")'s (1693\\) *Nongzheng chuanshu* (農政全書 \"Complete Treatise on Agricultural Administration\"), refer to floating gardens.{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|pp\\=15\\-6}} [Wang Zhen](/wiki/Wang_Zhen_%28inventor%29 \"Wang Zhen (inventor)\")'s (1313\\) *Nongshu* (農書 \"Treatise on Agriculture\") describes wooden instead of reed rafts as Ji Han mentions. Wang Zhen explains that the frame is like a *fá* (筏 \"\\[bamboo] raft\"), and that *fēng* means the roots of the aquatic plant *gū* (箛 *[Zizania latifolia](/wiki/Zizania_latifolia \"Zizania latifolia\")*, Manchurian wild rice). He says that floating fields are found more or less everywhere in Southeast China, and quotes a poem by [Su Dongpo](/wiki/Su_Dongpo \"Su Dongpo\") that describes floating fields on the [West Lake](/wiki/West_Lake \"West Lake\") at [Hangzhou](/wiki/Hangzhou \"Hangzhou\"): \"'The water drains away, the wild grass sprouts, and gradually a \\[*fengtian*] appears\".Tr. {{harvnb\\|Needham\\|Bray\\|1984\\|p\\=119}}.",
"The *[chinampas](/wiki/Chinampas \"Chinampas\")*, which have been used by the [Aztecs](/wiki/Aztecs \"Aztecs\") on shallow lakes in the [Valley of Mexico](/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico \"Valley of Mexico\") since the [Middle Postclassic period](/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology \"Mesoamerican chronology\") (1150\\-1350\\), are the best\\-known floating gardens (technically, [artificial islands](/wiki/Artificial_island \"Artificial island\") separated by canoe\\-width channels). Several countries in Asia have actual floating gardens. In China, they are found not only in the [Huai](/wiki/Huai_River \"Huai River\") and [Yangtze](/wiki/Yangtze \"Yangtze\") River area but also on [Dian Lake](/wiki/Dian_Lake \"Dian Lake\") in the [Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau](/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guizhou_Plateau \"Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau\"). Floating fields are also found on [Kasumigaura, Ibaraki](/wiki/Kasumigaura%2C_Ibaraki \"Kasumigaura, Ibaraki\") in Japan, [Dal Lake](/wiki/Dal_Lake \"Dal Lake\") in [Kashmir](/wiki/Kashmir \"Kashmir\"),{{r\\|West1950}} and [Inle Lake](/wiki/Inle_Lake \"Inle Lake\") in [Myanmar](/wiki/Myanmar \"Myanmar\").{{sfn\\|Needham\\|Bray\\|1984\\|p\\=121}}",
"### Oranges",
"The *Nanfang caomu zhuang* has two entries (62 and 63\\) for *[Citrus](/wiki/Citrus \"Citrus\")* trees: *Jú* (橘 *[Citrus × sinensis](/wiki/Citrus_%C3%97_sinensis \"Citrus × sinensis\")*, Sweet Orange) and *Gān* (柑 *[Citrus reticulata](/wiki/Citrus_reticulata \"Citrus reticulata\")*, Mandarin Orange).",
"> The Chü has white flowers and reddish fruits which have fragrant petals and a delicious taste. Since the time of Wu Ti of Han, there was a Minister of Oranges with a salary of two hundred *shih* \\[of rice], responsible for presenting oranges to the royal court. In the Huang\\-wu period of Wu (A.D. 222\\-229\\), Shih Hsieh 士燮, the Governor of Chiao\\-chih, once presented an orange specimen with seventeen fruits to one stalk, considered as a symbol of auspiciousness. The entire court entourage presented their congratulations. (62\\)Tr. {{harvnb\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=118}}.",
"[Shi Xie](/wiki/Shi_Xie \"Shi Xie\") (137\\-226\\) was a Han dynasty Administrator of [Jiaozhi](/wiki/Jiaozhi \"Jiaozhi\") [commandery](/wiki/Commandery_%28China%29 \"Commandery (China)\") (present\\-day northern [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\")). This story about Shi Xie sending as tribute a sweet orange plant with seventeen fruits to [Sun Quan](/wiki/Sun_Quan \"Sun Quan\") (r. 229\\-252\\), the founder of the [Eastern Wu](/wiki/Eastern_Wu \"Eastern Wu\") dynasty, is not recorded elsewhere, and Ma believes it is a forgery based on the (492\\-493\\) *[Songshu](/wiki/Songshu \"Songshu\")* history record that in 33I [Yu Liang](/wiki/Yu_Liang \"Yu Liang\") sent a sweet orange plant with twelve fruits to the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28265%E2%80%93420%29 \"Jin dynasty (265–420)\") court.{{sfn\\|Ma\\|1978\\|p\\=243}}",
"Li notes{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=119}} that the *[Yiwu Zhi](/wiki/Yiwu_Zhi \"Yiwu Zhi\")* (quoted in the *Qimin yaoshu*) may possibly be the original source for this *Nanfang caomu zhuang* entry: \"the orange tree has white flowers and reddish fruits, which have fragrant peels and also sweet taste. It is produced in Kiangnan and not elsewhere\". The *[Taiping Yulan](/wiki/Taiping_Yulan \"Taiping Yulan\")* quotes this same passage followed by an additional sentence: \"There is an orange grove in Chiao\\-chih, where an administrative officer is installed, with a salary of 300 *shih* (picul) \\[of rice], who is responsible for presenting an annual tribute of oranges to the royal court.\"",
"[thumb\\|Nest construction by *[Oecophylla smaragdina](/wiki/Oecophylla_smaragdina \"Oecophylla smaragdina\")* workers](/wiki/File:Nest_construction_by_Oecophylla_smaragdina_workers%2C_Thailand.jpg \"Nest construction by Oecophylla smaragdina workers, Thailand.jpg\")",
"> The Kan is a kind of orange with an exceptionally sweet and delicious taste. There are yellow and red kinds. The red ones are called Hu\\-kan 壺柑 (jar orange). In the market, the natives of Chiao\\-chih sell ants stored in bags of rush mats. The nests are like thin silk. The bags are all attached to twigs and leaves, which, with the ants inside the nests, are for sale. The ants are reddish\\-yellow in color, bigger than ordinary ants. In the south, if the Kan trees do not have this kind of ant, the fruits will all be damaged by many harmful insects and not a single fruit will be perfect. There are now two trees of Kan in the Hua\\-lin Garden. When in fruit, the Emperor has the court entourage wine and dine by their side and the fruits are picked and given to all. (63\\)Tr. {{harvnb\\|Li\\|1979\\|pp\\=118\\-9}}.",
"*Húgān* (壺柑) is now called *pènggān* (椪柑 *Citrus poonensis*, [ponkan](/wiki/Ponkan \"Ponkan\"), Chinese honey orange\"). Ma says{{sfn\\|Ma\\|1978\\|pp\\=243\\-4}} the first few sentences appear [Zhou Chu](/wiki/Zhou_Chu \"Zhou Chu\")'s (236\\-297\\) *Fengtuji* (風土記 \"Record of Local Conditions\"), which is the likely source for this *Nanfang caomu zhuang* entry. Both [Duan Chengshi](/wiki/Duan_Chengshi \"Duan Chengshi\")'s (9th century) *Yuyang zalu* (酉陽雜俎) and the (early 10th century) Lingbiao luyi (嶺表錄異) retell the citrus ant story.",
"A number of scholars say this *Nanfang caomu zhuang* mandarin orange entry is the first reference in any literature to the entomological control of plant pests,E.g., {{harvnb\\|Needham\\|Wang\\|1954\\|p\\=118}}, {{harvnb\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=120}}. as well as the earliest example of a [biological control agent](/wiki/Biological_control_agent \"Biological control agent\") as an article of commerce.{{r\\|HuangYang1987}}",
"The arboreal \"citrus ant\", *[Oecophylla smaragdina](/wiki/Oecophylla_smaragdina \"Oecophylla smaragdina\")*, Chinese *huángjīngyǐ* (黃猄蟻 \"yellow fear ant\"), is a [weaver ant](/wiki/Weaver_ant \"Weaver ant\") that binds leaves and twigs together with silk to form tight nests in a tree. At night, the citrus ants retire into these nests, and during the day, they leave the nests and forage for various insects that attack the orange trees and their fruit. To take advantage of these ants, a citrus grower secures a nest on one tree, then connects it to adjacent trees with bamboo strips for bridges, enabling the citrus ants to travel to and build new nests in neighboring trees, and eventually colonize the whole orchard. In 1915, the [United States Department of Agriculture](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture \"United States Department of Agriculture\") sent plant physiologist [Walter Tennyson Swingle](/wiki/Walter_Tennyson_Swingle \"Walter Tennyson Swingle\") to China for research in varieties of orange resistant to [citrus canker](/wiki/Citrus_canker \"Citrus canker\"). In collaboration with George W. Groff and his students at [Lingnan University](/wiki/Lingnan_University_%28Guangzhou%29 \"Lingnan University (Guangzhou)\") in [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\"),{{r\\|GroffHoward1925}} they became the first Western scientists to encounter the cultivated citrus ant of southern China.",
"### Herb ferment",
"The *Cǎoqū* (草麴, lit. \"herb ferment\") entry in the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* is the earliest description of [wine production](/wiki/Wine_production \"Wine production\") using a natural [ferment](/wiki/Fermentation%23Etymology \"Fermentation#Etymology\") made with rice flour and herbs. In Southern Chinese tradition, this special [rice wine](/wiki/Rice_wine \"Rice wine\") was prepared in advance for marriage ceremonies while the daughter was still young.",
"The traditional [fermentation starter](/wiki/Fermentation_starter \"Fermentation starter\") for [Chinese wine](/wiki/Wine_in_China \"Wine in China\") is called *[jiǔqū](/wiki/Jiuqu \"Jiuqu\")* (酒麴 \"wine ferment\", [compounding](/wiki/Compound_%28linguistics%29 \"Compound (linguistics)\") *jiǔ* \"wine; liquor\" and *qū* \"leaven; yeast\") or *jiǔyào* (酒藥 \"wine medicament\", with *yào* \"drug; medicine\"), which is produced by inoculating a cereal dough with a previously\\-grown [microbial culture](/wiki/Microbial_culture \"Microbial culture\"),{{sfn\\|Needham\\|Huang\\|2000\\|p\\=183}} [Yeast in winemaking](/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking \"Yeast in winemaking\") is divided between natural, ambient [wild yeast](/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking%23Wild_yeasts_and_natural_fermentation \"Yeast in winemaking#Wild yeasts and natural fermentation\") (such as *caoqu*) and cultured [inoculated yeast](/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking%23Inoculated_yeast \"Yeast in winemaking#Inoculated yeast\") (such as *jiuqu*).",
"> In Nan\\-hai there are many fine wines, prepared not with yeast leaven but by pounding rice flour mixed with many kinds of herb leaves and soaked in the juice of Yeh\\-ko 冶葛. The dough, as big as an egg, is left in dense bushes under the shade. After a month, it is done, and is used to mix with glutinous rice to make wine. Thus if drunk heavily, even after awakening from intoxication, the head is hot and sweaty because there are poisonous herbs in it. Among the southerners, when a daughter reaches several years of age the family starts to brew wine on a large scale. After straining, and when the ponds become dry in the winter, the wine is put in jars, tightly sealed at the top and buried in the side of the ponds. When spring comes and the ponds are full of water, these jars are not removed. When the daughter is getting ready to be married, the pond edges are dug to remove the wine for use in feasting the guests at the marriage ceremony. It is called \"girl's wine.\" The taste is exceedingly fine. (14\\)Tr. {{harvnb\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=59}}.",
"[Nanhai](/wiki/Nanhai_District \"Nanhai District\") (南海 \"south sea\", in [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\")) was the capital of the ancient [Jiaozhou](/wiki/Jiaozhou_%28region%29 \"Jiaozhou (region)\") province. *Yěgé* (冶葛) *[Gelsemium elegans](/wiki/Gelsemium \"Gelsemium\")* or Heartbreak grass is a famous poisonous plant of southern China. Besides this \"herb ferment\" entry mentioning *yege*, the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* has a *yege* entry (26\\), and mentions it in the Chinese spinach entry (25, see above). Li notes that while the root contains poison, it is not clear whether *caoqu* used the leaves or the roots.{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=60}} *Nǚjiǔ* (女酒 lit. \"women wine\") first appears in the *[Zhouli](/wiki/Zhouli \"Zhouli\")* ritual text meaning \"female slave winemaker\" who (in *yin* and *yang* gender separation) made wines for women in the royal palace, the staff of the Superintendent of Wines is said to include 10 eunuchs, 30 \"wine\\-women\", and 300 convicts.{{r\\|trManjo1991\\_236}}",
"Needham and Huang suggest that since it took one month for the herbal rice\\-flour dough to become infected by fungi (presumably [mycelia](/wiki/Mycelia \"Mycelia\")), the process was probably not easily reproducible in areas outside South China.{{sfn\\|Needham\\|Huang\\|2000\\|p\\=261}}",
"The tradition of preparing wines for marriage ceremonies while the daughter was still young continued in the [Shaoxing](/wiki/Shaoxing \"Shaoxing\") region of [Zhejiang](/wiki/Zhejiang \"Zhejiang\") province until at least the early 20th century. [Shaoxing wine](/wiki/Shaoxing_wine \"Shaoxing wine\") is a famous variety of *[huangjiu](/wiki/Huangjiu \"Huangjiu\")* fermented from rice, and it originated in Shaoxing, an ancient city in the southern [Yue](/wiki/Yue_%28state%29 \"Yue (state)\") kingdom during the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period \"Warring States period\"). Qu Dajun's (17th century) *Guangdong xinyu* (廣東新語) confirmed that *caoqu* \"herb ferment\" was still used in the Guangdong area, and it was made from beans and rice mixed with plant materials such as *shānjié* (山桔 *[Glycosmis citrifolia)](/wiki/Glycosmis \"Glycosmis\")*), *làliǎo* (辣蓼 *[Persicaria hydropiper](/wiki/Persicaria_hydropiper \"Persicaria hydropiper\")*), and *mǎliǎo* (馬蓼 *[Persicaria lapathifolia](/wiki/Persicaria_lapathifolia \"Persicaria lapathifolia\")*).{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=60}}",
""
] |
Authenticity
------------
Academic controversies over the authenticity of Ji Han's *Nanfang caomu zhuang* has been ongoing for over a century.
The first scholar to question the text's authenticity was Wen Dingshi (文廷式, 1856\-1904\), who said Ji Han could not have been the author because the [theriac](/wiki/Theriac "Theriac") entry (19\)Tr. {{harvnb\|Li\|1979\|p\=64}}. says the physician Liu Juanzi (劉涓子, fl. 410\), "used this plant to prepare pills and after taking them, attained immortality"; which is likely a copyist's mistake for the Daoist Juanzi (涓子) mentioned in the (c. 1st century BCE) *[Liexian Zhuan](/wiki/Liexian_Zhuan "Liexian Zhuan")*.{{sfn\|Ma\|1978\|p\=234}}
There is no reference to the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* in Ji Han's *Book of Jin* biography, nor in the bibliographies of the (636\) *[Book of Sui](/wiki/Book_of_Sui "Book of Sui")* or (945\) *[Old Book of Tang](/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang "Old Book of Tang")*, both of which do mention his collected works. The *Nanfang caomu zhuang* title is first recorded in [Tang Shenwei's](/wiki/Tang_Shenwei "Tang Shenwei") (唐慎微, 1108\) *Zhenglei bencao* (證類本草) and You Mou's (尤袤, 1180\) *Suichutang shumu* (遂初堂書目). The oldest extant edition is in the (1273\) *Baichuan xuehai* (百川學海), printed by Zuo Gui (左圭).
On one side of the debate, Ma concludes{{sfn\|Ma\|1978\|p\=246}} the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* is unequivocally a forgery, compiled sometime between 1108, the year the *Zhenglei bencao* was first published, and 1194, the year You Mou died. On the other side, Needham, Lu, and Huang conclude that basically Ji Han's "text is authentic, though there may have been some later interpolations".{{sfn\|Needham\|Lu\|Huang\|1986\|p\=450}}
Li lists internal evidence that attests the historical validity of the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* text, or at least the major part of it.{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|pp\=11\-2}} First, Ji Han used archaic and unusual names for certain plants instead of those which later became standard in the Tang and Song, for instance (45\), *jishexiang* (雞舌香) instead of *dingxiang* (丁香) for [cloves](/wiki/Clove "Clove"), indicating the antiquity of the text. Second, he wrote eight entries describing plants that later authors have never been able to identify. Third, Ji Han was occasionally confused regarding some plants where later botanists were not, for example (17\), he mixed up *[Phrynium](/wiki/Phrynium "Phrynium")* with *[Zingiber](/wiki/Zingiber "Zingiber")*. Fourth, he mentions contemporary events, such as *[Aquilaria](/wiki/Aquilaria "Aquilaria")* bark\-paper (56\) being presented as tribute to [Emperor Wu of Jin](/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Jin "Emperor Wu of Jin") in 284\. Li concludes that although we cannot rule out the possibility of interpolations, we can be reasonably sure that the text, as it has come down to us in its present form since the late Song period, "represents on the whole a historically trustworthy account of the plants treated therein as they appeared in the southern regions around the third and fourth centuries".{{sfn\|Li\|1979\|p\=13}}
Huang Xingzong's summary of the proceedings at an international symposium on the authenticity of the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* provides an overview of both sides in the debate: those who claim that the text is a 12th\-century forgery compiled from early texts, and those who consider it a genuine 4th\-century work with later interpolations.{{sfn\|Huang\|1986}}
In the first category of bibliographical evidence,{{sfn\|Huang\|1986\|p\=73}} some argued at the symposium that there is no reason to believe that the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* existed before the Song dynasty when the title first appeared, and when it did occur in pre\-Song literature, it was often called the *Nanfang caowu zhuang*. Others responded that lack of citation in the dynastic histories, which was a common occurrence in Chinese literary history, does not necessarily mean that the book did not exist. Since Ji Han's preface explicitly said the book was compiled for the edification of his family, and not intended for public dissemination, it is not surprising that for generations its existence was not well known. Furthermore, there are unanswered questions.{{sfn\|Huang\|1986\|p\=73}} If the text suddenly first appeared in the Song dynasty, why did it not arouse the suspicion of learned bibliophiles? What would a forger gain by spending the time and effort necessary to compile such an admirable text but not accepting its authorship? Huang says the most reasonable hypothesis is that the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* appearance in a printed edition did not attract any special attention because it was common knowledge among the Song literati that Ji Han wrote the text in the 4th century.
In the second category of textual comparisons, there are numerous *Nanfang caomu zhuang* passages that are similar or identical to those on the same topics in other classical works about South China. Ma{{sfn\|Ma\|1978}} identified passages in books written between the 3rd and 12th centuries as "sources" for many *Nanfang caomu zhuang* entries, for example, the *Yiwu zhi* was a probable sources for the banana and orange descriptions. Ma claimed that at least thirteen entries were copied from (early 10th century) *Lingbiao luyi* (岭表錄異), and seven from (875\) *Beihulu* (北戶錄). Symposium scholars who rejected this plagiarism hypothesis contended that it is more reasonable to conclude that the "sources" were themselves copied from the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* without acknowledgement, as early Chinese authors so often did. Furthermore, [Hui\-lin Li](/wiki/Hui-lin_Li "Hui-lin Li") gave the entries on [wild ginger](/wiki/Alpinia "Alpinia") (5\) and [chinkapin](/wiki/Castanopsis "Castanopsis") (73\) as convincing examples. In the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* the descriptions make botanical sense, but the corresponding entries in *Lingbiao luyi*, though almost identical in language, lack one or two key words needed to render them botanically meaningful, thus indicating that the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* author had an intimate knowledge of plants and knew what he was writing about, whereas the *Lingbiao luyi* compiler was copying blindly from the older text.
In the third category of philological considerations, several discrepancies in book titles, personal names, and historical events quoted in the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* have led scholars in China and the West to question its authenticity.{{sfn\|Huang\|1986\|pp\=75\-6}} [Jasmine](/wiki/Jasminum_officinale "Jasminum officinale") (*yeximing* 耶悉茗, from Arabic *yasmin*) and [sambac](/wiki/Jasminum_sambac "Jasminum sambac") (*moli* 茉莉, from Sanskrit *mallikā*), according to the *Beihulu*, were introduced from Persia in 536, and therefore, could not have been known to Ji Han. In rebuttal, scholars cited evidence that jasmine was already well known in central China during the Jin dynasty, thus the mistake was in the *Beihulu*, and not in the *Nanfang caomu zhuang*.
The symposium participants reached consensus that the extant text contains interpolations by later writers, and probably first appeared in its current form during the Southern Song dynasty. Among the pro\-forgery group, opinions about the date of fabrication varied considerably, perhaps Tang, Northern Song, or Southern Song. Huang says,{{sfn\|Huang\|1986\|p\=77}} "Based on what is known about Ji Han's life, his literary attainments, his love of plants, and his interest in alchemy, those opposed to the forgery thesis believe that he is a likely author for the *Nanfang caomu zhuang*."
|
[
"Authenticity\n------------",
"Academic controversies over the authenticity of Ji Han's *Nanfang caomu zhuang* has been ongoing for over a century.",
"The first scholar to question the text's authenticity was Wen Dingshi (文廷式, 1856\\-1904\\), who said Ji Han could not have been the author because the [theriac](/wiki/Theriac \"Theriac\") entry (19\\)Tr. {{harvnb\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=64}}. says the physician Liu Juanzi (劉涓子, fl. 410\\), \"used this plant to prepare pills and after taking them, attained immortality\"; which is likely a copyist's mistake for the Daoist Juanzi (涓子) mentioned in the (c. 1st century BCE) *[Liexian Zhuan](/wiki/Liexian_Zhuan \"Liexian Zhuan\")*.{{sfn\\|Ma\\|1978\\|p\\=234}}",
"There is no reference to the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* in Ji Han's *Book of Jin* biography, nor in the bibliographies of the (636\\) *[Book of Sui](/wiki/Book_of_Sui \"Book of Sui\")* or (945\\) *[Old Book of Tang](/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang \"Old Book of Tang\")*, both of which do mention his collected works. The *Nanfang caomu zhuang* title is first recorded in [Tang Shenwei's](/wiki/Tang_Shenwei \"Tang Shenwei\") (唐慎微, 1108\\) *Zhenglei bencao* (證類本草) and You Mou's (尤袤, 1180\\) *Suichutang shumu* (遂初堂書目). The oldest extant edition is in the (1273\\) *Baichuan xuehai* (百川學海), printed by Zuo Gui (左圭).",
"On one side of the debate, Ma concludes{{sfn\\|Ma\\|1978\\|p\\=246}} the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* is unequivocally a forgery, compiled sometime between 1108, the year the *Zhenglei bencao* was first published, and 1194, the year You Mou died. On the other side, Needham, Lu, and Huang conclude that basically Ji Han's \"text is authentic, though there may have been some later interpolations\".{{sfn\\|Needham\\|Lu\\|Huang\\|1986\\|p\\=450}}",
"Li lists internal evidence that attests the historical validity of the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* text, or at least the major part of it.{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|pp\\=11\\-2}} First, Ji Han used archaic and unusual names for certain plants instead of those which later became standard in the Tang and Song, for instance (45\\), *jishexiang* (雞舌香) instead of *dingxiang* (丁香) for [cloves](/wiki/Clove \"Clove\"), indicating the antiquity of the text. Second, he wrote eight entries describing plants that later authors have never been able to identify. Third, Ji Han was occasionally confused regarding some plants where later botanists were not, for example (17\\), he mixed up *[Phrynium](/wiki/Phrynium \"Phrynium\")* with *[Zingiber](/wiki/Zingiber \"Zingiber\")*. Fourth, he mentions contemporary events, such as *[Aquilaria](/wiki/Aquilaria \"Aquilaria\")* bark\\-paper (56\\) being presented as tribute to [Emperor Wu of Jin](/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Jin \"Emperor Wu of Jin\") in 284\\. Li concludes that although we cannot rule out the possibility of interpolations, we can be reasonably sure that the text, as it has come down to us in its present form since the late Song period, \"represents on the whole a historically trustworthy account of the plants treated therein as they appeared in the southern regions around the third and fourth centuries\".{{sfn\\|Li\\|1979\\|p\\=13}}",
"Huang Xingzong's summary of the proceedings at an international symposium on the authenticity of the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* provides an overview of both sides in the debate: those who claim that the text is a 12th\\-century forgery compiled from early texts, and those who consider it a genuine 4th\\-century work with later interpolations.{{sfn\\|Huang\\|1986}}",
"In the first category of bibliographical evidence,{{sfn\\|Huang\\|1986\\|p\\=73}} some argued at the symposium that there is no reason to believe that the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* existed before the Song dynasty when the title first appeared, and when it did occur in pre\\-Song literature, it was often called the *Nanfang caowu zhuang*. Others responded that lack of citation in the dynastic histories, which was a common occurrence in Chinese literary history, does not necessarily mean that the book did not exist. Since Ji Han's preface explicitly said the book was compiled for the edification of his family, and not intended for public dissemination, it is not surprising that for generations its existence was not well known. Furthermore, there are unanswered questions.{{sfn\\|Huang\\|1986\\|p\\=73}} If the text suddenly first appeared in the Song dynasty, why did it not arouse the suspicion of learned bibliophiles? What would a forger gain by spending the time and effort necessary to compile such an admirable text but not accepting its authorship? Huang says the most reasonable hypothesis is that the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* appearance in a printed edition did not attract any special attention because it was common knowledge among the Song literati that Ji Han wrote the text in the 4th century.",
"In the second category of textual comparisons, there are numerous *Nanfang caomu zhuang* passages that are similar or identical to those on the same topics in other classical works about South China. Ma{{sfn\\|Ma\\|1978}} identified passages in books written between the 3rd and 12th centuries as \"sources\" for many *Nanfang caomu zhuang* entries, for example, the *Yiwu zhi* was a probable sources for the banana and orange descriptions. Ma claimed that at least thirteen entries were copied from (early 10th century) *Lingbiao luyi* (岭表錄異), and seven from (875\\) *Beihulu* (北戶錄). Symposium scholars who rejected this plagiarism hypothesis contended that it is more reasonable to conclude that the \"sources\" were themselves copied from the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* without acknowledgement, as early Chinese authors so often did. Furthermore, [Hui\\-lin Li](/wiki/Hui-lin_Li \"Hui-lin Li\") gave the entries on [wild ginger](/wiki/Alpinia \"Alpinia\") (5\\) and [chinkapin](/wiki/Castanopsis \"Castanopsis\") (73\\) as convincing examples. In the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* the descriptions make botanical sense, but the corresponding entries in *Lingbiao luyi*, though almost identical in language, lack one or two key words needed to render them botanically meaningful, thus indicating that the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* author had an intimate knowledge of plants and knew what he was writing about, whereas the *Lingbiao luyi* compiler was copying blindly from the older text.",
"In the third category of philological considerations, several discrepancies in book titles, personal names, and historical events quoted in the *Nanfang caomu zhuang* have led scholars in China and the West to question its authenticity.{{sfn\\|Huang\\|1986\\|pp\\=75\\-6}} [Jasmine](/wiki/Jasminum_officinale \"Jasminum officinale\") (*yeximing* 耶悉茗, from Arabic *yasmin*) and [sambac](/wiki/Jasminum_sambac \"Jasminum sambac\") (*moli* 茉莉, from Sanskrit *mallikā*), according to the *Beihulu*, were introduced from Persia in 536, and therefore, could not have been known to Ji Han. In rebuttal, scholars cited evidence that jasmine was already well known in central China during the Jin dynasty, thus the mistake was in the *Beihulu*, and not in the *Nanfang caomu zhuang*.",
"The symposium participants reached consensus that the extant text contains interpolations by later writers, and probably first appeared in its current form during the Southern Song dynasty. Among the pro\\-forgery group, opinions about the date of fabrication varied considerably, perhaps Tang, Northern Song, or Southern Song. Huang says,{{sfn\\|Huang\\|1986\\|p\\=77}} \"Based on what is known about Ji Han's life, his literary attainments, his love of plants, and his interest in alchemy, those opposed to the forgery thesis believe that he is a likely author for the *Nanfang caomu zhuang*.\"",
""
] |
Marriage
--------
### Engagement
In November 1947, Anne met [Michael I of Romania](/wiki/Michael_I_of_Romania "Michael I of Romania"), who was visiting London for the [wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten](/wiki/Wedding_of_Princess_Elizabeth_and_Philip_Mountbatten "Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten").{{Cite web\|url\=http://jg\-tc.com/news/world/anne\-of\-romania\-wife\-of\-king\-michael\-dies\-at/article\_c0de09c0\-a3ff\-5210\-8bbb\-0089f3e3dc7e.html\|title\=Anne of Romania, wife of King Michael, dies at 92\|last\=Mutler\|first\=Alison\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-02\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20160801152644/http://jg\-tc.com/news/world/anne\-of\-romania\-wife\-of\-king\-michael\-dies\-at/article\_c0de09c0\-a3ff\-5210\-8bbb\-0089f3e3dc7e.html\|archive\-date\=1 August 2016\|df\=dmy\-all}} A year earlier, [Queen Mother Helen](/wiki/Helen_of_Greece_and_Denmark "Helen of Greece and Denmark") had invited Anne, her mother, and brothers for a visit to [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest "Bucharest"), but the plan did not come off.{{cite journal\|last\=Eilers\-Koenig\|first\=Marlene\|title\=The Marriage of King Michael and Queen Anne of Romania\|journal\=European Royal History Journal\|volume\=11\.3\|issue\=LXIII\|pages\=3–10\|publisher\=Arturo E. Beeche\|year\=2008}} Meanwhile, Michael had glimpsed Anne in a [newsreel](/wiki/Newsreel "Newsreel") and requested a photograph from the film footage.
Anne did not want to accompany her parents to London for the royal wedding as she wished to avoid meeting King Michael in official surroundings. Instead, she planned to stay behind, go alone to the Paris railway station and, pretending to be a passerby in the crowd, privately observe the king as his entourage escorted him to his London\-bound train. However, at the last moment she was persuaded by her first cousin, [Prince Jean of Luxembourg](/wiki/Jean%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg "Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg"), to come to London, where he planned to host a party. Upon arrival in London, she stopped by [Claridge's](/wiki/Claridge%27s "Claridge's") to see her parents, and found herself being introduced unexpectedly to King Michael. Abashed to the point of confusion, she [clicked her heels](/wiki/Salute "Salute") instead of [curtseying](/wiki/Curtsey "Curtsey"), and fled in embarrassment. Charmed, the king saw her again the night of the wedding at the Luxembourg embassy *soirée*, confided in her some of his concerns about the Communist takeover of Romania and fears for his mother's safety, and nicknamed her *Nan*. They saw each other several times thereafter on outings in London, always [chaperoned](/wiki/Chaperone_%28social%29 "Chaperone (social)") by her mother or brother.
A few days later, Anne accepted an invitation to accompany Michael and his mother when he piloted a [Beechcraft](/wiki/Beechcraft "Beechcraft") aeroplane to take his aunt [Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta](/wiki/Princess_Irene%2C_Duchess_of_Aosta "Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta"), back home to [Lausanne](/wiki/Lausanne "Lausanne"). Sixteen days after meeting, Michael proposed to Anne while the couple were out on a drive in Lausanne. She initially declined, but later accepted after taking long walks and drives with him. Although Michael gave her an engagement ring a few days later, he felt obliged to refrain from a public announcement until he informed his government, despite the fact that the press besieged them in anticipation.
Michael returned to [Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania "Kingdom of Romania"), where he was told by the prime minister that a wedding announcement was not "opportune". Yet within days it was used as the government's public explanation for Michael's sudden [abdication](/wiki/Abdication "Abdication"), which according to royalty "expert" Marlene A. Eilers Koenig was in fact the king's [deposition](/wiki/Deposition_%28politics%29 "Deposition (politics)") by the [Communists](/wiki/Romanian_Communist_Party "Romanian Communist Party") on 30 December. Anne was unable to get further news of Michael until he left the country. They finally reunited in [Davos](/wiki/Davos "Davos") on 23 January 1948\.
### Wedding
As a [Bourbon](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon "House of Bourbon"), Anne was bound by the [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law_%28Roman_Catholic_Church%29 "Canon law (Roman Catholic Church)") of the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church"), which required that she receive a [dispensation](/wiki/Dispensation_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Dispensation (Catholic Church)") to marry a non\-Catholic Christian (Michael was [Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church")). At the time, such a dispensation was normally only given if the non\-Roman Catholic partner promised to allow the children of the marriage to be raised as Roman Catholics. Michael refused to make this promise since it would have violated Romania's monarchical constitution, and would be likely to have a detrimental impact upon any possible restoration. The [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See "Holy See") (which handled the matter directly since Michael was a member of a reigning dynasty) refused to grant the dispensation unless Michael made the required promise.
[Helen, Queen Mother of Romania](/wiki/Helen_of_Greece_and_Denmark "Helen of Greece and Denmark") and her sister [Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark, Duchess of Aosta](/wiki/Princess_Irene%2C_Duchess_of_Aosta "Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta") (an Orthodox married to a Catholic Prince) met with the fiancée's parents in Paris, where the two families resolved to take their case to the [Vatican](/wiki/Vatican_City "Vatican City") in person. In early March, the couple's mothers met with [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pius_XII "Pius XII") who, despite the entreaties of the Queen Mother and the fact that [Princess Margrethe](/wiki/Princess_Margrethe_of_Denmark "Princess Margrethe of Denmark") pounded her fist on the table in anger, refused permission for Anne to marry Michael.
It has been surmised that the Pope's refusal was, in part, motivated by the fact that when [Princess Giovanna of Italy](/wiki/Giovanna_of_Italy "Giovanna of Italy") married Anne's cousin, [Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria](/wiki/Boris_III_of_Bulgaria "Boris III of Bulgaria"), in 1930, the couple had undertaken to raise their future children as Roman Catholics, but had [baptized](/wiki/Baptism "Baptism") them in the Orthodox faith in deference to Bulgaria's state religion. However, Michael declined to make a promise he could not keep politically, while Anne's mother was herself the daughter of a [mixed marriage](/wiki/Interfaith_marriage "Interfaith marriage") between a Catholic ([Marie d'Orléans](/wiki/Princess_Marie_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_%281865%E2%80%931909%29 "Princess Marie of Orléans (1865–1909)")) and a [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") ([Prince Valdemar of Denmark](/wiki/Prince_Valdemar_of_Denmark "Prince Valdemar of Denmark")), who had abided by their pre\-[ne temere](/wiki/Ne_temere "Ne temere") [compromise](/wiki/Compromise "Compromise") to raise their sons as Protestant and their daughter, Margrethe, as Catholic.
Although under a great deal of stress, the engaged couple resolved to proceed. Anne's paternal uncle, [Xavier, Duke of Parma](/wiki/Xavier%2C_Duke_of_Parma "Xavier, Duke of Parma"), issued a statement objecting to any marriage conducted against the will of the Pope and the bride's family. It was he, not the [Pontiff](/wiki/Pontiff "Pontiff"), who forbade her parents to attend the wedding. Michael's spokesman declared on 9 June that the parents had been asked and had given their consent, and that the bride's family would be represented at the [nuptials](/wiki/Nuptials "Nuptials") by her maternal uncle, the Protestant [Prince Erik of Denmark](/wiki/Count_Erik_of_Rosenborg "Count Erik of Rosenborg"), who was to give the bride away.
The wedding ceremony was held on 10 June 1948 in Athens, Greece, in the throne room of the Royal Palace; the ceremony was performed by [Archbishop Damaskinos](/wiki/Damaskinos_of_Athens "Damaskinos of Athens"), and [King Paul of Greece](/wiki/Paul_of_Greece "Paul of Greece") served as *[koumbaros](/wiki/Participants_in_wedding_ceremonies%23Groomsmen "Participants in wedding ceremonies#Groomsmen")*. Guests at the wedding included: Michael's mother [Helen, Queen Mother of Romania](/wiki/Helen_of_Greece_and_Denmark "Helen of Greece and Denmark"), aunts [Queen Frederica](/wiki/Frederica_of_Hanover "Frederica of Hanover"), [Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark, Duchess of Aosta](/wiki/Princess_Irene%2C_Duchess_of_Aosta "Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta"), [Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark](/wiki/Princess_Katherine_of_Greece_and_Denmark "Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark"); cousins [Alexandra, Queen Consort of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Alexandra_of_Yugoslavia "Alexandra of Yugoslavia"), [Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Prince_Amedeo%2C_Duke_of_Aosta_%28b._1943%29 "Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta (b. 1943)"), [Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark](/wiki/Queen_Sof%C3%ADa_of_Spain "Queen Sofía of Spain"), [Crown Prince Constantine of Greece](/wiki/Constantine_II_of_Greece "Constantine II of Greece") and [Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark](/wiki/Princess_Irene_of_Greece_and_Denmark "Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark"), the three youngest ones serving as bridesmaids and pageboy; Anne's maternal uncle [Prince Erik of Denmark](/wiki/Count_Erik_of_Rosenborg "Count Erik of Rosenborg"); [Princess Nicholas of Greece and Denmark](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Elena_Vladimirovna_of_Russia "Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia"), [Princess Olga of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Princess_Olga_of_Yugoslavia "Princess Olga of Yugoslavia"), [Princess Elizabeth of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Princess_Elizabeth_of_Yugoslavia "Princess Elizabeth of Yugoslavia"), [Prince George William of Hanover](/wiki/Prince_George_William_of_Hanover_%281915%E2%80%932006%29 "Prince George William of Hanover (1915–2006)") and many other dignitaries. Michael's father, [Prince Carol](/wiki/Carol_II_of_Romania "Carol II of Romania"), and his sisters, [Maria, Queen Mother of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Maria_of_Yugoslavia "Maria of Yugoslavia"), [Princess Elisabeth of Romania](/wiki/Princess_Elisabeth_of_Romania "Princess Elisabeth of Romania") (ex\-Queen Consort of Greece) and [Princess Ileana of Romania](/wiki/Princess_Ileana_of_Romania "Princess Ileana of Romania") were notified, but not invited.{{Why\|date\=March 2016}}
As no papal dispensation was given for the marriage, when it was celebrated according to the rites of the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church"), it was deemed invalid by the Roman Catholic Church, but perfectly legal by every other authority. The couple eventually took part in a religious ceremony again, on 9 November 1966, at the Roman Catholic Church of St Charles in [Monaco](/wiki/Monaco "Monaco"), thus satisfying Roman Catholic canon law.
|
[
"Marriage\n--------",
"### Engagement",
"In November 1947, Anne met [Michael I of Romania](/wiki/Michael_I_of_Romania \"Michael I of Romania\"), who was visiting London for the [wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten](/wiki/Wedding_of_Princess_Elizabeth_and_Philip_Mountbatten \"Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://jg\\-tc.com/news/world/anne\\-of\\-romania\\-wife\\-of\\-king\\-michael\\-dies\\-at/article\\_c0de09c0\\-a3ff\\-5210\\-8bbb\\-0089f3e3dc7e.html\\|title\\=Anne of Romania, wife of King Michael, dies at 92\\|last\\=Mutler\\|first\\=Alison\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-02\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20160801152644/http://jg\\-tc.com/news/world/anne\\-of\\-romania\\-wife\\-of\\-king\\-michael\\-dies\\-at/article\\_c0de09c0\\-a3ff\\-5210\\-8bbb\\-0089f3e3dc7e.html\\|archive\\-date\\=1 August 2016\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} A year earlier, [Queen Mother Helen](/wiki/Helen_of_Greece_and_Denmark \"Helen of Greece and Denmark\") had invited Anne, her mother, and brothers for a visit to [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest \"Bucharest\"), but the plan did not come off.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Eilers\\-Koenig\\|first\\=Marlene\\|title\\=The Marriage of King Michael and Queen Anne of Romania\\|journal\\=European Royal History Journal\\|volume\\=11\\.3\\|issue\\=LXIII\\|pages\\=3–10\\|publisher\\=Arturo E. Beeche\\|year\\=2008}} Meanwhile, Michael had glimpsed Anne in a [newsreel](/wiki/Newsreel \"Newsreel\") and requested a photograph from the film footage.",
"Anne did not want to accompany her parents to London for the royal wedding as she wished to avoid meeting King Michael in official surroundings. Instead, she planned to stay behind, go alone to the Paris railway station and, pretending to be a passerby in the crowd, privately observe the king as his entourage escorted him to his London\\-bound train. However, at the last moment she was persuaded by her first cousin, [Prince Jean of Luxembourg](/wiki/Jean%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\"), to come to London, where he planned to host a party. Upon arrival in London, she stopped by [Claridge's](/wiki/Claridge%27s \"Claridge's\") to see her parents, and found herself being introduced unexpectedly to King Michael. Abashed to the point of confusion, she [clicked her heels](/wiki/Salute \"Salute\") instead of [curtseying](/wiki/Curtsey \"Curtsey\"), and fled in embarrassment. Charmed, the king saw her again the night of the wedding at the Luxembourg embassy *soirée*, confided in her some of his concerns about the Communist takeover of Romania and fears for his mother's safety, and nicknamed her *Nan*. They saw each other several times thereafter on outings in London, always [chaperoned](/wiki/Chaperone_%28social%29 \"Chaperone (social)\") by her mother or brother.",
"A few days later, Anne accepted an invitation to accompany Michael and his mother when he piloted a [Beechcraft](/wiki/Beechcraft \"Beechcraft\") aeroplane to take his aunt [Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta](/wiki/Princess_Irene%2C_Duchess_of_Aosta \"Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta\"), back home to [Lausanne](/wiki/Lausanne \"Lausanne\"). Sixteen days after meeting, Michael proposed to Anne while the couple were out on a drive in Lausanne. She initially declined, but later accepted after taking long walks and drives with him. Although Michael gave her an engagement ring a few days later, he felt obliged to refrain from a public announcement until he informed his government, despite the fact that the press besieged them in anticipation.",
"Michael returned to [Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania \"Kingdom of Romania\"), where he was told by the prime minister that a wedding announcement was not \"opportune\". Yet within days it was used as the government's public explanation for Michael's sudden [abdication](/wiki/Abdication \"Abdication\"), which according to royalty \"expert\" Marlene A. Eilers Koenig was in fact the king's [deposition](/wiki/Deposition_%28politics%29 \"Deposition (politics)\") by the [Communists](/wiki/Romanian_Communist_Party \"Romanian Communist Party\") on 30 December. Anne was unable to get further news of Michael until he left the country. They finally reunited in [Davos](/wiki/Davos \"Davos\") on 23 January 1948\\.",
"### Wedding",
"As a [Bourbon](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon \"House of Bourbon\"), Anne was bound by the [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law_%28Roman_Catholic_Church%29 \"Canon law (Roman Catholic Church)\") of the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\"), which required that she receive a [dispensation](/wiki/Dispensation_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Dispensation (Catholic Church)\") to marry a non\\-Catholic Christian (Michael was [Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\")). At the time, such a dispensation was normally only given if the non\\-Roman Catholic partner promised to allow the children of the marriage to be raised as Roman Catholics. Michael refused to make this promise since it would have violated Romania's monarchical constitution, and would be likely to have a detrimental impact upon any possible restoration. The [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See \"Holy See\") (which handled the matter directly since Michael was a member of a reigning dynasty) refused to grant the dispensation unless Michael made the required promise.",
"[Helen, Queen Mother of Romania](/wiki/Helen_of_Greece_and_Denmark \"Helen of Greece and Denmark\") and her sister [Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark, Duchess of Aosta](/wiki/Princess_Irene%2C_Duchess_of_Aosta \"Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta\") (an Orthodox married to a Catholic Prince) met with the fiancée's parents in Paris, where the two families resolved to take their case to the [Vatican](/wiki/Vatican_City \"Vatican City\") in person. In early March, the couple's mothers met with [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pius_XII \"Pius XII\") who, despite the entreaties of the Queen Mother and the fact that [Princess Margrethe](/wiki/Princess_Margrethe_of_Denmark \"Princess Margrethe of Denmark\") pounded her fist on the table in anger, refused permission for Anne to marry Michael.",
"It has been surmised that the Pope's refusal was, in part, motivated by the fact that when [Princess Giovanna of Italy](/wiki/Giovanna_of_Italy \"Giovanna of Italy\") married Anne's cousin, [Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria](/wiki/Boris_III_of_Bulgaria \"Boris III of Bulgaria\"), in 1930, the couple had undertaken to raise their future children as Roman Catholics, but had [baptized](/wiki/Baptism \"Baptism\") them in the Orthodox faith in deference to Bulgaria's state religion. However, Michael declined to make a promise he could not keep politically, while Anne's mother was herself the daughter of a [mixed marriage](/wiki/Interfaith_marriage \"Interfaith marriage\") between a Catholic ([Marie d'Orléans](/wiki/Princess_Marie_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_%281865%E2%80%931909%29 \"Princess Marie of Orléans (1865–1909)\")) and a [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") ([Prince Valdemar of Denmark](/wiki/Prince_Valdemar_of_Denmark \"Prince Valdemar of Denmark\")), who had abided by their pre\\-[ne temere](/wiki/Ne_temere \"Ne temere\") [compromise](/wiki/Compromise \"Compromise\") to raise their sons as Protestant and their daughter, Margrethe, as Catholic.",
"Although under a great deal of stress, the engaged couple resolved to proceed. Anne's paternal uncle, [Xavier, Duke of Parma](/wiki/Xavier%2C_Duke_of_Parma \"Xavier, Duke of Parma\"), issued a statement objecting to any marriage conducted against the will of the Pope and the bride's family. It was he, not the [Pontiff](/wiki/Pontiff \"Pontiff\"), who forbade her parents to attend the wedding. Michael's spokesman declared on 9 June that the parents had been asked and had given their consent, and that the bride's family would be represented at the [nuptials](/wiki/Nuptials \"Nuptials\") by her maternal uncle, the Protestant [Prince Erik of Denmark](/wiki/Count_Erik_of_Rosenborg \"Count Erik of Rosenborg\"), who was to give the bride away.",
"The wedding ceremony was held on 10 June 1948 in Athens, Greece, in the throne room of the Royal Palace; the ceremony was performed by [Archbishop Damaskinos](/wiki/Damaskinos_of_Athens \"Damaskinos of Athens\"), and [King Paul of Greece](/wiki/Paul_of_Greece \"Paul of Greece\") served as *[koumbaros](/wiki/Participants_in_wedding_ceremonies%23Groomsmen \"Participants in wedding ceremonies#Groomsmen\")*. Guests at the wedding included: Michael's mother [Helen, Queen Mother of Romania](/wiki/Helen_of_Greece_and_Denmark \"Helen of Greece and Denmark\"), aunts [Queen Frederica](/wiki/Frederica_of_Hanover \"Frederica of Hanover\"), [Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark, Duchess of Aosta](/wiki/Princess_Irene%2C_Duchess_of_Aosta \"Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta\"), [Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark](/wiki/Princess_Katherine_of_Greece_and_Denmark \"Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark\"); cousins [Alexandra, Queen Consort of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Alexandra_of_Yugoslavia \"Alexandra of Yugoslavia\"), [Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Prince_Amedeo%2C_Duke_of_Aosta_%28b._1943%29 \"Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta (b. 1943)\"), [Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark](/wiki/Queen_Sof%C3%ADa_of_Spain \"Queen Sofía of Spain\"), [Crown Prince Constantine of Greece](/wiki/Constantine_II_of_Greece \"Constantine II of Greece\") and [Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark](/wiki/Princess_Irene_of_Greece_and_Denmark \"Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark\"), the three youngest ones serving as bridesmaids and pageboy; Anne's maternal uncle [Prince Erik of Denmark](/wiki/Count_Erik_of_Rosenborg \"Count Erik of Rosenborg\"); [Princess Nicholas of Greece and Denmark](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Elena_Vladimirovna_of_Russia \"Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia\"), [Princess Olga of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Princess_Olga_of_Yugoslavia \"Princess Olga of Yugoslavia\"), [Princess Elizabeth of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Princess_Elizabeth_of_Yugoslavia \"Princess Elizabeth of Yugoslavia\"), [Prince George William of Hanover](/wiki/Prince_George_William_of_Hanover_%281915%E2%80%932006%29 \"Prince George William of Hanover (1915–2006)\") and many other dignitaries. Michael's father, [Prince Carol](/wiki/Carol_II_of_Romania \"Carol II of Romania\"), and his sisters, [Maria, Queen Mother of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Maria_of_Yugoslavia \"Maria of Yugoslavia\"), [Princess Elisabeth of Romania](/wiki/Princess_Elisabeth_of_Romania \"Princess Elisabeth of Romania\") (ex\\-Queen Consort of Greece) and [Princess Ileana of Romania](/wiki/Princess_Ileana_of_Romania \"Princess Ileana of Romania\") were notified, but not invited.{{Why\\|date\\=March 2016}}",
"As no papal dispensation was given for the marriage, when it was celebrated according to the rites of the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\"), it was deemed invalid by the Roman Catholic Church, but perfectly legal by every other authority. The couple eventually took part in a religious ceremony again, on 9 November 1966, at the Roman Catholic Church of St Charles in [Monaco](/wiki/Monaco \"Monaco\"), thus satisfying Roman Catholic canon law.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Michaelson was born in 1903 in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"), [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"). He studied [ophthalmology](/wiki/Ophthalmology "Ophthalmology") at the [University of Glasgow](/wiki/University_of_Glasgow "University of Glasgow") and the [University of Edinburgh](/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh "University of Edinburgh"), graduating in 1927\.
The development of the retina was the basis of much of his research and of many of his publications.British Journal of Ophthalmology, 1984 January; 68(1\): 1 Michaelson worked as a pathologist in an eye disease hospital in Glasgow and served as a lecturer at the University of Glasgow.
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), he was an advisor to the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") on ophthalmology and served in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt").
In 1948, he completed his doctorate and emigrated with his family to [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel"). He was initially an advisor to the [Israel Defense Forces](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") and worked as an eye surgeon.
In 1949, Michaelson was named director of department of ophthalmology at [Rambam Hospital](/wiki/Rambam_Hospital "Rambam Hospital"), [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa "Haifa") and, in 1954, became director of the department of ophthalmology at [Hadassah University Hospital](/wiki/Hadassah_Hospital "Hadassah Hospital") in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"), which subsequently became, under his management, the Ophthalmology Research Center. He was also appointed as a professor at the medical school of the [Hebrew University of Jerusalem](/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem "Hebrew University of Jerusalem").
Much of Michaelson's work was to assist developing countries, particularly in Africa, and in 1971 he initiated the International Conference on the Prevention of Blindness. After his retirement from Hadassah Hospital in 1973, he acted in blind rehabilitation.
He established the Jerusalem Institute for the Prevention of Blindness.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Michaelson was born in 1903 in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"), [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"). He studied [ophthalmology](/wiki/Ophthalmology \"Ophthalmology\") at the [University of Glasgow](/wiki/University_of_Glasgow \"University of Glasgow\") and the [University of Edinburgh](/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh \"University of Edinburgh\"), graduating in 1927\\.",
"The development of the retina was the basis of much of his research and of many of his publications.British Journal of Ophthalmology, 1984 January; 68(1\\): 1 Michaelson worked as a pathologist in an eye disease hospital in Glasgow and served as a lecturer at the University of Glasgow.",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), he was an advisor to the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") on ophthalmology and served in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\").",
"In 1948, he completed his doctorate and emigrated with his family to [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\"). He was initially an advisor to the [Israel Defense Forces](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces \"Israel Defense Forces\") and worked as an eye surgeon.",
"In 1949, Michaelson was named director of department of ophthalmology at [Rambam Hospital](/wiki/Rambam_Hospital \"Rambam Hospital\"), [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa \"Haifa\") and, in 1954, became director of the department of ophthalmology at [Hadassah University Hospital](/wiki/Hadassah_Hospital \"Hadassah Hospital\") in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\"), which subsequently became, under his management, the Ophthalmology Research Center. He was also appointed as a professor at the medical school of the [Hebrew University of Jerusalem](/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem \"Hebrew University of Jerusalem\").",
"Much of Michaelson's work was to assist developing countries, particularly in Africa, and in 1971 he initiated the International Conference on the Prevention of Blindness. After his retirement from Hadassah Hospital in 1973, he acted in blind rehabilitation.",
"He established the Jerusalem Institute for the Prevention of Blindness.",
""
] |
Recognition
-----------
Calum was awarded the [British Empire Medal](/wiki/British_Empire_Medal "British Empire Medal") "for maintaining supplies to the Rona light". The citation could not say for constructing a road which had been the subject of conflict with the authorities for twenty years.
*Calum's Road* has been commemorated in music by [Capercaillie](/wiki/Capercaillie_%28band%29 "Capercaillie (band)") on their 1988 album *[The Blood is Strong](/wiki/The_Blood_is_Strong "The Blood is Strong")* and in a book by [Roger Hutchinson](/wiki/Roger_Hutchinson_%28writer%29 "Roger Hutchinson (writer)").[Capercailie website](http://www.capercaillie.co.uk/discography/releases/blood/) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061127021959/http://www.capercaillie.co.uk/discography/releases/blood/ \|date\=27 November 2006 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nigelgatherer.com/tunes/whistle/whi2/calum.html \|title\=Calum's Road chord sequence \|publisher\=Nigelgatherer.com \|date\= \|accessdate\=6 January 2014}} A major film was also planned with the rights to the book having been bought by [HandMade Films](/wiki/HandMade_Films "HandMade Films") with the intention of producing the film in partnership with UK Made Films{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ukmadefilms.com/ \|title\=Welcome to UK Made Films – Home \|publisher\=Ukmadefilms.com \|date\= \|accessdate\=6 January 2014}} and with a screenplay written by the Scottish writer [Colin MacDonald](/wiki/Colin_MacDonald_%28writer%29 "Colin MacDonald (writer)"). These plans however have not come to fruition.
A cairn beside his road near Brochel Castle commemorates Calum's achievements. It is inscribed in [Gaelic](/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") and then English. This cairn was built by Donald John Graham of Portree, Skye.
A song on Scottish band [Runrig](/wiki/Runrig "Runrig")'s eleventh studio album *[The Stamping Ground](/wiki/The_Stamping_Ground "The Stamping Ground")*, entitled "Wall of China/One Man" was inspired by Calum's story.
A play *Calum's Road* was adapted by [David Harrower](/wiki/David_Harrower "David Harrower") from [Roger Hutchinson](/wiki/Roger_Hutchinson_%28writer%29 "Roger Hutchinson (writer)")'s book. Produced by the [National Theatre of Scotland](/wiki/National_Theatre_of_Scotland "National Theatre of Scotland") and Communicado Theatre Company, directed by Gerry Mulgrew, it toured Scotland in Autumn 2011 and in the Summer of 2013\. *Calum's Road*, a radio play written by [Colin MacDonald](/wiki/Colin_MacDonald_%28writer%29 "Colin MacDonald (writer)") and starring [Ian McDiarmid](/wiki/Ian_McDiarmid "Ian McDiarmid"), was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in October 2013\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03c2417 \|title\=BBC Radio 4 – Saturday Drama, Calum's Road \|publisher\=Bbc.co.uk \|date\=5 October 2013 \|accessdate\=6 January 2014}} Gillian Reynolds, in the Daily Telegraph, described it as "a story to inspire".
A dance "Calum's Road" was choreographed by British circle dancer Cindy Kelly, and it is regularly done by circle dance groups worldwide.
|
[
"Recognition\n-----------",
"Calum was awarded the [British Empire Medal](/wiki/British_Empire_Medal \"British Empire Medal\") \"for maintaining supplies to the Rona light\". The citation could not say for constructing a road which had been the subject of conflict with the authorities for twenty years.",
"*Calum's Road* has been commemorated in music by [Capercaillie](/wiki/Capercaillie_%28band%29 \"Capercaillie (band)\") on their 1988 album *[The Blood is Strong](/wiki/The_Blood_is_Strong \"The Blood is Strong\")* and in a book by [Roger Hutchinson](/wiki/Roger_Hutchinson_%28writer%29 \"Roger Hutchinson (writer)\").[Capercailie website](http://www.capercaillie.co.uk/discography/releases/blood/) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061127021959/http://www.capercaillie.co.uk/discography/releases/blood/ \\|date\\=27 November 2006 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nigelgatherer.com/tunes/whistle/whi2/calum.html \\|title\\=Calum's Road chord sequence \\|publisher\\=Nigelgatherer.com \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=6 January 2014}} A major film was also planned with the rights to the book having been bought by [HandMade Films](/wiki/HandMade_Films \"HandMade Films\") with the intention of producing the film in partnership with UK Made Films{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ukmadefilms.com/ \\|title\\=Welcome to UK Made Films – Home \\|publisher\\=Ukmadefilms.com \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=6 January 2014}} and with a screenplay written by the Scottish writer [Colin MacDonald](/wiki/Colin_MacDonald_%28writer%29 \"Colin MacDonald (writer)\"). These plans however have not come to fruition.",
"A cairn beside his road near Brochel Castle commemorates Calum's achievements. It is inscribed in [Gaelic](/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic \"Scottish Gaelic\") and then English. This cairn was built by Donald John Graham of Portree, Skye.",
"A song on Scottish band [Runrig](/wiki/Runrig \"Runrig\")'s eleventh studio album *[The Stamping Ground](/wiki/The_Stamping_Ground \"The Stamping Ground\")*, entitled \"Wall of China/One Man\" was inspired by Calum's story.",
"A play *Calum's Road* was adapted by [David Harrower](/wiki/David_Harrower \"David Harrower\") from [Roger Hutchinson](/wiki/Roger_Hutchinson_%28writer%29 \"Roger Hutchinson (writer)\")'s book. Produced by the [National Theatre of Scotland](/wiki/National_Theatre_of_Scotland \"National Theatre of Scotland\") and Communicado Theatre Company, directed by Gerry Mulgrew, it toured Scotland in Autumn 2011 and in the Summer of 2013\\. *Calum's Road*, a radio play written by [Colin MacDonald](/wiki/Colin_MacDonald_%28writer%29 \"Colin MacDonald (writer)\") and starring [Ian McDiarmid](/wiki/Ian_McDiarmid \"Ian McDiarmid\"), was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in October 2013\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03c2417 \\|title\\=BBC Radio 4 – Saturday Drama, Calum's Road \\|publisher\\=Bbc.co.uk \\|date\\=5 October 2013 \\|accessdate\\=6 January 2014}} Gillian Reynolds, in the Daily Telegraph, described it as \"a story to inspire\".",
"A dance \"Calum's Road\" was choreographed by British circle dancer Cindy Kelly, and it is regularly done by circle dance groups worldwide.",
""
] |
Season synopses
---------------
### Season One
Premiering on January 6, 2010, the show introduces Allan Hawco as Jake Doyle and Sean McGinley as Mal Doyle as a father and son pair of private investigators. The debut show also reveals relationship complications with Jake and his ex\-wife Nikki and his new infatuation: Leslie, a constable in the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary. While Jake tries to improve his relationship with Leslie, he discovers he may have impregnated his ex\-wife, but soon discovers the positive pregnancy test he found in her garbage can did not belong to her. After he realizes he is free from the burden of having to deal with child\-support, his relationship with Leslie develops as Nikki's relationship with her new boyfriend grows. However, Leslie soon begins to doubt whether her relationship with Jake will prove beneficial in the future. As Jake finalizes his divorce with Nikki, his relationship status with Leslie improves to good friends. Yet Leslie's focus quickly shifts to her new title as Sergeant after being promoted to the position. Jake realizes he has other problems too; his mischievous older brother, Christian, makes an unexpected visit to his house, greeting him in the kitchen. After Christian offends Jake, their relationship swiftly intensifies. The last episode of the season shows the characters’ struggle to keep their republic strong as their relationships fall apart."List of Republic of Doyle Episodes." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, February 13, 2014\. Web. February 17, 2014\.
### Season Two
Season Two begins with Rose, Mal's partner, dealing with the consequences of his recent heart attack. Meanwhile, Jake and Leslie take initiatives to move past the hiccups in their relationship and move on from one another. Tinny, Jake's niece, embarks on an investment in order to raise personal funds, meanwhile, Mal discovers a secret that Rose has kept from him; her mother stole her engagement ring. Jake learns what Leslie sees their relationship as. As the season progresses, so does Tinny's income business along with the amount of friends she makes. Jake as well as the viewers are introduced to Allison, the crown attorney. Meanwhile, Mal and Rose experience issues in their marriage but are quickly able to recover and move forward. As Mal's relationship with Rose strengthens, so does Jake's relationship with Allison when they move past the boundaries of friendship. Des, an admirer of Tinny yet an enemy of Jake, exploits Tinny's business yet saves it in the process. Adding to the drama, Jake finds himself bailing his delinquent brother out of jail and finds himself dealing with issues concerning money. Like all his previous relationships, Jake mis\-manages to maintain his relationship with Allison. When Jake receives a new job offer, his relationship with her struggles even further. Meanwhile, the relationship of Des and Tinny becomes more intimate. After further complications with Allison, they separate.
### Season Three
In the opening episode of Season Three, the viewers are informed that Tinny travels to London. However, it is revealed by Des that her trip did not go smoothly but Des promises to keep this a secret. Jake finds himself interacting with Nikki again by doing a favor of which he is not fond. Jake struggles to avoid Nikki and win back the unimpressed Leslie. Rose gets in trouble with the police for carrying a gun. Tinny is bothered by the quickly growing relationship between Des and Chandra, a university student of medicine. Jake's sister Kathleen, a newly introduced character, is helped with her mothering issues by Rose. The two begin to progress in their friendship. Des finds himself in a precarious position—choosing between Tinny and Chandra. He decides to break up with Chandra and pursue a romance with Tinny. Kathleen faces parenting issues at home. Des attempts to impress Jake by helping him in an investigation using his various connections, while Allison{{clarify\|date\=March 2021\|Who should this be; Allison did not appear in season three}} jeopardizes the safety of the Doyle household with a mistake from her past. Mal becomes tied up in complications with his former wife while Tinny obsesses over her death and Kathleen experiences troubles in their relations as a result of a poor decision in Kathleen's history. George, an unappreciated individual in the Republic, bothers Kathleen by scamming her, but Jake comes to the rescue and saves her from his tricks. The season ends with Tinny discovering the identity of her father, which is not revealed to the viewers.
### Season Four
The season kicks off with relatives from Ireland paying the Doyles a visit a bringing some drama along with them. As in the previous season, Tinny still tries to unravel hidden secrets about her dad and succeeds in doing so; she discovers her mother, Kathleen conceived her with a current prisoner, Kevin Crocker. Tinny attempts to associate with Crocker by revealing her true identity as his daughter. Jake tries to redefine his relationship with Leslie by reintroducing her into his world, and by doing so, he is able to once again gain her trust, as well as her affection. However; disaster strikes and Jake searches for the missing Leslie, who disappeared as a result of working a precarious case. Jake soon comes to the rescue, and saves Leslie from her kidnapper. Soon after the major incident, Leslie is hit by personal issues regarding family: her father dies. Meanwhile, Tinny's relations with Crocker grow and Jake is troubled by the fact that Tinny is spending so much time with the con. Jake takes another hit after being kidnapped as his kidnapper nearly takes his life by burning him to death. After being hit by a car in a parking garage, the medication used to mend Jake's injuries from the incident, gives him some peculiar dreams. The season comes to an end with Crocker and Jake being forced to collaborate in order to save the kidnapped Tinny.
### Season Five
After the wild adventure Jake took in the previous season by saving Tinny, his rescue mission leads to his kidnapping. The Doyles have been anxiously searching for him for the past two months and Tinny risks her career as a police officer and becomes unprofessional by involving her personal life in her police work and helping Jake. As a result, Tinny gets suspended. Meanwhile, Des overcomes his sorrow over losing Tinny. Jake experiences more complications in returning to St. John's, but eventually makes it home safe with the help of his niece. Jake and Leslie's relationship improves up. When Leslie is being followed and nearly gets shot, Jake is extremely worried for her safety but soon finds out her pursuer is actually her long\-lost husband. Jake and Leslie try but fail to smooth their relationship with the shocking news. Leslie and Jake are finally forced to define their relationship and decide not to see each other due to the recent complications, even after Jake confesses his love. After Des hooks up with a troubled young woman, Sloan, he must avoid Tinny. Jake finds it hard to avoid Leslie when he gets tied up in her ex\-husband's business. Meanwhile, Tinny gets the chance of her career on a big case. To make matters worse for Jake, Nikki pays him a visit. The season ends with Jake being tried and arrested for murder but is then kidnapped by one of Leslie's pursuers; the kidnapper forces Jake to make several unwarranted missions.
### Season Six
After being accused of murder, Jake must confront his enemies as he comes to terms with what happened to Leslie and try to clear his own name in the process. Leslie goes back to work a couple episodes in, but with conditions, and she must meet with the force therapist. Sloan gets into trouble and Jake must bail her out by making a deal with Vick Saul. Even though she was not cleared by her therapist after having a panic attack on duty, Leslie lends a hand to the Doyle clan to try and clear Jake's name before it is too late. When Leslie's past disobedience on the force comes to light, she must work harder than ever to save her job. Jake's murder conviction comes front and centre as the season comes to a final close with all the Doyle family trying to clear his name."List of Republic of Doyle episodes" Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation Sunday June 21, 2015"Republic of Doyle episode list" IMDB Sunday June 21, 2015
|
[
"Season synopses\n---------------",
"### Season One",
"Premiering on January 6, 2010, the show introduces Allan Hawco as Jake Doyle and Sean McGinley as Mal Doyle as a father and son pair of private investigators. The debut show also reveals relationship complications with Jake and his ex\\-wife Nikki and his new infatuation: Leslie, a constable in the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary. While Jake tries to improve his relationship with Leslie, he discovers he may have impregnated his ex\\-wife, but soon discovers the positive pregnancy test he found in her garbage can did not belong to her. After he realizes he is free from the burden of having to deal with child\\-support, his relationship with Leslie develops as Nikki's relationship with her new boyfriend grows. However, Leslie soon begins to doubt whether her relationship with Jake will prove beneficial in the future. As Jake finalizes his divorce with Nikki, his relationship status with Leslie improves to good friends. Yet Leslie's focus quickly shifts to her new title as Sergeant after being promoted to the position. Jake realizes he has other problems too; his mischievous older brother, Christian, makes an unexpected visit to his house, greeting him in the kitchen. After Christian offends Jake, their relationship swiftly intensifies. The last episode of the season shows the characters’ struggle to keep their republic strong as their relationships fall apart.\"List of Republic of Doyle Episodes.\" Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, February 13, 2014\\. Web. February 17, 2014\\.",
"### Season Two",
"Season Two begins with Rose, Mal's partner, dealing with the consequences of his recent heart attack. Meanwhile, Jake and Leslie take initiatives to move past the hiccups in their relationship and move on from one another. Tinny, Jake's niece, embarks on an investment in order to raise personal funds, meanwhile, Mal discovers a secret that Rose has kept from him; her mother stole her engagement ring. Jake learns what Leslie sees their relationship as. As the season progresses, so does Tinny's income business along with the amount of friends she makes. Jake as well as the viewers are introduced to Allison, the crown attorney. Meanwhile, Mal and Rose experience issues in their marriage but are quickly able to recover and move forward. As Mal's relationship with Rose strengthens, so does Jake's relationship with Allison when they move past the boundaries of friendship. Des, an admirer of Tinny yet an enemy of Jake, exploits Tinny's business yet saves it in the process. Adding to the drama, Jake finds himself bailing his delinquent brother out of jail and finds himself dealing with issues concerning money. Like all his previous relationships, Jake mis\\-manages to maintain his relationship with Allison. When Jake receives a new job offer, his relationship with her struggles even further. Meanwhile, the relationship of Des and Tinny becomes more intimate. After further complications with Allison, they separate.",
"### Season Three",
"In the opening episode of Season Three, the viewers are informed that Tinny travels to London. However, it is revealed by Des that her trip did not go smoothly but Des promises to keep this a secret. Jake finds himself interacting with Nikki again by doing a favor of which he is not fond. Jake struggles to avoid Nikki and win back the unimpressed Leslie. Rose gets in trouble with the police for carrying a gun. Tinny is bothered by the quickly growing relationship between Des and Chandra, a university student of medicine. Jake's sister Kathleen, a newly introduced character, is helped with her mothering issues by Rose. The two begin to progress in their friendship. Des finds himself in a precarious position—choosing between Tinny and Chandra. He decides to break up with Chandra and pursue a romance with Tinny. Kathleen faces parenting issues at home. Des attempts to impress Jake by helping him in an investigation using his various connections, while Allison{{clarify\\|date\\=March 2021\\|Who should this be; Allison did not appear in season three}} jeopardizes the safety of the Doyle household with a mistake from her past. Mal becomes tied up in complications with his former wife while Tinny obsesses over her death and Kathleen experiences troubles in their relations as a result of a poor decision in Kathleen's history. George, an unappreciated individual in the Republic, bothers Kathleen by scamming her, but Jake comes to the rescue and saves her from his tricks. The season ends with Tinny discovering the identity of her father, which is not revealed to the viewers.",
"### Season Four",
"The season kicks off with relatives from Ireland paying the Doyles a visit a bringing some drama along with them. As in the previous season, Tinny still tries to unravel hidden secrets about her dad and succeeds in doing so; she discovers her mother, Kathleen conceived her with a current prisoner, Kevin Crocker. Tinny attempts to associate with Crocker by revealing her true identity as his daughter. Jake tries to redefine his relationship with Leslie by reintroducing her into his world, and by doing so, he is able to once again gain her trust, as well as her affection. However; disaster strikes and Jake searches for the missing Leslie, who disappeared as a result of working a precarious case. Jake soon comes to the rescue, and saves Leslie from her kidnapper. Soon after the major incident, Leslie is hit by personal issues regarding family: her father dies. Meanwhile, Tinny's relations with Crocker grow and Jake is troubled by the fact that Tinny is spending so much time with the con. Jake takes another hit after being kidnapped as his kidnapper nearly takes his life by burning him to death. After being hit by a car in a parking garage, the medication used to mend Jake's injuries from the incident, gives him some peculiar dreams. The season comes to an end with Crocker and Jake being forced to collaborate in order to save the kidnapped Tinny.",
"### Season Five",
"After the wild adventure Jake took in the previous season by saving Tinny, his rescue mission leads to his kidnapping. The Doyles have been anxiously searching for him for the past two months and Tinny risks her career as a police officer and becomes unprofessional by involving her personal life in her police work and helping Jake. As a result, Tinny gets suspended. Meanwhile, Des overcomes his sorrow over losing Tinny. Jake experiences more complications in returning to St. John's, but eventually makes it home safe with the help of his niece. Jake and Leslie's relationship improves up. When Leslie is being followed and nearly gets shot, Jake is extremely worried for her safety but soon finds out her pursuer is actually her long\\-lost husband. Jake and Leslie try but fail to smooth their relationship with the shocking news. Leslie and Jake are finally forced to define their relationship and decide not to see each other due to the recent complications, even after Jake confesses his love. After Des hooks up with a troubled young woman, Sloan, he must avoid Tinny. Jake finds it hard to avoid Leslie when he gets tied up in her ex\\-husband's business. Meanwhile, Tinny gets the chance of her career on a big case. To make matters worse for Jake, Nikki pays him a visit. The season ends with Jake being tried and arrested for murder but is then kidnapped by one of Leslie's pursuers; the kidnapper forces Jake to make several unwarranted missions.",
"### Season Six",
"After being accused of murder, Jake must confront his enemies as he comes to terms with what happened to Leslie and try to clear his own name in the process. Leslie goes back to work a couple episodes in, but with conditions, and she must meet with the force therapist. Sloan gets into trouble and Jake must bail her out by making a deal with Vick Saul. Even though she was not cleared by her therapist after having a panic attack on duty, Leslie lends a hand to the Doyle clan to try and clear Jake's name before it is too late. When Leslie's past disobedience on the force comes to light, she must work harder than ever to save her job. Jake's murder conviction comes front and centre as the season comes to a final close with all the Doyle family trying to clear his name.\"List of Republic of Doyle episodes\" Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation Sunday June 21, 2015\"Republic of Doyle episode list\" IMDB Sunday June 21, 2015",
""
] |
History
-------
In 2007, while playing with [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock "Indie rock") group [The Box Social](/wiki/The_Box_Social "The Box Social"), Nick Woods had the idea to start a pop punk band that would release music "like comic books," favoring the rapid and consistent release of short [EPs](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play") over the slow and sporadic traditional approach of [full\-length records](/wiki/LP_record "LP record"). From 2008\-2010, Direct Hit! released a series of five EPs for free online in addition to a split 7\-inch with the band Mixtapes before signing to Kind of Like Records.
In 2011, Direct Hit! released *Domesplitter*, their debut full\-length which collected ten re\-recorded fan favorites from their previous releases.
From 2011 to 2013, the band released five more splits before returning to the studio to record their second full\-length record, a concept album titled *Brainless God*, released by [Red Scare Industries](/wiki/Red_Scare_Industries "Red Scare Industries"). Described as a document of "the final days of a world staring down total [nuclear Armageddon](/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust "Nuclear holocaust")," the album follows a serial killer and his would\-be victim as the two escape a [Satanic](/wiki/Satanism "Satanism") [cult](/wiki/Cult "Cult") while trying to find truth and redemption before [Armageddon](/wiki/Armageddon "Armageddon").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.punknews.org/review/12162/direct\-hit\-brainless\-god \|title\=Direct Hit! \- Brainless God \|website\=Punknews.org \|date\=2013\-09\-09 \|accessdate\=2016\-05\-13}} Bass tracks on the album were recorded with studio musicians Mike Kennerty and Peter J. Woods, as bassist Robbie Schroeder was not replaced by Steve Maury until after *Brainless God* was recorded. The album was featured on Punk News's "Top 20 Records of the Year" list, where it was called "a finely tuned blast of tooth\-melting punk rock goodness."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.punknews.org/review/12314/best\-of\-2013\-punknewsorgs\-picks \|title\=Best of 2013 \- Punknews.org's picks \|website\=Punknews.org \|date\= \|accessdate\=2016\-05\-13}} [Alternative Press](/wiki/Alternative_Press_%28music_magazine%29 "Alternative Press (music magazine)") gave the album four out of five stars and described it as "just one great punk\-rock song after the next."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.altpress.com/reviews/entry/direct\_hit\_brainless\_god \|title\=Direct Hit! \- Brainless God \- Reviews \- Alternative Press \|website\=Altpress.com \|date\= \|accessdate\=2016\-05\-13}}
In cooperation with Red Scare Industries, Good Land Records, and Wall of Youth, Direct Hit! produced an album\-length short film in conjunction with the record.{{cite web\|last\=Ozzi \|first\=Dan \|url\=http://noisey.vice.com/blog/premiere\-watch\-act\-one\-of\-direct\-hits\-punk\-rock\-opera \|title\=Watch Act One of Direct Hit!'s Punk Rock Opera \| NOISEY \|website\=Noisey.vice.com \|date\=2013\-09\-03 \|accessdate\=2016\-05\-13}} The film was released in chapters across a number of news and media sites including [Vice](/wiki/Vice_%28magazine%29 "Vice (magazine)") and [The A.V. Club](/wiki/The_A.V._Club "The A.V. Club").{{cite web\|last\=Eakin \|first\=Marah \|url\=http://www.avclub.com/article/milwaukee\-poppunk\-band\-direct\-hit\-predicts\-the\-apo\-102715 \|title\=Milwaukee pop\-punk band Direct Hit predicts the apocalypse with its new video for "White Robes" · Great Job, Internet! \|website\=Avclub.com \|date\=2013\-09\-10 \|accessdate\=2016\-05\-13}}
In February 2014, Direct Hit! was featured as one of the "Top Ten Wisconsin Bands To Watch" by the [Milwaukee Journal Sentinel](/wiki/Milwaukee_Journal_Sentinel "Milwaukee Journal Sentinel").{{cite web\|last\=Levy \|first\=Piet \|url\=http://www.jsonline.com/entertainment/musicandnightlife/10\-wisconsin\-bands\-to\-watch\-direct\-hit\-b99191941z1\-243701331\.html \|title\=10 Wisconsin Bands to Watch: Direct Hit! \|website\=Jsonline.com \|date\=2014\-02\-05 \|accessdate\=2016\-05\-13}} In September 2014, Nick Woods was a guest on the television show *[Last Call with Carson Daly](/wiki/Last_Call_with_Carson_Daly "Last Call with Carson Daly")*, where he was interviewed about Direct Hit!.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hulu.com/watch/694130 \|title\=Watch Last Call with Carson Daly: Direct Hit! Online \| Hulu \|accessdate\=December 15, 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215092157/http://www.hulu.com/watch/694130 \|archivedate\=December 15, 2014 }} In November 2014, Woods wrote an article for [Vice](/wiki/Vice_%28magazine%29 "Vice (magazine)")'s [Noisey](/wiki/Noisey "Noisey"), detailing how Direct Hit! consistently tours without losing money.{{cite web\|last\=Woods \|first\=Nick \|url\=http://noisey.vice.com/blog/you\-dont\-have\-to\-lose\-money\-on\-tour \|title\=You Don't Have to Lose Money on Tour\|website\=Noisey.vice.com \|date\= \|accessdate\=2016\-05\-13}}
Direct Hit! have performed at venues such as [The Knitting Factory](/wiki/The_Knitting_Factory "The Knitting Factory"), [Bottom of the Hill](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_Hill "Bottom of the Hill"), [Webster Hall](/wiki/Webster_Hall "Webster Hall"), [Asbury Lanes](/wiki/Asbury_Lanes "Asbury Lanes"), [First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia](/wiki/First_Unitarian_Church_of_Philadelphia "First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia"), and festivals such as [Riot Fest](/wiki/Riot_Fest "Riot Fest"), [The Fest](/wiki/The_Fest "The Fest"), Pouzza Fest, [Summerfest](/wiki/Summerfest "Summerfest"), [Insub Fest](/wiki/Insub_Fest "Insub Fest"), and D4th of July.
They have toured with or opened for bands such as [Blink\-182](/wiki/Blink-182 "Blink-182"), [NOFX](/wiki/NOFX "NOFX"), [Rise Against](/wiki/Rise_Against "Rise Against"), [A Wilhelm Scream](/wiki/A_Wilhelm_Scream "A Wilhelm Scream"), [Dillinger Four](/wiki/Dillinger_Four "Dillinger Four"), [Good Riddance](/wiki/Good_Riddance_%28band%29 "Good Riddance (band)"), [The Suicide Machines](/wiki/The_Suicide_Machines "The Suicide Machines"), [Off With Their Heads](/wiki/Off_With_Their_Heads_%28band%29 "Off With Their Heads (band)"), [The Flatliners](/wiki/The_Flatliners "The Flatliners"), [Pears](/wiki/PEARS "PEARS"), Mixtapes, [Cheap Girls](/wiki/Cheap_Girls "Cheap Girls"), [Red City Radio](/wiki/Red_City_Radio "Red City Radio"), [Masked Intruder](/wiki/Masked_Intruder "Masked Intruder"), [Smoking Popes](/wiki/Smoking_Popes "Smoking Popes") and [Guerilla Poubelle](/wiki/Guerilla_Poubelle "Guerilla Poubelle").
In March 2016, the band announced they had signed to [Fat Wreck Chords](/wiki/Fat_Wreck_Chords "Fat Wreck Chords"), and their first studio album with the label, *Wasted Mind*, was released on June 24 of the same year.{{cite news\|last1\=Levy\|first1\=Piet\|title\=Direct Hit! lands Fat Wreck Chords deal for punk opus 'Wasted Mind'\|url\=http://www.jsonline.com/entertainment/musicandnightlife/direct\-hit\-lands\-fat\-wreck\-chords\-deal\-for\-punk\-opus\-wasted\-mind\-b99740351z1\-383170771\.html\|accessdate\=16 June 2016\|publisher\=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel\|date\=16 June 2016}}
After releasing its second LP with Fat Wreck in 2018, *Crown of Nothing*, Steve Maury and Danny Walkowiak parted with the band, with long\-time fill\-in drummer Logan Stang taking over for Walkowiak while Direct Hit returned to a rotating group of bass players, including Joram Zbichorski, Josh Goldman, and Jake Levinson. In late 2019, Joram Zbichorski became an official member as full time bass player.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 2007, while playing with [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock \"Indie rock\") group [The Box Social](/wiki/The_Box_Social \"The Box Social\"), Nick Woods had the idea to start a pop punk band that would release music \"like comic books,\" favoring the rapid and consistent release of short [EPs](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\") over the slow and sporadic traditional approach of [full\\-length records](/wiki/LP_record \"LP record\"). From 2008\\-2010, Direct Hit! released a series of five EPs for free online in addition to a split 7\\-inch with the band Mixtapes before signing to Kind of Like Records.",
"In 2011, Direct Hit! released *Domesplitter*, their debut full\\-length which collected ten re\\-recorded fan favorites from their previous releases.",
"From 2011 to 2013, the band released five more splits before returning to the studio to record their second full\\-length record, a concept album titled *Brainless God*, released by [Red Scare Industries](/wiki/Red_Scare_Industries \"Red Scare Industries\"). Described as a document of \"the final days of a world staring down total [nuclear Armageddon](/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust \"Nuclear holocaust\"),\" the album follows a serial killer and his would\\-be victim as the two escape a [Satanic](/wiki/Satanism \"Satanism\") [cult](/wiki/Cult \"Cult\") while trying to find truth and redemption before [Armageddon](/wiki/Armageddon \"Armageddon\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.punknews.org/review/12162/direct\\-hit\\-brainless\\-god \\|title\\=Direct Hit! \\- Brainless God \\|website\\=Punknews.org \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-09 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-13}} Bass tracks on the album were recorded with studio musicians Mike Kennerty and Peter J. Woods, as bassist Robbie Schroeder was not replaced by Steve Maury until after *Brainless God* was recorded. The album was featured on Punk News's \"Top 20 Records of the Year\" list, where it was called \"a finely tuned blast of tooth\\-melting punk rock goodness.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.punknews.org/review/12314/best\\-of\\-2013\\-punknewsorgs\\-picks \\|title\\=Best of 2013 \\- Punknews.org's picks \\|website\\=Punknews.org \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-13}} [Alternative Press](/wiki/Alternative_Press_%28music_magazine%29 \"Alternative Press (music magazine)\") gave the album four out of five stars and described it as \"just one great punk\\-rock song after the next.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.altpress.com/reviews/entry/direct\\_hit\\_brainless\\_god \\|title\\=Direct Hit! \\- Brainless God \\- Reviews \\- Alternative Press \\|website\\=Altpress.com \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-13}}",
"In cooperation with Red Scare Industries, Good Land Records, and Wall of Youth, Direct Hit! produced an album\\-length short film in conjunction with the record.{{cite web\\|last\\=Ozzi \\|first\\=Dan \\|url\\=http://noisey.vice.com/blog/premiere\\-watch\\-act\\-one\\-of\\-direct\\-hits\\-punk\\-rock\\-opera \\|title\\=Watch Act One of Direct Hit!'s Punk Rock Opera \\| NOISEY \\|website\\=Noisey.vice.com \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-03 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-13}} The film was released in chapters across a number of news and media sites including [Vice](/wiki/Vice_%28magazine%29 \"Vice (magazine)\") and [The A.V. Club](/wiki/The_A.V._Club \"The A.V. Club\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Eakin \\|first\\=Marah \\|url\\=http://www.avclub.com/article/milwaukee\\-poppunk\\-band\\-direct\\-hit\\-predicts\\-the\\-apo\\-102715 \\|title\\=Milwaukee pop\\-punk band Direct Hit predicts the apocalypse with its new video for \"White Robes\" · Great Job, Internet! \\|website\\=Avclub.com \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-10 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-13}}",
"In February 2014, Direct Hit! was featured as one of the \"Top Ten Wisconsin Bands To Watch\" by the [Milwaukee Journal Sentinel](/wiki/Milwaukee_Journal_Sentinel \"Milwaukee Journal Sentinel\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Levy \\|first\\=Piet \\|url\\=http://www.jsonline.com/entertainment/musicandnightlife/10\\-wisconsin\\-bands\\-to\\-watch\\-direct\\-hit\\-b99191941z1\\-243701331\\.html \\|title\\=10 Wisconsin Bands to Watch: Direct Hit! \\|website\\=Jsonline.com \\|date\\=2014\\-02\\-05 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-13}} In September 2014, Nick Woods was a guest on the television show *[Last Call with Carson Daly](/wiki/Last_Call_with_Carson_Daly \"Last Call with Carson Daly\")*, where he was interviewed about Direct Hit!.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hulu.com/watch/694130 \\|title\\=Watch Last Call with Carson Daly: Direct Hit! Online \\| Hulu \\|accessdate\\=December 15, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215092157/http://www.hulu.com/watch/694130 \\|archivedate\\=December 15, 2014 }} In November 2014, Woods wrote an article for [Vice](/wiki/Vice_%28magazine%29 \"Vice (magazine)\")'s [Noisey](/wiki/Noisey \"Noisey\"), detailing how Direct Hit! consistently tours without losing money.{{cite web\\|last\\=Woods \\|first\\=Nick \\|url\\=http://noisey.vice.com/blog/you\\-dont\\-have\\-to\\-lose\\-money\\-on\\-tour \\|title\\=You Don't Have to Lose Money on Tour\\|website\\=Noisey.vice.com \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-13}}",
"Direct Hit! have performed at venues such as [The Knitting Factory](/wiki/The_Knitting_Factory \"The Knitting Factory\"), [Bottom of the Hill](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_Hill \"Bottom of the Hill\"), [Webster Hall](/wiki/Webster_Hall \"Webster Hall\"), [Asbury Lanes](/wiki/Asbury_Lanes \"Asbury Lanes\"), [First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia](/wiki/First_Unitarian_Church_of_Philadelphia \"First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia\"), and festivals such as [Riot Fest](/wiki/Riot_Fest \"Riot Fest\"), [The Fest](/wiki/The_Fest \"The Fest\"), Pouzza Fest, [Summerfest](/wiki/Summerfest \"Summerfest\"), [Insub Fest](/wiki/Insub_Fest \"Insub Fest\"), and D4th of July.",
"They have toured with or opened for bands such as [Blink\\-182](/wiki/Blink-182 \"Blink-182\"), [NOFX](/wiki/NOFX \"NOFX\"), [Rise Against](/wiki/Rise_Against \"Rise Against\"), [A Wilhelm Scream](/wiki/A_Wilhelm_Scream \"A Wilhelm Scream\"), [Dillinger Four](/wiki/Dillinger_Four \"Dillinger Four\"), [Good Riddance](/wiki/Good_Riddance_%28band%29 \"Good Riddance (band)\"), [The Suicide Machines](/wiki/The_Suicide_Machines \"The Suicide Machines\"), [Off With Their Heads](/wiki/Off_With_Their_Heads_%28band%29 \"Off With Their Heads (band)\"), [The Flatliners](/wiki/The_Flatliners \"The Flatliners\"), [Pears](/wiki/PEARS \"PEARS\"), Mixtapes, [Cheap Girls](/wiki/Cheap_Girls \"Cheap Girls\"), [Red City Radio](/wiki/Red_City_Radio \"Red City Radio\"), [Masked Intruder](/wiki/Masked_Intruder \"Masked Intruder\"), [Smoking Popes](/wiki/Smoking_Popes \"Smoking Popes\") and [Guerilla Poubelle](/wiki/Guerilla_Poubelle \"Guerilla Poubelle\").",
"In March 2016, the band announced they had signed to [Fat Wreck Chords](/wiki/Fat_Wreck_Chords \"Fat Wreck Chords\"), and their first studio album with the label, *Wasted Mind*, was released on June 24 of the same year.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Levy\\|first1\\=Piet\\|title\\=Direct Hit! lands Fat Wreck Chords deal for punk opus 'Wasted Mind'\\|url\\=http://www.jsonline.com/entertainment/musicandnightlife/direct\\-hit\\-lands\\-fat\\-wreck\\-chords\\-deal\\-for\\-punk\\-opus\\-wasted\\-mind\\-b99740351z1\\-383170771\\.html\\|accessdate\\=16 June 2016\\|publisher\\=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel\\|date\\=16 June 2016}}",
"After releasing its second LP with Fat Wreck in 2018, *Crown of Nothing*, Steve Maury and Danny Walkowiak parted with the band, with long\\-time fill\\-in drummer Logan Stang taking over for Walkowiak while Direct Hit returned to a rotating group of bass players, including Joram Zbichorski, Josh Goldman, and Jake Levinson. In late 2019, Joram Zbichorski became an official member as full time bass player.",
""
] |
Controversies
-------------
James Barrington a former Executive Director of the League Against Cruel Sports who later became a consultant to the [Countryside Alliance](/wiki/Countryside_Alliance "Countryside Alliance") has alleged that mismanagement by the League on Baronsdown reserve has caused large outbreaks of [Bovine tuberculosis](/wiki/Bovine_tuberculosis "Bovine tuberculosis") in deer.{{Cite web\|author\=Barrington, James\|date\=2020\|title\=The Blindness of Zealots\|url\=https://countrysquire.co.uk/2020/06/27/the\-blindness\-of\-zealots/\|website\=Country Squire Magazine \|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=August 10, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810035217/https://countrysquire.co.uk/2020/06/27/the\-blindness\-of\-zealots/\|url\-status\=live}} He has criticized the League for its lack of [wildlife management](/wiki/Wildlife_management "Wildlife management").{{Cite web\|author\=Barrington, James\|date\=2023\|title\=Jim Barrington: Why are those opposed to hunting allowed to dodge awkward interrogations?\|url\=https://www.countryside\-alliance.org/resources/news/jim\-barrington\-why\-are\-those\-opposed\-to\-hunting\-c\|website\=Countryside Alliance\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=August 10, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810035215/https://www.countryside\-alliance.org/resources/news/jim\-barrington\-why\-are\-those\-opposed\-to\-hunting\-c\|url\-status\=live}} The League has denied the allegation. John Bryant a former Press Officer and Wildlife Research Officer commented that James Barrington met with leading members of the hunting fraternity without the knowledge of the League's Executive Committee. After Barrington resigned from the League over a claim of [constructive dismissal](/wiki/Constructive_dismissal "Constructive dismissal"), he accepted a settlement of £20,000 and became pro\-hunting.{{Cite web\|author\=Bryant, John\|date\=2011\|title\=James Barrington – Countryside Alliance ‘Animal Welfare Consultant’\|url\=https://www.wildlifeguardian.co.uk/blog/james\-barrington\-countryside\-alliance\-animal\-welfare\-consultant/\|website\=Wildlife Guardian\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=August 13, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240813195405/https://www.wildlifeguardian.co.uk/blog/james\-barrington\-countryside\-alliance\-animal\-welfare\-consultant/\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2019, it was reported that [saboteurs](/wiki/Hunt_sabotage "Hunt sabotage") have refused to co\-operate with the League after accusing them of using information they gained to promote themselves. Martin Sims, the League's Director of Investigations has been criticized by saboteurs for attending hunt fundraising events including a [point to point](/wiki/Point-to-point_%28steeplechase%29 "Point-to-point (steeplechase)") race organized by the Cornwall Hunt Club.{{Cite web\|author\=Dixon, Hayley\|date\=2019\|title\=League Against Cruel Sports investigator accused of 'hypocrisy' after attending hunt fundraiser\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/12/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-investigator\-accused\-hypocrisy\-attending/\|website\=The Telegraph\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=August 12, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240812214738/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/12/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-investigator\-accused\-hypocrisy\-attending/\|url\-status\=live}} In response, a spokesperson for the League commented that Sims attended the races because his daughter is pursuing a career as a jockey and given the dangers he wanted to attend.
### Political allegations
In 1983, Richard Course a former Executive Director of the League was quoted in *The Times* as pledging to give the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 "Labour Party (UK)") £100,000 for the [general election](/wiki/1983_United_Kingdom_general_election "1983 United Kingdom general election"). After Labour lost the election it is alleged that Richard Course had never intended to give the party the money.{{cite news\|author\=Coghill, Ian\|url\=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/image\-viewer?issue\=BL%2F0003681%2F19830805\&page\=9\|title\=Labour Party 'Duped'\|newspaper\=Staffordshire Newsletter \|date\=August 5, 1983 \|page\=9}} {{subscription required}} Course denied such allegations and stated they were being promoted by the [British Field Sports Society](/wiki/British_Field_Sports_Society "British Field Sports Society") to spread disinformation and the League has never given money to a political party.{{cite news\|author\=Course, Richard\|url\=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/image\-viewer?issue\=BL%2F0005178%2F19861231\&page\=4\|title\=Treat this Statement with Caution\|newspaper\=Buxton Advertiser \|date\=December 31, 1986 \|page\=4}} {{subscription required}} In 1986, Charles Nodder, Information Officer for the British Field Sports Society stated that Course had "misrepresented the facts" as in the annual report of the League for 1979 there is a statement which says "The League made a donation of £80,000 to the Labour party".{{cite news\|author\=Nodder, Charles\|url\=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/image\-viewer?issue\=BL%2F0005119%2F19861229\&page\=16\|title\=Cruel Facts\|newspaper\=News Letter \|date\=December 29, 1986 \|page\=16}} {{subscription required}}
In May, 1983 a High Court Judge ruled that the Labour Party must repay 50,000 of the election gift from the League. The other £30,000 given by the League to publicize Labour's animal welfare policies need not be returned.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/image\-viewer?issue\=BL%2F0004924%2F19830525\&page\=8\|title\=Labour must repay £50,000 election gift\|newspaper\=Liverpool Daily Post \|date\=May 25, 1983 \|page\=8}} {{subscription required}} [Eric Heffer](/wiki/Eric_Heffer "Eric Heffer") a vice\-president of the League stated the situation was "regrettable" but the Labour party would obey the court's decision to repay £50,000 to the league.
In 1988, Richard Course resigned over a dispute with the committee. He alleged that donations from the League had been made to fund Labour candidates without knowledge of its members and that accounts had been faked to conceal transactions. He demanded a department of trade investigation into the League.{{cite news\|last\=O'Brien\|first\=R. Barry\|url\=\|title\=Inquiry sought into Anti\-Cruel Sports League\|newspaper\=The Daily Telegraph \|date\=July 23, 1988 \|page\=}} The allegations were denied by Donald Soper.
In 2010, the League was censured by the [Charity Commission](/wiki/Charity_Commission_for_England_and_Wales "Charity Commission for England and Wales") for describing the [Conservatives](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Conservative Party (UK)") as the "nasty party".{{Cite web\|last\=Bowcott\|first\=Owen\|date\=2010\|title\=League Against Cruel Sports censured for political activity\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/apr/01/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-charity\-ruling\|website\=The Guardian\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=May 20, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520090011/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/apr/01/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-charity\-ruling\|url\-status\=live}} The commission said the League's claim, published in a press release had contravened charity rules on party political neutrality. In a regulatory case report the Commission stated that the "wording chosen by the charity was party political in character and went beyond the sort of statement that a charity can properly make".{{Cite web\|last\=Plummer\|first\=John\|date\=2010\|title\=Regulator censures League against Cruel Sports over 'nasty party' poll on Tory hunting policy\|url\=https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/regulator\-censures\-league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-nasty\-party\-poll\-tory\-hunting\-policy/communications/article/994604\|website\=ThirdSector\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=August 10, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810202848/https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/regulator\-censures\-league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-nasty\-party\-poll\-tory\-hunting\-policy/communications/article/994604\|url\-status\=live}} The League agreed to withdraw its press release.
In July 2024, it was reported that the police were investigating fraud allegations against the League.{{Cite web\|author\=Dixon, Hayley\|date\=2024\|title\=Police investigating fraud allegations against League Against Cruel Sports\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/06/22/league\-against\-cruel\-sport\-chief\-quits\-labour\-hunting\-ban/\|website\=The Telegraph\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=July 14, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240714173413/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/07/14/police\-investigating\-fraud\-allegations\-league\-against\-cruel/\|url\-status\=live}} Andy Knott, the League's former chief executive alleged that their fundraising appeals in the run\-up to the [2024 United Kingdom general election](/wiki/2024_United_Kingdom_general_election "2024 United Kingdom general election") were misleading. It was also reported that Knott is taking the League and Labour MP [Dan Norris](/wiki/Dan_Norris "Dan Norris"), the former chair to an employment tribunal for unfair dismissal. Knott has alleged that the Labour Party was "interfering in the strategy and operations of the charity".{{Cite web\|author\=Wait, Sam\|date\=2024\|title\=Former CEO begins legal action against animal charity\|url\=https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/former\-ceo\-begins\-legal\-action\-against\-animal\-charity.html\|website\=Civil Society\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=July 11, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711121228/https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/former\-ceo\-begins\-legal\-action\-against\-animal\-charity.html\|url\-status\=live}}
### Malpractice allegations
In 2015, it was claimed that whistleblowers’ concerns about alleged malpractice within the League were not investigated properly.{{Cite web\|last\= Doward\|first\=Jamie\|date\=2015\|title\=League Against Cruel Sports removes president amid whistleblower row\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/28/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-removes\-president\|website\=The Guardian\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=November 8, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108100219/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/28/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-removes\-president\|url\-status\=live}} Allegations made of [bullying](/wiki/Bullying "Bullying") and [sexist](/wiki/Sexism "Sexism") culture at the top of the organization were strongly denied by the League. [John Cooper](/wiki/John_Cooper_%28barrister%29 "John Cooper (barrister)") a barrister who had been president of the league since 2011 was removed from his position. Cooper commented that "my summary removal as president, without any prior warning, discussion or communication, is a direct result of my taking the decision to support vulnerable staff against management and trustees".
In 2018, [Chris Williamson](/wiki/Chris_Williamson_%28politician%29 "Chris Williamson (politician)") was suspended from the League and expelled from their board after he raised concerns about the actions of their senior management team.{{Cite web\|date\=2018\|title\=We did not seek to hack the Countryside Alliance, says League Against Cruel Sports\|url\=https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/not\-seek\-hack\-countryside\-alliance\-says\-league\-against\-cruel\-sports/management/article/1495334\|website\=ThirdSector\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=October 18, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018222032/https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/not\-seek\-hack\-countryside\-alliance\-says\-league\-against\-cruel\-sports/management/article/1495334\|url\-status\=live}} Williamson alleged that they asked a computer expert to hack the email account of Tim Bonner, chief executive of the Countryside Alliance. Seven trustees also resigned. The Charity Commission responded that they were investigating the allegations.{{Cite web\|last\=Kennedy\|first\=Dominic\|date\=2018\|title\=The League Against Cruel Sports ‘wanted to hack rival’\|url\=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/the\-league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-wanted\-to\-hack\-rival\-j8wpwfnnr\|website\=The Times\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=August 10, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240810200936/https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/the\-league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-wanted\-to\-hack\-rival\-j8wpwfnnr\|url\-status\=live}} The League denied all allegations and commented that they were "motivated purely by ex\-trustees with a grudge". The League also stated that Williamson was expelled "after he supported someone who was abusing members of staff".{{Cite web\|last\=Sharman\|first\=Alice\|date\=2018\|title\=League Against Cruel Sports denies hacking reports\|url\=https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-denies\-hacking\-reports.html\|website\=Civil Society\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=October 27, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027041204/https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-denies\-hacking\-reports.html\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2018, [Jordi Casamitjana](/wiki/Jordi_Casamitjana "Jordi Casamitjana") alleged he was sacked by the League after disclosing it invested pension funds in firms involved in [animal testing](/wiki/Animal_testing "Animal testing") and that he was discriminated against because of his ethical vegan belief. The League stated that he was dismissed because of gross misconduct.{{Cite web\|author\=Coleman, Clive\|date\=2020\|title\=Sacked vegan claims discrimination in landmark case\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-46385597\|website\=BBC News\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=May 22, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522225524/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-46385597\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|date\=2020\|title\=Sacked vegan brings landmark discrimination case\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-50969168\|website\=BBC News\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=\|archive\-url\=\|url\-status\=live}} Casamitjana took legal action against the League which ended in an out\-of\-court settlement in his favour.{{Cite news\|date\=2020\-03\-02\|title\=Jordi Casamitjana vegan tribunal a 'victory for animal protection'.\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-england\-london\-51709141\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-12}} In 2020, the League commented, "Having revisited the issue we now accept that Mr Casamitjana did nothing wrong with such communications, which were motivated by his belief in ethical veganism. We are grateful to Mr Casamitjana for having raised the issue of pensions to us, which allowed us to change our default pension fund to an ethical one closer to our values."{{Cite web\|author\=Whitehead, Harriet\|date\=2020\|title\=Ethical vegan settles tribunal case with the League Against Cruel Sports\|url\=https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/ethical\-vegan\-settles\-tribunal\-case\-with\-the\-league\-against\-cruel\-sports.html\|website\=Civil Society\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=March 20, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320163546/https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/ethical\-vegan\-settles\-tribunal\-case\-with\-the\-league\-against\-cruel\-sports.html\|url\-status\=live}}
[Peter Egan](/wiki/Peter_Egan "Peter Egan") and Penny Morgan, both vice\-presidents of the League were sacked in 2018\. It is alleged that Egan was removed for asking questions about the failures of the League which led to the Charity Commission using its statutory powers against it.{{Cite web\|author\=Kennedy, Dominic\|date\=2018\|title\=Animal charity sacked Downton star Peter Egan ‘for asking questions’\|url\=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/animal\-charity\-sacked\-downton\-star\-peter\-egan\-for\-asking\-questions\-f3w3zw3fq\|website\=The Times\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=August 11, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240811110953/https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/animal\-charity\-sacked\-downton\-star\-peter\-egan\-for\-asking\-questions\-f3w3zw3fq\|url\-status\=live}} Egan alleged he was forced out as he "wanted an open and transparent discussion". Morgan said she had been removed "for daring to ask some questions about what's going on in a wonderful animal charity that seems to be suffering upheavals".{{Cite web\|author\=Dixon, Hayley\|date\=2019\|title\=League Against Cruel Sports labelled 'parasitic organisation' by saboteurs\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/11/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-labelled\-parasitic\-organisation/\|website\=The Telegraph\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=August 11, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240811111431/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/11/league\-against\-cruel\-sports\-labelled\-parasitic\-organisation/\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Controversies\n-------------",
"James Barrington a former Executive Director of the League Against Cruel Sports who later became a consultant to the [Countryside Alliance](/wiki/Countryside_Alliance \"Countryside Alliance\") has alleged that mismanagement by the League on Baronsdown reserve has caused large outbreaks of [Bovine tuberculosis](/wiki/Bovine_tuberculosis \"Bovine tuberculosis\") in deer.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Barrington, James\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=The Blindness of Zealots\\|url\\=https://countrysquire.co.uk/2020/06/27/the\\-blindness\\-of\\-zealots/\\|website\\=Country Squire Magazine \\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810035217/https://countrysquire.co.uk/2020/06/27/the\\-blindness\\-of\\-zealots/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He has criticized the League for its lack of [wildlife management](/wiki/Wildlife_management \"Wildlife management\").{{Cite web\\|author\\=Barrington, James\\|date\\=2023\\|title\\=Jim Barrington: Why are those opposed to hunting allowed to dodge awkward interrogations?\\|url\\=https://www.countryside\\-alliance.org/resources/news/jim\\-barrington\\-why\\-are\\-those\\-opposed\\-to\\-hunting\\-c\\|website\\=Countryside Alliance\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810035215/https://www.countryside\\-alliance.org/resources/news/jim\\-barrington\\-why\\-are\\-those\\-opposed\\-to\\-hunting\\-c\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The League has denied the allegation. John Bryant a former Press Officer and Wildlife Research Officer commented that James Barrington met with leading members of the hunting fraternity without the knowledge of the League's Executive Committee. After Barrington resigned from the League over a claim of [constructive dismissal](/wiki/Constructive_dismissal \"Constructive dismissal\"), he accepted a settlement of £20,000 and became pro\\-hunting.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Bryant, John\\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=James Barrington – Countryside Alliance ‘Animal Welfare Consultant’\\|url\\=https://www.wildlifeguardian.co.uk/blog/james\\-barrington\\-countryside\\-alliance\\-animal\\-welfare\\-consultant/\\|website\\=Wildlife Guardian\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=August 13, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240813195405/https://www.wildlifeguardian.co.uk/blog/james\\-barrington\\-countryside\\-alliance\\-animal\\-welfare\\-consultant/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2019, it was reported that [saboteurs](/wiki/Hunt_sabotage \"Hunt sabotage\") have refused to co\\-operate with the League after accusing them of using information they gained to promote themselves. Martin Sims, the League's Director of Investigations has been criticized by saboteurs for attending hunt fundraising events including a [point to point](/wiki/Point-to-point_%28steeplechase%29 \"Point-to-point (steeplechase)\") race organized by the Cornwall Hunt Club.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Dixon, Hayley\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=League Against Cruel Sports investigator accused of 'hypocrisy' after attending hunt fundraiser\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/12/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-investigator\\-accused\\-hypocrisy\\-attending/\\|website\\=The Telegraph\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=August 12, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240812214738/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/12/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-investigator\\-accused\\-hypocrisy\\-attending/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In response, a spokesperson for the League commented that Sims attended the races because his daughter is pursuing a career as a jockey and given the dangers he wanted to attend.",
"### Political allegations",
"In 1983, Richard Course a former Executive Director of the League was quoted in *The Times* as pledging to give the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 \"Labour Party (UK)\") £100,000 for the [general election](/wiki/1983_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1983 United Kingdom general election\"). After Labour lost the election it is alleged that Richard Course had never intended to give the party the money.{{cite news\\|author\\=Coghill, Ian\\|url\\=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/image\\-viewer?issue\\=BL%2F0003681%2F19830805\\&page\\=9\\|title\\=Labour Party 'Duped'\\|newspaper\\=Staffordshire Newsletter \\|date\\=August 5, 1983 \\|page\\=9}} {{subscription required}} Course denied such allegations and stated they were being promoted by the [British Field Sports Society](/wiki/British_Field_Sports_Society \"British Field Sports Society\") to spread disinformation and the League has never given money to a political party.{{cite news\\|author\\=Course, Richard\\|url\\=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/image\\-viewer?issue\\=BL%2F0005178%2F19861231\\&page\\=4\\|title\\=Treat this Statement with Caution\\|newspaper\\=Buxton Advertiser \\|date\\=December 31, 1986 \\|page\\=4}} {{subscription required}} In 1986, Charles Nodder, Information Officer for the British Field Sports Society stated that Course had \"misrepresented the facts\" as in the annual report of the League for 1979 there is a statement which says \"The League made a donation of £80,000 to the Labour party\".{{cite news\\|author\\=Nodder, Charles\\|url\\=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/image\\-viewer?issue\\=BL%2F0005119%2F19861229\\&page\\=16\\|title\\=Cruel Facts\\|newspaper\\=News Letter \\|date\\=December 29, 1986 \\|page\\=16}} {{subscription required}}",
"In May, 1983 a High Court Judge ruled that the Labour Party must repay 50,000 of the election gift from the League. The other £30,000 given by the League to publicize Labour's animal welfare policies need not be returned.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/image\\-viewer?issue\\=BL%2F0004924%2F19830525\\&page\\=8\\|title\\=Labour must repay £50,000 election gift\\|newspaper\\=Liverpool Daily Post \\|date\\=May 25, 1983 \\|page\\=8}} {{subscription required}} [Eric Heffer](/wiki/Eric_Heffer \"Eric Heffer\") a vice\\-president of the League stated the situation was \"regrettable\" but the Labour party would obey the court's decision to repay £50,000 to the league.",
"In 1988, Richard Course resigned over a dispute with the committee. He alleged that donations from the League had been made to fund Labour candidates without knowledge of its members and that accounts had been faked to conceal transactions. He demanded a department of trade investigation into the League.{{cite news\\|last\\=O'Brien\\|first\\=R. Barry\\|url\\=\\|title\\=Inquiry sought into Anti\\-Cruel Sports League\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Telegraph \\|date\\=July 23, 1988 \\|page\\=}} The allegations were denied by Donald Soper.",
"In 2010, the League was censured by the [Charity Commission](/wiki/Charity_Commission_for_England_and_Wales \"Charity Commission for England and Wales\") for describing the [Conservatives](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") as the \"nasty party\".{{Cite web\\|last\\=Bowcott\\|first\\=Owen\\|date\\=2010\\|title\\=League Against Cruel Sports censured for political activity\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/apr/01/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-charity\\-ruling\\|website\\=The Guardian\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=May 20, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520090011/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/apr/01/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-charity\\-ruling\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The commission said the League's claim, published in a press release had contravened charity rules on party political neutrality. In a regulatory case report the Commission stated that the \"wording chosen by the charity was party political in character and went beyond the sort of statement that a charity can properly make\".{{Cite web\\|last\\=Plummer\\|first\\=John\\|date\\=2010\\|title\\=Regulator censures League against Cruel Sports over 'nasty party' poll on Tory hunting policy\\|url\\=https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/regulator\\-censures\\-league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-nasty\\-party\\-poll\\-tory\\-hunting\\-policy/communications/article/994604\\|website\\=ThirdSector\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810202848/https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/regulator\\-censures\\-league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-nasty\\-party\\-poll\\-tory\\-hunting\\-policy/communications/article/994604\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The League agreed to withdraw its press release.",
"In July 2024, it was reported that the police were investigating fraud allegations against the League.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Dixon, Hayley\\|date\\=2024\\|title\\=Police investigating fraud allegations against League Against Cruel Sports\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/06/22/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sport\\-chief\\-quits\\-labour\\-hunting\\-ban/\\|website\\=The Telegraph\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=July 14, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240714173413/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/07/14/police\\-investigating\\-fraud\\-allegations\\-league\\-against\\-cruel/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Andy Knott, the League's former chief executive alleged that their fundraising appeals in the run\\-up to the [2024 United Kingdom general election](/wiki/2024_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2024 United Kingdom general election\") were misleading. It was also reported that Knott is taking the League and Labour MP [Dan Norris](/wiki/Dan_Norris \"Dan Norris\"), the former chair to an employment tribunal for unfair dismissal. Knott has alleged that the Labour Party was \"interfering in the strategy and operations of the charity\".{{Cite web\\|author\\=Wait, Sam\\|date\\=2024\\|title\\=Former CEO begins legal action against animal charity\\|url\\=https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/former\\-ceo\\-begins\\-legal\\-action\\-against\\-animal\\-charity.html\\|website\\=Civil Society\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=July 11, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711121228/https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/former\\-ceo\\-begins\\-legal\\-action\\-against\\-animal\\-charity.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Malpractice allegations",
"In 2015, it was claimed that whistleblowers’ concerns about alleged malpractice within the League were not investigated properly.{{Cite web\\|last\\= Doward\\|first\\=Jamie\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=League Against Cruel Sports removes president amid whistleblower row\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/28/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-removes\\-president\\|website\\=The Guardian\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=November 8, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108100219/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/28/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-removes\\-president\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Allegations made of [bullying](/wiki/Bullying \"Bullying\") and [sexist](/wiki/Sexism \"Sexism\") culture at the top of the organization were strongly denied by the League. [John Cooper](/wiki/John_Cooper_%28barrister%29 \"John Cooper (barrister)\") a barrister who had been president of the league since 2011 was removed from his position. Cooper commented that \"my summary removal as president, without any prior warning, discussion or communication, is a direct result of my taking the decision to support vulnerable staff against management and trustees\".",
"In 2018, [Chris Williamson](/wiki/Chris_Williamson_%28politician%29 \"Chris Williamson (politician)\") was suspended from the League and expelled from their board after he raised concerns about the actions of their senior management team.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=We did not seek to hack the Countryside Alliance, says League Against Cruel Sports\\|url\\=https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/not\\-seek\\-hack\\-countryside\\-alliance\\-says\\-league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports/management/article/1495334\\|website\\=ThirdSector\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=October 18, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018222032/https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/not\\-seek\\-hack\\-countryside\\-alliance\\-says\\-league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports/management/article/1495334\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Williamson alleged that they asked a computer expert to hack the email account of Tim Bonner, chief executive of the Countryside Alliance. Seven trustees also resigned. The Charity Commission responded that they were investigating the allegations.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Kennedy\\|first\\=Dominic\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=The League Against Cruel Sports ‘wanted to hack rival’\\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/the\\-league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-wanted\\-to\\-hack\\-rival\\-j8wpwfnnr\\|website\\=The Times\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240810200936/https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/the\\-league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-wanted\\-to\\-hack\\-rival\\-j8wpwfnnr\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The League denied all allegations and commented that they were \"motivated purely by ex\\-trustees with a grudge\". The League also stated that Williamson was expelled \"after he supported someone who was abusing members of staff\".{{Cite web\\|last\\=Sharman\\|first\\=Alice\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=League Against Cruel Sports denies hacking reports\\|url\\=https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-denies\\-hacking\\-reports.html\\|website\\=Civil Society\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=October 27, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027041204/https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-denies\\-hacking\\-reports.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2018, [Jordi Casamitjana](/wiki/Jordi_Casamitjana \"Jordi Casamitjana\") alleged he was sacked by the League after disclosing it invested pension funds in firms involved in [animal testing](/wiki/Animal_testing \"Animal testing\") and that he was discriminated against because of his ethical vegan belief. The League stated that he was dismissed because of gross misconduct.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Coleman, Clive\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=Sacked vegan claims discrimination in landmark case\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-46385597\\|website\\=BBC News\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=May 22, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522225524/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-46385597\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=Sacked vegan brings landmark discrimination case\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-50969168\\|website\\=BBC News\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Casamitjana took legal action against the League which ended in an out\\-of\\-court settlement in his favour.{{Cite news\\|date\\=2020\\-03\\-02\\|title\\=Jordi Casamitjana vegan tribunal a 'victory for animal protection'.\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-england\\-london\\-51709141\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-12}} In 2020, the League commented, \"Having revisited the issue we now accept that Mr Casamitjana did nothing wrong with such communications, which were motivated by his belief in ethical veganism. We are grateful to Mr Casamitjana for having raised the issue of pensions to us, which allowed us to change our default pension fund to an ethical one closer to our values.\"{{Cite web\\|author\\=Whitehead, Harriet\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=Ethical vegan settles tribunal case with the League Against Cruel Sports\\|url\\=https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/ethical\\-vegan\\-settles\\-tribunal\\-case\\-with\\-the\\-league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports.html\\|website\\=Civil Society\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=March 20, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320163546/https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/ethical\\-vegan\\-settles\\-tribunal\\-case\\-with\\-the\\-league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[Peter Egan](/wiki/Peter_Egan \"Peter Egan\") and Penny Morgan, both vice\\-presidents of the League were sacked in 2018\\. It is alleged that Egan was removed for asking questions about the failures of the League which led to the Charity Commission using its statutory powers against it.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Kennedy, Dominic\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Animal charity sacked Downton star Peter Egan ‘for asking questions’\\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/animal\\-charity\\-sacked\\-downton\\-star\\-peter\\-egan\\-for\\-asking\\-questions\\-f3w3zw3fq\\|website\\=The Times\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=August 11, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240811110953/https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/animal\\-charity\\-sacked\\-downton\\-star\\-peter\\-egan\\-for\\-asking\\-questions\\-f3w3zw3fq\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Egan alleged he was forced out as he \"wanted an open and transparent discussion\". Morgan said she had been removed \"for daring to ask some questions about what's going on in a wonderful animal charity that seems to be suffering upheavals\".{{Cite web\\|author\\=Dixon, Hayley\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=League Against Cruel Sports labelled 'parasitic organisation' by saboteurs\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/11/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-labelled\\-parasitic\\-organisation/\\|website\\=The Telegraph\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=August 11, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240811111431/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/11/league\\-against\\-cruel\\-sports\\-labelled\\-parasitic\\-organisation/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Formation
In 1690 the [Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Duke_of_Savoy "Duke of Savoy") [Victor Amadeus II](/wiki/Victor_Amadeus_II_of_Sardinia "Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia") joined the [Nine Years' War](/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War "Nine Years' War") against the [Kingdom of France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France "Kingdom of France"). On 4 July 1690 the Regiment [Dragoons](/wiki/Dragoons "Dragoons") of [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont "Piedmont") ({{langx\|it\|Reggimento Dragoni del Piemonte}}) was formed for service in the war. The regiment consisted of eight companies and fought in 1690 at Avigliana and in 1693 in the [Battle of Marsaglia](/wiki/Battle_of_Marsaglia "Battle of Marsaglia"). After the war the Regiment Dragoons of Piedmont was disbanded on 22 November 1699\.{{cite book \|publisher\= Enrico Voghera \|title\=Annuario militare del regno d'Italia \- Volume I \|date\=1909 \|location\=Rome \|page\=492 }}
### Cabinet Wars
The regiment was reformed on 14 April 1701 with eight companies, which were grouped into four squadrons. Each company fielded 50 horses. The same year Duke Victor Amadeus II joined the [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession "War of the Spanish Succession") and the regiment fought in 1706 in the [Siege of Turin](/wiki/Siege_of_Turin "Siege of Turin") and then in the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy "Duchy of Savoy"). On 27 March 1713 the regiment received two companies from the [Regiment Dragoons of His Royal Highness](/wiki/Regiment_Dragoons_of_His_Royal_Highness "Regiment Dragoons of His Royal Highness") and now consisted of ten companies, which were grouped into five squadrons. The same year the war ended with the [Peace of Utrecht](/wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht "Peace of Utrecht"), which transferred the [Kingdom of Sicily](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily "Kingdom of Sicily") and the regiment moved to Sicily to take possession of the new territory. In October 1713 Victor Amadeus II and his wife, [Anne Marie d'Orléans](/wiki/Anne_Marie_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans "Anne Marie d'Orléans"), travelled from [Nice](/wiki/Nice "Nice") to [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo "Palermo"), where on 24 December 1713 they were crowned in the [cathedral of Palermo](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Palermo "Cathedral of Palermo") King and Queen of Sicily.
The regiment was garrisoned in 1715\-16 in [Messina](/wiki/Messina "Messina"), in 1716\-18 in [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo "Palermo"), an in 1718\-20 in [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily "Syracuse, Sicily"). In July 1718 [Spain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain "Kingdom of Spain") landed troops on Sicily and tried to recover the [Kingdom of Sicily from Savoy rule](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily_under_Savoy "Kingdom of Sicily under Savoy"). On 2 August 1718 [Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain"), [France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France "Kingdom of France"), [Austria](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy"), and the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic") formed an alliance to defeat Spain in the [War of the Quadruple Alliance](/wiki/War_of_the_Quadruple_Alliance "War of the Quadruple Alliance"). The Dragoons of Piedmont fought against Spanish forces on Sicily until 1720, when the [Treaty of The Hague](/wiki/Treaty_of_The_Hague_%281720%29 "Treaty of The Hague (1720)") restored the position prior to 1717, but with the [Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy "Duchy of Savoy") and Austria exchanging Sardinia and Sicily. On 16 October 1720 the Dragoons of Piedmont moved from Sicily to Sardinia, where the regiment remained until 1722\.
In 1733 King [Charles Emmanuel III](/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_III_of_Sardinia "Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia") joined the [War of the Polish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession "War of the Polish Succession") on the French\-Spanish. The regiment fought in 1734 in the [Battle of San Pietro](/wiki/Battle_of_San_Pietro "Battle of San Pietro") and the [Battle of Guastalla](/wiki/Battle_of_Guastalla "Battle of Guastalla") against [Austrian](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy") forces. In 1742 King Charles Emmanuel III joined the [War of the Austrian Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession "War of the Austrian Succession") on the Austrian side and the regiment fought in the [Battle of Tidone](/wiki/Battle_of_Tidone "Battle of Tidone"). In July 1774 the Regiment Dragoons of Piedmont ceded two of its companies to help form the Regiment Dragoons of Chablais" and from then on consisted of eight companies grouped in four squadrons.
### French Revolutionary Wars
In 1792 King [Victor Amadeus III](/wiki/Victor_Amadeus_III_of_Sardinia "Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia") joined the [War of the First Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition "War of the First Coalition") against the [French Republic](/wiki/French_First_Republic "French First Republic"). From 1792 to 1796 the Dragoons of Piedmont fought against the French [Army of Italy](/wiki/Army_of_Italy_%28France%29 "Army of Italy (France)"). In March 1796 [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte "Napoleon Bonaparte") arrived in Italy and took command of the French forces, with which he defeated the [Royal Sardinian Army](/wiki/Royal_Sardinian_Army "Royal Sardinian Army") in the [Montenotte campaign](/wiki/Montenotte_campaign "Montenotte campaign") within a month. On 28 April 1796, King Victor Amadeus III had to sign the [Armistice of Cherasco](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cherasco "Armistice of Cherasco") and on 15 May 1796 the [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281796%29 "Treaty of Paris (1796)"), which forced Sardinia out of the [First Coalition](/wiki/First_Coalition "First Coalition"). Victor Amadeus III also had to cede the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy "Duchy of Savoy") and the [County of Nice](/wiki/County_of_Nice "County of Nice") to France. On 16 October 1796 Victor Amadeus III died and his eldest son [Charles Emmanuel IV](/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_IV_of_Sardinia "Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia") ascended the throne. On 26 October 1796 King Charles Emmanuel IV ordered to reduce the Kingdom's cavalry forces and the Dragoons of Piedmont was reduced to four squadrons. On the same date the company level was abolished.
In fall 1798 France invaded the remaining territories of King Charles Emmanuel IV. On 6 December 1798 French forces occupied [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin") and on 8 December 1798 Charles Emmanuel IV was forced to sign a document of abdication, which also ordered his former subjects to recognise French laws and his troops to obey the orders of the [French Army](/wiki/French_Army "French Army"). Charles Emmanuel IV went into exile on [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia "Sardinia"), while his former territories became the [Piedmontese Republic](/wiki/Piedmontese_Republic "Piedmontese Republic"). On 9 December 1798 the Sardinian troops were released from their oath of allegiance to the King and sworn to the Piedmontese Republic. The same month the Regiment Dragoons of Piedmont was renamed 3rd Cavalry Regiment.
In January 1799 the regiment was renamed 3rd Piedmontese Dragoons Regiment. The same month the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, the former Regiment Dragoons of the Queen, was disbanded, and two of its squadrons were transferred to the 3rd Piedmontese Dragoons Regiment. In spring 1799 the regiment fought for the French in the [War of the Second Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition "War of the Second Coalition") against the Austrians. On 26 March 1799 the regiment fought in the [Battle of Verona](/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_%281799%29 "Battle of Verona (1799)") and then on 5 April in the [Battle of Magnano](/wiki/Battle_of_Magnano "Battle of Magnano"), which the Austrians won, forcing the French out of Italy. With the French retreat the Piedmontese Republic dissolved and the 3rd Piedmontese Dragoons Regiment, like all regiments of the Piedmontese Republic, was disbanded in May 1799\.
### Restoration
On 6 April 1814, Emperor [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") abdicated and on 11 April the winners of the [War of the Sixth Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition "War of the Sixth Coalition") exiled him to the island of [Elba](/wiki/Elba "Elba"). On 20 May 1814, King [Victor Emmanuel I](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_I "Victor Emmanuel I") returned from exile in Sardinia to Turin. On 24 May 1814 Victor Emmanuel I ordered to reform the cavalry regiments disbanded in 1799, including the Regiment Dragoons of Piedmont, which was renamed Regiment "Cavalleggeri di Piemonte" ([Chevau\-légers](/wiki/Chevau-l%C3%A9ger "Chevau-léger") of Piedmont). On 1 January 1815 the regiment consisted of six squadrons grouped into three divisions.
On 26 February 1815 Napoleon escaped from [Elba](/wiki/Elba "Elba") and landed on 1 March 1815 in [Golfe\-Juan](/wiki/Golfe-Juan "Golfe-Juan") in France. This triggered the [War of the Seventh Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_Seventh_Coalition "War of the Seventh Coalition"), which Sardinia joined against France. The Regiment "Cavalleggeri di Piemonte" participated in the [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days "Hundred Days") campaign, during which the regiment fought on 6 July at [Grenoble](/wiki/Grenoble "Grenoble").
On 1 January 1824 the regiment formed two new squadrons, which were grouped into a newly formed division. On 24 December 1828 the Cavalleggeri di Piemonte provided some of its personnel to help form the new [Regiment "Dragoni di Piemonte"](/wiki/Regiment_%22Dragoni_di_Piemonte%22 "Regiment "). On 29 August 1831 the regiment was reduced to six squadrons and a depot squadron, which would have been formed in times of war. On 3 January 1832 the regiment became a heavy cavalry unit again and was renamed Regiment "Nizza Cavalleria" after the [County of Nice](/wiki/County_of_Nice "County of Nice"), which had been returned to the [Kingdom of Sardinia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia "Kingdom of Sardinia") after the fall of Napoleon.
### Italian Wars of Independence
In 1848\-49 the regiment participated in the [First Italian War of Independence](/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence "First Italian War of Independence"), fighting in 1848 in the battles of Mantua, [Santa Lucia](/wiki/Battle_of_Santa_Lucia "Battle of Santa Lucia"), [Goito](/wiki/Battle_of_Goito "Battle of Goito"), Castellucchio, and Milan, and in 1849 in the battles of [Mortara](/wiki/Battle_of_Mortara "Battle of Mortara") and [Novara](/wiki/Battle_of_Novara_%281849%29 "Battle of Novara (1849)"). For its conduct at the battles of Goito, Mortara, and Novara the regiment was awarded three [Bronze Medals of Military Valor](/wiki/Bronze_Medal_of_Military_Valor "Bronze Medal of Military Valor").
On 3 January 1850 the regiment was reduced to four squadrons. In 1859 the regiment participated in the [Second Italian War of Independence](/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence "Second Italian War of Independence") and fought at [Borgo Vercelli](/wiki/Borgo_Vercelli "Borgo Vercelli"). On 16 September 1859 the Nizza ceded one of its squadrons to help form the [Regiment "Cavalleggeri di Lodi"](/wiki/Regiment_%22Cavalleggeri_di_Lodi%22 "Regiment ") and on 19 October of the same year the regiment was redesignated as [Cuirassiers](/wiki/Cuirassier "Cuirassier") unit and renamed Regiment "Corazzieri di Nizza". Already on 6 June 1860 the regiment resumed to use its previous name Regiment "Nizza Cavalleria".
In the 1860\-1861 the regiment participated in the [Sardinian campaign in central and southern Italy](/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand "Expedition of the Thousand") and fought in the battles of Perugia and Spoleto, and in the Siege of Capua. In 1866 the regiment participated in the [Third Italian War of Independence](/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence "Third Italian War of Independence") and fought in the [Battle of Custoza](/wiki/Battle_of_Custoza_%281866%29 "Battle of Custoza (1866)").
Over the next years the regiment repeatedly changed its name:
* 10 September 1871: 1st Cavalry Regiment (Nizza)
* 5 November 1876: Cavalry Regiment "Nizza" (1st)
* 16 December 1897: Regiment "Nizza Cavalleria" (1st)
In 1887 the regiment contributed to the formation of the Mounted Hunters Squadron, which fought in the [Italo\-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889](/wiki/Italo-Ethiopian_War_of_1887%E2%80%931889 "Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889"). In 1895\-96 the regiment provided one officer and 68 enlisted for units deployed to [Italian Eritrea](/wiki/Italian_Eritrea "Italian Eritrea") for the [First Italo\-Ethiopian War](/wiki/First_Italo-Ethiopian_War "First Italo-Ethiopian War"). On 1 October 1909 the Nizza ceded one of its squadrons to help form new Regiment "Lancieri di Mantova" (25th). In 1911\-12 the regiment provided five officers and 157 enlisted to augment units fighting in the [Italo\-Turkish War](/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War "Italo-Turkish War").
### World War I
At the outbreak of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") the regiment consisted of a command, the regimental depot, and two cavalry groups, with the I Group consisting of three squadrons and the II Group consisting of two squadrons and a machine gun section. Together with the Regiment "Lancieri di Vercelli" (26th) the Nizza formed the VII Cavalry Brigade of the 4th Cavalry Division of "Piemonte". The division fought dismounted in the trenches of the [Italian Front](/wiki/Italian_front_%28World_War_I%29 "Italian front (World War I)"). In 1916 the regiment was reinforced with the 3rd Squadron of the Regiment "Cavalleggeri di Aquila" (27th) and the same year the regiment was awarded its fourth [Bronze Medal of Military Valor](/wiki/Bronze_Medal_of_Military_Valor "Bronze Medal of Military Valor") for the regiment's conduct in the [Battle of Monfalcone](/wiki/Battle_of_Monfalcone "Battle of Monfalcone"). In 1917 the regimental depot in [Savigliano](/wiki/Savigliano "Savigliano") formed the 739th and the 1558th dismounted machine gunners companies as reinforcement for infantry units on the front. In 1918 the regiment fought in the [Battle of Vittorio Veneto](/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto "Battle of Vittorio Veneto").
### Interwar years
After the war the Italian Army disbanded 14 of its 30 cavalry regiments, which did not affect the Nizza Cavalleria. However on 20 May 1920 a further five cavalry regiments were disbanded and the Nizza received and integrated a squadron of the disbanded [Regiment "Lancieri di Montebello" (8th)](/wiki/Regiment_%22Lancieri_di_Montebello%22_%288th%29 "Regiment "), and received the traditions of the Regiment "Lancieri di Montebello" (8th). The same year the regiment moved from Savigliano to [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin").
In 1935\-36 the regiment contributed 14 officers and 436 enlisted for units, which were deployed to [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa") for the [Second Italo\-Ethiopian War](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War "Second Italo-Ethiopian War").
### World War II
At the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") the regiment consisted of a command, a command squadron, the I and II squadrons groups, each with two mounted squadrons, and the 5th Machine Gunners Squadron. In June 1940 the regiment participated in the [invasion of France](/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France "Italian invasion of France") and in April 1941 the regiment participated in the [invasion of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia "Invasion of Yugoslavia"). In November 1942 the regiment participated in the [occupation of Vichy France](/wiki/Case_Anton "Case Anton"). After the announcement of the [Armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile "Armistice of Cassibile") on 8 September 1943 [invading German forces](/wiki/Fall_Achse "Fall Achse") disbanded the regiment in Turin.
During the war the regiment's depot in [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin") formed the:
* III Tank Group "Nizza Cavalleria", with [L6/40 tanks](/wiki/L6/40_tank "L6/40 tank")
* IV Armored Group "Nizza Cavalleria"
* V Armored Group "Nizza Cavalleria"
* IV Road Movement Battalion "Nizza Cavalleria"
* XI Road Movement Battalion "Nizza Cavalleria"
* LI Dismounted Group "Nizza Cavalleria"
* CXXXII Armored Reconnaissance Group "Nizza Cavalleria"
In September 1941 III Tank Group "Nizza Cavalleria" was sent to [Italian Libya](/wiki/Italian_Libya "Italian Libya") and assigned to the [132nd Armored Division "Ariete"](/wiki/132nd_Armored_Division_%22Ariete%22 "132nd Armored Division ") for the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign "Western Desert Campaign"). After the defeat in the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein "Second Battle of El Alamein") the remnants of the III Tank Group participated in the retreat to [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia") and there in the [Tunisian Campaign](/wiki/Tunisian_Campaign "Tunisian Campaign"). The remnants of the Ariete and the III Tank Group surrendered to the allies on 13 May 1943\.
The IV Armored Group "Nizza Cavalleria", which consisted of one squadron equipped with [L6/40 tanks](/wiki/L6/40_tank "L6/40 tank") and one squadron equipped with [AB\-41](/wiki/Autoblindo_Fiat-Ansaldo "Autoblindo Fiat-Ansaldo") armored cars, was sent to [Albania](/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_%281939%E2%80%931943%29 "Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)"). After the announcement of the [Armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile "Armistice of Cassibile") on 8 September 1943 the group's armored cars squadron joined the [41st Infantry Division "Firenze"](/wiki/41st_Infantry_Division_%22Firenze%22 "41st Infantry Division "), which fought against the Germans and then joined the [Albanian National Liberation Army](/wiki/Albanian_National_Liberation_Army "Albanian National Liberation Army").{{cite web \|title\=Reggimento "Nizza Cavalleria" 1° \|url\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/cavalleria/regcav1\.htm \|publisher\=Regio Esercito \|access\-date\=15 December 2022}}
At the end of 1943 the Reconnaissance Squadron "Nizza Cavalleria" was formed in [Cava dei Tirreni](/wiki/Cava_dei_Tirreni "Cava dei Tirreni") by the [Italian Co\-belligerent Army](/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army "Italian Co-belligerent Army"). The squadron was initially assigned to the [IX Assault Unit](/wiki/IX_Assault_Unit "IX Assault Unit"), which in June 1944 liberated [Cingoli](/wiki/Cingoli "Cingoli") from German occupation in the [Battle of Ancona](/wiki/Battle_of_Ancona "Battle of Ancona"). Afterwards the squadron was assigned to the [Polish II Corps](/wiki/Polish_II_Corps "Polish II Corps") for the remainder of the [Italian campaign](/wiki/Italian_campaign_%28World_War_II%29 "Italian campaign (World War II)").
### Cold War
{{Also\|Infantry Division "Cremona"}}
On 24 November 1946 the Divisional Reconnaissance Group "1° Dragoni" was formed in [Pinerolo](/wiki/Pinerolo "Pinerolo") and assigned to the [Infantry Division "Cremona"](/wiki/Infantry_Division_%22Cremona%22 "Infantry Division "). On 1 March 1950 the group was renamed Armored Cavalry Group "Nizza Cavalleria" and on 1 April 1951 it was expanded to 1st Armored Cavalry Regiment "Nizza Cavalleria". The regiment consisted of a command, a command squadron, and three squadrons groups, which were equipped initially with [M4 Sherman](/wiki/M4_Sherman "M4 Sherman") tanks and then with [M47 Patton](/wiki/M47_Patton "M47 Patton") tanks. On 4 November 1958 the regiment was renamed Regiment "Nizza Cavalleria" (1st). On 2 December 1958, the regiment's III Squadrons Group was disbanded and its personnel and equipment used to reform the [III Tank Battalion](/wiki/3rd_Tank_Battalion_%22M.O._Galas%22 "3rd Tank Battalion "), which was assigned to the [32nd Tank Regiment](/wiki/32nd_Tank_Regiment_%28Italy%29 "32nd Tank Regiment (Italy)").
On 15 January 1959 the regiment was disbanded and the regiment's I Squadrons Group was reorganized as divisional reconnaissance group and renamed Squadrons Group "Nizza Cavalleria". The group remained assigned to the Infantry Division "Cremona".
During the [1975 army reform](/wiki/Italian_Army_1975_reform "Italian Army 1975 reform") the army disbanded the regimental level and newly independent battalions were granted for the first time their own flags. On 31 July 1975 the Squadrons Group "Nizza Cavalleria" was reorganized and renamed 1st Armored Squadrons Group "Nizza Cavalleria" and assigned the flag and traditions of the Regiment "Nizza Cavalleria" (1st).{{cite web \|title\=Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica 12 novembre 1976, n. 846 \|url\=https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie\_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta\=1976\-12\-22\&atto.codiceRedazionale\=076U0846 \|publisher\=Quirinale \- Presidenza della Repubblica \|access\-date\=20 January 2024}} The squadrons group consisted of a command, a command and services squadron, two tank squadrons with [M47 Patton](/wiki/M47_Patton "M47 Patton") tanks, and one mechanized squadron with [M113](/wiki/M113_armored_personnel_carrier "M113 armored personnel carrier") [armored personnel carriers](/wiki/Armored_personnel_carrier "Armored personnel carrier"). At the time the squadrons group fielded 536 men (34 officers, 83 non\-commissioned officers, and 419 soldiers).{{cite book \|last1\=Stefani \|first1\=Filippo \|title\=La storia della dottrina e degli ordinamenti dell'Esercito Italiano \- Vol. III \- Tomo 2° \|date\=1989 \|publisher\=Ufficio Storico \- Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito \|location\=Rome \|pages\=1190\-1192}} The squadrons groups was assigned to the [Motorized Brigade "Cremona"](/wiki/Motorized_Brigade_%22Cremona%22 "Motorized Brigade ").
### Recent times
On 11 September 1991 the 1st Armored Squadrons Group "Nizza Cavalleria" lost its autonomy and the next day the squadrons group entered the newly formed 1st Regiment "Nizza Cavalleria". The regiment consisted of a command, a command and services squadron, and a squadrons group with three armored squadrons equipped with [Leopard 1A5](/wiki/Leopard_1 "Leopard 1") [main battle tanks](/wiki/Main_battle_tank "Main battle tank"). On the same day the regiment left the [Motorized Brigade "Cremona"](/wiki/Motorized_Brigade_%22Cremona%22 "Motorized Brigade ") and was assigned to the [3rd Army Corps](/wiki/3rd_Army_Corps_%28Italy%29 "3rd Army Corps (Italy)"). On 1 August 1992 the regiment was renamed Regiment "Nizza Cavalleria" (1st). In 1993 the regiment began to replace its Leopard 1A5 with wheeled [Centauro](/wiki/B1_Centauro "B1 Centauro") tank destroyers.
In 1996 the regiment was transferred from the [3rd Army Corps](/wiki/3rd_Army_Corps_%28Italy%29 "3rd Army Corps (Italy)") to the [Armored Brigade "Centauro"](/wiki/Armored_Brigade_%22Centauro%22 "Armored Brigade "). When the Centauro was disbanded in 5 October 2002 the regiment was transferred to the [Alpine Brigade "Taurinense"](/wiki/Alpine_Brigade_%22Taurinense%22 "Alpine Brigade "). On 11 July 2013 the regiment moved from Pinerolo to [Bellinzago Novarese](/wiki/Bellinzago_Novarese "Bellinzago Novarese"), where the regiment took over the barracks of the [4th Tank Regiment](/wiki/4th_Tank_Regiment_%28Italy%29 "4th Tank Regiment (Italy)"), which had moved to [Persano](/wiki/Persano "Persano").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Formation",
"In 1690 the [Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Duke_of_Savoy \"Duke of Savoy\") [Victor Amadeus II](/wiki/Victor_Amadeus_II_of_Sardinia \"Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia\") joined the [Nine Years' War](/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War \"Nine Years' War\") against the [Kingdom of France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France \"Kingdom of France\"). On 4 July 1690 the Regiment [Dragoons](/wiki/Dragoons \"Dragoons\") of [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont \"Piedmont\") ({{langx\\|it\\|Reggimento Dragoni del Piemonte}}) was formed for service in the war. The regiment consisted of eight companies and fought in 1690 at Avigliana and in 1693 in the [Battle of Marsaglia](/wiki/Battle_of_Marsaglia \"Battle of Marsaglia\"). After the war the Regiment Dragoons of Piedmont was disbanded on 22 November 1699\\.{{cite book \\|publisher\\= Enrico Voghera \\|title\\=Annuario militare del regno d'Italia \\- Volume I \\|date\\=1909 \\|location\\=Rome \\|page\\=492 }}",
"### Cabinet Wars",
"The regiment was reformed on 14 April 1701 with eight companies, which were grouped into four squadrons. Each company fielded 50 horses. The same year Duke Victor Amadeus II joined the [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession \"War of the Spanish Succession\") and the regiment fought in 1706 in the [Siege of Turin](/wiki/Siege_of_Turin \"Siege of Turin\") and then in the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy \"Duchy of Savoy\"). On 27 March 1713 the regiment received two companies from the [Regiment Dragoons of His Royal Highness](/wiki/Regiment_Dragoons_of_His_Royal_Highness \"Regiment Dragoons of His Royal Highness\") and now consisted of ten companies, which were grouped into five squadrons. The same year the war ended with the [Peace of Utrecht](/wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht \"Peace of Utrecht\"), which transferred the [Kingdom of Sicily](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily \"Kingdom of Sicily\") and the regiment moved to Sicily to take possession of the new territory. In October 1713 Victor Amadeus II and his wife, [Anne Marie d'Orléans](/wiki/Anne_Marie_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans \"Anne Marie d'Orléans\"), travelled from [Nice](/wiki/Nice \"Nice\") to [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo \"Palermo\"), where on 24 December 1713 they were crowned in the [cathedral of Palermo](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Palermo \"Cathedral of Palermo\") King and Queen of Sicily.",
"The regiment was garrisoned in 1715\\-16 in [Messina](/wiki/Messina \"Messina\"), in 1716\\-18 in [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo \"Palermo\"), an in 1718\\-20 in [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily \"Syracuse, Sicily\"). In July 1718 [Spain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain \"Kingdom of Spain\") landed troops on Sicily and tried to recover the [Kingdom of Sicily from Savoy rule](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily_under_Savoy \"Kingdom of Sicily under Savoy\"). On 2 August 1718 [Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\"), [France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France \"Kingdom of France\"), [Austria](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\"), and the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\") formed an alliance to defeat Spain in the [War of the Quadruple Alliance](/wiki/War_of_the_Quadruple_Alliance \"War of the Quadruple Alliance\"). The Dragoons of Piedmont fought against Spanish forces on Sicily until 1720, when the [Treaty of The Hague](/wiki/Treaty_of_The_Hague_%281720%29 \"Treaty of The Hague (1720)\") restored the position prior to 1717, but with the [Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy \"Duchy of Savoy\") and Austria exchanging Sardinia and Sicily. On 16 October 1720 the Dragoons of Piedmont moved from Sicily to Sardinia, where the regiment remained until 1722\\.",
"In 1733 King [Charles Emmanuel III](/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_III_of_Sardinia \"Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia\") joined the [War of the Polish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession \"War of the Polish Succession\") on the French\\-Spanish. The regiment fought in 1734 in the [Battle of San Pietro](/wiki/Battle_of_San_Pietro \"Battle of San Pietro\") and the [Battle of Guastalla](/wiki/Battle_of_Guastalla \"Battle of Guastalla\") against [Austrian](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\") forces. In 1742 King Charles Emmanuel III joined the [War of the Austrian Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession \"War of the Austrian Succession\") on the Austrian side and the regiment fought in the [Battle of Tidone](/wiki/Battle_of_Tidone \"Battle of Tidone\"). In July 1774 the Regiment Dragoons of Piedmont ceded two of its companies to help form the Regiment Dragoons of Chablais\" and from then on consisted of eight companies grouped in four squadrons.",
"### French Revolutionary Wars",
"In 1792 King [Victor Amadeus III](/wiki/Victor_Amadeus_III_of_Sardinia \"Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia\") joined the [War of the First Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition \"War of the First Coalition\") against the [French Republic](/wiki/French_First_Republic \"French First Republic\"). From 1792 to 1796 the Dragoons of Piedmont fought against the French [Army of Italy](/wiki/Army_of_Italy_%28France%29 \"Army of Italy (France)\"). In March 1796 [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte \"Napoleon Bonaparte\") arrived in Italy and took command of the French forces, with which he defeated the [Royal Sardinian Army](/wiki/Royal_Sardinian_Army \"Royal Sardinian Army\") in the [Montenotte campaign](/wiki/Montenotte_campaign \"Montenotte campaign\") within a month. On 28 April 1796, King Victor Amadeus III had to sign the [Armistice of Cherasco](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cherasco \"Armistice of Cherasco\") and on 15 May 1796 the [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281796%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1796)\"), which forced Sardinia out of the [First Coalition](/wiki/First_Coalition \"First Coalition\"). Victor Amadeus III also had to cede the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy \"Duchy of Savoy\") and the [County of Nice](/wiki/County_of_Nice \"County of Nice\") to France. On 16 October 1796 Victor Amadeus III died and his eldest son [Charles Emmanuel IV](/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_IV_of_Sardinia \"Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia\") ascended the throne. On 26 October 1796 King Charles Emmanuel IV ordered to reduce the Kingdom's cavalry forces and the Dragoons of Piedmont was reduced to four squadrons. On the same date the company level was abolished.",
"In fall 1798 France invaded the remaining territories of King Charles Emmanuel IV. On 6 December 1798 French forces occupied [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\") and on 8 December 1798 Charles Emmanuel IV was forced to sign a document of abdication, which also ordered his former subjects to recognise French laws and his troops to obey the orders of the [French Army](/wiki/French_Army \"French Army\"). Charles Emmanuel IV went into exile on [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia \"Sardinia\"), while his former territories became the [Piedmontese Republic](/wiki/Piedmontese_Republic \"Piedmontese Republic\"). On 9 December 1798 the Sardinian troops were released from their oath of allegiance to the King and sworn to the Piedmontese Republic. The same month the Regiment Dragoons of Piedmont was renamed 3rd Cavalry Regiment.",
"In January 1799 the regiment was renamed 3rd Piedmontese Dragoons Regiment. The same month the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, the former Regiment Dragoons of the Queen, was disbanded, and two of its squadrons were transferred to the 3rd Piedmontese Dragoons Regiment. In spring 1799 the regiment fought for the French in the [War of the Second Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition \"War of the Second Coalition\") against the Austrians. On 26 March 1799 the regiment fought in the [Battle of Verona](/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_%281799%29 \"Battle of Verona (1799)\") and then on 5 April in the [Battle of Magnano](/wiki/Battle_of_Magnano \"Battle of Magnano\"), which the Austrians won, forcing the French out of Italy. With the French retreat the Piedmontese Republic dissolved and the 3rd Piedmontese Dragoons Regiment, like all regiments of the Piedmontese Republic, was disbanded in May 1799\\.",
"### Restoration",
"On 6 April 1814, Emperor [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") abdicated and on 11 April the winners of the [War of the Sixth Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition \"War of the Sixth Coalition\") exiled him to the island of [Elba](/wiki/Elba \"Elba\"). On 20 May 1814, King [Victor Emmanuel I](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_I \"Victor Emmanuel I\") returned from exile in Sardinia to Turin. On 24 May 1814 Victor Emmanuel I ordered to reform the cavalry regiments disbanded in 1799, including the Regiment Dragoons of Piedmont, which was renamed Regiment \"Cavalleggeri di Piemonte\" ([Chevau\\-légers](/wiki/Chevau-l%C3%A9ger \"Chevau-léger\") of Piedmont). On 1 January 1815 the regiment consisted of six squadrons grouped into three divisions.",
"On 26 February 1815 Napoleon escaped from [Elba](/wiki/Elba \"Elba\") and landed on 1 March 1815 in [Golfe\\-Juan](/wiki/Golfe-Juan \"Golfe-Juan\") in France. This triggered the [War of the Seventh Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_Seventh_Coalition \"War of the Seventh Coalition\"), which Sardinia joined against France. The Regiment \"Cavalleggeri di Piemonte\" participated in the [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days \"Hundred Days\") campaign, during which the regiment fought on 6 July at [Grenoble](/wiki/Grenoble \"Grenoble\").",
"On 1 January 1824 the regiment formed two new squadrons, which were grouped into a newly formed division. On 24 December 1828 the Cavalleggeri di Piemonte provided some of its personnel to help form the new [Regiment \"Dragoni di Piemonte\"](/wiki/Regiment_%22Dragoni_di_Piemonte%22 \"Regiment \"). On 29 August 1831 the regiment was reduced to six squadrons and a depot squadron, which would have been formed in times of war. On 3 January 1832 the regiment became a heavy cavalry unit again and was renamed Regiment \"Nizza Cavalleria\" after the [County of Nice](/wiki/County_of_Nice \"County of Nice\"), which had been returned to the [Kingdom of Sardinia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia \"Kingdom of Sardinia\") after the fall of Napoleon.",
"### Italian Wars of Independence",
"In 1848\\-49 the regiment participated in the [First Italian War of Independence](/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence \"First Italian War of Independence\"), fighting in 1848 in the battles of Mantua, [Santa Lucia](/wiki/Battle_of_Santa_Lucia \"Battle of Santa Lucia\"), [Goito](/wiki/Battle_of_Goito \"Battle of Goito\"), Castellucchio, and Milan, and in 1849 in the battles of [Mortara](/wiki/Battle_of_Mortara \"Battle of Mortara\") and [Novara](/wiki/Battle_of_Novara_%281849%29 \"Battle of Novara (1849)\"). For its conduct at the battles of Goito, Mortara, and Novara the regiment was awarded three [Bronze Medals of Military Valor](/wiki/Bronze_Medal_of_Military_Valor \"Bronze Medal of Military Valor\").",
"On 3 January 1850 the regiment was reduced to four squadrons. In 1859 the regiment participated in the [Second Italian War of Independence](/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence \"Second Italian War of Independence\") and fought at [Borgo Vercelli](/wiki/Borgo_Vercelli \"Borgo Vercelli\"). On 16 September 1859 the Nizza ceded one of its squadrons to help form the [Regiment \"Cavalleggeri di Lodi\"](/wiki/Regiment_%22Cavalleggeri_di_Lodi%22 \"Regiment \") and on 19 October of the same year the regiment was redesignated as [Cuirassiers](/wiki/Cuirassier \"Cuirassier\") unit and renamed Regiment \"Corazzieri di Nizza\". Already on 6 June 1860 the regiment resumed to use its previous name Regiment \"Nizza Cavalleria\".",
"In the 1860\\-1861 the regiment participated in the [Sardinian campaign in central and southern Italy](/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand \"Expedition of the Thousand\") and fought in the battles of Perugia and Spoleto, and in the Siege of Capua. In 1866 the regiment participated in the [Third Italian War of Independence](/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence \"Third Italian War of Independence\") and fought in the [Battle of Custoza](/wiki/Battle_of_Custoza_%281866%29 \"Battle of Custoza (1866)\").",
"Over the next years the regiment repeatedly changed its name:",
"* 10 September 1871: 1st Cavalry Regiment (Nizza)\n* 5 November 1876: Cavalry Regiment \"Nizza\" (1st)\n* 16 December 1897: Regiment \"Nizza Cavalleria\" (1st)",
"In 1887 the regiment contributed to the formation of the Mounted Hunters Squadron, which fought in the [Italo\\-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889](/wiki/Italo-Ethiopian_War_of_1887%E2%80%931889 \"Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889\"). In 1895\\-96 the regiment provided one officer and 68 enlisted for units deployed to [Italian Eritrea](/wiki/Italian_Eritrea \"Italian Eritrea\") for the [First Italo\\-Ethiopian War](/wiki/First_Italo-Ethiopian_War \"First Italo-Ethiopian War\"). On 1 October 1909 the Nizza ceded one of its squadrons to help form new Regiment \"Lancieri di Mantova\" (25th). In 1911\\-12 the regiment provided five officers and 157 enlisted to augment units fighting in the [Italo\\-Turkish War](/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War \"Italo-Turkish War\").",
"### World War I",
"At the outbreak of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") the regiment consisted of a command, the regimental depot, and two cavalry groups, with the I Group consisting of three squadrons and the II Group consisting of two squadrons and a machine gun section. Together with the Regiment \"Lancieri di Vercelli\" (26th) the Nizza formed the VII Cavalry Brigade of the 4th Cavalry Division of \"Piemonte\". The division fought dismounted in the trenches of the [Italian Front](/wiki/Italian_front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Italian front (World War I)\"). In 1916 the regiment was reinforced with the 3rd Squadron of the Regiment \"Cavalleggeri di Aquila\" (27th) and the same year the regiment was awarded its fourth [Bronze Medal of Military Valor](/wiki/Bronze_Medal_of_Military_Valor \"Bronze Medal of Military Valor\") for the regiment's conduct in the [Battle of Monfalcone](/wiki/Battle_of_Monfalcone \"Battle of Monfalcone\"). In 1917 the regimental depot in [Savigliano](/wiki/Savigliano \"Savigliano\") formed the 739th and the 1558th dismounted machine gunners companies as reinforcement for infantry units on the front. In 1918 the regiment fought in the [Battle of Vittorio Veneto](/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto \"Battle of Vittorio Veneto\").",
"### Interwar years",
"After the war the Italian Army disbanded 14 of its 30 cavalry regiments, which did not affect the Nizza Cavalleria. However on 20 May 1920 a further five cavalry regiments were disbanded and the Nizza received and integrated a squadron of the disbanded [Regiment \"Lancieri di Montebello\" (8th)](/wiki/Regiment_%22Lancieri_di_Montebello%22_%288th%29 \"Regiment \"), and received the traditions of the Regiment \"Lancieri di Montebello\" (8th). The same year the regiment moved from Savigliano to [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\").",
"In 1935\\-36 the regiment contributed 14 officers and 436 enlisted for units, which were deployed to [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\") for the [Second Italo\\-Ethiopian War](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War \"Second Italo-Ethiopian War\").",
"### World War II",
"At the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") the regiment consisted of a command, a command squadron, the I and II squadrons groups, each with two mounted squadrons, and the 5th Machine Gunners Squadron. In June 1940 the regiment participated in the [invasion of France](/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France \"Italian invasion of France\") and in April 1941 the regiment participated in the [invasion of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia \"Invasion of Yugoslavia\"). In November 1942 the regiment participated in the [occupation of Vichy France](/wiki/Case_Anton \"Case Anton\"). After the announcement of the [Armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile \"Armistice of Cassibile\") on 8 September 1943 [invading German forces](/wiki/Fall_Achse \"Fall Achse\") disbanded the regiment in Turin.",
"During the war the regiment's depot in [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\") formed the:\n* III Tank Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\", with [L6/40 tanks](/wiki/L6/40_tank \"L6/40 tank\")\n* IV Armored Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\"\n* V Armored Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\"\n* IV Road Movement Battalion \"Nizza Cavalleria\"\n* XI Road Movement Battalion \"Nizza Cavalleria\"\n* LI Dismounted Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\"\n* CXXXII Armored Reconnaissance Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\"",
"In September 1941 III Tank Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\" was sent to [Italian Libya](/wiki/Italian_Libya \"Italian Libya\") and assigned to the [132nd Armored Division \"Ariete\"](/wiki/132nd_Armored_Division_%22Ariete%22 \"132nd Armored Division \") for the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign \"Western Desert Campaign\"). After the defeat in the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein \"Second Battle of El Alamein\") the remnants of the III Tank Group participated in the retreat to [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\") and there in the [Tunisian Campaign](/wiki/Tunisian_Campaign \"Tunisian Campaign\"). The remnants of the Ariete and the III Tank Group surrendered to the allies on 13 May 1943\\.",
"The IV Armored Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\", which consisted of one squadron equipped with [L6/40 tanks](/wiki/L6/40_tank \"L6/40 tank\") and one squadron equipped with [AB\\-41](/wiki/Autoblindo_Fiat-Ansaldo \"Autoblindo Fiat-Ansaldo\") armored cars, was sent to [Albania](/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_%281939%E2%80%931943%29 \"Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)\"). After the announcement of the [Armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile \"Armistice of Cassibile\") on 8 September 1943 the group's armored cars squadron joined the [41st Infantry Division \"Firenze\"](/wiki/41st_Infantry_Division_%22Firenze%22 \"41st Infantry Division \"), which fought against the Germans and then joined the [Albanian National Liberation Army](/wiki/Albanian_National_Liberation_Army \"Albanian National Liberation Army\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Reggimento \"Nizza Cavalleria\" 1° \\|url\\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/cavalleria/regcav1\\.htm \\|publisher\\=Regio Esercito \\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2022}}",
"At the end of 1943 the Reconnaissance Squadron \"Nizza Cavalleria\" was formed in [Cava dei Tirreni](/wiki/Cava_dei_Tirreni \"Cava dei Tirreni\") by the [Italian Co\\-belligerent Army](/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army \"Italian Co-belligerent Army\"). The squadron was initially assigned to the [IX Assault Unit](/wiki/IX_Assault_Unit \"IX Assault Unit\"), which in June 1944 liberated [Cingoli](/wiki/Cingoli \"Cingoli\") from German occupation in the [Battle of Ancona](/wiki/Battle_of_Ancona \"Battle of Ancona\"). Afterwards the squadron was assigned to the [Polish II Corps](/wiki/Polish_II_Corps \"Polish II Corps\") for the remainder of the [Italian campaign](/wiki/Italian_campaign_%28World_War_II%29 \"Italian campaign (World War II)\").",
"### Cold War",
"{{Also\\|Infantry Division \"Cremona\"}}",
"On 24 November 1946 the Divisional Reconnaissance Group \"1° Dragoni\" was formed in [Pinerolo](/wiki/Pinerolo \"Pinerolo\") and assigned to the [Infantry Division \"Cremona\"](/wiki/Infantry_Division_%22Cremona%22 \"Infantry Division \"). On 1 March 1950 the group was renamed Armored Cavalry Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\" and on 1 April 1951 it was expanded to 1st Armored Cavalry Regiment \"Nizza Cavalleria\". The regiment consisted of a command, a command squadron, and three squadrons groups, which were equipped initially with [M4 Sherman](/wiki/M4_Sherman \"M4 Sherman\") tanks and then with [M47 Patton](/wiki/M47_Patton \"M47 Patton\") tanks. On 4 November 1958 the regiment was renamed Regiment \"Nizza Cavalleria\" (1st). On 2 December 1958, the regiment's III Squadrons Group was disbanded and its personnel and equipment used to reform the [III Tank Battalion](/wiki/3rd_Tank_Battalion_%22M.O._Galas%22 \"3rd Tank Battalion \"), which was assigned to the [32nd Tank Regiment](/wiki/32nd_Tank_Regiment_%28Italy%29 \"32nd Tank Regiment (Italy)\").",
"On 15 January 1959 the regiment was disbanded and the regiment's I Squadrons Group was reorganized as divisional reconnaissance group and renamed Squadrons Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\". The group remained assigned to the Infantry Division \"Cremona\".",
"During the [1975 army reform](/wiki/Italian_Army_1975_reform \"Italian Army 1975 reform\") the army disbanded the regimental level and newly independent battalions were granted for the first time their own flags. On 31 July 1975 the Squadrons Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\" was reorganized and renamed 1st Armored Squadrons Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\" and assigned the flag and traditions of the Regiment \"Nizza Cavalleria\" (1st).{{cite web \\|title\\=Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica 12 novembre 1976, n. 846 \\|url\\=https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie\\_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta\\=1976\\-12\\-22\\&atto.codiceRedazionale\\=076U0846 \\|publisher\\=Quirinale \\- Presidenza della Repubblica \\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2024}} The squadrons group consisted of a command, a command and services squadron, two tank squadrons with [M47 Patton](/wiki/M47_Patton \"M47 Patton\") tanks, and one mechanized squadron with [M113](/wiki/M113_armored_personnel_carrier \"M113 armored personnel carrier\") [armored personnel carriers](/wiki/Armored_personnel_carrier \"Armored personnel carrier\"). At the time the squadrons group fielded 536 men (34 officers, 83 non\\-commissioned officers, and 419 soldiers).{{cite book \\|last1\\=Stefani \\|first1\\=Filippo \\|title\\=La storia della dottrina e degli ordinamenti dell'Esercito Italiano \\- Vol. III \\- Tomo 2° \\|date\\=1989 \\|publisher\\=Ufficio Storico \\- Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito \\|location\\=Rome \\|pages\\=1190\\-1192}} The squadrons groups was assigned to the [Motorized Brigade \"Cremona\"](/wiki/Motorized_Brigade_%22Cremona%22 \"Motorized Brigade \").",
"### Recent times",
"On 11 September 1991 the 1st Armored Squadrons Group \"Nizza Cavalleria\" lost its autonomy and the next day the squadrons group entered the newly formed 1st Regiment \"Nizza Cavalleria\". The regiment consisted of a command, a command and services squadron, and a squadrons group with three armored squadrons equipped with [Leopard 1A5](/wiki/Leopard_1 \"Leopard 1\") [main battle tanks](/wiki/Main_battle_tank \"Main battle tank\"). On the same day the regiment left the [Motorized Brigade \"Cremona\"](/wiki/Motorized_Brigade_%22Cremona%22 \"Motorized Brigade \") and was assigned to the [3rd Army Corps](/wiki/3rd_Army_Corps_%28Italy%29 \"3rd Army Corps (Italy)\"). On 1 August 1992 the regiment was renamed Regiment \"Nizza Cavalleria\" (1st). In 1993 the regiment began to replace its Leopard 1A5 with wheeled [Centauro](/wiki/B1_Centauro \"B1 Centauro\") tank destroyers.",
"In 1996 the regiment was transferred from the [3rd Army Corps](/wiki/3rd_Army_Corps_%28Italy%29 \"3rd Army Corps (Italy)\") to the [Armored Brigade \"Centauro\"](/wiki/Armored_Brigade_%22Centauro%22 \"Armored Brigade \"). When the Centauro was disbanded in 5 October 2002 the regiment was transferred to the [Alpine Brigade \"Taurinense\"](/wiki/Alpine_Brigade_%22Taurinense%22 \"Alpine Brigade \"). On 11 July 2013 the regiment moved from Pinerolo to [Bellinzago Novarese](/wiki/Bellinzago_Novarese \"Bellinzago Novarese\"), where the regiment took over the barracks of the [4th Tank Regiment](/wiki/4th_Tank_Regiment_%28Italy%29 \"4th Tank Regiment (Italy)\"), which had moved to [Persano](/wiki/Persano \"Persano\").",
""
] |
Biography and works
-------------------
Régis was born at [Istres](/wiki/Istres "Istres"), in [Provence](/wiki/Provence "Provence"). He was received into the [Society of Jesus](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus "Society of Jesus") on 14 September 1683, or 13 September 1679, and in 1698 went on the Chinese mission, where he served science and the Catholic religion for forty years, and took the chief share in the making of the general map of the Chinese Empire. He died in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing").
The early Jesuit missionaries had already endeavoured to make known to Europe the true geography of China, of which at the end of the 16th century even the best cartographers were utterly ignorant. Their achievements up to the middle of the 17th century are summed up in the {{lang\|la\|Novus Atlas Sinensis}} published by [Martin Martini](/wiki/Martin_Martini "Martin Martini") (Amsterdam, 1655\). He was greatly assisted in this work by Chinese books of geography, where he found a mass of descriptive information, the distances between important places, and even maps which however were very crude, the distances having been measured with little exactitude. These imperfect data he supplemented and completed by astronomical observations made in the chief towns by himself and his associates; hence the positions of his Atlas are remarkably accurate. The favour enjoyed by the missionaries with the [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor "Kangxi Emperor") (1662–1722\) made it possible for them to improve on this. [Ferdinand Verbiest](/wiki/Ferdinand_Verbiest "Ferdinand Verbiest") collected the earliest ideas of "[Tatary](/wiki/Tatary "Tatary")" (i.e. the [Mongol Empire](/wiki/Mongol_Empire "Mongol Empire")) during two journeys made to that country with the emperor (1682–1683\).
The arrival in China in 1687 of French Jesuits sent by [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV") gave new impetus to scholarly labours in the mission, especially to geography. Provided with perfected instruments and trained in the methods of the astronomers of the [observatory of Paris](/wiki/Observatory_of_Paris "Observatory of Paris"), the new missionaries were able to determine more correctly locations already calculated. The {{lang\|fr\|Mémoires}} and the {{lang\|fr\|Histoire de l'Académie des Sciences}} record their observations. [Jean\-François Gerbillion](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Gerbillion "Jean-François Gerbillion") made eight journeys through Tatary and [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia") (1688–98\) acquiring more geographical information concerning them. In 1701 the great work of the general map of the empire, begun by the topographical drawing of the capital city of [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing") and its environs, including the ancient summer residences of the emperors and 1700 towns or villages, was assigned to [Antoine Thomas](/wiki/Antoine_Thomas "Antoine Thomas"), a Belgian of Namur, and three Frenchmen, [Joachim Bouvet](/wiki/Joachim_Bouvet "Joachim Bouvet"), Jean Baptiste Régis and [Dominique Parrenin](/wiki/Dominique_Parrenin "Dominique Parrenin"). [Qing Emperor](/wiki/Qing_Dynasty "Qing Dynasty") [Kangxi](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor "Kangxi Emperor"), who wished to take measures against the periodic overflow of the rivers of [Zhili](/wiki/Zhili "Zhili"), was satisfied.
Parennin then induced him to consent to a map of the [Great Wall of China](/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China "Great Wall of China"). Bouvet, Régis and [Pierre Jartoux](/wiki/Pierre_Jartoux "Pierre Jartoux") measured their route to the eastern extremity of the famous rampart by means of regularly divided cords, keeping track of directions with the assistance of a compass, and frequently observing the meridian of the sun in order to calculate latitudes. In four days they reached the [Gulf of Zhili](/wiki/Gulf_of_Zhili "Gulf of Zhili") (8 June 1708\) and began operations on the great Wall. On 16 October they estimated its extent to be 21° long., or almost half the widest breadth of the United States from east to west and had determined the positions of the fortified towns "by which it was flanked", according to Régis. At the end of two months, Bouvet, being ill, retired to Beijing. Régis and Jartoux reached the western edge of the Great Wall at [Jiayuguan](/wiki/Jiayuguan_%28pass%29 "Jiayuguan (pass)") and completed their work by the mensuration of an interior lateral wall which had brought them to [Xining](/wiki/Xining "Xining"), on the frontier of [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet "Tibet"), near [Lake Kukunor](/wiki/Lake_Kukunor "Lake Kukunor"). They returned to Beijing on 10 January 1709\. Their map pleased the Kangxi Emperor, who requested the continuation of the work for the provinces outside the Great Wall and for China proper.
Régis, Jartoux and [Ernbert Fridelli](/wiki/Ernbert_Fridelli "Ernbert Fridelli"), from the Austrian Tyrol, set out for the northeast. In two expeditions (8 May \- 17 December 1709; 22 July \- 14 December 1710\) they made the map of [Liaodong](/wiki/Liaodong "Liaodong") and [Manchuria](/wiki/Manchuria "Manchuria"), and during the interval drew the province of Zhili, in which Beijing is situated. In 1711 the Portuguese priest [Francis Cardoso](/wiki/Francis_Cardoso "Francis Cardoso"), and the [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians "Augustinians") [Guillaume Bonjour](/wiki/Guillaume_Bonjour "Guillaume Bonjour"), the only non\-Jesuit, joined the geographers. Régis and Cardoso drew the map of [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong"); Jartoux, Fridelli and Bonjour traversed Mongolia as far as [Lake Baikal](/wiki/Lake_Baikal "Lake Baikal") in the north and the [Zunghar Khanate](/wiki/Zunghar_Khanate "Zunghar Khanate") to the west. The year 1712 brought a new reinforcement; [Vincent de Tartre](/wiki/Vincent_de_Tartre "Vincent de Tartre") and Cardoso made the maps of [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi "Shanxi") and [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi") (1712–14\), [Jiangxi](/wiki/Jiangxi "Jiangxi") and [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong "Guangdong"), and [Guangxi](/wiki/Guangxi "Guangxi"); [Anne\-Marie de Mailla](/wiki/Anne-Marie_de_Mailla "Anne-Marie de Mailla"), [Roman Hinderer](/wiki/Roman_Hinderer "Roman Hinderer"), an Alsatian, and Régis laboured (1712–15\) on the maps of [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan "Hunan"), [Jiangnan](/wiki/Jiangnan "Jiangnan"), [Zhejiang](/wiki/Zhejiang "Zhejiang"), [Fujian](/wiki/Fujian "Fujian") and the [Island of Formosa](/wiki/Island_of_Formosa "Island of Formosa"). Meanwhile, Fridelli and Bonjour were at [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan"), where Bonjour died on 23 December 1714, and was replaced by Régis on 24 March 1715\. He assisted Fridelli with the maps of [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan "Yunnan"), [Guizhou](/wiki/Guizhou "Guizhou") and [Huguang](/wiki/Huguang_Province "Huguang Province"). After ten years' labour the new map of China was completed on 1 January 1717\. The fundamental method employed was the exact measurement of distances from which was obtained the longitude and latitude of places; this, supplemented and controlled by the observations of the meridians of the sun and the polar stars, directly gave the latitude. The missionaries were sometimes assisted by the observation of eclipses of the moon and the satellites of Jupiter, of which more perfect process they desired to make use to obtain longitudes, but conditions did not permit.
In reply to a criticism of [Féret](/wiki/Nicolas_Fr%C3%A9ret "Nicolas Fréret"), the {{ill\|learned secretary\|ru\|Учёный секретарь}} of the [Académie des Inscriptions et Belles\-Lettres](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettres "Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres"), [Antoine Gaubil](/wiki/Antoine_Gaubil "Antoine Gaubil") wrote (5 November 1736\):
"When thinking of a map of China and Tatary, you had in mind such men as MM. [Cassini](/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini "Giovanni Domenico Cassini"), [Maraldi](/wiki/Giacomo_F._Maraldi "Giacomo F. Maraldi"), [Chazelles](/wiki/Jean_Mathieu_de_Chazelles "Jean Mathieu de Chazelles") and others who worked at the meridian assisted by all the necessary instruments and having plenty of time at their disposals. Our Fathers made use of the [avocation](/wiki/Avocation "Avocation") of map\-makers to do missionary work, to procure assistance and protection for the missionaries of the provinces, and to establish new missions. The Chinese and Tartar mandarins who accompanied them hindered them exceedingly; they had orders not to let the Fathers go where they would, ... and would never allow them sufficient time for observation of meridians, the measurement of roads, the variation of the needle (magnetic needle), the rhomb, and the estimation of positions from these elements. The work being finished the completed map had to be sent in haste to the emperor ... compared to what was done elsewhere for maps of countries smaller than China and Tartary this work can but do honour to the Tatar prince who commanded such a worthy undertaking and assuredly it did not discredit our Fathers."
[Ferdinand de Richthofer](/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Richthofer "Ferdinand de Richthofer"), the geologist and explorer of China, wrote "If we consider the time at which it was made, the map of the Jesuits, as a whole, may be called a masterpiece" (China, I, 686\).
Jartoux, who with Régis and Fridelli had the largest share in it, sent a copy to France, where it was published by [Jean\-Baptiste du Halde](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_du_Halde "Jean-Baptiste du Halde") with the assistance of the celebrated geographer [Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville](/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Bourguignon_d%27Anville "Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville") in the {{lang\|fr\|Description de la Chine}} (1735\). Régis composed a short commentary on it under the name of {{lang\|fr\|Nouvelle géographie de la Chine et de la Tartarie orientale}}, which is preserved in the [Bibliothèque Nationale](/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale "Bibliothèque Nationale"), Paris, fr. MS. 17, 242; Du Halde availed himself of the writing to a great extent but would have done better to publish it entire.
Régis also turned his attention to the ancient Chinese books (king). Gaubil praises his "sane criticism" on the subject, and the English sinologist [James Legge](/wiki/James_Legge "James Legge") writes: "Régis is known as the interpreter of the *[Yih\-king](/wiki/I_Ching "I Ching")*. His work was edited at Stuttgart, in 1834, by [Julius Mohl](/wiki/Julius_Mohl "Julius Mohl"). One part of the first volume is occupied with Prolegomena which contain the most valuable introduction to the Chinese higher classics that has yet been published ("Notions of the Chinese concerning God and the spirits", 1852, 69\).
Gaubil describes his great virtue as humility and modesty, and says: "He was universally esteemed and loved by the missionaries of various bodies, Christians and the people of the Court who associated with him".
|
[
"Biography and works\n-------------------",
"Régis was born at [Istres](/wiki/Istres \"Istres\"), in [Provence](/wiki/Provence \"Provence\"). He was received into the [Society of Jesus](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus \"Society of Jesus\") on 14 September 1683, or 13 September 1679, and in 1698 went on the Chinese mission, where he served science and the Catholic religion for forty years, and took the chief share in the making of the general map of the Chinese Empire. He died in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\").",
"The early Jesuit missionaries had already endeavoured to make known to Europe the true geography of China, of which at the end of the 16th century even the best cartographers were utterly ignorant. Their achievements up to the middle of the 17th century are summed up in the {{lang\\|la\\|Novus Atlas Sinensis}} published by [Martin Martini](/wiki/Martin_Martini \"Martin Martini\") (Amsterdam, 1655\\). He was greatly assisted in this work by Chinese books of geography, where he found a mass of descriptive information, the distances between important places, and even maps which however were very crude, the distances having been measured with little exactitude. These imperfect data he supplemented and completed by astronomical observations made in the chief towns by himself and his associates; hence the positions of his Atlas are remarkably accurate. The favour enjoyed by the missionaries with the [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor \"Kangxi Emperor\") (1662–1722\\) made it possible for them to improve on this. [Ferdinand Verbiest](/wiki/Ferdinand_Verbiest \"Ferdinand Verbiest\") collected the earliest ideas of \"[Tatary](/wiki/Tatary \"Tatary\")\" (i.e. the [Mongol Empire](/wiki/Mongol_Empire \"Mongol Empire\")) during two journeys made to that country with the emperor (1682–1683\\).",
"The arrival in China in 1687 of French Jesuits sent by [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\") gave new impetus to scholarly labours in the mission, especially to geography. Provided with perfected instruments and trained in the methods of the astronomers of the [observatory of Paris](/wiki/Observatory_of_Paris \"Observatory of Paris\"), the new missionaries were able to determine more correctly locations already calculated. The {{lang\\|fr\\|Mémoires}} and the {{lang\\|fr\\|Histoire de l'Académie des Sciences}} record their observations. [Jean\\-François Gerbillion](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Gerbillion \"Jean-François Gerbillion\") made eight journeys through Tatary and [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\") (1688–98\\) acquiring more geographical information concerning them. In 1701 the great work of the general map of the empire, begun by the topographical drawing of the capital city of [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\") and its environs, including the ancient summer residences of the emperors and 1700 towns or villages, was assigned to [Antoine Thomas](/wiki/Antoine_Thomas \"Antoine Thomas\"), a Belgian of Namur, and three Frenchmen, [Joachim Bouvet](/wiki/Joachim_Bouvet \"Joachim Bouvet\"), Jean Baptiste Régis and [Dominique Parrenin](/wiki/Dominique_Parrenin \"Dominique Parrenin\"). [Qing Emperor](/wiki/Qing_Dynasty \"Qing Dynasty\") [Kangxi](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor \"Kangxi Emperor\"), who wished to take measures against the periodic overflow of the rivers of [Zhili](/wiki/Zhili \"Zhili\"), was satisfied.",
"Parennin then induced him to consent to a map of the [Great Wall of China](/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China \"Great Wall of China\"). Bouvet, Régis and [Pierre Jartoux](/wiki/Pierre_Jartoux \"Pierre Jartoux\") measured their route to the eastern extremity of the famous rampart by means of regularly divided cords, keeping track of directions with the assistance of a compass, and frequently observing the meridian of the sun in order to calculate latitudes. In four days they reached the [Gulf of Zhili](/wiki/Gulf_of_Zhili \"Gulf of Zhili\") (8 June 1708\\) and began operations on the great Wall. On 16 October they estimated its extent to be 21° long., or almost half the widest breadth of the United States from east to west and had determined the positions of the fortified towns \"by which it was flanked\", according to Régis. At the end of two months, Bouvet, being ill, retired to Beijing. Régis and Jartoux reached the western edge of the Great Wall at [Jiayuguan](/wiki/Jiayuguan_%28pass%29 \"Jiayuguan (pass)\") and completed their work by the mensuration of an interior lateral wall which had brought them to [Xining](/wiki/Xining \"Xining\"), on the frontier of [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet \"Tibet\"), near [Lake Kukunor](/wiki/Lake_Kukunor \"Lake Kukunor\"). They returned to Beijing on 10 January 1709\\. Their map pleased the Kangxi Emperor, who requested the continuation of the work for the provinces outside the Great Wall and for China proper.",
"Régis, Jartoux and [Ernbert Fridelli](/wiki/Ernbert_Fridelli \"Ernbert Fridelli\"), from the Austrian Tyrol, set out for the northeast. In two expeditions (8 May \\- 17 December 1709; 22 July \\- 14 December 1710\\) they made the map of [Liaodong](/wiki/Liaodong \"Liaodong\") and [Manchuria](/wiki/Manchuria \"Manchuria\"), and during the interval drew the province of Zhili, in which Beijing is situated. In 1711 the Portuguese priest [Francis Cardoso](/wiki/Francis_Cardoso \"Francis Cardoso\"), and the [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians \"Augustinians\") [Guillaume Bonjour](/wiki/Guillaume_Bonjour \"Guillaume Bonjour\"), the only non\\-Jesuit, joined the geographers. Régis and Cardoso drew the map of [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\"); Jartoux, Fridelli and Bonjour traversed Mongolia as far as [Lake Baikal](/wiki/Lake_Baikal \"Lake Baikal\") in the north and the [Zunghar Khanate](/wiki/Zunghar_Khanate \"Zunghar Khanate\") to the west. The year 1712 brought a new reinforcement; [Vincent de Tartre](/wiki/Vincent_de_Tartre \"Vincent de Tartre\") and Cardoso made the maps of [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") and [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\") (1712–14\\), [Jiangxi](/wiki/Jiangxi \"Jiangxi\") and [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong \"Guangdong\"), and [Guangxi](/wiki/Guangxi \"Guangxi\"); [Anne\\-Marie de Mailla](/wiki/Anne-Marie_de_Mailla \"Anne-Marie de Mailla\"), [Roman Hinderer](/wiki/Roman_Hinderer \"Roman Hinderer\"), an Alsatian, and Régis laboured (1712–15\\) on the maps of [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan \"Hunan\"), [Jiangnan](/wiki/Jiangnan \"Jiangnan\"), [Zhejiang](/wiki/Zhejiang \"Zhejiang\"), [Fujian](/wiki/Fujian \"Fujian\") and the [Island of Formosa](/wiki/Island_of_Formosa \"Island of Formosa\"). Meanwhile, Fridelli and Bonjour were at [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\"), where Bonjour died on 23 December 1714, and was replaced by Régis on 24 March 1715\\. He assisted Fridelli with the maps of [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan \"Yunnan\"), [Guizhou](/wiki/Guizhou \"Guizhou\") and [Huguang](/wiki/Huguang_Province \"Huguang Province\"). After ten years' labour the new map of China was completed on 1 January 1717\\. The fundamental method employed was the exact measurement of distances from which was obtained the longitude and latitude of places; this, supplemented and controlled by the observations of the meridians of the sun and the polar stars, directly gave the latitude. The missionaries were sometimes assisted by the observation of eclipses of the moon and the satellites of Jupiter, of which more perfect process they desired to make use to obtain longitudes, but conditions did not permit.",
"In reply to a criticism of [Féret](/wiki/Nicolas_Fr%C3%A9ret \"Nicolas Fréret\"), the {{ill\\|learned secretary\\|ru\\|Учёный секретарь}} of the [Académie des Inscriptions et Belles\\-Lettres](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettres \"Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres\"), [Antoine Gaubil](/wiki/Antoine_Gaubil \"Antoine Gaubil\") wrote (5 November 1736\\):",
"\"When thinking of a map of China and Tatary, you had in mind such men as MM. [Cassini](/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini \"Giovanni Domenico Cassini\"), [Maraldi](/wiki/Giacomo_F._Maraldi \"Giacomo F. Maraldi\"), [Chazelles](/wiki/Jean_Mathieu_de_Chazelles \"Jean Mathieu de Chazelles\") and others who worked at the meridian assisted by all the necessary instruments and having plenty of time at their disposals. Our Fathers made use of the [avocation](/wiki/Avocation \"Avocation\") of map\\-makers to do missionary work, to procure assistance and protection for the missionaries of the provinces, and to establish new missions. The Chinese and Tartar mandarins who accompanied them hindered them exceedingly; they had orders not to let the Fathers go where they would, ... and would never allow them sufficient time for observation of meridians, the measurement of roads, the variation of the needle (magnetic needle), the rhomb, and the estimation of positions from these elements. The work being finished the completed map had to be sent in haste to the emperor ... compared to what was done elsewhere for maps of countries smaller than China and Tartary this work can but do honour to the Tatar prince who commanded such a worthy undertaking and assuredly it did not discredit our Fathers.\"\n[Ferdinand de Richthofer](/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Richthofer \"Ferdinand de Richthofer\"), the geologist and explorer of China, wrote \"If we consider the time at which it was made, the map of the Jesuits, as a whole, may be called a masterpiece\" (China, I, 686\\).",
"Jartoux, who with Régis and Fridelli had the largest share in it, sent a copy to France, where it was published by [Jean\\-Baptiste du Halde](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_du_Halde \"Jean-Baptiste du Halde\") with the assistance of the celebrated geographer [Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville](/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Bourguignon_d%27Anville \"Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville\") in the {{lang\\|fr\\|Description de la Chine}} (1735\\). Régis composed a short commentary on it under the name of {{lang\\|fr\\|Nouvelle géographie de la Chine et de la Tartarie orientale}}, which is preserved in the [Bibliothèque Nationale](/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale \"Bibliothèque Nationale\"), Paris, fr. MS. 17, 242; Du Halde availed himself of the writing to a great extent but would have done better to publish it entire.",
"Régis also turned his attention to the ancient Chinese books (king). Gaubil praises his \"sane criticism\" on the subject, and the English sinologist [James Legge](/wiki/James_Legge \"James Legge\") writes: \"Régis is known as the interpreter of the *[Yih\\-king](/wiki/I_Ching \"I Ching\")*. His work was edited at Stuttgart, in 1834, by [Julius Mohl](/wiki/Julius_Mohl \"Julius Mohl\"). One part of the first volume is occupied with Prolegomena which contain the most valuable introduction to the Chinese higher classics that has yet been published (\"Notions of the Chinese concerning God and the spirits\", 1852, 69\\).",
"Gaubil describes his great virtue as humility and modesty, and says: \"He was universally esteemed and loved by the missionaries of various bodies, Christians and the people of the Court who associated with him\".",
""
] |
Background
----------
Li Sisheng was born in 711, during the second reign of his grandfather [Emperor Ruizong](/wiki/Emperor_Ruizong_of_Tang "Emperor Ruizong of Tang"), as the third son of his father, then the Crown Prince, [Li Longji](/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang "Emperor Xuanzong of Tang"), who would later become Emperor Xuanzong. His mother Consort Yang Guipin (posthumously [Empress Yuanxian](/wiki/Empress_Yuanxian "Empress Yuanxian")) was from the imperial clan of the preceding [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty "Sui dynasty").
Her great\-grandfather Yang Shida ({{lang\|zh\|楊士達}}) was a high \-level official during Sui and had been given the title Prince of Zheng ({{lang\|zh\|鄭王}}). Her father Yang Zhiqing ({{lang\|zh\|楊知慶}}) was a general of the imperial guards during Tang. At the time that Consort Yang Guipin was pregnant with Li Sisheng, Li Longji was locked in a power struggle with his aunt, Emperor Ruizong's sister [Princess Taiping](/wiki/Princess_Taiping "Princess Taiping"), and it was said that Princess Taiping had placed many associates in the crown prince's palace to spy on Li Longji and that she did not want him to have many sons. (He already had two by that point—Li Sisheng's older brothers [Li Sizhi](/wiki/Li_Cong "Li Cong"), later named Li Cong (by Consort Liu) and [Li Siqian](/wiki/Li_Ying_%28prince%29 "Li Ying (prince)"), later named Li Ying (by Consort Zhao).)
Li Longji was worried that, if Princess Taiping found out that Yang Guipin was pregnant, Princess Taiping's associates might harm him, and he spoke to a close associate, [Zhang Yue](/wiki/Zhang_Yue_%28Tang_dynasty%29 "Zhang Yue (Tang dynasty)"), stating:
> "A powerful individual did not want me to have many sons. I am afraid that this woman would become a target. What do you think?"
Li Longji began to prepare an herbal stew that, in [traditional Chinese medicine](/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine "Traditional Chinese medicine"), was believed to be able to induce an [abortion](/wiki/Abortion "Abortion"), but as he did so, fell asleep and had a dream that a god descended and overturned the *[ding](/wiki/Ding_%28vessel%29 "Ding (vessel)")* holding the stew. When he told Zhang this as well, Zhang responded, "This is heaven's will. You should not worry."*Old Book of Tang*, [vol. 52](/wiki/s:%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B752 "舊唐書/卷52"). (As a result, later on in life, Li Sisheng would feel personally indebted to Zhang Yue.)*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 220](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7220 "資治通鑑/卷220").
In 712, Emperor Ruizong passed the throne to Li Longji, who took the throne as Emperor Xuanzong, but Emperor Ruizong retained actual power as *[Taishang Huang](/wiki/Taishang_Huang "Taishang Huang")* (retired emperor). Shortly after Emperor Xuanzong took the throne, Emperor Ruizong, as retired emperor, was the one who created Li Sisheng the Prince of Shan.
(After Emperor Xuanzong suppressed Princess Taiping's associates in 713 and forced her to commit suicide, Emperor Ruizong transferred imperial authorities to Emperor Xuanzong and was no longer involved in politics.) Li Siqian, whose mother Consort Zhao was then Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine, was created crown prince. Li Sisheng, although his mother alive, was raised by Emperor Xuanzong's wife [Empress Wang](/wiki/Empress_Wang_%28Xuanzong%29 "Empress Wang (Xuanzong)"), who was herself sonless.
It was said that in his childhood, he was kind and studious, and Emperor Xuanzong was pleased with him. Emperor Xuanzong thus made the officials He Zhizhang ({{lang\|zh\|賀知章}}), Pan Su ({{lang\|zh\|潘肅}}), Lü Xiang ({{lang\|zh\|呂向}}), Huangfu Bin ({{lang\|zh\|皇甫彬}}), and Xing Su ({{lang\|zh\|邢璹}}) accompany him in his studies.
In 724, due to the machinations of [Consort Wu](/wiki/Empress_Zhenshun "Empress Zhenshun"), who had by then become Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine, Empress Wang was deposed, and she died shortly after.*Old Book of Tang*, [vol. 51](/wiki/s:%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B751 "舊唐書/卷51"). Thereafter, Consort Wu began a campaign, in association with the [chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Tang_dynasty "Chancellor of the Tang dynasty") [Li Linfu](/wiki/Li_Linfu "Li Linfu"), to have her own son Li Qing the Prince of Shou made crown prince, but was not able to initially succeed. Meanwhile, in 726, Li Sisheng's title was changed to the Prince of Zhong, and his name was changed to Li Jun. In 728, his own mother Consort Yang Guipin died.
In 729, when there was a [Khitan](/wiki/Khitan_people "Khitan people") and [Kumo Xi](/wiki/Kumo_Xi "Kumo Xi") incursion, Li Jun was put in titular command of the army sent to repel the Khitan and the Xi, with Emperor Xuanzong's second cousin Li Hui ({{lang\|zh\|李褘}}) the Prince of Xin'an in actual command of the army. After Li Hui defeated the Khitan and the Xi, Li Jun was nevertheless rewarded with the honorific title of *Situ* ({{lang\|zh\|司徒}}), one of the [Three Ducal Ministers](/wiki/Three_Ducal_Ministers "Three Ducal Ministers"). In 735, his name was changed to Li Yu.
In 737, due to the machinations of Consort Wu, Li Ying, along with his brothers Li Yao ({{lang\|zh\|李瑤}}) the Prince of E and Li Ju ({{lang\|zh\|李琚}}) the Prince of Guang, was accused of crimes, deposed, and forced to commit suicide. Consort Wu and Li Linfu continued to lobby for Li Qing (whose name had been changed to Li Mao at this point) to be created crown prince, but with Consort Wu having died herself later in 737 and Emperor Xuanzong believing that Li Yu was capable, he hesitated.
At the urging of the eunuch [Gao Lishi](/wiki/Gao_Lishi "Gao Lishi"), who believed that one of his older sons should be made crown prince, Emperor Xuanzong created Li Yu crown prince on 24 Jun 738（\[开元二十六年]六月庚子，立忠王玙为皇太子。）*Jiu Tang Shu*, vol.09 and renamed him Li Shao. (As it was quickly pointed out that he thus shared a name with the [Liu Song](/wiki/Liu_Song "Liu Song") crown prince [Liu Shao](/wiki/Liu_Shao_%28Liu_Song%29 "Liu Shao (Liu Song)"), who killed his father and usurped the throne, his name was then quickly changed to Li Heng and would not change again thereafter.) One of his consorts, Consort Wei, the sister of the official Wei Jian ({{lang\|zh\|韋堅}}), was created crown princess.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"Li Sisheng was born in 711, during the second reign of his grandfather [Emperor Ruizong](/wiki/Emperor_Ruizong_of_Tang \"Emperor Ruizong of Tang\"), as the third son of his father, then the Crown Prince, [Li Longji](/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang \"Emperor Xuanzong of Tang\"), who would later become Emperor Xuanzong. His mother Consort Yang Guipin (posthumously [Empress Yuanxian](/wiki/Empress_Yuanxian \"Empress Yuanxian\")) was from the imperial clan of the preceding [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty \"Sui dynasty\").",
"Her great\\-grandfather Yang Shida ({{lang\\|zh\\|楊士達}}) was a high \\-level official during Sui and had been given the title Prince of Zheng ({{lang\\|zh\\|鄭王}}). Her father Yang Zhiqing ({{lang\\|zh\\|楊知慶}}) was a general of the imperial guards during Tang. At the time that Consort Yang Guipin was pregnant with Li Sisheng, Li Longji was locked in a power struggle with his aunt, Emperor Ruizong's sister [Princess Taiping](/wiki/Princess_Taiping \"Princess Taiping\"), and it was said that Princess Taiping had placed many associates in the crown prince's palace to spy on Li Longji and that she did not want him to have many sons. (He already had two by that point—Li Sisheng's older brothers [Li Sizhi](/wiki/Li_Cong \"Li Cong\"), later named Li Cong (by Consort Liu) and [Li Siqian](/wiki/Li_Ying_%28prince%29 \"Li Ying (prince)\"), later named Li Ying (by Consort Zhao).)",
"Li Longji was worried that, if Princess Taiping found out that Yang Guipin was pregnant, Princess Taiping's associates might harm him, and he spoke to a close associate, [Zhang Yue](/wiki/Zhang_Yue_%28Tang_dynasty%29 \"Zhang Yue (Tang dynasty)\"), stating: \n> \"A powerful individual did not want me to have many sons. I am afraid that this woman would become a target. What do you think?\"",
"Li Longji began to prepare an herbal stew that, in [traditional Chinese medicine](/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine \"Traditional Chinese medicine\"), was believed to be able to induce an [abortion](/wiki/Abortion \"Abortion\"), but as he did so, fell asleep and had a dream that a god descended and overturned the *[ding](/wiki/Ding_%28vessel%29 \"Ding (vessel)\")* holding the stew. When he told Zhang this as well, Zhang responded, \"This is heaven's will. You should not worry.\"*Old Book of Tang*, [vol. 52](/wiki/s:%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B752 \"舊唐書/卷52\"). (As a result, later on in life, Li Sisheng would feel personally indebted to Zhang Yue.)*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 220](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7220 \"資治通鑑/卷220\").",
"In 712, Emperor Ruizong passed the throne to Li Longji, who took the throne as Emperor Xuanzong, but Emperor Ruizong retained actual power as *[Taishang Huang](/wiki/Taishang_Huang \"Taishang Huang\")* (retired emperor). Shortly after Emperor Xuanzong took the throne, Emperor Ruizong, as retired emperor, was the one who created Li Sisheng the Prince of Shan.",
"(After Emperor Xuanzong suppressed Princess Taiping's associates in 713 and forced her to commit suicide, Emperor Ruizong transferred imperial authorities to Emperor Xuanzong and was no longer involved in politics.) Li Siqian, whose mother Consort Zhao was then Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine, was created crown prince. Li Sisheng, although his mother alive, was raised by Emperor Xuanzong's wife [Empress Wang](/wiki/Empress_Wang_%28Xuanzong%29 \"Empress Wang (Xuanzong)\"), who was herself sonless.",
"It was said that in his childhood, he was kind and studious, and Emperor Xuanzong was pleased with him. Emperor Xuanzong thus made the officials He Zhizhang ({{lang\\|zh\\|賀知章}}), Pan Su ({{lang\\|zh\\|潘肅}}), Lü Xiang ({{lang\\|zh\\|呂向}}), Huangfu Bin ({{lang\\|zh\\|皇甫彬}}), and Xing Su ({{lang\\|zh\\|邢璹}}) accompany him in his studies.",
"In 724, due to the machinations of [Consort Wu](/wiki/Empress_Zhenshun \"Empress Zhenshun\"), who had by then become Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine, Empress Wang was deposed, and she died shortly after.*Old Book of Tang*, [vol. 51](/wiki/s:%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B751 \"舊唐書/卷51\"). Thereafter, Consort Wu began a campaign, in association with the [chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Tang_dynasty \"Chancellor of the Tang dynasty\") [Li Linfu](/wiki/Li_Linfu \"Li Linfu\"), to have her own son Li Qing the Prince of Shou made crown prince, but was not able to initially succeed. Meanwhile, in 726, Li Sisheng's title was changed to the Prince of Zhong, and his name was changed to Li Jun. In 728, his own mother Consort Yang Guipin died.",
"In 729, when there was a [Khitan](/wiki/Khitan_people \"Khitan people\") and [Kumo Xi](/wiki/Kumo_Xi \"Kumo Xi\") incursion, Li Jun was put in titular command of the army sent to repel the Khitan and the Xi, with Emperor Xuanzong's second cousin Li Hui ({{lang\\|zh\\|李褘}}) the Prince of Xin'an in actual command of the army. After Li Hui defeated the Khitan and the Xi, Li Jun was nevertheless rewarded with the honorific title of *Situ* ({{lang\\|zh\\|司徒}}), one of the [Three Ducal Ministers](/wiki/Three_Ducal_Ministers \"Three Ducal Ministers\"). In 735, his name was changed to Li Yu.",
"In 737, due to the machinations of Consort Wu, Li Ying, along with his brothers Li Yao ({{lang\\|zh\\|李瑤}}) the Prince of E and Li Ju ({{lang\\|zh\\|李琚}}) the Prince of Guang, was accused of crimes, deposed, and forced to commit suicide. Consort Wu and Li Linfu continued to lobby for Li Qing (whose name had been changed to Li Mao at this point) to be created crown prince, but with Consort Wu having died herself later in 737 and Emperor Xuanzong believing that Li Yu was capable, he hesitated.",
"At the urging of the eunuch [Gao Lishi](/wiki/Gao_Lishi \"Gao Lishi\"), who believed that one of his older sons should be made crown prince, Emperor Xuanzong created Li Yu crown prince on 24 Jun 738（\\[开元二十六年]六月庚子，立忠王玙为皇太子。）*Jiu Tang Shu*, vol.09 and renamed him Li Shao. (As it was quickly pointed out that he thus shared a name with the [Liu Song](/wiki/Liu_Song \"Liu Song\") crown prince [Liu Shao](/wiki/Liu_Shao_%28Liu_Song%29 \"Liu Shao (Liu Song)\"), who killed his father and usurped the throne, his name was then quickly changed to Li Heng and would not change again thereafter.) One of his consorts, Consort Wei, the sister of the official Wei Jian ({{lang\\|zh\\|韋堅}}), was created crown princess.",
""
] |
As crown prince
---------------
[thumb\|"Qianyuan SuZong" during Suzong Emperor](/wiki/File:S407_Qianyuan_SuZong_%287243234232%29.jpg "S407 Qianyuan SuZong (7243234232).jpg")
As Li Heng's ascension to be crown prince was against Li Linfu's wishes, and also because Wei Jian, who drew favor from Emperor Xuanzong due to his abilities to increase revenues for the imperial treasury, was becoming a rival to Li Linfu at court, Li Linfu looked for ways to incriminate both Wei and Li Heng. In 746, when the official Yang Shenjin ({{lang\|zh\|楊慎矜}}), at Li Linfu's instigation, reported to Emperor Xuanzong that, one night, Li Heng met Wei while both were sightseeing, and shortly after, Wei met a friend of his, the general Huangfu Weiming ({{lang\|zh\|皇甫惟明}}) at a [Taoist temple](/wiki/Taoist_temple "Taoist temple"), Li Linfu used these incidents to accuse Wei and Huangfu of secretly pledging allegiance to Li Heng and planning to remove Emperor Xuanzong to replace him with Li Heng.
Wei and Huangfu were arrested and interrogated by Yang, Wang Hong ({{lang\|zh\|王鉷}}), and Ji Wen ({{lang\|zh\|吉溫}}), but Emperor Xuanzong, who did not want the case to further explode into a major incident although he believed Li Linfu's accusations, demoted Wei and Huangfu out of the capital and, for the time being, stopped the investigation. However, when Wei Jian's brothers Wei Lan ({{lang\|zh\|韋蘭}}) and Wei Zhi ({{lang\|zh\|韋芝}}) submitted a defense of their brother Wei Jian later in 746—and the defense cited words from Li Heng—Emperor Xuanzong was incensed.
Li Heng, in fear, divorced Crown Princess Wei and asked for the Wei brothers to be punished. The Wei brothers, along with a number of their associates—including the former chancellor [Li Shizhi](/wiki/Li_Shizhi "Li Shizhi"), Wei Bin ({{lang\|zh\|韋斌}}), Wei Jian's nephew Li Quan ({{lang\|zh\|李琄}}) the Prince of Xue, Pei Kuan ({{lang\|zh\|裴寬}}), and Li Qiwu ({{lang\|zh\|李齊物}}), were all demoted. (In 747, at Li Linfu's instigation, the Wei brothers, Huangfu, and Li Shizhi were all forced to commit suicide.)
Later in 746, yet another incident again nearly brought disaster to Li Heng. One of Li Heng's other consorts, Consort Du, was a daughter of the official Du Youlin ({{lang\|zh\|杜有鄰}}). Consort Du's brother\-in\-law Liu Ji ({{lang\|zh\|柳勣}}) had a dispute with the Du family and falsely accused them of using witchcraft in favor of Li Heng. Li Linfu had Ji Wen interrogate Liu, and Ji implicated Liu in the alleged plot as well. Du Youlin, Liu, and Liu's friend Wang Zeng ({{lang\|zh\|王曾}}) were all caned to death, and Li Heng felt compelled to expel Consort Du from the household as well. Li Linfu also used this case to have two other officials friendly with Liu, Li Yong ({{lang\|zh\|李邕}}) and Pei Dunfu ({{lang\|zh\|裴敦復}}), executed by caning.
In 747, when one of Emperor Xuanzong's favorite generals, [An Lushan](/wiki/An_Lushan "An Lushan"), visited the capital [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an "Chang'an") to pay respect to Emperor Xuanzong, An, who was not [Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese "Han Chinese"), initially refused to bow to Li Heng—pretending that he was only loyal to Emperor Xuanzong and to no one else, including the crown prince, and that he did not even know what a crown prince was.
Only after Emperor Xuanzong explained what a crown prince is—the reserve emperor, to succeed him later—was An willing to bow to Li Heng. This caused Emperor Xuanzong to favor An even more, but also later caused An to be apprehensive of whether Li Heng would bear continued resentment toward him over the incident.
Later in 747, Li Linfu tried to use yet another case to undermine Li Heng. The general [Wang Zhongsi](/wiki/Wang_Zhongsi "Wang Zhongsi"), who was raised with Li Heng inside the palace because his father Wang Haibin ({{lang\|zh\|王海賓}}) had died in battle in service to the empire, was accused of interfering with the campaign of another general, Dong Yan'guang ({{lang\|zh\|董延光}}), against [Tibetan Empire](/wiki/Tibetan_Empire "Tibetan Empire").
Li Linfu broadened the accusation to an accusation that Wang was planning to start a coup to overthrow Emperor Xuanzong and replace him with Li Heng. At the intercession of another general, [Geshu Han](/wiki/Geshu_Han "Geshu Han"), however, Wang was spared from death, and Li Heng was not implicated. It was said that during this time period, Li Linfu made other attempts to undermine Li Heng, but with Gao Lishi and Zhang Shuo's son Zhang Ji ({{lang\|zh\|張垍}}), who had married Li Heng's sister Princess Ningqing, protecting Li Heng, Li Heng escaped unharmed each time.
As of 754, the chancellor in power was [Yang Guozhong](/wiki/Yang_Guozhong "Yang Guozhong") (Li Linfu having died in 752\), the cousin of Emperor Xuanzong's then\-favorite concubine [Yang Guifei](/wiki/Yang_Guifei "Yang Guifei") (unrelated to Li Heng's mother). Yang Guozhong and An were locked in a power struggle, and Yang repeatedly accused An of plotting a rebellion, but Emperor Xuanzong would not believe it, although Li Heng eventually came to agree with Yang Guozhong.
In late 755, with Yang Guozhong repeatedly trying to provoke An into a rebellion, An finally did, from his base at Fanyang (范陽, in modern [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing")). After the rebellion started, Emperor Xuanzong briefly considered making Li Heng [regent](/wiki/Regent "Regent"), but at the pleas of Consort Yang and her three sisters (who were fearful that Li Heng would act against them if he had regent powers), did not actually do so.
By summer 756, An had declared a new state of [Yan](/wiki/Yan_%28An%E2%80%93Shi%29 "Yan (An–Shi)") as its emperor, and his forces were approaching Chang'an.
On July 14, 756,According to Tang Xuanzong's biography in the *[Old Book of Tang](/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang "Old Book of Tang")*, he abandoned Chang'an in the early hours of the *yiwei* day in the 6th month of the 15th year of the Tianbao era of his reign. This corresponds to 14 Jul 756 in the Gregorian calendar.(「(天宝十五载六月)乙未，凌晨自延秋门出，...」) *Old Book of Tang*, vol. 9\. Emperor Xuanzong, with Yang Guozhong suggesting that they flee to Jiannan Circuit (劍南, headquartered in modern [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu "Chengdu")), abandoned Chang'an and fled with Gao Lishi, Yang Guozhong, Wei, Li Heng, Consort Yang, and her family. The following day, July 15, the imperial guards accompanying the emperor, angry at Yang Guozhong, rose at Mawei Station (馬嵬, in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji "Baoji"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")) and killed him and forced Emperor Xuanzong to kill Consort Yang as well.
Emperor Xuanzong then poised to continue to head toward Jiannan. The people in the Mawei region tried to persuade Emperor Xuanzong not to continue on—believing that Chang'an could be recaptured. Emperor Xuanzong asked Li Heng to try to comfort the people. Once Li Heng left Emperor Xuanzong's presence, however, Li Fuguo and Li Heng's sons [Li Tan](/wiki/Li_Tan "Li Tan") the Prince of Jianning and [Li Chu](/wiki/Emperor_Daizong_of_Tang "Emperor Daizong of Tang") the Prince of Guangping, persuaded Li Heng not to follow Emperor Xuanzong to Jiannan—arguing that with the physical barriers between Chang'an and Jiannan, that once they had left the region, Chang'an could no longer be captured.
Li Heng agreed and had Li Chu report this to Emperor Xuanzong. Emperor Xuanzong agreed with Li Heng's decision, but he himself continued on to Jiannan. Li Heng, escorted by a small number of guard soldiers commanded by Li Tan, then headed to the border city of [Lingwu](/wiki/Lingwu "Lingwu"). With the army at Lingwu pressuring him to take imperial title, Li Heng declared himself emperor on August 13 (as Emperor Suzong).
When news of this reached Emperor Xuanzong in Jiannan, Emperor Xuanzong recognized Emperor Suzong as emperor and took the title of *[Taishang Huang](/wiki/Taishang_Huang "Taishang Huang")* (retired emperor), although he continued to exercise some imperial authority—including, for example, issuing an edict that posthumously honored Emperor Suzong's mother Consort Yang as [Empress Yuanxian](/wiki/Empress_Yuanxian "Empress Yuanxian"). (Some historians, including the modern historian [Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang "Bo Yang"), believed that Emperor Xuanzong's continued issuance of edicts, while not on the surface conflicting with Emperor Suzong's authority, caused Emperor Suzong pressure to try to recapture Chang'an as quickly as possible to avoid any contention for the throne—either in the form of Emperor Xuanzong himself resuming imperial authority or in the form of another imperial prince rising to defeat Yan.*[Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang "Bo Yang") Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian*, vol. 53 \[757].)
|
[
"As crown prince\n---------------",
"[thumb\\|\"Qianyuan SuZong\" during Suzong Emperor](/wiki/File:S407_Qianyuan_SuZong_%287243234232%29.jpg \"S407 Qianyuan SuZong (7243234232).jpg\")\nAs Li Heng's ascension to be crown prince was against Li Linfu's wishes, and also because Wei Jian, who drew favor from Emperor Xuanzong due to his abilities to increase revenues for the imperial treasury, was becoming a rival to Li Linfu at court, Li Linfu looked for ways to incriminate both Wei and Li Heng. In 746, when the official Yang Shenjin ({{lang\\|zh\\|楊慎矜}}), at Li Linfu's instigation, reported to Emperor Xuanzong that, one night, Li Heng met Wei while both were sightseeing, and shortly after, Wei met a friend of his, the general Huangfu Weiming ({{lang\\|zh\\|皇甫惟明}}) at a [Taoist temple](/wiki/Taoist_temple \"Taoist temple\"), Li Linfu used these incidents to accuse Wei and Huangfu of secretly pledging allegiance to Li Heng and planning to remove Emperor Xuanzong to replace him with Li Heng.",
"Wei and Huangfu were arrested and interrogated by Yang, Wang Hong ({{lang\\|zh\\|王鉷}}), and Ji Wen ({{lang\\|zh\\|吉溫}}), but Emperor Xuanzong, who did not want the case to further explode into a major incident although he believed Li Linfu's accusations, demoted Wei and Huangfu out of the capital and, for the time being, stopped the investigation. However, when Wei Jian's brothers Wei Lan ({{lang\\|zh\\|韋蘭}}) and Wei Zhi ({{lang\\|zh\\|韋芝}}) submitted a defense of their brother Wei Jian later in 746—and the defense cited words from Li Heng—Emperor Xuanzong was incensed.",
"Li Heng, in fear, divorced Crown Princess Wei and asked for the Wei brothers to be punished. The Wei brothers, along with a number of their associates—including the former chancellor [Li Shizhi](/wiki/Li_Shizhi \"Li Shizhi\"), Wei Bin ({{lang\\|zh\\|韋斌}}), Wei Jian's nephew Li Quan ({{lang\\|zh\\|李琄}}) the Prince of Xue, Pei Kuan ({{lang\\|zh\\|裴寬}}), and Li Qiwu ({{lang\\|zh\\|李齊物}}), were all demoted. (In 747, at Li Linfu's instigation, the Wei brothers, Huangfu, and Li Shizhi were all forced to commit suicide.)",
"Later in 746, yet another incident again nearly brought disaster to Li Heng. One of Li Heng's other consorts, Consort Du, was a daughter of the official Du Youlin ({{lang\\|zh\\|杜有鄰}}). Consort Du's brother\\-in\\-law Liu Ji ({{lang\\|zh\\|柳勣}}) had a dispute with the Du family and falsely accused them of using witchcraft in favor of Li Heng. Li Linfu had Ji Wen interrogate Liu, and Ji implicated Liu in the alleged plot as well. Du Youlin, Liu, and Liu's friend Wang Zeng ({{lang\\|zh\\|王曾}}) were all caned to death, and Li Heng felt compelled to expel Consort Du from the household as well. Li Linfu also used this case to have two other officials friendly with Liu, Li Yong ({{lang\\|zh\\|李邕}}) and Pei Dunfu ({{lang\\|zh\\|裴敦復}}), executed by caning.",
"In 747, when one of Emperor Xuanzong's favorite generals, [An Lushan](/wiki/An_Lushan \"An Lushan\"), visited the capital [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an \"Chang'an\") to pay respect to Emperor Xuanzong, An, who was not [Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\"), initially refused to bow to Li Heng—pretending that he was only loyal to Emperor Xuanzong and to no one else, including the crown prince, and that he did not even know what a crown prince was.",
"Only after Emperor Xuanzong explained what a crown prince is—the reserve emperor, to succeed him later—was An willing to bow to Li Heng. This caused Emperor Xuanzong to favor An even more, but also later caused An to be apprehensive of whether Li Heng would bear continued resentment toward him over the incident.",
"Later in 747, Li Linfu tried to use yet another case to undermine Li Heng. The general [Wang Zhongsi](/wiki/Wang_Zhongsi \"Wang Zhongsi\"), who was raised with Li Heng inside the palace because his father Wang Haibin ({{lang\\|zh\\|王海賓}}) had died in battle in service to the empire, was accused of interfering with the campaign of another general, Dong Yan'guang ({{lang\\|zh\\|董延光}}), against [Tibetan Empire](/wiki/Tibetan_Empire \"Tibetan Empire\").",
"Li Linfu broadened the accusation to an accusation that Wang was planning to start a coup to overthrow Emperor Xuanzong and replace him with Li Heng. At the intercession of another general, [Geshu Han](/wiki/Geshu_Han \"Geshu Han\"), however, Wang was spared from death, and Li Heng was not implicated. It was said that during this time period, Li Linfu made other attempts to undermine Li Heng, but with Gao Lishi and Zhang Shuo's son Zhang Ji ({{lang\\|zh\\|張垍}}), who had married Li Heng's sister Princess Ningqing, protecting Li Heng, Li Heng escaped unharmed each time.",
"As of 754, the chancellor in power was [Yang Guozhong](/wiki/Yang_Guozhong \"Yang Guozhong\") (Li Linfu having died in 752\\), the cousin of Emperor Xuanzong's then\\-favorite concubine [Yang Guifei](/wiki/Yang_Guifei \"Yang Guifei\") (unrelated to Li Heng's mother). Yang Guozhong and An were locked in a power struggle, and Yang repeatedly accused An of plotting a rebellion, but Emperor Xuanzong would not believe it, although Li Heng eventually came to agree with Yang Guozhong.",
"In late 755, with Yang Guozhong repeatedly trying to provoke An into a rebellion, An finally did, from his base at Fanyang (范陽, in modern [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\")). After the rebellion started, Emperor Xuanzong briefly considered making Li Heng [regent](/wiki/Regent \"Regent\"), but at the pleas of Consort Yang and her three sisters (who were fearful that Li Heng would act against them if he had regent powers), did not actually do so.",
"By summer 756, An had declared a new state of [Yan](/wiki/Yan_%28An%E2%80%93Shi%29 \"Yan (An–Shi)\") as its emperor, and his forces were approaching Chang'an.",
"On July 14, 756,According to Tang Xuanzong's biography in the *[Old Book of Tang](/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang \"Old Book of Tang\")*, he abandoned Chang'an in the early hours of the *yiwei* day in the 6th month of the 15th year of the Tianbao era of his reign. This corresponds to 14 Jul 756 in the Gregorian calendar.(「(天宝十五载六月)乙未，凌晨自延秋门出，...」) *Old Book of Tang*, vol. 9\\. Emperor Xuanzong, with Yang Guozhong suggesting that they flee to Jiannan Circuit (劍南, headquartered in modern [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu \"Chengdu\")), abandoned Chang'an and fled with Gao Lishi, Yang Guozhong, Wei, Li Heng, Consort Yang, and her family. The following day, July 15, the imperial guards accompanying the emperor, angry at Yang Guozhong, rose at Mawei Station (馬嵬, in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji \"Baoji\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")) and killed him and forced Emperor Xuanzong to kill Consort Yang as well.",
"Emperor Xuanzong then poised to continue to head toward Jiannan. The people in the Mawei region tried to persuade Emperor Xuanzong not to continue on—believing that Chang'an could be recaptured. Emperor Xuanzong asked Li Heng to try to comfort the people. Once Li Heng left Emperor Xuanzong's presence, however, Li Fuguo and Li Heng's sons [Li Tan](/wiki/Li_Tan \"Li Tan\") the Prince of Jianning and [Li Chu](/wiki/Emperor_Daizong_of_Tang \"Emperor Daizong of Tang\") the Prince of Guangping, persuaded Li Heng not to follow Emperor Xuanzong to Jiannan—arguing that with the physical barriers between Chang'an and Jiannan, that once they had left the region, Chang'an could no longer be captured.",
"Li Heng agreed and had Li Chu report this to Emperor Xuanzong. Emperor Xuanzong agreed with Li Heng's decision, but he himself continued on to Jiannan. Li Heng, escorted by a small number of guard soldiers commanded by Li Tan, then headed to the border city of [Lingwu](/wiki/Lingwu \"Lingwu\"). With the army at Lingwu pressuring him to take imperial title, Li Heng declared himself emperor on August 13 (as Emperor Suzong).",
"When news of this reached Emperor Xuanzong in Jiannan, Emperor Xuanzong recognized Emperor Suzong as emperor and took the title of *[Taishang Huang](/wiki/Taishang_Huang \"Taishang Huang\")* (retired emperor), although he continued to exercise some imperial authority—including, for example, issuing an edict that posthumously honored Emperor Suzong's mother Consort Yang as [Empress Yuanxian](/wiki/Empress_Yuanxian \"Empress Yuanxian\"). (Some historians, including the modern historian [Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang \"Bo Yang\"), believed that Emperor Xuanzong's continued issuance of edicts, while not on the surface conflicting with Emperor Suzong's authority, caused Emperor Suzong pressure to try to recapture Chang'an as quickly as possible to avoid any contention for the throne—either in the form of Emperor Xuanzong himself resuming imperial authority or in the form of another imperial prince rising to defeat Yan.*[Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang \"Bo Yang\") Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian*, vol. 53 \\[757].)",
""
] |
Reign
-----
[thumb\|left\|"Greeting the Emperor at Wangxian" 望賢迎駕圖, probably a 13th\-century painting, detail of Tang Suzong.](/wiki/File:Tang_Suzong.jpg "Tang Suzong.jpg")
Emperor Suzong, once he became emperor, set his eyes on recapturing Chang'an from Yan forces, as Yan forces faced heavy resistance from the people of the [Guanzhong](/wiki/Guanzhong "Guanzhong") region (i.e., the region around Chang'an) and was not able to keep the region under firm control. (By this point, An Lushan had been assassinated and succeeded by his son [An Qingxu](/wiki/An_Qingxu "An Qingxu"), as the emperor of Yan.)
However, an immediate attempt to do so, commanded by the chancellor [Fang Guan](/wiki/Fang_Guan "Fang Guan"), was defeated by the Yan forces near Chang'an with heavy losses. Meanwhile, around the same time, Emperor Suzong's brother [Li Lin](/wiki/Li_Lin_%28prince%29 "Li Lin (prince)") the Prince of Yong tried to mount a challenge against him, seeking to effectively secede with the region south of the [Yangtze River](/wiki/Yangtze_River "Yangtze River"), but was quickly defeated and killed by forces loyal to Emperor Suzong. Emperor Suzong's court was also itself filled with internal struggles, with Li Fuguo aligned with Emperor Suzong's favorite concubine [Consort Zhang](/wiki/Empress_Zhang_%28Tang_dynasty%29 "Empress Zhang (Tang dynasty)"), in opposition to Li Chu, Li Tan, and Emperor Suzong's trusted advisor [Li Mi](/wiki/Li_Mi_%28chancellor%29 "Li Mi (chancellor)").
In early 757, after Li Tan repeatedly accused Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang of corruption, Li Fuguo and Empress Zhang in turn falsely accused him of trying to assassinate Li Chu, who was older than he was, in order to become the heir. Emperor Suzong, in anger, ordered Li Tan to commit suicide, which drew fear from Li Chu and Li Mi. Li Chu considered assassinating Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang, but at Li Mi's urging, stopped his plans to do so.
Emperor Suzong, finding it difficult to recapture Chang'an just with his own troops, then entered into an alliance with [Huige](/wiki/Huige "Huige")'s [Bayanchur Khan](/wiki/Bayanchur_Khan "Bayanchur Khan") Yaoluoge Moyanchuo, where Huige forces arrived at Emperor Suzong's then\-headquarters at Fengxiang (鳳翔, in modern Baoji) to join the elite Tang forces recalled from the Anxi Circuit and the [Western Regions](/wiki/Western_Regions "Western Regions") (*Xiyu*). (Emperor Suzong did so by promising that the Huige forces would be permitted to pillage the Chang'an region once it was recaptured.)
Li Mi suggested that these forces be used to attack Yan's power base at Fanyang first, to root out the possibility of a Yan recovery. Emperor Suzong chose not to do so and decided to attack Chang'an first, with Li Chu in command of the joint forces. The forces recaptured Chang'an in fall 757, allowing Emperor Suzong to rebuild his administration in the capital. (Huige forces were set to pillage Chang'an, but Li Chu bowed to the Huige prince commanding Huige forces to plead to delay the pillage—pointing out that if pillaging were carried out, the people of the eastern capital [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang "Luoyang"), then serving as Yan's capital, would resist heavily, and asking that Huige pillage *Luoyang* instead. The Huige prince agreed.)
After Emperor Suzong recaptured Chang'an, Li Mi resigned and became a [hermit](/wiki/Hermit "Hermit"), leaving Li Fuguo, Consort Zhang (who was then created empress), and Li Chu the lead figures at court, and Li Fuguo, in command of the imperial guards, would soon have such paramount powers that even Emperor Suzong was afraid of offending him.
Empress Zhang, meanwhile, wanted to make her son Li Shao ({{lang\|zh\|李佋}}) crown prince, but Emperor Suzong, believing Li Chu, who was his oldest son, to be capable and accomplished, created him crown prince instead and changed his name to Li Yu. Emperor Suzong also welcomed Emperor Xuanzong back from Jiannan and housed him at a palace converted from Emperor Xuanzong's old residence as an imperial prince, Xingqing Palace ({{lang\|zh\|興慶宮}}).
A month after Chang'an was recaptured, Tang and Huige forces recaptured Luoyang as well, and Luoyang suffered heavy pillaging by Huige forces.Bo Yang, *Outlines of the History of the Chinese* (中國人史綱), vol. 2, p. 549\. An Qingxu fled to [Yecheng](/wiki/Ye%2C_China "Ye, China") and took up position there, but most Yan territory resubmitted to Tang, and war appeared to be poised to end. To cement the alliance with Huige, Emperor Suzong also gave his daughter Princess Ningguo in marriage to Yaoluoge Moyanchuo.
[Al\-Mansur](/wiki/Al-Mansur "Al-Mansur") sent his diplomatic delegations regularly to China. Al\-Mansur's delegations were known in China as *Heiyi Dashi* (*Black Clothed Arabs*).{{Cite book\|title\=The New Silk Road leads through the Arab Peninsula: Mastering Global Business and Innovation \|first1\=Anna \|last1\=Visvizi\|first2\= Miltiadis D. \|last2\=Lytras \|first3\= Wadee \|last3\=Alhalabi\|first4\= Xi \|last4\=Zhang\|publisher\=Emerald Group Publishing \|year\=2019\|isbn\=9781787566798\|pages\=19}} In 756 al\-Mansur sent 3,000 [mercenaries](/wiki/Mercenaries "Mercenaries") to assist Emperor Suzong of Tang in the An Lushan rebellion.{{cite book \|last1\=Needham \|first1\=Joseph \|last2\=Ho \|first2\=Ping\-Yu \|last3\=Lu \|first3\=Gwei\-Djen \|last4\=Sivin \|first4\=Nathan \|title\=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts \|date\=1980 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=052108573X \|page\=416 \|edition\=illustrated \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=xrNDwP0pS8sC\&pg\=PA416}} A massacre of foreign Arab and Persian Muslim merchants by former Yan rebel general [Tian Shengong](/wiki/Tian_Shengong "Tian Shengong") happened during the An Lushan rebellion in the [Yangzhou massacre (760\)](/wiki/Yangzhou_massacre_%28760%29 "Yangzhou massacre (760)"),{{cite book \|last1\=Wan \|first1\=Lei \|year\=2017 \|title\=The earliest Muslim communities in China \|series\=Qiraat No. 8 (February – March 2017\) \|publisher\=King Faisal Center For Research and Islamic Studies \|isbn\=978\-603\-8206\-39\-3 \|page\=11 \|url\=https://www.kfcris.com/pdf/6b438689cf0f36eb4ce727e76d747c3d5af140055feaf.pdf}}{{sfn\|Qi\|2010\|p\=221\-227}}
In 758, however, one of the major Yan generals who had submitted to Tang, [Shi Siming](/wiki/Shi_Siming "Shi Siming"), claiming that there had been a plot by Emperor Suzong and the Tang general [Li Guangbi](/wiki/Li_Guangbi "Li Guangbi"), to have his subordinate Wu Cheng'en ({{lang\|zh\|烏承恩}}) assassinate him, re\-rebelled and advanced south. In spring 759, he engaged the Tang forces then sieging An Qingxu at Yecheng, and while the initial battle was indecisive, the Tang forces panicked during the battle and collapsed, allowing the siege of Yecheng to be lifted.
Shi Siming then led An Qingxu into a trap and killed him, taking over as the emperor of Yan and further advancing south to recapture Luoyang, again making it Yan's capital. However, his further attempts to advance against Chang'an was blocked by Li Guangbi, and the Yan and Tang forces went into a stalemate.
While the stalemate was continuing, in 760, after the eunuch Xing Yan'en ({{lang\|zh\|邢延恩}}) reported to Emperor Suzong that the general Liu Zhan ({{lang\|zh\|劉展}}) was disobeying orders, and that Liu's name was in mystical prophecies, Emperor Suzong accepted Xing's suggestion to find a way to eliminate Liu. After Liu found this out, he was forced into rebellion in late 760; he had successes against other Tang generals and controlled the lower Yangtze region for several months until he was defeated by another Tang general, Tian Shen'gong ({{lang\|zh\|田神功}}).
Meanwhile, Emperor Xuanzong settled into a routine at Xingqing Palace, with Chen Xuanli ({{lang\|zh\|陳玄禮}}) and Gao Lishi attending to him. Also often attending to him were his sister Li Chiying ({{lang\|zh\|李持盈}}) the Princess Yuzhen, the [lady\-in\-waiting](/wiki/Lady-in-waiting "Lady-in-waiting") Ru Xianyuan ({{lang\|zh\|如仙媛}}), and the eunuchs Wang Cheng'en ({{lang\|zh\|王承恩}}) and Wei Yue ({{lang\|zh\|魏悅}}). The imperial musicians often played for him, and he often climbed up Changqing Tower ({{lang\|zh\|長慶樓}}) to receive well wishes from the populace. He also often held feasts for generals and people from Jiannan, with Li Chiying and Ru serving as hostesses.
Emperor Xuanzong's attendants looked down at Li Fuguo. To retaliate, Li Fuguo began to try to convince Emperor Suzong that Emperor Xuanzong and his attendants were plotting to seize power back. In 760, with Emperor Suzong's tacit, although not explicit, approval, on one occasion when Emperor Xuanzong was out riding, Li Fuguo intercepted him and forced him to move back to the main palace.
Even on that occasion, however, Gao would not submit to Li Fuguo and even yelled at Li Fuguo to force him to get off his horse and to escort Emperor Xuanzong on foot, along with Gao. Soon after Emperor Xuanzong was forcibly moved, Li Fuguo forced Chen to retire, Li Chiying to return to her temple (she had become an ordained [Daoist nun](/wiki/Daoism "Daoism") in 711\), and exiled Gao, Wang, Wei, and Ru. Emperor Suzong then had his daughters Princesses Wan'an and Xianyi attend to Emperor Xuanzong, but Emperor Xuanzong, having lost his trusted attendants, became silent and ill. For the time being, Emperor Suzong frequently visited Emperor Xuanzong, but he himself grew ill as well and rarely visited.
He also regretted permitting Li Fuguo to take these actions and considered killing him, but hesitated and ultimately did not do so because Li Fuguo commanded the imperial guards. Indeed, thereafter, Li Fuguo became minister of defense, and Emperor Suzong was often forced to comply with his wishes as far as governance was concerned, although Emperor Suzong rebuffed his wishes to become chancellor.
In 761, Shi Siming was assassinated and succeeded by his son [Shi Chaoyi](/wiki/Shi_Chaoyi "Shi Chaoyi"), and it was said that other Yan generals, who were originally Shi Siming's equals, began to disobey Shi Chaoyi's orders. Tang forces thus were able to beat back the Yan forces but were not able to dislodge Shi Huaiyi from Luoyang, and final victory over Yan would not come in Emperor Suzong's lifetime.
In summer 762, Emperor Xuanzong died. Emperor Suzong was bedridden by this point, and it was said that he was so saddened by Emperor Xuanzong's death that his illness further advanced. He thus granted [regent](/wiki/Regent "Regent") powers on Li Yu. By this point, Empress Zhang and Li Fuguo were no longer allies, and Empress Zhang summoned Li Yu, wanting an alliance with him to kill Li Fuguo and his subordinate [Cheng Yuanzhen](/wiki/Cheng_Yuanzhen "Cheng Yuanzhen"). Li Yu refused, pointing out that this would cause alarm to the very\-ill Emperor Suzong.
Empress Zhang then entered into an alliance with Li Yu's younger brother Li Xi ({{lang\|zh\|李係}}) the Prince of Yue, and they tried to set a trap for Li Fuguo, with 200 strong eunuchs loyal to her and Li Xi ready to act against Li Fuguo. On May 14, 762,According to Tang Daizong's biography in the *[Old Book of Tang](/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang "Old Book of Tang")*, the fake order was issued on the *yichou* day in the 4th month of the 1st year of the Baoying era of Tang Suzong's/Daizong's reign. This date corresponds to 14 May 762 in the Gregorian calendar.(「(宝应元年四月)乙丑，皇后矫诏召太子。」) *Old Book of Tang*, vol. 11\. she issued an order in Emperor Suzong's name, summoning Li Yu into the palace. However, Cheng received this news and reported this to Li Fuguo and Li Yu, and Cheng then escorted Li Yu to the imperial guard headquarters.
Imperial guards commanded by Li Fuguo and Cheng then entered the palace and arrested Empress Zhang, Li Xi, and their associates. It was said that with Emperor Suzong resting at Changsheng Hall ({{lang\|zh\|長生殿}}), the soldiers dragged Empress Zhang and the attending ladies in waiting and eunuchs away from his presence. Emperor Suzong was said to be left alone without attendants. He died on May 16, only 13 days after Emperor Xuanzong's death. Li Fuguo executed Empress Zhang, Li Xi, and Li Xian ({{lang\|zh\|李僩}}) the Prince of Yan and then declared Li Yu emperor (as Emperor Daizong).
### Changes to the calendar during the *Shangyuan* and *Baoying* eras
On 23 Oct 761, Emperor Suzong declared that the *jian'zi* month (the 11th month) would be the start of the new year.(\[上元二年]九月，...壬寅，制去尊号，但称皇帝；去年号，但称元年；以建子月为岁首，月皆以所建为数；...) *Zizhi Tongjian*, vol.222\. On 13 May 762, he reverted the change, so that the *jian'yin* month was again the start of the new year.(\[宝应元年建巳月]甲子，制改元；复以建寅为正月，月数皆如其旧；...) *Zizhi Tongjian*, vol.222\. Thus, the 2nd year of the *Shangyuan* era only has 10 months and corresponds to 10 Feb to 1 Dec 761 in the Julian calendar. Correspondingly, the 1st year of the *Bao'ying* era has 14 months, and corresponds to 2 Dec 761 to 18 Jan 763 in the Julian calendar. The year also has two 4th months (*jian'mao* and *jian'si*) and 5th months (*jian'chen* and *jian'wu*), which corresponds to 1 to 29 Mar (*jian'mao* month), 29 Apr to 27 May (*jian'si* month), 30 Mar to 28 Apr (*jian'chen* month), and 28 May to 26 June (*jian'wu* month) 762 in the Julian calendar.
|
[
"Reign\n-----",
"[thumb\\|left\\|\"Greeting the Emperor at Wangxian\" 望賢迎駕圖, probably a 13th\\-century painting, detail of Tang Suzong.](/wiki/File:Tang_Suzong.jpg \"Tang Suzong.jpg\")\nEmperor Suzong, once he became emperor, set his eyes on recapturing Chang'an from Yan forces, as Yan forces faced heavy resistance from the people of the [Guanzhong](/wiki/Guanzhong \"Guanzhong\") region (i.e., the region around Chang'an) and was not able to keep the region under firm control. (By this point, An Lushan had been assassinated and succeeded by his son [An Qingxu](/wiki/An_Qingxu \"An Qingxu\"), as the emperor of Yan.)",
"However, an immediate attempt to do so, commanded by the chancellor [Fang Guan](/wiki/Fang_Guan \"Fang Guan\"), was defeated by the Yan forces near Chang'an with heavy losses. Meanwhile, around the same time, Emperor Suzong's brother [Li Lin](/wiki/Li_Lin_%28prince%29 \"Li Lin (prince)\") the Prince of Yong tried to mount a challenge against him, seeking to effectively secede with the region south of the [Yangtze River](/wiki/Yangtze_River \"Yangtze River\"), but was quickly defeated and killed by forces loyal to Emperor Suzong. Emperor Suzong's court was also itself filled with internal struggles, with Li Fuguo aligned with Emperor Suzong's favorite concubine [Consort Zhang](/wiki/Empress_Zhang_%28Tang_dynasty%29 \"Empress Zhang (Tang dynasty)\"), in opposition to Li Chu, Li Tan, and Emperor Suzong's trusted advisor [Li Mi](/wiki/Li_Mi_%28chancellor%29 \"Li Mi (chancellor)\").",
"In early 757, after Li Tan repeatedly accused Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang of corruption, Li Fuguo and Empress Zhang in turn falsely accused him of trying to assassinate Li Chu, who was older than he was, in order to become the heir. Emperor Suzong, in anger, ordered Li Tan to commit suicide, which drew fear from Li Chu and Li Mi. Li Chu considered assassinating Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang, but at Li Mi's urging, stopped his plans to do so.",
"Emperor Suzong, finding it difficult to recapture Chang'an just with his own troops, then entered into an alliance with [Huige](/wiki/Huige \"Huige\")'s [Bayanchur Khan](/wiki/Bayanchur_Khan \"Bayanchur Khan\") Yaoluoge Moyanchuo, where Huige forces arrived at Emperor Suzong's then\\-headquarters at Fengxiang (鳳翔, in modern Baoji) to join the elite Tang forces recalled from the Anxi Circuit and the [Western Regions](/wiki/Western_Regions \"Western Regions\") (*Xiyu*). (Emperor Suzong did so by promising that the Huige forces would be permitted to pillage the Chang'an region once it was recaptured.)",
"Li Mi suggested that these forces be used to attack Yan's power base at Fanyang first, to root out the possibility of a Yan recovery. Emperor Suzong chose not to do so and decided to attack Chang'an first, with Li Chu in command of the joint forces. The forces recaptured Chang'an in fall 757, allowing Emperor Suzong to rebuild his administration in the capital. (Huige forces were set to pillage Chang'an, but Li Chu bowed to the Huige prince commanding Huige forces to plead to delay the pillage—pointing out that if pillaging were carried out, the people of the eastern capital [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang \"Luoyang\"), then serving as Yan's capital, would resist heavily, and asking that Huige pillage *Luoyang* instead. The Huige prince agreed.)",
"After Emperor Suzong recaptured Chang'an, Li Mi resigned and became a [hermit](/wiki/Hermit \"Hermit\"), leaving Li Fuguo, Consort Zhang (who was then created empress), and Li Chu the lead figures at court, and Li Fuguo, in command of the imperial guards, would soon have such paramount powers that even Emperor Suzong was afraid of offending him.",
"Empress Zhang, meanwhile, wanted to make her son Li Shao ({{lang\\|zh\\|李佋}}) crown prince, but Emperor Suzong, believing Li Chu, who was his oldest son, to be capable and accomplished, created him crown prince instead and changed his name to Li Yu. Emperor Suzong also welcomed Emperor Xuanzong back from Jiannan and housed him at a palace converted from Emperor Xuanzong's old residence as an imperial prince, Xingqing Palace ({{lang\\|zh\\|興慶宮}}).",
"A month after Chang'an was recaptured, Tang and Huige forces recaptured Luoyang as well, and Luoyang suffered heavy pillaging by Huige forces.Bo Yang, *Outlines of the History of the Chinese* (中國人史綱), vol. 2, p. 549\\. An Qingxu fled to [Yecheng](/wiki/Ye%2C_China \"Ye, China\") and took up position there, but most Yan territory resubmitted to Tang, and war appeared to be poised to end. To cement the alliance with Huige, Emperor Suzong also gave his daughter Princess Ningguo in marriage to Yaoluoge Moyanchuo.",
"[Al\\-Mansur](/wiki/Al-Mansur \"Al-Mansur\") sent his diplomatic delegations regularly to China. Al\\-Mansur's delegations were known in China as *Heiyi Dashi* (*Black Clothed Arabs*).{{Cite book\\|title\\=The New Silk Road leads through the Arab Peninsula: Mastering Global Business and Innovation \\|first1\\=Anna \\|last1\\=Visvizi\\|first2\\= Miltiadis D. \\|last2\\=Lytras \\|first3\\= Wadee \\|last3\\=Alhalabi\\|first4\\= Xi \\|last4\\=Zhang\\|publisher\\=Emerald Group Publishing \\|year\\=2019\\|isbn\\=9781787566798\\|pages\\=19}} In 756 al\\-Mansur sent 3,000 [mercenaries](/wiki/Mercenaries \"Mercenaries\") to assist Emperor Suzong of Tang in the An Lushan rebellion.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Needham \\|first1\\=Joseph \\|last2\\=Ho \\|first2\\=Ping\\-Yu \\|last3\\=Lu \\|first3\\=Gwei\\-Djen \\|last4\\=Sivin \\|first4\\=Nathan \\|title\\=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts \\|date\\=1980 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=052108573X \\|page\\=416 \\|edition\\=illustrated \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=xrNDwP0pS8sC\\&pg\\=PA416}} A massacre of foreign Arab and Persian Muslim merchants by former Yan rebel general [Tian Shengong](/wiki/Tian_Shengong \"Tian Shengong\") happened during the An Lushan rebellion in the [Yangzhou massacre (760\\)](/wiki/Yangzhou_massacre_%28760%29 \"Yangzhou massacre (760)\"),{{cite book \\|last1\\=Wan \\|first1\\=Lei \\|year\\=2017 \\|title\\=The earliest Muslim communities in China \\|series\\=Qiraat No. 8 (February – March 2017\\) \\|publisher\\=King Faisal Center For Research and Islamic Studies \\|isbn\\=978\\-603\\-8206\\-39\\-3 \\|page\\=11 \\|url\\=https://www.kfcris.com/pdf/6b438689cf0f36eb4ce727e76d747c3d5af140055feaf.pdf}}{{sfn\\|Qi\\|2010\\|p\\=221\\-227}}",
"In 758, however, one of the major Yan generals who had submitted to Tang, [Shi Siming](/wiki/Shi_Siming \"Shi Siming\"), claiming that there had been a plot by Emperor Suzong and the Tang general [Li Guangbi](/wiki/Li_Guangbi \"Li Guangbi\"), to have his subordinate Wu Cheng'en ({{lang\\|zh\\|烏承恩}}) assassinate him, re\\-rebelled and advanced south. In spring 759, he engaged the Tang forces then sieging An Qingxu at Yecheng, and while the initial battle was indecisive, the Tang forces panicked during the battle and collapsed, allowing the siege of Yecheng to be lifted.",
"Shi Siming then led An Qingxu into a trap and killed him, taking over as the emperor of Yan and further advancing south to recapture Luoyang, again making it Yan's capital. However, his further attempts to advance against Chang'an was blocked by Li Guangbi, and the Yan and Tang forces went into a stalemate.",
"While the stalemate was continuing, in 760, after the eunuch Xing Yan'en ({{lang\\|zh\\|邢延恩}}) reported to Emperor Suzong that the general Liu Zhan ({{lang\\|zh\\|劉展}}) was disobeying orders, and that Liu's name was in mystical prophecies, Emperor Suzong accepted Xing's suggestion to find a way to eliminate Liu. After Liu found this out, he was forced into rebellion in late 760; he had successes against other Tang generals and controlled the lower Yangtze region for several months until he was defeated by another Tang general, Tian Shen'gong ({{lang\\|zh\\|田神功}}).",
"Meanwhile, Emperor Xuanzong settled into a routine at Xingqing Palace, with Chen Xuanli ({{lang\\|zh\\|陳玄禮}}) and Gao Lishi attending to him. Also often attending to him were his sister Li Chiying ({{lang\\|zh\\|李持盈}}) the Princess Yuzhen, the [lady\\-in\\-waiting](/wiki/Lady-in-waiting \"Lady-in-waiting\") Ru Xianyuan ({{lang\\|zh\\|如仙媛}}), and the eunuchs Wang Cheng'en ({{lang\\|zh\\|王承恩}}) and Wei Yue ({{lang\\|zh\\|魏悅}}). The imperial musicians often played for him, and he often climbed up Changqing Tower ({{lang\\|zh\\|長慶樓}}) to receive well wishes from the populace. He also often held feasts for generals and people from Jiannan, with Li Chiying and Ru serving as hostesses.",
"Emperor Xuanzong's attendants looked down at Li Fuguo. To retaliate, Li Fuguo began to try to convince Emperor Suzong that Emperor Xuanzong and his attendants were plotting to seize power back. In 760, with Emperor Suzong's tacit, although not explicit, approval, on one occasion when Emperor Xuanzong was out riding, Li Fuguo intercepted him and forced him to move back to the main palace.",
"Even on that occasion, however, Gao would not submit to Li Fuguo and even yelled at Li Fuguo to force him to get off his horse and to escort Emperor Xuanzong on foot, along with Gao. Soon after Emperor Xuanzong was forcibly moved, Li Fuguo forced Chen to retire, Li Chiying to return to her temple (she had become an ordained [Daoist nun](/wiki/Daoism \"Daoism\") in 711\\), and exiled Gao, Wang, Wei, and Ru. Emperor Suzong then had his daughters Princesses Wan'an and Xianyi attend to Emperor Xuanzong, but Emperor Xuanzong, having lost his trusted attendants, became silent and ill. For the time being, Emperor Suzong frequently visited Emperor Xuanzong, but he himself grew ill as well and rarely visited.",
"He also regretted permitting Li Fuguo to take these actions and considered killing him, but hesitated and ultimately did not do so because Li Fuguo commanded the imperial guards. Indeed, thereafter, Li Fuguo became minister of defense, and Emperor Suzong was often forced to comply with his wishes as far as governance was concerned, although Emperor Suzong rebuffed his wishes to become chancellor.",
"In 761, Shi Siming was assassinated and succeeded by his son [Shi Chaoyi](/wiki/Shi_Chaoyi \"Shi Chaoyi\"), and it was said that other Yan generals, who were originally Shi Siming's equals, began to disobey Shi Chaoyi's orders. Tang forces thus were able to beat back the Yan forces but were not able to dislodge Shi Huaiyi from Luoyang, and final victory over Yan would not come in Emperor Suzong's lifetime.",
"In summer 762, Emperor Xuanzong died. Emperor Suzong was bedridden by this point, and it was said that he was so saddened by Emperor Xuanzong's death that his illness further advanced. He thus granted [regent](/wiki/Regent \"Regent\") powers on Li Yu. By this point, Empress Zhang and Li Fuguo were no longer allies, and Empress Zhang summoned Li Yu, wanting an alliance with him to kill Li Fuguo and his subordinate [Cheng Yuanzhen](/wiki/Cheng_Yuanzhen \"Cheng Yuanzhen\"). Li Yu refused, pointing out that this would cause alarm to the very\\-ill Emperor Suzong.",
"Empress Zhang then entered into an alliance with Li Yu's younger brother Li Xi ({{lang\\|zh\\|李係}}) the Prince of Yue, and they tried to set a trap for Li Fuguo, with 200 strong eunuchs loyal to her and Li Xi ready to act against Li Fuguo. On May 14, 762,According to Tang Daizong's biography in the *[Old Book of Tang](/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang \"Old Book of Tang\")*, the fake order was issued on the *yichou* day in the 4th month of the 1st year of the Baoying era of Tang Suzong's/Daizong's reign. This date corresponds to 14 May 762 in the Gregorian calendar.(「(宝应元年四月)乙丑，皇后矫诏召太子。」) *Old Book of Tang*, vol. 11\\. she issued an order in Emperor Suzong's name, summoning Li Yu into the palace. However, Cheng received this news and reported this to Li Fuguo and Li Yu, and Cheng then escorted Li Yu to the imperial guard headquarters.",
"Imperial guards commanded by Li Fuguo and Cheng then entered the palace and arrested Empress Zhang, Li Xi, and their associates. It was said that with Emperor Suzong resting at Changsheng Hall ({{lang\\|zh\\|長生殿}}), the soldiers dragged Empress Zhang and the attending ladies in waiting and eunuchs away from his presence. Emperor Suzong was said to be left alone without attendants. He died on May 16, only 13 days after Emperor Xuanzong's death. Li Fuguo executed Empress Zhang, Li Xi, and Li Xian ({{lang\\|zh\\|李僩}}) the Prince of Yan and then declared Li Yu emperor (as Emperor Daizong).\n### Changes to the calendar during the *Shangyuan* and *Baoying* eras",
"On 23 Oct 761, Emperor Suzong declared that the *jian'zi* month (the 11th month) would be the start of the new year.(\\[上元二年]九月，...壬寅，制去尊号，但称皇帝；去年号，但称元年；以建子月为岁首，月皆以所建为数；...) *Zizhi Tongjian*, vol.222\\. On 13 May 762, he reverted the change, so that the *jian'yin* month was again the start of the new year.(\\[宝应元年建巳月]甲子，制改元；复以建寅为正月，月数皆如其旧；...) *Zizhi Tongjian*, vol.222\\. Thus, the 2nd year of the *Shangyuan* era only has 10 months and corresponds to 10 Feb to 1 Dec 761 in the Julian calendar. Correspondingly, the 1st year of the *Bao'ying* era has 14 months, and corresponds to 2 Dec 761 to 18 Jan 763 in the Julian calendar. The year also has two 4th months (*jian'mao* and *jian'si*) and 5th months (*jian'chen* and *jian'wu*), which corresponds to 1 to 29 Mar (*jian'mao* month), 29 Apr to 27 May (*jian'si* month), 30 Mar to 28 Apr (*jian'chen* month), and 28 May to 26 June (*jian'wu* month) 762 in the Julian calendar.",
""
] |
History
-------
In December 1893, Sir [Philip Magnus](/wiki/Philip_Magnus "Philip Magnus"), a governor of the [Borough Polytechnic Institute](/wiki/Borough_Polytechnic_Institute "Borough Polytechnic Institute"), now [London South Bank University](/wiki/London_South_Bank_University "London South Bank University"), proposed that a bakery school should be set up at the Polytechnic. During the following year Magnus visited a private bakery school run by a Mr John Blandy in [Uxbridge](/wiki/Uxbridge "Uxbridge") (established 1889\). He was impressed enough to invite Blandy to the Polytechnic for his advice on setting up a school for the technical and practical training of bakers. The scheme was approved by the [London County Council](/wiki/London_County_Council "London County Council") Education Board in April 1894 and funds granted. On 10 October 1894 evening classes for Bakers and Confectioners were opened by Mr Henry C Kutz, President of the London Master Bakers' Protection Society.
By 1898 bakers were the largest group in the Borough Polytechnic Institute's student body (142 students) and the success prompted John Blandy to propose that a national bakery school should be set up at the Polytechnic. The proposal prompted the National Association of Master Bakers (founded 1887\) to take over the management of the Polytechnic's Bakery School on 25 September 1899 at their own cost. The bakery school was from then on formally known as the National School of Bakery and Confectionary.
The School continued its evening classes but now put a focus on its full\-time day students, of whom six enrolled in the first term. On 5 February 1902 the foundation stone of new bakery buildings was laid by Thomas Fletcher of [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham") Town Council, with John Humphry, president of the National Association of Master Bakers and Adam Lawson Johnston, chairman of the Committee present. On 9 September of that year, the School's new buildings were opened by Alderman Francis Tonsley JP, president of the National Association of Master Bakers, supported by the mayors of Northampton and Southwark, the chairman of the Institute and its governing body. Mr John Kirkland was appointed head of department in the same year. On 10 September 1909 the new day session of the National School for Bakers and Confectioners was opened by the [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London "Lord Mayor of London"), [Sir George Wyatt Truscott](/wiki/Sir_George_Wyatt_Truscott%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir George Wyatt Truscott, 1st Baronet") with 44 full\-time students.
The first fourteen female bakery students were admitted in April 1916\. In 1927 John Kirkland left his position as head of department and a lecture theatre was named after him, which is still is use. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") Mr Bennion the School's Head was seconded to the [Ministry of Food](/wiki/Minister_of_Food_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Minister of Food (United Kingdom)") to advise on rationing and the use of potato flour in baked goods. A higher diploma in Baking Technology was introduced in 1947 and in the following year the School made a silver wedding anniversary cake for [King George VI](/wiki/King_George_VI "King George VI") and the [Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth%2C_the_Queen_Mother "Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother") as well as the [christening](/wiki/Infant_baptism "Infant baptism") cake for the infant [Prince Charles](/wiki/Prince_Charles "Prince Charles").
In 1958 the Bakery Department won the grand prix d'excellence and a gold medal at the Brussels International Confectioners' Exhibition. In 1960 a member of the Department's staff, Miss Joan Russell designed one of the wedding cakes accepted for the wedding of Her Royal Highness [Princess Margaret](/wiki/Princess_Margaret "Princess Margaret") and Mr. Antony Armstrong Jones. The [Worshipful Company of Bakers](/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Bakers "Worshipful Company of Bakers") Hall on Harp Lane was officially opened by the [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London "Lord Mayor of London") in 1963 and the Bakery Department were invited to provide the peppercorn rent of three white and three brown loaves for the Bakers Company to provide to the Lessors of the Hall at a new annual event. In 1965 the National Bakery Students' Society celebrated it Diamond Jubilee with a sherry party held at the Borough Polytechnic's Edric Hall. In that same year the [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London "Lord Mayor of London") was presented with special pieces of bread made by students of the department, which were delivered by hand cart to [Mansion House](/wiki/Mansion_House%2C_London "Mansion House, London"), where the Mayor and Lady Mayoress received students for afternoon tea.
From 1969 the National Bakery School moved to purpose built accommodation within new extension buildings of the then [Polytechnic of the South Bank](/wiki/Polytechnic_of_the_South_Bank "Polytechnic of the South Bank"), which were opened by [Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh](/wiki/Prince_Philip%2C_Duke_of_Edinburgh "Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh"). In 1989 the School yet again baked a cake for a major celebration, this time marking the 800th anniversary of the office of [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London "Lord Mayor of London"). The cake which stood nearly three metres tall featured a model of [Dick Whittington](/wiki/Dick_Whittington "Dick Whittington") and his cat.
In 1992 the School pioneered a BSc (Hons) in Baking Technology and Process Management – a first in the UK. The National Bakery School celebrated its centenary in 1994, holding a celebration lunch at [Mansion House](/wiki/Mansion_House%2C_London "Mansion House, London") and publishing a book of recipes submitted by staff and students of [South Bank University](/wiki/South_Bank_University "South Bank University") called 'The Lightest Chocolate Mousse in the World'. During the 1990s John Marchant became Head of the National Bakery School, which ran until 2010, the Tower Restaurant, which was used to train students, sell food produced by the School and for formal dining at the [London South Bank University](/wiki/London_South_Bank_University "London South Bank University").
From September 2000 the School introduced foundation degrees in Baking Technology Management. During 2004 bakery students worked with designer [Jean Paul Gaultier](/wiki/Jean_Paul_Gaultier "Jean Paul Gaultier") to recreate some of his iconic designs in [bread](/wiki/Bread "Bread"). Another interesting commission was received in 1996 when artist Sharon Baker asked to bake bread in life\-size moulds she had had made by lifecast artists CJ Munn and Andre Masters of herself. The finished body\-shaped bread was presented to the audience at the art event 'Eat Me' which formed part of the annual [London](/wiki/London "London") Thames Festival.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In December 1893, Sir [Philip Magnus](/wiki/Philip_Magnus \"Philip Magnus\"), a governor of the [Borough Polytechnic Institute](/wiki/Borough_Polytechnic_Institute \"Borough Polytechnic Institute\"), now [London South Bank University](/wiki/London_South_Bank_University \"London South Bank University\"), proposed that a bakery school should be set up at the Polytechnic. During the following year Magnus visited a private bakery school run by a Mr John Blandy in [Uxbridge](/wiki/Uxbridge \"Uxbridge\") (established 1889\\). He was impressed enough to invite Blandy to the Polytechnic for his advice on setting up a school for the technical and practical training of bakers. The scheme was approved by the [London County Council](/wiki/London_County_Council \"London County Council\") Education Board in April 1894 and funds granted. On 10 October 1894 evening classes for Bakers and Confectioners were opened by Mr Henry C Kutz, President of the London Master Bakers' Protection Society.",
"By 1898 bakers were the largest group in the Borough Polytechnic Institute's student body (142 students) and the success prompted John Blandy to propose that a national bakery school should be set up at the Polytechnic. The proposal prompted the National Association of Master Bakers (founded 1887\\) to take over the management of the Polytechnic's Bakery School on 25 September 1899 at their own cost. The bakery school was from then on formally known as the National School of Bakery and Confectionary.",
"The School continued its evening classes but now put a focus on its full\\-time day students, of whom six enrolled in the first term. On 5 February 1902 the foundation stone of new bakery buildings was laid by Thomas Fletcher of [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\") Town Council, with John Humphry, president of the National Association of Master Bakers and Adam Lawson Johnston, chairman of the Committee present. On 9 September of that year, the School's new buildings were opened by Alderman Francis Tonsley JP, president of the National Association of Master Bakers, supported by the mayors of Northampton and Southwark, the chairman of the Institute and its governing body. Mr John Kirkland was appointed head of department in the same year. On 10 September 1909 the new day session of the National School for Bakers and Confectioners was opened by the [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London \"Lord Mayor of London\"), [Sir George Wyatt Truscott](/wiki/Sir_George_Wyatt_Truscott%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir George Wyatt Truscott, 1st Baronet\") with 44 full\\-time students.",
"The first fourteen female bakery students were admitted in April 1916\\. In 1927 John Kirkland left his position as head of department and a lecture theatre was named after him, which is still is use. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") Mr Bennion the School's Head was seconded to the [Ministry of Food](/wiki/Minister_of_Food_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Minister of Food (United Kingdom)\") to advise on rationing and the use of potato flour in baked goods. A higher diploma in Baking Technology was introduced in 1947 and in the following year the School made a silver wedding anniversary cake for [King George VI](/wiki/King_George_VI \"King George VI\") and the [Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth%2C_the_Queen_Mother \"Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother\") as well as the [christening](/wiki/Infant_baptism \"Infant baptism\") cake for the infant [Prince Charles](/wiki/Prince_Charles \"Prince Charles\").",
"In 1958 the Bakery Department won the grand prix d'excellence and a gold medal at the Brussels International Confectioners' Exhibition. In 1960 a member of the Department's staff, Miss Joan Russell designed one of the wedding cakes accepted for the wedding of Her Royal Highness [Princess Margaret](/wiki/Princess_Margaret \"Princess Margaret\") and Mr. Antony Armstrong Jones. The [Worshipful Company of Bakers](/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Bakers \"Worshipful Company of Bakers\") Hall on Harp Lane was officially opened by the [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London \"Lord Mayor of London\") in 1963 and the Bakery Department were invited to provide the peppercorn rent of three white and three brown loaves for the Bakers Company to provide to the Lessors of the Hall at a new annual event. In 1965 the National Bakery Students' Society celebrated it Diamond Jubilee with a sherry party held at the Borough Polytechnic's Edric Hall. In that same year the [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London \"Lord Mayor of London\") was presented with special pieces of bread made by students of the department, which were delivered by hand cart to [Mansion House](/wiki/Mansion_House%2C_London \"Mansion House, London\"), where the Mayor and Lady Mayoress received students for afternoon tea.",
"From 1969 the National Bakery School moved to purpose built accommodation within new extension buildings of the then [Polytechnic of the South Bank](/wiki/Polytechnic_of_the_South_Bank \"Polytechnic of the South Bank\"), which were opened by [Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh](/wiki/Prince_Philip%2C_Duke_of_Edinburgh \"Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh\"). In 1989 the School yet again baked a cake for a major celebration, this time marking the 800th anniversary of the office of [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London \"Lord Mayor of London\"). The cake which stood nearly three metres tall featured a model of [Dick Whittington](/wiki/Dick_Whittington \"Dick Whittington\") and his cat.",
"In 1992 the School pioneered a BSc (Hons) in Baking Technology and Process Management – a first in the UK. The National Bakery School celebrated its centenary in 1994, holding a celebration lunch at [Mansion House](/wiki/Mansion_House%2C_London \"Mansion House, London\") and publishing a book of recipes submitted by staff and students of [South Bank University](/wiki/South_Bank_University \"South Bank University\") called 'The Lightest Chocolate Mousse in the World'. During the 1990s John Marchant became Head of the National Bakery School, which ran until 2010, the Tower Restaurant, which was used to train students, sell food produced by the School and for formal dining at the [London South Bank University](/wiki/London_South_Bank_University \"London South Bank University\").",
"From September 2000 the School introduced foundation degrees in Baking Technology Management. During 2004 bakery students worked with designer [Jean Paul Gaultier](/wiki/Jean_Paul_Gaultier \"Jean Paul Gaultier\") to recreate some of his iconic designs in [bread](/wiki/Bread \"Bread\"). Another interesting commission was received in 1996 when artist Sharon Baker asked to bake bread in life\\-size moulds she had had made by lifecast artists CJ Munn and Andre Masters of herself. The finished body\\-shaped bread was presented to the audience at the art event 'Eat Me' which formed part of the annual [London](/wiki/London \"London\") Thames Festival.",
""
] |
The T\-1000
-----------
### Initial design and development
Cameron had first conceived of a character like the T\-1000 for *The Terminator* but lacked the budget or technology to realize it at the time. He first came close to the concept with the implementation of the "water snake" in *The Abyss*, a fully CGI character that could take on a vaguely humanoid shape, which was composited into live\-action footage through analog techniques as available digital resolutions were not yet sufficient. "Let's shoot for the first computer\-generated man."{{Attribution needed\|date\=May 2023}}{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=58}} However, compared to *The Abyss*, where the CGI character could have been cut entirely,{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=9}} there was no backup plan if the CGI work for *Terminator 2* failed or mismatched Winston's practical effects.
The digital rendering of the T\-1000's shapeshifting liquid\-metal form was enabled by sophisticated computers made by Silicon Graphics Inc. which cost tens of thousands of dollars. Detailed storyboards revealed that the T\-1000 would require a range of unusual illusions that could only be achieved through computer animation and digital manipulation—combined with the practical effects of Winston's makeup team—which were entirely dependent on ILM's ability to render CGI of unprecedented complexity.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=9}} The character required about 52 different effect shots.
Cameron chose the T\-1000 to have a mercury\-like aesthetic when not in its human form because, as Warren Jr. described, "Mercury doesn't look real in real life. It balls up, it reflects everything—it looks like a digital\-created thing." Cameron contacted [Dennis Muren](/wiki/Dennis_Muren "Dennis Muren") at ILM to determine if the water character from *The Abyss* could be made metallic, and move and morph in a humanoid form. Muren had some ideas for how to realize it based on the CGI figures he had seen in TV commercials and in university research. Muren said that the reflective surface was also a simpler solution than creating realistic CGI skin; the real difficulty lay in making it move while reflective. Cameron had seen various modern computer techniques that could create a chrome\-like effect but not while changing shape or conveying a real, physical weight when combined with live\-action footage. Cameron wanted it to be very reflective. Muren modified the reflections to make them seem heavier. Diana Ace and Alice Rosen worked full time on digital reflections, using a Macintosh to touch up reflections (mainly on the T\-1000\) and create blends between walls, floors, and ceilings to ensure there were no seams or hard edges.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}}
Muren described the T\-1000's initial design as "terrible"—Cameron wanted it to have a flawless surface, but Muren believed this would make it look unrealistic. Muren's solution was to make the surface not entirely reflective and scatter light in almost imperceptible ways to make it slightly "dirty" and better fit the live\-action footage. To create the right look for the shiny metal material, a sophisticated [shading program](/wiki/Shader "Shader") called the "poly\-alloy shader" was developed, which produced a reflective, slightly cold, silvery visual{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=20}} and gave the material is chrome\-like appearance.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|pp\=22,25}}
Animator Steve Williams studied Patrick's gait, and realized how difficult it would be to make a fully CGI person due to the nuances of movement based on weight and inertia. To precisely analyze his gait, Williams filmed him walking and running, using a flexible grid on the actor's body to determine how his muscles interacted. Using a dual camera technique created by Mark Dippe,{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=9}} cameras synchronized to show each angle of Patrick; the resulting footage was studied for a month and formed the basis for the character's CGI models and walking cycles.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|pp\=9–10}} Scanned at the Cyberware Laboratory in Monterey, the footage couldn't be used directly, but served as a basic starting shape and guide for modeling the chrome figure, rather than replicating it from scratch.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=10}} Kassar said Patrick's performance was essential to making the T\-1000 real, with or without the effects.
The CGI effect shots were scheduled at the beginning of production, to allow the longest development time. The ILM computer graphics department was divided into six teams supervised, respectively, by Jay Riddle, Doug Smythe, Lincoln Hu, Scott Anderson, Tom Williams, and Stefen Fangmeier, and George Joblove.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=9}} Muren and his team adapted the storyboards based on the realistic demands of computer graphics, as they were not sure some shots were achievable, especially those that featured camera movement. They suggested compromises with Cameron's approval.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=9}} Chiang then redrew all 43 CGI\-shot storyboards, being as specific as possible to avoid delays later on. The storyboards were used in small animation tests to have an idea of timings and actions to reduce trial and error.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=9}}
Chiang also defined the distinct looks of the T\-1000 in all four of its CGI states (separate from its human form). Stage One is an amorphous blob of liquid metal, Stage Two is a humanoid but featureless shape, Stage Three takes a vague shape of Patrick with some gear visible, and Stage Four is effectively a CGI chrome replica of Patrick.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=9}} Segal{{Who?\|date\=May 2023}} sculpted several 18\-inch clay [maquettes](/wiki/Maquette "Maquette") for each phase which proved invaluable in studying how the character should look at each stage and the transition between each one. Chiang also experimented with using hand animation for transitions between the chrome and live\-action versions of Patrick.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=9}} According to Muren, the most challenging aspects were the practical effects that involved splitting its body open, transforming appendages into blades, and other substantial physical damage.
For budget reasons, Cameron assigned as many T\-1000 effects as possible to Winston's makeup team to avoid costly computer graphics. These practical effects included practical bullet hits, full\-sized puppets, and metallic blade extensions.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=10}} Much of the early research and development involved finding ways to convincingly suggest the look of liquid metal in sculpted form, such as the process of [vacuum metalizing](/wiki/Vacuum_metalizing "Vacuum metalizing").{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=10}} The difficulty lay in finding materials that would hold the vacuum metalizing without cracking or flaking, with the best results coming from a slip rubber latex backed with either soft foam rubber or polyfoam.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=10}}
### Bullet wounds
The T\-1000 bullet wounds were among the earliest effects developed by the Winston crew. The team spent weeks shooting pellets into mud to study the resulting patterns and duplicate them. They also spent a lot of time testing materials to see which would best take to the vacuum metalizing process that would give all the effects their chrome look.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=10}} They experimented by carving dozens of latex and foam pieces to look like a ripple through liquid metal in various states and sizes, which were then vacuum metalized, creating a final appearance akin to a chrome flower.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=18}}{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=19}}
They struggled with a deployment mechanism for the pieces so they would appear in an instant, simulating bullet impact. Winston described it as a "bear trap mechanism" that snapped open, but Cameron wanted something "more elegant". Mechanic Chris Cowan engineered a system in which the chrome flower was divided into five pieces, each of which was stuck to a spring\-loaded finger mechanism that would explode outward from the center. These pieces were attached to a fiberglass chest plate worn by Patrick, and holes were pre\-scored into his uniform to let the flowers spring through. Each flower was activated with a radio\-controlled cable pin mechanism that would release all five fingers simultaneously. To make the effect happen instantaneously, they used very strong springs, but this made it difficult to keep the devices closed and several takes were ruined by them activating unexpectedly.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=19}}
CGI was used to animate the impact holes closing. Because of the expense of using this process to deal with the many bullet impacts received by the T\-1000, a cost\-saving measure was implemented in which the bullet holes would not heal immediately so that all of the impacts could be removed in one shot. For example, in the mall confrontation, the T\-1000 is shot six times by the T\-800, but heals all of its injuries in a single shot instead of six separate ones.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=19}}
Live\-action footage of the bullet wounds was scanned into computers and initial modeling and animation were performed using [Autodesk Alias](/wiki/Autodesk_Alias "Autodesk Alias"). A computer model recreation of Patrick was developed and Jonathan French animated the modeled hits closing up. The effect was enhanced with a custom\-made program designed to add a rippling effect to the wounds and surrounding clothing, and the poly\-alloy shader.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=19}}{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=20}} The finished footage was then composited digitally into the high\-resolution background footage and onto film.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=20}}
### T\-1000 truck chase
The scene of the T\-1000 chasing down John Connor in a truck was one of Patrick's earliest filmed scenes. Patrick was filmed walking out of the flaming truck using a motion control system to allow for a smooth consistent movement, but the camera could not be completely synchronized with his movements and so the camera was manually operated after rehearsing the movements with Patrick about 20 times. The cameraman's resulting movements were preserved with a field recording so the camera could exactly recreate its movements without Patrick for the background plate that would be used to digitally insert the T\-1000\. For the final shot, Patrick had to start his movement as close to the flames as possible, but on one take was too close. He said, "I felt this intense heat and I could smell my shirt beginning to singe—and the back of my ears were stinging." Though he began the scene calmly, he began moving too fast as the heat became overwhelming, leading to Cameron stating, "Robert, I appreciate your dedication, but I think you overdid it. Don't run in so far next time."{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=22}} A second camera filmed Patrick from the side to make it easier for the T\-1000 animators to see his movements and stride clearly.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=22}}
Animating the T\-1000 walking from the fire took several weeks and was one of the more difficult shots in the film to produce, but Cameron believed it was essential in demonstrating his invulnerability. Storyboards called for the T\-1000 to progress through each of its visual stages as it emerged from the fire, and Williams was responsible for developing all four stages used. Animation began with basic wire\-frame models to form a digital puppet. Williams remarked that he made several hundred changes per day refining slight physical movements in the head, wrist, or hips to make them more realistic. A custom software, "Body Sock", smoothed the T\-1000 joints and connected all of its components together to create smooth, seamless skin.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=22}}
To give the T\-1000 its reflective appearance, panoramic photographs were taken on location of the surroundings which were scanned into a Macintosh FX computer and integrated into the digital puppet's world for it to reflect. They also added reflections of the T\-1000 to the water in the canal.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=25}} Detailed measurements were made of the canal to marry its movements to the environment; still, the digital character did not line up seamlessly due to the various camera movements and errors that had been made recording its movements. Also, the canal floor was uneven which made it even more difficult. They attempted to alleviate the issue somewhat through hand\-painted alterations to the footage and the morphing technique developed by ILM for *Willow*, which alters two\-dimensional imagery by stretching two separated images to create an intermediate one.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=25}} To transition between its different forms, software called "Model Interp" was used, which could keyframe transition between two 3D shapes. Transitioning to his fourth form as a police officer, a wipe transition was used to move from the chrome 3D model to Patrick's live\-action footage.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=25}}
### John's foster parents
The scene in which the T\-1000 impersonates John's mother Janelle Voight ([Jenette Goldstein](/wiki/Jenette_Goldstein "Jenette Goldstein")) and kills her husband Todd ([Xander Berkley](/wiki/Xander_Berkley "Xander Berkley")) by stabbing him through the mouth was the first scene filmed. The scene was accomplished using a mixture of CGI and practical effects.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=25}} The Winston crew had thought the effect would be among the film's easiest to accomplish, but it ended up being one of the more difficult due to the practicalities of building a blade\-arm blended into Goldstein's shoulder. In particular, when the sculpted arms were vacuum metalized, every flaw and imperfection in its surface became obvious. They eventually determined that the arm would need to be machined to create a better product. Even so, the machined versions still had flaws and seams that made painting the transition from the metallic blade to the human skin difficult; it required many revisions to achieve the right result.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=25}}
Different sword arms were made based on a cast of Goldstein's arm. The Winston crew developed a bladed arm, made from ABS plastic and fiberglass, that was attached at Goldstein's shoulder while she held her own arm behind her back. It was flesh\-toned at the top and gradually transitioned into a chrome blade. It was designed to be thin enough to contain a human arm to enhance the effect. One version was straight with a handle on the arm\-end, allowing puppeteers to manipulate it during a full pan of the blade off\-camera when it is pulled out of Berkley's mouth. A separate version of the bladed arm was made with a bent elbow for the subsequent shot where the T\-1000/Janelle pivots the arm while observing it transforming back into a normal arm.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=25}} CGI was used to transition the blade back to a human arm. Goldstein mimed looking at the transition taking place before her, but the arm was actually filmed later against a bluescreen using a different actress, as this was deemed easier than digitally manipulating Goldstein's arm in the scene itself. Model Interp helped with the transition, and the effect was enhanced by adding reflections of Goldstein to the blade.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=26}}{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=25}} Goldstein was assisted by a puppeteer positioned behind her, who wore a black shroud and appeared in some of the shots between her legs. Doug Chiang used Photoshop to replace the puppeteer with a clean plate shot for this purpose.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=26}}
Once slain, Berkley would fall to the ground, a position he had to remain in for up to five hours until nearly 4 AM to maintain continuity in the following shots. Berkley remarked that he struggled to walk for a few days afterward, but Cameron rewarded him with a bottle of Cristal. Berkley had to practice sword swallowing techniques with a dulled blade for two weeks beforehand, and a cast was made of his head to develop a retractable blade attached to the unseen side of his face that would quickly snap to the side, appearing to be sliding into the back of his head. The blade tip attached to the side of Berkley's head clipped over his ear and a shoulder harness. A track bent around the off\-camera side of his head on which the blade tip rode. Berkley had to lean back at an uncomfortable angle to appear as if his head had been forcibly thrust back.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|pp\=25–26}} When the spike in his mouth was pulled back, the rig was retracted, traveling at a 45\-degree angle and appearing to be retracted into the back of his head.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=26}}
Goldstein rehearsed the scene with Patrick to better imitate his physicality. After this, the T\-1000/Janelle transitions into the Number Two version of the T\-1000 before reassuming Patrick's appearance. The effect was one of the most complex transitions because it involved sequentially morphing between multiple actors and CGI models.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=26}}
### The hospital
For the scene of the T\-1000 emerging from its concealment on the hospital floor, the shot used an untested software written by Tom Williams called "Make Sticky", which could reshape selected areas of a 2D image using 3D geometry to give it depth. A computer\-generated replica of the floor was matched to the live\-action footage, and Make Sticky kept it static while Liza Keith's animated T\-1000 head began to take shape and move up through it.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=28}} A separate custom software, "Ray Samp", was used to link the digital floor and animated head, smoothing how the floor moved around the head.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}} A following reverse angle shot—from behind the T\-1000 and showing the hospital guard Lewis (portrayed by Dan Stanton) in the background—revealed the edges of the T\-1000 separating from the floor as it took a more humanoid shape. For this shot, animated by Rich Cohen, the live\-action floor was completely replaced with CGI, and the hallway was digitally widened at Cameron's request.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=28}}{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}}
The rising animation initially appeared too mechanical, so subtle motions were added (such as making it turn its head) to make it appear more natural.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}} Stanton's face was scanned at Cyberware to create an accurate model for the liquid T\-1000 replica, while the body of the digital Number Four Patrick was remodeled by animator Alex Seiden to resemble Stanton based on reference photos.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}} As the scene continues, the Lewis/T\-1000 confronts and kills Lewis by thrusting a spiked finger through his eye. Chiang used Photoshop to paint the finger transforming into a spike, while the Winston crew provided practical applications.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}} A long and medium\-length spike was produced to create a visual impression of it changing size. Jon Price built a puppet of Stanton from the shoulder up to portray the blade actually sticking into his eye. It featured cable\- and radio\-controlled facial movements operated by five people. Because the area penetrated by the spike was where eye controls would normally go, Price developed a separate system that attached to the puppet's temples instead.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}}
To portray the T\-1000 passing through metal bars, two plates were shot, one with the bars in place and one without them as Patrick walked through. A match\-modeling technique was used to build a computer model of Patrick's footage which was combined with Make Sticky to make it stick wherever it intersected with the bars. Although they completed most of the effect using this technique, it was further enhanced with hand\-painting by Chiang.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}}
For the following scene of the T\-1000 using its blade arms to pry open an elevator door, only the elevator opening was filmed, the rest was CGI.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=29}} The T\-800 responds by shooting the T\-1000 in the face, exploding its head. Referred to as the "Splash Head", the effect involved two articulated puppets and an appliance worn by Patrick's stunt double. The first puppet was designed to portray the T\-1000's head splitting open and was modeled from a clay lifecast of Patrick. The puppet was mainly constructed from foam rubber, apart from the split parts that were made from EST\-50, a strong, lightweight, flexible urethane. The head was prepared and held together with a retaining cable that could be quickly released, and the seam was concealed in the puppet's hairline as the first effect was shown from the back.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=30}} For the frontal effect, a more detailed puppet was made with hinges under each ear and a lopsided mechanism that allowed the eyes to be operated independently of each other. The puppet contained pulleys that allowed the two halves to be pulled close to show the T\-1000 beginning to heal.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=30}} To complete the effect, Patrick's stunt double had to hold his head back as far as he could and use a modified snorkel to breathe while an appliance was worn on his upper body. This allowed him to portray the T\-1000 staggering backward as it heals.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=30}} John Nelson animated the CGI closure of the T\-1000's head, compositing it with live\-action footage, aided by "Chan Math", a program designed to "sew" the seams of the split face by identifying a start and stop point, avoiding having to animate it manually.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=30,33}} Cameron was unimpressed by early efforts of the head closure, believing it looked more magical than scientific, so they added effects such as a camera shake and manipulated the image quality.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=33}}
Cohen also animated the next scene of the T\-1000 pouring itself through an elevator roof, which was made difficult due to the flashing and moving lights in the environment. He scripted software that would analyze the image to identify the intensity and color of the lights to adjust the digital T\-1000's reflections. Cohen further animated the blob T\-1000 turning into the Number Two form and then back into the live\-action Patrick. He used footage of Patrick running from different angles to match his stride to the mode.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=33}} A dummy was used to show the T\-1000 latching itself onto the car as Sarah, John, and the T\-800 escape. Molding its arms into crowbars, the trunk was prescored to allow the prosthetics to pierce it. Developed by the Winston crew, they wanted the crowbar arms to look too thin to have human arms inside them so two different versions were used, one for a top\-down view and the other for a side view which would show the thinner parts.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=33}} The final aspect of this setpiece, the blob of liquid metal rejoining the T\-1000, was thought to be easy, but animator Annabella Serra struggled to account for lighting, shadows, reflections, and geometry in the scene.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=33}}
### The helicopter takeover
The effect of the T\-1000 pouring itself through a hole in the helicopter windscreen used an updated version of the "Pseudopod" software used for the water creature in *The Abyss*. Joe Pasquale and Rich Cohen had to adapt it to seem heavy and dense like metal instead of water, as early tests made it look like the T\-1000 "hopped" into the seat in the tin\-can\-like shape. They also photographed the helicopter interior to add reflections. Once inside the vehicle, the T\-1000 assumes its Fourth Chrome Form and tells the pilot to "get out". This is the character's only spoken dialogue when not in a human form. To get the correct mouth movements, Patrick was again scanned at Cyberware as he held an expression after uttering each syllable, such as "Ge\-" then "\-t". This did not work however because Patrick's facial positions would shift over time. A workaround was developed by using two slide projectors to project grids on his face and black dots were drawn on the grid edges so they could realign his face into the right position. Even so, there were issues with the T\-1000's sunglasses moving around inconsistently. Michael Natkin developed a technique to only animate the lower portion of the T\-1000's face. Jay Riddler animated this scene.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=46}}
### Frozen, shattered, and reformed
In the steel mill, exposed to nitrogen, the T\-1000 freezes before being shot by the T\-800 and shattering. Cameron specifically wanted the freezing aspect to gradually move over the T\-1000's body without being animated. Shane Mahan, Jeff Dawn, Steve LaPorte, and Ed French experimented with different methods of achieving a frosted appearance. Dawn located prismatic snow tinsel which he broke apart to create confetti\-like slivers that were applied a few inches at a time with an aerosol adhesive to Patrick from his feet up. The complete effect from beginning to end was filmed over five nights.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=50}}
To portray the T\-1000's legs snapping off at the knees, the production recruited Larry Johnson, whose legs had been partially amputated. Prosthetic limbs were placed into a pair of urethane boots, segmented into multiple pieces, and a cable device was run through each piece to hold them together, allowing them to be separated from Johnson on cue.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=50}} When the character subsequently loses his arm, Patrick wore a jacket fitted with a cable\-controlled false arm that is connected to a false hand positioned on the floor. Patrick leaned on the arm and hand to conceal the seam and then as he knelt up, the pieces would disconnect.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=50}} As the T\-1000 completely freezes, Patrick was photographed in a specific pose with his real legs concealed in a false floor to appear to be standing on stumps. Using the reference photo, a puppet replica was built using a silicon mold to create a thin gel\-coat resin model that could be filled with shiny metal flakes and nearly 300 vacuum metalized shards. The model was wrapped in an explosive primary cord. Cameron specifically wanted it to shatter like broken glass and fall to the ground rather than explode, sending pieces in various directions, so three air mortar cannons were positioned above it to ensure the pieces fell flat.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=50}}
The final part of the scene depicts the T\-1000 reconstituting itself by merging its liquid metal parts together. It begins with the shards melting to form a liquid. Freezing mercury was the first consideration by pouring mercury into dry ice, but the result had frost on the surface and turned it white. They also experimented with lead solder melting in a clay mold but could not get it to melt fast enough and it tended to blacken, not creating the right effect. They eventually used serabin, a lead\-like material used as a ballast for model railroad cars, and looked like chrome when buffed. They carved shards out of it and placed them on a Coleman Stove with propane torches above and shot them undercranked as they melted.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=51}}
To depict the melted pieces coalescing, the Skotaks used globules of mercury. This was not the first choice due to its [toxicity](/wiki/Mercury_toxicity "Mercury toxicity"), but other options such as lead solder, wax, and silver paint failed to create the necessary effect. They had to wear protective gear while manipulating the difficult\-to\-control mercury, and after two days of struggles, they used a spray adhesive to make it more controllable.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=51}} To make the pieces come together, the mercury was placed on a {{convert\|3\|ft\|m}} long table built with a small turnbuckle that allowed the center to be pulled down subtly, causing the droplets to flow inwards towards the center, alongside airlines to move them in the desired direction. This was composited into live\-action footage of the mill.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=51}}
The final phase of the effect, showing the puddle forming back into the T\-1000 humanoid form, was supervised by Jay Riddle. Annabella Serra animated an overhead view of the poly\-alloy figure forming. This was scripted to be a static shot but the camera was moved to give the scene some emphasis. Joe Pasquale animated the blob shape transforming to Number Four, and Alex Seiden developed another version of the poly\-alloy shader to allow some of the shadows to creep along the floor to make it more believable.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=53}}
In a battle between the Terminators, the T\-800 punches through the T\-1000's head, which transforms to make its former head its hands. Riddle described this as the most challenging scene because it was live\-action interaction with CGI. The T\-1000's head was animated to stretch over the T\-800's fist, and they struggled with demonstrating the resistance and weight of the dense liquid metal as well as matching its movements up to that of the T\-800 moving its fist. Similarly, they had to imagine what the CGI T\-1000 would look like as it throws the T\-800 around.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=54}} Doug Smyth supervised the effect of the T\-1000 passing through itself, and John Berton spent about two weeks animating it. Patrick performed several takes running at the wall but it was difficult to line him up exactly for the reverse shot, so they used a cross dissolve in the area of both images that concealed the difference.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=54}}
Deleted scenes showing the T\-1000 glitching after being frozen featured extra effects. For instance, a flexible arm made of urethane was built by the Winston crew and painted with yellow and black stripes to show the T\-1000 inadvertently merging with environmental objects. ILM produced a separate effect of its boots matching the patterned floor with each step using a wipe effect. These scenes were cut for pacing because the T\-1000 kept stopping to look at the glitches.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=53–54}}
{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=54}}
### "Donut head", "Cleave man", and "Pretzel man"
Further into the steel mill, Sarah shoots the T\-1000 in the head, creating a gaping hole. This was achieved with a mechanical head and shoulders replica of Patrick. It featured radio\-controlled eye articulation and jaw movements and a cable mechanism on the perimeter of the hole to begin the closing action.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=54}} The closure was achieved with CGI, including a rippling technique.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|pp\=54–55}} The T\-1000 responds by pinning Sarah to a wall with his spiked finger. Due to the quickness of the scene, they opted for a simple technique, giving Patrick a spiked finger worn like a glove which was jammed into Hamilton's shoulder, protected by a fiberglass piece while another piece was placed on her back, all held in place with metal struts to hold both parts of the finger in place.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=55}}
The T\-800 intervenes, slicing the T\-1000 in two with a piece of rebar. Although Winston had anticipated using a complete puppet for the "Cleave man", because Cameron was willing to film the shot from a static angle instead of moving, they opted for a simpler approach. Mahan made drawings from which he developed a maquette sculpture showing a body with one shoulder arched back as far as possible with the head facing forward, creating a gap that could be built on. Chris Swift constructed a false arm, shoulder, and partial torso down to the hip from foam rubber that could be worn by Patrick. They also made a rubber costume for him to wear because they found the painted rubber did not mesh well with the cloth uniform. Patrick wore the outfit like a suit, and when viewed from the correct angle, he appeared to be standing normally until Schwarzenegger split the outfit with the rebar, causing it to spring open. The rebar was then attached to Patrick by a hoop worn around his torso which was painted out with Photoshop; the wound was then closed using CGI.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=55}}{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=57}}
The T\-1000 later impersonates Sarah to lure out John. Hamilton's twin sister portrayed Sarah in this scene while Hamilton portrayed her T\-1000 impersonation. This scene features the only direct transformation of the T\-1000 into another character without using an intermediary chrome form as it switches from Hamilton to Patrick. This was achieved with a morphing effect, but it was difficult to match both actors' movements and extract them from the mill background. Around three weeks were spent developing a background shot that could last for the duration of the shot, which needed to be color\-corrected to match the individual footage of Hamilton and Patrick.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=57}}
Finally, the T\-800 shoots the T\-1000 with a grenade launcher, causing its torso to explode. Chris Swift and Andy Schoneberg sculpted three full\-sized "Pretzel man" puppets. One was made of foam rubber sculpted in an "exploded" view that could fold into itself to create a mostly humanoid shape, made by Evan Brainard. Once folded, it was held together with trip pins and springs, and the seam was concealed with aspects such as smoke. A pneumatic ram was installed to force the head upward as the body sprang open.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=57}} The second puppet required more articulation and was built and mechanized by Brainard. It was affixed to the ground on two gimbals, and a puppeteering rod ran down its leg, letting puppeteers below control the body. The head featured radio\-controlled jaw and eye movement and cables controlled the head. The third and final puppet had no articulation; it was a simple foam puppet with a 35\-pound weight inside to make it fall faster.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=57}}
### Death
The T\-1000 meets its end falling into a vat of molten steel. Warren Jr. said "it looks a little cartoony", but they were unable to improve it in time for the film's release and the animators struggled to animate it without being based on the movements of an actual person in the scene. Muren lamented not having more time on the effect, saying the team used "every cheat we could think of" and eventually settled for 1,000 lines instead of 2,000 just to get it rendered on time. Even so, it took weeks to render the scene, using render farms at Silicon Graphics, universities including Cal Tech, and any other facilities they were able to work with.
Unlike the other heavily storyboarded transformations, ILM was given more leeway in how the effect would look. They had to deal with the highly reflective character among brightly lit areas. Chiang developed some key frame concept art showing the dissipation of the T\-1000 and how its shiny chrome surface would gradually dull as it melted. The effect was mainly achieved with a series of morph effects combining live\-action and CGI characters.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=58}}
The actors involved (Lewis, Goldstein, Patrick) were given specific choreography and were filmed moving about in the live\-action pit at the mill side. ILM also constructed a miniature version of the vat to film the liquid splashing so it could be composited over the CGI characters. The sequence involved around thirty separate shots all composited together, and a camera move was digitally added to make it appear more dynamic.{{sfn\|Duncan\|1991\|p\=58}}
|
[
"The T\\-1000\n-----------",
"### Initial design and development",
"Cameron had first conceived of a character like the T\\-1000 for *The Terminator* but lacked the budget or technology to realize it at the time. He first came close to the concept with the implementation of the \"water snake\" in *The Abyss*, a fully CGI character that could take on a vaguely humanoid shape, which was composited into live\\-action footage through analog techniques as available digital resolutions were not yet sufficient. \"Let's shoot for the first computer\\-generated man.\"{{Attribution needed\\|date\\=May 2023}}{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=58}} However, compared to *The Abyss*, where the CGI character could have been cut entirely,{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=9}} there was no backup plan if the CGI work for *Terminator 2* failed or mismatched Winston's practical effects.",
"The digital rendering of the T\\-1000's shapeshifting liquid\\-metal form was enabled by sophisticated computers made by Silicon Graphics Inc. which cost tens of thousands of dollars. Detailed storyboards revealed that the T\\-1000 would require a range of unusual illusions that could only be achieved through computer animation and digital manipulation—combined with the practical effects of Winston's makeup team—which were entirely dependent on ILM's ability to render CGI of unprecedented complexity.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=9}} The character required about 52 different effect shots.",
"Cameron chose the T\\-1000 to have a mercury\\-like aesthetic when not in its human form because, as Warren Jr. described, \"Mercury doesn't look real in real life. It balls up, it reflects everything—it looks like a digital\\-created thing.\" Cameron contacted [Dennis Muren](/wiki/Dennis_Muren \"Dennis Muren\") at ILM to determine if the water character from *The Abyss* could be made metallic, and move and morph in a humanoid form. Muren had some ideas for how to realize it based on the CGI figures he had seen in TV commercials and in university research. Muren said that the reflective surface was also a simpler solution than creating realistic CGI skin; the real difficulty lay in making it move while reflective. Cameron had seen various modern computer techniques that could create a chrome\\-like effect but not while changing shape or conveying a real, physical weight when combined with live\\-action footage. Cameron wanted it to be very reflective. Muren modified the reflections to make them seem heavier. Diana Ace and Alice Rosen worked full time on digital reflections, using a Macintosh to touch up reflections (mainly on the T\\-1000\\) and create blends between walls, floors, and ceilings to ensure there were no seams or hard edges.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}}",
"Muren described the T\\-1000's initial design as \"terrible\"—Cameron wanted it to have a flawless surface, but Muren believed this would make it look unrealistic. Muren's solution was to make the surface not entirely reflective and scatter light in almost imperceptible ways to make it slightly \"dirty\" and better fit the live\\-action footage. To create the right look for the shiny metal material, a sophisticated [shading program](/wiki/Shader \"Shader\") called the \"poly\\-alloy shader\" was developed, which produced a reflective, slightly cold, silvery visual{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=20}} and gave the material is chrome\\-like appearance.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|pp\\=22,25}}",
"Animator Steve Williams studied Patrick's gait, and realized how difficult it would be to make a fully CGI person due to the nuances of movement based on weight and inertia. To precisely analyze his gait, Williams filmed him walking and running, using a flexible grid on the actor's body to determine how his muscles interacted. Using a dual camera technique created by Mark Dippe,{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=9}} cameras synchronized to show each angle of Patrick; the resulting footage was studied for a month and formed the basis for the character's CGI models and walking cycles.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|pp\\=9–10}} Scanned at the Cyberware Laboratory in Monterey, the footage couldn't be used directly, but served as a basic starting shape and guide for modeling the chrome figure, rather than replicating it from scratch.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=10}} Kassar said Patrick's performance was essential to making the T\\-1000 real, with or without the effects.",
"The CGI effect shots were scheduled at the beginning of production, to allow the longest development time. The ILM computer graphics department was divided into six teams supervised, respectively, by Jay Riddle, Doug Smythe, Lincoln Hu, Scott Anderson, Tom Williams, and Stefen Fangmeier, and George Joblove.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=9}} Muren and his team adapted the storyboards based on the realistic demands of computer graphics, as they were not sure some shots were achievable, especially those that featured camera movement. They suggested compromises with Cameron's approval.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=9}} Chiang then redrew all 43 CGI\\-shot storyboards, being as specific as possible to avoid delays later on. The storyboards were used in small animation tests to have an idea of timings and actions to reduce trial and error.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=9}}",
"Chiang also defined the distinct looks of the T\\-1000 in all four of its CGI states (separate from its human form). Stage One is an amorphous blob of liquid metal, Stage Two is a humanoid but featureless shape, Stage Three takes a vague shape of Patrick with some gear visible, and Stage Four is effectively a CGI chrome replica of Patrick.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=9}} Segal{{Who?\\|date\\=May 2023}} sculpted several 18\\-inch clay [maquettes](/wiki/Maquette \"Maquette\") for each phase which proved invaluable in studying how the character should look at each stage and the transition between each one. Chiang also experimented with using hand animation for transitions between the chrome and live\\-action versions of Patrick.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=9}} According to Muren, the most challenging aspects were the practical effects that involved splitting its body open, transforming appendages into blades, and other substantial physical damage.",
"For budget reasons, Cameron assigned as many T\\-1000 effects as possible to Winston's makeup team to avoid costly computer graphics. These practical effects included practical bullet hits, full\\-sized puppets, and metallic blade extensions.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=10}} Much of the early research and development involved finding ways to convincingly suggest the look of liquid metal in sculpted form, such as the process of [vacuum metalizing](/wiki/Vacuum_metalizing \"Vacuum metalizing\").{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=10}} The difficulty lay in finding materials that would hold the vacuum metalizing without cracking or flaking, with the best results coming from a slip rubber latex backed with either soft foam rubber or polyfoam.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=10}}",
"### Bullet wounds",
"The T\\-1000 bullet wounds were among the earliest effects developed by the Winston crew. The team spent weeks shooting pellets into mud to study the resulting patterns and duplicate them. They also spent a lot of time testing materials to see which would best take to the vacuum metalizing process that would give all the effects their chrome look.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=10}} They experimented by carving dozens of latex and foam pieces to look like a ripple through liquid metal in various states and sizes, which were then vacuum metalized, creating a final appearance akin to a chrome flower.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=18}}{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=19}}",
"They struggled with a deployment mechanism for the pieces so they would appear in an instant, simulating bullet impact. Winston described it as a \"bear trap mechanism\" that snapped open, but Cameron wanted something \"more elegant\". Mechanic Chris Cowan engineered a system in which the chrome flower was divided into five pieces, each of which was stuck to a spring\\-loaded finger mechanism that would explode outward from the center. These pieces were attached to a fiberglass chest plate worn by Patrick, and holes were pre\\-scored into his uniform to let the flowers spring through. Each flower was activated with a radio\\-controlled cable pin mechanism that would release all five fingers simultaneously. To make the effect happen instantaneously, they used very strong springs, but this made it difficult to keep the devices closed and several takes were ruined by them activating unexpectedly.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=19}}",
"CGI was used to animate the impact holes closing. Because of the expense of using this process to deal with the many bullet impacts received by the T\\-1000, a cost\\-saving measure was implemented in which the bullet holes would not heal immediately so that all of the impacts could be removed in one shot. For example, in the mall confrontation, the T\\-1000 is shot six times by the T\\-800, but heals all of its injuries in a single shot instead of six separate ones.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=19}}",
"Live\\-action footage of the bullet wounds was scanned into computers and initial modeling and animation were performed using [Autodesk Alias](/wiki/Autodesk_Alias \"Autodesk Alias\"). A computer model recreation of Patrick was developed and Jonathan French animated the modeled hits closing up. The effect was enhanced with a custom\\-made program designed to add a rippling effect to the wounds and surrounding clothing, and the poly\\-alloy shader.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=19}}{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=20}} The finished footage was then composited digitally into the high\\-resolution background footage and onto film.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=20}}",
"### T\\-1000 truck chase",
"The scene of the T\\-1000 chasing down John Connor in a truck was one of Patrick's earliest filmed scenes. Patrick was filmed walking out of the flaming truck using a motion control system to allow for a smooth consistent movement, but the camera could not be completely synchronized with his movements and so the camera was manually operated after rehearsing the movements with Patrick about 20 times. The cameraman's resulting movements were preserved with a field recording so the camera could exactly recreate its movements without Patrick for the background plate that would be used to digitally insert the T\\-1000\\. For the final shot, Patrick had to start his movement as close to the flames as possible, but on one take was too close. He said, \"I felt this intense heat and I could smell my shirt beginning to singe—and the back of my ears were stinging.\" Though he began the scene calmly, he began moving too fast as the heat became overwhelming, leading to Cameron stating, \"Robert, I appreciate your dedication, but I think you overdid it. Don't run in so far next time.\"{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=22}} A second camera filmed Patrick from the side to make it easier for the T\\-1000 animators to see his movements and stride clearly.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=22}}",
"Animating the T\\-1000 walking from the fire took several weeks and was one of the more difficult shots in the film to produce, but Cameron believed it was essential in demonstrating his invulnerability. Storyboards called for the T\\-1000 to progress through each of its visual stages as it emerged from the fire, and Williams was responsible for developing all four stages used. Animation began with basic wire\\-frame models to form a digital puppet. Williams remarked that he made several hundred changes per day refining slight physical movements in the head, wrist, or hips to make them more realistic. A custom software, \"Body Sock\", smoothed the T\\-1000 joints and connected all of its components together to create smooth, seamless skin.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=22}}",
"To give the T\\-1000 its reflective appearance, panoramic photographs were taken on location of the surroundings which were scanned into a Macintosh FX computer and integrated into the digital puppet's world for it to reflect. They also added reflections of the T\\-1000 to the water in the canal.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=25}} Detailed measurements were made of the canal to marry its movements to the environment; still, the digital character did not line up seamlessly due to the various camera movements and errors that had been made recording its movements. Also, the canal floor was uneven which made it even more difficult. They attempted to alleviate the issue somewhat through hand\\-painted alterations to the footage and the morphing technique developed by ILM for *Willow*, which alters two\\-dimensional imagery by stretching two separated images to create an intermediate one.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=25}} To transition between its different forms, software called \"Model Interp\" was used, which could keyframe transition between two 3D shapes. Transitioning to his fourth form as a police officer, a wipe transition was used to move from the chrome 3D model to Patrick's live\\-action footage.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=25}}",
"### John's foster parents",
"The scene in which the T\\-1000 impersonates John's mother Janelle Voight ([Jenette Goldstein](/wiki/Jenette_Goldstein \"Jenette Goldstein\")) and kills her husband Todd ([Xander Berkley](/wiki/Xander_Berkley \"Xander Berkley\")) by stabbing him through the mouth was the first scene filmed. The scene was accomplished using a mixture of CGI and practical effects.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=25}} The Winston crew had thought the effect would be among the film's easiest to accomplish, but it ended up being one of the more difficult due to the practicalities of building a blade\\-arm blended into Goldstein's shoulder. In particular, when the sculpted arms were vacuum metalized, every flaw and imperfection in its surface became obvious. They eventually determined that the arm would need to be machined to create a better product. Even so, the machined versions still had flaws and seams that made painting the transition from the metallic blade to the human skin difficult; it required many revisions to achieve the right result.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=25}}",
"Different sword arms were made based on a cast of Goldstein's arm. The Winston crew developed a bladed arm, made from ABS plastic and fiberglass, that was attached at Goldstein's shoulder while she held her own arm behind her back. It was flesh\\-toned at the top and gradually transitioned into a chrome blade. It was designed to be thin enough to contain a human arm to enhance the effect. One version was straight with a handle on the arm\\-end, allowing puppeteers to manipulate it during a full pan of the blade off\\-camera when it is pulled out of Berkley's mouth. A separate version of the bladed arm was made with a bent elbow for the subsequent shot where the T\\-1000/Janelle pivots the arm while observing it transforming back into a normal arm.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=25}} CGI was used to transition the blade back to a human arm. Goldstein mimed looking at the transition taking place before her, but the arm was actually filmed later against a bluescreen using a different actress, as this was deemed easier than digitally manipulating Goldstein's arm in the scene itself. Model Interp helped with the transition, and the effect was enhanced by adding reflections of Goldstein to the blade.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=26}}{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=25}} Goldstein was assisted by a puppeteer positioned behind her, who wore a black shroud and appeared in some of the shots between her legs. Doug Chiang used Photoshop to replace the puppeteer with a clean plate shot for this purpose.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=26}}",
"Once slain, Berkley would fall to the ground, a position he had to remain in for up to five hours until nearly 4 AM to maintain continuity in the following shots. Berkley remarked that he struggled to walk for a few days afterward, but Cameron rewarded him with a bottle of Cristal. Berkley had to practice sword swallowing techniques with a dulled blade for two weeks beforehand, and a cast was made of his head to develop a retractable blade attached to the unseen side of his face that would quickly snap to the side, appearing to be sliding into the back of his head. The blade tip attached to the side of Berkley's head clipped over his ear and a shoulder harness. A track bent around the off\\-camera side of his head on which the blade tip rode. Berkley had to lean back at an uncomfortable angle to appear as if his head had been forcibly thrust back.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|pp\\=25–26}} When the spike in his mouth was pulled back, the rig was retracted, traveling at a 45\\-degree angle and appearing to be retracted into the back of his head.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=26}}",
"Goldstein rehearsed the scene with Patrick to better imitate his physicality. After this, the T\\-1000/Janelle transitions into the Number Two version of the T\\-1000 before reassuming Patrick's appearance. The effect was one of the most complex transitions because it involved sequentially morphing between multiple actors and CGI models.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=26}}",
"### The hospital",
"For the scene of the T\\-1000 emerging from its concealment on the hospital floor, the shot used an untested software written by Tom Williams called \"Make Sticky\", which could reshape selected areas of a 2D image using 3D geometry to give it depth. A computer\\-generated replica of the floor was matched to the live\\-action footage, and Make Sticky kept it static while Liza Keith's animated T\\-1000 head began to take shape and move up through it.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=28}} A separate custom software, \"Ray Samp\", was used to link the digital floor and animated head, smoothing how the floor moved around the head.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}} A following reverse angle shot—from behind the T\\-1000 and showing the hospital guard Lewis (portrayed by Dan Stanton) in the background—revealed the edges of the T\\-1000 separating from the floor as it took a more humanoid shape. For this shot, animated by Rich Cohen, the live\\-action floor was completely replaced with CGI, and the hallway was digitally widened at Cameron's request.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=28}}{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}}",
"The rising animation initially appeared too mechanical, so subtle motions were added (such as making it turn its head) to make it appear more natural.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}} Stanton's face was scanned at Cyberware to create an accurate model for the liquid T\\-1000 replica, while the body of the digital Number Four Patrick was remodeled by animator Alex Seiden to resemble Stanton based on reference photos.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}} As the scene continues, the Lewis/T\\-1000 confronts and kills Lewis by thrusting a spiked finger through his eye. Chiang used Photoshop to paint the finger transforming into a spike, while the Winston crew provided practical applications.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}} A long and medium\\-length spike was produced to create a visual impression of it changing size. Jon Price built a puppet of Stanton from the shoulder up to portray the blade actually sticking into his eye. It featured cable\\- and radio\\-controlled facial movements operated by five people. Because the area penetrated by the spike was where eye controls would normally go, Price developed a separate system that attached to the puppet's temples instead.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}}",
"To portray the T\\-1000 passing through metal bars, two plates were shot, one with the bars in place and one without them as Patrick walked through. A match\\-modeling technique was used to build a computer model of Patrick's footage which was combined with Make Sticky to make it stick wherever it intersected with the bars. Although they completed most of the effect using this technique, it was further enhanced with hand\\-painting by Chiang.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}}",
"For the following scene of the T\\-1000 using its blade arms to pry open an elevator door, only the elevator opening was filmed, the rest was CGI.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=29}} The T\\-800 responds by shooting the T\\-1000 in the face, exploding its head. Referred to as the \"Splash Head\", the effect involved two articulated puppets and an appliance worn by Patrick's stunt double. The first puppet was designed to portray the T\\-1000's head splitting open and was modeled from a clay lifecast of Patrick. The puppet was mainly constructed from foam rubber, apart from the split parts that were made from EST\\-50, a strong, lightweight, flexible urethane. The head was prepared and held together with a retaining cable that could be quickly released, and the seam was concealed in the puppet's hairline as the first effect was shown from the back.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=30}} For the frontal effect, a more detailed puppet was made with hinges under each ear and a lopsided mechanism that allowed the eyes to be operated independently of each other. The puppet contained pulleys that allowed the two halves to be pulled close to show the T\\-1000 beginning to heal.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=30}} To complete the effect, Patrick's stunt double had to hold his head back as far as he could and use a modified snorkel to breathe while an appliance was worn on his upper body. This allowed him to portray the T\\-1000 staggering backward as it heals.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=30}} John Nelson animated the CGI closure of the T\\-1000's head, compositing it with live\\-action footage, aided by \"Chan Math\", a program designed to \"sew\" the seams of the split face by identifying a start and stop point, avoiding having to animate it manually.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=30,33}} Cameron was unimpressed by early efforts of the head closure, believing it looked more magical than scientific, so they added effects such as a camera shake and manipulated the image quality.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=33}}",
"Cohen also animated the next scene of the T\\-1000 pouring itself through an elevator roof, which was made difficult due to the flashing and moving lights in the environment. He scripted software that would analyze the image to identify the intensity and color of the lights to adjust the digital T\\-1000's reflections. Cohen further animated the blob T\\-1000 turning into the Number Two form and then back into the live\\-action Patrick. He used footage of Patrick running from different angles to match his stride to the mode.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=33}} A dummy was used to show the T\\-1000 latching itself onto the car as Sarah, John, and the T\\-800 escape. Molding its arms into crowbars, the trunk was prescored to allow the prosthetics to pierce it. Developed by the Winston crew, they wanted the crowbar arms to look too thin to have human arms inside them so two different versions were used, one for a top\\-down view and the other for a side view which would show the thinner parts.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=33}} The final aspect of this setpiece, the blob of liquid metal rejoining the T\\-1000, was thought to be easy, but animator Annabella Serra struggled to account for lighting, shadows, reflections, and geometry in the scene.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=33}}",
"### The helicopter takeover",
"The effect of the T\\-1000 pouring itself through a hole in the helicopter windscreen used an updated version of the \"Pseudopod\" software used for the water creature in *The Abyss*. Joe Pasquale and Rich Cohen had to adapt it to seem heavy and dense like metal instead of water, as early tests made it look like the T\\-1000 \"hopped\" into the seat in the tin\\-can\\-like shape. They also photographed the helicopter interior to add reflections. Once inside the vehicle, the T\\-1000 assumes its Fourth Chrome Form and tells the pilot to \"get out\". This is the character's only spoken dialogue when not in a human form. To get the correct mouth movements, Patrick was again scanned at Cyberware as he held an expression after uttering each syllable, such as \"Ge\\-\" then \"\\-t\". This did not work however because Patrick's facial positions would shift over time. A workaround was developed by using two slide projectors to project grids on his face and black dots were drawn on the grid edges so they could realign his face into the right position. Even so, there were issues with the T\\-1000's sunglasses moving around inconsistently. Michael Natkin developed a technique to only animate the lower portion of the T\\-1000's face. Jay Riddler animated this scene.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=46}}",
"### Frozen, shattered, and reformed",
"In the steel mill, exposed to nitrogen, the T\\-1000 freezes before being shot by the T\\-800 and shattering. Cameron specifically wanted the freezing aspect to gradually move over the T\\-1000's body without being animated. Shane Mahan, Jeff Dawn, Steve LaPorte, and Ed French experimented with different methods of achieving a frosted appearance. Dawn located prismatic snow tinsel which he broke apart to create confetti\\-like slivers that were applied a few inches at a time with an aerosol adhesive to Patrick from his feet up. The complete effect from beginning to end was filmed over five nights.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=50}}",
"To portray the T\\-1000's legs snapping off at the knees, the production recruited Larry Johnson, whose legs had been partially amputated. Prosthetic limbs were placed into a pair of urethane boots, segmented into multiple pieces, and a cable device was run through each piece to hold them together, allowing them to be separated from Johnson on cue.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=50}} When the character subsequently loses his arm, Patrick wore a jacket fitted with a cable\\-controlled false arm that is connected to a false hand positioned on the floor. Patrick leaned on the arm and hand to conceal the seam and then as he knelt up, the pieces would disconnect.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=50}} As the T\\-1000 completely freezes, Patrick was photographed in a specific pose with his real legs concealed in a false floor to appear to be standing on stumps. Using the reference photo, a puppet replica was built using a silicon mold to create a thin gel\\-coat resin model that could be filled with shiny metal flakes and nearly 300 vacuum metalized shards. The model was wrapped in an explosive primary cord. Cameron specifically wanted it to shatter like broken glass and fall to the ground rather than explode, sending pieces in various directions, so three air mortar cannons were positioned above it to ensure the pieces fell flat.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=50}}",
"The final part of the scene depicts the T\\-1000 reconstituting itself by merging its liquid metal parts together. It begins with the shards melting to form a liquid. Freezing mercury was the first consideration by pouring mercury into dry ice, but the result had frost on the surface and turned it white. They also experimented with lead solder melting in a clay mold but could not get it to melt fast enough and it tended to blacken, not creating the right effect. They eventually used serabin, a lead\\-like material used as a ballast for model railroad cars, and looked like chrome when buffed. They carved shards out of it and placed them on a Coleman Stove with propane torches above and shot them undercranked as they melted.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=51}}",
"To depict the melted pieces coalescing, the Skotaks used globules of mercury. This was not the first choice due to its [toxicity](/wiki/Mercury_toxicity \"Mercury toxicity\"), but other options such as lead solder, wax, and silver paint failed to create the necessary effect. They had to wear protective gear while manipulating the difficult\\-to\\-control mercury, and after two days of struggles, they used a spray adhesive to make it more controllable.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=51}} To make the pieces come together, the mercury was placed on a {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m}} long table built with a small turnbuckle that allowed the center to be pulled down subtly, causing the droplets to flow inwards towards the center, alongside airlines to move them in the desired direction. This was composited into live\\-action footage of the mill.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=51}}",
"The final phase of the effect, showing the puddle forming back into the T\\-1000 humanoid form, was supervised by Jay Riddle. Annabella Serra animated an overhead view of the poly\\-alloy figure forming. This was scripted to be a static shot but the camera was moved to give the scene some emphasis. Joe Pasquale animated the blob shape transforming to Number Four, and Alex Seiden developed another version of the poly\\-alloy shader to allow some of the shadows to creep along the floor to make it more believable.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=53}}",
"In a battle between the Terminators, the T\\-800 punches through the T\\-1000's head, which transforms to make its former head its hands. Riddle described this as the most challenging scene because it was live\\-action interaction with CGI. The T\\-1000's head was animated to stretch over the T\\-800's fist, and they struggled with demonstrating the resistance and weight of the dense liquid metal as well as matching its movements up to that of the T\\-800 moving its fist. Similarly, they had to imagine what the CGI T\\-1000 would look like as it throws the T\\-800 around.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=54}} Doug Smyth supervised the effect of the T\\-1000 passing through itself, and John Berton spent about two weeks animating it. Patrick performed several takes running at the wall but it was difficult to line him up exactly for the reverse shot, so they used a cross dissolve in the area of both images that concealed the difference.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=54}}",
"Deleted scenes showing the T\\-1000 glitching after being frozen featured extra effects. For instance, a flexible arm made of urethane was built by the Winston crew and painted with yellow and black stripes to show the T\\-1000 inadvertently merging with environmental objects. ILM produced a separate effect of its boots matching the patterned floor with each step using a wipe effect. These scenes were cut for pacing because the T\\-1000 kept stopping to look at the glitches.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=53–54}}\n{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=54}}",
"### \"Donut head\", \"Cleave man\", and \"Pretzel man\"",
"Further into the steel mill, Sarah shoots the T\\-1000 in the head, creating a gaping hole. This was achieved with a mechanical head and shoulders replica of Patrick. It featured radio\\-controlled eye articulation and jaw movements and a cable mechanism on the perimeter of the hole to begin the closing action.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=54}} The closure was achieved with CGI, including a rippling technique.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|pp\\=54–55}} The T\\-1000 responds by pinning Sarah to a wall with his spiked finger. Due to the quickness of the scene, they opted for a simple technique, giving Patrick a spiked finger worn like a glove which was jammed into Hamilton's shoulder, protected by a fiberglass piece while another piece was placed on her back, all held in place with metal struts to hold both parts of the finger in place.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=55}}",
"The T\\-800 intervenes, slicing the T\\-1000 in two with a piece of rebar. Although Winston had anticipated using a complete puppet for the \"Cleave man\", because Cameron was willing to film the shot from a static angle instead of moving, they opted for a simpler approach. Mahan made drawings from which he developed a maquette sculpture showing a body with one shoulder arched back as far as possible with the head facing forward, creating a gap that could be built on. Chris Swift constructed a false arm, shoulder, and partial torso down to the hip from foam rubber that could be worn by Patrick. They also made a rubber costume for him to wear because they found the painted rubber did not mesh well with the cloth uniform. Patrick wore the outfit like a suit, and when viewed from the correct angle, he appeared to be standing normally until Schwarzenegger split the outfit with the rebar, causing it to spring open. The rebar was then attached to Patrick by a hoop worn around his torso which was painted out with Photoshop; the wound was then closed using CGI.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=55}}{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=57}}",
"The T\\-1000 later impersonates Sarah to lure out John. Hamilton's twin sister portrayed Sarah in this scene while Hamilton portrayed her T\\-1000 impersonation. This scene features the only direct transformation of the T\\-1000 into another character without using an intermediary chrome form as it switches from Hamilton to Patrick. This was achieved with a morphing effect, but it was difficult to match both actors' movements and extract them from the mill background. Around three weeks were spent developing a background shot that could last for the duration of the shot, which needed to be color\\-corrected to match the individual footage of Hamilton and Patrick.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=57}}",
"Finally, the T\\-800 shoots the T\\-1000 with a grenade launcher, causing its torso to explode. Chris Swift and Andy Schoneberg sculpted three full\\-sized \"Pretzel man\" puppets. One was made of foam rubber sculpted in an \"exploded\" view that could fold into itself to create a mostly humanoid shape, made by Evan Brainard. Once folded, it was held together with trip pins and springs, and the seam was concealed with aspects such as smoke. A pneumatic ram was installed to force the head upward as the body sprang open.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=57}} The second puppet required more articulation and was built and mechanized by Brainard. It was affixed to the ground on two gimbals, and a puppeteering rod ran down its leg, letting puppeteers below control the body. The head featured radio\\-controlled jaw and eye movement and cables controlled the head. The third and final puppet had no articulation; it was a simple foam puppet with a 35\\-pound weight inside to make it fall faster.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=57}}",
"### Death",
"The T\\-1000 meets its end falling into a vat of molten steel. Warren Jr. said \"it looks a little cartoony\", but they were unable to improve it in time for the film's release and the animators struggled to animate it without being based on the movements of an actual person in the scene. Muren lamented not having more time on the effect, saying the team used \"every cheat we could think of\" and eventually settled for 1,000 lines instead of 2,000 just to get it rendered on time. Even so, it took weeks to render the scene, using render farms at Silicon Graphics, universities including Cal Tech, and any other facilities they were able to work with.",
"Unlike the other heavily storyboarded transformations, ILM was given more leeway in how the effect would look. They had to deal with the highly reflective character among brightly lit areas. Chiang developed some key frame concept art showing the dissipation of the T\\-1000 and how its shiny chrome surface would gradually dull as it melted. The effect was mainly achieved with a series of morph effects combining live\\-action and CGI characters.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=58}}",
"The actors involved (Lewis, Goldstein, Patrick) were given specific choreography and were filmed moving about in the live\\-action pit at the mill side. ILM also constructed a miniature version of the vat to film the liquid splashing so it could be composited over the CGI characters. The sequence involved around thirty separate shots all composited together, and a camera move was digitally added to make it appear more dynamic.{{sfn\\|Duncan\\|1991\\|p\\=58}}",
""
] |
Career
------
Following his travels to [India](/wiki/India "India"), Praful spent 10 months in Brazil where his musical style took on heavy influences of [Samba](/wiki/Samba "Samba"). Upon returning to [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam") in 1993, he worked mainly with Brazilian and Latin groups and artists including:
* Treme Terra
* Nippy Noya
* Saoco
* Armando Peraza
* Gerardo Rosales
From 1997 on he was drawn to [electronica](/wiki/Electronica "Electronica") and newer developments in music like [trip hop](/wiki/Trip_hop "Trip hop"), [dance](/wiki/Dance_music%231990s "Dance music#1990s") and [drum and bass](/wiki/Drum_and_bass "Drum and bass").
In 1999 Praful joined the experimental dance formation [Project 2000](/wiki/Project_2000_%28musical_group%29 "Project 2000 (musical group)"), a drum and bass group which experience regional success in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"). That year [Project 2000](/wiki/Project_2000_%28musical_group%29 "Project 2000 (musical group)") won the prestigious Dutch Heineken [Cross Over](/wiki/Crossover_%28music%29 "Crossover (music)") Music Award. 1999 also saw the release of the [Project 2000](/wiki/Project_2000_%28musical_group%29 "Project 2000 (musical group)") album 'It's about time' and 2 [singles](/wiki/Single_%28music%29 "Single (music)") with [Universal/Polydor](/wiki/Polydor_Records "Polydor Records").
From 1997 until 2002 he worked as [reed](/wiki/Reed_%28instrument%29 "Reed (instrument)") player and composer with 'Bayuba Cante', an international group mixing [Afro\-Cuban](/wiki/Afro-Cuban "Afro-Cuban") [Santería](/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa "Santería")\-roots with [flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco "Flamenco"), [rumba](/wiki/Cuban_rumba "Cuban rumba"), [Indian music](/wiki/Indian_music "Indian music"), [funk](/wiki/Funk "Funk") and [jazz](/wiki/Afro-Cuban_jazz "Afro-Cuban jazz"), with 2 albums released (Network\-DE) and tours in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") and [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada").
In 1999 he released his first solo album, the meditative 'Touched by Love'. In that year he also started following lessons in [Bansuri](/wiki/Bansuri "Bansuri") (Indian bamboo flute) with Indian [Pandit](/wiki/Pandit "Pandit") Hariprasad Chaurasia, who continues to be his teacher and great inspiration.
In 2001 Praful signed a deal with Dutch Indie label Therapy Records, for which he released 3 albums and several singles and vinyls until 2007\. The international success of 'One Day Deep' made Praful a household name for [Chill](/wiki/Chill-out_music "Chill-out music")\-, [Jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz")\-, [Dance](/wiki/Dance_music "Dance music")\- and [Crossover](/wiki/Crossover_%28music%29 "Crossover (music)")\-Fans. The album was produced and recorded by Praful with the producers duo Adani\&Wolf, with guests Afra Mussawisade (percussion, Iran/Germany), Ted de Jong (tabla, Netherlands), Adrian Elissen (Spanish guitar, Malta), Jose Lopretti (bass, Uruguay) and Brazilian singer Lilian Vieira (Brazil/Zuco 103\).
### Musical Styles and Influences
Praful was influenced by pop music from a young age. Early saxophone influences included Jazz artists like [Michael Brecker](/wiki/Michael_Brecker "Michael Brecker"), [Bob Berg](/wiki/Bob_Berg "Bob Berg") and [Wayne Shorter](/wiki/Wayne_Shorter "Wayne Shorter"). During his studies at conservatory Praful began to be affected by the musical styles of [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane "John Coltrane") and [Charlie Parker](/wiki/Charlie_Parker "Charlie Parker").
He is influenced by many other non\-saxophone instrumentalists. He lists [Pat Metheny](/wiki/Pat_Metheny "Pat Metheny") as one of his strongest influences saying "...he always tried to play guitar \[as if] he was a reed player." Metheny's earlier works exhibited a blend of [new\-age music](/wiki/New-age_music "New-age music"), [fusion](/wiki/Jazz_fusion "Jazz fusion") and [Brazilian](/wiki/Brazilian_music "Brazilian music") which would also be exhibited in Praful's own music.
Primarily a [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") musician, Praful has recorded music from many different genres including [pop music](/wiki/Pop_music "Pop music"), [urban](/wiki/Urban_music "Urban music"), [smooth jazz](/wiki/Smooth_jazz "Smooth jazz"), [new age](/wiki/New-age_music "New-age music"), [Afro\-Cuban jazz](/wiki/Afro-Cuban_jazz "Afro-Cuban jazz"), [Latin music](/wiki/Latin_music_%28genre%29 "Latin music (genre)"), [Santería](/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa "Santería"), [flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco "Flamenco"), [rumba](/wiki/Cuban_rumba "Cuban rumba"), [Indian music](/wiki/Indian_music "Indian music"), [funk](/wiki/Funk "Funk"), [bossa nova](/wiki/Bossa_nova "Bossa nova"), [acid jazz](/wiki/Acid_jazz "Acid jazz").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Following his travels to [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), Praful spent 10 months in Brazil where his musical style took on heavy influences of [Samba](/wiki/Samba \"Samba\"). Upon returning to [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam \"Amsterdam\") in 1993, he worked mainly with Brazilian and Latin groups and artists including:\n* Treme Terra\n* Nippy Noya\n* Saoco\n* Armando Peraza\n* Gerardo Rosales",
"From 1997 on he was drawn to [electronica](/wiki/Electronica \"Electronica\") and newer developments in music like [trip hop](/wiki/Trip_hop \"Trip hop\"), [dance](/wiki/Dance_music%231990s \"Dance music#1990s\") and [drum and bass](/wiki/Drum_and_bass \"Drum and bass\").",
"In 1999 Praful joined the experimental dance formation [Project 2000](/wiki/Project_2000_%28musical_group%29 \"Project 2000 (musical group)\"), a drum and bass group which experience regional success in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"). That year [Project 2000](/wiki/Project_2000_%28musical_group%29 \"Project 2000 (musical group)\") won the prestigious Dutch Heineken [Cross Over](/wiki/Crossover_%28music%29 \"Crossover (music)\") Music Award. 1999 also saw the release of the [Project 2000](/wiki/Project_2000_%28musical_group%29 \"Project 2000 (musical group)\") album 'It's about time' and 2 [singles](/wiki/Single_%28music%29 \"Single (music)\") with [Universal/Polydor](/wiki/Polydor_Records \"Polydor Records\").",
"From 1997 until 2002 he worked as [reed](/wiki/Reed_%28instrument%29 \"Reed (instrument)\") player and composer with 'Bayuba Cante', an international group mixing [Afro\\-Cuban](/wiki/Afro-Cuban \"Afro-Cuban\") [Santería](/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa \"Santería\")\\-roots with [flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco \"Flamenco\"), [rumba](/wiki/Cuban_rumba \"Cuban rumba\"), [Indian music](/wiki/Indian_music \"Indian music\"), [funk](/wiki/Funk \"Funk\") and [jazz](/wiki/Afro-Cuban_jazz \"Afro-Cuban jazz\"), with 2 albums released (Network\\-DE) and tours in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") and [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\").",
"In 1999 he released his first solo album, the meditative 'Touched by Love'. In that year he also started following lessons in [Bansuri](/wiki/Bansuri \"Bansuri\") (Indian bamboo flute) with Indian [Pandit](/wiki/Pandit \"Pandit\") Hariprasad Chaurasia, who continues to be his teacher and great inspiration.",
"In 2001 Praful signed a deal with Dutch Indie label Therapy Records, for which he released 3 albums and several singles and vinyls until 2007\\. The international success of 'One Day Deep' made Praful a household name for [Chill](/wiki/Chill-out_music \"Chill-out music\")\\-, [Jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\")\\-, [Dance](/wiki/Dance_music \"Dance music\")\\- and [Crossover](/wiki/Crossover_%28music%29 \"Crossover (music)\")\\-Fans. The album was produced and recorded by Praful with the producers duo Adani\\&Wolf, with guests Afra Mussawisade (percussion, Iran/Germany), Ted de Jong (tabla, Netherlands), Adrian Elissen (Spanish guitar, Malta), Jose Lopretti (bass, Uruguay) and Brazilian singer Lilian Vieira (Brazil/Zuco 103\\).",
"### Musical Styles and Influences",
"Praful was influenced by pop music from a young age. Early saxophone influences included Jazz artists like [Michael Brecker](/wiki/Michael_Brecker \"Michael Brecker\"), [Bob Berg](/wiki/Bob_Berg \"Bob Berg\") and [Wayne Shorter](/wiki/Wayne_Shorter \"Wayne Shorter\"). During his studies at conservatory Praful began to be affected by the musical styles of [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane \"John Coltrane\") and [Charlie Parker](/wiki/Charlie_Parker \"Charlie Parker\").",
"He is influenced by many other non\\-saxophone instrumentalists. He lists [Pat Metheny](/wiki/Pat_Metheny \"Pat Metheny\") as one of his strongest influences saying \"...he always tried to play guitar \\[as if] he was a reed player.\" Metheny's earlier works exhibited a blend of [new\\-age music](/wiki/New-age_music \"New-age music\"), [fusion](/wiki/Jazz_fusion \"Jazz fusion\") and [Brazilian](/wiki/Brazilian_music \"Brazilian music\") which would also be exhibited in Praful's own music.",
"Primarily a [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") musician, Praful has recorded music from many different genres including [pop music](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\"), [urban](/wiki/Urban_music \"Urban music\"), [smooth jazz](/wiki/Smooth_jazz \"Smooth jazz\"), [new age](/wiki/New-age_music \"New-age music\"), [Afro\\-Cuban jazz](/wiki/Afro-Cuban_jazz \"Afro-Cuban jazz\"), [Latin music](/wiki/Latin_music_%28genre%29 \"Latin music (genre)\"), [Santería](/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa \"Santería\"), [flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco \"Flamenco\"), [rumba](/wiki/Cuban_rumba \"Cuban rumba\"), [Indian music](/wiki/Indian_music \"Indian music\"), [funk](/wiki/Funk \"Funk\"), [bossa nova](/wiki/Bossa_nova \"Bossa nova\"), [acid jazz](/wiki/Acid_jazz \"Acid jazz\").",
""
] |
History
-------
### Conquest and occupation
{{main article\|Second Italo\-Abyssinian War\|Italian East Africa}}
[thumb\|left\|[Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia "Emperor of Ethiopia") [Haile Selassie](/wiki/Haile_Selassie "Haile Selassie") in 1934](/wiki/File:CropSelassie.jpg "CropSelassie.jpg")
Emperor Haile Selassie's reign was interrupted on 3 October 1935{{cite book \|first\=A. J. \|last\=Barker \|title\=Rape of Ethiopia, 1936 \|publisher\=Ballantine Books \|year\=1971 \|page\=33 \|location\=New York \|isbn\=978\-0\-345\-02462\-6}} when Italian forces, under the direction of dictator [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini"), invaded and occupied Ethiopia. They occupied the capital, Addis Ababa, on 5 May 1936\. Emperor Haile Selassie pleaded to the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") for aid in resisting the Italians. Nevertheless, the country was formally occupied on 9 May 1936 and the Emperor went into exile. The war was full of cruelty. Italian troops used [mustard gas](/wiki/Sulfur_mustard "Sulfur mustard") in aerial bombardments (in violation of the [Geneva Conventions](/wiki/Geneva_Conventions "Geneva Conventions")) against combatants and civilians in an attempt to discourage the Ethiopian people from supporting the resistance.{{Cite book\|last\=Belladonna\|first\=Simone\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=MOHbCgAAQBAJ\&q\=uccisione\+dell'aviatore\+Tito\+Minniti\&pg\=PT156\|title\=Gas in Etiopia: I crimini rimossi dell'Italia coloniale\|date\=20 April 2015\|publisher\=Neri Pozza Editore\|isbn\=9788854510739\|language\=it}}{{Cite book\|last\=Mack Smith\|first\=Denis\|title\=Mussolini\|publisher\=Granada\|year\=1983\|isbn\=0\-586\-08444\-4\|location\=London\|pages\=231, 417\|oclc\=12481387\|orig\-year\=1981}} Deliberate Italian attacks against ambulances and hospitals of the [Red Cross](/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement") were reported.Rainer Baudendistel, *Between bombs and good intentions: the Red Cross and the Italo\-Ethiopian War, 1935–1936*. Berghahn Books. 2006 pp. 239, 131–2 [https://books.google.com/books?id\=I2MMGoY3MpMC\&dq\=tito\+minniti\+etiopia\&pg\=PA131](https://books.google.com/books?id=I2MMGoY3MpMC&dq=tito+minniti+etiopia&pg=PA131) By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, including during the reprisal [Yekatit 12](/wiki/Yekatit_12 "Yekatit 12") massacre in Addis Ababa, in which as many as 30,000 civilians were killed.{{Cite book\|last\=Campbell\|first\=Ian\|title\=The Addis Ababa Massacre: Italy's National Shame\|year\=2017\|isbn\=978\-1\-84904\-692\-3\|location\=London\|oclc\=999629248}}{{sfn\|Barker\|1968\|pp\=292–293}}{{Cite book\|last\=Martel\|first\=Gordon\|title\=The origins of the Second World War reconsidered : A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians\|url\=https://archive.org/details/originssecondwor00mart\|url\-access\=limited\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=1999\|isbn\=0\-203\-01024\-8\|edition\=2nd\|location\=London\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/originssecondwor00mart/page/n200 188]\|oclc\=252806536}} These Italian reprisals against Ethiopian civilians have been described by some historians as constituting [genocide](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide").{{Cite journal\|first\=Nicola \|last\=Labanca \|year\=2004 \|title\=Colonial rule, colonial repression and war crimes in the Italian colonies \|journal\=Journal of Modern Italian Studies \|volume\=9 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=300–313 \|doi\=10\.1080/1354571042000254737\|s2cid\=144498755 }} Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of [Dum\-Dum bullets](/wiki/Expanding_bullet "Expanding bullet") (in violation of the [Hague Conventions](/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907 "Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907")), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the [Gondrand massacre](/wiki/Gondrand_massacre "Gondrand massacre")) and the mutilation of captured [Eritrean Ascari](/wiki/Eritrean_Ascari "Eritrean Ascari") and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.{{sfn\|Sbacchi\|1979\|p\=43}}{{sfn\|Antonicelli\|1975\|p\=79}}
[thumb\|Marshal Graziani in 1940](/wiki/File:Rodolfo_Graziani_1940_%28Retouched%29.jpg "Rodolfo Graziani 1940 (Retouched).jpg")
Marshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani "Rodolfo Graziani"), who replaced Marshal Badoglio as viceroy of Italian East Africa in May 1936 was short\-tempered and inclined to violence and atrocities multiplied under his administration. Following a failed attack against Addis Ababa by rebels on 28 July 1936, he had the archbishop of Dessie, whom he suspected of being behind the attack shot the same afternoon. All resisting Ethiopians were declared "bandits" and he ordered that they be shot on capture. Mussolini approved the decision but requested that the order be kept secret. Following the defeat of rebels led by Ras Desta in the western part of the country in late December 1936, he had 1,600 rebel troops who surrendered summarily executed by firing squads. Villages that had been friendly to Desta were burned to the ground and women and children shot. Desta and other captured rebel leaders were executed in February 1937\.
The Italians undertook many other terrorist actions during this period. Following a bloody attempt on the life of Graziani and other Italian officials by two Eritreans during a ceremony to celebrate the birth of the [Prince of Naples](/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele%2C_Prince_of_Naples "Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples") on 19 February 1937, the police and soldiers, fearing a general uprising, fired indiscriminately into the crowd. Innocent bystanders were shot. For the next three days, the Italians, led by the [Blackshirts](/wiki/Blackshirts "Blackshirts"), went on a rampage of murder and destruction throughout Addis Ababa. By the end of 1937 more than 5,000 people had been executed for alleged crimes related to the attempt against Graziani, and a total of 19,200 to 30,000 civilians were killed.{{Harvnb\|Campbell\|2017}}. Among the dead were virtually all the young educated Ethiopians the Italians could lay their hands on and all the officers and cadets of the Holeta Military Academy. The Italian viceroy had hermits, soothsayers and travelling minstrels rounded up and executed. Convinced that the high clergy had known about the plot, he had many executed. In May 1937, he ordered 297 monks of the monastery of [Debre Libanos](/wiki/Debre_Libanos "Debre Libanos") and 23 other individuals suspected of complicity shot. Over 100 deacons and students were also executed. Several hundred monks were sent to concentration camps. Viceroy Graziani was finally replaced in November 1938 by the more humane [Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Prince_Amedeo%2C_Duke_of_Aosta "Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta"), who put an end to wanton atrocities which had had the effect of increasing resistance to Italian domination.Paul B. Henze, *Layers of Time. A History of Ethiopia*, Palgrave, New York, 2000, p. 225–227\.
[thumb\|Italian troops in Addis Ababa, 1936](/wiki/File:Military_Parade_of_Italian_Troops_in_Addis_Ababa_%281936%29.jpg "Military Parade of Italian Troops in Addis Ababa (1936).jpg")
While some countries recognized the Italian conquest, Britain, France, the United States, the Soviet Union, China and the League of Nations refused to formally recognize it and consequently it remained illegitimate in international law.{{efn\|For that reason, following the collapse of Italian power in 1941, Haile Selassie reassumed power without the need of any formal recognition by the international community.}} The King of Italy ([Victor Emmanuel III](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III "Victor Emmanuel III")) was crowned [Emperor of Ethiopia](/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia "Emperor of Ethiopia") and the Italians created an [Italian empire](/wiki/Italian_empire "Italian empire") in Africa ([Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa "Italian East Africa")) with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia in spring 1936\.
In 1937 Mussolini boasted that, with his conquest of Ethiopia, "finally [Adua](/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa "Battle of Adwa") was avenged".
The Italians decreed [miscegenation](/wiki/Miscegenation "Miscegenation") to be illegal.{{cite journal \|last1\=Barrera \|first1\=Giulia \|year\=2003 \|title\=Mussolini's colonial race laws and state\-settler relations in Africa Orientale Italiana (1935\-41\) \|journal\=Journal of Modern Italian Studies \|volume\=8 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=425–443 \|doi\=10\.1080/09585170320000113770\|s2cid\=145516332 }} Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible and the Italians showed favouritism to non\-Christian groups. To isolate the dominant [Amhara](/wiki/Amhara_people "Amhara people") rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Selassie, the Italians granted the Oromos, the [Somalis](/wiki/Somali_people "Somali people") and other Muslims, many of whom had supported the invasion, autonomy and rights.
There was substantial investment in Ethiopian infrastructure development, with the budget for AOI from 1936 to 1937 requiring 19,136 billion [lire](/wiki/Lira "Lira") when the annual revenue of Italy was only 18,581 billion lire.{{cite book \|last\=Cannistraro \|first\=Philip V. \|title\=Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy \|year\=1982 \|location\=Westport, Connecticut \|publisher\=Greenwood Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-21317\-5 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio00tion }}{{rp\|5}} This infrastructure development was part of a plan to bring half a million Italians to colonize the Ethiopian plateaus. In October 1939 the [Italian colonists in Ethiopia](/wiki/Italians_of_Ethiopia "Italians of Ethiopia") were 35,441, of whom 30,232 male (85\.3%) and 5,209 female (14\.7%), most of them living in urban areas.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/rds\-01emigrazione.pdf\|title\=Italian emigration in Etiopia (in Italian)}} Only 3,200 Italian farmers moved to colonize farm areas, mostly around the capital and in the [Scioa Governorate](/wiki/Scioa_Governorate "Scioa Governorate"), where they were under sporadic attack by pro\-Haile Selassie guerrillas through 1939\.
The Italians created the "Imperial Road" between Addis Ababa and [Massaua](/wiki/Massaua "Massaua"), the Addis Ababa – [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu "Mogadishu") and the Addis Ababa – [Assab](/wiki/Assab "Assab").{{cite web \|url\=http://media.tecnici.it/file/novecento/autocamionale\_assab\_addis\-abeba.pdf \|access\-date\=28 September 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329080126/http://media.tecnici.it/file/novecento/autocamionale\_assab\_addis\-abeba.pdf \|archive\-date\=29 March 2016 \|date\=1940 \|title\=Article on the special road Addis Abeba\-Assab and map (in Italian)}} the Italians built more than 4,500 km of roads linking the country beyond 900 km of railways were reconstructed or initiated (like the railway between Addis Ababa and [Assab](/wiki/Assab "Assab")), dams and hydroelectric plants were built, and many public and private companies were established in the underdeveloped country. The most important were: "Compagnie per il cotone d'Etiopia" (Cotton industry); "Cementerie d'Etiopia" (Cement industry); "Compagnia etiopica mineraria" (Minerals industry); "Imprese elettriche d'Etiopia" (Electricity industry); "Compagnia etiopica degli esplosivi" (Armament industry); "Trasporti automobilistici (Citao)" (Mechanic \& Transport industry).
[thumb\|Ethiopians [greeting](/wiki/Roman_salute "Roman salute") the depiction of Mussolini at [Mekelle](/wiki/Mekelle "Mekelle")](/wiki/File:Depiction_of_Mussolini_in_Mekelle.jpg "Depiction of Mussolini in Mekelle.jpg")
Italians also created new airports and in 1936 started the worldwide famous [*Linea dell'Impero*](/wiki/Imperial_Line "Imperial Line"), a flight connecting Addis Ababa to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"). The line was opened after the [Italian conquest of Ethiopia](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War "Second Italo-Ethiopian War") and was followed by the first air links with the Italian colonies in [Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa "Italian East Africa"), which began in a pioneering way since 1934\. The route was enlarged to 6,379 km and initially joined [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") with [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa "Addis Ababa") via [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily "Syracuse, Sicily"), [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi "Benghazi"), [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo"), [Wadi Halfa](/wiki/Wadi_Halfa "Wadi Halfa"), [Khartoum](/wiki/Khartoum "Khartoum"), [Kassala](/wiki/Kassala "Kassala"), [Asmara](/wiki/Asmara "Asmara"), [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa "Dire Dawa").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/africa\_res\-2a855323\-8b74\-11dc\-8e9d\-0016357eee51\_(Enciclopedia\-Italiana)\|title\=AFRICA in "Enciclopedia Italiana"\|website\=www.treccani.it}} There was a change of aircraft in [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi "Benghazi") (or sometimes in [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli-Castel_Benito_Airport "Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport")). The route was carried out in three and a half days of daytime flight and the frequency was four flights per week in both directions. Later from Addis Ababa there were three flights a week that continued to [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu "Mogadishu"), capital of [Italian Somalia](/wiki/Italian_Somalia "Italian Somalia").
The most important railway line in the African colonies of the Kingdom of Italy, the 784 km long [Franco\-Ethiopian Railway](/wiki/Ethio-Djibouti_Railways "Ethio-Djibouti Railways"), was [seized following the conquest of Ethiopia in 1936](/wiki/Dire_Dawa_Station_Blackshirts_1936.jpg "Dire Dawa Station Blackshirts 1936.jpg"). The route was served until 1935 by steam trains that took about 36 hours to do the total trip between the capital of Ethiopia and the port of [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti "Djibouti"). Following the Italian conquest was obtained in 1938 the increase of speed for the trains with the introduction of four railcars high capacity "type 038" derived from the model *Fiat ALn56*.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/autorails\_fiat\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\.html\|title\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\|website\=www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com\|access\-date\=17 February 2018\|archive\-date\=24 February 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224195122/http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/autorails\_fiat\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
These diesel trains were able to reach 70 km/h and cutting time travel in half to just 18 hours: they were used until the mid\-1960s.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/autorails\_fiat\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage30\.html\|title\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\|website\=www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com}} At the main stations there were some bus connections to the other cities of Italian Ethiopia not served by the railway.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/gare\_diredawa\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\.html\|title\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\|website\=www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com}} Additionally, a special fire\-control unit was created near the Addis Ababa station, which was the first one in Africa.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm \|title\="Pompieri ad Addis Abeba" (in Italian) \|access\-date\=9 January 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104191728/http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm \|archive\-date\=4 November 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }} Through 1938 trains carried protective military units because of ongoing Ethiopian guerrilla activity.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/divers\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage34\.html\|title\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\|website\=www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com}}[thumb\|right\|Map showing in red the new roads (like the "Imperial road", and those in construction in 1941\) created by the Italians in Ethiopia](/wiki/File:Italian_communications_in_Ethiopia%2C_April_1941.jpg "Italian communications in Ethiopia, April 1941.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Getachew Abate and Ras Kebbede Guebret offered support to Mussolini in February 1937\.](/wiki/File:RAS_Abissini_Pd-italy-005.jpg "RAS Abissini Pd-italy-005.jpg")
[Shifta](/wiki/Shifta "Shifta") (Ethiopian guerrillas) were still in control of nearly a quarter of the Ethiopian highlands through late 1939\. By the eve of World War II they were still in control of Harar and the Galla\-Sidamo Governorate. [Abebe Aregai](/wiki/Abebe_Aregai "Abebe Aregai"), the last leader of the "[Arbegnochs](/wiki/Arbegnoch "Arbegnoch")" (as the guerrilla fighters were called in Ethiopia) made a surrender proposal to the Italians in spring 1940 after the 1939 surrender of Ethiopian leaders Zaudiè Asfau and Olonà Dinkel.Bahru Zewde, "A History of Modern Ethiopia", second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001\), pp. 172f During the five years of Italian occupation, [Catholicism](/wiki/Catholicism "Catholicism") also grew in importance, thanks mainly to the efforts of missionaries like [Elisa Angela Meneguzzi](/wiki/Elisa_Angela_Meneguzzi "Elisa Angela Meneguzzi"). She became known as the "Ecumenical Fire" due to her strong efforts at [ecumenism](/wiki/Ecumenism "Ecumenism") with [Coptic Christians](/wiki/Coptic_Christians "Coptic Christians") and [Muslims](/wiki/Islam "Islam") while also catering to relations with the Catholics of [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa "Dire Dawa").{{Cite web\|url\=https://catholicsaints.info/blessed\-liduina\-meneguzzi/\|title\=Blessed Liduina Meneguzzi\|date\=25 November 2008}}[thumb\|*Mussolini's* *Stairway to Nowhere*, monument at the [Addis Ababa University](/wiki/Addis_Ababa_University "Addis Ababa University") with a stair for every year of Mussolini's rule since 1922](/wiki/File:Stairs_of_the_Lion_of_Judea_in_Addis_Ababa.jpg "Stairs of the Lion of Judea in Addis Ababa.jpg")
### World War II
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), in the summer of 1940 Italian armed forces completed the [Italian conquest of British Somaliland](/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland "Italian conquest of British Somaliland").{{sfn\|Dickson\|2001\|p\=103}} By the spring of 1941, the British had counter\-attacked and pushed deep into [Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa "Italian East Africa"). By 5 May, Haile Selassie had returned to [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa "Addis Ababa") to reclaim his throne. In November, the last organised Italian resistance in Ethiopia ended with the fall of [Gondar](/wiki/Battle_of_Gondar "Battle of Gondar").{{sfn\|Jowett\|2001\|p\=7}} Following the surrender of East Africa, some Italians [conducted a guerrilla war](/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia "Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia") which lasted for two more years.
This guerrilla action was done primarily by military units with Italian officers (like Captain Paolo Aloisi, Captain Leopoldo Rizzo, Blackshirt officer De Varda and Major Lucchetti) but also by civilians like [Rosa Dainelli](/wiki/Rosa_Dainelli "Rosa Dainelli"). She was a doctor who in August 1942 succeeded in entering the main ammunition depot of the British army in [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa "Addis Ababa"), and blowing it up, miraculously survived the huge explosion. Her sabotage destroyed the ammunition for the new British [Sten](/wiki/Sten_submachine_gun "Sten submachine gun") sub machine gun, delaying the use of this "state of the art" armament for many months.Rosselli, Alberto. *Storie Segrete. Operazioni sconosciute o dimenticate della seconda guerra mondiale*. pag. 103 Her true name was Danielli Rosa and the date of attack was 15 September 1941\.Di Lalla, Fabrizio, “Sotto due bandiere. Lotta di liberazione etiopica e resistenza italiana in Africa Orientale”. p. 235
### After World War II
[thumb\|Italian\-era electric power corporation building in Addis Ababa](/wiki/File:Ethiopian_electric_power_corporation_Addis_Abeba.jpg "Ethiopian electric power corporation Addis Abeba.jpg")
The recognition by the United Kingdom of the full sovereignty of Ethiopia occurred with the signing on 19 December 1944 of the Anglo\-Ethiopian agreement which acknowledged Ethiopia to be "a free and independent state"Henze, p. 235\. although the Ogaden continued to remain under British control until 1955\.
In the [peace treaty of February 1947](/wiki/Treaty_of_Peace_with_Italy%2C_1947 "Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947"), Italy renounced sovereignty over its African colonies of Libya, Eritrea and Somalia (art. 23\) and recognised the independence of Ethiopia (art. 33\), by then a sovereign member of the United Nations.
Italy further agreed to:
* Pay [War reparation](/wiki/War_reparation "War reparation") of US$25,000,000 to Ethiopia
* Accept "Annex XI of the Treaty", upon the recommendation of the United Nations General Assembly in Resolution 390, that indicated that [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea "Eritrea") was to be federated with Ethiopia.
After the war, the [Italian Ethiopians](/wiki/Italian_Ethiopians "Italian Ethiopians") were given a full pardon by the newly returned Emperor Haile Selassie, as he saw the opportunity to continue the modernization efforts of the country.{{Cite web\|url\=https://ladywriteronline.wordpress.com/2008/04/29/fratelli\-detiopia/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211022551/https://ladywriteronline.wordpress.com/2008/04/29/fratelli\-detiopia/\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Fratelli d'Etiopia\|date\=29 April 2008\|archive\-date\=11 February 2017}} He declared that no reprisals would be taken against the Italians, and many remained for decades, until the overthrow of the Emperor in the [Ethiopian Civil War](/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War "Ethiopian Civil War") in 1974\. Nearly 22,000 Italo\-Ethiopians took refuge in Italy during the 1970s. Their main organization in Italy is the Associazione Italiana Profughi dall'Etiopia ed Eritrea (A.I.P.E.E.).{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.aipee.it/home.html\|title\=Associazione Italiana Profughi dall'Etiopia ed Eritrea (AIPEE)\|access\-date\=12 January 2019\|archive\-date\=3 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213441/http://www.aipee.it/home.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
In recent years, some Italian companies have returned to operate in Ethiopia, and a large number of Italian technicians and managers arrived with their families, residing mainly in the metropolitan area of the capital.{{Cite web\|url\=http://dait.interno.gov.it/servizi\-demografici\|title\=I servizi demografici\|date\=25 November 2016\|website\=Dipartimento per gli affari interni e territoriali}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Conquest and occupation",
"{{main article\\|Second Italo\\-Abyssinian War\\|Italian East Africa}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|[Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia \"Emperor of Ethiopia\") [Haile Selassie](/wiki/Haile_Selassie \"Haile Selassie\") in 1934](/wiki/File:CropSelassie.jpg \"CropSelassie.jpg\")\nEmperor Haile Selassie's reign was interrupted on 3 October 1935{{cite book \\|first\\=A. J. \\|last\\=Barker \\|title\\=Rape of Ethiopia, 1936 \\|publisher\\=Ballantine Books \\|year\\=1971 \\|page\\=33 \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-345\\-02462\\-6}} when Italian forces, under the direction of dictator [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\"), invaded and occupied Ethiopia. They occupied the capital, Addis Ababa, on 5 May 1936\\. Emperor Haile Selassie pleaded to the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\") for aid in resisting the Italians. Nevertheless, the country was formally occupied on 9 May 1936 and the Emperor went into exile. The war was full of cruelty. Italian troops used [mustard gas](/wiki/Sulfur_mustard \"Sulfur mustard\") in aerial bombardments (in violation of the [Geneva Conventions](/wiki/Geneva_Conventions \"Geneva Conventions\")) against combatants and civilians in an attempt to discourage the Ethiopian people from supporting the resistance.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Belladonna\\|first\\=Simone\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=MOHbCgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=uccisione\\+dell'aviatore\\+Tito\\+Minniti\\&pg\\=PT156\\|title\\=Gas in Etiopia: I crimini rimossi dell'Italia coloniale\\|date\\=20 April 2015\\|publisher\\=Neri Pozza Editore\\|isbn\\=9788854510739\\|language\\=it}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Mack Smith\\|first\\=Denis\\|title\\=Mussolini\\|publisher\\=Granada\\|year\\=1983\\|isbn\\=0\\-586\\-08444\\-4\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=231, 417\\|oclc\\=12481387\\|orig\\-year\\=1981}} Deliberate Italian attacks against ambulances and hospitals of the [Red Cross](/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement \"International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement\") were reported.Rainer Baudendistel, *Between bombs and good intentions: the Red Cross and the Italo\\-Ethiopian War, 1935–1936*. Berghahn Books. 2006 pp. 239, 131–2 [https://books.google.com/books?id\\=I2MMGoY3MpMC\\&dq\\=tito\\+minniti\\+etiopia\\&pg\\=PA131](https://books.google.com/books?id=I2MMGoY3MpMC&dq=tito+minniti+etiopia&pg=PA131) By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, including during the reprisal [Yekatit 12](/wiki/Yekatit_12 \"Yekatit 12\") massacre in Addis Ababa, in which as many as 30,000 civilians were killed.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Campbell\\|first\\=Ian\\|title\\=The Addis Ababa Massacre: Italy's National Shame\\|year\\=2017\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84904\\-692\\-3\\|location\\=London\\|oclc\\=999629248}}{{sfn\\|Barker\\|1968\\|pp\\=292–293}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Martel\\|first\\=Gordon\\|title\\=The origins of the Second World War reconsidered : A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/originssecondwor00mart\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=1999\\|isbn\\=0\\-203\\-01024\\-8\\|edition\\=2nd\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/originssecondwor00mart/page/n200 188]\\|oclc\\=252806536}} These Italian reprisals against Ethiopian civilians have been described by some historians as constituting [genocide](/wiki/Genocide \"Genocide\").{{Cite journal\\|first\\=Nicola \\|last\\=Labanca \\|year\\=2004 \\|title\\=Colonial rule, colonial repression and war crimes in the Italian colonies \\|journal\\=Journal of Modern Italian Studies \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=300–313 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/1354571042000254737\\|s2cid\\=144498755 }} Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of [Dum\\-Dum bullets](/wiki/Expanding_bullet \"Expanding bullet\") (in violation of the [Hague Conventions](/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907 \"Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907\")), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the [Gondrand massacre](/wiki/Gondrand_massacre \"Gondrand massacre\")) and the mutilation of captured [Eritrean Ascari](/wiki/Eritrean_Ascari \"Eritrean Ascari\") and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.{{sfn\\|Sbacchi\\|1979\\|p\\=43}}{{sfn\\|Antonicelli\\|1975\\|p\\=79}}",
"[thumb\\|Marshal Graziani in 1940](/wiki/File:Rodolfo_Graziani_1940_%28Retouched%29.jpg \"Rodolfo Graziani 1940 (Retouched).jpg\")\nMarshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani \"Rodolfo Graziani\"), who replaced Marshal Badoglio as viceroy of Italian East Africa in May 1936 was short\\-tempered and inclined to violence and atrocities multiplied under his administration. Following a failed attack against Addis Ababa by rebels on 28 July 1936, he had the archbishop of Dessie, whom he suspected of being behind the attack shot the same afternoon. All resisting Ethiopians were declared \"bandits\" and he ordered that they be shot on capture. Mussolini approved the decision but requested that the order be kept secret. Following the defeat of rebels led by Ras Desta in the western part of the country in late December 1936, he had 1,600 rebel troops who surrendered summarily executed by firing squads. Villages that had been friendly to Desta were burned to the ground and women and children shot. Desta and other captured rebel leaders were executed in February 1937\\.",
"The Italians undertook many other terrorist actions during this period. Following a bloody attempt on the life of Graziani and other Italian officials by two Eritreans during a ceremony to celebrate the birth of the [Prince of Naples](/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele%2C_Prince_of_Naples \"Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples\") on 19 February 1937, the police and soldiers, fearing a general uprising, fired indiscriminately into the crowd. Innocent bystanders were shot. For the next three days, the Italians, led by the [Blackshirts](/wiki/Blackshirts \"Blackshirts\"), went on a rampage of murder and destruction throughout Addis Ababa. By the end of 1937 more than 5,000 people had been executed for alleged crimes related to the attempt against Graziani, and a total of 19,200 to 30,000 civilians were killed.{{Harvnb\\|Campbell\\|2017}}. Among the dead were virtually all the young educated Ethiopians the Italians could lay their hands on and all the officers and cadets of the Holeta Military Academy. The Italian viceroy had hermits, soothsayers and travelling minstrels rounded up and executed. Convinced that the high clergy had known about the plot, he had many executed. In May 1937, he ordered 297 monks of the monastery of [Debre Libanos](/wiki/Debre_Libanos \"Debre Libanos\") and 23 other individuals suspected of complicity shot. Over 100 deacons and students were also executed. Several hundred monks were sent to concentration camps. Viceroy Graziani was finally replaced in November 1938 by the more humane [Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Prince_Amedeo%2C_Duke_of_Aosta \"Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta\"), who put an end to wanton atrocities which had had the effect of increasing resistance to Italian domination.Paul B. Henze, *Layers of Time. A History of Ethiopia*, Palgrave, New York, 2000, p. 225–227\\.",
"[thumb\\|Italian troops in Addis Ababa, 1936](/wiki/File:Military_Parade_of_Italian_Troops_in_Addis_Ababa_%281936%29.jpg \"Military Parade of Italian Troops in Addis Ababa (1936).jpg\")\nWhile some countries recognized the Italian conquest, Britain, France, the United States, the Soviet Union, China and the League of Nations refused to formally recognize it and consequently it remained illegitimate in international law.{{efn\\|For that reason, following the collapse of Italian power in 1941, Haile Selassie reassumed power without the need of any formal recognition by the international community.}} The King of Italy ([Victor Emmanuel III](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III \"Victor Emmanuel III\")) was crowned [Emperor of Ethiopia](/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia \"Emperor of Ethiopia\") and the Italians created an [Italian empire](/wiki/Italian_empire \"Italian empire\") in Africa ([Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa \"Italian East Africa\")) with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia in spring 1936\\.",
"In 1937 Mussolini boasted that, with his conquest of Ethiopia, \"finally [Adua](/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa \"Battle of Adwa\") was avenged\".",
"The Italians decreed [miscegenation](/wiki/Miscegenation \"Miscegenation\") to be illegal.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Barrera \\|first1\\=Giulia \\|year\\=2003 \\|title\\=Mussolini's colonial race laws and state\\-settler relations in Africa Orientale Italiana (1935\\-41\\) \\|journal\\=Journal of Modern Italian Studies \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=425–443 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/09585170320000113770\\|s2cid\\=145516332 }} Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible and the Italians showed favouritism to non\\-Christian groups. To isolate the dominant [Amhara](/wiki/Amhara_people \"Amhara people\") rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Selassie, the Italians granted the Oromos, the [Somalis](/wiki/Somali_people \"Somali people\") and other Muslims, many of whom had supported the invasion, autonomy and rights.",
"There was substantial investment in Ethiopian infrastructure development, with the budget for AOI from 1936 to 1937 requiring 19,136 billion [lire](/wiki/Lira \"Lira\") when the annual revenue of Italy was only 18,581 billion lire.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cannistraro \\|first\\=Philip V. \\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy \\|year\\=1982 \\|location\\=Westport, Connecticut \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-21317\\-5 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio00tion }}{{rp\\|5}} This infrastructure development was part of a plan to bring half a million Italians to colonize the Ethiopian plateaus. In October 1939 the [Italian colonists in Ethiopia](/wiki/Italians_of_Ethiopia \"Italians of Ethiopia\") were 35,441, of whom 30,232 male (85\\.3%) and 5,209 female (14\\.7%), most of them living in urban areas.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/rds\\-01emigrazione.pdf\\|title\\=Italian emigration in Etiopia (in Italian)}} Only 3,200 Italian farmers moved to colonize farm areas, mostly around the capital and in the [Scioa Governorate](/wiki/Scioa_Governorate \"Scioa Governorate\"), where they were under sporadic attack by pro\\-Haile Selassie guerrillas through 1939\\.",
"The Italians created the \"Imperial Road\" between Addis Ababa and [Massaua](/wiki/Massaua \"Massaua\"), the Addis Ababa – [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu \"Mogadishu\") and the Addis Ababa – [Assab](/wiki/Assab \"Assab\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://media.tecnici.it/file/novecento/autocamionale\\_assab\\_addis\\-abeba.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329080126/http://media.tecnici.it/file/novecento/autocamionale\\_assab\\_addis\\-abeba.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=29 March 2016 \\|date\\=1940 \\|title\\=Article on the special road Addis Abeba\\-Assab and map (in Italian)}} the Italians built more than 4,500 km of roads linking the country beyond 900 km of railways were reconstructed or initiated (like the railway between Addis Ababa and [Assab](/wiki/Assab \"Assab\")), dams and hydroelectric plants were built, and many public and private companies were established in the underdeveloped country. The most important were: \"Compagnie per il cotone d'Etiopia\" (Cotton industry); \"Cementerie d'Etiopia\" (Cement industry); \"Compagnia etiopica mineraria\" (Minerals industry); \"Imprese elettriche d'Etiopia\" (Electricity industry); \"Compagnia etiopica degli esplosivi\" (Armament industry); \"Trasporti automobilistici (Citao)\" (Mechanic \\& Transport industry).",
"[thumb\\|Ethiopians [greeting](/wiki/Roman_salute \"Roman salute\") the depiction of Mussolini at [Mekelle](/wiki/Mekelle \"Mekelle\")](/wiki/File:Depiction_of_Mussolini_in_Mekelle.jpg \"Depiction of Mussolini in Mekelle.jpg\")\nItalians also created new airports and in 1936 started the worldwide famous [*Linea dell'Impero*](/wiki/Imperial_Line \"Imperial Line\"), a flight connecting Addis Ababa to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"). The line was opened after the [Italian conquest of Ethiopia](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War \"Second Italo-Ethiopian War\") and was followed by the first air links with the Italian colonies in [Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa \"Italian East Africa\"), which began in a pioneering way since 1934\\. The route was enlarged to 6,379 km and initially joined [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") with [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa \"Addis Ababa\") via [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily \"Syracuse, Sicily\"), [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi \"Benghazi\"), [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\"), [Wadi Halfa](/wiki/Wadi_Halfa \"Wadi Halfa\"), [Khartoum](/wiki/Khartoum \"Khartoum\"), [Kassala](/wiki/Kassala \"Kassala\"), [Asmara](/wiki/Asmara \"Asmara\"), [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa \"Dire Dawa\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/africa\\_res\\-2a855323\\-8b74\\-11dc\\-8e9d\\-0016357eee51\\_(Enciclopedia\\-Italiana)\\|title\\=AFRICA in \"Enciclopedia Italiana\"\\|website\\=www.treccani.it}} There was a change of aircraft in [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi \"Benghazi\") (or sometimes in [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli-Castel_Benito_Airport \"Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport\")). The route was carried out in three and a half days of daytime flight and the frequency was four flights per week in both directions. Later from Addis Ababa there were three flights a week that continued to [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu \"Mogadishu\"), capital of [Italian Somalia](/wiki/Italian_Somalia \"Italian Somalia\").",
"The most important railway line in the African colonies of the Kingdom of Italy, the 784 km long [Franco\\-Ethiopian Railway](/wiki/Ethio-Djibouti_Railways \"Ethio-Djibouti Railways\"), was [seized following the conquest of Ethiopia in 1936](/wiki/Dire_Dawa_Station_Blackshirts_1936.jpg \"Dire Dawa Station Blackshirts 1936.jpg\"). The route was served until 1935 by steam trains that took about 36 hours to do the total trip between the capital of Ethiopia and the port of [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti \"Djibouti\"). Following the Italian conquest was obtained in 1938 the increase of speed for the trains with the introduction of four railcars high capacity \"type 038\" derived from the model *Fiat ALn56*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/autorails\\_fiat\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\\.html\\|title\\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\\|website\\=www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com\\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224195122/http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/autorails\\_fiat\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"These diesel trains were able to reach 70 km/h and cutting time travel in half to just 18 hours: they were used until the mid\\-1960s.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/autorails\\_fiat\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage30\\.html\\|title\\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\\|website\\=www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com}} At the main stations there were some bus connections to the other cities of Italian Ethiopia not served by the railway.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/gare\\_diredawa\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\\.html\\|title\\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\\|website\\=www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com}} Additionally, a special fire\\-control unit was created near the Addis Ababa station, which was the first one in Africa.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm \\|title\\=\"Pompieri ad Addis Abeba\" (in Italian) \\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104191728/http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Through 1938 trains carried protective military units because of ongoing Ethiopian guerrilla activity.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/divers\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage34\\.html\\|title\\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\\|website\\=www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com}}[thumb\\|right\\|Map showing in red the new roads (like the \"Imperial road\", and those in construction in 1941\\) created by the Italians in Ethiopia](/wiki/File:Italian_communications_in_Ethiopia%2C_April_1941.jpg \"Italian communications in Ethiopia, April 1941.jpg\")",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Getachew Abate and Ras Kebbede Guebret offered support to Mussolini in February 1937\\.](/wiki/File:RAS_Abissini_Pd-italy-005.jpg \"RAS Abissini Pd-italy-005.jpg\")\n[Shifta](/wiki/Shifta \"Shifta\") (Ethiopian guerrillas) were still in control of nearly a quarter of the Ethiopian highlands through late 1939\\. By the eve of World War II they were still in control of Harar and the Galla\\-Sidamo Governorate. [Abebe Aregai](/wiki/Abebe_Aregai \"Abebe Aregai\"), the last leader of the \"[Arbegnochs](/wiki/Arbegnoch \"Arbegnoch\")\" (as the guerrilla fighters were called in Ethiopia) made a surrender proposal to the Italians in spring 1940 after the 1939 surrender of Ethiopian leaders Zaudiè Asfau and Olonà Dinkel.Bahru Zewde, \"A History of Modern Ethiopia\", second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001\\), pp. 172f During the five years of Italian occupation, [Catholicism](/wiki/Catholicism \"Catholicism\") also grew in importance, thanks mainly to the efforts of missionaries like [Elisa Angela Meneguzzi](/wiki/Elisa_Angela_Meneguzzi \"Elisa Angela Meneguzzi\"). She became known as the \"Ecumenical Fire\" due to her strong efforts at [ecumenism](/wiki/Ecumenism \"Ecumenism\") with [Coptic Christians](/wiki/Coptic_Christians \"Coptic Christians\") and [Muslims](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") while also catering to relations with the Catholics of [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa \"Dire Dawa\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://catholicsaints.info/blessed\\-liduina\\-meneguzzi/\\|title\\=Blessed Liduina Meneguzzi\\|date\\=25 November 2008}}[thumb\\|*Mussolini's* *Stairway to Nowhere*, monument at the [Addis Ababa University](/wiki/Addis_Ababa_University \"Addis Ababa University\") with a stair for every year of Mussolini's rule since 1922](/wiki/File:Stairs_of_the_Lion_of_Judea_in_Addis_Ababa.jpg \"Stairs of the Lion of Judea in Addis Ababa.jpg\")",
"### World War II",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), in the summer of 1940 Italian armed forces completed the [Italian conquest of British Somaliland](/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland \"Italian conquest of British Somaliland\").{{sfn\\|Dickson\\|2001\\|p\\=103}} By the spring of 1941, the British had counter\\-attacked and pushed deep into [Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa \"Italian East Africa\"). By 5 May, Haile Selassie had returned to [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa \"Addis Ababa\") to reclaim his throne. In November, the last organised Italian resistance in Ethiopia ended with the fall of [Gondar](/wiki/Battle_of_Gondar \"Battle of Gondar\").{{sfn\\|Jowett\\|2001\\|p\\=7}} Following the surrender of East Africa, some Italians [conducted a guerrilla war](/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia \"Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia\") which lasted for two more years.",
"This guerrilla action was done primarily by military units with Italian officers (like Captain Paolo Aloisi, Captain Leopoldo Rizzo, Blackshirt officer De Varda and Major Lucchetti) but also by civilians like [Rosa Dainelli](/wiki/Rosa_Dainelli \"Rosa Dainelli\"). She was a doctor who in August 1942 succeeded in entering the main ammunition depot of the British army in [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa \"Addis Ababa\"), and blowing it up, miraculously survived the huge explosion. Her sabotage destroyed the ammunition for the new British [Sten](/wiki/Sten_submachine_gun \"Sten submachine gun\") sub machine gun, delaying the use of this \"state of the art\" armament for many months.Rosselli, Alberto. *Storie Segrete. Operazioni sconosciute o dimenticate della seconda guerra mondiale*. pag. 103 Her true name was Danielli Rosa and the date of attack was 15 September 1941\\.Di Lalla, Fabrizio, “Sotto due bandiere. Lotta di liberazione etiopica e resistenza italiana in Africa Orientale”. p. 235",
"### After World War II",
"[thumb\\|Italian\\-era electric power corporation building in Addis Ababa](/wiki/File:Ethiopian_electric_power_corporation_Addis_Abeba.jpg \"Ethiopian electric power corporation Addis Abeba.jpg\")\nThe recognition by the United Kingdom of the full sovereignty of Ethiopia occurred with the signing on 19 December 1944 of the Anglo\\-Ethiopian agreement which acknowledged Ethiopia to be \"a free and independent state\"Henze, p. 235\\. although the Ogaden continued to remain under British control until 1955\\.",
"In the [peace treaty of February 1947](/wiki/Treaty_of_Peace_with_Italy%2C_1947 \"Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947\"), Italy renounced sovereignty over its African colonies of Libya, Eritrea and Somalia (art. 23\\) and recognised the independence of Ethiopia (art. 33\\), by then a sovereign member of the United Nations.",
"Italy further agreed to:\n* Pay [War reparation](/wiki/War_reparation \"War reparation\") of US$25,000,000 to Ethiopia\n* Accept \"Annex XI of the Treaty\", upon the recommendation of the United Nations General Assembly in Resolution 390, that indicated that [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea \"Eritrea\") was to be federated with Ethiopia.",
"After the war, the [Italian Ethiopians](/wiki/Italian_Ethiopians \"Italian Ethiopians\") were given a full pardon by the newly returned Emperor Haile Selassie, as he saw the opportunity to continue the modernization efforts of the country.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ladywriteronline.wordpress.com/2008/04/29/fratelli\\-detiopia/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211022551/https://ladywriteronline.wordpress.com/2008/04/29/fratelli\\-detiopia/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Fratelli d'Etiopia\\|date\\=29 April 2008\\|archive\\-date\\=11 February 2017}} He declared that no reprisals would be taken against the Italians, and many remained for decades, until the overthrow of the Emperor in the [Ethiopian Civil War](/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War \"Ethiopian Civil War\") in 1974\\. Nearly 22,000 Italo\\-Ethiopians took refuge in Italy during the 1970s. Their main organization in Italy is the Associazione Italiana Profughi dall'Etiopia ed Eritrea (A.I.P.E.E.).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aipee.it/home.html\\|title\\=Associazione Italiana Profughi dall'Etiopia ed Eritrea (AIPEE)\\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213441/http://www.aipee.it/home.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In recent years, some Italian companies have returned to operate in Ethiopia, and a large number of Italian technicians and managers arrived with their families, residing mainly in the metropolitan area of the capital.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://dait.interno.gov.it/servizi\\-demografici\\|title\\=I servizi demografici\\|date\\=25 November 2016\\|website\\=Dipartimento per gli affari interni e territoriali}}",
""
] |
### Conquest and occupation
{{main article\|Second Italo\-Abyssinian War\|Italian East Africa}}
[thumb\|left\|[Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia "Emperor of Ethiopia") [Haile Selassie](/wiki/Haile_Selassie "Haile Selassie") in 1934](/wiki/File:CropSelassie.jpg "CropSelassie.jpg")
Emperor Haile Selassie's reign was interrupted on 3 October 1935{{cite book \|first\=A. J. \|last\=Barker \|title\=Rape of Ethiopia, 1936 \|publisher\=Ballantine Books \|year\=1971 \|page\=33 \|location\=New York \|isbn\=978\-0\-345\-02462\-6}} when Italian forces, under the direction of dictator [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini"), invaded and occupied Ethiopia. They occupied the capital, Addis Ababa, on 5 May 1936\. Emperor Haile Selassie pleaded to the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") for aid in resisting the Italians. Nevertheless, the country was formally occupied on 9 May 1936 and the Emperor went into exile. The war was full of cruelty. Italian troops used [mustard gas](/wiki/Sulfur_mustard "Sulfur mustard") in aerial bombardments (in violation of the [Geneva Conventions](/wiki/Geneva_Conventions "Geneva Conventions")) against combatants and civilians in an attempt to discourage the Ethiopian people from supporting the resistance.{{Cite book\|last\=Belladonna\|first\=Simone\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=MOHbCgAAQBAJ\&q\=uccisione\+dell'aviatore\+Tito\+Minniti\&pg\=PT156\|title\=Gas in Etiopia: I crimini rimossi dell'Italia coloniale\|date\=20 April 2015\|publisher\=Neri Pozza Editore\|isbn\=9788854510739\|language\=it}}{{Cite book\|last\=Mack Smith\|first\=Denis\|title\=Mussolini\|publisher\=Granada\|year\=1983\|isbn\=0\-586\-08444\-4\|location\=London\|pages\=231, 417\|oclc\=12481387\|orig\-year\=1981}} Deliberate Italian attacks against ambulances and hospitals of the [Red Cross](/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement") were reported.Rainer Baudendistel, *Between bombs and good intentions: the Red Cross and the Italo\-Ethiopian War, 1935–1936*. Berghahn Books. 2006 pp. 239, 131–2 [https://books.google.com/books?id\=I2MMGoY3MpMC\&dq\=tito\+minniti\+etiopia\&pg\=PA131](https://books.google.com/books?id=I2MMGoY3MpMC&dq=tito+minniti+etiopia&pg=PA131) By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, including during the reprisal [Yekatit 12](/wiki/Yekatit_12 "Yekatit 12") massacre in Addis Ababa, in which as many as 30,000 civilians were killed.{{Cite book\|last\=Campbell\|first\=Ian\|title\=The Addis Ababa Massacre: Italy's National Shame\|year\=2017\|isbn\=978\-1\-84904\-692\-3\|location\=London\|oclc\=999629248}}{{sfn\|Barker\|1968\|pp\=292–293}}{{Cite book\|last\=Martel\|first\=Gordon\|title\=The origins of the Second World War reconsidered : A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians\|url\=https://archive.org/details/originssecondwor00mart\|url\-access\=limited\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=1999\|isbn\=0\-203\-01024\-8\|edition\=2nd\|location\=London\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/originssecondwor00mart/page/n200 188]\|oclc\=252806536}} These Italian reprisals against Ethiopian civilians have been described by some historians as constituting [genocide](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide").{{Cite journal\|first\=Nicola \|last\=Labanca \|year\=2004 \|title\=Colonial rule, colonial repression and war crimes in the Italian colonies \|journal\=Journal of Modern Italian Studies \|volume\=9 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=300–313 \|doi\=10\.1080/1354571042000254737\|s2cid\=144498755 }} Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of [Dum\-Dum bullets](/wiki/Expanding_bullet "Expanding bullet") (in violation of the [Hague Conventions](/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907 "Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907")), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the [Gondrand massacre](/wiki/Gondrand_massacre "Gondrand massacre")) and the mutilation of captured [Eritrean Ascari](/wiki/Eritrean_Ascari "Eritrean Ascari") and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.{{sfn\|Sbacchi\|1979\|p\=43}}{{sfn\|Antonicelli\|1975\|p\=79}}
[thumb\|Marshal Graziani in 1940](/wiki/File:Rodolfo_Graziani_1940_%28Retouched%29.jpg "Rodolfo Graziani 1940 (Retouched).jpg")
Marshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani "Rodolfo Graziani"), who replaced Marshal Badoglio as viceroy of Italian East Africa in May 1936 was short\-tempered and inclined to violence and atrocities multiplied under his administration. Following a failed attack against Addis Ababa by rebels on 28 July 1936, he had the archbishop of Dessie, whom he suspected of being behind the attack shot the same afternoon. All resisting Ethiopians were declared "bandits" and he ordered that they be shot on capture. Mussolini approved the decision but requested that the order be kept secret. Following the defeat of rebels led by Ras Desta in the western part of the country in late December 1936, he had 1,600 rebel troops who surrendered summarily executed by firing squads. Villages that had been friendly to Desta were burned to the ground and women and children shot. Desta and other captured rebel leaders were executed in February 1937\.
The Italians undertook many other terrorist actions during this period. Following a bloody attempt on the life of Graziani and other Italian officials by two Eritreans during a ceremony to celebrate the birth of the [Prince of Naples](/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele%2C_Prince_of_Naples "Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples") on 19 February 1937, the police and soldiers, fearing a general uprising, fired indiscriminately into the crowd. Innocent bystanders were shot. For the next three days, the Italians, led by the [Blackshirts](/wiki/Blackshirts "Blackshirts"), went on a rampage of murder and destruction throughout Addis Ababa. By the end of 1937 more than 5,000 people had been executed for alleged crimes related to the attempt against Graziani, and a total of 19,200 to 30,000 civilians were killed.{{Harvnb\|Campbell\|2017}}. Among the dead were virtually all the young educated Ethiopians the Italians could lay their hands on and all the officers and cadets of the Holeta Military Academy. The Italian viceroy had hermits, soothsayers and travelling minstrels rounded up and executed. Convinced that the high clergy had known about the plot, he had many executed. In May 1937, he ordered 297 monks of the monastery of [Debre Libanos](/wiki/Debre_Libanos "Debre Libanos") and 23 other individuals suspected of complicity shot. Over 100 deacons and students were also executed. Several hundred monks were sent to concentration camps. Viceroy Graziani was finally replaced in November 1938 by the more humane [Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Prince_Amedeo%2C_Duke_of_Aosta "Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta"), who put an end to wanton atrocities which had had the effect of increasing resistance to Italian domination.Paul B. Henze, *Layers of Time. A History of Ethiopia*, Palgrave, New York, 2000, p. 225–227\.
[thumb\|Italian troops in Addis Ababa, 1936](/wiki/File:Military_Parade_of_Italian_Troops_in_Addis_Ababa_%281936%29.jpg "Military Parade of Italian Troops in Addis Ababa (1936).jpg")
While some countries recognized the Italian conquest, Britain, France, the United States, the Soviet Union, China and the League of Nations refused to formally recognize it and consequently it remained illegitimate in international law.{{efn\|For that reason, following the collapse of Italian power in 1941, Haile Selassie reassumed power without the need of any formal recognition by the international community.}} The King of Italy ([Victor Emmanuel III](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III "Victor Emmanuel III")) was crowned [Emperor of Ethiopia](/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia "Emperor of Ethiopia") and the Italians created an [Italian empire](/wiki/Italian_empire "Italian empire") in Africa ([Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa "Italian East Africa")) with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia in spring 1936\.
In 1937 Mussolini boasted that, with his conquest of Ethiopia, "finally [Adua](/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa "Battle of Adwa") was avenged".
The Italians decreed [miscegenation](/wiki/Miscegenation "Miscegenation") to be illegal.{{cite journal \|last1\=Barrera \|first1\=Giulia \|year\=2003 \|title\=Mussolini's colonial race laws and state\-settler relations in Africa Orientale Italiana (1935\-41\) \|journal\=Journal of Modern Italian Studies \|volume\=8 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=425–443 \|doi\=10\.1080/09585170320000113770\|s2cid\=145516332 }} Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible and the Italians showed favouritism to non\-Christian groups. To isolate the dominant [Amhara](/wiki/Amhara_people "Amhara people") rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Selassie, the Italians granted the Oromos, the [Somalis](/wiki/Somali_people "Somali people") and other Muslims, many of whom had supported the invasion, autonomy and rights.
There was substantial investment in Ethiopian infrastructure development, with the budget for AOI from 1936 to 1937 requiring 19,136 billion [lire](/wiki/Lira "Lira") when the annual revenue of Italy was only 18,581 billion lire.{{cite book \|last\=Cannistraro \|first\=Philip V. \|title\=Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy \|year\=1982 \|location\=Westport, Connecticut \|publisher\=Greenwood Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-21317\-5 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio00tion }}{{rp\|5}} This infrastructure development was part of a plan to bring half a million Italians to colonize the Ethiopian plateaus. In October 1939 the [Italian colonists in Ethiopia](/wiki/Italians_of_Ethiopia "Italians of Ethiopia") were 35,441, of whom 30,232 male (85\.3%) and 5,209 female (14\.7%), most of them living in urban areas.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/rds\-01emigrazione.pdf\|title\=Italian emigration in Etiopia (in Italian)}} Only 3,200 Italian farmers moved to colonize farm areas, mostly around the capital and in the [Scioa Governorate](/wiki/Scioa_Governorate "Scioa Governorate"), where they were under sporadic attack by pro\-Haile Selassie guerrillas through 1939\.
The Italians created the "Imperial Road" between Addis Ababa and [Massaua](/wiki/Massaua "Massaua"), the Addis Ababa – [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu "Mogadishu") and the Addis Ababa – [Assab](/wiki/Assab "Assab").{{cite web \|url\=http://media.tecnici.it/file/novecento/autocamionale\_assab\_addis\-abeba.pdf \|access\-date\=28 September 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329080126/http://media.tecnici.it/file/novecento/autocamionale\_assab\_addis\-abeba.pdf \|archive\-date\=29 March 2016 \|date\=1940 \|title\=Article on the special road Addis Abeba\-Assab and map (in Italian)}} the Italians built more than 4,500 km of roads linking the country beyond 900 km of railways were reconstructed or initiated (like the railway between Addis Ababa and [Assab](/wiki/Assab "Assab")), dams and hydroelectric plants were built, and many public and private companies were established in the underdeveloped country. The most important were: "Compagnie per il cotone d'Etiopia" (Cotton industry); "Cementerie d'Etiopia" (Cement industry); "Compagnia etiopica mineraria" (Minerals industry); "Imprese elettriche d'Etiopia" (Electricity industry); "Compagnia etiopica degli esplosivi" (Armament industry); "Trasporti automobilistici (Citao)" (Mechanic \& Transport industry).
[thumb\|Ethiopians [greeting](/wiki/Roman_salute "Roman salute") the depiction of Mussolini at [Mekelle](/wiki/Mekelle "Mekelle")](/wiki/File:Depiction_of_Mussolini_in_Mekelle.jpg "Depiction of Mussolini in Mekelle.jpg")
Italians also created new airports and in 1936 started the worldwide famous [*Linea dell'Impero*](/wiki/Imperial_Line "Imperial Line"), a flight connecting Addis Ababa to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"). The line was opened after the [Italian conquest of Ethiopia](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War "Second Italo-Ethiopian War") and was followed by the first air links with the Italian colonies in [Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa "Italian East Africa"), which began in a pioneering way since 1934\. The route was enlarged to 6,379 km and initially joined [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") with [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa "Addis Ababa") via [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily "Syracuse, Sicily"), [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi "Benghazi"), [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo"), [Wadi Halfa](/wiki/Wadi_Halfa "Wadi Halfa"), [Khartoum](/wiki/Khartoum "Khartoum"), [Kassala](/wiki/Kassala "Kassala"), [Asmara](/wiki/Asmara "Asmara"), [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa "Dire Dawa").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/africa\_res\-2a855323\-8b74\-11dc\-8e9d\-0016357eee51\_(Enciclopedia\-Italiana)\|title\=AFRICA in "Enciclopedia Italiana"\|website\=www.treccani.it}} There was a change of aircraft in [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi "Benghazi") (or sometimes in [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli-Castel_Benito_Airport "Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport")). The route was carried out in three and a half days of daytime flight and the frequency was four flights per week in both directions. Later from Addis Ababa there were three flights a week that continued to [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu "Mogadishu"), capital of [Italian Somalia](/wiki/Italian_Somalia "Italian Somalia").
The most important railway line in the African colonies of the Kingdom of Italy, the 784 km long [Franco\-Ethiopian Railway](/wiki/Ethio-Djibouti_Railways "Ethio-Djibouti Railways"), was [seized following the conquest of Ethiopia in 1936](/wiki/Dire_Dawa_Station_Blackshirts_1936.jpg "Dire Dawa Station Blackshirts 1936.jpg"). The route was served until 1935 by steam trains that took about 36 hours to do the total trip between the capital of Ethiopia and the port of [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti "Djibouti"). Following the Italian conquest was obtained in 1938 the increase of speed for the trains with the introduction of four railcars high capacity "type 038" derived from the model *Fiat ALn56*.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/autorails\_fiat\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\.html\|title\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\|website\=www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com\|access\-date\=17 February 2018\|archive\-date\=24 February 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224195122/http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/autorails\_fiat\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
These diesel trains were able to reach 70 km/h and cutting time travel in half to just 18 hours: they were used until the mid\-1960s.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/autorails\_fiat\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage30\.html\|title\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\|website\=www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com}} At the main stations there were some bus connections to the other cities of Italian Ethiopia not served by the railway.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/gare\_diredawa\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\.html\|title\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\|website\=www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com}} Additionally, a special fire\-control unit was created near the Addis Ababa station, which was the first one in Africa.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm \|title\="Pompieri ad Addis Abeba" (in Italian) \|access\-date\=9 January 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104191728/http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm \|archive\-date\=4 November 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }} Through 1938 trains carried protective military units because of ongoing Ethiopian guerrilla activity.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com/photos\_cfe/divers\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage34\.html\|title\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\|website\=www.train\-franco\-ethiopien.com}}[thumb\|right\|Map showing in red the new roads (like the "Imperial road", and those in construction in 1941\) created by the Italians in Ethiopia](/wiki/File:Italian_communications_in_Ethiopia%2C_April_1941.jpg "Italian communications in Ethiopia, April 1941.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Getachew Abate and Ras Kebbede Guebret offered support to Mussolini in February 1937\.](/wiki/File:RAS_Abissini_Pd-italy-005.jpg "RAS Abissini Pd-italy-005.jpg")
[Shifta](/wiki/Shifta "Shifta") (Ethiopian guerrillas) were still in control of nearly a quarter of the Ethiopian highlands through late 1939\. By the eve of World War II they were still in control of Harar and the Galla\-Sidamo Governorate. [Abebe Aregai](/wiki/Abebe_Aregai "Abebe Aregai"), the last leader of the "[Arbegnochs](/wiki/Arbegnoch "Arbegnoch")" (as the guerrilla fighters were called in Ethiopia) made a surrender proposal to the Italians in spring 1940 after the 1939 surrender of Ethiopian leaders Zaudiè Asfau and Olonà Dinkel.Bahru Zewde, "A History of Modern Ethiopia", second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001\), pp. 172f During the five years of Italian occupation, [Catholicism](/wiki/Catholicism "Catholicism") also grew in importance, thanks mainly to the efforts of missionaries like [Elisa Angela Meneguzzi](/wiki/Elisa_Angela_Meneguzzi "Elisa Angela Meneguzzi"). She became known as the "Ecumenical Fire" due to her strong efforts at [ecumenism](/wiki/Ecumenism "Ecumenism") with [Coptic Christians](/wiki/Coptic_Christians "Coptic Christians") and [Muslims](/wiki/Islam "Islam") while also catering to relations with the Catholics of [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa "Dire Dawa").{{Cite web\|url\=https://catholicsaints.info/blessed\-liduina\-meneguzzi/\|title\=Blessed Liduina Meneguzzi\|date\=25 November 2008}}[thumb\|*Mussolini's* *Stairway to Nowhere*, monument at the [Addis Ababa University](/wiki/Addis_Ababa_University "Addis Ababa University") with a stair for every year of Mussolini's rule since 1922](/wiki/File:Stairs_of_the_Lion_of_Judea_in_Addis_Ababa.jpg "Stairs of the Lion of Judea in Addis Ababa.jpg")
|
[
"### Conquest and occupation",
"{{main article\\|Second Italo\\-Abyssinian War\\|Italian East Africa}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|[Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia \"Emperor of Ethiopia\") [Haile Selassie](/wiki/Haile_Selassie \"Haile Selassie\") in 1934](/wiki/File:CropSelassie.jpg \"CropSelassie.jpg\")\nEmperor Haile Selassie's reign was interrupted on 3 October 1935{{cite book \\|first\\=A. J. \\|last\\=Barker \\|title\\=Rape of Ethiopia, 1936 \\|publisher\\=Ballantine Books \\|year\\=1971 \\|page\\=33 \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-345\\-02462\\-6}} when Italian forces, under the direction of dictator [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\"), invaded and occupied Ethiopia. They occupied the capital, Addis Ababa, on 5 May 1936\\. Emperor Haile Selassie pleaded to the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\") for aid in resisting the Italians. Nevertheless, the country was formally occupied on 9 May 1936 and the Emperor went into exile. The war was full of cruelty. Italian troops used [mustard gas](/wiki/Sulfur_mustard \"Sulfur mustard\") in aerial bombardments (in violation of the [Geneva Conventions](/wiki/Geneva_Conventions \"Geneva Conventions\")) against combatants and civilians in an attempt to discourage the Ethiopian people from supporting the resistance.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Belladonna\\|first\\=Simone\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=MOHbCgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=uccisione\\+dell'aviatore\\+Tito\\+Minniti\\&pg\\=PT156\\|title\\=Gas in Etiopia: I crimini rimossi dell'Italia coloniale\\|date\\=20 April 2015\\|publisher\\=Neri Pozza Editore\\|isbn\\=9788854510739\\|language\\=it}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Mack Smith\\|first\\=Denis\\|title\\=Mussolini\\|publisher\\=Granada\\|year\\=1983\\|isbn\\=0\\-586\\-08444\\-4\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=231, 417\\|oclc\\=12481387\\|orig\\-year\\=1981}} Deliberate Italian attacks against ambulances and hospitals of the [Red Cross](/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement \"International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement\") were reported.Rainer Baudendistel, *Between bombs and good intentions: the Red Cross and the Italo\\-Ethiopian War, 1935–1936*. Berghahn Books. 2006 pp. 239, 131–2 [https://books.google.com/books?id\\=I2MMGoY3MpMC\\&dq\\=tito\\+minniti\\+etiopia\\&pg\\=PA131](https://books.google.com/books?id=I2MMGoY3MpMC&dq=tito+minniti+etiopia&pg=PA131) By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, including during the reprisal [Yekatit 12](/wiki/Yekatit_12 \"Yekatit 12\") massacre in Addis Ababa, in which as many as 30,000 civilians were killed.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Campbell\\|first\\=Ian\\|title\\=The Addis Ababa Massacre: Italy's National Shame\\|year\\=2017\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84904\\-692\\-3\\|location\\=London\\|oclc\\=999629248}}{{sfn\\|Barker\\|1968\\|pp\\=292–293}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Martel\\|first\\=Gordon\\|title\\=The origins of the Second World War reconsidered : A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/originssecondwor00mart\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=1999\\|isbn\\=0\\-203\\-01024\\-8\\|edition\\=2nd\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/originssecondwor00mart/page/n200 188]\\|oclc\\=252806536}} These Italian reprisals against Ethiopian civilians have been described by some historians as constituting [genocide](/wiki/Genocide \"Genocide\").{{Cite journal\\|first\\=Nicola \\|last\\=Labanca \\|year\\=2004 \\|title\\=Colonial rule, colonial repression and war crimes in the Italian colonies \\|journal\\=Journal of Modern Italian Studies \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=300–313 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/1354571042000254737\\|s2cid\\=144498755 }} Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of [Dum\\-Dum bullets](/wiki/Expanding_bullet \"Expanding bullet\") (in violation of the [Hague Conventions](/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907 \"Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907\")), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the [Gondrand massacre](/wiki/Gondrand_massacre \"Gondrand massacre\")) and the mutilation of captured [Eritrean Ascari](/wiki/Eritrean_Ascari \"Eritrean Ascari\") and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.{{sfn\\|Sbacchi\\|1979\\|p\\=43}}{{sfn\\|Antonicelli\\|1975\\|p\\=79}}",
"[thumb\\|Marshal Graziani in 1940](/wiki/File:Rodolfo_Graziani_1940_%28Retouched%29.jpg \"Rodolfo Graziani 1940 (Retouched).jpg\")\nMarshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani \"Rodolfo Graziani\"), who replaced Marshal Badoglio as viceroy of Italian East Africa in May 1936 was short\\-tempered and inclined to violence and atrocities multiplied under his administration. Following a failed attack against Addis Ababa by rebels on 28 July 1936, he had the archbishop of Dessie, whom he suspected of being behind the attack shot the same afternoon. All resisting Ethiopians were declared \"bandits\" and he ordered that they be shot on capture. Mussolini approved the decision but requested that the order be kept secret. Following the defeat of rebels led by Ras Desta in the western part of the country in late December 1936, he had 1,600 rebel troops who surrendered summarily executed by firing squads. Villages that had been friendly to Desta were burned to the ground and women and children shot. Desta and other captured rebel leaders were executed in February 1937\\.",
"The Italians undertook many other terrorist actions during this period. Following a bloody attempt on the life of Graziani and other Italian officials by two Eritreans during a ceremony to celebrate the birth of the [Prince of Naples](/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele%2C_Prince_of_Naples \"Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples\") on 19 February 1937, the police and soldiers, fearing a general uprising, fired indiscriminately into the crowd. Innocent bystanders were shot. For the next three days, the Italians, led by the [Blackshirts](/wiki/Blackshirts \"Blackshirts\"), went on a rampage of murder and destruction throughout Addis Ababa. By the end of 1937 more than 5,000 people had been executed for alleged crimes related to the attempt against Graziani, and a total of 19,200 to 30,000 civilians were killed.{{Harvnb\\|Campbell\\|2017}}. Among the dead were virtually all the young educated Ethiopians the Italians could lay their hands on and all the officers and cadets of the Holeta Military Academy. The Italian viceroy had hermits, soothsayers and travelling minstrels rounded up and executed. Convinced that the high clergy had known about the plot, he had many executed. In May 1937, he ordered 297 monks of the monastery of [Debre Libanos](/wiki/Debre_Libanos \"Debre Libanos\") and 23 other individuals suspected of complicity shot. Over 100 deacons and students were also executed. Several hundred monks were sent to concentration camps. Viceroy Graziani was finally replaced in November 1938 by the more humane [Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Prince_Amedeo%2C_Duke_of_Aosta \"Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta\"), who put an end to wanton atrocities which had had the effect of increasing resistance to Italian domination.Paul B. Henze, *Layers of Time. A History of Ethiopia*, Palgrave, New York, 2000, p. 225–227\\.",
"[thumb\\|Italian troops in Addis Ababa, 1936](/wiki/File:Military_Parade_of_Italian_Troops_in_Addis_Ababa_%281936%29.jpg \"Military Parade of Italian Troops in Addis Ababa (1936).jpg\")\nWhile some countries recognized the Italian conquest, Britain, France, the United States, the Soviet Union, China and the League of Nations refused to formally recognize it and consequently it remained illegitimate in international law.{{efn\\|For that reason, following the collapse of Italian power in 1941, Haile Selassie reassumed power without the need of any formal recognition by the international community.}} The King of Italy ([Victor Emmanuel III](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III \"Victor Emmanuel III\")) was crowned [Emperor of Ethiopia](/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia \"Emperor of Ethiopia\") and the Italians created an [Italian empire](/wiki/Italian_empire \"Italian empire\") in Africa ([Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa \"Italian East Africa\")) with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia in spring 1936\\.",
"In 1937 Mussolini boasted that, with his conquest of Ethiopia, \"finally [Adua](/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa \"Battle of Adwa\") was avenged\".",
"The Italians decreed [miscegenation](/wiki/Miscegenation \"Miscegenation\") to be illegal.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Barrera \\|first1\\=Giulia \\|year\\=2003 \\|title\\=Mussolini's colonial race laws and state\\-settler relations in Africa Orientale Italiana (1935\\-41\\) \\|journal\\=Journal of Modern Italian Studies \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=425–443 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/09585170320000113770\\|s2cid\\=145516332 }} Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible and the Italians showed favouritism to non\\-Christian groups. To isolate the dominant [Amhara](/wiki/Amhara_people \"Amhara people\") rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Selassie, the Italians granted the Oromos, the [Somalis](/wiki/Somali_people \"Somali people\") and other Muslims, many of whom had supported the invasion, autonomy and rights.",
"There was substantial investment in Ethiopian infrastructure development, with the budget for AOI from 1936 to 1937 requiring 19,136 billion [lire](/wiki/Lira \"Lira\") when the annual revenue of Italy was only 18,581 billion lire.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cannistraro \\|first\\=Philip V. \\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy \\|year\\=1982 \\|location\\=Westport, Connecticut \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-21317\\-5 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio00tion }}{{rp\\|5}} This infrastructure development was part of a plan to bring half a million Italians to colonize the Ethiopian plateaus. In October 1939 the [Italian colonists in Ethiopia](/wiki/Italians_of_Ethiopia \"Italians of Ethiopia\") were 35,441, of whom 30,232 male (85\\.3%) and 5,209 female (14\\.7%), most of them living in urban areas.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/rds\\-01emigrazione.pdf\\|title\\=Italian emigration in Etiopia (in Italian)}} Only 3,200 Italian farmers moved to colonize farm areas, mostly around the capital and in the [Scioa Governorate](/wiki/Scioa_Governorate \"Scioa Governorate\"), where they were under sporadic attack by pro\\-Haile Selassie guerrillas through 1939\\.",
"The Italians created the \"Imperial Road\" between Addis Ababa and [Massaua](/wiki/Massaua \"Massaua\"), the Addis Ababa – [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu \"Mogadishu\") and the Addis Ababa – [Assab](/wiki/Assab \"Assab\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://media.tecnici.it/file/novecento/autocamionale\\_assab\\_addis\\-abeba.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329080126/http://media.tecnici.it/file/novecento/autocamionale\\_assab\\_addis\\-abeba.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=29 March 2016 \\|date\\=1940 \\|title\\=Article on the special road Addis Abeba\\-Assab and map (in Italian)}} the Italians built more than 4,500 km of roads linking the country beyond 900 km of railways were reconstructed or initiated (like the railway between Addis Ababa and [Assab](/wiki/Assab \"Assab\")), dams and hydroelectric plants were built, and many public and private companies were established in the underdeveloped country. The most important were: \"Compagnie per il cotone d'Etiopia\" (Cotton industry); \"Cementerie d'Etiopia\" (Cement industry); \"Compagnia etiopica mineraria\" (Minerals industry); \"Imprese elettriche d'Etiopia\" (Electricity industry); \"Compagnia etiopica degli esplosivi\" (Armament industry); \"Trasporti automobilistici (Citao)\" (Mechanic \\& Transport industry).",
"[thumb\\|Ethiopians [greeting](/wiki/Roman_salute \"Roman salute\") the depiction of Mussolini at [Mekelle](/wiki/Mekelle \"Mekelle\")](/wiki/File:Depiction_of_Mussolini_in_Mekelle.jpg \"Depiction of Mussolini in Mekelle.jpg\")\nItalians also created new airports and in 1936 started the worldwide famous [*Linea dell'Impero*](/wiki/Imperial_Line \"Imperial Line\"), a flight connecting Addis Ababa to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"). The line was opened after the [Italian conquest of Ethiopia](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War \"Second Italo-Ethiopian War\") and was followed by the first air links with the Italian colonies in [Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa \"Italian East Africa\"), which began in a pioneering way since 1934\\. The route was enlarged to 6,379 km and initially joined [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") with [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa \"Addis Ababa\") via [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily \"Syracuse, Sicily\"), [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi \"Benghazi\"), [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\"), [Wadi Halfa](/wiki/Wadi_Halfa \"Wadi Halfa\"), [Khartoum](/wiki/Khartoum \"Khartoum\"), [Kassala](/wiki/Kassala \"Kassala\"), [Asmara](/wiki/Asmara \"Asmara\"), [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa \"Dire Dawa\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/africa\\_res\\-2a855323\\-8b74\\-11dc\\-8e9d\\-0016357eee51\\_(Enciclopedia\\-Italiana)\\|title\\=AFRICA in \"Enciclopedia Italiana\"\\|website\\=www.treccani.it}} There was a change of aircraft in [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi \"Benghazi\") (or sometimes in [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli-Castel_Benito_Airport \"Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport\")). The route was carried out in three and a half days of daytime flight and the frequency was four flights per week in both directions. Later from Addis Ababa there were three flights a week that continued to [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu \"Mogadishu\"), capital of [Italian Somalia](/wiki/Italian_Somalia \"Italian Somalia\").",
"The most important railway line in the African colonies of the Kingdom of Italy, the 784 km long [Franco\\-Ethiopian Railway](/wiki/Ethio-Djibouti_Railways \"Ethio-Djibouti Railways\"), was [seized following the conquest of Ethiopia in 1936](/wiki/Dire_Dawa_Station_Blackshirts_1936.jpg \"Dire Dawa Station Blackshirts 1936.jpg\"). The route was served until 1935 by steam trains that took about 36 hours to do the total trip between the capital of Ethiopia and the port of [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti \"Djibouti\"). Following the Italian conquest was obtained in 1938 the increase of speed for the trains with the introduction of four railcars high capacity \"type 038\" derived from the model *Fiat ALn56*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/autorails\\_fiat\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\\.html\\|title\\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\\|website\\=www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com\\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224195122/http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/autorails\\_fiat\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"These diesel trains were able to reach 70 km/h and cutting time travel in half to just 18 hours: they were used until the mid\\-1960s.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/autorails\\_fiat\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage30\\.html\\|title\\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\\|website\\=www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com}} At the main stations there were some bus connections to the other cities of Italian Ethiopia not served by the railway.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/gare\\_diredawa\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15\\.html\\|title\\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\\|website\\=www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com}} Additionally, a special fire\\-control unit was created near the Addis Ababa station, which was the first one in Africa.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm \\|title\\=\"Pompieri ad Addis Abeba\" (in Italian) \\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104191728/http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Through 1938 trains carried protective military units because of ongoing Ethiopian guerrilla activity.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com/photos\\_cfe/divers\\_cfe/pages/image/imagepage34\\.html\\|title\\=LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN\\|website\\=www.train\\-franco\\-ethiopien.com}}[thumb\\|right\\|Map showing in red the new roads (like the \"Imperial road\", and those in construction in 1941\\) created by the Italians in Ethiopia](/wiki/File:Italian_communications_in_Ethiopia%2C_April_1941.jpg \"Italian communications in Ethiopia, April 1941.jpg\")",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Getachew Abate and Ras Kebbede Guebret offered support to Mussolini in February 1937\\.](/wiki/File:RAS_Abissini_Pd-italy-005.jpg \"RAS Abissini Pd-italy-005.jpg\")\n[Shifta](/wiki/Shifta \"Shifta\") (Ethiopian guerrillas) were still in control of nearly a quarter of the Ethiopian highlands through late 1939\\. By the eve of World War II they were still in control of Harar and the Galla\\-Sidamo Governorate. [Abebe Aregai](/wiki/Abebe_Aregai \"Abebe Aregai\"), the last leader of the \"[Arbegnochs](/wiki/Arbegnoch \"Arbegnoch\")\" (as the guerrilla fighters were called in Ethiopia) made a surrender proposal to the Italians in spring 1940 after the 1939 surrender of Ethiopian leaders Zaudiè Asfau and Olonà Dinkel.Bahru Zewde, \"A History of Modern Ethiopia\", second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001\\), pp. 172f During the five years of Italian occupation, [Catholicism](/wiki/Catholicism \"Catholicism\") also grew in importance, thanks mainly to the efforts of missionaries like [Elisa Angela Meneguzzi](/wiki/Elisa_Angela_Meneguzzi \"Elisa Angela Meneguzzi\"). She became known as the \"Ecumenical Fire\" due to her strong efforts at [ecumenism](/wiki/Ecumenism \"Ecumenism\") with [Coptic Christians](/wiki/Coptic_Christians \"Coptic Christians\") and [Muslims](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") while also catering to relations with the Catholics of [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa \"Dire Dawa\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://catholicsaints.info/blessed\\-liduina\\-meneguzzi/\\|title\\=Blessed Liduina Meneguzzi\\|date\\=25 November 2008}}[thumb\\|*Mussolini's* *Stairway to Nowhere*, monument at the [Addis Ababa University](/wiki/Addis_Ababa_University \"Addis Ababa University\") with a stair for every year of Mussolini's rule since 1922](/wiki/File:Stairs_of_the_Lion_of_Judea_in_Addis_Ababa.jpg \"Stairs of the Lion of Judea in Addis Ababa.jpg\")",
""
] |
Plot
----
In the spring of 1939 in England, [Oxford University](/wiki/Oxford_University "Oxford University") professor Richard Myles and his new bride Frances spend their [honeymoon](/wiki/Honeymoon "Honeymoon") in continental Europe. They are commissioned by the [British secret service](/wiki/British_secret_service "British secret service") to find a scientist who has developed a countermeasure against a new Nazi secret weapon, a [magnetic sea mine](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine").{{cite book \| last\=Higham \| first \=Charles \| last2\=Greenberg \| first2\=Joel \| year \= 1968 \| title\=Hollywood in the Forties \| page\=92 \| publisher\=A. Zwemmer Limited \| location\=London \| isbn\=978\-0\-498\-06928\-4}} Without knowing his name, what he looks like or where to find the scientist, the couple look upon the search as an adventure and cross Europe seeking clues from clandestine contacts.
In [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), Frances is given a hat decorated with a rose as a signal for their first contact, who silently instructs them to go to a café in [Montmartre](/wiki/Montmartre "Montmartre"). An unseen contact plants a tourist guidebook to southern Germany in Richard's coat. The couple notice a series of ink dots on a map in the book, which, linked together, form a [musical staff](/wiki/Staff_%28music%29 "Staff (music)") with the opening notes to the song "[My Love Is Like a Red, Red Rose](/wiki/A_Red%2C_Red_Rose "A Red, Red Rose")." They deduce that this is their password. Three pinpricks in the same map direct them to the book's seller, A. Werner, in [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg "Salzburg"). Werner instructs them to go to a certain museum, where a man named [Count](/wiki/German_nobility "German nobility") Hassert Seidel, calling himself a "guide," suggests that they check into a [guesthouse](/wiki/Guesthouse "Guesthouse") run by Frau Kleist. She provides them with a book on [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt") with annotations that reveal that their next stop should be the village of [Pertisau](/wiki/Pertisau "Pertisau") in [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 "Tyrol (state)"), where they should inquire about a doctor who collects [chess pieces](/wiki/Chess_piece "Chess piece").
Some days later, Richard and Frances attend a performance of Liszt's music. During a passage that Thornley had been practicing earlier, a Nazi commandant is shot and killed. Officials insist on questioning each member of the audience. Richard and Frances are rescued by [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo "Gestapo") chief Count Sig von Aschenhausen, a former Oxford schoolmate of Richard's. Thornley killed the Nazi colonel as revenge for the torture and murder of his Austrian fiancée.
Frances and Richard visit the home of chess collector Dr. Mespelbrunn, and von Aschenhausen is there. They notice [sheet music](/wiki/Sheet_music "Sheet music") for "My Love Is Like a Red, Red Rose" on the piano. But when von Aschenhausen fails to respond to a code signal that Richard gives him, the couple become suspicious. They hear thumping noises upstairs and discover that von Aschenhausen is holding Mespelbrunn prisoner. Mespelbrunn tells them to run and that they are being hunted by the Gestapo. Frances and Richard leave the house just in time, but go back later for Mespelbrunn, and Count Seidel arrives to help them free him. Mespelbrunn is revealed as the missing scientist, Dr. Smith. All four head for [Innsbruck](/wiki/Innsbruck "Innsbruck"), and Mespelbrunn gives Richard the plans for the countermeasure.
The couple obtain counterfeit passports from the Schultzes, an elderly couple. They are planning to catch the train to [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") at separate stations, but, when the Schultzes are arrested by the Gestapo, the police are on the lookout for the Americans. Frances is detained and questioned by the Gestapo, but Thornley, in Innsbruck to catch the same train, finds Richard. Richard, Thornley and Seidel gain entry to where Frances is being held and kill her captors, including von Aschenhausen, but Thornley is also killed. After fooling the Nazi border guards, Seidel and the American newlyweds reach freedom in Italy.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In the spring of 1939 in England, [Oxford University](/wiki/Oxford_University \"Oxford University\") professor Richard Myles and his new bride Frances spend their [honeymoon](/wiki/Honeymoon \"Honeymoon\") in continental Europe. They are commissioned by the [British secret service](/wiki/British_secret_service \"British secret service\") to find a scientist who has developed a countermeasure against a new Nazi secret weapon, a [magnetic sea mine](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\").{{cite book \\| last\\=Higham \\| first \\=Charles \\| last2\\=Greenberg \\| first2\\=Joel \\| year \\= 1968 \\| title\\=Hollywood in the Forties \\| page\\=92 \\| publisher\\=A. Zwemmer Limited \\| location\\=London \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-498\\-06928\\-4}} Without knowing his name, what he looks like or where to find the scientist, the couple look upon the search as an adventure and cross Europe seeking clues from clandestine contacts.",
"In [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), Frances is given a hat decorated with a rose as a signal for their first contact, who silently instructs them to go to a café in [Montmartre](/wiki/Montmartre \"Montmartre\"). An unseen contact plants a tourist guidebook to southern Germany in Richard's coat. The couple notice a series of ink dots on a map in the book, which, linked together, form a [musical staff](/wiki/Staff_%28music%29 \"Staff (music)\") with the opening notes to the song \"[My Love Is Like a Red, Red Rose](/wiki/A_Red%2C_Red_Rose \"A Red, Red Rose\").\" They deduce that this is their password. Three pinpricks in the same map direct them to the book's seller, A. Werner, in [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg \"Salzburg\"). Werner instructs them to go to a certain museum, where a man named [Count](/wiki/German_nobility \"German nobility\") Hassert Seidel, calling himself a \"guide,\" suggests that they check into a [guesthouse](/wiki/Guesthouse \"Guesthouse\") run by Frau Kleist. She provides them with a book on [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\") with annotations that reveal that their next stop should be the village of [Pertisau](/wiki/Pertisau \"Pertisau\") in [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 \"Tyrol (state)\"), where they should inquire about a doctor who collects [chess pieces](/wiki/Chess_piece \"Chess piece\").",
"Some days later, Richard and Frances attend a performance of Liszt's music. During a passage that Thornley had been practicing earlier, a Nazi commandant is shot and killed. Officials insist on questioning each member of the audience. Richard and Frances are rescued by [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo \"Gestapo\") chief Count Sig von Aschenhausen, a former Oxford schoolmate of Richard's. Thornley killed the Nazi colonel as revenge for the torture and murder of his Austrian fiancée.",
"Frances and Richard visit the home of chess collector Dr. Mespelbrunn, and von Aschenhausen is there. They notice [sheet music](/wiki/Sheet_music \"Sheet music\") for \"My Love Is Like a Red, Red Rose\" on the piano. But when von Aschenhausen fails to respond to a code signal that Richard gives him, the couple become suspicious. They hear thumping noises upstairs and discover that von Aschenhausen is holding Mespelbrunn prisoner. Mespelbrunn tells them to run and that they are being hunted by the Gestapo. Frances and Richard leave the house just in time, but go back later for Mespelbrunn, and Count Seidel arrives to help them free him. Mespelbrunn is revealed as the missing scientist, Dr. Smith. All four head for [Innsbruck](/wiki/Innsbruck \"Innsbruck\"), and Mespelbrunn gives Richard the plans for the countermeasure.",
"The couple obtain counterfeit passports from the Schultzes, an elderly couple. They are planning to catch the train to [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") at separate stations, but, when the Schultzes are arrested by the Gestapo, the police are on the lookout for the Americans. Frances is detained and questioned by the Gestapo, but Thornley, in Innsbruck to catch the same train, finds Richard. Richard, Thornley and Seidel gain entry to where Frances is being held and kill her captors, including von Aschenhausen, but Thornley is also killed. After fooling the Nazi border guards, Seidel and the American newlyweds reach freedom in Italy.",
""
] |
Advantages
----------
SPARQL allows users to write queries that follow the [RDF](/wiki/Resource_Description_Framework "Resource Description Framework") specification of the [W3C](/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium "World Wide Web Consortium"). Thus, the entire dataset is "subject\-predicate\-object" triples. Subjects and predicates are always URI identifiers, but objects can be URIs or literal values. This single physical schema of 3 "columns" is hyperdenormalized in that what would be 1 relational record with 4 fields is now 4 triples with the subject being repeated over and over, the predicate essentially being the column name, and the object being the field value. Although this seems unwieldy,
the SPARQL syntax offers these features:
**1\. Subjects and Objects can be used to find the other including recursively.**
Below is a set of triples. It should be clear that
`ex:sw001` and `ex:sw002` link to `ex:sw003`, which itself has links:
ex:sw001 ex:linksWith ex:sw003 .
ex:sw002 ex:linksWith ex:sw003 .
ex:sw003 ex:linksWith ex:sw004 , ex:sw006 .
ex:sw004 ex:linksWith ex:sw005 .
In SPARQL, the first time a variable is encountered in the expression pipeline, it is populated with result. The second and subsequent times it is seen, it is used as an input. If we assign ("bind") the URI `ex:sw003` to the `?targets` variable, then it drives a
result into `?src`; this tells us all the things that link *to* `ex:sw003` (upstream dependency):
SELECT \*
WHERE {
```
BIND(ex:sw003 AS ?targets)
?src ex:linksWith ?targets .
```
}
But with a simple switch of the binding variable, the behavior is reversed. This will produce all the things upon which `ex:sw003` depends (downstream dependency):
SELECT \*
WHERE {
```
BIND(ex:sw003 AS ?src)
?src ex:linksWith ?targets . # NOTICE! No syntax change!
```
}
Even more attractive is that we can easily instruct SPARQL to recursively follow the path:
SELECT \*
WHERE {
```
BIND(ex:sw003 AS ?src)
?src ex:linksWith+ ?targets . # Note the +; now SPARQL will find ex:sw005 via ex:sw004
```
}
Bound variables can therefore also be lists and will be operated upon without complicated syntax. The effect of this is similar to the following:
If ?S is bound to (ex:A, ex:B) then
```
?S ex:linksWith ?O
```
behaves like this:
```
for each s in ?S:
fetch s ex:linksWith, capture o
append o to ?O
```
If ?O is bound to (ex:A, ex:B) then
```
?S ex:linksWith ?O
```
behaves like this:
```
for each o in ?O:
fetch ex:linksWith o, capture s
append s to ?S
```
**2\. SPARQL expressions are a pipeline**
Unlike SQL which has subqueries and CTEs, SPARQL is much more like MongoDB or SPARK. Expressions are evaluated exactly in the order they are declared including filtering and joining of data. The programming model becomes what a SQL statement would be like with multiple WHERE clauses. The combination of list\-aware subjects and objects plus a pipeline approach can yield extremely expressive queries spanning many different domains of data.
Unlike relational databases, the object column is heterogeneous: the object data type, if not an URI, is usually implied (or specified in the [ontology](/wiki/Ontology_%28information_science%29 "Ontology (information science)")) by the [predicate](/wiki/SQL%23Language_elements "SQL#Language elements") value. Literal nodes carry type information consistent with the underlying XSD namespace including signed and unsigned short and long integers, single and double precision floats, datetime, penny\-precise decimal, Boolean, and string. Triple store implementations on traditional relational databases will typically store the value as a string and a fourth column will identify the real type. Polymorphic databases such as MongoDB and SQLite can store the native value directly into the object field.
Thus, SPARQL provides a full set of analytic query operations such as `JOIN`, `SORT`, `AGGREGATE` for data whose [schema](/wiki/Database_schema "Database schema") is intrinsically part of the data rather than requiring a separate schema definition. However, schema information (the ontology) is often provided externally, to allow joining of different [datasets](/wiki/Data_set "Data set") unambiguously. In addition, SPARQL provides specific [graph](/wiki/Graph_%28data_structure%29 "Graph (data structure)") traversal syntax for data that can be thought of as a graph.
The example below demonstrates a simple query that leverages the [ontology](/wiki/Ontology_%28information_science%29 "Ontology (information science)") definition `[foaf](/wiki/FOAF_%28ontology%29 "FOAF (ontology)")` ("friend of a friend").
Specifically, the following query returns names and emails of every person in the [dataset](/wiki/Data_set "Data set"):
PREFIX foaf: \<http://xmlns.com/foaf/0\.1/\>
SELECT ?name
```
?email
```
WHERE
```
{
?person a foaf:Person .
?person foaf:name ?name .
?person foaf:mbox ?email .
}
```
This query joins all of the triples with a matching subject, where the type predicate, "`a`", is a person (`foaf:Person`), and the person has one or more names (`foaf:name`) and mailboxes (`foaf:mbox`).
For the sake of readability, the author of this query chose to reference the subject using the variable name "`?person`". Since the first element of the triple is always the subject, the author could have just as easily used any variable name, such as "`?subj`" or "`?x`". Whatever name is chosen, it must be the same on each line of the query to signify that the query engine is to join triples with the same subject.
The result of the join is a set of rows – `?person`, `?name`, `?email`. This query returns the `?name` and `?email` because `?person` is often a complex URI rather than a human\-friendly string. Note that any `?person` may have multiple mailboxes, so in the returned set, a `?name` row may appear multiple times, once for each mailbox.
This query can be distributed to multiple SPARQL endpoints (services that accept SPARQL queries and return results), computed, and results gathered, a procedure known as [federated query](/wiki/Federated_search "Federated search").
Whether in a federated manner or locally, additional triple definitions in the query could allow joins to different subject types, such as automobiles, to allow simple queries, for example, to return a list of names and emails for people who drive automobiles with a high fuel efficiency.
|
[
"Advantages\n----------",
"SPARQL allows users to write queries that follow the [RDF](/wiki/Resource_Description_Framework \"Resource Description Framework\") specification of the [W3C](/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium \"World Wide Web Consortium\"). Thus, the entire dataset is \"subject\\-predicate\\-object\" triples. Subjects and predicates are always URI identifiers, but objects can be URIs or literal values. This single physical schema of 3 \"columns\" is hyperdenormalized in that what would be 1 relational record with 4 fields is now 4 triples with the subject being repeated over and over, the predicate essentially being the column name, and the object being the field value. Although this seems unwieldy,\nthe SPARQL syntax offers these features:",
"**1\\. Subjects and Objects can be used to find the other including recursively.**",
"Below is a set of triples. It should be clear that\n`ex:sw001` and `ex:sw002` link to `ex:sw003`, which itself has links:",
"ex:sw001 ex:linksWith ex:sw003 .\nex:sw002 ex:linksWith ex:sw003 .\nex:sw003 ex:linksWith ex:sw004 , ex:sw006 .\nex:sw004 ex:linksWith ex:sw005 .",
"In SPARQL, the first time a variable is encountered in the expression pipeline, it is populated with result. The second and subsequent times it is seen, it is used as an input. If we assign (\"bind\") the URI `ex:sw003` to the `?targets` variable, then it drives a\nresult into `?src`; this tells us all the things that link *to* `ex:sw003` (upstream dependency):",
"SELECT \\*\nWHERE {",
"```\n BIND(ex:sw003 AS ?targets)\n ?src ex:linksWith ?targets .",
"```\n}",
"But with a simple switch of the binding variable, the behavior is reversed. This will produce all the things upon which `ex:sw003` depends (downstream dependency):",
"SELECT \\*\nWHERE {",
"```\n BIND(ex:sw003 AS ?src)\n ?src ex:linksWith ?targets . # NOTICE! No syntax change!",
"```\n}",
"Even more attractive is that we can easily instruct SPARQL to recursively follow the path:",
"SELECT \\*\nWHERE {",
"```\n BIND(ex:sw003 AS ?src)\n ?src ex:linksWith+ ?targets . # Note the +; now SPARQL will find ex:sw005 via ex:sw004",
"```\n}",
"Bound variables can therefore also be lists and will be operated upon without complicated syntax. The effect of this is similar to the following:",
"If ?S is bound to (ex:A, ex:B) then",
"```\n ?S ex:linksWith ?O",
"```\nbehaves like this:",
"```\n for each s in ?S:\n fetch s ex:linksWith, capture o\n append o to ?O",
"```",
"If ?O is bound to (ex:A, ex:B) then",
"```\n ?S ex:linksWith ?O",
"```\nbehaves like this:",
"```\n for each o in ?O:\n fetch ex:linksWith o, capture s\n append s to ?S",
"```",
"",
"",
"**2\\. SPARQL expressions are a pipeline**",
"Unlike SQL which has subqueries and CTEs, SPARQL is much more like MongoDB or SPARK. Expressions are evaluated exactly in the order they are declared including filtering and joining of data. The programming model becomes what a SQL statement would be like with multiple WHERE clauses. The combination of list\\-aware subjects and objects plus a pipeline approach can yield extremely expressive queries spanning many different domains of data.",
"",
"Unlike relational databases, the object column is heterogeneous: the object data type, if not an URI, is usually implied (or specified in the [ontology](/wiki/Ontology_%28information_science%29 \"Ontology (information science)\")) by the [predicate](/wiki/SQL%23Language_elements \"SQL#Language elements\") value. Literal nodes carry type information consistent with the underlying XSD namespace including signed and unsigned short and long integers, single and double precision floats, datetime, penny\\-precise decimal, Boolean, and string. Triple store implementations on traditional relational databases will typically store the value as a string and a fourth column will identify the real type. Polymorphic databases such as MongoDB and SQLite can store the native value directly into the object field.",
"Thus, SPARQL provides a full set of analytic query operations such as `JOIN`, `SORT`, `AGGREGATE` for data whose [schema](/wiki/Database_schema \"Database schema\") is intrinsically part of the data rather than requiring a separate schema definition. However, schema information (the ontology) is often provided externally, to allow joining of different [datasets](/wiki/Data_set \"Data set\") unambiguously. In addition, SPARQL provides specific [graph](/wiki/Graph_%28data_structure%29 \"Graph (data structure)\") traversal syntax for data that can be thought of as a graph.",
"The example below demonstrates a simple query that leverages the [ontology](/wiki/Ontology_%28information_science%29 \"Ontology (information science)\") definition `[foaf](/wiki/FOAF_%28ontology%29 \"FOAF (ontology)\")` (\"friend of a friend\").",
"Specifically, the following query returns names and emails of every person in the [dataset](/wiki/Data_set \"Data set\"):",
"PREFIX foaf: \\<http://xmlns.com/foaf/0\\.1/\\>\nSELECT ?name",
"```\n ?email",
"```\nWHERE",
"```\n {\n ?person a foaf:Person .\n ?person foaf:name ?name .\n ?person foaf:mbox ?email .\n }",
"```",
"",
"This query joins all of the triples with a matching subject, where the type predicate, \"`a`\", is a person (`foaf:Person`), and the person has one or more names (`foaf:name`) and mailboxes (`foaf:mbox`).",
"For the sake of readability, the author of this query chose to reference the subject using the variable name \"`?person`\". Since the first element of the triple is always the subject, the author could have just as easily used any variable name, such as \"`?subj`\" or \"`?x`\". Whatever name is chosen, it must be the same on each line of the query to signify that the query engine is to join triples with the same subject.",
"The result of the join is a set of rows – `?person`, `?name`, `?email`. This query returns the `?name` and `?email` because `?person` is often a complex URI rather than a human\\-friendly string. Note that any `?person` may have multiple mailboxes, so in the returned set, a `?name` row may appear multiple times, once for each mailbox.",
"This query can be distributed to multiple SPARQL endpoints (services that accept SPARQL queries and return results), computed, and results gathered, a procedure known as [federated query](/wiki/Federated_search \"Federated search\").",
"Whether in a federated manner or locally, additional triple definitions in the query could allow joins to different subject types, such as automobiles, to allow simple queries, for example, to return a list of names and emails for people who drive automobiles with a high fuel efficiency.",
""
] |
History
-------
The proposal to create the Russian National People's Army was first proposed by émigré [Sergei Nikitich Ivanov](/wiki/Sergei_Nikitich_Ivanov "Sergei Nikitich Ivanov") (a representative of [Anastasy Vonsiatsky](/wiki/Anastasy_Vonsiatsky "Anastasy Vonsiatsky") with ties to the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") and [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party")) in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"). The proposal was supported by a number of high\-ranking Wehrmacht officers, among them generals [Max von Schenckendorff](/wiki/Max_von_Schenckendorff "Max von Schenckendorff"), [Hellmuth Stieff](/wiki/Hellmuth_Stieff "Hellmuth Stieff"), and [Claus von Stauffenberg](/wiki/Claus_von_Stauffenberg "Claus von Stauffenberg"). The idea proliferated throughout the [Oberkommando der Wehrmacht](/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht") as a way to compensate for the losses of German troops on the [Eastern Front](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 "Eastern Front (World War II)").
In March 1942, Ivanov met with Field Marshal [Günther von Kluge](/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_von_Kluge "Günther von Kluge"), and received permission to form a Russian military unit from Soviet prisoners of war in [Barysaw](/wiki/Barysaw "Barysaw"), [Smolensk](/wiki/Smolensk "Smolensk"), [Roslavl](/wiki/Roslavl "Roslavl"), and [Vyazma](/wiki/Vyazma "Vyazma").{{Cite book \|title\=Saboteurs of the Third Reich \|publisher\=Eksmo \|year\=2003 \|pages\=314–322 \|language\=ru}} The [Abwehr](/wiki/Abwehr "Abwehr") also soon took interest in the RNNA, and wanted to use the unit's personnel not simply to fight [Soviet partisans](/wiki/Soviet_partisans "Soviet partisans") in the rear of the German troops, but also to deploy the RNNA behind personnel as saboteurs in Soviet\-held territory.{{Cite book \|last\=Karpenko \|first\=S. V. \|title\=Between Russia and Stalin: Russian Émigrés and World War II \|publisher\=Russian State Humanitarian University Publishing House \|year\=2004 \|pages\=223–225 \|language\=ru}}
[left\|thumb\|237x237px\|The RNNA in Asintorf, 1942\.](/wiki/File:%D0%A0%D0%9D%D0%9D%D0%90_%D0%B2_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B5.jpg "РННА в Осинторфе.jpg")
The RNNA was formed in the village of {{Ill\|Asintorf\|be\|Асінторф\|ru\|Осинторф}}, [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"), 35 kilometres north of [Orsha](/wiki/Orsha "Orsha"), the RNNA's headquarters. Ivanov was head of the unit, while [Igor Sakharov](/wiki/Igor_Sakharov "Igor Sakharov") was appointed as Ivanov's adjutant. [Constantine Kromiadi](/wiki/Constantine_Kromiadi "Constantine Kromiadi") was made commandant of the central headquarters.
Initially, the RNNA's leadership sought only to recruit anti\-communists from the prisoners of war, but later began to accept everyone. In March 1942, the strength of the RNNA was 150 people, and by May had reached a size of 400\. To increase the RNNA's appeal to prisoners of war, Ivanov proposed the appointment of a Soviet military commander who was "well\-known and respected among the military personnel", offering the position to {{Ill\|Mikhail Fyodorovich Lukin\|ru\|Лукин, Михаил Фёдорович}}. However, Lukin refused to join the RNNA.
In addition to combat training, dissemination of propaganda to personnel was carried out. The RNNA's leadership told soldiers that their task was, "the fight against Bolshevism and Jewry for the creation of a new Russian state and the restoration of the pre\-revolutionary system." According to information from Soviet partisans at the time, up to 40% of RNNA personnel believed this.
From the time they were first noticed, the RNNA became the object of close attention of the Soviet partisans. In the first period, contacts were limited to agitation, but partisans managed to get intelligence from those who served in the RNNA, as well as smuggling military equipment from the RNNA over to partisan lines.
The RNNA was beset by constant defections to Soviet partisans. In only a three\-day period in August 1942, roughly 200 RNNA soldiers defected to Soviet partisans. Only the 3rd Battalion of the RNNA, located in [Byerazino](/wiki/Byerazino "Byerazino"), did not suffer from such issues.{{Cite book \|last\=Kalinin \|first\=Piotr \|title\=The Participation of Soviet Soldiers in the Belarusian Partisan Movement \|publisher\=Military History Magazine \|year\=1962 \|pages\=32–34 \|language\=ru}}
On 1 September 1942, [Vladimir Boyarsky](/wiki/Vladimir_Boyarsky "Vladimir Boyarsky") was appointed head of the RNNA, and shortly after, the training of the 4th and 5th battalions of the RNNA began. However, only a month later, the organisation was taken over by the Germans directly, with Boyarsky and {{Ill\|Georgy Zhilenkov\|ru\|Жиленков, Георгий Николаевич}}, head of the propaganda department of the RNNA, both being taken prisoner.
By 1943, the RNNA had ceased to exist. Its forces were transferred to the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_II%29 "Western Front (World War II)"). Following the creation of the [Russian Liberation Army](/wiki/Russian_Liberation_Army "Russian Liberation Army"), some personnel of the RNNA (among them Zhilenkov and Kromiadi) joined it.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The proposal to create the Russian National People's Army was first proposed by émigré [Sergei Nikitich Ivanov](/wiki/Sergei_Nikitich_Ivanov \"Sergei Nikitich Ivanov\") (a representative of [Anastasy Vonsiatsky](/wiki/Anastasy_Vonsiatsky \"Anastasy Vonsiatsky\") with ties to the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") and [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\")) in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"). The proposal was supported by a number of high\\-ranking Wehrmacht officers, among them generals [Max von Schenckendorff](/wiki/Max_von_Schenckendorff \"Max von Schenckendorff\"), [Hellmuth Stieff](/wiki/Hellmuth_Stieff \"Hellmuth Stieff\"), and [Claus von Stauffenberg](/wiki/Claus_von_Stauffenberg \"Claus von Stauffenberg\"). The idea proliferated throughout the [Oberkommando der Wehrmacht](/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht \"Oberkommando der Wehrmacht\") as a way to compensate for the losses of German troops on the [Eastern Front](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 \"Eastern Front (World War II)\").",
"In March 1942, Ivanov met with Field Marshal [Günther von Kluge](/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_von_Kluge \"Günther von Kluge\"), and received permission to form a Russian military unit from Soviet prisoners of war in [Barysaw](/wiki/Barysaw \"Barysaw\"), [Smolensk](/wiki/Smolensk \"Smolensk\"), [Roslavl](/wiki/Roslavl \"Roslavl\"), and [Vyazma](/wiki/Vyazma \"Vyazma\").{{Cite book \\|title\\=Saboteurs of the Third Reich \\|publisher\\=Eksmo \\|year\\=2003 \\|pages\\=314–322 \\|language\\=ru}} The [Abwehr](/wiki/Abwehr \"Abwehr\") also soon took interest in the RNNA, and wanted to use the unit's personnel not simply to fight [Soviet partisans](/wiki/Soviet_partisans \"Soviet partisans\") in the rear of the German troops, but also to deploy the RNNA behind personnel as saboteurs in Soviet\\-held territory.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Karpenko \\|first\\=S. V. \\|title\\=Between Russia and Stalin: Russian Émigrés and World War II \\|publisher\\=Russian State Humanitarian University Publishing House \\|year\\=2004 \\|pages\\=223–225 \\|language\\=ru}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|237x237px\\|The RNNA in Asintorf, 1942\\.](/wiki/File:%D0%A0%D0%9D%D0%9D%D0%90_%D0%B2_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B5.jpg \"РННА в Осинторфе.jpg\")\nThe RNNA was formed in the village of {{Ill\\|Asintorf\\|be\\|Асінторф\\|ru\\|Осинторф}}, [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"), 35 kilometres north of [Orsha](/wiki/Orsha \"Orsha\"), the RNNA's headquarters. Ivanov was head of the unit, while [Igor Sakharov](/wiki/Igor_Sakharov \"Igor Sakharov\") was appointed as Ivanov's adjutant. [Constantine Kromiadi](/wiki/Constantine_Kromiadi \"Constantine Kromiadi\") was made commandant of the central headquarters.",
"Initially, the RNNA's leadership sought only to recruit anti\\-communists from the prisoners of war, but later began to accept everyone. In March 1942, the strength of the RNNA was 150 people, and by May had reached a size of 400\\. To increase the RNNA's appeal to prisoners of war, Ivanov proposed the appointment of a Soviet military commander who was \"well\\-known and respected among the military personnel\", offering the position to {{Ill\\|Mikhail Fyodorovich Lukin\\|ru\\|Лукин, Михаил Фёдорович}}. However, Lukin refused to join the RNNA.",
"In addition to combat training, dissemination of propaganda to personnel was carried out. The RNNA's leadership told soldiers that their task was, \"the fight against Bolshevism and Jewry for the creation of a new Russian state and the restoration of the pre\\-revolutionary system.\" According to information from Soviet partisans at the time, up to 40% of RNNA personnel believed this.",
"From the time they were first noticed, the RNNA became the object of close attention of the Soviet partisans. In the first period, contacts were limited to agitation, but partisans managed to get intelligence from those who served in the RNNA, as well as smuggling military equipment from the RNNA over to partisan lines.",
"The RNNA was beset by constant defections to Soviet partisans. In only a three\\-day period in August 1942, roughly 200 RNNA soldiers defected to Soviet partisans. Only the 3rd Battalion of the RNNA, located in [Byerazino](/wiki/Byerazino \"Byerazino\"), did not suffer from such issues.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kalinin \\|first\\=Piotr \\|title\\=The Participation of Soviet Soldiers in the Belarusian Partisan Movement \\|publisher\\=Military History Magazine \\|year\\=1962 \\|pages\\=32–34 \\|language\\=ru}}",
"On 1 September 1942, [Vladimir Boyarsky](/wiki/Vladimir_Boyarsky \"Vladimir Boyarsky\") was appointed head of the RNNA, and shortly after, the training of the 4th and 5th battalions of the RNNA began. However, only a month later, the organisation was taken over by the Germans directly, with Boyarsky and {{Ill\\|Georgy Zhilenkov\\|ru\\|Жиленков, Георгий Николаевич}}, head of the propaganda department of the RNNA, both being taken prisoner.",
"By 1943, the RNNA had ceased to exist. Its forces were transferred to the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_II%29 \"Western Front (World War II)\"). Following the creation of the [Russian Liberation Army](/wiki/Russian_Liberation_Army \"Russian Liberation Army\"), some personnel of the RNNA (among them Zhilenkov and Kromiadi) joined it.",
""
] |
Aspects of American life
------------------------
{{Main\|Culture of the United States\|Culture of the Southern United States\|Society of the United States}}
### Citizenship and immigration
The [Naturalization Act of 1790](/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790 "Naturalization Act of 1790") set the first uniform rules for the granting of [United States citizenship](/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States "Citizenship of the United States") by [naturalization](/wiki/Naturalization "Naturalization"), which limited naturalization to "free white person\[s],” thus, excluding [Native Americans](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States"), [indentured servants](/wiki/Indentured_servitude "Indentured servitude"), [slaves](/wiki/History_of_slavery "History of slavery"), [free Blacks](/wiki/Free_Negro "Free Negro") and later, excluding [Asians](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans") from citizenship. Citizenship and the lack of it profoundly impacted various legal and political rights, the most notable of which were [suffrage rights](/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States "Voting rights in the United States") at both the federal and state level, the right to hold certain government offices, [jury duty](/wiki/Jury_duty "Jury duty"), military service in the [United States Armed Forces](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces "United States Armed Forces"), as well as many other activities, besides access to [government assistance and services](/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States "Social programs in the United States"). The second [Militia Act of 1792](/wiki/Militia_Act_of_1792 "Militia Act of 1792") also provided for the [conscription](/wiki/Conscription "Conscription") of every "free able\-bodied white male citizen".[second Militia Act of 1792](/wiki/s:United_States_Statutes_at_Large/Volume_1/2nd_Congress/1st_Session/Chapter_33 "United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/2nd Congress/1st Session/Chapter 33") Tennessee's 1834 Constitution included a provision: "the free white men of this State have a right to Keep and bear arms for their common defense."{{cite web \|url\=http://cdm15138\.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/tfd/id/495/rec/2 \|title\=Tennessee Constitution, 1834 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2018}}
The [Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek](/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek "Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek"), made under the [Indian Removal Act](/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act "Indian Removal Act") of 1830, allowed those [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw "Choctaw") Indians who chose to remain in [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi "Mississippi") to gain recognition as U.S. citizens, the first major non\-European ethnic group to become entitled to U.S. citizenship.
Racial discrimination in naturalization and immigration continued despite the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") in the [Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") (ratified in 1868\). The Fourteenth Amendment overruled previous court decisions and gave U.S.\-born African Americans citizenship through [birthright citizenship](/wiki/Birthright_citizenship_in_the_United_States "Birthright citizenship in the United States").
The [Naturalization Act of 1870](/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870 "Naturalization Act of 1870") extended naturalization to Black persons but not to other non\-white persons and revoked the citizenship of naturalized Chinese Americans.{{Cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wouYAP1oKDsC\&pg\=PA31 \|title\=Forbidden Citizens: Chinese Exclusion and the U.S. Congress: A Legislative History\|publisher\=The Capitol Net \| isbn\=978\-1\-58733\-252\-4}} The law relied on coded language to exclude "aliens ineligible for citizenship,” which primarily applied to [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_American "Chinese American") and [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_American "Japanese American") immigrants.
Native Americans were granted citizenship in a piece\-meal manner, until the [Indian Citizenship Act of 1924](/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924 "Indian Citizenship Act of 1924"), which unilaterally bestowed blanket citizenship status on them, whether they belonged to a [federally recognized tribe](/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state "List of federally recognized tribes by state") or not, though by that date, two\-thirds of Native Americans had already become US citizens by various means. The Act was not retroactive, so, citizenship was not extended to Native Americans who were born before the effective date of the 1924 Act, nor was it extended to indigenous persons who were born outside the United States.
Further changes to racial eligibility for citizenship by naturalization were made after 1940, when eligibility was extended to "descendants of races indigenous to the [Western Hemisphere](/wiki/Western_Hemisphere "Western Hemisphere")," "Filipino persons or persons of Filipino descent," "Chinese persons or persons of Chinese descent," and "persons of races indigenous to India."{{cite journal \|last1\=Coulson \|first1\=Doug\|title\=British Imperialism, the Indian Independence Movement, and the Racial Eligibility Provisions of the Naturalization Act: United States v. Thind Revisited \|journal\=Georgetown Journal of Law \& Modern Critical Race Perspectives \|date\=2015\|issue\=7\|page\=2\|ssrn\=2610266}} The [Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952](/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952 "Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952"), now, prohibits racial and gender discrimination in naturalization.{{cite book \|last1\=Daniels\|first1\=Roger\|title\=Coming to America, A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life}}
During the period when only "white" people could be naturalized, many court decisions were required to define which ethnic groups were included in this term. These are known as the "[racial prerequisite cases](/wiki/Definitions_of_whiteness_in_the_United_States%23Racial_prerequisite_cases "Definitions of whiteness in the United States#Racial prerequisite cases"),” and they also informed subsequent legislation.{{cite book \|first\=Ian Haney \|last\=López \|date\=1 January 1996 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4g4WCgAAQBAJ \|title\=White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race \|location\=New York \|publisher\=New York University Press \|page\=242 \|isbn\=0\-8147\-5099\-0}}
### Voting
The [Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") (ratified in 1870\), explicitly prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, but delegated to Congress the responsibility for enforcement.
During the [Reconstruction era](/wiki/Reconstruction_era "Reconstruction era"), African Americans began to run for office and vote, but the [Compromise of 1877](/wiki/Compromise_of_1877 "Compromise of 1877") ended the era of strong federal enforcement of equal rights in the Southern states. White Southerners were prevented, by the Fifteenth Amendment, from explicitly denying the vote to Blacks by law, but they found other ways to [disenfranchise](/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era "Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era"). [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws "Jim Crow laws") that targeted African Americans, without mentioning race, included [poll taxes](/wiki/Poll_tax_%28United_States%29 "Poll tax (United States)"), [literacy](/wiki/Literacy_tests "Literacy tests") and comprehension tests for voters, residency and record\-keeping requirements, and [grandfather clauses](/wiki/Grandfather_clause "Grandfather clause") allowing White people to vote. [Black Codes](/wiki/Black_Codes_%28United_States%29 "Black Codes (United States)") criminalized minor offenses like unemployment (styled "vagrancy"), providing a pretext to deny voting rights. Extralegal violence was also used to terrorize and sometimes kill African Americans who attempted to register or to vote, often in the form of [lynching](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States "Lynching in the United States") and [cross burning](/wiki/Cross_burning "Cross burning"). These efforts to enforce white supremacy were very successful. For example, after 1890, less than 9,000 of Mississippi's 147,000 eligible African American voters were registered to vote, or about 6%. Louisiana went from 130,000 registered African American voters in 1896 to 1,342 in 1904 (about a 99% decrease).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.crf\-usa.org/black\-history\-month/a\-brief\-history\-of\-jim\-crow\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20210820075945/https://www.crf\-usa.org/black\-history\-month/a\-brief\-history\-of\-jim\-crow\|archive\-date\=2021\-08\-20\|quote\=In 1896, Louisiana had 130,334 registered black voters. Eight years later, only 1,342, 1 percent, could pass the state's new rules.\|title\=A Brief History of Jim Crow\|access\-date\=2022\-03\-12}}
Even Native Americans who gained citizenship under the 1924 Act were not guaranteed [voting rights](/wiki/Native_American_voting_rights "Native American voting rights") until 1948\. According to a survey by the [Department of Interior](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior "United States Department of the Interior"), seven states still refused to grant Indians voting rights in 1938\. Discrepancies between federal and state control provided loopholes in the Act's enforcement. States justified discrimination based on state statutes and constitutions. Three main arguments for Indian voting exclusion were Indian exemption from real estate taxes, maintenance of tribal affiliation and the notion that Indians were under guardianship, or lived on lands controlled by federal trusteeship.{{cite journal \|last\=Peterson \|first\=Helen L. \|date\=May 1957\|title\=American Indian Political Participation \|journal\=American Academy of Political and Social Science \|volume\=311\|issue\=1\|pages\=116–121 \|doi\=10\.1177/000271625731100113\|s2cid\=144617127 }}{{rp\|121}} By 1947, all states with large Indian populations, except [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona") and [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico "New Mexico"), had extended voting rights to Native Americans who qualified under the 1924 Act. Finally, in 1948, a judicial decision forced the remaining states to withdraw their prohibition on Indian voting.{{cite journal \|last\=Bruyneel \|first\=Kevin \|year\=2004 \|title\=Challenging American Boundaries: Indigenous People and the 'Gift' of U.S. Citizenship \|journal\=Studies in American Political Development \|volume\=18 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=30–43\|doi\=10\.1017/S0898588X04000021\|s2cid\=145698348 }}
The [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement") resulted in strong Congressional enforcement of the right to vote regardless of race, starting with the [Voting Rights Act of 1965](/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965 "Voting Rights Act of 1965"). Though this greatly enhanced the ability of racial minorities to vote and run for office in all areas of the country, concerns over racially discriminatory voting laws and administration persist. [Gerrymandering](/wiki/Gerrymandering "Gerrymandering") and [voter suppression](/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States "Voter suppression in the United States") efforts around the country, though mainly motivated by political considerations, often effectively disproportionately affect African Americans and other minorities. These include targeted [voter ID](/wiki/Voter_identification_laws "Voter identification laws") requirements, registration hurdles, restricting vote\-by\-mail, and making voting facilities physically inconvenient to access due to long distances, long lines, or short hours. The 2013 U.S. Supreme court decision *[Shelby County v. Holder](/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder "Shelby County v. Holder")* struck down the pre\-clearance provisions of the 1965 Act, making anti\-discrimination enforcement more difficult.
In 2016, one in 13 African Americans of voting age was disenfranchised, more than four times greater than that of non\-African Americans. Over 7\.4% of adult African Americans were disenfranchised compared to 1\.8% of non\-African Americans. [Felony disenfranchisement in Florida](/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement_in_Florida "Felony disenfranchisement in Florida") disqualifies over 10% of its citizens for life and over 23% of its African American citizens.{{cite web \|title\=6 Million Lost Voters: State\-Level Estimates of Felony Disenfranchisement, 2016 \|url\=https://felonvoting.procon.org/wp\-content/uploads/sites/48/sentencing\-project\-felony\-disenfranchisement\-2016\.pdf \|website\=ProCon.org \|publisher\=The Sentencing Project \|access\-date\=September 22, 2020}}
### Criminal justice system
{{Main\|Race and crime in the United States\|Race in the United States criminal justice system}}
{{See also\|Criminal justice reform in the United States\|Human rights in the United States\|Incarceration in the United States\|Police brutality in the United States\|Race and the war on drugs\|Racial bias in criminal news in the United States}}
[thumb\|Racial disparities in the share of prisoners, police officers, people shot by police, and judges in the United States in the late 2010s](/wiki/File:Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system%2C_late_2010s.png "Race disparities in US criminal justice system, late 2010s.png")
There are unique experiences and disparities in the United States, in regard to the policing and prosecuting of various races and ethnicities. There have been different outcomes for different racial groups in convicting and sentencing felons in the [United States criminal justice system](/wiki/United_States_criminal_justice_system "United States criminal justice system").United States. Dept. of Justice. 2008\. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Prison Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Justice.{{page needed\|date\=March 2021}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Bonczarfalse \|first1\=Thomas P. \|last2\=Beck \|first2\=Allen J. \|title\=Lifetime Likelihood of Going to State or Federal Prison \|journal\=National Institute of Justice Office of Justice Programs \|date\=March 1997 \|url\=https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/Llgsfp.pdf }} Experts and analysts have debated the relative importance of different factors that have led to these disparities.{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=JTiJK0D18OoC\&q\=percentage\+of\+blacks\+accused.\+percentage\+convicted.\+whites\&pg\=PA273 \|title\=America in black and white: one nation indivisible\|access\-date\=October 26, 2015 \|author\=Stephan Thernstrom \|author2\=Abigail Thernstrom \|year\=1999 \|page\=273 \|publisher\=Simon and Schuster \|isbn\=978\-0\-684\-84497\-8}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Bobo \|first1\=Lawrence D. \|last2\=Thompson \|first2\=Victor \|title\=Unfair by Design: The War on Drugs, Race, and the Legitimacy of the Criminal Justice System \|journal\=Social Research \|date\=2006 \|volume\=73 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=445–472 \|doi\=10\.1353/sor.2006\.0010 \|id\={{ProQuest\|209669497}} {{Gale\|A149908517}} {{Project MUSE\|527464}} \|jstor\=40971832 \|s2cid\=143149001 }}
Academic research indicates that the over\-representation of some racial minorities in the criminal justice system can, in part, be explained by socioeconomic factors, such as poverty, exposure to poor neighborhoods, poor access to public education, poor access to early childhood education, and exposure to harmful chemicals (such as [lead](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis "Lead–crime hypothesis")) and pollution.{{cite journal\|author\=Sampson, Robert J.\|date\=September 1987\|title\=Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption\|url\=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn\-3:HUL.InstRepos:3226953\|journal\=American Journal of Sociology\|volume\=93\|issue\=2\|pages\=348–382\|doi\=10\.1086/228748\|jstor\=2779588\|s2cid\=144729803}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Sampson\|first1\=Robert J.\|last2\=Morenoff\|first2\=Jeffrey D.\|last3\=Raudenbush\|first3\=Stephen\|date\=February 2005\|title\=Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence\|journal\=American Journal of Public Health\|volume\=95\|issue\=2\|pages\=224–232\|doi\=10\.2105/AJPH.2004\.037705\|pmc\=1449156\|pmid\=15671454}}{{Cite web\|last\=Drum\|first\=Kevin\|title\=An updated lead\-crime roundup for 2018\|url\=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin\-drum/2018/02/an\-updated\-lead\-crime\-roundup\-for\-2018/\|access\-date\=February 20, 2021\|website\=Mother Jones\|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Shihadeh\|first1\=Edward S.\|last2\=Shrum\|first2\=Wesley\|date\=July 1, 2004\|title\=Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?\|journal\=Sociological Spectrum\|volume\=24\|issue\=4\|pages\=507–533\|doi\=10\.1080/02732170490459502\|issn\=0273\-2173\|s2cid\=145654909}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Brown\|first1\=Elizabeth\|last2\=Males\|first2\=Mike A.\|date\=Spring 2011 \|title\=Does Age or Poverty Level Best Predict Criminal Arrest and Homicide Rates? A Preliminary Investigation \|journal\=Justice Policy Journal \|volume\=8 \|issue\=1 \|url\=https://www.cjcj.org/media/import/documents/Does\_age.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605180135/https://www.cjcj.org/media/import/documents/Does\_age.pdf \|archive\-date\=2023\-06\-05 \|language\=en\|s2cid\=14751824}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Light\|first1\=Michael T.\|last2\=Ulmer\|first2\=Jeffery T.\|date\=April 1, 2016\|title\=Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality\|journal\=American Sociological Review\|language\=en\|volume\=81\|issue\=2\|pages\=290–315\|doi\=10\.1177/0003122416635667\|issn\=0003\-1224\|s2cid\=53346960}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Ulmer\|first1\=Jeffery T.\|last2\=Harris\|first2\=Casey T.\|last3\=Steffensmeier\|first3\=Darrell\|date\=2012\|title\=Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons\*\|url\= \|journal\=Social Science Quarterly\|language\=en\|volume\=93\|issue\=3\|pages\=799–819\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1540\-6237\.2012\.00868\.x\|issn\=1540\-6237\|pmc\=4097310\|pmid\=25035523}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Krivo\|first1\=Lauren J.\|last2\=Peterson\|first2\=Ruth D.\|date\=2000\|title\=The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process\|journal\=American Sociological Review\|volume\=65\|issue\=4\|pages\=547–559\|doi\=10\.2307/2657382\|issn\=0003\-1224\|jstor\=2657382\|s2cid\=144314971 }}{{Cite journal\|last\=Nevin\|first\=Rick\|date\=July 1, 2007\|title\=Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure\|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935107000503\|journal\=Environmental Research\|language\=en\|volume\=104\|issue\=3\|pages\=315–336\|bibcode\=2007ER....104\..315N\|doi\=10\.1016/j.envres.2007\.02\.008\|issn\=0013\-9351\|pmid\=17451672}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Boutwell\|first1\=Brian B.\|last2\=Nelson\|first2\=Erik J.\|last3\=Emo\|first3\=Brett\|last4\=Vaughn\|first4\=Michael G.\|last5\=Schootman\|first5\=Mario\|last6\=Rosenfeld\|first6\=Richard\|last7\=Lewis\|first7\=Roger\|date\=July 1, 2016\|title\=The intersection of aggregate\-level lead exposure and crime\|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935116301037\|journal\=Environmental Research\|language\=en\|volume\=148\|pages\=79–85\|bibcode\=2016ER....148\...79B\|doi\=10\.1016/j.envres.2016\.03\.023\|issn\=0013\-9351\|pmid\=27035924}} Racial [housing segregation](/wiki/Housing_segregation_in_the_United_States "Housing segregation in the United States") has also been linked to racial disparities in crime rates, as Blacks have, historically, and to the present, been prevented from moving into prosperous low\-crime areas, through actions of the government (such as [redlining](/wiki/Redlining "Redlining")) and private actors.{{Cite journal\|last\=Feldmeyer\|first\=Ben\|date\=September 1, 2010\|title\=The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide\|journal\=The Sociological Quarterly\|volume\=51\|issue\=4\|pages\=600–623\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1533\-8525\.2010\.01185\.x\|issn\=0038\-0253\|pmid\=20939127\|s2cid\=19551967}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=O'Flaherty\|first1\=Brendan\|last2\=Sethi\|first2\=Rajiv\|date\=November 1, 2007\|title\=Crime and segregation\|url\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268107001357\|journal\=Journal of Economic Behavior \& Organization\|language\=en\|volume\=64\|issue\=3\|pages\=391–405\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jebo.2006\.07\.005\|issn\=0167\-2681}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Shihadeh\|first1\=Edward S.\|last2\=Flynn\|first2\=Nicole\|date\=June 1, 1996\|title\=Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence\|url\=https://academic.oup.com/sf/article/74/4/1325/2233401\|journal\=Social Forces\|language\=en\|volume\=74\|issue\=4\|pages\=1325–1352\|doi\=10\.1093/sf/74\.4\.1325\|issn\=0037\-7732}} Various explanations, within [criminology](/wiki/Criminology "Criminology"), have been proposed for racial disparities in crime rates, including [conflict theory](/wiki/Conflict_theory "Conflict theory"), [strain theory](/wiki/Strain_theory_%28sociology%29 "Strain theory (sociology)"), [general strain theory](/wiki/General_strain_theory "General strain theory"), social disorganization theory, macrostructural opportunity theory, [social control theory](/wiki/Social_control_theory "Social control theory"), and [subcultural theory](/wiki/Subcultural_theory "Subcultural theory").
Research also indicates that there is extensive racial and ethnic discrimination by police and the judicial system.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hinton\|first1\=Elizabeth\|last2\=Cook\|first2\=DeAnza\|date\=2021\|title\=The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview\|journal\=Annual Review of Criminology\|language\=en\|volume\=4\|issue\=1\|pages\=annurev–criminol–060520\-033306\|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-criminol\-060520\-033306\|issn\=2572\-4568\|doi\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Thomas\|first1\=C.\|last2\=Nunez\|first2\=A.\|date\=2022\|title\=Automating Judicial Discretion: How Algorithmic Risk Assessments in Pretrial Adjudications Violate Equal Protection Rights on the Basis of Race\|journal\=\[\[Law \& Inequality]]\| language\=en\| volume\=40\| issue\=2 \|pages\=371–407\|url\=https://scholarship.law.umn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=1680\&context\=lawineq\|doi\=10\.24926/25730037\.649\|doi\-access\=free}}Gabbidon \& Greene (2005b:37\); Bowling (2006:140\). See also Sampson \& Wilson (2005:177–178\); Myrdal (1988:88\).{{Cite book\|last\=Engel\|first\=Robin S.\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RpfrAQAAQBAJ\|title\=The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2014\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-985901\-6\|editor\-last\=Bucerius\|editor\-first\=Sandra\|page\=147}}{{Citation\|last1\=Drakulich\|first1\=Kevin\|title\=Intentional Inequalities and Compounding Effects\|date\=June 22, 2018\|work\=The Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice\|pages\=17–38\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons, Inc.\|doi\=10\.1002/9781119113799\.ch1\|isbn\=978\-1\-119\-11379\-9\|last2\=Rodriguez\-Whitney\|first2\=Eric\|s2cid\=158214425}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hinton\|first1\=Elizabeth\|last2\=Cook\|first2\=DeAnza\|date\=June 29, 2020\|title\=The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview\|journal\=Annual Review of Criminology\|volume\=4\|issue\=1 \|pages\=261–286\|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-criminol\-060520\-033306\|issn\=2572\-4568\|doi\-access\=free}} A substantial academic literature has compared police searches (showing that contraband is found, at higher rates, in whites who are stopped), bail decisions (showing that whites with the same bail decision as Blacks commit more pre\-trial violations), and sentencing (showing that Blacks are more harshly sentenced by juries and judges than whites, when the underlying facts and circumstances of the cases are similar), providing valid causal inferences of racial discrimination.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Rehavi\|first1\=M. Marit\|last2\=Starr\|first2\=Sonja B.\|date\=2014\|title\=Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences\|url\=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=2413\&context\=articles\|journal\=Journal of Political Economy\|language\=en\|volume\=122\|issue\=6\|pages\=1320–1354\|doi\=10\.1086/677255\|issn\=0022\-3808\|s2cid\=3348344}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Arnold\|first1\=David\|last2\=Dobbie\|first2\=Will\|last3\=Yang\|first3\=Crystal S.\|year\=2018\|title\=Racial Bias in Bail Decisions\|journal\=The Quarterly Journal of Economics\|language\=en\|volume\=133\|issue\=4\|pages\=1885–1932\|doi\=10\.1093/qje/qjy012\|s2cid\=13703268}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Pierson\|first1\=Emma\|last2\=Simoiu\|first2\=Camelia\|last3\=Overgoor\|first3\=Jan\|last4\=Corbett\-Davies\|first4\=Sam\|last5\=Jenson\|first5\=Daniel\|last6\=Shoemaker\|first6\=Amy\|last7\=Ramachandran\|first7\=Vignesh\|last8\=Barghouty\|first8\=Phoebe\|last9\=Phillips\|first9\=Cheryl\|last10\=Shroff\|first10\=Ravi\|last11\=Goel\|first11\=Sharad\|date\=May 4, 2020\|title\=A large\-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States\|journal\=Nature Human Behaviour\|language\=en\|volume\=4\|issue\=7\|pages\=736–745\|doi\=10\.1038/s41562\-020\-0858\-1\|issn\=2397\-3374\|pmid\=32367028\|doi\-access\=free\|arxiv\=1706\.05678}}{{Cite web\|title\=Black men sentenced to more time for committing the exact same crime as a white person, study finds\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/wonk/wp/2017/11/16/black\-men\-sentenced\-to\-more\-time\-for\-committing\-the\-exact\-same\-crime\-as\-a\-white\-person\-study\-finds/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116220952/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/wonk/wp/2017/11/16/black\-men\-sentenced\-to\-more\-time\-for\-committing\-the\-exact\-same\-crime\-as\-a\-white\-person\-study\-finds/\|archive\-date\=November 16, 2017\|access\-date\=November 23, 2017\|website\=washingtonpost.com}} Studies have documented patterns of racial discrimination, as well as patterns of police brutality and disregard for the constitutional rights of African\-Americans, by police departments in various American cities, including [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department "Los Angeles Police Department"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department "New York City Police Department"), [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago_Police_Department "Chicago Police Department") and [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia_Police_Department "Philadelphia Police Department").{{Cite web\|last1\=Hanna\|first1\=Jason\|last2\=Park\|first2\=Madison\|title\=Chicago police use excessive force, DOJ finds\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/13/us/chicago\-police\-federal\-investigation/index.html\|access\-date\=January 13, 2017\|website\=CNN\|date\=January 13, 2017}}{{Cite book\|last\=Williams, Suzanne Ife.\|title\=Police brutality: case study of Philadelphia/Move\|oclc\=84480572}}{{Cite book\|last\=Balto\|first\=Simon\|title\=Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power\|date\=2019\|publisher\=University of North Carolina Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4696\-4959\-7\|doi\=10\.5149/northcarolina/9781469649597\.001\.0001\|s2cid\=242994510}}{{Cite book\|last\=Ralph\|first\=Laurence\|title\=The Torture Letters\|date\=2020\|publisher\=University of Chicago Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-65012\-8\|doi\=10\.7208/chicago/9780226650128\.001\.0001\|s2cid\=166340526}}{{Cite book\|last\=Felker\-Kantor\|first\=Max\|title\=Policing Los Angeles: Race, Resistance, and the Rise of the LAPD\|date\=2018\|publisher\=University of North Carolina Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4696\-4683\-1\|doi\=10\.5149/northcarolina/9781469646831\.001\.0001\|s2cid\=239813851}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Wertz\|first1\=Joseph\|last2\=Azrael\|first2\=Deborah\|last3\=Berrigan\|first3\=John\|last4\=Barber\|first4\=Catherine\|last5\=Nelson\|first5\=Eliot\|last6\=Hemenway\|first6\=David\|last7\=Salhi\|first7\=Carmel\|last8\=Miller\|first8\=Matthew\|date\=2020\-06\-01\|title\=A Typology of Civilians Shot and Killed by US Police: a Latent Class Analysis of Firearm Legal Intervention Homicide in the 2014–2015 National Violent Death Reporting System\|journal\=Journal of Urban Health\|language\=en\|volume\=97\|issue\=3\|pages\=317–328\|doi\=10\.1007/s11524\-020\-00430\-0\|issn\=1468\-2869\|pmc\=7305287\|pmid\=32212060}}
A report by the [National Registry of Exonerations](/wiki/National_Registry_of_Exonerations "National Registry of Exonerations") found that, as of August 2022, [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans") make up 13\.6% of the U.S. population but 53% of exonerations, and that they were seven times more likely to be falsely convicted, compared to White Americans.{{Cite report \|url\=https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Documents/Race%20Report%20Preview.pdf \|title\=Race and Wrongful Convictions in the United States \|last1\=Gross \|first1\=Samuel R. \|last2\=Possley \|first2\=Maurice \|date\=September 2022 \|publisher\=\[\[National Registry of Exonerations]] \|last3\=Otterbourg \|first3\=Ken \|last4\=Stephens \|first4\=Clara \|last5\=Weinstock Paredes \|first5\=Jessica \|last6\=O'Brien \|first6\=Barbara \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-29}}
### Education
{{See also\|Discrimination in education\#United States\|School segregation in the United States\|School integration in the United States}}
In 1954, *[Brown vs. the Board of Education](/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education "Brown v. Board of Education")* ruled that [integrated](/wiki/Desegregation "Desegregation"), equal schools be accessible to all children, unbiased to skin color. Currently, in the United States, not all state funded schools are equally funded. Schools are funded by the "federal, state, and local governments,” while "states play a large and increasing role in education funding."{{Cite news\|title\=School Finance – EdCentral\|language\=en\|newspaper\=EdCentral\|url\=http://www.edcentral.org/edcyclopedia/school\-finance/\|access\-date\=December 2, 2016}} "[Property taxes](/wiki/Property_tax "Property tax") support most of the funding that local government provides for education." Schools located in lower income areas receive a lower level of funding, and schools located in higher income areas receiving greater funding for education, all based on property taxes. The [U.S. Department of Education](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education "United States Department of Education") reports that "many high\-poverty schools receive less than their fair share of state and local funding, leaving students in high\-poverty schools with fewer resources than schools attended by their wealthier peers."{{Cite web\|title\=More Than 40% of Low\-Income Schools Don't Get a Fair Share of State and Local Funds, Department of Education Research Finds \|website\=U.S. Department of Education\|url\=http://www.ed.gov/news/press\-releases/more\-40\-low\-income\-schools\-dont\-get\-fair\-share\-state\-and\-local\-funds\-department\-\|access\-date\=December 2, 2016}} The U.S. Department of Education also reports this fact affects "more than 40% of low\-income schools." Children of color are much more likely to suffer from poverty than white children.
The phrase "brown paper bag test," also known as a [paper bag party](/wiki/Paper_bag_party "Paper bag party"), along with the "ruler test" refers to a ritual once practiced by certain African\-American sororities and fraternities who would not let anyone into the group whose skin tone was darker than a paper bag.Kerr, A. E. (2006\). The paper bag principle: Class, colorism, and rumor in the case of black Washington, DC. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. [Spike Lee](/wiki/Spike_Lee "Spike Lee")'s film, *[School Daze](/wiki/School_Daze "School Daze"),* satirized this practice at historically Black colleges and universities.Spike Lee, "School Daze," 40 Acres \& A Mule Filmworks, Columbia Pictures Corporation Along with the "paper bag test," guidelines for acceptance among the lighter ranks included the "comb test" and "pencil test," which tested the coarseness of one's hair, and the "flashlight test," which tested a person's profile to make sure their features measured up or were close enough to those of the Caucasian race.
#### Curriculum
{{See also\|White supremacy in U.S. school curriculum}}
The curriculum in U.S. schools has also contained racism against non\-white Americans, including Native Americans, [Black Americans](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans"), [Mexican Americans](/wiki/Mexican_Americans "Mexican Americans"), and Asian Americans. Particularly, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, school textbooks and other teaching materials emphasized the biological and social inferiority of Black Americans, consistently portraying Black people as simple, irresponsible, and oftentimes, in situations of suffering that were implied to be their fault (and not the effects of slavery and other oppression).Elson, Ruth Miller (1964\). *Guardians of Tradition: American Schoolbooks of the Nineteenth Century*. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.Au, Wayne, 1972–. Reclaiming the multicultural roots of U.S. curriculum : communities of color and official knowledge in education. Brown, Anthony Lamar, Aramoni Calderón, Dolores,, Banks, James A. New York. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8077\-5678\-2}}. {{OCLC\|951742385}}. Black Americans were also depicted as expendable and their suffering as commonplace, as evidenced by a poem about "Ten Little Nigger Boys" dying off, one\-by\-one, that was circulated as a children's counting exercise from 1875 to the mid\-1900s. Historian [Carter G. Woodson](/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson "Carter G. Woodson") analyzed American curriculum as completely lacking any mention of Black Americans' merits in the early 20th century. Based on his observations of the time, he wrote that American students, including Black students who went through U.S. schooling, would come out believing that Black people had no significant history and had contributed nothing to human civilization.Woodson, Carter G. (Carter Godwin) (1993\). *The mis\-education of the Negro*. Internet Archive. Trenton, NJ: AfricaWorld Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-86543\-171\-3}}{{page needed\|date\=December 2022}}
School curriculum, often, implicitly and explicitly upheld white people as the superior race and marginalized the contributions and perspectives of non\-white peoples, as if they were (or are) not as important.Mills, Charles W. (1994\). "REVISIONIST ONTOLOGIES: THEORIZING WHITE SUPREMACY". Social and Economic Studies. 43 (3\): 105–134\. ISSN 0037\-7651\. In the 19th century, a significant number of students were taught that [Adam and Eve](/wiki/Adam_and_Eve "Adam and Eve") were white, and the other races evolved from their various descendants, growing further and further away from the original white standard. In addition, whites were also fashioned as the capable caretakers of other races, namely Black and Native people, who could not take care of themselves. This concept was at odds with the violence white Americans had committed against indigenous and Black peoples, but it was coupled with soft language that, for example, defended these acts. Mills (1994\) cites the narrative about Europeans' "discovery" of a "[New World](/wiki/New_World "New World")," despite the people who already inhabited it and its subsequent "colonization,” instead of conquest, as examples. He maintains that these word choices constitute a cooptation of history by white people, who have used it to their advantage.
### Health
{{main\|Race and health in the United States}}
{{See also\|Medical Apartheid\|Medical racism in the United States\|Unethical human experimentation in the United States}}
A 2019 review of the literature in the *[Annual Review of Public health](/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Public_health "Annual Review of Public health")* found that [structural racism](/wiki/Institutional_racism "Institutional racism"), [cultural racism](/wiki/Cultural_racism "Cultural racism"), and individual\-level discrimination are "a fundamental cause of adverse health outcomes for racial/ethnic minorities and racial/ethnic inequities in health."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Williams\|first1\=David R.\|last2\=Lawrence\|first2\=Jourdyn A.\|last3\=Davis\|first3\=Brigette A.\|date\=2019\|title\=Racism and Health: Evidence and Needed Research\|journal\=Annual Review of Public Health\|volume\=40\|issue\=1\|pages\=105–125\|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-publhealth\-040218\-043750\| doi\-access\=free\|pmc\=6532402\|pmid\=30601726}}
Studies have argued that there are racial disparities in how the media and politicians act, when they are faced with cases of drug addiction in which the victims are primarily Black, rather than white, citing the examples of how society responded differently to the [crack epidemic](/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States "Crack epidemic in the United States") than the [opioid epidemic](/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States "Opioid epidemic in the United States").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Shachar\|first1\=Carmel\|last2\=Wise\|first2\=Tess\|last3\=Katznelson\|first3\=Gali\|last4\=Campbell\|first4\=Andrea Louise\|year\=2019\|title\=Criminal Justice or Public Health: A Comparison of the Representation of the Crack Cocaine and Opioid Epidemics in the Media\|journal\=Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law\|language\=en\|volume\=45\|issue\=2\|pages\=211–239\|doi\=10\.1215/03616878\-8004862\|pmid\=31808806\|doi\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Kim\|first1\=Jin Woo\|last2\=Morgan\|first2\=Evan\|last3\=Nyhan\|first3\=Brendan\|year\=2019\|title\=Treatment versus Punishment: Understanding Racial Inequalities in Drug Policy\|journal\=Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law\|language\=en\|volume\=45\|issue\=2\|pages\=177–209\|doi\=10\.1215/03616878\-8004850\|pmid\=31808796\|doi\-access\=free}}
There are major [racial differences in access to health care](/wiki/Race_and_health "Race and health") as well as major racial differences in the quality of the health care, which is provided to people. A study published in the *American Journal of Public Health* estimated that: "over 886,000 deaths could have been prevented, from 1991 to 2000, if African Americans had received the same quality of care as whites.” The key differences that they cited were lack of insurance, inadequate [insurance](/wiki/Health_insurance "Health insurance"), poor service, and reluctance to seek care.{{cite journal\|vauthors\=Woolf SH, Johnson RE, Fryer GE, Rust G, Satcher D\|date\=December 2004\|title\=The health impact of resolving racial disparities: an analysis of US mortality data\|journal\=Am J Public Health\|volume\=94\|issue\=12\|pages\=2078–2081\|doi\=10\.2105/AJPH.94\.12\.2078\|pmc\=1448594\|pmid\=15569956}} A history of government\-sponsored experimentation, such as the notorious [Tuskegee Syphilis Study](/wiki/Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study "Tuskegee Syphilis Study"), has left a legacy of African American distrust of the medical system."The History of Black 'Paranoia{{'"}}, ch. 3 of Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair, *Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs, and the Press*, London: Verso, 1998\.
Inequalities in health care may also reflect a [systemic bias](/wiki/Systemic_bias "Systemic bias") in the way in which medical procedures and treatments are prescribed to members of different ethnic groups. A [University of Edinburgh](/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh "University of Edinburgh") Professor of Public Health, Raj Bhopal, writes that the history of [racism in science](/wiki/Scientific_racism "Scientific racism") and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times, and he also warns of dangers that need to be avoided in the future.{{cite journal\|author\=Bhopal, R\|date\=June 1998\|title\=Spectre of racism in health and health care: lessons from history and the United States\|journal\=BMJ\|volume\=316\|issue\=7149\|pages\=1970–1973\|doi\=10\.1136/bmj.316\.7149\.1970\|pmc\=1113412\|pmid\=9641943}} Nancy Krieger, a [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard "Harvard") Professor of Social Epidemiology, contended that much modern research supported the assumptions which were needed to justify racism. She wrote that racism underlies unexplained inequities in health care, including treatments for [heart disease](/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease "Cardiovascular disease"),{{cite journal\|vauthors\=Oberman A, Cutter G\|date\=September 1984\|title\=Issues in the natural history and treatment of coronary heart disease in black populations: surgical treatment\|journal\=Am. Heart J.\|volume\=108\|issue\=3 Pt 2\|pages\=688–694\|doi\=10\.1016/0002\-8703(84\)90656\-2\|pmid\=6332513}} [renal failure](/wiki/Kidney_failure "Kidney failure"),{{cite journal\|author\=Kjellstrand CM\|date\=June 1988\|title\=Age, sex, and race inequality in renal transplantation\|journal\=Arch. Intern. Med.\|volume\=148\|issue\=6\|pages\=1305–1309\|doi\=10\.1001/archinte.1988\.00380060069016\|pmid\=3288159}} [bladder cancer](/wiki/Bladder_cancer "Bladder cancer"),{{cite journal\|vauthors\=Mayer WJ, McWhorter WP\|date\=June 1989\|title\=Black/white differences in non\-treatment of bladder cancer patients and implications for survival\|journal\=Am J Public Health\|volume\=79\|issue\=6\|pages\=772–775\|doi\=10\.2105/AJPH.79\.6\.772\|pmc\=1349641\|pmid\=2729474}} and [pneumonia](/wiki/Pneumonia "Pneumonia").{{cite journal\|vauthors\=Yergan J, Flood AB, LoGerfo JP, \[\[Paula Diehr\|Diehr P]]\|date\=July 1987\|title\=Relationship between patient race and the intensity of hospital services\|journal\=Med Care\|volume\=25\|issue\=7\|pages\=592–603\|doi\=10\.1097/00005650\-198707000\-00003\|pmid\=3695664\|s2cid\=11637921}} Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in various studies, and there are consistent findings that Black Americans receive less health care than white Americans—particularly where this involves expensive new technology.{{cite journal\|author1\=Council on Ethical Judicial Affairs\|date\=May 1990\|title\=Black\-white disparities in health care\|journal\=JAMA\|volume\=263\|issue\=17\|pages\=2344–2346\|doi\=10\.1001/jama.263\.17\.2344\|pmid\=2182918}} The University of Michigan Health study found, in 2010, that black patients in pain clinics received 50% of the amount of drugs that other patients who were white received.{{Cite news\|title\=4 Ways Racism in Health Care Is Still a Problem Today\|work\=ThoughtCo\|url\=https://www.thoughtco.com/racism\-in\-health\-care\-still\-a\-problem\-2834530\|access\-date\=May 12, 2018}} Black pain in medicine links to the racial disparities between pain management and racial bias on behalf of the health professional. In 2011, Vermont organizers took a proactive stand against racism in their communities to defeat the biopolitical struggles faced on a daily basis. The first and only universal health care law was passed in the state.{{Cite web\|last\=Saloman\|first\=Larry\|date\=June 2014\|title\=Timeline of Race, Racism, Resistance and Philanthropy 1992–2014\|url\=http://racialequity.org/docs/CIF5Timeline.pdf\|website\=Racial Equity}}
Two local governments in the US have issued declarations, stating that racism constitutes a [public health emergency](/wiki/Public_health_emergency_%28United_States%29 "Public health emergency (United States)"): the [Milwaukee County, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee_County%2C_Wisconsin "Milwaukee County, Wisconsin") executive in May 2019, and the [Cleveland City Council](/wiki/Cleveland_City_Council "Cleveland City Council"), in June 2020\.{{Cite web\|last\=Dirr\|first\=Alison\|title\=Milwaukee County executive signs resolution declaring racism a public health crisis\|url\=https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/local/milwaukee/2019/05/20/abele\-signs\-resolution\-declaring\-racism\-public\-health\-crisis/3741809002/\|access\-date\=June 28, 2020\|website\=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel\|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web\|last\=Goist\|first\=Robin\|date\=June 28, 2020\|title\=What happens after declaring racism a public health crisis? A Wisconsin county offers a clue\|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2020/06/what\-happens\-after\-a\-city\-or\-county\-declares\-racism\-a\-public\-health\-crisis\-a\-wisconsin\-county\-offers\-a\-clue.html\|access\-date\=June 28, 2020\|website\=Cleveland.com\|language\=en}}
### Housing and land
{{main\|Housing discrimination in the United States}}
A 2014 meta\-analysis found extensive evidence of racial discrimination in the American housing market. Minority applicants for housing needed to make many more inquiries to view properties. Geographical steering of African Americans in US housing remains significant. A 2003 study found "evidence that agents interpret an initial housing request as an indication of a customer's preferences, but also are more likely to withhold a house from all customers when it is in an integrated suburban neighborhood ([redlining](/wiki/Redlining "Redlining")). Moreover, agents' marketing efforts increase with asking price for white, but not for black, customers; blacks are more likely than whites to see houses in suburban, integrated areas ([steering](/wiki/Racial_steering "Racial steering")); and the houses agents show are more likely to deviate from the initial request when the customer is black than when the customer is white. These three findings are consistent with the possibility that agents act upon the belief that some types of transactions are relatively unlikely for black customers (statistical discrimination)."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Ondrich\|first1\=Jan\|last2\=Ross\|first2\=Stephen\|last3\=Yinger\|first3\=John\|date\=November 1, 2003\|title\=Now You See It, Now You Don't: Why Do Real Estate Agents Withhold Available Houses from Black Customers?\|url\=http://web2\.uconn.edu/economics/working/2001\-01\.pdf\|journal\=Review of Economics and Statistics\|volume\=85\|issue\=4\|pages\=854–873\|doi\=10\.1162/003465303772815772\|s2cid\=8524510}} Historically, there was extensive and long\-lasting racial discrimination against African Americans in the housing and mortgage markets in the United States,{{Cite web\|last1\=Sander\|first1\=Richard H.\|last2\=Kucheva\|first2\=Yana A.\|last3\=Zasloff\|first3\=Jonathan M.\|date\=2018\|title\=Moving toward Integration\|url\=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn\=9780674976535\|publisher\=Harvard University Press\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|last\=Taylor\|first\=Keeanga\-Yamahtta\|title\=Race for Profit\|url\=https://uncpress.org/book/9781469653662/race\-for\-profit\|access\-date\=November 3, 2019\|website\=University of North Carolina Press\|language\=en\-US}} as well as discrimination against Black farmers whose numbers massively declined in post\-WWII America due to anti\-Black local and federal policies.{{Cite news\|last\=Newkirk II\|first\=Vann R.\|date\=2019\|title\=The Great Land Robbery\|work\=The Atlantic\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/09/this\-land\-was\-our\-land/594742/\|access\-date\=August 12, 2019\|issn\=1072\-7825}} According to a 2019 analysis by University of Pittsburgh economists, Blacks faced a two\-fold penalty due to the racially segregated housing market: rental prices increased in blocks when they underwent racial transition whereas home values declined in neighborhoods that Blacks moved into.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Akbar\|first1\=Prottoy A\|last2\=Li\|first2\=Sijie\|last3\=Shertzer\|first3\=Allison\|last4\=Walsh\|first4\=Randall P\|date\=2019\|title\=Racial Segregation in Housing Markets and the Erosion of Black Wealth \|url\=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25805\|website\=National Bureau of Economic Research\|series\=Working Paper Series \|doi\=10\.3386/w25805\|s2cid\=159270884}}
A 2017 paper by Troesken and Walsh found that pre\-20th century cities "created and sustained residential segregation through private norms and vigilante activity." However, "when these private arrangements began to break down during the early 1900s" whites started "lobbying municipal governments for segregation ordinances." As a result, cities passed ordinances which "prohibited members of the majority racial group on a given city block from selling or renting property to members of another racial group" between 1909 and 1917\.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Walsh\|first1\=Randall\|last2\=Troesken\|first2\=Werner\|year\=2019\|title\=Collective Action, White Flight, and the Origins of Racial Zoning Laws\|journal\=The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization\|language\=en\|volume\=35\|issue\=2\|pages\=289–318\|doi\=10\.1093/jleo/ewz006\|hdl\=10\.1093/jleo/ewz006\|hdl\-access\=free}}
A 2017 study by Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago economists found that the practice of [redlining](/wiki/Redlining "Redlining")—the practice whereby banks discriminated against the inhabitants of certain neighborhoods—had a persistent adverse impact on the neighborhoods, with redlining affecting homeownership rates, home values and credit scores in 2010\.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Aaronson\|first1\=Daniel\|last2\=Hartley\|first2\=Daniel A.\|last3\=Mazumder\|first3\=Bhashkar\|date\=September 2017\|title\=The Effects of the 1930s HOLC 'Redlining' Maps\|journal\=FRB of Chicago Working Paper No. WP\-2017\-12\|ssrn\=3038733}}{{Cite news\|last\=Badger\|first\=Emily\|date\=August 24, 2017\|title\=How Redlining's Racist Effects Lasted for Decades\|language\=en\|work\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/24/upshot/how\-redlinings\-racist\-effects\-lasted\-for\-decades.html\|access\-date\=August 26, 2017\|issn\=0362\-4331}} Since many African Americans could not access conventional home loans, they had to turn to predatory lenders (who charged high interest rates). Due to lower homeownership rates, slumlords were able to rent out apartments that would otherwise be owned. A 2019 analysis estimated that predatory housing contracts targeting African Americans in Chicago in the 1950s and 1960s cost Black families between $3 billion and $4 billion in wealth.{{Cite web\|last\=Moore\|first\=Natalie\|title\=Contract Buying Robbed Black Families In Chicago Of Billions\|url\=https://www.wbez.org/shows/wbez\-news/contract\-buying\-robbed\-black\-families\-in\-chicago\-of\-billions/d643ea19\-2977\-43d7\-81c7\-1d7a568c5c81\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20190605221042/https://www.wbez.org/shows/wbez\-news/contract\-buying\-robbed\-black\-families\-in\-chicago\-of\-billions/d643ea19\-2977\-43d7\-81c7\-1d7a568c5c81\|archive\-date\=2019\-06\-05\|access\-date\=June 5, 2019\|website\=WBEZ\|date\=May 30, 2019\|language\=en}}
### Labor market
{{main\|Employment discrimination\|Occupational segregation}}
Several meta\-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the American labor market.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Zschirnt\|first1\=Eva\|last2\=Ruedin\|first2\=Didier\|date\=May 27, 2016\|title\=Ethnic discrimination in hiring decisions: a meta\-analysis of correspondence tests 1990–2015\|url\=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/142176/1/Zschirnt%20Ruedin%202016%20Meta%20Pre\-Print.pdf\|journal\=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies\|volume\=42\|issue\=7\|pages\=1115–1134\|doi\=10\.1080/1369183X.2015\.1133279\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104035433/https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/142176/1/Zschirnt%20Ruedin%202016%20Meta%20Pre\-Print.pdf\|archive\-date\=November 4, 2018\|access\-date\=May 16, 2018\|hdl\=10419/142176\|s2cid\=10261744}}{{Cite journal\|author1\=P. A. Riach\|author2\=J. Rich\|date\=November 2002\|title\=Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place\|url\=http://s3\.amazonaws.com/fieldexperiments\-papers2/papers/00328\.pdf\|journal\=The Economic Journal\|volume\=112\|issue\=483\|pages\=F480–F518\|doi\=10\.1111/1468\-0297\.00080\|s2cid\=19024888}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hexel\|first1\=Ole\|last2\=Fleischmann\|first2\=Fenella\|last3\=Midtbøen\|first3\=Arnfinn H.\|last4\=Pager\|first4\=Devah\|last5\=Heath\|first5\=Anthony\|last6\=Quillian\|first6\=Lincoln\|date\=June 17, 2019\|title\=Do Some Countries Discriminate More than Others? Evidence from 97 Field Experiments of Racial Discrimination in Hiring\|journal\=Sociological Science\|language\=en\-US\|volume\=6\|pages\=467–496\|doi\=10\.15195/v6\.a18\|issn\=2330\-6696\|doi\-access\=free\|hdl\=11250/2606818\|hdl\-access\=free}} A 2017 meta\-analysis found "no change in the levels of discrimination against African Americans since 1989, although we do find some indication of declining discrimination against Latinos."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Quillian\|first1\=Lincoln\|last2\=Pager\|first2\=Devah\|last3\=Hexel\|first3\=Ole\|last4\=Midtbøen\|first4\=Arnfinn H.\|date\=September 12, 2017\|title\=Meta\-analysis of field experiments shows no change in racial discrimination in hiring over time\|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\|language\=en\|volume\=114\|issue\=41\|pages\=10870–10875\|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.1706255114\|issn\=0027\-8424\|pmc\=5642692\|pmid\=28900012\|bibcode\=2017PNAS..11410870Q \|doi\-access\=free}} A 2016 meta\-analysis of 738 correspondence tests – tests where identical CVs for stereotypically Black and white names were sent to employers – in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North America. These correspondence tests showed that equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bertrand\|first1\=Marianne\|last2\=Mullainathan\|first2\=Sendhil\|year\=2004\|title\=Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination\|url\=http://s3\.amazonaws.com/fieldexperiments\-papers2/papers/00216\.pdf\|journal\=American Economic Review\|volume\=94\|issue\=4\|pages\=991–1013\|doi\=10\.1257/0002828042002561}} A study which examined the job applications of actual people who were provided with identical résumés and similar interview training showed that African\-American applicants with no criminal record were offered jobs at a rate as low as white applicants who had criminal records.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Pager\|first1\=Devah\|last2\=Western\|first2\=Bruce\|last3\=Bonikowski\|first3\=Bart\|date\=October 1, 2009\|title\=Discrimination in a Low\-Wage Labor Market A Field Experiment\|journal\=American Sociological Review\|language\=en\|volume\=74\|issue\=5\|pages\=777–799\|doi\=10\.1177/000312240907400505\|pmc\=2915472\|pmid\=20689685}} A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found evidence of racial bias in how CVs were evaluated.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Lahey\|first1\=Joanna N\|last2\=Oxley\|first2\=Douglas R\|date\=2018\|title\=Discrimination at the Intersection of Age, Race, and Gender: Evidence from a Lab\-in\-the\-field Experiment\|series\=Working Paper Series \|website\=National Bureau of Economic Research \|url\=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25357\|doi\=10\.3386/w25357\|s2cid\=38242869}} A 2020 study revealed that discrimination not only exists against minorities in callback rates in audit studies, it also increases in severity after the callbacks in terms of job offers.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Quillian\|first1\=Lincoln\|last2\=Lee\|first2\=John J.\|last3\=Oliver\|first3\=Mariana\|year\=2020\|title\=Evidence from Field Experiments in Hiring Shows Substantial Additional Racial Discrimination after the Callback\|journal\=Social Forces\|volume\=99\|issue\=2\|pages\=732–759\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1093/sf/soaa026\|doi\-access\=free}}
Research suggests that light\-skinned African American women have higher salaries and greater job satisfaction than dark\-skinned women.{{cite journal\|last1\=Hunter\|first1\=Margaret\|year\=2002\|title\='If You're Light You're Alright': Light Skin Color as Social Capital for Women of Color\|journal\=Gender and Society\|volume\=16\|issue\=2\|pages\=175–193\|doi\=10\.1177/08912430222104895\|s2cid\=145727411}} Being "too black" has recently been acknowledged by the U.S. Federal courts in an employment discrimination case under Title VII of the [Civil Rights Act of 1964](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964 "Civil Rights Act of 1964"). In *Etienne v. Spanish Lake Truck \& Casino Plaza, LLC* the [United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit"), determined that an employee who was told on several occasions that her manager thought she was "too black" to do various tasks, found that the issue of the employee's skin color, rather than race, itself, played a key role in an employer's decision to keep the employee from advancing.{{cite journal\|last1\=Riddle\|first1\=Benjamin L.\|date\=February 25, 2015\|title\="Too Black": Waitress's Claim of Color Bias Raises Novel Title VII Claim\|url\=http://www.natlawreview.com/article/too\-black\-waitress\-s\-claim\-color\-bias\-raises\-novel\-title\-vii\-claim\|journal\=The National Law Review\|access\-date\=February 28, 2015}} A 2018 study uncovered evidence which suggests that immigrants with darker skin colors are discriminated against.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hersch\|first1\=Joni\|date\=2018\|title\=Colorism Against Legal Immigrants to the United States\|journal\=American Behavioral Scientist\|language\=en\|volume\=62\|issue\=14\|pages\=2117–2132\|doi\=10\.1177/0002764218810758\|s2cid\=150280312}}
### Media
{{See also\|Cyber racism\|Racial bias in criminal news in the United States\|Racial stereotyping in advertising\|Representation of African Americans in media}}
A 2017 report by Travis L. Dixon (of the University of Illinois at Urbana\-Champaign) found that major media outlets tended to portray Black families as dysfunctional and dependent, while white families were portrayed as stable. These portrayals may suggest that poverty and welfare are primarily Black issues. According to Dixon, this can reduce public support for social safety programs and lead to stricter welfare requirements.{{Cite news\|last\=Jan\|first\=Tracy\|date\=December 13, 2017\|title\=News media offers consistently warped portrayals of black families, study finds\|language\=en\-US\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/12/13/news\-media\-offers\-consistently\-warped\-portrayals\-of\-black\-families\-study\-finds/\|access\-date\=December 14, 2017\|issn\=0190\-8286}}{{Cite news\|title\=Report: A Dangerous Distortion of our Families\|url\=https://colorofchange.org/dangerousdistortion/\|access\-date\=December 14, 2017}}
African Americans who possess a lighter skin complexion and "European features," such as lighter eyes, and smaller noses and lips have more opportunities in the media industry. For example, film producers hire lighter\-skinned African Americans more often, television producers choose lighter\-skinned cast members, and magazine editors choose African American models that resemble European features.{{cite journal\|last1\=Woodard\|first1\=K\|year\=2000\|title\=Traumatic Shame: Toni Morrison, Televisual Culture, and the Cultural Politics of the Emotions\|journal\=Cultural Critique\|volume\=46\|issue\=1\|pages\=210–240\|doi\=10\.2307/1354414\|jstor\=1354414}} A content analysis conducted by Scott and Neptune (1997\) shows that less than one percent of advertisements in major magazines featured African American models. When African Americans did appear in advertisements, they were mainly portrayed as athletes, entertainers, or unskilled laborers. In addition, seventy percent of the advertisements that feature animal print included African American women. Animal print reinforces the stereotypes that African Americans are animalistic in nature, sexually active, less educated, have lower income, and extremely concerned with personal appearances.{{cite journal\|last1\=Pious\|first1\=Scott\|last2\=Neptune\|first2\=Dominique\|year\=1997\|title\=Racial and Gender Biases in Magazine Advertising: A Content\-Analytic Study\|journal\=Psychology of Women Quarterly\|volume\=21\|issue\=4\|pages\=627–644\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1471\-6402\.1997\.tb00135\.x\|s2cid\=12155745}} Concerning African American males in the media, darker\-skinned men are more likely to be portrayed as violent or more threatening, influencing the public perception of African American men. Since dark\-skinned males are more likely to be linked to crime and misconduct, many people develop preconceived notions about the characteristics of Black men.{{cite journal\|last1\=Hall\|first1\=R\|year\=1995\|title\=The bleaching syndrome: African American's response to cultural domination vis\-A\-vis skin color\|journal\=Journal of Black Studies\|volume\=26\|issue\=2\|pages\=172–184\|doi\=10\.1177/002193479502600205\|s2cid\=143934823}}
During and after slavery, minstrel shows were a very popular form of theater that involved white and Black people in [Blackface](/wiki/Blackface "Blackface"), portraying Black people while doing demeaning things. The actors painted their faces with Black paint and overlined their lips with bright red lipstick, to exaggerate and make fun of Black people.{{Cite web\|title\=The Minstrel Show\|url\=http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/jackson/minstrel/minstrel.html\|access\-date\=November 14, 2017\|website\=chnm.gmu.edu\|archive\-date\=November 28, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128092832/http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/jackson/minstrel/minstrel.html}} When minstrel shows died out and television became popular, Black actors were rarely hired, and when they were, they had very specific roles. These roles included being servants, slaves, idiots, and criminals.{{Cite journal\|last\=Punyanunt\|first\=Narissa\|title\=The Perceived Realism of African American Portrayals on Television\|journal\=The Howard Journal of Communications}}
### Politics
{{See also\|Identity politics\|Radical right (United States)\|Criticism of welfare}}
Politically, the "[winner\-takes\-all](/wiki/Winner-takes-all_voting "Winner-takes-all voting")" structure of the [electoral college](/wiki/United_States_electoral_college "United States electoral college") benefits white representation.{{Cite book\|last\=Deric.\|first\=Shannon\|title\=Political sociology: oppression, resistance, and the state\|date\=2011\|publisher\=Sage \|isbn\=978\-1\-4129\-8040\-1\|oclc\=815880812}} This has been described as structural bias and often leads voters of color to feel [politically alienated](/wiki/Political_alienation "Political alienation") and therefore, not to vote. The lack of representation in Congress has also led to lower voter turnout. As of 2016, African Americans only made up 8\.7% of Congress, and Latinos 7%.{{Cite journal\|last\=Manning\|first\=Jennifer\|year\=2016\|title\=Membership of the 114th Congress: A Profile\|url\=https://www.senate.gov/CRSpubs/c527ba93\-dd4a\-4ad6\-b79d\-b1c9865ca076\.pdf\|journal\=Congressional Research Service}}
[Voter ID laws](/wiki/Voter_ID_laws_in_the_United_States "Voter ID laws in the United States") have brought on accusations of racial discrimination. In a 2014 review by the [Government Accountability Office](/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office "Government Accountability Office") of the academic literature, three studies out of five found that voter ID laws reduced minority turnout, whereas two studies found no significant impact. Disparate impact may also be reflected in access to information about voter ID laws. A 2015 experimental study found that election officials queried about voter ID laws are more likely to respond to emails from a non\-Latino white name (70\.5% response rate) than a Latino name (64\.8% response rate), though response accuracy was similar, across groups.{{Cite journal\|last1\=White\|first1\=Ariel R.\|last2\=Nathan\|first2\=Noah L.\|last3\=Faller\|first3\=Julie K.\|date\=February 1, 2015\|title\=What Do I Need to Vote? Bureaucratic Discretion and Discrimination by Local Election Officials\|journal\=American Political Science Review\|volume\=109\|issue\=1\|pages\=129–142\|doi\=10\.1017/S0003055414000562\|s2cid\=145471717}} Studies have also analyzed racial differences in ID requests rates. A 2012 study in the city of Boston found that Black and Hispanic voters were more likely to be asked for ID, during the 2008 election. According to exit polls, 23% of whites, 33% of Blacks, and 38% of Hispanics were asked for ID, though this effect is partially attributed to Black and Hispanics preferring non\-peak voting hours, when election officials inspected a greater portion of IDs. Precinct differences also confound the data as Black and Hispanic voters tended to vote at Black and Hispanic\-majority precincts.{{Cite news\|last1\=Cobb\|first1\=Rachael V.\|last2\=Greiner\|last3\=James\|first3\=D.\|last4\=Quinn\|first4\=Kevin M.\|date\=June 14, 2010\|title\=Can Voter ID Laws Be Administered in a Race\-Neutral Manner? Evidence from the City of Boston in 2008\|ssrn\=1625041}} A 2015 study found that turnout, among Blacks in Georgia, was generally higher, since the state began enforcing its strict voter ID law.{{cite journal\|last1\=Gillespie\|first1\=June Andra\|year\=2015\|title\=Voter Identification and Black Voter Turnout An Examination of Black Voter Turnout Patterns in Georgia, 2000–2014\|journal\=Phylon\|volume\=52\|issue\=2\|pages\=43–67\|jstor\=43681953}} A 2016 study by [University of California, San Diego](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_San_Diego "University of California, San Diego") researchers found that voter ID laws "have a differentially negative impact on the turnout of Hispanics, Blacks, and mixed\-race Americans in primaries and general elections."{{cite web\|author\=Hajnal, Zoltan\|display\-authors\=etal\|date\=2016\|title\=Voter Identification Laws and the Suppression of Minority Votes\|url\=http://pages.ucsd.edu/\~zhajnal/page5/documents/voterIDhajnaletal.pdf\|access\-date\=March 29, 2016}}
Research by University of Oxford economist Evan Soltas and Stanford political scientist David Broockman suggests that voters act upon racially discriminatory tastes.{{Cite news\|last1\=Soltas\|first1\=Evan\|last2\=Broockman\|first2\=David E.\|date\=February 23, 2017\|title\=Taste\-Based Discrimination Against Nonwhite Political Candidates: Evidence from a Natural Experiment\|ssrn\=2920729}} A 2018 study in *[Public Opinion Quarterly](/wiki/Public_Opinion_Quarterly "Public Opinion Quarterly")* found that whites, in particular those who had racial resentment, largely attributed Obama's success among African\-Americans to his race and not his characteristics as a candidate and the political preferences of African\-Americans.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Wilson\|first1\=David C.\|last2\=Davis\|first2\=Darren W.\|year\=2018\|title\=The Racial Double Standardattributing Racial Motivations in Voting Behavior\|journal\=Public Opinion Quarterly\|language\=en\|volume\=82\|issue\=1 \|pages\=63–86\|doi\=10\.1093/poq/nfx050}} A 2018 study in the journal *[American Politics Research](/wiki/American_Politics_Research "American Politics Research")* found that white voters tended to misperceive political candidates from racial minorities as being more ideologically extreme than objective indicators would suggest; this adversely affected the electoral chances for those candidates.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Fulton\|first1\=Sarah A\|last2\=Gershon\|first2\=Sarah Allen\|date\=2018\|title\=Too Liberal to Win? Race and Voter Perceptions of Candidate Ideology\|journal\=American Politics Research\|volume\=46\|issue\=5\|pages\=909–939\|doi\=10\.1177/1532673X18759642\|s2cid\=158113285}} A 2018 study in the *[Journal of Politics](/wiki/The_Journal_of_Politics "The Journal of Politics")* found that "when a white candidate makes vague statements, many \[nonblack] voters project their own policy positions onto the candidate, increasing support for the candidate. But they are less likely to extend black candidates the same courtesy... In fact, black male candidates who make ambiguous statements are actually punished for doing so by racially prejudiced voters."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Piston\|first1\=Spencer\|last2\=Krupnikov\|first2\=Yanna\|last3\=Milita\|first3\=Kerri\|last4\=Ryan\|first4\=John Barry\|date\=March 1, 2018\|title\=Clear as Black and White: The Effects of Ambiguous Rhetoric Depend on Candidate Race\|journal\=The Journal of Politics\|volume\=80\|issue\=2\|pages\=662–674\|doi\=10\.1086/696619\|issn\=0022\-3816\|hdl\=2144/31470\|s2cid\=148940141\|hdl\-access\=free}}
It is argued that the racial coding of concepts, like crime and welfare, has been used to strategically influence public political views. Racial coding is implicit; it incorporates racially primed language or imagery to allude to racial attitudes and thinking. For example, in the context of domestic policy, it is argued that [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") implied that linkages existed between concepts like "special interests" and "[big government](/wiki/Big_government "Big government")" and ill\-perceived minority groups in the 1980s, using the conditioned negativity which existed toward the minority groups to discredit certain policies and programs during campaigns. In a study which analyzes how political ads prime attitudes, Valentino compares the voting responses of participants after they are exposed to the narration of a George W. Bush advertisement which is paired with three different types of visuals which contain different embedded racial cues to create three conditions: neutral, race comparison, and undeserving Blacks. For example, as the narrator states "Democrats want to spend your tax dollars on wasteful government programs,” the video shows an image of a Black woman and her child in an office setting. Valentino found that the undeserving Blacks condition produced the largest primed effect in racialized policies, like opposition to [affirmative action](/wiki/Affirmative_action "Affirmative action") and welfare spending.{{cite journal\|last\=Valentino\|first\=Nicholas\|author\-link\=Nicholas Valentino\|date\=March 2002\|title\=Cues that Matter: How Political Ads Prime Racial Attitudes during Campaigns\|journal\=The American Political Science Review\|volume\=96\|issue\=1\|pages\=75–90\|doi\=10\.1017/s0003055402004240\|jstor\=3117811\|s2cid\=30996282}}
[Ian Haney López](/wiki/Ian_Haney_L%C3%B3pez "Ian Haney López"), Professor of Law at the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley "University of California, Berkeley"), refers to the phenomenon of racial coding as [dog\-whistle politics](/wiki/Dog-whistle_politics "Dog-whistle politics"), which, he argues, has pushed middle class white Americans to vote against their economic self\-interest to punish "undeserving minorities" which, they believe, are receiving too much public assistance at their expense. According to López, conservative middle\-class whites, convinced that minorities are the enemy by powerful economic interests, supported politicians who promised to curb illegal immigration and crack down on crime, but inadvertently they also voted for policies that favor the extremely rich, such as slashing taxes for top income brackets, giving corporations more regulatory control over industry and financial markets, [busting unions](/wiki/Union_busting "Union busting"), cutting pensions for future public employees, reducing funding for public schools, and retrenching the social welfare state. He argues that these same voters cannot link rising inequality which has impacted their lives to the policy agendas which they support, which resulted in a massive transfer of wealth to the top 1% of the population since the 1980s.[Full Show: Ian Haney López on the Dog Whistle Politics of Race, Part I](http://billmoyers.com/episode/ian-haney-lopez-on-the-dog-whistle-politics-of-race/). *[Moyers \& Company](/wiki/Moyers_%26_Company "Moyers & Company")*, February 28, 2014\. See also: [Ian Haney López](/wiki/Ian_Haney_L%C3%B3pez "Ian Haney López"). *[Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class](https://global.oup.com/academic/product/dog-whistle-politics-9780190229252?cc=us&lang=en&) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218104049/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/dog\-whistle\-politics\-9780199964277?cc\=us⟨\=en\&\|date\=December 18, 2014}}*. [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"), 2014\. {{ISBN\|0\-19\-996427\-0}}
A book released by the former attorney of [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump"), [Michael Cohen](/wiki/Michael_Cohen_%28lawyer%29 "Michael Cohen (lawyer)"), in September 2020, *[Disloyal: A Memoir](/wiki/Disloyal:A_Memoir "A Memoir")* described Trump as routinely referring to Black leaders of foreign nations with racial insults and that he was consumed with hatred for [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama"). Cohen, in the book, explained that "as a rule, Trump expressed low opinions of all Black folks, from music to culture and politics".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/06/us/politics/cohen\-book\-trump.html\|title\=Michael Cohen's Book Says Trump Held 'Low Opinions of All Black Folks'\|access\-date\=September 6, 2020\|website\=The New York Times\|date\=September 6, 2020\|last1\=Haberman\|first1\=Maggie}}
### Religion
{{main\|Racial segregation of churches in the United States}}
{{See also\|Religion in the United States\#Ethnicity\|Freedom of religion in the United States\|History of religion in the United States\|Anti\-Catholicism in the United States\|Anti\-Mormonism\|Antisemitism in the United States\|Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century\|History of antisemitism in the United States\|List of antisemitic incidents in the United States\|List of attacks against African\-American churches\|List of attacks against Latter\-day Saint churches\|Religion of Black Americans\|Religious discrimination in the United States}}
### Wealth
{{See also\|Wealth inequality in the United States\|Social determinants of mental health\|Social determinants of health}}
Large racial differentials in wealth remain in the United States: between whites and African Americans, the gap is a factor of twenty.{{Cite journal\|date\=July 26, 2011\|title\=Wealth gap widens: Whites' net worth is 20 times that of blacks\|url\=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2011/0726/Wealth\-gap\-widens\-Whites\-net\-worth\-is\-20\-times\-that\-of\-blacks\|journal\=Christian Science Monitor\|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}} An analyst of the phenomenon, Thomas Shapiro, professor of law and social policy at [Brandeis University](/wiki/Brandeis_University "Brandeis University") argues, "The [wealth gap](/wiki/Wealth_gap "Wealth gap") is not just a story of merit and achievement, it's also a story of the historical legacy of race in the United States.""[Census report: Broad racial disparities persist](https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna15704759)", November 14, 2006\. Differentials applied to the [Social Security Act](/wiki/Social_Security_%28United_States%29 "Social Security (United States)") (which excluded agricultural workers, a sector which then included most black workers), rewards to military officers, and the educational benefits offered returning soldiers after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). Pre\-existing disparities in wealth are exacerbated by tax policies that reward investment over waged income, subsidize mortgages, and subsidize private sector developers.George Lipsitz, "[The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: Racialized Social Democracy and the "White" Problem in American Studies](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713291)," *American Quarterly*, Vol. 47, No. 3\. (September 1995\), pp. 369–387\.
Redlining intentionally excluded black Americans from accumulating intergenerational wealth. The effects of this exclusion on black Americans' health continue to play out daily, generations later, in the same communities. This is evident currently in the disproportionate effects that COVID\-19 has had on the same communities which the HOLC redlined in the 1930s. Research published in September 2020 overlaid maps of the highly affected COVID\-19 areas with the HOLC maps, showing that those areas marked "risky" to lenders because they contained minority residents were the same neighborhoods most affected by COVID\-19\. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) looks at inequities in the social determinants of health like concentrated poverty and healthcare access that are interrelated and influence health outcomes with regard to COVID\-19 as well as quality of life in general for minority groups. The CDC points to discrimination within health care, education, criminal justice, housing, and finance, direct results of systematically subversive tactics like redlining which led to chronic and toxic stress that shaped social and economic factors for minority groups, increasing their risk for COVID\-19\. Healthcare access is similarly limited by factors like a lack of public transportation, child care, and communication and language barriers which result from the spatial and economic isolation of minority communities from redlining. Educational, income, and wealth gaps that result from this isolation mean that minority groups' limited access to the job market may force them to remain in fields that have a higher risk of exposure to the virus, without options to take time off. Finally, a direct result of redlining is the overcrowding of minority groups into neighborhoods that do not boast adequate housing to sustain burgeoning populations, leading to crowded conditions that make prevention strategies for COVID\-19 nearly impossible to implement."Mapping Inequality." Digital Scholarship Lab, dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/.{{cite web \|last1\=Richardson \|first1\=Jason \|last2\=Mitchell \|first2\=Bruce C. \|last3\=Meier \|first3\=Helen C.S. \|last4\=Lynch \|first4\=Emily \|last5\=Edlebi \|first5\=Jad \|date\=10 September 2020 \|title\=Redlining and Neighborhood Health \|url\=https://ncrc.org/holc\-health/ \|publisher\=NCRC}}{{cite book \|last1\=Myers \|first1\=JoAnne \|title\=The good citizen: the markers of privilege in America \|date\=2020 \|isbn\=978\-1\-351\-00669\-9 \|doi\=10\.4324/9781351006705 \|oclc\=1111653987 \|s2cid\=211349002}}{{page needed\|date\=March 2022}}{{cite news \|last1\=Badger \|first1\=Emily \|date\=10 May 2019 \|title\=Can the Racial Wealth Gap Be Closed Without Speaking of Race? \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/10/upshot/racial\-wealth\-gap\-2020\-candidates.html \|work\=The New York Times}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Danaei \|first1\=Goodarz \|last2\=Rimm \|first2\=Eric B. \|last3\=Oza \|first3\=Shefali \|last4\=Kulkarni \|first4\=Sandeep C. \|last5\=Murray \|first5\=Christopher J. L. \|last6\=Ezzati \|first6\=Majid \|date\=2010 \|title\=The Promise of Prevention: The Effects of Four Preventable Risk Factors on National Life Expectancy and Life Expectancy Disparities by Race and County in the United States \|journal\=PLOS Medicine \|volume\=7 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=e1000248 \|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pmed.1000248 \|pmc\=2843596 \|pmid\=20351772 \|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite news \|last1\=Howell \|first1\=Brittani \|date\=24 June 2020 \|title\=How Redlining, Racism Harm Black Americans' Health \|url\=https://www.wyso.org/2020\-06\-24/how\-redlining\-racism\-harm\-black\-americans\-health \|work\=WYSO}}{{Cite web \|last\=CDC \|date\=2020\-04\-30 \|title\=Communities, Schools, Workplaces, \& Events \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019\-ncov/community/health\-equity/race\-ethnicity.html \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-09 \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805071354/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019\-ncov/community/health\-equity/race\-ethnicity.html \|archive\-date\=August 5, 2020 }}
A 2014 meta\-analysis of racial discrimination in product markets found extensive evidence of minority applicants being quoted higher prices for products.{{Cite journal\|last\=Rich\|first\=Judith\|date\=November 2014\|title\=What Do Field Experiments of Discrimination in Markets Tell Us? A Meta Analysis of Studies Conducted Since 2000\|journal\=IZA Discussion Paper No. 8584\|ssrn\=2517887}}
Historically, African\-Americans have faced discrimination in terms of getting access to credit.{{Cite journal\|last\=Hyman\|first\=Louis\|date\=2011\|title\=Ending Discrimination, Legitimating Debt: The Political Economy of Race, Gender, and Credit Access in the 1960s and 1970s\|journal\=Enterprise \& Society\|language\=en\|volume\=12\|issue\=1\|pages\=200–232\|doi\=10\.1017/S1467222700009770\|s2cid\=154351557\|issn\=1467\-2227}}
|
[
"Aspects of American life\n------------------------",
"{{Main\\|Culture of the United States\\|Culture of the Southern United States\\|Society of the United States}}",
"### Citizenship and immigration",
"The [Naturalization Act of 1790](/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790 \"Naturalization Act of 1790\") set the first uniform rules for the granting of [United States citizenship](/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States \"Citizenship of the United States\") by [naturalization](/wiki/Naturalization \"Naturalization\"), which limited naturalization to \"free white person\\[s],” thus, excluding [Native Americans](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\"), [indentured servants](/wiki/Indentured_servitude \"Indentured servitude\"), [slaves](/wiki/History_of_slavery \"History of slavery\"), [free Blacks](/wiki/Free_Negro \"Free Negro\") and later, excluding [Asians](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\") from citizenship. Citizenship and the lack of it profoundly impacted various legal and political rights, the most notable of which were [suffrage rights](/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States \"Voting rights in the United States\") at both the federal and state level, the right to hold certain government offices, [jury duty](/wiki/Jury_duty \"Jury duty\"), military service in the [United States Armed Forces](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces \"United States Armed Forces\"), as well as many other activities, besides access to [government assistance and services](/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States \"Social programs in the United States\"). The second [Militia Act of 1792](/wiki/Militia_Act_of_1792 \"Militia Act of 1792\") also provided for the [conscription](/wiki/Conscription \"Conscription\") of every \"free able\\-bodied white male citizen\".[second Militia Act of 1792](/wiki/s:United_States_Statutes_at_Large/Volume_1/2nd_Congress/1st_Session/Chapter_33 \"United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/2nd Congress/1st Session/Chapter 33\") Tennessee's 1834 Constitution included a provision: \"the free white men of this State have a right to Keep and bear arms for their common defense.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://cdm15138\\.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/tfd/id/495/rec/2 \\|title\\=Tennessee Constitution, 1834 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2018}}",
"The [Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek](/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek \"Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek\"), made under the [Indian Removal Act](/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act \"Indian Removal Act\") of 1830, allowed those [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw \"Choctaw\") Indians who chose to remain in [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi \"Mississippi\") to gain recognition as U.S. citizens, the first major non\\-European ethnic group to become entitled to U.S. citizenship.",
"Racial discrimination in naturalization and immigration continued despite the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") in the [Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") (ratified in 1868\\). The Fourteenth Amendment overruled previous court decisions and gave U.S.\\-born African Americans citizenship through [birthright citizenship](/wiki/Birthright_citizenship_in_the_United_States \"Birthright citizenship in the United States\").",
"The [Naturalization Act of 1870](/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870 \"Naturalization Act of 1870\") extended naturalization to Black persons but not to other non\\-white persons and revoked the citizenship of naturalized Chinese Americans.{{Cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wouYAP1oKDsC\\&pg\\=PA31 \\|title\\=Forbidden Citizens: Chinese Exclusion and the U.S. Congress: A Legislative History\\|publisher\\=The Capitol Net \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58733\\-252\\-4}} The law relied on coded language to exclude \"aliens ineligible for citizenship,” which primarily applied to [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_American \"Chinese American\") and [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_American \"Japanese American\") immigrants.",
"Native Americans were granted citizenship in a piece\\-meal manner, until the [Indian Citizenship Act of 1924](/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924 \"Indian Citizenship Act of 1924\"), which unilaterally bestowed blanket citizenship status on them, whether they belonged to a [federally recognized tribe](/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state \"List of federally recognized tribes by state\") or not, though by that date, two\\-thirds of Native Americans had already become US citizens by various means. The Act was not retroactive, so, citizenship was not extended to Native Americans who were born before the effective date of the 1924 Act, nor was it extended to indigenous persons who were born outside the United States.",
"Further changes to racial eligibility for citizenship by naturalization were made after 1940, when eligibility was extended to \"descendants of races indigenous to the [Western Hemisphere](/wiki/Western_Hemisphere \"Western Hemisphere\"),\" \"Filipino persons or persons of Filipino descent,\" \"Chinese persons or persons of Chinese descent,\" and \"persons of races indigenous to India.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Coulson \\|first1\\=Doug\\|title\\=British Imperialism, the Indian Independence Movement, and the Racial Eligibility Provisions of the Naturalization Act: United States v. Thind Revisited \\|journal\\=Georgetown Journal of Law \\& Modern Critical Race Perspectives \\|date\\=2015\\|issue\\=7\\|page\\=2\\|ssrn\\=2610266}} The [Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952](/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952 \"Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952\"), now, prohibits racial and gender discrimination in naturalization.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Daniels\\|first1\\=Roger\\|title\\=Coming to America, A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life}}",
"During the period when only \"white\" people could be naturalized, many court decisions were required to define which ethnic groups were included in this term. These are known as the \"[racial prerequisite cases](/wiki/Definitions_of_whiteness_in_the_United_States%23Racial_prerequisite_cases \"Definitions of whiteness in the United States#Racial prerequisite cases\"),” and they also informed subsequent legislation.{{cite book \\|first\\=Ian Haney \\|last\\=López \\|date\\=1 January 1996 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4g4WCgAAQBAJ \\|title\\=White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=New York University Press \\|page\\=242 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8147\\-5099\\-0}}",
"### Voting",
"The [Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") (ratified in 1870\\), explicitly prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, but delegated to Congress the responsibility for enforcement.",
"During the [Reconstruction era](/wiki/Reconstruction_era \"Reconstruction era\"), African Americans began to run for office and vote, but the [Compromise of 1877](/wiki/Compromise_of_1877 \"Compromise of 1877\") ended the era of strong federal enforcement of equal rights in the Southern states. White Southerners were prevented, by the Fifteenth Amendment, from explicitly denying the vote to Blacks by law, but they found other ways to [disenfranchise](/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era \"Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era\"). [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws \"Jim Crow laws\") that targeted African Americans, without mentioning race, included [poll taxes](/wiki/Poll_tax_%28United_States%29 \"Poll tax (United States)\"), [literacy](/wiki/Literacy_tests \"Literacy tests\") and comprehension tests for voters, residency and record\\-keeping requirements, and [grandfather clauses](/wiki/Grandfather_clause \"Grandfather clause\") allowing White people to vote. [Black Codes](/wiki/Black_Codes_%28United_States%29 \"Black Codes (United States)\") criminalized minor offenses like unemployment (styled \"vagrancy\"), providing a pretext to deny voting rights. Extralegal violence was also used to terrorize and sometimes kill African Americans who attempted to register or to vote, often in the form of [lynching](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States \"Lynching in the United States\") and [cross burning](/wiki/Cross_burning \"Cross burning\"). These efforts to enforce white supremacy were very successful. For example, after 1890, less than 9,000 of Mississippi's 147,000 eligible African American voters were registered to vote, or about 6%. Louisiana went from 130,000 registered African American voters in 1896 to 1,342 in 1904 (about a 99% decrease).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.crf\\-usa.org/black\\-history\\-month/a\\-brief\\-history\\-of\\-jim\\-crow\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20210820075945/https://www.crf\\-usa.org/black\\-history\\-month/a\\-brief\\-history\\-of\\-jim\\-crow\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-20\\|quote\\=In 1896, Louisiana had 130,334 registered black voters. Eight years later, only 1,342, 1 percent, could pass the state's new rules.\\|title\\=A Brief History of Jim Crow\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-12}}",
"Even Native Americans who gained citizenship under the 1924 Act were not guaranteed [voting rights](/wiki/Native_American_voting_rights \"Native American voting rights\") until 1948\\. According to a survey by the [Department of Interior](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior \"United States Department of the Interior\"), seven states still refused to grant Indians voting rights in 1938\\. Discrepancies between federal and state control provided loopholes in the Act's enforcement. States justified discrimination based on state statutes and constitutions. Three main arguments for Indian voting exclusion were Indian exemption from real estate taxes, maintenance of tribal affiliation and the notion that Indians were under guardianship, or lived on lands controlled by federal trusteeship.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Peterson \\|first\\=Helen L. \\|date\\=May 1957\\|title\\=American Indian Political Participation \\|journal\\=American Academy of Political and Social Science \\|volume\\=311\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=116–121 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/000271625731100113\\|s2cid\\=144617127 }}{{rp\\|121}} By 1947, all states with large Indian populations, except [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\") and [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico \"New Mexico\"), had extended voting rights to Native Americans who qualified under the 1924 Act. Finally, in 1948, a judicial decision forced the remaining states to withdraw their prohibition on Indian voting.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Bruyneel \\|first\\=Kevin \\|year\\=2004 \\|title\\=Challenging American Boundaries: Indigenous People and the 'Gift' of U.S. Citizenship \\|journal\\=Studies in American Political Development \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=30–43\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0898588X04000021\\|s2cid\\=145698348 }}",
"The [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement \"Civil rights movement\") resulted in strong Congressional enforcement of the right to vote regardless of race, starting with the [Voting Rights Act of 1965](/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965 \"Voting Rights Act of 1965\"). Though this greatly enhanced the ability of racial minorities to vote and run for office in all areas of the country, concerns over racially discriminatory voting laws and administration persist. [Gerrymandering](/wiki/Gerrymandering \"Gerrymandering\") and [voter suppression](/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States \"Voter suppression in the United States\") efforts around the country, though mainly motivated by political considerations, often effectively disproportionately affect African Americans and other minorities. These include targeted [voter ID](/wiki/Voter_identification_laws \"Voter identification laws\") requirements, registration hurdles, restricting vote\\-by\\-mail, and making voting facilities physically inconvenient to access due to long distances, long lines, or short hours. The 2013 U.S. Supreme court decision *[Shelby County v. Holder](/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder \"Shelby County v. Holder\")* struck down the pre\\-clearance provisions of the 1965 Act, making anti\\-discrimination enforcement more difficult.",
"In 2016, one in 13 African Americans of voting age was disenfranchised, more than four times greater than that of non\\-African Americans. Over 7\\.4% of adult African Americans were disenfranchised compared to 1\\.8% of non\\-African Americans. [Felony disenfranchisement in Florida](/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement_in_Florida \"Felony disenfranchisement in Florida\") disqualifies over 10% of its citizens for life and over 23% of its African American citizens.{{cite web \\|title\\=6 Million Lost Voters: State\\-Level Estimates of Felony Disenfranchisement, 2016 \\|url\\=https://felonvoting.procon.org/wp\\-content/uploads/sites/48/sentencing\\-project\\-felony\\-disenfranchisement\\-2016\\.pdf \\|website\\=ProCon.org \\|publisher\\=The Sentencing Project \\|access\\-date\\=September 22, 2020}}",
"### Criminal justice system",
"{{Main\\|Race and crime in the United States\\|Race in the United States criminal justice system}}\n{{See also\\|Criminal justice reform in the United States\\|Human rights in the United States\\|Incarceration in the United States\\|Police brutality in the United States\\|Race and the war on drugs\\|Racial bias in criminal news in the United States}}\n[thumb\\|Racial disparities in the share of prisoners, police officers, people shot by police, and judges in the United States in the late 2010s](/wiki/File:Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system%2C_late_2010s.png \"Race disparities in US criminal justice system, late 2010s.png\")\nThere are unique experiences and disparities in the United States, in regard to the policing and prosecuting of various races and ethnicities. There have been different outcomes for different racial groups in convicting and sentencing felons in the [United States criminal justice system](/wiki/United_States_criminal_justice_system \"United States criminal justice system\").United States. Dept. of Justice. 2008\\. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Prison Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Justice.{{page needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bonczarfalse \\|first1\\=Thomas P. \\|last2\\=Beck \\|first2\\=Allen J. \\|title\\=Lifetime Likelihood of Going to State or Federal Prison \\|journal\\=National Institute of Justice Office of Justice Programs \\|date\\=March 1997 \\|url\\=https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/Llgsfp.pdf }} Experts and analysts have debated the relative importance of different factors that have led to these disparities.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JTiJK0D18OoC\\&q\\=percentage\\+of\\+blacks\\+accused.\\+percentage\\+convicted.\\+whites\\&pg\\=PA273 \\|title\\=America in black and white: one nation indivisible\\|access\\-date\\=October 26, 2015 \\|author\\=Stephan Thernstrom \\|author2\\=Abigail Thernstrom \\|year\\=1999 \\|page\\=273 \\|publisher\\=Simon and Schuster \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-684\\-84497\\-8}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bobo \\|first1\\=Lawrence D. \\|last2\\=Thompson \\|first2\\=Victor \\|title\\=Unfair by Design: The War on Drugs, Race, and the Legitimacy of the Criminal Justice System \\|journal\\=Social Research \\|date\\=2006 \\|volume\\=73 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=445–472 \\|doi\\=10\\.1353/sor.2006\\.0010 \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|209669497}} {{Gale\\|A149908517}} {{Project MUSE\\|527464}} \\|jstor\\=40971832 \\|s2cid\\=143149001 }}",
"Academic research indicates that the over\\-representation of some racial minorities in the criminal justice system can, in part, be explained by socioeconomic factors, such as poverty, exposure to poor neighborhoods, poor access to public education, poor access to early childhood education, and exposure to harmful chemicals (such as [lead](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis \"Lead–crime hypothesis\")) and pollution.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Sampson, Robert J.\\|date\\=September 1987\\|title\\=Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption\\|url\\=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn\\-3:HUL.InstRepos:3226953\\|journal\\=American Journal of Sociology\\|volume\\=93\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=348–382\\|doi\\=10\\.1086/228748\\|jstor\\=2779588\\|s2cid\\=144729803}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Sampson\\|first1\\=Robert J.\\|last2\\=Morenoff\\|first2\\=Jeffrey D.\\|last3\\=Raudenbush\\|first3\\=Stephen\\|date\\=February 2005\\|title\\=Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence\\|journal\\=American Journal of Public Health\\|volume\\=95\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=224–232\\|doi\\=10\\.2105/AJPH.2004\\.037705\\|pmc\\=1449156\\|pmid\\=15671454}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Drum\\|first\\=Kevin\\|title\\=An updated lead\\-crime roundup for 2018\\|url\\=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin\\-drum/2018/02/an\\-updated\\-lead\\-crime\\-roundup\\-for\\-2018/\\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2021\\|website\\=Mother Jones\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Shihadeh\\|first1\\=Edward S.\\|last2\\=Shrum\\|first2\\=Wesley\\|date\\=July 1, 2004\\|title\\=Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?\\|journal\\=Sociological Spectrum\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=507–533\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/02732170490459502\\|issn\\=0273\\-2173\\|s2cid\\=145654909}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Brown\\|first1\\=Elizabeth\\|last2\\=Males\\|first2\\=Mike A.\\|date\\=Spring 2011 \\|title\\=Does Age or Poverty Level Best Predict Criminal Arrest and Homicide Rates? A Preliminary Investigation \\|journal\\=Justice Policy Journal \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=1 \\|url\\=https://www.cjcj.org/media/import/documents/Does\\_age.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605180135/https://www.cjcj.org/media/import/documents/Does\\_age.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-05 \\|language\\=en\\|s2cid\\=14751824}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Light\\|first1\\=Michael T.\\|last2\\=Ulmer\\|first2\\=Jeffery T.\\|date\\=April 1, 2016\\|title\\=Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality\\|journal\\=American Sociological Review\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=81\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=290–315\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0003122416635667\\|issn\\=0003\\-1224\\|s2cid\\=53346960}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Ulmer\\|first1\\=Jeffery T.\\|last2\\=Harris\\|first2\\=Casey T.\\|last3\\=Steffensmeier\\|first3\\=Darrell\\|date\\=2012\\|title\\=Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons\\*\\|url\\= \\|journal\\=Social Science Quarterly\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=93\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=799–819\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1540\\-6237\\.2012\\.00868\\.x\\|issn\\=1540\\-6237\\|pmc\\=4097310\\|pmid\\=25035523}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Krivo\\|first1\\=Lauren J.\\|last2\\=Peterson\\|first2\\=Ruth D.\\|date\\=2000\\|title\\=The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process\\|journal\\=American Sociological Review\\|volume\\=65\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=547–559\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2657382\\|issn\\=0003\\-1224\\|jstor\\=2657382\\|s2cid\\=144314971 }}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Nevin\\|first\\=Rick\\|date\\=July 1, 2007\\|title\\=Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure\\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935107000503\\|journal\\=Environmental Research\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=104\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=315–336\\|bibcode\\=2007ER....104\\..315N\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.envres.2007\\.02\\.008\\|issn\\=0013\\-9351\\|pmid\\=17451672}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Boutwell\\|first1\\=Brian B.\\|last2\\=Nelson\\|first2\\=Erik J.\\|last3\\=Emo\\|first3\\=Brett\\|last4\\=Vaughn\\|first4\\=Michael G.\\|last5\\=Schootman\\|first5\\=Mario\\|last6\\=Rosenfeld\\|first6\\=Richard\\|last7\\=Lewis\\|first7\\=Roger\\|date\\=July 1, 2016\\|title\\=The intersection of aggregate\\-level lead exposure and crime\\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935116301037\\|journal\\=Environmental Research\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=148\\|pages\\=79–85\\|bibcode\\=2016ER....148\\...79B\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.envres.2016\\.03\\.023\\|issn\\=0013\\-9351\\|pmid\\=27035924}} Racial [housing segregation](/wiki/Housing_segregation_in_the_United_States \"Housing segregation in the United States\") has also been linked to racial disparities in crime rates, as Blacks have, historically, and to the present, been prevented from moving into prosperous low\\-crime areas, through actions of the government (such as [redlining](/wiki/Redlining \"Redlining\")) and private actors.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Feldmeyer\\|first\\=Ben\\|date\\=September 1, 2010\\|title\\=The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide\\|journal\\=The Sociological Quarterly\\|volume\\=51\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=600–623\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1533\\-8525\\.2010\\.01185\\.x\\|issn\\=0038\\-0253\\|pmid\\=20939127\\|s2cid\\=19551967}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=O'Flaherty\\|first1\\=Brendan\\|last2\\=Sethi\\|first2\\=Rajiv\\|date\\=November 1, 2007\\|title\\=Crime and segregation\\|url\\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268107001357\\|journal\\=Journal of Economic Behavior \\& Organization\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=391–405\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jebo.2006\\.07\\.005\\|issn\\=0167\\-2681}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Shihadeh\\|first1\\=Edward S.\\|last2\\=Flynn\\|first2\\=Nicole\\|date\\=June 1, 1996\\|title\\=Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence\\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/sf/article/74/4/1325/2233401\\|journal\\=Social Forces\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=74\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1325–1352\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/sf/74\\.4\\.1325\\|issn\\=0037\\-7732}} Various explanations, within [criminology](/wiki/Criminology \"Criminology\"), have been proposed for racial disparities in crime rates, including [conflict theory](/wiki/Conflict_theory \"Conflict theory\"), [strain theory](/wiki/Strain_theory_%28sociology%29 \"Strain theory (sociology)\"), [general strain theory](/wiki/General_strain_theory \"General strain theory\"), social disorganization theory, macrostructural opportunity theory, [social control theory](/wiki/Social_control_theory \"Social control theory\"), and [subcultural theory](/wiki/Subcultural_theory \"Subcultural theory\").",
"Research also indicates that there is extensive racial and ethnic discrimination by police and the judicial system.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hinton\\|first1\\=Elizabeth\\|last2\\=Cook\\|first2\\=DeAnza\\|date\\=2021\\|title\\=The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview\\|journal\\=Annual Review of Criminology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=annurev–criminol–060520\\-033306\\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-criminol\\-060520\\-033306\\|issn\\=2572\\-4568\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Thomas\\|first1\\=C.\\|last2\\=Nunez\\|first2\\=A.\\|date\\=2022\\|title\\=Automating Judicial Discretion: How Algorithmic Risk Assessments in Pretrial Adjudications Violate Equal Protection Rights on the Basis of Race\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Law \\& Inequality]]\\| language\\=en\\| volume\\=40\\| issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=371–407\\|url\\=https://scholarship.law.umn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=1680\\&context\\=lawineq\\|doi\\=10\\.24926/25730037\\.649\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}Gabbidon \\& Greene (2005b:37\\); Bowling (2006:140\\). See also Sampson \\& Wilson (2005:177–178\\); Myrdal (1988:88\\).{{Cite book\\|last\\=Engel\\|first\\=Robin S.\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RpfrAQAAQBAJ\\|title\\=The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-985901\\-6\\|editor\\-last\\=Bucerius\\|editor\\-first\\=Sandra\\|page\\=147}}{{Citation\\|last1\\=Drakulich\\|first1\\=Kevin\\|title\\=Intentional Inequalities and Compounding Effects\\|date\\=June 22, 2018\\|work\\=The Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice\\|pages\\=17–38\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons, Inc.\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/9781119113799\\.ch1\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-119\\-11379\\-9\\|last2\\=Rodriguez\\-Whitney\\|first2\\=Eric\\|s2cid\\=158214425}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hinton\\|first1\\=Elizabeth\\|last2\\=Cook\\|first2\\=DeAnza\\|date\\=June 29, 2020\\|title\\=The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview\\|journal\\=Annual Review of Criminology\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=261–286\\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-criminol\\-060520\\-033306\\|issn\\=2572\\-4568\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} A substantial academic literature has compared police searches (showing that contraband is found, at higher rates, in whites who are stopped), bail decisions (showing that whites with the same bail decision as Blacks commit more pre\\-trial violations), and sentencing (showing that Blacks are more harshly sentenced by juries and judges than whites, when the underlying facts and circumstances of the cases are similar), providing valid causal inferences of racial discrimination.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Rehavi\\|first1\\=M. Marit\\|last2\\=Starr\\|first2\\=Sonja B.\\|date\\=2014\\|title\\=Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences\\|url\\=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=2413\\&context\\=articles\\|journal\\=Journal of Political Economy\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=122\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=1320–1354\\|doi\\=10\\.1086/677255\\|issn\\=0022\\-3808\\|s2cid\\=3348344}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Arnold\\|first1\\=David\\|last2\\=Dobbie\\|first2\\=Will\\|last3\\=Yang\\|first3\\=Crystal S.\\|year\\=2018\\|title\\=Racial Bias in Bail Decisions\\|journal\\=The Quarterly Journal of Economics\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=133\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1885–1932\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/qje/qjy012\\|s2cid\\=13703268}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Pierson\\|first1\\=Emma\\|last2\\=Simoiu\\|first2\\=Camelia\\|last3\\=Overgoor\\|first3\\=Jan\\|last4\\=Corbett\\-Davies\\|first4\\=Sam\\|last5\\=Jenson\\|first5\\=Daniel\\|last6\\=Shoemaker\\|first6\\=Amy\\|last7\\=Ramachandran\\|first7\\=Vignesh\\|last8\\=Barghouty\\|first8\\=Phoebe\\|last9\\=Phillips\\|first9\\=Cheryl\\|last10\\=Shroff\\|first10\\=Ravi\\|last11\\=Goel\\|first11\\=Sharad\\|date\\=May 4, 2020\\|title\\=A large\\-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States\\|journal\\=Nature Human Behaviour\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=7\\|pages\\=736–745\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41562\\-020\\-0858\\-1\\|issn\\=2397\\-3374\\|pmid\\=32367028\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|arxiv\\=1706\\.05678}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Black men sentenced to more time for committing the exact same crime as a white person, study finds\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/wonk/wp/2017/11/16/black\\-men\\-sentenced\\-to\\-more\\-time\\-for\\-committing\\-the\\-exact\\-same\\-crime\\-as\\-a\\-white\\-person\\-study\\-finds/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116220952/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/wonk/wp/2017/11/16/black\\-men\\-sentenced\\-to\\-more\\-time\\-for\\-committing\\-the\\-exact\\-same\\-crime\\-as\\-a\\-white\\-person\\-study\\-finds/\\|archive\\-date\\=November 16, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2017\\|website\\=washingtonpost.com}} Studies have documented patterns of racial discrimination, as well as patterns of police brutality and disregard for the constitutional rights of African\\-Americans, by police departments in various American cities, including [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department \"Los Angeles Police Department\"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department \"New York City Police Department\"), [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago_Police_Department \"Chicago Police Department\") and [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia_Police_Department \"Philadelphia Police Department\").{{Cite web\\|last1\\=Hanna\\|first1\\=Jason\\|last2\\=Park\\|first2\\=Madison\\|title\\=Chicago police use excessive force, DOJ finds\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/13/us/chicago\\-police\\-federal\\-investigation/index.html\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2017\\|website\\=CNN\\|date\\=January 13, 2017}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Williams, Suzanne Ife.\\|title\\=Police brutality: case study of Philadelphia/Move\\|oclc\\=84480572}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Balto\\|first\\=Simon\\|title\\=Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power\\|date\\=2019\\|publisher\\=University of North Carolina Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4696\\-4959\\-7\\|doi\\=10\\.5149/northcarolina/9781469649597\\.001\\.0001\\|s2cid\\=242994510}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Ralph\\|first\\=Laurence\\|title\\=The Torture Letters\\|date\\=2020\\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-65012\\-8\\|doi\\=10\\.7208/chicago/9780226650128\\.001\\.0001\\|s2cid\\=166340526}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Felker\\-Kantor\\|first\\=Max\\|title\\=Policing Los Angeles: Race, Resistance, and the Rise of the LAPD\\|date\\=2018\\|publisher\\=University of North Carolina Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4696\\-4683\\-1\\|doi\\=10\\.5149/northcarolina/9781469646831\\.001\\.0001\\|s2cid\\=239813851}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wertz\\|first1\\=Joseph\\|last2\\=Azrael\\|first2\\=Deborah\\|last3\\=Berrigan\\|first3\\=John\\|last4\\=Barber\\|first4\\=Catherine\\|last5\\=Nelson\\|first5\\=Eliot\\|last6\\=Hemenway\\|first6\\=David\\|last7\\=Salhi\\|first7\\=Carmel\\|last8\\=Miller\\|first8\\=Matthew\\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-01\\|title\\=A Typology of Civilians Shot and Killed by US Police: a Latent Class Analysis of Firearm Legal Intervention Homicide in the 2014–2015 National Violent Death Reporting System\\|journal\\=Journal of Urban Health\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=97\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=317–328\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s11524\\-020\\-00430\\-0\\|issn\\=1468\\-2869\\|pmc\\=7305287\\|pmid\\=32212060}}",
"A report by the [National Registry of Exonerations](/wiki/National_Registry_of_Exonerations \"National Registry of Exonerations\") found that, as of August 2022, [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\") make up 13\\.6% of the U.S. population but 53% of exonerations, and that they were seven times more likely to be falsely convicted, compared to White Americans.{{Cite report \\|url\\=https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Documents/Race%20Report%20Preview.pdf \\|title\\=Race and Wrongful Convictions in the United States \\|last1\\=Gross \\|first1\\=Samuel R. \\|last2\\=Possley \\|first2\\=Maurice \\|date\\=September 2022 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Registry of Exonerations]] \\|last3\\=Otterbourg \\|first3\\=Ken \\|last4\\=Stephens \\|first4\\=Clara \\|last5\\=Weinstock Paredes \\|first5\\=Jessica \\|last6\\=O'Brien \\|first6\\=Barbara \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-29}}",
"### Education",
"{{See also\\|Discrimination in education\\#United States\\|School segregation in the United States\\|School integration in the United States}}\nIn 1954, *[Brown vs. the Board of Education](/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education \"Brown v. Board of Education\")* ruled that [integrated](/wiki/Desegregation \"Desegregation\"), equal schools be accessible to all children, unbiased to skin color. Currently, in the United States, not all state funded schools are equally funded. Schools are funded by the \"federal, state, and local governments,” while \"states play a large and increasing role in education funding.\"{{Cite news\\|title\\=School Finance – EdCentral\\|language\\=en\\|newspaper\\=EdCentral\\|url\\=http://www.edcentral.org/edcyclopedia/school\\-finance/\\|access\\-date\\=December 2, 2016}} \"[Property taxes](/wiki/Property_tax \"Property tax\") support most of the funding that local government provides for education.\" Schools located in lower income areas receive a lower level of funding, and schools located in higher income areas receiving greater funding for education, all based on property taxes. The [U.S. Department of Education](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education \"United States Department of Education\") reports that \"many high\\-poverty schools receive less than their fair share of state and local funding, leaving students in high\\-poverty schools with fewer resources than schools attended by their wealthier peers.\"{{Cite web\\|title\\=More Than 40% of Low\\-Income Schools Don't Get a Fair Share of State and Local Funds, Department of Education Research Finds \\|website\\=U.S. Department of Education\\|url\\=http://www.ed.gov/news/press\\-releases/more\\-40\\-low\\-income\\-schools\\-dont\\-get\\-fair\\-share\\-state\\-and\\-local\\-funds\\-department\\-\\|access\\-date\\=December 2, 2016}} The U.S. Department of Education also reports this fact affects \"more than 40% of low\\-income schools.\" Children of color are much more likely to suffer from poverty than white children.",
"The phrase \"brown paper bag test,\" also known as a [paper bag party](/wiki/Paper_bag_party \"Paper bag party\"), along with the \"ruler test\" refers to a ritual once practiced by certain African\\-American sororities and fraternities who would not let anyone into the group whose skin tone was darker than a paper bag.Kerr, A. E. (2006\\). The paper bag principle: Class, colorism, and rumor in the case of black Washington, DC. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. [Spike Lee](/wiki/Spike_Lee \"Spike Lee\")'s film, *[School Daze](/wiki/School_Daze \"School Daze\"),* satirized this practice at historically Black colleges and universities.Spike Lee, \"School Daze,\" 40 Acres \\& A Mule Filmworks, Columbia Pictures Corporation Along with the \"paper bag test,\" guidelines for acceptance among the lighter ranks included the \"comb test\" and \"pencil test,\" which tested the coarseness of one's hair, and the \"flashlight test,\" which tested a person's profile to make sure their features measured up or were close enough to those of the Caucasian race.",
"#### Curriculum",
"{{See also\\|White supremacy in U.S. school curriculum}}\nThe curriculum in U.S. schools has also contained racism against non\\-white Americans, including Native Americans, [Black Americans](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\"), [Mexican Americans](/wiki/Mexican_Americans \"Mexican Americans\"), and Asian Americans. Particularly, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, school textbooks and other teaching materials emphasized the biological and social inferiority of Black Americans, consistently portraying Black people as simple, irresponsible, and oftentimes, in situations of suffering that were implied to be their fault (and not the effects of slavery and other oppression).Elson, Ruth Miller (1964\\). *Guardians of Tradition: American Schoolbooks of the Nineteenth Century*. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.Au, Wayne, 1972–. Reclaiming the multicultural roots of U.S. curriculum : communities of color and official knowledge in education. Brown, Anthony Lamar, Aramoni Calderón, Dolores,, Banks, James A. New York. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8077\\-5678\\-2}}. {{OCLC\\|951742385}}. Black Americans were also depicted as expendable and their suffering as commonplace, as evidenced by a poem about \"Ten Little Nigger Boys\" dying off, one\\-by\\-one, that was circulated as a children's counting exercise from 1875 to the mid\\-1900s. Historian [Carter G. Woodson](/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson \"Carter G. Woodson\") analyzed American curriculum as completely lacking any mention of Black Americans' merits in the early 20th century. Based on his observations of the time, he wrote that American students, including Black students who went through U.S. schooling, would come out believing that Black people had no significant history and had contributed nothing to human civilization.Woodson, Carter G. (Carter Godwin) (1993\\). *The mis\\-education of the Negro*. Internet Archive. Trenton, NJ: AfricaWorld Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-86543\\-171\\-3}}{{page needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"School curriculum, often, implicitly and explicitly upheld white people as the superior race and marginalized the contributions and perspectives of non\\-white peoples, as if they were (or are) not as important.Mills, Charles W. (1994\\). \"REVISIONIST ONTOLOGIES: THEORIZING WHITE SUPREMACY\". Social and Economic Studies. 43 (3\\): 105–134\\. ISSN 0037\\-7651\\. In the 19th century, a significant number of students were taught that [Adam and Eve](/wiki/Adam_and_Eve \"Adam and Eve\") were white, and the other races evolved from their various descendants, growing further and further away from the original white standard. In addition, whites were also fashioned as the capable caretakers of other races, namely Black and Native people, who could not take care of themselves. This concept was at odds with the violence white Americans had committed against indigenous and Black peoples, but it was coupled with soft language that, for example, defended these acts. Mills (1994\\) cites the narrative about Europeans' \"discovery\" of a \"[New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\"),\" despite the people who already inhabited it and its subsequent \"colonization,” instead of conquest, as examples. He maintains that these word choices constitute a cooptation of history by white people, who have used it to their advantage.",
"### Health",
"{{main\\|Race and health in the United States}}\n{{See also\\|Medical Apartheid\\|Medical racism in the United States\\|Unethical human experimentation in the United States}}\nA 2019 review of the literature in the *[Annual Review of Public health](/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Public_health \"Annual Review of Public health\")* found that [structural racism](/wiki/Institutional_racism \"Institutional racism\"), [cultural racism](/wiki/Cultural_racism \"Cultural racism\"), and individual\\-level discrimination are \"a fundamental cause of adverse health outcomes for racial/ethnic minorities and racial/ethnic inequities in health.\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Williams\\|first1\\=David R.\\|last2\\=Lawrence\\|first2\\=Jourdyn A.\\|last3\\=Davis\\|first3\\=Brigette A.\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=Racism and Health: Evidence and Needed Research\\|journal\\=Annual Review of Public Health\\|volume\\=40\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=105–125\\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-publhealth\\-040218\\-043750\\| doi\\-access\\=free\\|pmc\\=6532402\\|pmid\\=30601726}}",
"Studies have argued that there are racial disparities in how the media and politicians act, when they are faced with cases of drug addiction in which the victims are primarily Black, rather than white, citing the examples of how society responded differently to the [crack epidemic](/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States \"Crack epidemic in the United States\") than the [opioid epidemic](/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States \"Opioid epidemic in the United States\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Shachar\\|first1\\=Carmel\\|last2\\=Wise\\|first2\\=Tess\\|last3\\=Katznelson\\|first3\\=Gali\\|last4\\=Campbell\\|first4\\=Andrea Louise\\|year\\=2019\\|title\\=Criminal Justice or Public Health: A Comparison of the Representation of the Crack Cocaine and Opioid Epidemics in the Media\\|journal\\=Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=45\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=211–239\\|doi\\=10\\.1215/03616878\\-8004862\\|pmid\\=31808806\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Kim\\|first1\\=Jin Woo\\|last2\\=Morgan\\|first2\\=Evan\\|last3\\=Nyhan\\|first3\\=Brendan\\|year\\=2019\\|title\\=Treatment versus Punishment: Understanding Racial Inequalities in Drug Policy\\|journal\\=Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=45\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=177–209\\|doi\\=10\\.1215/03616878\\-8004850\\|pmid\\=31808796\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"There are major [racial differences in access to health care](/wiki/Race_and_health \"Race and health\") as well as major racial differences in the quality of the health care, which is provided to people. A study published in the *American Journal of Public Health* estimated that: \"over 886,000 deaths could have been prevented, from 1991 to 2000, if African Americans had received the same quality of care as whites.” The key differences that they cited were lack of insurance, inadequate [insurance](/wiki/Health_insurance \"Health insurance\"), poor service, and reluctance to seek care.{{cite journal\\|vauthors\\=Woolf SH, Johnson RE, Fryer GE, Rust G, Satcher D\\|date\\=December 2004\\|title\\=The health impact of resolving racial disparities: an analysis of US mortality data\\|journal\\=Am J Public Health\\|volume\\=94\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=2078–2081\\|doi\\=10\\.2105/AJPH.94\\.12\\.2078\\|pmc\\=1448594\\|pmid\\=15569956}} A history of government\\-sponsored experimentation, such as the notorious [Tuskegee Syphilis Study](/wiki/Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study \"Tuskegee Syphilis Study\"), has left a legacy of African American distrust of the medical system.\"The History of Black 'Paranoia{{'\"}}, ch. 3 of Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair, *Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs, and the Press*, London: Verso, 1998\\.",
"Inequalities in health care may also reflect a [systemic bias](/wiki/Systemic_bias \"Systemic bias\") in the way in which medical procedures and treatments are prescribed to members of different ethnic groups. A [University of Edinburgh](/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh \"University of Edinburgh\") Professor of Public Health, Raj Bhopal, writes that the history of [racism in science](/wiki/Scientific_racism \"Scientific racism\") and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times, and he also warns of dangers that need to be avoided in the future.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Bhopal, R\\|date\\=June 1998\\|title\\=Spectre of racism in health and health care: lessons from history and the United States\\|journal\\=BMJ\\|volume\\=316\\|issue\\=7149\\|pages\\=1970–1973\\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bmj.316\\.7149\\.1970\\|pmc\\=1113412\\|pmid\\=9641943}} Nancy Krieger, a [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard \"Harvard\") Professor of Social Epidemiology, contended that much modern research supported the assumptions which were needed to justify racism. She wrote that racism underlies unexplained inequities in health care, including treatments for [heart disease](/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease \"Cardiovascular disease\"),{{cite journal\\|vauthors\\=Oberman A, Cutter G\\|date\\=September 1984\\|title\\=Issues in the natural history and treatment of coronary heart disease in black populations: surgical treatment\\|journal\\=Am. Heart J.\\|volume\\=108\\|issue\\=3 Pt 2\\|pages\\=688–694\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0002\\-8703(84\\)90656\\-2\\|pmid\\=6332513}} [renal failure](/wiki/Kidney_failure \"Kidney failure\"),{{cite journal\\|author\\=Kjellstrand CM\\|date\\=June 1988\\|title\\=Age, sex, and race inequality in renal transplantation\\|journal\\=Arch. Intern. Med.\\|volume\\=148\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=1305–1309\\|doi\\=10\\.1001/archinte.1988\\.00380060069016\\|pmid\\=3288159}} [bladder cancer](/wiki/Bladder_cancer \"Bladder cancer\"),{{cite journal\\|vauthors\\=Mayer WJ, McWhorter WP\\|date\\=June 1989\\|title\\=Black/white differences in non\\-treatment of bladder cancer patients and implications for survival\\|journal\\=Am J Public Health\\|volume\\=79\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=772–775\\|doi\\=10\\.2105/AJPH.79\\.6\\.772\\|pmc\\=1349641\\|pmid\\=2729474}} and [pneumonia](/wiki/Pneumonia \"Pneumonia\").{{cite journal\\|vauthors\\=Yergan J, Flood AB, LoGerfo JP, \\[\\[Paula Diehr\\|Diehr P]]\\|date\\=July 1987\\|title\\=Relationship between patient race and the intensity of hospital services\\|journal\\=Med Care\\|volume\\=25\\|issue\\=7\\|pages\\=592–603\\|doi\\=10\\.1097/00005650\\-198707000\\-00003\\|pmid\\=3695664\\|s2cid\\=11637921}} Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in various studies, and there are consistent findings that Black Americans receive less health care than white Americans—particularly where this involves expensive new technology.{{cite journal\\|author1\\=Council on Ethical Judicial Affairs\\|date\\=May 1990\\|title\\=Black\\-white disparities in health care\\|journal\\=JAMA\\|volume\\=263\\|issue\\=17\\|pages\\=2344–2346\\|doi\\=10\\.1001/jama.263\\.17\\.2344\\|pmid\\=2182918}} The University of Michigan Health study found, in 2010, that black patients in pain clinics received 50% of the amount of drugs that other patients who were white received.{{Cite news\\|title\\=4 Ways Racism in Health Care Is Still a Problem Today\\|work\\=ThoughtCo\\|url\\=https://www.thoughtco.com/racism\\-in\\-health\\-care\\-still\\-a\\-problem\\-2834530\\|access\\-date\\=May 12, 2018}} Black pain in medicine links to the racial disparities between pain management and racial bias on behalf of the health professional. In 2011, Vermont organizers took a proactive stand against racism in their communities to defeat the biopolitical struggles faced on a daily basis. The first and only universal health care law was passed in the state.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Saloman\\|first\\=Larry\\|date\\=June 2014\\|title\\=Timeline of Race, Racism, Resistance and Philanthropy 1992–2014\\|url\\=http://racialequity.org/docs/CIF5Timeline.pdf\\|website\\=Racial Equity}}",
"Two local governments in the US have issued declarations, stating that racism constitutes a [public health emergency](/wiki/Public_health_emergency_%28United_States%29 \"Public health emergency (United States)\"): the [Milwaukee County, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee_County%2C_Wisconsin \"Milwaukee County, Wisconsin\") executive in May 2019, and the [Cleveland City Council](/wiki/Cleveland_City_Council \"Cleveland City Council\"), in June 2020\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Dirr\\|first\\=Alison\\|title\\=Milwaukee County executive signs resolution declaring racism a public health crisis\\|url\\=https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/local/milwaukee/2019/05/20/abele\\-signs\\-resolution\\-declaring\\-racism\\-public\\-health\\-crisis/3741809002/\\|access\\-date\\=June 28, 2020\\|website\\=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Goist\\|first\\=Robin\\|date\\=June 28, 2020\\|title\\=What happens after declaring racism a public health crisis? A Wisconsin county offers a clue\\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2020/06/what\\-happens\\-after\\-a\\-city\\-or\\-county\\-declares\\-racism\\-a\\-public\\-health\\-crisis\\-a\\-wisconsin\\-county\\-offers\\-a\\-clue.html\\|access\\-date\\=June 28, 2020\\|website\\=Cleveland.com\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Housing and land",
"{{main\\|Housing discrimination in the United States}}\nA 2014 meta\\-analysis found extensive evidence of racial discrimination in the American housing market. Minority applicants for housing needed to make many more inquiries to view properties. Geographical steering of African Americans in US housing remains significant. A 2003 study found \"evidence that agents interpret an initial housing request as an indication of a customer's preferences, but also are more likely to withhold a house from all customers when it is in an integrated suburban neighborhood ([redlining](/wiki/Redlining \"Redlining\")). Moreover, agents' marketing efforts increase with asking price for white, but not for black, customers; blacks are more likely than whites to see houses in suburban, integrated areas ([steering](/wiki/Racial_steering \"Racial steering\")); and the houses agents show are more likely to deviate from the initial request when the customer is black than when the customer is white. These three findings are consistent with the possibility that agents act upon the belief that some types of transactions are relatively unlikely for black customers (statistical discrimination).\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Ondrich\\|first1\\=Jan\\|last2\\=Ross\\|first2\\=Stephen\\|last3\\=Yinger\\|first3\\=John\\|date\\=November 1, 2003\\|title\\=Now You See It, Now You Don't: Why Do Real Estate Agents Withhold Available Houses from Black Customers?\\|url\\=http://web2\\.uconn.edu/economics/working/2001\\-01\\.pdf\\|journal\\=Review of Economics and Statistics\\|volume\\=85\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=854–873\\|doi\\=10\\.1162/003465303772815772\\|s2cid\\=8524510}} Historically, there was extensive and long\\-lasting racial discrimination against African Americans in the housing and mortgage markets in the United States,{{Cite web\\|last1\\=Sander\\|first1\\=Richard H.\\|last2\\=Kucheva\\|first2\\=Yana A.\\|last3\\=Zasloff\\|first3\\=Jonathan M.\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Moving toward Integration\\|url\\=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn\\=9780674976535\\|publisher\\=Harvard University Press\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Taylor\\|first\\=Keeanga\\-Yamahtta\\|title\\=Race for Profit\\|url\\=https://uncpress.org/book/9781469653662/race\\-for\\-profit\\|access\\-date\\=November 3, 2019\\|website\\=University of North Carolina Press\\|language\\=en\\-US}} as well as discrimination against Black farmers whose numbers massively declined in post\\-WWII America due to anti\\-Black local and federal policies.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Newkirk II\\|first\\=Vann R.\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=The Great Land Robbery\\|work\\=The Atlantic\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/09/this\\-land\\-was\\-our\\-land/594742/\\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2019\\|issn\\=1072\\-7825}} According to a 2019 analysis by University of Pittsburgh economists, Blacks faced a two\\-fold penalty due to the racially segregated housing market: rental prices increased in blocks when they underwent racial transition whereas home values declined in neighborhoods that Blacks moved into.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Akbar\\|first1\\=Prottoy A\\|last2\\=Li\\|first2\\=Sijie\\|last3\\=Shertzer\\|first3\\=Allison\\|last4\\=Walsh\\|first4\\=Randall P\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=Racial Segregation in Housing Markets and the Erosion of Black Wealth \\|url\\=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25805\\|website\\=National Bureau of Economic Research\\|series\\=Working Paper Series \\|doi\\=10\\.3386/w25805\\|s2cid\\=159270884}}",
"A 2017 paper by Troesken and Walsh found that pre\\-20th century cities \"created and sustained residential segregation through private norms and vigilante activity.\" However, \"when these private arrangements began to break down during the early 1900s\" whites started \"lobbying municipal governments for segregation ordinances.\" As a result, cities passed ordinances which \"prohibited members of the majority racial group on a given city block from selling or renting property to members of another racial group\" between 1909 and 1917\\.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Walsh\\|first1\\=Randall\\|last2\\=Troesken\\|first2\\=Werner\\|year\\=2019\\|title\\=Collective Action, White Flight, and the Origins of Racial Zoning Laws\\|journal\\=The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=35\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=289–318\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/jleo/ewz006\\|hdl\\=10\\.1093/jleo/ewz006\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}",
"A 2017 study by Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago economists found that the practice of [redlining](/wiki/Redlining \"Redlining\")—the practice whereby banks discriminated against the inhabitants of certain neighborhoods—had a persistent adverse impact on the neighborhoods, with redlining affecting homeownership rates, home values and credit scores in 2010\\.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Aaronson\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|last2\\=Hartley\\|first2\\=Daniel A.\\|last3\\=Mazumder\\|first3\\=Bhashkar\\|date\\=September 2017\\|title\\=The Effects of the 1930s HOLC 'Redlining' Maps\\|journal\\=FRB of Chicago Working Paper No. WP\\-2017\\-12\\|ssrn\\=3038733}}{{Cite news\\|last\\=Badger\\|first\\=Emily\\|date\\=August 24, 2017\\|title\\=How Redlining's Racist Effects Lasted for Decades\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/24/upshot/how\\-redlinings\\-racist\\-effects\\-lasted\\-for\\-decades.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 26, 2017\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} Since many African Americans could not access conventional home loans, they had to turn to predatory lenders (who charged high interest rates). Due to lower homeownership rates, slumlords were able to rent out apartments that would otherwise be owned. A 2019 analysis estimated that predatory housing contracts targeting African Americans in Chicago in the 1950s and 1960s cost Black families between $3 billion and $4 billion in wealth.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Moore\\|first\\=Natalie\\|title\\=Contract Buying Robbed Black Families In Chicago Of Billions\\|url\\=https://www.wbez.org/shows/wbez\\-news/contract\\-buying\\-robbed\\-black\\-families\\-in\\-chicago\\-of\\-billions/d643ea19\\-2977\\-43d7\\-81c7\\-1d7a568c5c81\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20190605221042/https://www.wbez.org/shows/wbez\\-news/contract\\-buying\\-robbed\\-black\\-families\\-in\\-chicago\\-of\\-billions/d643ea19\\-2977\\-43d7\\-81c7\\-1d7a568c5c81\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=June 5, 2019\\|website\\=WBEZ\\|date\\=May 30, 2019\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Labor market",
"{{main\\|Employment discrimination\\|Occupational segregation}}\nSeveral meta\\-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the American labor market.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Zschirnt\\|first1\\=Eva\\|last2\\=Ruedin\\|first2\\=Didier\\|date\\=May 27, 2016\\|title\\=Ethnic discrimination in hiring decisions: a meta\\-analysis of correspondence tests 1990–2015\\|url\\=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/142176/1/Zschirnt%20Ruedin%202016%20Meta%20Pre\\-Print.pdf\\|journal\\=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies\\|volume\\=42\\|issue\\=7\\|pages\\=1115–1134\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/1369183X.2015\\.1133279\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104035433/https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/142176/1/Zschirnt%20Ruedin%202016%20Meta%20Pre\\-Print.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=November 4, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2018\\|hdl\\=10419/142176\\|s2cid\\=10261744}}{{Cite journal\\|author1\\=P. A. Riach\\|author2\\=J. Rich\\|date\\=November 2002\\|title\\=Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place\\|url\\=http://s3\\.amazonaws.com/fieldexperiments\\-papers2/papers/00328\\.pdf\\|journal\\=The Economic Journal\\|volume\\=112\\|issue\\=483\\|pages\\=F480–F518\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/1468\\-0297\\.00080\\|s2cid\\=19024888}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hexel\\|first1\\=Ole\\|last2\\=Fleischmann\\|first2\\=Fenella\\|last3\\=Midtbøen\\|first3\\=Arnfinn H.\\|last4\\=Pager\\|first4\\=Devah\\|last5\\=Heath\\|first5\\=Anthony\\|last6\\=Quillian\\|first6\\=Lincoln\\|date\\=June 17, 2019\\|title\\=Do Some Countries Discriminate More than Others? Evidence from 97 Field Experiments of Racial Discrimination in Hiring\\|journal\\=Sociological Science\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|volume\\=6\\|pages\\=467–496\\|doi\\=10\\.15195/v6\\.a18\\|issn\\=2330\\-6696\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|hdl\\=11250/2606818\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} A 2017 meta\\-analysis found \"no change in the levels of discrimination against African Americans since 1989, although we do find some indication of declining discrimination against Latinos.\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Quillian\\|first1\\=Lincoln\\|last2\\=Pager\\|first2\\=Devah\\|last3\\=Hexel\\|first3\\=Ole\\|last4\\=Midtbøen\\|first4\\=Arnfinn H.\\|date\\=September 12, 2017\\|title\\=Meta\\-analysis of field experiments shows no change in racial discrimination in hiring over time\\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=114\\|issue\\=41\\|pages\\=10870–10875\\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.1706255114\\|issn\\=0027\\-8424\\|pmc\\=5642692\\|pmid\\=28900012\\|bibcode\\=2017PNAS..11410870Q \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} A 2016 meta\\-analysis of 738 correspondence tests – tests where identical CVs for stereotypically Black and white names were sent to employers – in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North America. These correspondence tests showed that equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bertrand\\|first1\\=Marianne\\|last2\\=Mullainathan\\|first2\\=Sendhil\\|year\\=2004\\|title\\=Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination\\|url\\=http://s3\\.amazonaws.com/fieldexperiments\\-papers2/papers/00216\\.pdf\\|journal\\=American Economic Review\\|volume\\=94\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=991–1013\\|doi\\=10\\.1257/0002828042002561}} A study which examined the job applications of actual people who were provided with identical résumés and similar interview training showed that African\\-American applicants with no criminal record were offered jobs at a rate as low as white applicants who had criminal records.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Pager\\|first1\\=Devah\\|last2\\=Western\\|first2\\=Bruce\\|last3\\=Bonikowski\\|first3\\=Bart\\|date\\=October 1, 2009\\|title\\=Discrimination in a Low\\-Wage Labor Market A Field Experiment\\|journal\\=American Sociological Review\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=74\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=777–799\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/000312240907400505\\|pmc\\=2915472\\|pmid\\=20689685}} A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found evidence of racial bias in how CVs were evaluated.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Lahey\\|first1\\=Joanna N\\|last2\\=Oxley\\|first2\\=Douglas R\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Discrimination at the Intersection of Age, Race, and Gender: Evidence from a Lab\\-in\\-the\\-field Experiment\\|series\\=Working Paper Series \\|website\\=National Bureau of Economic Research \\|url\\=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25357\\|doi\\=10\\.3386/w25357\\|s2cid\\=38242869}} A 2020 study revealed that discrimination not only exists against minorities in callback rates in audit studies, it also increases in severity after the callbacks in terms of job offers.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Quillian\\|first1\\=Lincoln\\|last2\\=Lee\\|first2\\=John J.\\|last3\\=Oliver\\|first3\\=Mariana\\|year\\=2020\\|title\\=Evidence from Field Experiments in Hiring Shows Substantial Additional Racial Discrimination after the Callback\\|journal\\=Social Forces\\|volume\\=99\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=732–759\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/sf/soaa026\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"Research suggests that light\\-skinned African American women have higher salaries and greater job satisfaction than dark\\-skinned women.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Hunter\\|first1\\=Margaret\\|year\\=2002\\|title\\='If You're Light You're Alright': Light Skin Color as Social Capital for Women of Color\\|journal\\=Gender and Society\\|volume\\=16\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=175–193\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/08912430222104895\\|s2cid\\=145727411}} Being \"too black\" has recently been acknowledged by the U.S. Federal courts in an employment discrimination case under Title VII of the [Civil Rights Act of 1964](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964 \"Civil Rights Act of 1964\"). In *Etienne v. Spanish Lake Truck \\& Casino Plaza, LLC* the [United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit\"), determined that an employee who was told on several occasions that her manager thought she was \"too black\" to do various tasks, found that the issue of the employee's skin color, rather than race, itself, played a key role in an employer's decision to keep the employee from advancing.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Riddle\\|first1\\=Benjamin L.\\|date\\=February 25, 2015\\|title\\=\"Too Black\": Waitress's Claim of Color Bias Raises Novel Title VII Claim\\|url\\=http://www.natlawreview.com/article/too\\-black\\-waitress\\-s\\-claim\\-color\\-bias\\-raises\\-novel\\-title\\-vii\\-claim\\|journal\\=The National Law Review\\|access\\-date\\=February 28, 2015}} A 2018 study uncovered evidence which suggests that immigrants with darker skin colors are discriminated against.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hersch\\|first1\\=Joni\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Colorism Against Legal Immigrants to the United States\\|journal\\=American Behavioral Scientist\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=62\\|issue\\=14\\|pages\\=2117–2132\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0002764218810758\\|s2cid\\=150280312}}",
"### Media",
"{{See also\\|Cyber racism\\|Racial bias in criminal news in the United States\\|Racial stereotyping in advertising\\|Representation of African Americans in media}}\nA 2017 report by Travis L. Dixon (of the University of Illinois at Urbana\\-Champaign) found that major media outlets tended to portray Black families as dysfunctional and dependent, while white families were portrayed as stable. These portrayals may suggest that poverty and welfare are primarily Black issues. According to Dixon, this can reduce public support for social safety programs and lead to stricter welfare requirements.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Jan\\|first\\=Tracy\\|date\\=December 13, 2017\\|title\\=News media offers consistently warped portrayals of black families, study finds\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/12/13/news\\-media\\-offers\\-consistently\\-warped\\-portrayals\\-of\\-black\\-families\\-study\\-finds/\\|access\\-date\\=December 14, 2017\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}}{{Cite news\\|title\\=Report: A Dangerous Distortion of our Families\\|url\\=https://colorofchange.org/dangerousdistortion/\\|access\\-date\\=December 14, 2017}}",
"African Americans who possess a lighter skin complexion and \"European features,\" such as lighter eyes, and smaller noses and lips have more opportunities in the media industry. For example, film producers hire lighter\\-skinned African Americans more often, television producers choose lighter\\-skinned cast members, and magazine editors choose African American models that resemble European features.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Woodard\\|first1\\=K\\|year\\=2000\\|title\\=Traumatic Shame: Toni Morrison, Televisual Culture, and the Cultural Politics of the Emotions\\|journal\\=Cultural Critique\\|volume\\=46\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=210–240\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1354414\\|jstor\\=1354414}} A content analysis conducted by Scott and Neptune (1997\\) shows that less than one percent of advertisements in major magazines featured African American models. When African Americans did appear in advertisements, they were mainly portrayed as athletes, entertainers, or unskilled laborers. In addition, seventy percent of the advertisements that feature animal print included African American women. Animal print reinforces the stereotypes that African Americans are animalistic in nature, sexually active, less educated, have lower income, and extremely concerned with personal appearances.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Pious\\|first1\\=Scott\\|last2\\=Neptune\\|first2\\=Dominique\\|year\\=1997\\|title\\=Racial and Gender Biases in Magazine Advertising: A Content\\-Analytic Study\\|journal\\=Psychology of Women Quarterly\\|volume\\=21\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=627–644\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1471\\-6402\\.1997\\.tb00135\\.x\\|s2cid\\=12155745}} Concerning African American males in the media, darker\\-skinned men are more likely to be portrayed as violent or more threatening, influencing the public perception of African American men. Since dark\\-skinned males are more likely to be linked to crime and misconduct, many people develop preconceived notions about the characteristics of Black men.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Hall\\|first1\\=R\\|year\\=1995\\|title\\=The bleaching syndrome: African American's response to cultural domination vis\\-A\\-vis skin color\\|journal\\=Journal of Black Studies\\|volume\\=26\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=172–184\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/002193479502600205\\|s2cid\\=143934823}}",
"During and after slavery, minstrel shows were a very popular form of theater that involved white and Black people in [Blackface](/wiki/Blackface \"Blackface\"), portraying Black people while doing demeaning things. The actors painted their faces with Black paint and overlined their lips with bright red lipstick, to exaggerate and make fun of Black people.{{Cite web\\|title\\=The Minstrel Show\\|url\\=http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/jackson/minstrel/minstrel.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2017\\|website\\=chnm.gmu.edu\\|archive\\-date\\=November 28, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128092832/http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/jackson/minstrel/minstrel.html}} When minstrel shows died out and television became popular, Black actors were rarely hired, and when they were, they had very specific roles. These roles included being servants, slaves, idiots, and criminals.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Punyanunt\\|first\\=Narissa\\|title\\=The Perceived Realism of African American Portrayals on Television\\|journal\\=The Howard Journal of Communications}}",
"### Politics",
"{{See also\\|Identity politics\\|Radical right (United States)\\|Criticism of welfare}}\nPolitically, the \"[winner\\-takes\\-all](/wiki/Winner-takes-all_voting \"Winner-takes-all voting\")\" structure of the [electoral college](/wiki/United_States_electoral_college \"United States electoral college\") benefits white representation.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Deric.\\|first\\=Shannon\\|title\\=Political sociology: oppression, resistance, and the state\\|date\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Sage \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4129\\-8040\\-1\\|oclc\\=815880812}} This has been described as structural bias and often leads voters of color to feel [politically alienated](/wiki/Political_alienation \"Political alienation\") and therefore, not to vote. The lack of representation in Congress has also led to lower voter turnout. As of 2016, African Americans only made up 8\\.7% of Congress, and Latinos 7%.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Manning\\|first\\=Jennifer\\|year\\=2016\\|title\\=Membership of the 114th Congress: A Profile\\|url\\=https://www.senate.gov/CRSpubs/c527ba93\\-dd4a\\-4ad6\\-b79d\\-b1c9865ca076\\.pdf\\|journal\\=Congressional Research Service}}",
"[Voter ID laws](/wiki/Voter_ID_laws_in_the_United_States \"Voter ID laws in the United States\") have brought on accusations of racial discrimination. In a 2014 review by the [Government Accountability Office](/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office \"Government Accountability Office\") of the academic literature, three studies out of five found that voter ID laws reduced minority turnout, whereas two studies found no significant impact. Disparate impact may also be reflected in access to information about voter ID laws. A 2015 experimental study found that election officials queried about voter ID laws are more likely to respond to emails from a non\\-Latino white name (70\\.5% response rate) than a Latino name (64\\.8% response rate), though response accuracy was similar, across groups.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=White\\|first1\\=Ariel R.\\|last2\\=Nathan\\|first2\\=Noah L.\\|last3\\=Faller\\|first3\\=Julie K.\\|date\\=February 1, 2015\\|title\\=What Do I Need to Vote? Bureaucratic Discretion and Discrimination by Local Election Officials\\|journal\\=American Political Science Review\\|volume\\=109\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=129–142\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0003055414000562\\|s2cid\\=145471717}} Studies have also analyzed racial differences in ID requests rates. A 2012 study in the city of Boston found that Black and Hispanic voters were more likely to be asked for ID, during the 2008 election. According to exit polls, 23% of whites, 33% of Blacks, and 38% of Hispanics were asked for ID, though this effect is partially attributed to Black and Hispanics preferring non\\-peak voting hours, when election officials inspected a greater portion of IDs. Precinct differences also confound the data as Black and Hispanic voters tended to vote at Black and Hispanic\\-majority precincts.{{Cite news\\|last1\\=Cobb\\|first1\\=Rachael V.\\|last2\\=Greiner\\|last3\\=James\\|first3\\=D.\\|last4\\=Quinn\\|first4\\=Kevin M.\\|date\\=June 14, 2010\\|title\\=Can Voter ID Laws Be Administered in a Race\\-Neutral Manner? Evidence from the City of Boston in 2008\\|ssrn\\=1625041}} A 2015 study found that turnout, among Blacks in Georgia, was generally higher, since the state began enforcing its strict voter ID law.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Gillespie\\|first1\\=June Andra\\|year\\=2015\\|title\\=Voter Identification and Black Voter Turnout An Examination of Black Voter Turnout Patterns in Georgia, 2000–2014\\|journal\\=Phylon\\|volume\\=52\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=43–67\\|jstor\\=43681953}} A 2016 study by [University of California, San Diego](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_San_Diego \"University of California, San Diego\") researchers found that voter ID laws \"have a differentially negative impact on the turnout of Hispanics, Blacks, and mixed\\-race Americans in primaries and general elections.\"{{cite web\\|author\\=Hajnal, Zoltan\\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|date\\=2016\\|title\\=Voter Identification Laws and the Suppression of Minority Votes\\|url\\=http://pages.ucsd.edu/\\~zhajnal/page5/documents/voterIDhajnaletal.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2016}}",
"Research by University of Oxford economist Evan Soltas and Stanford political scientist David Broockman suggests that voters act upon racially discriminatory tastes.{{Cite news\\|last1\\=Soltas\\|first1\\=Evan\\|last2\\=Broockman\\|first2\\=David E.\\|date\\=February 23, 2017\\|title\\=Taste\\-Based Discrimination Against Nonwhite Political Candidates: Evidence from a Natural Experiment\\|ssrn\\=2920729}} A 2018 study in *[Public Opinion Quarterly](/wiki/Public_Opinion_Quarterly \"Public Opinion Quarterly\")* found that whites, in particular those who had racial resentment, largely attributed Obama's success among African\\-Americans to his race and not his characteristics as a candidate and the political preferences of African\\-Americans.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wilson\\|first1\\=David C.\\|last2\\=Davis\\|first2\\=Darren W.\\|year\\=2018\\|title\\=The Racial Double Standardattributing Racial Motivations in Voting Behavior\\|journal\\=Public Opinion Quarterly\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=82\\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=63–86\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/poq/nfx050}} A 2018 study in the journal *[American Politics Research](/wiki/American_Politics_Research \"American Politics Research\")* found that white voters tended to misperceive political candidates from racial minorities as being more ideologically extreme than objective indicators would suggest; this adversely affected the electoral chances for those candidates.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Fulton\\|first1\\=Sarah A\\|last2\\=Gershon\\|first2\\=Sarah Allen\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Too Liberal to Win? Race and Voter Perceptions of Candidate Ideology\\|journal\\=American Politics Research\\|volume\\=46\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=909–939\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1532673X18759642\\|s2cid\\=158113285}} A 2018 study in the *[Journal of Politics](/wiki/The_Journal_of_Politics \"The Journal of Politics\")* found that \"when a white candidate makes vague statements, many \\[nonblack] voters project their own policy positions onto the candidate, increasing support for the candidate. But they are less likely to extend black candidates the same courtesy... In fact, black male candidates who make ambiguous statements are actually punished for doing so by racially prejudiced voters.\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Piston\\|first1\\=Spencer\\|last2\\=Krupnikov\\|first2\\=Yanna\\|last3\\=Milita\\|first3\\=Kerri\\|last4\\=Ryan\\|first4\\=John Barry\\|date\\=March 1, 2018\\|title\\=Clear as Black and White: The Effects of Ambiguous Rhetoric Depend on Candidate Race\\|journal\\=The Journal of Politics\\|volume\\=80\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=662–674\\|doi\\=10\\.1086/696619\\|issn\\=0022\\-3816\\|hdl\\=2144/31470\\|s2cid\\=148940141\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}",
"It is argued that the racial coding of concepts, like crime and welfare, has been used to strategically influence public political views. Racial coding is implicit; it incorporates racially primed language or imagery to allude to racial attitudes and thinking. For example, in the context of domestic policy, it is argued that [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") implied that linkages existed between concepts like \"special interests\" and \"[big government](/wiki/Big_government \"Big government\")\" and ill\\-perceived minority groups in the 1980s, using the conditioned negativity which existed toward the minority groups to discredit certain policies and programs during campaigns. In a study which analyzes how political ads prime attitudes, Valentino compares the voting responses of participants after they are exposed to the narration of a George W. Bush advertisement which is paired with three different types of visuals which contain different embedded racial cues to create three conditions: neutral, race comparison, and undeserving Blacks. For example, as the narrator states \"Democrats want to spend your tax dollars on wasteful government programs,” the video shows an image of a Black woman and her child in an office setting. Valentino found that the undeserving Blacks condition produced the largest primed effect in racialized policies, like opposition to [affirmative action](/wiki/Affirmative_action \"Affirmative action\") and welfare spending.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Valentino\\|first\\=Nicholas\\|author\\-link\\=Nicholas Valentino\\|date\\=March 2002\\|title\\=Cues that Matter: How Political Ads Prime Racial Attitudes during Campaigns\\|journal\\=The American Political Science Review\\|volume\\=96\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=75–90\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/s0003055402004240\\|jstor\\=3117811\\|s2cid\\=30996282}}",
"[Ian Haney López](/wiki/Ian_Haney_L%C3%B3pez \"Ian Haney López\"), Professor of Law at the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley \"University of California, Berkeley\"), refers to the phenomenon of racial coding as [dog\\-whistle politics](/wiki/Dog-whistle_politics \"Dog-whistle politics\"), which, he argues, has pushed middle class white Americans to vote against their economic self\\-interest to punish \"undeserving minorities\" which, they believe, are receiving too much public assistance at their expense. According to López, conservative middle\\-class whites, convinced that minorities are the enemy by powerful economic interests, supported politicians who promised to curb illegal immigration and crack down on crime, but inadvertently they also voted for policies that favor the extremely rich, such as slashing taxes for top income brackets, giving corporations more regulatory control over industry and financial markets, [busting unions](/wiki/Union_busting \"Union busting\"), cutting pensions for future public employees, reducing funding for public schools, and retrenching the social welfare state. He argues that these same voters cannot link rising inequality which has impacted their lives to the policy agendas which they support, which resulted in a massive transfer of wealth to the top 1% of the population since the 1980s.[Full Show: Ian Haney López on the Dog Whistle Politics of Race, Part I](http://billmoyers.com/episode/ian-haney-lopez-on-the-dog-whistle-politics-of-race/). *[Moyers \\& Company](/wiki/Moyers_%26_Company \"Moyers & Company\")*, February 28, 2014\\. See also: [Ian Haney López](/wiki/Ian_Haney_L%C3%B3pez \"Ian Haney López\"). *[Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class](https://global.oup.com/academic/product/dog-whistle-politics-9780190229252?cc=us&lang=en&) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218104049/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/dog\\-whistle\\-politics\\-9780199964277?cc\\=us⟨\\=en\\&\\|date\\=December 18, 2014}}*. [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press \"Oxford University Press\"), 2014\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-996427\\-0}}",
"A book released by the former attorney of [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\"), [Michael Cohen](/wiki/Michael_Cohen_%28lawyer%29 \"Michael Cohen (lawyer)\"), in September 2020, *[Disloyal: A Memoir](/wiki/Disloyal:A_Memoir \"A Memoir\")* described Trump as routinely referring to Black leaders of foreign nations with racial insults and that he was consumed with hatred for [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\"). Cohen, in the book, explained that \"as a rule, Trump expressed low opinions of all Black folks, from music to culture and politics\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/06/us/politics/cohen\\-book\\-trump.html\\|title\\=Michael Cohen's Book Says Trump Held 'Low Opinions of All Black Folks'\\|access\\-date\\=September 6, 2020\\|website\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=September 6, 2020\\|last1\\=Haberman\\|first1\\=Maggie}}",
"### Religion",
"{{main\\|Racial segregation of churches in the United States}}\n{{See also\\|Religion in the United States\\#Ethnicity\\|Freedom of religion in the United States\\|History of religion in the United States\\|Anti\\-Catholicism in the United States\\|Anti\\-Mormonism\\|Antisemitism in the United States\\|Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century\\|History of antisemitism in the United States\\|List of antisemitic incidents in the United States\\|List of attacks against African\\-American churches\\|List of attacks against Latter\\-day Saint churches\\|Religion of Black Americans\\|Religious discrimination in the United States}}",
"### Wealth",
"{{See also\\|Wealth inequality in the United States\\|Social determinants of mental health\\|Social determinants of health}}",
"Large racial differentials in wealth remain in the United States: between whites and African Americans, the gap is a factor of twenty.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=July 26, 2011\\|title\\=Wealth gap widens: Whites' net worth is 20 times that of blacks\\|url\\=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2011/0726/Wealth\\-gap\\-widens\\-Whites\\-net\\-worth\\-is\\-20\\-times\\-that\\-of\\-blacks\\|journal\\=Christian Science Monitor\\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}} An analyst of the phenomenon, Thomas Shapiro, professor of law and social policy at [Brandeis University](/wiki/Brandeis_University \"Brandeis University\") argues, \"The [wealth gap](/wiki/Wealth_gap \"Wealth gap\") is not just a story of merit and achievement, it's also a story of the historical legacy of race in the United States.\"\"[Census report: Broad racial disparities persist](https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna15704759)\", November 14, 2006\\. Differentials applied to the [Social Security Act](/wiki/Social_Security_%28United_States%29 \"Social Security (United States)\") (which excluded agricultural workers, a sector which then included most black workers), rewards to military officers, and the educational benefits offered returning soldiers after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). Pre\\-existing disparities in wealth are exacerbated by tax policies that reward investment over waged income, subsidize mortgages, and subsidize private sector developers.George Lipsitz, \"[The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: Racialized Social Democracy and the \"White\" Problem in American Studies](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713291),\" *American Quarterly*, Vol. 47, No. 3\\. (September 1995\\), pp. 369–387\\.",
"Redlining intentionally excluded black Americans from accumulating intergenerational wealth. The effects of this exclusion on black Americans' health continue to play out daily, generations later, in the same communities. This is evident currently in the disproportionate effects that COVID\\-19 has had on the same communities which the HOLC redlined in the 1930s. Research published in September 2020 overlaid maps of the highly affected COVID\\-19 areas with the HOLC maps, showing that those areas marked \"risky\" to lenders because they contained minority residents were the same neighborhoods most affected by COVID\\-19\\. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) looks at inequities in the social determinants of health like concentrated poverty and healthcare access that are interrelated and influence health outcomes with regard to COVID\\-19 as well as quality of life in general for minority groups. The CDC points to discrimination within health care, education, criminal justice, housing, and finance, direct results of systematically subversive tactics like redlining which led to chronic and toxic stress that shaped social and economic factors for minority groups, increasing their risk for COVID\\-19\\. Healthcare access is similarly limited by factors like a lack of public transportation, child care, and communication and language barriers which result from the spatial and economic isolation of minority communities from redlining. Educational, income, and wealth gaps that result from this isolation mean that minority groups' limited access to the job market may force them to remain in fields that have a higher risk of exposure to the virus, without options to take time off. Finally, a direct result of redlining is the overcrowding of minority groups into neighborhoods that do not boast adequate housing to sustain burgeoning populations, leading to crowded conditions that make prevention strategies for COVID\\-19 nearly impossible to implement.\"Mapping Inequality.\" Digital Scholarship Lab, dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Richardson \\|first1\\=Jason \\|last2\\=Mitchell \\|first2\\=Bruce C. \\|last3\\=Meier \\|first3\\=Helen C.S. \\|last4\\=Lynch \\|first4\\=Emily \\|last5\\=Edlebi \\|first5\\=Jad \\|date\\=10 September 2020 \\|title\\=Redlining and Neighborhood Health \\|url\\=https://ncrc.org/holc\\-health/ \\|publisher\\=NCRC}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Myers \\|first1\\=JoAnne \\|title\\=The good citizen: the markers of privilege in America \\|date\\=2020 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-351\\-00669\\-9 \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781351006705 \\|oclc\\=1111653987 \\|s2cid\\=211349002}}{{page needed\\|date\\=March 2022}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Badger \\|first1\\=Emily \\|date\\=10 May 2019 \\|title\\=Can the Racial Wealth Gap Be Closed Without Speaking of Race? \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/10/upshot/racial\\-wealth\\-gap\\-2020\\-candidates.html \\|work\\=The New York Times}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Danaei \\|first1\\=Goodarz \\|last2\\=Rimm \\|first2\\=Eric B. \\|last3\\=Oza \\|first3\\=Shefali \\|last4\\=Kulkarni \\|first4\\=Sandeep C. \\|last5\\=Murray \\|first5\\=Christopher J. L. \\|last6\\=Ezzati \\|first6\\=Majid \\|date\\=2010 \\|title\\=The Promise of Prevention: The Effects of Four Preventable Risk Factors on National Life Expectancy and Life Expectancy Disparities by Race and County in the United States \\|journal\\=PLOS Medicine \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=e1000248 \\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pmed.1000248 \\|pmc\\=2843596 \\|pmid\\=20351772 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Howell \\|first1\\=Brittani \\|date\\=24 June 2020 \\|title\\=How Redlining, Racism Harm Black Americans' Health \\|url\\=https://www.wyso.org/2020\\-06\\-24/how\\-redlining\\-racism\\-harm\\-black\\-americans\\-health \\|work\\=WYSO}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=CDC \\|date\\=2020\\-04\\-30 \\|title\\=Communities, Schools, Workplaces, \\& Events \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019\\-ncov/community/health\\-equity/race\\-ethnicity.html \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-09 \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805071354/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019\\-ncov/community/health\\-equity/race\\-ethnicity.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 5, 2020 }}",
"A 2014 meta\\-analysis of racial discrimination in product markets found extensive evidence of minority applicants being quoted higher prices for products.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Rich\\|first\\=Judith\\|date\\=November 2014\\|title\\=What Do Field Experiments of Discrimination in Markets Tell Us? A Meta Analysis of Studies Conducted Since 2000\\|journal\\=IZA Discussion Paper No. 8584\\|ssrn\\=2517887}}",
"Historically, African\\-Americans have faced discrimination in terms of getting access to credit.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Hyman\\|first\\=Louis\\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=Ending Discrimination, Legitimating Debt: The Political Economy of Race, Gender, and Credit Access in the 1960s and 1970s\\|journal\\=Enterprise \\& Society\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=12\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=200–232\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S1467222700009770\\|s2cid\\=154351557\\|issn\\=1467\\-2227}}",
""
] |
African Americans
-----------------
{{Main\|Racism against African Americans}}
{{Further\|African\-American history\|History of the Southern United States\|Stereotypes of African Americans\|Black nationalism}}
### Antebellum period
[thumb\|Scars on an enslaved man, Peter, April 2, 1863, [Baton Rouge, Louisiana](/wiki/Baton_Rouge%2C_Louisiana "Baton Rouge, Louisiana")](/wiki/File:Whippedslaveedit.jpg "Whippedslaveedit.jpg")
{{Further\|The 1619 Project\|Antebellum South}}
Between 1626 and 1860, the [Atlantic slave trade](/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade "Atlantic slave trade") brought more than 470,000 enslaved Africans to what is now the United States.{{cite book\|last\=Eltis\|first\=David\|title\=Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database \|url\=https://archive.org/details/extendingfrontie00elti \|url\-access\=limited \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=Yale University Press\|location\=New Haven\|isbn\=978\-0\-300\-13436\-0\| page\=\[https://archive.org/details/extendingfrontie00elti/page/n47 31]}}{{cite web\|last\=Eltis \|first\=David \|title\=Estimates \|url\=http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/assessment/estimates.faces \|access\-date\=October 19, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027021745/http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/assessment/estimates.faces \|archive\-date\=October 27, 2013 }} White European Americans who participated in the slave industry tried to justify their economic exploitation of [Black people](/wiki/Black_people "Black people") by creating a ["scientific" theory of white superiority and Black inferiority](/wiki/Scientific_racism "Scientific racism").{{cite journal \|jstor\=41202851 \|title\=Uprooting Racism and Racists in the United States \|last\=Boggs \|first\=James \|author\-link\=James Boggs (activist) \|journal\=The Black Scholar \|publisher\=Paradigm Publishers \|date\=October 1970 \|volume\=2 \|number\=2 \|pages\=2–5\|doi\=10\.1080/00064246\.1970\.11431000 }} One such slave owner was [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson"), and it was his call for science to determine the obvious "inferiority" of Blacks that is regarded as "an extremely important stage in the evolution of scientific racism."{{cite journal \|last1\=Garrod \|first1\=Joel Z.\|title\=A Brave Old World: An Analysis of Scientific Racism and BiDil \|journal\=McGill Journal of Medicine \|volume\=9\|issue\=1\|pages\=54–60\|pmc\=2687899\|year\=2006\|pmid\=19529811}} He concluded that Blacks were "inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind."Paul Finkelman (November 12, 2012\). ["The Monster of Monticello"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/01/opinion/the-real-thomas-jefferson.html?pagewanted=all). *The New York Times*. Retrieved July 14, 2020\.
After the importation of [slaves into the United States](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States") was outlawed by federal law from 1808, the [domestic slave trade](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States%23Domestic_slave_trade_and_forced_migration "Slavery in the United States#Domestic slave trade and forced migration") was expanded in an attempt to replace it.{{Cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mhJcsiydNe8C\&pg\=PA20 \|page\=20\|title\=Language, Discourse and Power in African American Culture \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-00149\-6 \|date\=2002 \|last1\=Morgan \|first1\=Marcyliena\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press }} Maryland and Virginia, for example, would "export" their surplus slaves to the South. These sales of slaves broke up many families, with historian [Ira Berlin](/wiki/Ira_Berlin "Ira Berlin") writing that whether slaves were directly uprooted or lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people".Berlin, *Generations of Captivity*, pp. 161–162\.
During the 1820s and 1830s, the [American Colonization Society](/wiki/American_Colonization_Society "American Colonization Society") established the colony of [Liberia](/wiki/Liberia "Liberia") and persuaded thousands of free Black Americans to move there because many members of the white elite both in the North and the South saw them as a problem to be got rid of.
Even figures, such as [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln"), who opposed slavery showed ingrained racist attitudes. Lincoln said during the Fourth [Lincoln\-Douglas debate](/wiki/Lincoln-Douglas_debates "Lincoln-Douglas debates") held in Charleston, Illinois, on September 18, 1858: "I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, \[applause]\-that I am not nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people; and I will say in addition to this that there is a physical difference between the white and black races which I believe will forever forbid the two races living together on terms of social and political equality. And inasmuch as they cannot so live, while they do remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I as much as any other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race."[Fourth Debate: Charleston, Illinois](https://www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/debate4.html), April 10, 2015\. Retrieved March 13, 2022
Both during and immediately after the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), about four million enslaved African Americans were set free, major legal actions included
[President Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln")'s [Emancipation Proclamation](/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation "Emancipation Proclamation") which came into effect on January 1, 1863, and the [Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") which finally abolished slavery in December 1865\.[XIII – Slavery Abolished](http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/amend1.htm#13) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819194412/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/amend1\.htm \|date\=August 19, 2016 }} The Avalon Project
### From the Reconstruction Era to World War II
{{Main\|Nadir of American race relations}}
{{See also\|List of expulsions of African Americans\|Lynching in the United States\|Mass racial violence in the United States}}
[thumb\|252px\|A group of white men pose for a 1919 photograph as they stand over the body of the Black lynching victim Will Brown before they decide to mutilate and burn them during the [Omaha race riot of 1919](/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919 "Omaha race riot of 1919") in [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska "Omaha, Nebraska"). Photographs and postcards of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the U.S.Moyers, Bill. ["Legacy of Lynching"](https://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/11232007/profile2.html). PBS. Retrieved July 28, 2016](/wiki/Image:Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg "Omaha courthouse lynching.jpg")
After the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), the [Reconstruction Era](/wiki/Reconstruction_Era "Reconstruction Era") was characterized by the passage of federal legislation which was designed to protect the rights of the formerly enslaved people, including the [Civil Rights Act of 1866](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866 "Civil Rights Act of 1866") and the [Civil Rights Act of 1875](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875 "Civil Rights Act of 1875"). The [Fourteenth amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") granted full citizenship to African Americans and the [Fifteenth amendment](/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") guaranteed the [voting rights](/wiki/Voting_rights "Voting rights") of African\-American men (see [Reconstruction Amendments](/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments "Reconstruction Amendments")).
Despite this, [white supremacists](/wiki/White_supremacy "White supremacy") came to power in all Southern states, by intimidating Black voters with the assistance of terrorist groups like the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan"), the [Red Shirts](/wiki/Red_Shirts_%28Southern_United_States%29 "Red Shirts (Southern United States)") and the [White League](/wiki/White_League "White League"). "[Black Codes](/wiki/Black_Codes_%28United_States%29 "Black Codes (United States)")" and [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws "Jim Crow laws") deprived African Americans of voting rights and other civil liberties by instituting systemic and discriminatory policies of unequal [racial segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation "Racial segregation").{{cite journal\|last\=Klarman\|first\=Michael\|title\=The Plessy Era\|journal\=The Supreme Court Review\|volume\=1998\|year\=1998\|pages\=307–308\|jstor\=3109701\|doi\=10\.1086/scr.1998\.3109701\|s2cid\=147074451}} Segregated facilities extended from white\-only schools to white\-only graveyards.["Barack Obama legacy: Did he improve US race relations?"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-38536668). BBC. Retrieved August 9, 2017 [Anti\-miscegenation laws](/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States "Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States") forbade marriage and even sex between whites and non\-whites.{{cite SSRN \|ssrn\=283998 \|title\=Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti\-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950 \|date\=April 14, 2011\| last1\=Karthikeyan\| first1\=Hrishi\| last2\=Chin\|first2\=Gabriel Jackson}}
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, [ethnic tensions](/wiki/Ethnic_tensions "Ethnic tensions") commonly existed between [Austrian](/wiki/Austrians "Austrians") [immigrants](/wiki/Immigrants "Immigrants") and African\-Americans with long\-rooted family histories in the United States, and racism and racist policies against non\-white workers were often contributed to by [Austrians](/wiki/Austrian_Americans "Austrian Americans").{{Cite book \|last\=Andrews \|first\=Thomas G. \|title\=Killing for Coal: America's Deadliest Labor War \|publisher\=\[\[Harvard University Press]] \|year\=2008 \|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-03101\-2 \|location\=Cambridge \|page\=89 \|author\-link\=Thomas G. Andrews (historian)}}
The new century saw a hardening of [institutionalized racism](/wiki/Institutionalized_racism "Institutionalized racism") and legal discrimination against citizens of African descent in the United States. Throughout the post\-Civil War period, [racial stratification](/wiki/Racial_stratification "Racial stratification") was informally and systemically enforced, to solidify the pre\-existing social order. Although their vote was guaranteed by the 15th Amendment, [poll taxes](/wiki/Poll_tax_%28United_States%29 "Poll tax (United States)"), pervasive acts of [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism "Terrorism") such as [lynchings](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States "Lynching in the United States") (often perpetrated by [hate groups](/wiki/Hate_group "Hate group") such as the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan")), and discriminatory laws such as [grandfather clauses](/wiki/Grandfather_clauses "Grandfather clauses") kept Black Americans [disenfranchised](/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era "Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era") in most Southern states. In response to [de jure](/wiki/De_jure "De jure") racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP "NAACP") (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909\.Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds. *Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience*, in articles "Civil Rights Movement" by Patricia Sullivan (pp. 441–455\) and "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" by Kate Tuttle (pp 1, 388–1, 391\). {{ISBN\|0\-465\-00071\-1}}.
This era is sometimes referred to as the [nadir of American race relations](/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations "Nadir of American race relations") because racism, [segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States "Racial segregation in the United States"), [racial discrimination](/wiki/Racial_discrimination "Racial discrimination"), and expressions of [white supremacy](/wiki/White_supremacy "White supremacy") all increased. So did anti\-Black violence, including [race riots](/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States "Mass racial violence in the United States") such as the [Atlanta race riot](/wiki/Atlanta_race_riot "Atlanta race riot") of 1906, the [Elaine massacre](/wiki/Elaine_massacre "Elaine massacre") of 1919, the [Tulsa race massacre](/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre "Tulsa race massacre") of 1921, the [Perry massacre](/wiki/Perry_massacre "Perry massacre") of 1922, and the [Rosewood massacre](/wiki/Rosewood_massacre "Rosewood massacre") of 1923\. The Atlanta riot was characterized as a "racial massacre of negroes" by the French newspaper *[Le Petit Journal](/wiki/Le_Petit_Journal_%28newspaper%29 "Le Petit Journal (newspaper)")*.{{cite news \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=September 24, 1906 \|title\=Un lynchage monstre \|url\=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6176609/f3\.image \|url\-status\=live \|work\=\[\[Le Petit Journal (newspaper)\|Le Petit Journal]] \|location\= \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225115030/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6176609/f3\.image \|archive\-date\=February 25, 2021 }} The Charleston *[News and Courier](/wiki/The_Post_and_Courier "The Post and Courier")* wrote in response to the Atlanta riots: "Separation of the races is the only radical solution of the negro problem in this country. There is nothing new about it. It was the Almighty who established the bounds of the habitation of the races. The negroes were brought here by compulsion; they should be induced to leave here by persuasion."["Deporting the Negroes"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1906/09/30/101799831.pdf) (September 30, 1906\) *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*
Additionally, racism, which had previously been considered a problem which primarily existed in the [Southern states](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States"), burst onto the nation's consciousness following the [Great Migration](/wiki/Great_Migration_%28African_American%29 "Great Migration (African American)"), the relocation of millions of African Americans from their roots in the rural Southern states to the industrial centers of the North and West between 1910 and 1970\.
[thumb\|left\|White tenants seeking to prevent Blacks from moving into the [housing project](/wiki/Public_housing_in_Detroit "Public housing in Detroit") erected this sign. Detroit, 1942\.](/wiki/File:We_want_white_tenants.jpg "We want white tenants.jpg")
Throughout this period, racial tensions exploded, most violently in Chicago, and [lynchings](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States "Lynching in the United States")—mob\-directed hangings, usually racially motivated—increased dramatically in the 1920s. Urban riots—whites attacking Blacks—became a northern and western problem.Michael O. Emerson, Christian Smith (2001\). "Divided by Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of Race in America". p. 42\. Oxford University Press Many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward African Americans, while many other whites migrated to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions, a process known as [white flight](/wiki/White_flight "White flight").{{cite book\|last\=Seligman\|first\=Amanda\|title\=Block by block: neighborhoods and public policy on Chicago's West Side\|year\=2005\|publisher\=University of Chicago Press\|location\=Chicago\|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-74663\-0\|pages\=213–214}} Racially restrictive housing covenants were ruled unenforceable under the [14th Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") in the 1948 landmark [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") case *[Shelley v. Kraemer](/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer "Shelley v. Kraemer")*.*Shelley v. Kraemer*, 334 U.S. 1 (1948\)
[Elected in 1912](/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election "1912 United States presidential election"), President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson") [authorized the practice of racial segregation](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race%23Segregating_the_federal_bureaucracy "Woodrow Wilson and race#Segregating the federal bureaucracy") throughout the federal government's bureaucracy.Michael Kazin, Rebecca Edwards, Adam Rothman (2009\). "The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History". p. 245\. Princeton University Press In [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), Blacks who served in the [United States Armed Forces](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces "United States Armed Forces") served in [segregated units](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces "Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces"). Black soldiers were often poorly trained and equipped, and they were often put on the frontlines and forced to go on [suicide missions](/wiki/Suicide_mission "Suicide mission"). The U.S. military was still heavily segregated during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). In addition, no African\-American was awarded the [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor") during the war, and sometimes, Black soldiers who traveled on trains had to give their seats up to Nazi prisoners of war.["Forgotten' details heroism of black soldiers in WWII"](http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/forgotten-details-heroism-black-soldiers-wwii-article-1.2419211). New York Daily News. Retrieved August 5, 2017
### From World War II to the Civil Rights Movement
[thumb\|Due to threats and violence against her, U.S. Marshals escorted 6\-year\-old [Ruby Bridges](/wiki/Ruby_Bridges "Ruby Bridges") to and from the previously whites only [William Frantz Elementary School](/wiki/William_Frantz_Elementary_School "William Frantz Elementary School") in New Orleans, 1960\. As soon as Bridges entered the school, white parents pulled their children out.](/wiki/File:US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg "US Marshals with Young Ruby Bridges on School Steps.jpg")
The [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws "Jim Crow laws") were state and local laws which were enacted in the [Southern](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States") and [border states](/wiki/Border_states_%28Civil_War%29 "Border states (Civil War)") of the United States and enforced between 1876 and 1965\. They mandated "[separate but equal](/wiki/Separate_but_equal "Separate but equal")" status for Blacks. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were almost always inferior to those which were provided to whites. The most important laws required that public schools, public places, and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and Blacks. State\-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the [Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") in 1954 in *[Brown v. Board of Education](/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education "Brown v. Board of Education")*. One of the first federal court cases which challenged segregation in schools was [Mendez v. Westminster](/wiki/Mendez_v._Westminster "Mendez v. Westminster") in 1946\.
By the 1950s, the [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement") was gaining momentum. Membership in the NAACP increased in states across the U.S. Notable acts of anti\-Black violence that sparked public outrage included the 1955 lynching of 14\-year\-old [Emmett Till](/wiki/Emmett_Till "Emmett Till") and the 1963 assassination of civil rights activist and [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP "NAACP") member [Medgar Evers](/wiki/Medgar_Evers "Medgar Evers") by a member of the [White Citizens' Council](/wiki/White_Citizens%27_Council "White Citizens' Council"). In both cases, the perpetrators were able to evade conviction with the help of [all\-white juries](/wiki/Racial_discrimination_in_jury_selection "Racial discrimination in jury selection"). In the 1963 [16th Street Baptist Church bombing](/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing "16th Street Baptist Church bombing"), [Ku Klux Klansmen](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") killed four Black girls, aged 11 to 14\.{{cite news\|last\=Ravitz\|first\=Jessica\|title\=Siblings of the bombing: Remembering Birmingham church blast 50 years on\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/14/us/birmingham\-church\-bombing\-anniversary\-victims\-siblings/\|access\-date\=October 20, 2013}}{{cite web\|title\=Birmingham Church Bombed\|url\=http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/la\-rebellion/timeline/birmingham\-church\-bombed\-0\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015055957/http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/la\-rebellion/timeline/birmingham\-church\-bombed\-0\|archive\-date\=October 15, 2013\|access\-date\=October 20, 2013\|publisher\=L.A. Rebellion: Film \& Television Archive}}
In response to heightening discrimination and violence, non\-violent acts of protest began to occur. The [Greensboro sit\-ins](/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins "Greensboro sit-ins"), starting in February 1960, contributed to the formation of the [Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee](/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee "Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee"). After many [sit\-ins](/wiki/Sit-in "Sit-in") and other non\-violent protests, including marches and boycotts, places began to agree to desegregate.Carol Berkin, Christopher Miller, Robert Cherny, James Gormly (2011\). "Making America: A History of the United States, Volume 2: From 1865". p. 749\. Cengage Learning
[thumb\|left\|[Rosa Parks](/wiki/Rosa_Parks "Rosa Parks") being fingerprinted on February 22, 1956, after being arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white person](/wiki/File:Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_for_refusing_to_give_up_her_seat_for_a_white_passenger_on_a_segregated_municipal_bus_in_Montgomery%2C_Alabama.jpg "Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for refusing to give up her seat for a white passenger on a segregated municipal bus in Montgomery, Alabama.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|[Bayard Rustin](/wiki/Bayard_Rustin "Bayard Rustin") (left) and [Cleveland Robinson](/wiki/Cleveland_Robinson "Cleveland Robinson") (right), organizers of the March, on August 7, 1963](/wiki/File:Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg "Bayard Rustin NYWTS 3.jpg")
The [March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom](/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom "March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom") on August 28, 1963, with an estimated 250,000 Black and white participants, at which [Martin Luther King Jr.](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. "Martin Luther King Jr.") delivered his historic "[I Have a Dream](/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream "I Have a Dream")" speech, helped facilitate the passage of the [Civil Rights Act of 1964](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964 "Civil Rights Act of 1964") and the [Voting Rights Act of 1965](/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965 "Voting Rights Act of 1965"). In *[Loving v. Virginia](/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia "Loving v. Virginia")* (1967\), the Supreme Court declared [anti\-miscegenation laws](/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_law "Anti-miscegenation law") unconstitutional.{{cite news\|title\=Eugenics, Race, and Marriage\|website\=Facing History.org\|url\=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource\-library/eugenics\-race\-and\-marriage\|access\-date\=February 23, 2021}}
Segregation continued even after the demise of the Jim Crow laws. Data on house prices and attitudes towards integration suggest that in the mid\-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude Blacks from their neighborhoods.*The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto* David M. Cutler, Edward L. Glaeser, Jacob L. Vigdor *The Journal of Political Economy*, Vol. 107, No. 3 (Jun. 1999\), pp. 455–506 Segregation also took the form of [redlining](/wiki/Redlining "Redlining"), the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,{{cite web\|title\=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities\|url\=http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913\.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130210614/http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913\.pdf\|archive\-date\=November 30, 2007\|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}} access to health care,See: [Race and health](/wiki/Race_and_health "Race and health") or even supermarkets{{Cite journal\|last1\=Eisenhauer\|first1\=Elizabeth\|year\=2001\|title\=In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition\|journal\=GeoJournal\|volume\=53\|issue\=2\|pages\=125–133\|doi\=10\.1023/A:1015772503007\|bibcode\=2001GeoJo..53\..125E \|s2cid\=151164815}} to residents in certain, often racially determined,{{Cite book\|last1\=Thabit\|first1\=Walter\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TWo8OFJpFtAC\|title\=How East New York Became a Ghetto\|year\=2003\|isbn\=978\-0\-8147\-8267\-5\|page\=42\|publisher\=NYU Press }} areas. Although in the U.S. informal discrimination and segregation have always existed, redlining began with the [National Housing Act of 1934](/wiki/National_Housing_Act_of_1934 "National Housing Act of 1934"), which established the [Federal Housing Administration](/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration "Federal Housing Administration") (FHA). The practice was fought first through passage of the [Fair Housing Act of 1968](/wiki/Fair_Housing_Act_of_1968 "Fair Housing Act of 1968") (which prevents redlining when the criteria for redlining are based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability, or ethnic origin), and later through the [Community Reinvestment Act](/wiki/Community_Reinvestment_Act "Community Reinvestment Act") of 1977, which requires banks to apply the same lending criteria in all communities.{{Cite book\|last1\=Grogan\|first1\=Paul\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ISBN0813339529\|title\=Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival\|last2\=Proscio\|first2\=Tony\|date\=2001\|isbn\=978\-0\-8133\-3952\-8\|page\=114\|quote\=The goal was not to relax lending restrictions but rather to get banks to apply the same criteria in the inner\-city as in the \[\[suburbs]].}}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Although redlining is illegal some argue that it continues to exist in other forms.
Up until the 1940s, the full revenue potential of what was called "the Negro market" was largely ignored by white\-owned manufacturers in the U.S., with advertising focused on whites.{{cite news\|date\=January 9, 2016\|title\=How Pepsi Opened Door to Diversity\|newspaper\=Wall Street Journal\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB116831396726171042}} Blacks, including Olympic champion [Jesse Owens](/wiki/Jesse_Owens "Jesse Owens"),{{cite web\|last\=Schwartz\|first\=Larry\|title\=Owens Pierced a Myth\|url\=https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016393\.html\|access\-date\=April 30, 2009\|publisher\=ESPN}}Entine, Jon (2000\). Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and why We are Afraid to Talk about it. PublicAffairs. p. 187\. were also denied commercial deals. Famous Blacks like Owens and [Hattie McDaniel](/wiki/Hattie_McDaniel "Hattie McDaniel") had to suffer humiliating treatment even at events celebrating their achievements.{{cite web\|last\=Schwartz\|first\=Larry\|year\=2007\|title\=Owens pierced a myth\|url\=https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016393\.html}}{{cite news\|last\=Abramovitch\|first\=Seth\|date\=February 19, 2015\|title\=Oscar's First Black Winner Accepted Her Honor in a Segregated 'No Blacks' Hotel in L.A.\|work\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\|url\=https://hollywoodreporter.com/features/oscars\-first\-black\-winner\-accepted\-774335\|access\-date\=August 10, 2017}}
As the civil rights movement and the dismantling of Jim Crow laws in the 1950s and 1960s deepened existing racial tensions in much of the Southern U.S., a Republican Party electoral strategy – the [Southern strategy](/wiki/Southern_strategy "Southern strategy") – was enacted to increase political support among white voters in the South by appealing to racism against African Americans.{{cite news\|last\=Boyd\|first\=James\|date\=May 17, 1970\|title\=Nixon's Southern strategy: 'It's All in the Charts'\|work\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/books/phillips\-southern.pdf\|access\-date\=August 2, 2008}}Carter, Dan T. *From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963–1994\.* p. 35\. Republican politicians such as presidential candidate [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon "Richard Nixon") and Senator [Barry Goldwater](/wiki/Barry_Goldwater "Barry Goldwater") developed strategies that successfully contributed to the political realignment of many white, conservative voters in the South who had traditionally supported the Democratic Party rather than the Republican Party.{{cite news\|last\=Apple\|first\=R.W. Jr.\|date\=September 19, 1996\|title\=G.O.P. Tries Hard to Win Black Votes, but Recent History Works Against It\|work\=The New York Times\|url\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9A06E2DA1F3AF93AA2575AC0A960958260\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612002448/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop\-tries\-hard\-to\-win\-black\-votes\-but\-recent\-history\-works\-against\-it.html?pagewanted\=all\&src\=pm\|archive\-date\=June 12, 2022}} Nixon and [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") exhibited racial prejudice toward African people in a recorded phone conversation in 1971, and in another conversation with White House aids Nixon commented on African Americans: "We're going to (place) more of these little Negro bastards on the welfare rolls at $2,400 a family".{{cite news \|title\=Ronald Reagan called African U.N. delegates 'monkeys' in call with Richard Nixon, audio recording reveals \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us\-news/ronald\-reagan\-called\-african\-u\-n\-delegates\-monkeys\-call\-richard\-n1037171 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023 \|work\=NBC News}}
### From the 1970s to the 2000s
[thumb\|The [Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church "Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church") where nine Black church\-goers, including the pastor, were killed by [a white man](/wiki/Dylann_Roof "Dylann Roof") in the 2015 [Charleston church shooting](/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting "Charleston church shooting"). The church, founded in 1817, is the oldest [AME](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church "African Methodist Episcopal Church") church in the South.](/wiki/File:Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_%28AME%29_Church_Corrected.jpg "Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church Corrected.jpg")
While substantial gains were made in the succeeding decades through middle class advancement and public employment, [Black poverty](/wiki/African-American_poverty "African-American poverty") and lack of education continued in the context of de\-industrialization.{{cite web\|title\=JBHE Statistical Shocker of the Year\|url\=http://www.jbhe.com/latest/122905\_statistical\_shocker2005\.html\|access\-date\=February 16, 2013\|publisher\=Jbhe.com}}Ronald Takaki, *A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America* (New York: Little, Brown \& Co., 1993\), 400–414\.
From 1981 to 1997, the [United States Department of Agriculture](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture "United States Department of Agriculture") discriminated against tens of thousands of Black American farmers, denying loans that were provided to white farmers in similar circumstances. The discrimination was the subject of the *[Pigford v. Glickman](/wiki/Pigford_v._Glickman "Pigford v. Glickman")* lawsuit brought by members of the [National Black Farmers Association](/wiki/National_Black_Farmers_Association "National Black Farmers Association"), which resulted in two settlement agreements of $1\.06 billion in 1999 and of $1\.25 billion in 2009\.{{Cite news\|last\=Southall\|first\=Ashley\|date\=May 25, 2010\|title\=Bias Payments Come Too Late for Some Farmers\|work\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/26/us/26farmers.html?scp\=1\&sq\=black%20farmers\&st\=cse\|access\-date\=May 26, 2010\|issn\=0362\-4331}}
Numerous authors, academics, and historians have asserted that the [War on Drugs](/wiki/War_on_Drugs "War on Drugs") has been racially and politically motivated. Continuing the "tough on crime" policies and rhetoric of earlier politicians, President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") announced his administration's [War on Drugs](/wiki/War_on_Drugs "War on Drugs") in October 1982\.{{Cite journal\|author\=Kenneth B. Nunn\|title\=Race, Crime and the Pool of Surplus Criminality: or Why the 'War on Drugs' Was a 'War on Blacks'\|journal\=Journal of Gender, Race and Justice\|pages\=381–445, 386–412, 422–427\|date\=Fall 2002\|url\=https://academic.udayton.edu/race/03justice/crime09\.htm\|access\-date\=May 19, 2021\|archive\-date\=August 16, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816214631/https://academic.udayton.edu/race/03justice/crime09\.htm}} A few years later, the [crack epidemic](/wiki/Crack_epidemic "Crack epidemic") spread across the country in the mid 1980s, leading Congress to pass the [Anti\-Drug Abuse Act of 1986](/wiki/Anti-Drug_Abuse_Act_of_1986 "Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986"). Under these sentencing guidelines, five grams of [crack cocaine](/wiki/Crack_cocaine "Crack cocaine"), often sold by and to African\-Americans, carried a mandatory five\-year prison sentence. However, for powder cocaine, often sold by and to white Americans, it would take one hundred times that amount, or 500 grams, for the same sentence, leading many to criticize the law as discriminatory. The 100:1 sentencing disparity was reduced to 18:1 in 2010 by the [Fair Sentencing Act](/wiki/Fair_Sentencing_Act "Fair Sentencing Act").{{Cite web\|title\=Fair Sentencing Act\|url\=https://www.aclu.org/issues/criminal\-law\-reform/drug\-law\-reform/fair\-sentencing\-act\|website\=American Civil Liberties Union}}
In addition to discriminatory sentencing for drug\-related offenses, many African\-Americans have gone as far as accusing the U.S. government of deliberately flooding their communities with drugs. Various government agencies including the [Central Intelligence Agency](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency") have been implicated in [cocaine trafficking](/wiki/CIA_involvement_in_Contra_cocaine_trafficking "CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking") during the War on Drugs to [finance the Nicaraguan Contras](/wiki/Iran-Contra_scandal "Iran-Contra scandal"),{{cite web\|title\=The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations\|url\= https://nsarchive2\.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/index.html\|website\= The National Security Archives}} further reinforcing the idea that the drug war has had little to do with curtailing drug abuse. In 1996, investigative journalist [Gary Webb](/wiki/Gary_Webb "Gary Webb") linked the CIA\-backed [Nicaraguan Contras](/wiki/Nicaraguan_Contras "Nicaraguan Contras") to the crack epidemic ravaging inner city black neighborhoods.
During the 1980s and 1990s, a number of riots occurred that were related to longstanding racial tensions between police and minority communities. One of these was the [1992 Los Angeles riots](/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots "1992 Los Angeles riots"), after a nearly all\-white jury acquitted four Los Angeles police officers for the beating of Black motorist [Rodney King](/wiki/Rodney_King "Rodney King"). [Khalil Gibran Muhammad](/wiki/Khalil_Gibran_Muhammad "Khalil Gibran Muhammad"), the Director of the Harlem\-based [Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture](/wiki/Schomburg_Center_for_Research_in_Black_Culture "Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture") has identified more than 100 instances of mass racial violence in the United States since 1935 and has noted that almost every instance was precipitated by a police incident.{{cite web\|last1\=Hannah\-Jones\|first1\=Nikole\|date\=March 4, 2015\|title\=Yes, Black America Fears the Police. Here's Why.\|url\=https://www.propublica.org/article/yes\-black\-america\-fears\-the\-police\-heres\-why\|access\-date\=March 5, 2015\|website\=\[\[ProPublica]]}}
[Violence against Black churches](/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches "List of attacks against African-American churches") has continued – 145 fires were set to [Black churches](/wiki/Black_church "Black church") around the [South](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States") in the 1990s,{{cite news\|last1\=Booth\|first1\=William\|date\=June 19, 1996\|title\=In Church Fires, a Pattern but No Conspiracy\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-srv/national/longterm/churches/churches.htm\|access\-date\=June 27, 2015}} and a [mass shooting in Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting "Charleston church shooting") was committed in 2015 at the historic [Mother Emanuel Church](/wiki/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church "Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church").{{cite web\|last\=Whitman\|first\=Elizabeth\|date\=June 23, 2015\|title\=Charleston Church Shooting: South Carolina Racism Will Not Change After Killings, Black Residents Say\|url\=http://www.ibtimes.com/charleston\-church\-shooting\-south\-carolina\-racism\-will\-not\-change\-after\-killings\-black\-1979391\|work\=International Business Times}}
### From 2008 to the present
{{See also\|Charleston church shooting\|United States racial unrest (2020–present)\|2022 Buffalo shooting}}
[thumb\|right\|Reverend [Al Sharpton](/wiki/Al_Sharpton "Al Sharpton") speaking at the [Commitment March: Get Your Knee Off Our Necks](/wiki/Commitment_March:Get_Your_Knee_Off_Our_Necks "Get Your Knee Off Our Necks") in August 2020](/wiki/File:DSC_0008_%2850283939071%29.jpg "DSC 0008 (50283939071).jpg")
Some Americans saw the presidential election of [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama"), who was the nation's first Black president, as a sign that the nation had entered a new, [post\-racial era](/wiki/Post-racial_America "Post-racial America").{{cite news\|title\=A New, 'Post\-Racial' Political Era in America\|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=18489466\|access\-date\=January 2, 2016\|website\=NPR.org}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Dawson\|first1\=Michael C.\|last2\=Bobo\|first2\=Lawrence D.\|year\=2009\|title\=One Year Later and the Myth of a Post\-Racial Society\|url\=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/10347165\|journal\=Du Bois Review\|volume\=6\|issue\=2\|page\=247\|doi\=10\.1017/S1742058X09990282\|access\-date\=January 1, 2016\|doi\-access\=free}} The election of President [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") in 2016, who was a chief proponent of the [birther movement](/wiki/Birther_movement "Birther movement") which is considered by many to be racist and has a history of speech and actions that have been [widely viewed as racist or racially charged](/wiki/Racial_views_of_Donald_Trump "Racial views of Donald Trump"), has been viewed by some commentators as a [racist backlash](/wiki/White_backlash%23United_States "White backlash#United States") against the election of Barack Obama.{{cite journal\|last\=Coates\|first\=Ta\-Nehisi\|author\-link\=Ta\-Nehisi Coates\|date\=October 2017\|title\=The First White President\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/10/the\-first\-white\-president\-ta\-nehisi\-coates/537909/\|journal\=The Atlantic\|access\-date\=June 29, 2018\|quote\=It is often said that Trump has no real ideology, which is not true—his ideology is white supremacy, in all its truculent and sanctimonious power.}} During the mid\-2010s, American society has seen a resurgence of high levels of racism and discrimination. One new phenomenon has been the rise of the ["alt\-right" movement](/wiki/Alt-right "Alt-right"): a [white nationalist](/wiki/White_nationalism "White nationalism") coalition which seeks the expulsion of [sexual](/wiki/Sexual_minority "Sexual minority") and [racial minorities](/wiki/Minority_group "Minority group") from the United States.{{cite news\|last\=Lozada\|first\=Carlos\|date\=November 3, 2017\|title\=Where the alt\-right wants to take America — with or without Trump\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/book\-party/wp/2017/11/03/where\-the\-alt\-right\-wants\-to\-take\-america\-with\-or\-without\-trump/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104023701/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/book\-party/wp/2017/11/03/where\-the\-alt\-right\-wants\-to\-take\-america\-with\-or\-without\-trump/\|archive\-date\=November 4, 2017\|access\-date\=April 3, 2018\|newspaper\=\[\[Washington Post]]}} Since the mid\-2010s, the [Department of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security "United States Department of Homeland Security") and the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") have identified [white supremacist](/wiki/White_supremacy "White supremacy") violence as the leading threat of [domestic terrorism in the United States](/wiki/Domestic_terrorism_in_the_United_States "Domestic terrorism in the United States").{{cite web\|last\=Winter\|first\=Jana\|date\=August 14, 2017\|title\=FBI and DHS Warned of Growing Threat From White Supremacists Months Ago\|url\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/08/14/fbi\-and\-dhs\-warned\-of\-growing\-threat\-from\-white\-supremacists\-months\-ago/\|access\-date\=April 19, 2018\|website\=Foreign Policy}}{{cite web\|date\=May 10, 2017\|title\=White Supremacist Extremism Poses Persistent Threat of Lethal Violence\|url\=https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3924852\-White\-Supremacist\-Extremism\-JIB.html\|access\-date\=April 19, 2018\|website\=FBI Intelligence Bulletin}}
Sociologist Russ Long stated in 2013 that there is now a more subtle racism that associates a specific race with a specific characteristic.Long, Russ. ["How to Think about Racial and Ethnic Inequality"](http://dmc122011.delmar.edu/socsci/rlong/problems/chap-08.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826153922/http://dmc122011\.delmar.edu/socsci/rlong/problems/chap\-08\.htm\|date\=August 26, 2017}}. In a 1993 study conducted by Katz and Braly, it was presented that "blacks and whites hold a variety of stereotypes towards each other, often negative".{{cite journal\|last1\=Leonard\|first1\=Rebecca\|last2\=Locke\|first2\=Don C\|year\=1993\|title\=Communication Stereotypes: Is Interracial Communication Possible?\|journal\=Journal of Black Studies\|volume\=23\|issue\=3\|pages\=332–343\|doi\=10\.1177/002193479302300303\|s2cid\=143963032}} The Katz and Braley study also found that African\-Americans and whites view the traits that they identify each other with as threatening, interracial communication between the two is likely to be "hesitant, reserved, and concealing".
The [Black Lives Matter](/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter "Black Lives Matter") movement started in 2013 after [the acquittal](/wiki/Trial_of_George_Zimmerman "Trial of George Zimmerman") of a man who had killed the African\-American teen [Trayvon Martin](/wiki/Trayvon_Martin "Trayvon Martin") in 2012\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/19/blacklivesmatter\-birth\-civil\-rights\-movement \|title\=\#BlackLivesMatter: the birth of a new civil rights movement \|first\=Elizabeth \|last\=Day \|date\=July 19, 2015 \|work\=The Guardian \|access\-date\=February 19, 2022}}
In August 2017, the [UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination](/wiki/International_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination%23Committee_on_the_Elimination_of_Racial_Discrimination "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination#Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination") issued a rare warning to the population of the US and its leadership and it also urged them to "unequivocally and unconditionally" condemn racist speech and crime, following [violence in Charlottesville](/wiki/Charlottesville_car_attack "Charlottesville car attack") during a [rally](/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally "Unite the Right rally") which was organized by [white nationalists](/wiki/White_nationalism%23United_States "White nationalism#United States"), [white supremacists](/wiki/White_supremacy%23United_States "White supremacy#United States"), [Klansmen](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan"), [neo\-Nazis](/wiki/Neo-Nazism%23United_States "Neo-Nazism#United States") and various [right\-wing militias](/wiki/American_militia_movement "American militia movement") in August.{{cite web\|title\=UN issues rare warning over 'alarming' racism in US\|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/08/issues\-rare\-warning\-alarming\-racism\-170823225952827\.html\|access\-date\=August 24, 2017\|publisher\=Al Jazeera}}{{cite web\|title\=United Nations issues 'racism warning' over growing US tensions\|date\=August 23, 2017 \|url\=https://www.thejournal.ie/un\-racism\-warning\-to\-us\-3560646\-Aug2017/\|access\-date\=August 23, 2017}}
On May 25, 2020, [George Floyd](/wiki/George_Floyd "George Floyd"), a 46\-year\-old Black man, was [murdered](/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd "Murder of George Floyd") by a white [Minneapolis Police Department](/wiki/Minneapolis_Police_Department "Minneapolis Police Department") officer, who forced his knee on Floyd's neck for a total of [9 minutes and 29 seconds](/wiki/8_minutes_and_46_seconds "8 minutes and 46 seconds").{{cite news\|first1\=Amy\|last1\=Forliti\|first2\=Steve\|last2\=Karnowski\|first3\=Tammy\|last3\=Webber\|title\=Police chief: Kneeling on Floyd's neck violated policy\|date\=April 5, 2021\|agency\=Associated Press\|newspaper\=Star Tribune\|url\=https://www.startribune.com/police\-chief\-kneeling\-on\-floyds\-neck\-violated\-policy/600042283/\|access\-date\=April 8, 2021\|archive\-date\=April 10, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410114811/https://www.startribune.com/police\-chief\-kneeling\-on\-floyds\-neck\-violated\-policy/600042283/}}{{Cite news\|last\=Levenson\|first\=Eric\|date\=March 29, 2021\|title\=Former officer knelt on George Floyd for 9 minutes and 29 seconds – not the infamous 8:46\|work\=CNN\|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/29/us/george\-floyd\-timing\-929\-846/index.html\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=March 29, 2021\|archive\-date\=March 29, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329194620/https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/29/us/george\-floyd\-timing\-929\-846/index.html}}{{efn\|name\=9:30 not 8:46\|The initial criminal complaint gave the duration as 8:46, which came to be \[\[Eight minutes 46 seconds\|often cited by protesters and the media]]. Prosecutors revised this about three weeks later to 7:46\.{{cite news \|last1\=Bogel\-Burroughs \|first1\=Nicholas \|title\=8 Minutes, 46 Seconds Became a Symbol in George Floyd's Death. The Exact Time Is Less Clear. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/18/us/george\-floyd\-timing.html \|access\-date\=June 23, 2020 \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=June 18, 2020 \|quote\=Yet the revised time provided by prosecutors conflicts with videotapes obtained by The New York Times after the May 25 killing along a Minneapolis street. The videos show Mr. Chauvin's knee on Mr. Floyd's neck for at least eight minutes and 15 seconds. \|archive\-date\=August 13, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813125726/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/18/us/george\-floyd\-timing.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|title\=Prosecutors say officer had knee on George Floyd's neck for 7:46 rather than 8:46 \|date\=June 18, 2020 \|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times \|agency\=Associated Press \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/world\-nation/story/2020\-06\-18/derek\-chauvin\-had\-knee\-george\-floyd\-neck\-746\-rather\-than\-846 \|access\-date\=June 23, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623084616/https://www.latimes.com/world\-nation/story/2020\-06\-18/derek\-chauvin\-had\-knee\-george\-floyd\-neck\-746\-rather\-than\-846\|archive\-date\=June 23, 2020\|url\-status\=live}} In August, police body camera footage was publicly released, which showed the duration to be about 9:30\.{{cite news\|last1\=Willis\|first1\=Haley\|last2\=Hill\|first2\=Evan\|last3\=Stein\|first3\=Robin\|last4\=Triebert\|first4\=Christiaan\|last5\=Laffin\|first5\=Ben\|last6\=Jordan\|first6\=Drew\|date\=August 11, 2020\|title\=New Footage Shows Delayed Medical Response to George Floyd\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/11/us/george\-floyd\-body\-cam\-full\-video.html\|access\-date\=August 14, 2020\|archive\-date\=August 15, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815122140/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/11/us/george\-floyd\-body\-cam\-full\-video.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|last\=Xiong\|first\=Chao\|date\=August 3, 2020\|title\=Daily Mail publishes leaked bodycam footage of George Floyd arrest, killing\|newspaper\=Star Tribune\|url\=https://www.startribune.com/daily\-mail\-publishes\-leaked\-bodycam\-footage\-of\-george\-floyd\-arrest\-killing/571995372/\|access\-date\=August 14, 2020\|quote\=Prosecutors have said Chauvin knelt on Floyd's neck for nearly 8 minutes, but Kueng's video showed that it was about 9 minutes and 30 seconds.\|archive\-date\=August 14, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814071032/https://www.startribune.com/daily\-mail\-publishes\-leaked\-bodycam\-footage\-of\-george\-floyd\-arrest\-killing/571995372/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|date\=August 11, 2020\|title\=Two police bodycam videos in killing of George Floyd released\|newspaper\=Tampa Bay Times\|agency\=Associated Press\|url\=https://www.tampabay.com/news/2020/08/10/two\-police\-bodycam\-videos\-in\-killing\-of\-george\-floyd\-released/\|access\-date\=August 14, 2020\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819211514/https://www.tampabay.com/news/2020/08/10/two\-police\-bodycam\-videos\-in\-killing\-of\-george\-floyd\-released/\|url\-status\=live}}}} Floyd's murder sparked a [wave of protests](/wiki/George_Floyd_protests "George Floyd protests") across the United States and worldwide{{Cite news \|last1\=Burch \|first1\=Audra D. S. \|last2\=Cai \|first2\=Weiyi \|last3\=Gianordoli \|first3\=Gabriel \|last4\=McCarthy \|first4\=Morrigan \|last5\=Patel \|first5\=Jugal K. \|date\=June 13, 2020 \|title\=How Black Lives Matter Reached Every Corner of America \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/06/13/us/george\-floyd\-protests\-cities\-photos.html\|access\-date\=February 19, 2022 \|issn\=0362\-4331}} as well as reigniting the [BLM protests](/wiki/BLM_protests "BLM protests").
|
[
"African Americans\n-----------------",
"{{Main\\|Racism against African Americans}}\n{{Further\\|African\\-American history\\|History of the Southern United States\\|Stereotypes of African Americans\\|Black nationalism}}",
"### Antebellum period",
"[thumb\\|Scars on an enslaved man, Peter, April 2, 1863, [Baton Rouge, Louisiana](/wiki/Baton_Rouge%2C_Louisiana \"Baton Rouge, Louisiana\")](/wiki/File:Whippedslaveedit.jpg \"Whippedslaveedit.jpg\")\n{{Further\\|The 1619 Project\\|Antebellum South}}\nBetween 1626 and 1860, the [Atlantic slave trade](/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade \"Atlantic slave trade\") brought more than 470,000 enslaved Africans to what is now the United States.{{cite book\\|last\\=Eltis\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/extendingfrontie00elti \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Yale University Press\\|location\\=New Haven\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-300\\-13436\\-0\\| page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/extendingfrontie00elti/page/n47 31]}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Eltis \\|first\\=David \\|title\\=Estimates \\|url\\=http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/assessment/estimates.faces \\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027021745/http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/assessment/estimates.faces \\|archive\\-date\\=October 27, 2013 }} White European Americans who participated in the slave industry tried to justify their economic exploitation of [Black people](/wiki/Black_people \"Black people\") by creating a [\"scientific\" theory of white superiority and Black inferiority](/wiki/Scientific_racism \"Scientific racism\").{{cite journal \\|jstor\\=41202851 \\|title\\=Uprooting Racism and Racists in the United States \\|last\\=Boggs \\|first\\=James \\|author\\-link\\=James Boggs (activist) \\|journal\\=The Black Scholar \\|publisher\\=Paradigm Publishers \\|date\\=October 1970 \\|volume\\=2 \\|number\\=2 \\|pages\\=2–5\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00064246\\.1970\\.11431000 }} One such slave owner was [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\"), and it was his call for science to determine the obvious \"inferiority\" of Blacks that is regarded as \"an extremely important stage in the evolution of scientific racism.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Garrod \\|first1\\=Joel Z.\\|title\\=A Brave Old World: An Analysis of Scientific Racism and BiDil \\|journal\\=McGill Journal of Medicine \\|volume\\=9\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=54–60\\|pmc\\=2687899\\|year\\=2006\\|pmid\\=19529811}} He concluded that Blacks were \"inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind.\"Paul Finkelman (November 12, 2012\\). [\"The Monster of Monticello\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/01/opinion/the-real-thomas-jefferson.html?pagewanted=all). *The New York Times*. Retrieved July 14, 2020\\.",
"After the importation of [slaves into the United States](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States \"Slavery in the United States\") was outlawed by federal law from 1808, the [domestic slave trade](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States%23Domestic_slave_trade_and_forced_migration \"Slavery in the United States#Domestic slave trade and forced migration\") was expanded in an attempt to replace it.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mhJcsiydNe8C\\&pg\\=PA20 \\|page\\=20\\|title\\=Language, Discourse and Power in African American Culture \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-00149\\-6 \\|date\\=2002 \\|last1\\=Morgan \\|first1\\=Marcyliena\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press }} Maryland and Virginia, for example, would \"export\" their surplus slaves to the South. These sales of slaves broke up many families, with historian [Ira Berlin](/wiki/Ira_Berlin \"Ira Berlin\") writing that whether slaves were directly uprooted or lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, \"the massive deportation traumatized black people\".Berlin, *Generations of Captivity*, pp. 161–162\\.",
"During the 1820s and 1830s, the [American Colonization Society](/wiki/American_Colonization_Society \"American Colonization Society\") established the colony of [Liberia](/wiki/Liberia \"Liberia\") and persuaded thousands of free Black Americans to move there because many members of the white elite both in the North and the South saw them as a problem to be got rid of.",
"Even figures, such as [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\"), who opposed slavery showed ingrained racist attitudes. Lincoln said during the Fourth [Lincoln\\-Douglas debate](/wiki/Lincoln-Douglas_debates \"Lincoln-Douglas debates\") held in Charleston, Illinois, on September 18, 1858: \"I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, \\[applause]\\-that I am not nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people; and I will say in addition to this that there is a physical difference between the white and black races which I believe will forever forbid the two races living together on terms of social and political equality. And inasmuch as they cannot so live, while they do remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I as much as any other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race.\"[Fourth Debate: Charleston, Illinois](https://www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/debate4.html), April 10, 2015\\. Retrieved March 13, 2022",
"Both during and immediately after the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), about four million enslaved African Americans were set free, major legal actions included \n[President Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\")'s [Emancipation Proclamation](/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation \"Emancipation Proclamation\") which came into effect on January 1, 1863, and the [Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") which finally abolished slavery in December 1865\\.[XIII – Slavery Abolished](http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/amend1.htm#13) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819194412/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/amend1\\.htm \\|date\\=August 19, 2016 }} The Avalon Project",
"### From the Reconstruction Era to World War II",
"{{Main\\|Nadir of American race relations}}\n{{See also\\|List of expulsions of African Americans\\|Lynching in the United States\\|Mass racial violence in the United States}}",
"[thumb\\|252px\\|A group of white men pose for a 1919 photograph as they stand over the body of the Black lynching victim Will Brown before they decide to mutilate and burn them during the [Omaha race riot of 1919](/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919 \"Omaha race riot of 1919\") in [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska \"Omaha, Nebraska\"). Photographs and postcards of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the U.S.Moyers, Bill. [\"Legacy of Lynching\"](https://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/11232007/profile2.html). PBS. Retrieved July 28, 2016](/wiki/Image:Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg \"Omaha courthouse lynching.jpg\")\nAfter the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), the [Reconstruction Era](/wiki/Reconstruction_Era \"Reconstruction Era\") was characterized by the passage of federal legislation which was designed to protect the rights of the formerly enslaved people, including the [Civil Rights Act of 1866](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866 \"Civil Rights Act of 1866\") and the [Civil Rights Act of 1875](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875 \"Civil Rights Act of 1875\"). The [Fourteenth amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") granted full citizenship to African Americans and the [Fifteenth amendment](/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") guaranteed the [voting rights](/wiki/Voting_rights \"Voting rights\") of African\\-American men (see [Reconstruction Amendments](/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments \"Reconstruction Amendments\")).",
"Despite this, [white supremacists](/wiki/White_supremacy \"White supremacy\") came to power in all Southern states, by intimidating Black voters with the assistance of terrorist groups like the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\"), the [Red Shirts](/wiki/Red_Shirts_%28Southern_United_States%29 \"Red Shirts (Southern United States)\") and the [White League](/wiki/White_League \"White League\"). \"[Black Codes](/wiki/Black_Codes_%28United_States%29 \"Black Codes (United States)\")\" and [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws \"Jim Crow laws\") deprived African Americans of voting rights and other civil liberties by instituting systemic and discriminatory policies of unequal [racial segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation \"Racial segregation\").{{cite journal\\|last\\=Klarman\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=The Plessy Era\\|journal\\=The Supreme Court Review\\|volume\\=1998\\|year\\=1998\\|pages\\=307–308\\|jstor\\=3109701\\|doi\\=10\\.1086/scr.1998\\.3109701\\|s2cid\\=147074451}} Segregated facilities extended from white\\-only schools to white\\-only graveyards.[\"Barack Obama legacy: Did he improve US race relations?\"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-38536668). BBC. Retrieved August 9, 2017 [Anti\\-miscegenation laws](/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States \"Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States\") forbade marriage and even sex between whites and non\\-whites.{{cite SSRN \\|ssrn\\=283998 \\|title\\=Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti\\-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950 \\|date\\=April 14, 2011\\| last1\\=Karthikeyan\\| first1\\=Hrishi\\| last2\\=Chin\\|first2\\=Gabriel Jackson}}",
"In the late 19th century and early 20th century, [ethnic tensions](/wiki/Ethnic_tensions \"Ethnic tensions\") commonly existed between [Austrian](/wiki/Austrians \"Austrians\") [immigrants](/wiki/Immigrants \"Immigrants\") and African\\-Americans with long\\-rooted family histories in the United States, and racism and racist policies against non\\-white workers were often contributed to by [Austrians](/wiki/Austrian_Americans \"Austrian Americans\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Andrews \\|first\\=Thomas G. \\|title\\=Killing for Coal: America's Deadliest Labor War \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Harvard University Press]] \\|year\\=2008 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-03101\\-2 \\|location\\=Cambridge \\|page\\=89 \\|author\\-link\\=Thomas G. Andrews (historian)}}",
"The new century saw a hardening of [institutionalized racism](/wiki/Institutionalized_racism \"Institutionalized racism\") and legal discrimination against citizens of African descent in the United States. Throughout the post\\-Civil War period, [racial stratification](/wiki/Racial_stratification \"Racial stratification\") was informally and systemically enforced, to solidify the pre\\-existing social order. Although their vote was guaranteed by the 15th Amendment, [poll taxes](/wiki/Poll_tax_%28United_States%29 \"Poll tax (United States)\"), pervasive acts of [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism \"Terrorism\") such as [lynchings](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States \"Lynching in the United States\") (often perpetrated by [hate groups](/wiki/Hate_group \"Hate group\") such as the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\")), and discriminatory laws such as [grandfather clauses](/wiki/Grandfather_clauses \"Grandfather clauses\") kept Black Americans [disenfranchised](/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era \"Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era\") in most Southern states. In response to [de jure](/wiki/De_jure \"De jure\") racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP \"NAACP\") (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909\\.Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds. *Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience*, in articles \"Civil Rights Movement\" by Patricia Sullivan (pp. 441–455\\) and \"National Association for the Advancement of Colored People\" by Kate Tuttle (pp 1, 388–1, 391\\). {{ISBN\\|0\\-465\\-00071\\-1}}.",
"This era is sometimes referred to as the [nadir of American race relations](/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations \"Nadir of American race relations\") because racism, [segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States \"Racial segregation in the United States\"), [racial discrimination](/wiki/Racial_discrimination \"Racial discrimination\"), and expressions of [white supremacy](/wiki/White_supremacy \"White supremacy\") all increased. So did anti\\-Black violence, including [race riots](/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States \"Mass racial violence in the United States\") such as the [Atlanta race riot](/wiki/Atlanta_race_riot \"Atlanta race riot\") of 1906, the [Elaine massacre](/wiki/Elaine_massacre \"Elaine massacre\") of 1919, the [Tulsa race massacre](/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre \"Tulsa race massacre\") of 1921, the [Perry massacre](/wiki/Perry_massacre \"Perry massacre\") of 1922, and the [Rosewood massacre](/wiki/Rosewood_massacre \"Rosewood massacre\") of 1923\\. The Atlanta riot was characterized as a \"racial massacre of negroes\" by the French newspaper *[Le Petit Journal](/wiki/Le_Petit_Journal_%28newspaper%29 \"Le Petit Journal (newspaper)\")*.{{cite news \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=September 24, 1906 \\|title\\=Un lynchage monstre \\|url\\=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6176609/f3\\.image \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|work\\=\\[\\[Le Petit Journal (newspaper)\\|Le Petit Journal]] \\|location\\= \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225115030/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6176609/f3\\.image \\|archive\\-date\\=February 25, 2021 }} The Charleston *[News and Courier](/wiki/The_Post_and_Courier \"The Post and Courier\")* wrote in response to the Atlanta riots: \"Separation of the races is the only radical solution of the negro problem in this country. There is nothing new about it. It was the Almighty who established the bounds of the habitation of the races. The negroes were brought here by compulsion; they should be induced to leave here by persuasion.\"[\"Deporting the Negroes\"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1906/09/30/101799831.pdf) (September 30, 1906\\) *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*",
"Additionally, racism, which had previously been considered a problem which primarily existed in the [Southern states](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\"), burst onto the nation's consciousness following the [Great Migration](/wiki/Great_Migration_%28African_American%29 \"Great Migration (African American)\"), the relocation of millions of African Americans from their roots in the rural Southern states to the industrial centers of the North and West between 1910 and 1970\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|White tenants seeking to prevent Blacks from moving into the [housing project](/wiki/Public_housing_in_Detroit \"Public housing in Detroit\") erected this sign. Detroit, 1942\\.](/wiki/File:We_want_white_tenants.jpg \"We want white tenants.jpg\")\nThroughout this period, racial tensions exploded, most violently in Chicago, and [lynchings](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States \"Lynching in the United States\")—mob\\-directed hangings, usually racially motivated—increased dramatically in the 1920s. Urban riots—whites attacking Blacks—became a northern and western problem.Michael O. Emerson, Christian Smith (2001\\). \"Divided by Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of Race in America\". p. 42\\. Oxford University Press Many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward African Americans, while many other whites migrated to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions, a process known as [white flight](/wiki/White_flight \"White flight\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Seligman\\|first\\=Amanda\\|title\\=Block by block: neighborhoods and public policy on Chicago's West Side\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press\\|location\\=Chicago\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-74663\\-0\\|pages\\=213–214}} Racially restrictive housing covenants were ruled unenforceable under the [14th Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") in the 1948 landmark [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") case *[Shelley v. Kraemer](/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer \"Shelley v. Kraemer\")*.*Shelley v. Kraemer*, 334 U.S. 1 (1948\\)",
"[Elected in 1912](/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election \"1912 United States presidential election\"), President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\") [authorized the practice of racial segregation](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race%23Segregating_the_federal_bureaucracy \"Woodrow Wilson and race#Segregating the federal bureaucracy\") throughout the federal government's bureaucracy.Michael Kazin, Rebecca Edwards, Adam Rothman (2009\\). \"The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History\". p. 245\\. Princeton University Press In [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), Blacks who served in the [United States Armed Forces](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces \"United States Armed Forces\") served in [segregated units](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces \"Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces\"). Black soldiers were often poorly trained and equipped, and they were often put on the frontlines and forced to go on [suicide missions](/wiki/Suicide_mission \"Suicide mission\"). The U.S. military was still heavily segregated during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). In addition, no African\\-American was awarded the [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\") during the war, and sometimes, Black soldiers who traveled on trains had to give their seats up to Nazi prisoners of war.[\"Forgotten' details heroism of black soldiers in WWII\"](http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/forgotten-details-heroism-black-soldiers-wwii-article-1.2419211). New York Daily News. Retrieved August 5, 2017",
"### From World War II to the Civil Rights Movement",
"[thumb\\|Due to threats and violence against her, U.S. Marshals escorted 6\\-year\\-old [Ruby Bridges](/wiki/Ruby_Bridges \"Ruby Bridges\") to and from the previously whites only [William Frantz Elementary School](/wiki/William_Frantz_Elementary_School \"William Frantz Elementary School\") in New Orleans, 1960\\. As soon as Bridges entered the school, white parents pulled their children out.](/wiki/File:US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg \"US Marshals with Young Ruby Bridges on School Steps.jpg\")\nThe [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws \"Jim Crow laws\") were state and local laws which were enacted in the [Southern](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\") and [border states](/wiki/Border_states_%28Civil_War%29 \"Border states (Civil War)\") of the United States and enforced between 1876 and 1965\\. They mandated \"[separate but equal](/wiki/Separate_but_equal \"Separate but equal\")\" status for Blacks. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were almost always inferior to those which were provided to whites. The most important laws required that public schools, public places, and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and Blacks. State\\-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the [Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") in 1954 in *[Brown v. Board of Education](/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education \"Brown v. Board of Education\")*. One of the first federal court cases which challenged segregation in schools was [Mendez v. Westminster](/wiki/Mendez_v._Westminster \"Mendez v. Westminster\") in 1946\\.",
"By the 1950s, the [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement \"Civil rights movement\") was gaining momentum. Membership in the NAACP increased in states across the U.S. Notable acts of anti\\-Black violence that sparked public outrage included the 1955 lynching of 14\\-year\\-old [Emmett Till](/wiki/Emmett_Till \"Emmett Till\") and the 1963 assassination of civil rights activist and [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP \"NAACP\") member [Medgar Evers](/wiki/Medgar_Evers \"Medgar Evers\") by a member of the [White Citizens' Council](/wiki/White_Citizens%27_Council \"White Citizens' Council\"). In both cases, the perpetrators were able to evade conviction with the help of [all\\-white juries](/wiki/Racial_discrimination_in_jury_selection \"Racial discrimination in jury selection\"). In the 1963 [16th Street Baptist Church bombing](/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing \"16th Street Baptist Church bombing\"), [Ku Klux Klansmen](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") killed four Black girls, aged 11 to 14\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Ravitz\\|first\\=Jessica\\|title\\=Siblings of the bombing: Remembering Birmingham church blast 50 years on\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/14/us/birmingham\\-church\\-bombing\\-anniversary\\-victims\\-siblings/\\|access\\-date\\=October 20, 2013}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Birmingham Church Bombed\\|url\\=http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/la\\-rebellion/timeline/birmingham\\-church\\-bombed\\-0\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015055957/http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/la\\-rebellion/timeline/birmingham\\-church\\-bombed\\-0\\|archive\\-date\\=October 15, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=October 20, 2013\\|publisher\\=L.A. Rebellion: Film \\& Television Archive}}",
"In response to heightening discrimination and violence, non\\-violent acts of protest began to occur. The [Greensboro sit\\-ins](/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins \"Greensboro sit-ins\"), starting in February 1960, contributed to the formation of the [Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee](/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee \"Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee\"). After many [sit\\-ins](/wiki/Sit-in \"Sit-in\") and other non\\-violent protests, including marches and boycotts, places began to agree to desegregate.Carol Berkin, Christopher Miller, Robert Cherny, James Gormly (2011\\). \"Making America: A History of the United States, Volume 2: From 1865\". p. 749\\. Cengage Learning",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Rosa Parks](/wiki/Rosa_Parks \"Rosa Parks\") being fingerprinted on February 22, 1956, after being arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white person](/wiki/File:Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_for_refusing_to_give_up_her_seat_for_a_white_passenger_on_a_segregated_municipal_bus_in_Montgomery%2C_Alabama.jpg \"Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for refusing to give up her seat for a white passenger on a segregated municipal bus in Montgomery, Alabama.jpg\")",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Bayard Rustin](/wiki/Bayard_Rustin \"Bayard Rustin\") (left) and [Cleveland Robinson](/wiki/Cleveland_Robinson \"Cleveland Robinson\") (right), organizers of the March, on August 7, 1963](/wiki/File:Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg \"Bayard Rustin NYWTS 3.jpg\")\nThe [March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom](/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom \"March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom\") on August 28, 1963, with an estimated 250,000 Black and white participants, at which [Martin Luther King Jr.](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. \"Martin Luther King Jr.\") delivered his historic \"[I Have a Dream](/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream \"I Have a Dream\")\" speech, helped facilitate the passage of the [Civil Rights Act of 1964](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964 \"Civil Rights Act of 1964\") and the [Voting Rights Act of 1965](/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965 \"Voting Rights Act of 1965\"). In *[Loving v. Virginia](/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia \"Loving v. Virginia\")* (1967\\), the Supreme Court declared [anti\\-miscegenation laws](/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_law \"Anti-miscegenation law\") unconstitutional.{{cite news\\|title\\=Eugenics, Race, and Marriage\\|website\\=Facing History.org\\|url\\=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource\\-library/eugenics\\-race\\-and\\-marriage\\|access\\-date\\=February 23, 2021}}",
"Segregation continued even after the demise of the Jim Crow laws. Data on house prices and attitudes towards integration suggest that in the mid\\-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude Blacks from their neighborhoods.*The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto* David M. Cutler, Edward L. Glaeser, Jacob L. Vigdor *The Journal of Political Economy*, Vol. 107, No. 3 (Jun. 1999\\), pp. 455–506 Segregation also took the form of [redlining](/wiki/Redlining \"Redlining\"), the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,{{cite web\\|title\\=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities\\|url\\=http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130210614/http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=November 30, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}} access to health care,See: [Race and health](/wiki/Race_and_health \"Race and health\") or even supermarkets{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Eisenhauer\\|first1\\=Elizabeth\\|year\\=2001\\|title\\=In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition\\|journal\\=GeoJournal\\|volume\\=53\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=125–133\\|doi\\=10\\.1023/A:1015772503007\\|bibcode\\=2001GeoJo..53\\..125E \\|s2cid\\=151164815}} to residents in certain, often racially determined,{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Thabit\\|first1\\=Walter\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TWo8OFJpFtAC\\|title\\=How East New York Became a Ghetto\\|year\\=2003\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8147\\-8267\\-5\\|page\\=42\\|publisher\\=NYU Press }} areas. Although in the U.S. informal discrimination and segregation have always existed, redlining began with the [National Housing Act of 1934](/wiki/National_Housing_Act_of_1934 \"National Housing Act of 1934\"), which established the [Federal Housing Administration](/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration \"Federal Housing Administration\") (FHA). The practice was fought first through passage of the [Fair Housing Act of 1968](/wiki/Fair_Housing_Act_of_1968 \"Fair Housing Act of 1968\") (which prevents redlining when the criteria for redlining are based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability, or ethnic origin), and later through the [Community Reinvestment Act](/wiki/Community_Reinvestment_Act \"Community Reinvestment Act\") of 1977, which requires banks to apply the same lending criteria in all communities.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Grogan\\|first1\\=Paul\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ISBN0813339529\\|title\\=Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival\\|last2\\=Proscio\\|first2\\=Tony\\|date\\=2001\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8133\\-3952\\-8\\|page\\=114\\|quote\\=The goal was not to relax lending restrictions but rather to get banks to apply the same criteria in the inner\\-city as in the \\[\\[suburbs]].}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Although redlining is illegal some argue that it continues to exist in other forms.",
"Up until the 1940s, the full revenue potential of what was called \"the Negro market\" was largely ignored by white\\-owned manufacturers in the U.S., with advertising focused on whites.{{cite news\\|date\\=January 9, 2016\\|title\\=How Pepsi Opened Door to Diversity\\|newspaper\\=Wall Street Journal\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB116831396726171042}} Blacks, including Olympic champion [Jesse Owens](/wiki/Jesse_Owens \"Jesse Owens\"),{{cite web\\|last\\=Schwartz\\|first\\=Larry\\|title\\=Owens Pierced a Myth\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016393\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=April 30, 2009\\|publisher\\=ESPN}}Entine, Jon (2000\\). Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and why We are Afraid to Talk about it. PublicAffairs. p. 187\\. were also denied commercial deals. Famous Blacks like Owens and [Hattie McDaniel](/wiki/Hattie_McDaniel \"Hattie McDaniel\") had to suffer humiliating treatment even at events celebrating their achievements.{{cite web\\|last\\=Schwartz\\|first\\=Larry\\|year\\=2007\\|title\\=Owens pierced a myth\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016393\\.html}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Abramovitch\\|first\\=Seth\\|date\\=February 19, 2015\\|title\\=Oscar's First Black Winner Accepted Her Honor in a Segregated 'No Blacks' Hotel in L.A.\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\\|url\\=https://hollywoodreporter.com/features/oscars\\-first\\-black\\-winner\\-accepted\\-774335\\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2017}}",
"As the civil rights movement and the dismantling of Jim Crow laws in the 1950s and 1960s deepened existing racial tensions in much of the Southern U.S., a Republican Party electoral strategy – the [Southern strategy](/wiki/Southern_strategy \"Southern strategy\") – was enacted to increase political support among white voters in the South by appealing to racism against African Americans.{{cite news\\|last\\=Boyd\\|first\\=James\\|date\\=May 17, 1970\\|title\\=Nixon's Southern strategy: 'It's All in the Charts'\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/books/phillips\\-southern.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=August 2, 2008}}Carter, Dan T. *From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963–1994\\.* p. 35\\. Republican politicians such as presidential candidate [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon \"Richard Nixon\") and Senator [Barry Goldwater](/wiki/Barry_Goldwater \"Barry Goldwater\") developed strategies that successfully contributed to the political realignment of many white, conservative voters in the South who had traditionally supported the Democratic Party rather than the Republican Party.{{cite news\\|last\\=Apple\\|first\\=R.W. Jr.\\|date\\=September 19, 1996\\|title\\=G.O.P. Tries Hard to Win Black Votes, but Recent History Works Against It\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9A06E2DA1F3AF93AA2575AC0A960958260\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612002448/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop\\-tries\\-hard\\-to\\-win\\-black\\-votes\\-but\\-recent\\-history\\-works\\-against\\-it.html?pagewanted\\=all\\&src\\=pm\\|archive\\-date\\=June 12, 2022}} Nixon and [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") exhibited racial prejudice toward African people in a recorded phone conversation in 1971, and in another conversation with White House aids Nixon commented on African Americans: \"We're going to (place) more of these little Negro bastards on the welfare rolls at $2,400 a family\".{{cite news \\|title\\=Ronald Reagan called African U.N. delegates 'monkeys' in call with Richard Nixon, audio recording reveals \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us\\-news/ronald\\-reagan\\-called\\-african\\-u\\-n\\-delegates\\-monkeys\\-call\\-richard\\-n1037171 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023 \\|work\\=NBC News}}",
"### From the 1970s to the 2000s",
"[thumb\\|The [Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church\") where nine Black church\\-goers, including the pastor, were killed by [a white man](/wiki/Dylann_Roof \"Dylann Roof\") in the 2015 [Charleston church shooting](/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting \"Charleston church shooting\"). The church, founded in 1817, is the oldest [AME](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"African Methodist Episcopal Church\") church in the South.](/wiki/File:Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_%28AME%29_Church_Corrected.jpg \"Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church Corrected.jpg\")\nWhile substantial gains were made in the succeeding decades through middle class advancement and public employment, [Black poverty](/wiki/African-American_poverty \"African-American poverty\") and lack of education continued in the context of de\\-industrialization.{{cite web\\|title\\=JBHE Statistical Shocker of the Year\\|url\\=http://www.jbhe.com/latest/122905\\_statistical\\_shocker2005\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013\\|publisher\\=Jbhe.com}}Ronald Takaki, *A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America* (New York: Little, Brown \\& Co., 1993\\), 400–414\\.",
"From 1981 to 1997, the [United States Department of Agriculture](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture \"United States Department of Agriculture\") discriminated against tens of thousands of Black American farmers, denying loans that were provided to white farmers in similar circumstances. The discrimination was the subject of the *[Pigford v. Glickman](/wiki/Pigford_v._Glickman \"Pigford v. Glickman\")* lawsuit brought by members of the [National Black Farmers Association](/wiki/National_Black_Farmers_Association \"National Black Farmers Association\"), which resulted in two settlement agreements of $1\\.06 billion in 1999 and of $1\\.25 billion in 2009\\.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Southall\\|first\\=Ashley\\|date\\=May 25, 2010\\|title\\=Bias Payments Come Too Late for Some Farmers\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/26/us/26farmers.html?scp\\=1\\&sq\\=black%20farmers\\&st\\=cse\\|access\\-date\\=May 26, 2010\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"Numerous authors, academics, and historians have asserted that the [War on Drugs](/wiki/War_on_Drugs \"War on Drugs\") has been racially and politically motivated. Continuing the \"tough on crime\" policies and rhetoric of earlier politicians, President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") announced his administration's [War on Drugs](/wiki/War_on_Drugs \"War on Drugs\") in October 1982\\.{{Cite journal\\|author\\=Kenneth B. Nunn\\|title\\=Race, Crime and the Pool of Surplus Criminality: or Why the 'War on Drugs' Was a 'War on Blacks'\\|journal\\=Journal of Gender, Race and Justice\\|pages\\=381–445, 386–412, 422–427\\|date\\=Fall 2002\\|url\\=https://academic.udayton.edu/race/03justice/crime09\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=August 16, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816214631/https://academic.udayton.edu/race/03justice/crime09\\.htm}} A few years later, the [crack epidemic](/wiki/Crack_epidemic \"Crack epidemic\") spread across the country in the mid 1980s, leading Congress to pass the [Anti\\-Drug Abuse Act of 1986](/wiki/Anti-Drug_Abuse_Act_of_1986 \"Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986\"). Under these sentencing guidelines, five grams of [crack cocaine](/wiki/Crack_cocaine \"Crack cocaine\"), often sold by and to African\\-Americans, carried a mandatory five\\-year prison sentence. However, for powder cocaine, often sold by and to white Americans, it would take one hundred times that amount, or 500 grams, for the same sentence, leading many to criticize the law as discriminatory. The 100:1 sentencing disparity was reduced to 18:1 in 2010 by the [Fair Sentencing Act](/wiki/Fair_Sentencing_Act \"Fair Sentencing Act\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Fair Sentencing Act\\|url\\=https://www.aclu.org/issues/criminal\\-law\\-reform/drug\\-law\\-reform/fair\\-sentencing\\-act\\|website\\=American Civil Liberties Union}}",
"In addition to discriminatory sentencing for drug\\-related offenses, many African\\-Americans have gone as far as accusing the U.S. government of deliberately flooding their communities with drugs. Various government agencies including the [Central Intelligence Agency](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency \"Central Intelligence Agency\") have been implicated in [cocaine trafficking](/wiki/CIA_involvement_in_Contra_cocaine_trafficking \"CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking\") during the War on Drugs to [finance the Nicaraguan Contras](/wiki/Iran-Contra_scandal \"Iran-Contra scandal\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations\\|url\\= https://nsarchive2\\.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/index.html\\|website\\= The National Security Archives}} further reinforcing the idea that the drug war has had little to do with curtailing drug abuse. In 1996, investigative journalist [Gary Webb](/wiki/Gary_Webb \"Gary Webb\") linked the CIA\\-backed [Nicaraguan Contras](/wiki/Nicaraguan_Contras \"Nicaraguan Contras\") to the crack epidemic ravaging inner city black neighborhoods.",
"During the 1980s and 1990s, a number of riots occurred that were related to longstanding racial tensions between police and minority communities. One of these was the [1992 Los Angeles riots](/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots \"1992 Los Angeles riots\"), after a nearly all\\-white jury acquitted four Los Angeles police officers for the beating of Black motorist [Rodney King](/wiki/Rodney_King \"Rodney King\"). [Khalil Gibran Muhammad](/wiki/Khalil_Gibran_Muhammad \"Khalil Gibran Muhammad\"), the Director of the Harlem\\-based [Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture](/wiki/Schomburg_Center_for_Research_in_Black_Culture \"Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture\") has identified more than 100 instances of mass racial violence in the United States since 1935 and has noted that almost every instance was precipitated by a police incident.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Hannah\\-Jones\\|first1\\=Nikole\\|date\\=March 4, 2015\\|title\\=Yes, Black America Fears the Police. Here's Why.\\|url\\=https://www.propublica.org/article/yes\\-black\\-america\\-fears\\-the\\-police\\-heres\\-why\\|access\\-date\\=March 5, 2015\\|website\\=\\[\\[ProPublica]]}}",
"[Violence against Black churches](/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches \"List of attacks against African-American churches\") has continued – 145 fires were set to [Black churches](/wiki/Black_church \"Black church\") around the [South](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\") in the 1990s,{{cite news\\|last1\\=Booth\\|first1\\=William\\|date\\=June 19, 1996\\|title\\=In Church Fires, a Pattern but No Conspiracy\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-srv/national/longterm/churches/churches.htm\\|access\\-date\\=June 27, 2015}} and a [mass shooting in Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting \"Charleston church shooting\") was committed in 2015 at the historic [Mother Emanuel Church](/wiki/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Whitman\\|first\\=Elizabeth\\|date\\=June 23, 2015\\|title\\=Charleston Church Shooting: South Carolina Racism Will Not Change After Killings, Black Residents Say\\|url\\=http://www.ibtimes.com/charleston\\-church\\-shooting\\-south\\-carolina\\-racism\\-will\\-not\\-change\\-after\\-killings\\-black\\-1979391\\|work\\=International Business Times}}",
"### From 2008 to the present",
"{{See also\\|Charleston church shooting\\|United States racial unrest (2020–present)\\|2022 Buffalo shooting}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Reverend [Al Sharpton](/wiki/Al_Sharpton \"Al Sharpton\") speaking at the [Commitment March: Get Your Knee Off Our Necks](/wiki/Commitment_March:Get_Your_Knee_Off_Our_Necks \"Get Your Knee Off Our Necks\") in August 2020](/wiki/File:DSC_0008_%2850283939071%29.jpg \"DSC 0008 (50283939071).jpg\")\nSome Americans saw the presidential election of [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\"), who was the nation's first Black president, as a sign that the nation had entered a new, [post\\-racial era](/wiki/Post-racial_America \"Post-racial America\").{{cite news\\|title\\=A New, 'Post\\-Racial' Political Era in America\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=18489466\\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2016\\|website\\=NPR.org}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Dawson\\|first1\\=Michael C.\\|last2\\=Bobo\\|first2\\=Lawrence D.\\|year\\=2009\\|title\\=One Year Later and the Myth of a Post\\-Racial Society\\|url\\=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/10347165\\|journal\\=Du Bois Review\\|volume\\=6\\|issue\\=2\\|page\\=247\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S1742058X09990282\\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2016\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} The election of President [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") in 2016, who was a chief proponent of the [birther movement](/wiki/Birther_movement \"Birther movement\") which is considered by many to be racist and has a history of speech and actions that have been [widely viewed as racist or racially charged](/wiki/Racial_views_of_Donald_Trump \"Racial views of Donald Trump\"), has been viewed by some commentators as a [racist backlash](/wiki/White_backlash%23United_States \"White backlash#United States\") against the election of Barack Obama.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Coates\\|first\\=Ta\\-Nehisi\\|author\\-link\\=Ta\\-Nehisi Coates\\|date\\=October 2017\\|title\\=The First White President\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/10/the\\-first\\-white\\-president\\-ta\\-nehisi\\-coates/537909/\\|journal\\=The Atlantic\\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2018\\|quote\\=It is often said that Trump has no real ideology, which is not true—his ideology is white supremacy, in all its truculent and sanctimonious power.}} During the mid\\-2010s, American society has seen a resurgence of high levels of racism and discrimination. One new phenomenon has been the rise of the [\"alt\\-right\" movement](/wiki/Alt-right \"Alt-right\"): a [white nationalist](/wiki/White_nationalism \"White nationalism\") coalition which seeks the expulsion of [sexual](/wiki/Sexual_minority \"Sexual minority\") and [racial minorities](/wiki/Minority_group \"Minority group\") from the United States.{{cite news\\|last\\=Lozada\\|first\\=Carlos\\|date\\=November 3, 2017\\|title\\=Where the alt\\-right wants to take America — with or without Trump\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/book\\-party/wp/2017/11/03/where\\-the\\-alt\\-right\\-wants\\-to\\-take\\-america\\-with\\-or\\-without\\-trump/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104023701/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/book\\-party/wp/2017/11/03/where\\-the\\-alt\\-right\\-wants\\-to\\-take\\-america\\-with\\-or\\-without\\-trump/\\|archive\\-date\\=November 4, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=April 3, 2018\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Washington Post]]}} Since the mid\\-2010s, the [Department of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security \"United States Department of Homeland Security\") and the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") have identified [white supremacist](/wiki/White_supremacy \"White supremacy\") violence as the leading threat of [domestic terrorism in the United States](/wiki/Domestic_terrorism_in_the_United_States \"Domestic terrorism in the United States\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Winter\\|first\\=Jana\\|date\\=August 14, 2017\\|title\\=FBI and DHS Warned of Growing Threat From White Supremacists Months Ago\\|url\\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/08/14/fbi\\-and\\-dhs\\-warned\\-of\\-growing\\-threat\\-from\\-white\\-supremacists\\-months\\-ago/\\|access\\-date\\=April 19, 2018\\|website\\=Foreign Policy}}{{cite web\\|date\\=May 10, 2017\\|title\\=White Supremacist Extremism Poses Persistent Threat of Lethal Violence\\|url\\=https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3924852\\-White\\-Supremacist\\-Extremism\\-JIB.html\\|access\\-date\\=April 19, 2018\\|website\\=FBI Intelligence Bulletin}}",
"Sociologist Russ Long stated in 2013 that there is now a more subtle racism that associates a specific race with a specific characteristic.Long, Russ. [\"How to Think about Racial and Ethnic Inequality\"](http://dmc122011.delmar.edu/socsci/rlong/problems/chap-08.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826153922/http://dmc122011\\.delmar.edu/socsci/rlong/problems/chap\\-08\\.htm\\|date\\=August 26, 2017}}. In a 1993 study conducted by Katz and Braly, it was presented that \"blacks and whites hold a variety of stereotypes towards each other, often negative\".{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Leonard\\|first1\\=Rebecca\\|last2\\=Locke\\|first2\\=Don C\\|year\\=1993\\|title\\=Communication Stereotypes: Is Interracial Communication Possible?\\|journal\\=Journal of Black Studies\\|volume\\=23\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=332–343\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/002193479302300303\\|s2cid\\=143963032}} The Katz and Braley study also found that African\\-Americans and whites view the traits that they identify each other with as threatening, interracial communication between the two is likely to be \"hesitant, reserved, and concealing\".",
"The [Black Lives Matter](/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter \"Black Lives Matter\") movement started in 2013 after [the acquittal](/wiki/Trial_of_George_Zimmerman \"Trial of George Zimmerman\") of a man who had killed the African\\-American teen [Trayvon Martin](/wiki/Trayvon_Martin \"Trayvon Martin\") in 2012\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/19/blacklivesmatter\\-birth\\-civil\\-rights\\-movement \\|title\\=\\#BlackLivesMatter: the birth of a new civil rights movement \\|first\\=Elizabeth \\|last\\=Day \\|date\\=July 19, 2015 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|access\\-date\\=February 19, 2022}}",
"In August 2017, the [UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination](/wiki/International_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination%23Committee_on_the_Elimination_of_Racial_Discrimination \"International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination#Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination\") issued a rare warning to the population of the US and its leadership and it also urged them to \"unequivocally and unconditionally\" condemn racist speech and crime, following [violence in Charlottesville](/wiki/Charlottesville_car_attack \"Charlottesville car attack\") during a [rally](/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally \"Unite the Right rally\") which was organized by [white nationalists](/wiki/White_nationalism%23United_States \"White nationalism#United States\"), [white supremacists](/wiki/White_supremacy%23United_States \"White supremacy#United States\"), [Klansmen](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\"), [neo\\-Nazis](/wiki/Neo-Nazism%23United_States \"Neo-Nazism#United States\") and various [right\\-wing militias](/wiki/American_militia_movement \"American militia movement\") in August.{{cite web\\|title\\=UN issues rare warning over 'alarming' racism in US\\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/08/issues\\-rare\\-warning\\-alarming\\-racism\\-170823225952827\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2017\\|publisher\\=Al Jazeera}}{{cite web\\|title\\=United Nations issues 'racism warning' over growing US tensions\\|date\\=August 23, 2017 \\|url\\=https://www.thejournal.ie/un\\-racism\\-warning\\-to\\-us\\-3560646\\-Aug2017/\\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2017}}",
"On May 25, 2020, [George Floyd](/wiki/George_Floyd \"George Floyd\"), a 46\\-year\\-old Black man, was [murdered](/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd \"Murder of George Floyd\") by a white [Minneapolis Police Department](/wiki/Minneapolis_Police_Department \"Minneapolis Police Department\") officer, who forced his knee on Floyd's neck for a total of [9 minutes and 29 seconds](/wiki/8_minutes_and_46_seconds \"8 minutes and 46 seconds\").{{cite news\\|first1\\=Amy\\|last1\\=Forliti\\|first2\\=Steve\\|last2\\=Karnowski\\|first3\\=Tammy\\|last3\\=Webber\\|title\\=Police chief: Kneeling on Floyd's neck violated policy\\|date\\=April 5, 2021\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|newspaper\\=Star Tribune\\|url\\=https://www.startribune.com/police\\-chief\\-kneeling\\-on\\-floyds\\-neck\\-violated\\-policy/600042283/\\|access\\-date\\=April 8, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=April 10, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410114811/https://www.startribune.com/police\\-chief\\-kneeling\\-on\\-floyds\\-neck\\-violated\\-policy/600042283/}}{{Cite news\\|last\\=Levenson\\|first\\=Eric\\|date\\=March 29, 2021\\|title\\=Former officer knelt on George Floyd for 9 minutes and 29 seconds – not the infamous 8:46\\|work\\=CNN\\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/29/us/george\\-floyd\\-timing\\-929\\-846/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=March 29, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329194620/https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/29/us/george\\-floyd\\-timing\\-929\\-846/index.html}}{{efn\\|name\\=9:30 not 8:46\\|The initial criminal complaint gave the duration as 8:46, which came to be \\[\\[Eight minutes 46 seconds\\|often cited by protesters and the media]]. Prosecutors revised this about three weeks later to 7:46\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Bogel\\-Burroughs \\|first1\\=Nicholas \\|title\\=8 Minutes, 46 Seconds Became a Symbol in George Floyd's Death. The Exact Time Is Less Clear. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/18/us/george\\-floyd\\-timing.html \\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2020 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=June 18, 2020 \\|quote\\=Yet the revised time provided by prosecutors conflicts with videotapes obtained by The New York Times after the May 25 killing along a Minneapolis street. The videos show Mr. Chauvin's knee on Mr. Floyd's neck for at least eight minutes and 15 seconds. \\|archive\\-date\\=August 13, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813125726/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/18/us/george\\-floyd\\-timing.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Prosecutors say officer had knee on George Floyd's neck for 7:46 rather than 8:46 \\|date\\=June 18, 2020 \\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/world\\-nation/story/2020\\-06\\-18/derek\\-chauvin\\-had\\-knee\\-george\\-floyd\\-neck\\-746\\-rather\\-than\\-846 \\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623084616/https://www.latimes.com/world\\-nation/story/2020\\-06\\-18/derek\\-chauvin\\-had\\-knee\\-george\\-floyd\\-neck\\-746\\-rather\\-than\\-846\\|archive\\-date\\=June 23, 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In August, police body camera footage was publicly released, which showed the duration to be about 9:30\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Willis\\|first1\\=Haley\\|last2\\=Hill\\|first2\\=Evan\\|last3\\=Stein\\|first3\\=Robin\\|last4\\=Triebert\\|first4\\=Christiaan\\|last5\\=Laffin\\|first5\\=Ben\\|last6\\=Jordan\\|first6\\=Drew\\|date\\=August 11, 2020\\|title\\=New Footage Shows Delayed Medical Response to George Floyd\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/11/us/george\\-floyd\\-body\\-cam\\-full\\-video.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=August 15, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815122140/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/11/us/george\\-floyd\\-body\\-cam\\-full\\-video.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Xiong\\|first\\=Chao\\|date\\=August 3, 2020\\|title\\=Daily Mail publishes leaked bodycam footage of George Floyd arrest, killing\\|newspaper\\=Star Tribune\\|url\\=https://www.startribune.com/daily\\-mail\\-publishes\\-leaked\\-bodycam\\-footage\\-of\\-george\\-floyd\\-arrest\\-killing/571995372/\\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2020\\|quote\\=Prosecutors have said Chauvin knelt on Floyd's neck for nearly 8 minutes, but Kueng's video showed that it was about 9 minutes and 30 seconds.\\|archive\\-date\\=August 14, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814071032/https://www.startribune.com/daily\\-mail\\-publishes\\-leaked\\-bodycam\\-footage\\-of\\-george\\-floyd\\-arrest\\-killing/571995372/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|date\\=August 11, 2020\\|title\\=Two police bodycam videos in killing of George Floyd released\\|newspaper\\=Tampa Bay Times\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|url\\=https://www.tampabay.com/news/2020/08/10/two\\-police\\-bodycam\\-videos\\-in\\-killing\\-of\\-george\\-floyd\\-released/\\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819211514/https://www.tampabay.com/news/2020/08/10/two\\-police\\-bodycam\\-videos\\-in\\-killing\\-of\\-george\\-floyd\\-released/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}}} Floyd's murder sparked a [wave of protests](/wiki/George_Floyd_protests \"George Floyd protests\") across the United States and worldwide{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Burch \\|first1\\=Audra D. S. \\|last2\\=Cai \\|first2\\=Weiyi \\|last3\\=Gianordoli \\|first3\\=Gabriel \\|last4\\=McCarthy \\|first4\\=Morrigan \\|last5\\=Patel \\|first5\\=Jugal K. \\|date\\=June 13, 2020 \\|title\\=How Black Lives Matter Reached Every Corner of America \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/06/13/us/george\\-floyd\\-protests\\-cities\\-photos.html\\|access\\-date\\=February 19, 2022 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} as well as reigniting the [BLM protests](/wiki/BLM_protests \"BLM protests\").",
""
] |
Asian Americans
---------------
{{main\|History of Asian Americans\|Racism against Asians\#United States}}
{{Further\|Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States\|Asian American activism}}
[Asian Americans](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans"), including those of [East Asian](/wiki/East_Asian_people "East Asian people"), [South Asian](/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups "South Asian ethnic groups"), and [Southeast Asian](/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Southeast_Asia "Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia") descent, have experienced racism since the first major groups of Chinese immigrants arrived in America. The [Naturalization Act of 1790](/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790 "Naturalization Act of 1790") made Asians ineligible for citizenship.{{cite book \|last\=Schultz\|first\=Jeffrey D.\|title\=Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WDV40aK1T\-sC\&q\=African\+Americans\+discriminated\+by\+Naturalization\+Act\+of\+1790\&pg\=PA284\|page\=284\|year\=2002\|publisher\=Oryx Press \|access\-date\=September 14, 2015\|isbn\=978\-1\-57356\-148\-8}} First\-generation immigrants, the children of immigrants, and Asians who are adopted by non\-Asian families are still impacted by discrimination.
During the [Industrial Revolution in the United States](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States "Industrial Revolution in the United States"), labor shortages in the mining and rail industries were prevalent. Chinese immigrant labor was often used to fill this gap, most notably with the construction of the [first transcontinental railroad](/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad "First transcontinental railroad"), leading to large\-scale Chinese immigration.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Eguchi \| first1 \= Shinsuke \| year \= 2013 \| title \= Revisiting Asiacentricity: Toward Thinking Dialectically about Asian American Identities and Negotiation \| journal \= Howard Journal of Communications \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 95–115 \| doi\=10\.1080/10646175\.2013\.748556\| s2cid \= 54718287 }} These Chinese immigrants were seen as taking the jobs of whites for lower wages, and the phrase [Yellow Peril](/wiki/Yellow_Peril "Yellow Peril"), which predicted the demise of [Western civilization](/wiki/Western_culture "Western culture") as the result of Chinese immigration, gained popularity.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Chin \| first1 \= Philip \| year \= 2013 \| title \= The Chinese Exclusion Act: Ten Year Exclusion Act Debates and Passage – Part 3". \| journal \= Chinese American Forum \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 24–31 }}
### 19th century
{{See also\|History of Chinese Americans\|Anti\-Chinese sentiment\#United States\|Anti\-Chinese sentiment in the United States\|Anti\-Chinese legislation in the United States}}
[thumb\|left\|A political cartoon from 1882 ridiculing the [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act "Chinese Exclusion Act"), showing a Chinese man, surrounded by benefits of Chinese immigration, being barred entry to the "Golden Gate of Liberty", while other groups, including [communists](/wiki/Communism "Communism") and [hoodlums](/wiki/Hoodlum "Hoodlum"), are allowed to enter. The caption reads sarcastically, "We must draw the line *somewhere*, you know."](/wiki/File:The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg "The only one barred out cph.3b48680.jpg")
In 1871, one of the largest [lynchings in American history](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States "Lynching in the United States") was committed against [Chinese immigrants](/wiki/Chinese_Americans "Chinese Americans") in Los Angeles, California. It would go on to become known as the [Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Chinese_massacre_of_1871 "Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871"). The 1879 Constitution of the State of California prohibited the employment of [Chinese people](/wiki/Chinese_people "Chinese people") by state and local governments, as well as by businesses that were incorporated in California. Also, the 1879 constitution delegated power to local governments in California to enable them to remove Chinese people from the borders of their communities.{{cite news \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=May 7, 1879 \|title\=The Constitution of the State of California of 1879 \|url\=https://archives.cdn.sos.ca.gov/collections/1879/archive/1879\-constitution.pdf \|url\-status\=live \|work\=\[\[California State Legislature]] \|location\= \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308012237/https://archives.cdn.sos.ca.gov/collections/1879/archive/1879\-constitution.pdf \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2021 \|access\-date\=April 3, 2021 \|
quote\=Article XIX. Chinese. SEC. 2\. No corporation now existing or hereafter formed under the laws of this State, shall, after the adoption of this Constitution, employ directly or indirectly, in any capacity, any Chinese or Mongolian. The Legislature shall pass such laws as may be necessary to enforce this provision. Sec. 3\. No Chinese shall be employed on any State, county, municipal, or other public work, except in punishment for crime. ... The Legislature shall delegate all necessary power to the incorporated cities and towns of this State for the removal of Chinese without the limits of such cities and towns, or for their location within prescribed portions of those limits, and it shall also provide the necessary legislation to prohibit the introduction into this State of Chinese after the adoption of this Constitution.}}[James Whitman](/wiki/James_Whitman "James Whitman"), "Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law" (Princeton: [Princeton University Press](/wiki/Princeton_University_Press "Princeton University Press"), 2017\), p. 35 The federal [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act "Chinese Exclusion Act") of 1882 banned the immigration of Chinese labourers for ten years. The [Geary Act](/wiki/Geary_Act "Geary Act") of 1892 extended the Chinese Exclusion Act by requiring all Chinese citizens to carry their [resident permit](/wiki/United_States_Permanent_Resident_Card "United States Permanent Resident Card") at all times or risk either deportation or a year of hard labor, and was upheld by the 1893 [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") case [Fong Yue Ting v. United States](/wiki/Fong_Yue_Ting_v._United_States "Fong Yue Ting v. United States"). Several mob attacks against Chinese people took place, including the [Rock Springs massacre](/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre "Rock Springs massacre") of 1885 in [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming") in which at least 28 Chinese miners were killed and 15 other Chinese miners were injured, and the [Hells Canyon massacre](/wiki/Hells_Canyon_massacre "Hells Canyon massacre") of 1887 in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon") in which 34 Chinese miners were killed.{{Cite book\|title\=The Chinese in America: a narrative history \|last\=Iris \|first\=Chang \|date\=2004 \|orig\-date\=2003 \|publisher\=Penguin \|isbn\=0\-14\-200417\-0\|location\=New York\|oclc\=55136302}} In 1888, the [Scott Act](/wiki/Scott_Act_%281888%29 "Scott Act (1888)") prevented 20,000\-30,000 Chinese abroad from returning to the United States and was later upheld in the 1889 Supreme Court case [Chae Chan Ping v. United States](/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States "Chae Chan Ping v. United States").
[thumb\|right\|250px\|[Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Chinese_massacre_of_1871 "Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871")](/wiki/File:Los_Angeles%2C_corpses_of_Chinese_victims%2C_Oct_1871.jpg "Los Angeles, corpses of Chinese victims, Oct 1871.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Denver's anti\-Chinese riot in 1880](/wiki/File:1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG "1880 Anti-Chinese Riot in Denver anagoria.JPG")
Local discriminatory laws were also enacted to stifle Chinese business and job opportunities; for example, in the 1886 [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") case of *[Yick Wo v. Hopkins](/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins "Yick Wo v. Hopkins")*, a San Francisco city ordinance requiring permits for laundries (which were mostly Chinese\-owned) was struck down, as it was evident the law solely targeted Chinese Americans. When the law was in effect, the city issued permits to virtually all non\-Chinese permit applicants, while only granting one permit out of two hundred applications from Chinese laundry owners. When the Chinese laundries continued to operate, the city tried to fine the owners. In 1913, California, home to many Chinese immigrants, enacted an [Alien Land Law](/wiki/California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1913 "California Alien Land Law of 1913"), which significantly restricted land ownership by Asian immigrants, and [extended it](/wiki/California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1920 "California Alien Land Law of 1920") in 1920, ultimately banning virtually all land ownership by Asians.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Sakamoto \| first1 \= Taylor \| year \= 2007 \| title \= The Triumph and Tragedies of Japanese Women in America: A View Across Four Generations \| journal \= History Teacher \| volume \= 41 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 97–122 }}
Japanese immigrants, who were unaffected by the Chinese Exclusion Act, began to enter the United States in large numbers in 1907, filling jobs that were once filled by Chinese workers. This influx also led to discrimination and President [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt "Theodore Roosevelt") restricted Japanese immigration. Theodore Roosevelt's [Executive Order 589](/wiki/s:Executive_Order_589 "Executive Order 589") specifically prevented Japanese and Korean laborers, who possessed valid passports to go to Mexico, Canada, or Hawaii, from entering the continental United States. Later, Japanese immigration was closed when Japan entered into the [Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907](/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907 "Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907") to stop issuing passports to Japanese workers intending to move to the U.S.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Eguchi \| first1 \= Shinsuke \| year \= 2013 \| title \= Revisiting Asia centricity: Toward Thinking Dialectically about Asian American Identities and Negotiation \| journal \= Howard Journal of Communications \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 95–115 \| doi\=10\.1080/10646175\.2013\.748556\| s2cid \= 54718287 }}
The immigration of people from all Asian countries was banned by the sweeping [Immigration Act of 1917](/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917 "Immigration Act of 1917"), also known as the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, which also banned homosexuals, people with [intellectual disability](/wiki/Intellectual_disability "Intellectual disability"), and people with an anarchist worldview.
### Anti\-Japanese sentiment and legislation
{{main\|Anti\-Japanese sentiment\#United States\|Anti\-Japanese sentiment in the United States}}
{{See also\|Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907\|California Alien Land Law of 1913\|Internment of Japanese Americans}}
### Anti\-Filipino sentiment and legislation
In 1927, the four\-day [Yakima Valley riots](/wiki/Yakima_Valley_riots "Yakima Valley riots") in Washington state resulted in hundreds of Filipinos being forced to leave the valley under threat of death. In 1930, the [Watsonville riots](/wiki/Watsonville_riots "Watsonville riots") in California involved a mob of 500 white men and youths causing five days of violent attacks on Filipino farm workers, and the death of one worker who was shot through the heart. In 1934, the [Tydings–McDuffie Act](/wiki/Tydings%E2%80%93McDuffie_Act "Tydings–McDuffie Act") allowed the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), then an American colony, to become an independent country after ten years. The act established a quota of 50 Filipino immigrants to the United States per year. The [Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935](/wiki/Filipino_Repatriation_Act_of_1935 "Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935") provided voluntary one\-way passage for Filipinos in the United States to return to the Philippines. However, if they wanted to return to the United States, they would then be subject to the quota of 50 Filipino immigrants per year.
### World War II and postwar
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China "Republic of China") was an ally of the United States, and the federal government praised the resistance of the Chinese against Japan during the [Second Sino\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War "Second Sino-Japanese War"), in an attempt to reduce [anti\-Chinese sentiment](/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States "Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States"). In 1943, the [Magnuson Act](/wiki/Magnuson_Act "Magnuson Act") was passed by Congress, repealing the Chinese Exclusion Act and reopening Chinese immigration; at the time, the United States was actively fighting against the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan"), which was a member of the [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers"). [Anti\-Japanese racism](/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment "Anti-Japanese sentiment"), which spiked after the [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor "Attack on Pearl Harbor"), was tacitly encouraged by the government, which used slurs such as "[Jap](/wiki/Jap "Jap")" in [propaganda posters](/wiki/Propaganda_for_Japanese-American_internment "Propaganda for Japanese-American internment"). On February 19, 1942, President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") signed [Executive Order 9066](/wiki/Executive_Order_9066 "Executive Order 9066") which cleared the way for [internment of 120,000 Japanese Americans](/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans "Internment of Japanese Americans"), citing possible security threats. American soldiers who fought in the [Pacific theater](/wiki/Pacific_War "Pacific War") frequently dehumanized their enemies, leading them to [mutilate Japanese war dead](/wiki/American_mutilation_of_Japanese_war_dead "American mutilation of Japanese war dead").{{Cite web\|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B\-5\-JeCa2Z7hN2ZkMWRiNmYtN2M4Ny00YjQ2LWJlMjYtZGY0NmMxMzM5NzQ2/view?ddrp\=1\&hl\=en\&pli\=1\&usp\=embed\_facebook\|title\=Trophies of War, US Troops and the Mutilation of Japanese War Dead, 1941–1945 – James J Weingartner – PHR Vol 61 No 1 Feb 1992\|website\=Google Docs\|access\-date\=December 7, 2016}} The racist nature of this dehumanization is revealed by the different ways in which corpses were treated in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific_War "Pacific War") and [European theaters](/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II "European theatre of World War II"). Apparently, some soldiers mailed Japanese skulls home as souvenirs, but none of them mailed German or Italian skulls home.{{cite journal \|url\=http://uir.ulster.ac.uk/1559/ \|title\=Skull trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance \|pages\=817–836 \|last\=Simon \|first\=Harrison \|date\=December 7, 2016 \|journal\=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute \|volume\=12 \|issue\=4 \|access\-date\=December 7, 2016 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1467\-9655\.2006\.00365\.x \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308110400/http://uir.ulster.ac.uk/1559/ \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} This [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") continued to exist for some time after the end of the war, and anti\-Asian racism also affected U.S. policy during the [Korean](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") and [Vietnam Wars](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), even though Asians fought on both sides during both of those wars as well as during World War II. Some historians have alleged that a climate of racism, with unofficial rules like the "mere gook rule",{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lWjLdLahLToC\&q\=mere\+gook\+rule\&pg\=PA31\|title\=The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism\|last1\=Chomsky\|first1\=Noam\|last2\=Herman\|first2\=Edward S.\|date\=1979\|publisher\=South End Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-89608\-090\-4\|page\=31}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.vice.com/read/vietnam\-and\-the\-mere\-gook\-rule\|title\=The Secret History of the Vietnam War\|date\=April 17, 2013\|work\=VICE\|access\-date\=December 7, 2016}} allowed a pattern to exist in which [South Vietnamese](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam") civilians were treated as if they were less than human and [war crimes](/wiki/United_States_war_crimes%23Vietnam_War "United States war crimes#Vietnam War") were also common.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6q3vpJ3ePH4C\&q\=kill\+anything\+that\+moves\|title\=Kill Anything That Moves: The Real American War in Vietnam\|last\=Turse\|first\=Nick\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Macmillan\|isbn\=978\-0\-8050\-8691\-1}} Despite poor treatment by the United States, thousands of [Japanese Americans joined the US military](/wiki/Japanese_American_service_in_World_War_II "Japanese American service in World War II") during World War II, in the segregated [442nd Infantry Regiment](/wiki/442nd_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)") and [100th Infantry Battalion](/wiki/100th_Infantry_Battalion_%28United_States%29 "100th Infantry Battalion (United States)"). The 442nd suffered heavy losses during its fight against Nazi Germany while it was rescuing the [Lost Battalion](/wiki/Lost_Battalion_%28Europe%2C_World_War_II%29 "Lost Battalion (Europe, World War II)"), and in recognition of these combat casualties, it was nicknamed "The [Purple Heart](/wiki/Purple_Heart "Purple Heart") Battalion."
On October 18, 1948, President [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman "Harry S. Truman") issued [Executive Order 10009](/wiki/List_of_executive_actions_by_Harry_S._Truman%231948 "List of executive actions by Harry S. Truman#1948") to revoke in part Executive Orders 589 from March 14, 1907, and Executive Order 1712 from February 24, 1913\.{{cite news \|last\=Truman \|first\=Harry S. \|date\=October 18, 1948 \|title\=Executive Order 10009—Revoking in Part Executive Orders No. 589 of March 14, 1907, and No. 1712 of February 24, 1913 \|url\=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive\-order\-10009\-revoking\-part\-executive\-orders\-no\-589\-march\-14\-1907\-and\-no\-1712 \|url\-status\=live \|publisher\=American Presidency Project \|website\=presidency.ucsb.edu \|location\= \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210404174745/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive\-order\-10009\-revoking\-part\-executive\-orders\-no\-589\-march\-14\-1907\-and\-no\-1712 \|archive\-date\=April 4, 2021 \|access\-date\=April 4, 2021}}
[thumb\|upright\|[Bhagat Singh Thind](/wiki/Bhagat_Singh_Thind "Bhagat Singh Thind") was twice denied citizenship as he was not deemed white.{{cite news\|title\=Court Rules Hindu Not a 'White Person'; Bars High Caste Native of India From Naturalization as an American Citizen\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=February 20, 1923\| access\-date\= October 11, 2021 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1923/02/20/archives/court\-rules\-hindu\-not\-a\-white\-person\-bars\-high\-caste\-native\-of.html}}](/wiki/File:Bhagatsinghthind.jpg "Bhagatsinghthind.jpg")
Prior to 1965, Indian immigration to the U.S. was small and isolated, with fewer than 50,000 Indian immigrants in the country. The [Bellingham riots](/wiki/Bellingham_riots "Bellingham riots") in [Bellingham, Washington](/wiki/Bellingham%2C_Washington "Bellingham, Washington"), on September 5, 1907, epitomized the low tolerance in the U.S. for Indians and [Hindus](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus"). While anti\-Asian racism was embedded in U.S. politics and culture in the early 20th century, Indians were also racialized, with U.S. officials casting them as "Hindu menaces" and pushing for Western imperial expansion abroad.{{cite book\|first\=Seema\|last\=Sohi\|title\=Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America\|year\=2014\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-937625\-4\|page\=8 \|quote\=Indians in North America, nearly 90 percent of whom where Sikhs from the state of Punjab, were also racialized through colonial gendered discourses. During the early decades of the twentieth century, US Immigration, Justice, and State Department officials cast Indian anti\-colonialists as a "Hindu" menace}} In the 1923 case, *[United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind](/wiki/United_States_v._Bhagat_Singh_Thind "United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind")*, the Supreme Court ruled that high caste Hindus were not "white persons" and were therefore racially ineligible for naturalized citizenship. The Court also argued that the racial difference between Indians and whites was so great that the "great body of our people" would reject assimilation with Indians.Zhao, X. \& Park, E.J.W. (2013\). Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History. Greenwood. pp. 1142\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-59884\-239\-5}} It was after the [Luce–Celler Act](/wiki/Luce%E2%80%93Celler_Act "Luce–Celler Act") of 1946 that a quota of 100 Indians per year could immigrate to the U.S. and become citizens.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/rootsinthesand/a\_lucecellar.html \|title\=Roots in the Sand – the Archives \|publisher\=PBS \|access\-date\=May 8, 2016}}
The [Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965](/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965 "Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965") facilitated entry to the U.S. for immigrants other than the traditional [Northern European](/wiki/Northern_European "Northern European") and [Germanic groups](/wiki/Germanic_peoples "Germanic peoples"), and as a result, it would significantly, and unintentionally, alter the demographic mix in the U.S.{{cite news \|title\= 1965 immigration law changed face of America \|first\=Jennifer \|last\=Ludden \|newspaper\=NPR.org \|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=5391395 \|publisher\=NPR \|access\-date\=May 8, 2016}} On the U.S. immigration laws prior to 1965, sociologist [Stephen Klineberg](/wiki/Stephen_Klineberg "Stephen Klineberg") stated the law "declared that Northern Europeans are a superior subspecies of the white race." In 1990, Asian immigration was encouraged when nonimmigrant temporary working visas were given to help with the shortage of skilled labor within the United States.
### The Second Half of the 20th Century
Despite the many injustices done unto Asian\-Americans in the 20th Century, one field of cultural interest that actually saw the opposite trend was [Traditional Martial Arts](/wiki/Martial_arts "Martial arts"). This trend arguably began when American soldiers brought home, various Japanese and Okinawan martial arts that they had studied while living in Japan, in the years following the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War").{{cite book\|last\=Nicol\|first\=C.W.\|author\-link\=C.W. Nicol\|year\=1975\|title\=Moving Zen: Karate as a Way to Gentleness\|isbn\=0710082810}}{{cite book\|last\=Bishop\|first\=Mark\|author\-link\=Mark Bishop\|year\=1989\|title\=Okinawan Karate: Teachers, Styles, and Secret Techniques\|isbn\=978\-0713650839}}{{cite book\|last\=Woodman\|first\=Allen\|author\-link\=Allen Woodman\|year\=2014\|title\=The Birth of Karate in America\|isbn\=978\-1365095757}} In other instances, local caucasian and black Americans who studied under Asian\-American masters, helped popularized their styles and culture.{{cite book\|last\=Lowry\|first\=Dave\|author\-link\=Dave Lowry\|year\=1995\|title\=Autumn Lightning: The Education of an American Samurai\|isbn\=978\-1570621154}}{{cite book\|last\=Lowry\|first\=Dave\|author\-link\=Dave Lowry\|year\=1998\|title\=Persimmon Wind: A Martial Artist's Journey in Japan\|isbn\=978\-0804831420}} Such was the case of [Ed Parker](/wiki/Ed_Parker "Ed Parker") with his art of [American Kenpo](/wiki/American_Kenpo "American Kenpo").{{cite book\|last\=Parker\|first\=Ed\|author\-link\=Ed Parker\|year\=2010\|title\=Kenpo Karate: Law of the Fist and the Empty Hand\|isbn\=978\-1453618806}} What else was instrumental in promoting this positive image of Asian\-Americans, was existence of television shows such as [Kung Fu](/wiki/Kung_Fu_%281972_TV_series%29 "Kung Fu (1972 TV series)"). Due to these varying phenomenon Asian\-Americans, and especially Chinese\-Americans, became culturally cast as having a positive association with martial arts skills, which many amongst the American non\-Asian public were then seeking to acquire.{{cite book\|last\=Bluestein\|first\=Jonathan\|author\-link\=Jonathan Bluestein\|year\=2024\|title\=Martial Arts Politics Explained\|isbn\=979\-8335564984}} The general cultural sentiment was expressed in art and popular as well, such as in the song [Kung Fu Fighting](/wiki/Kung_Fu_Fighting "Kung Fu Fighting") and the band [Wu\-Tang Clan](/wiki/Wu-Tang_Clan "Wu-Tang Clan") \- both of which were initiatives of African\-Americans. All of this has contributed greatly to the rise of many notable Asian martial arts teachers in the United States, such as [Bruce Lee](/wiki/Bruce_Lee "Bruce Lee"), [Brandon Lee](/wiki/Brandon_Lee "Brandon Lee"), [Dan Inosanto](/wiki/Dan_Inosanto "Dan Inosanto"), [Fumio Demura](/wiki/Fumio_Demura "Fumio Demura"), [Pat Morita](/wiki/Pat_Morita "Pat Morita") (who portrayed a martial arts master in film but did not practice himself), [Jason Scott Lee](/wiki/Jason_Scott_Lee "Jason Scott Lee"), [Mark Dacascos](/wiki/Mark_Dacascos "Mark Dacascos"), and others.Darcy Coover, From the Gilded Ghetto to Hollywood: Bruce Lee, Kung Fu, and the Evolution of Chinese America, Clemson University, 2008; [https://open.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=1503\&context\=all\_theses\#:\~:text\=Chinese%20kung%20fu%2C%20in%20particular,Kong%20Chinese%2C%20provided%20one%20of](https://open.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1503&context=all_theses#:~:text=Chinese%20kung%20fu%2C%20in%20particular,Kong%20Chinese%2C%20provided%20one%20of)
### 21st century
{{see also\|China Initiative}}
Since the 20th century, Asians, particularly East Asians, have been [cast](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_East_Asians_in_the_United_States "Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States") as a "[model minority](/wiki/Model_minority "Model minority")". They are categorized as being more educated and successful, and they are also stereotyped as being intelligent and hard\-working, but they are also stereotyped as being socially inept.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Lai \| first1 \= Lei \| last2 \= Babcock \| first2 \= Linda C. \| year \= 2013 \| title \= Asian Americans and Workplace Discrimination: The Interplay between Sex of Evaluators and the Perception of Social Skills \| journal \= Journal of Organizational Behavior \| volume \= 34 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 310–326 \| doi\=10\.1002/job.1799}} Asians may experience expectations of natural intelligence and excellence from whites as well as from members of other minority groups.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Kim \| first1 \= Isok \| year \= 2014 \| title \= The Role of Critical Ethnic Awareness and Social Support in the discrimination–depression Relationship among Asian Americans: Path Analysis \| journal \= Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology \| volume \= 20 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 52–60 \| doi\=10\.1037/a0034529\| pmid \= 24491128 }} This has led to discrimination in the workplace, as Asian Americans may face unreasonable expectations because of this stereotype. According to the *Journal of Organizational Behavior*, in 2000, out of 1,218 adult Asian Americans, 92 percent of those who experienced personal discrimination believed that the unfair treatment which they were subjected to was due to their ethnicity. These stereotypes can also render the experience of the large number of Asians who are living in poverty in the United States invisible.
These stereotypes can also obstruct career paths; because Asians are seen as better skilled in engineering, computing, and mathematics, they are often encouraged to pursue technical careers. They are also discouraged from pursuing non\-technical occupations as well as executive occupations which require more social interaction, since Asians are perceived as having poor social skills. In the 2000 study, forty percent of those surveyed who experienced discrimination believed that they had lost hiring or promotion opportunities. In 2007, the [Equal Employment Opportunity Commission](/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission "Equal Employment Opportunity Commission") reported that Asians make up 10 percent of professional jobs, while 3\.7 percent of them held executive, senior level, or manager positions.
Other forms of discrimination against Asian Americans include [racial profiling](/wiki/Racial_profiling "Racial profiling") and [hate crimes](/wiki/Hate_crime "Hate crime"). The FBI noted that in 2015, 3\.2 percent of all hate crimes involved anti\-Asian bias.{{Cite web\|url\=https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate\-crime/2015/topic\-pages/victims\_final\|title\=Victims\|website\=FBI\|access\-date\=December 4, 2018}} In 2016, the [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle") Police Department reported that there was a 40 percent increase in race\-based crimes against Asian Americans, both criminal and non\-criminal.Kebba, Michael T. Bias Crimes and Incidents Synopsis. Seattle: Seattle Police Department Memorandum, 2016\. Print.
Research shows that discrimination has led to more use of informal mental health services by Asian Americans. Asian Americans who feel discriminated against also tend to smoke more.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Chae \| first1 \= David H. \| display\-authors \= etal \| year \= 2008 \| title \= Unfair Treatment, Racial/Ethnic Discrimination, Ethnic Identification, and Smoking among Asian Americans in the National Latino and Asian American Study \| journal \= American Journal of Public Health \| volume \= 98 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 485–492 \| doi\=10\.2105/ajph.2006\.102012 \| pmid\=18235073 \| pmc\=2253562}}
There have been widespread [incidents of xenophobia, racist bullying, and racist violence](/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic%23United_States "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic#United States") against Chinese Americans and other Asian Americans in response to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States").{{cite news \|last1\=Tavernise \|first1\=Sabrina \|last2\=Oppel \|first2\=Richard A. Jr. \|title\=Spit On, Yelled At, Attacked: Chinese\-Americans Fear for Their Safety \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/us/chinese\-coronavirus\-racist\-attacks.html \|access\-date\=March 23, 2020 \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=March 23, 2020}}{{Cite news \|title\=Attacks on Asian Americans Spiked by 150% in First Quarter of 2021 \|work\=Voice of America \|url\=https://www.voanews.com/usa/attacks\-asian\-americans\-spiked\-150\-first\-quarter\-2021\|access\-date\=April 29, 2021 \|language\=en}}
According to a poll done in 2022, 33 percent of Americans believe Asian Americans are "more loyal to their country of origin" than the US while 21 percent falsely believe Asian Americans are at least "partially responsible" for the COVID\-19 pandemic.{{Cite web \|author\=Shawna Chen \|author2\=Hope King \|date\=2022\-05\-04 \|title\=Poll: Distrust of Asian Americans is rising \|url\=https://www.axios.com/2022/05/04/asian\-americans\-covid\-hate\-survey \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-21 \|website\=Axios \|language\=en}} Additionally, only 29 percent of Asian Americans believe they "completely agree" with the statement that they feel they belong and are accepted in the US, while 71 percent say they are discriminated in the US.
According to a poll conducted in 2023, only 22 percent of Asian Americans completely agree that "Personally, I feel like I belong and am accepted in the U.S."{{cite web\|title\=Attitudes towards Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders\|website\=TAAF: The Asian American Foundation}} More than half of Asian Americans answered that they did not feel safe in public spaces.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/05/04/asian\-americans\-dont\-feel\-safe\-or\-welcome\-in\-us\-due\-to\-discrimination/70177197007/\|title\=Asian Americans feel a lack of belonging and safety, national surveys find\|access\-date\=2023\-05\-06\|website\=USA Today}}
|
[
"Asian Americans\n---------------",
"{{main\\|History of Asian Americans\\|Racism against Asians\\#United States}}\n{{Further\\|Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States\\|Asian American activism}}",
"[Asian Americans](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\"), including those of [East Asian](/wiki/East_Asian_people \"East Asian people\"), [South Asian](/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups \"South Asian ethnic groups\"), and [Southeast Asian](/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Southeast_Asia \"Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia\") descent, have experienced racism since the first major groups of Chinese immigrants arrived in America. The [Naturalization Act of 1790](/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790 \"Naturalization Act of 1790\") made Asians ineligible for citizenship.{{cite book \\|last\\=Schultz\\|first\\=Jeffrey D.\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WDV40aK1T\\-sC\\&q\\=African\\+Americans\\+discriminated\\+by\\+Naturalization\\+Act\\+of\\+1790\\&pg\\=PA284\\|page\\=284\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Oryx Press \\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57356\\-148\\-8}} First\\-generation immigrants, the children of immigrants, and Asians who are adopted by non\\-Asian families are still impacted by discrimination.",
"During the [Industrial Revolution in the United States](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States \"Industrial Revolution in the United States\"), labor shortages in the mining and rail industries were prevalent. Chinese immigrant labor was often used to fill this gap, most notably with the construction of the [first transcontinental railroad](/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad \"First transcontinental railroad\"), leading to large\\-scale Chinese immigration.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Eguchi \\| first1 \\= Shinsuke \\| year \\= 2013 \\| title \\= Revisiting Asiacentricity: Toward Thinking Dialectically about Asian American Identities and Negotiation \\| journal \\= Howard Journal of Communications \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 95–115 \\| doi\\=10\\.1080/10646175\\.2013\\.748556\\| s2cid \\= 54718287 }} These Chinese immigrants were seen as taking the jobs of whites for lower wages, and the phrase [Yellow Peril](/wiki/Yellow_Peril \"Yellow Peril\"), which predicted the demise of [Western civilization](/wiki/Western_culture \"Western culture\") as the result of Chinese immigration, gained popularity.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Chin \\| first1 \\= Philip \\| year \\= 2013 \\| title \\= The Chinese Exclusion Act: Ten Year Exclusion Act Debates and Passage – Part 3\". \\| journal \\= Chinese American Forum \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 24–31 }}",
"### 19th century",
"{{See also\\|History of Chinese Americans\\|Anti\\-Chinese sentiment\\#United States\\|Anti\\-Chinese sentiment in the United States\\|Anti\\-Chinese legislation in the United States}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|A political cartoon from 1882 ridiculing the [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act \"Chinese Exclusion Act\"), showing a Chinese man, surrounded by benefits of Chinese immigration, being barred entry to the \"Golden Gate of Liberty\", while other groups, including [communists](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\") and [hoodlums](/wiki/Hoodlum \"Hoodlum\"), are allowed to enter. The caption reads sarcastically, \"We must draw the line *somewhere*, you know.\"](/wiki/File:The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg \"The only one barred out cph.3b48680.jpg\")",
"In 1871, one of the largest [lynchings in American history](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States \"Lynching in the United States\") was committed against [Chinese immigrants](/wiki/Chinese_Americans \"Chinese Americans\") in Los Angeles, California. It would go on to become known as the [Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Chinese_massacre_of_1871 \"Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871\"). The 1879 Constitution of the State of California prohibited the employment of [Chinese people](/wiki/Chinese_people \"Chinese people\") by state and local governments, as well as by businesses that were incorporated in California. Also, the 1879 constitution delegated power to local governments in California to enable them to remove Chinese people from the borders of their communities.{{cite news \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=May 7, 1879 \\|title\\=The Constitution of the State of California of 1879 \\|url\\=https://archives.cdn.sos.ca.gov/collections/1879/archive/1879\\-constitution.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|work\\=\\[\\[California State Legislature]] \\|location\\= \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308012237/https://archives.cdn.sos.ca.gov/collections/1879/archive/1879\\-constitution.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=April 3, 2021 \\|\nquote\\=Article XIX. Chinese. SEC. 2\\. No corporation now existing or hereafter formed under the laws of this State, shall, after the adoption of this Constitution, employ directly or indirectly, in any capacity, any Chinese or Mongolian. The Legislature shall pass such laws as may be necessary to enforce this provision. Sec. 3\\. No Chinese shall be employed on any State, county, municipal, or other public work, except in punishment for crime. ... The Legislature shall delegate all necessary power to the incorporated cities and towns of this State for the removal of Chinese without the limits of such cities and towns, or for their location within prescribed portions of those limits, and it shall also provide the necessary legislation to prohibit the introduction into this State of Chinese after the adoption of this Constitution.}}[James Whitman](/wiki/James_Whitman \"James Whitman\"), \"Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law\" (Princeton: [Princeton University Press](/wiki/Princeton_University_Press \"Princeton University Press\"), 2017\\), p. 35 The federal [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act \"Chinese Exclusion Act\") of 1882 banned the immigration of Chinese labourers for ten years. The [Geary Act](/wiki/Geary_Act \"Geary Act\") of 1892 extended the Chinese Exclusion Act by requiring all Chinese citizens to carry their [resident permit](/wiki/United_States_Permanent_Resident_Card \"United States Permanent Resident Card\") at all times or risk either deportation or a year of hard labor, and was upheld by the 1893 [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") case [Fong Yue Ting v. United States](/wiki/Fong_Yue_Ting_v._United_States \"Fong Yue Ting v. United States\"). Several mob attacks against Chinese people took place, including the [Rock Springs massacre](/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre \"Rock Springs massacre\") of 1885 in [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\") in which at least 28 Chinese miners were killed and 15 other Chinese miners were injured, and the [Hells Canyon massacre](/wiki/Hells_Canyon_massacre \"Hells Canyon massacre\") of 1887 in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\") in which 34 Chinese miners were killed.{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Chinese in America: a narrative history \\|last\\=Iris \\|first\\=Chang \\|date\\=2004 \\|orig\\-date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Penguin \\|isbn\\=0\\-14\\-200417\\-0\\|location\\=New York\\|oclc\\=55136302}} In 1888, the [Scott Act](/wiki/Scott_Act_%281888%29 \"Scott Act (1888)\") prevented 20,000\\-30,000 Chinese abroad from returning to the United States and was later upheld in the 1889 Supreme Court case [Chae Chan Ping v. United States](/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States \"Chae Chan Ping v. United States\").\n[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|[Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Chinese_massacre_of_1871 \"Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871\")](/wiki/File:Los_Angeles%2C_corpses_of_Chinese_victims%2C_Oct_1871.jpg \"Los Angeles, corpses of Chinese victims, Oct 1871.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Denver's anti\\-Chinese riot in 1880](/wiki/File:1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG \"1880 Anti-Chinese Riot in Denver anagoria.JPG\")",
"Local discriminatory laws were also enacted to stifle Chinese business and job opportunities; for example, in the 1886 [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") case of *[Yick Wo v. Hopkins](/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins \"Yick Wo v. Hopkins\")*, a San Francisco city ordinance requiring permits for laundries (which were mostly Chinese\\-owned) was struck down, as it was evident the law solely targeted Chinese Americans. When the law was in effect, the city issued permits to virtually all non\\-Chinese permit applicants, while only granting one permit out of two hundred applications from Chinese laundry owners. When the Chinese laundries continued to operate, the city tried to fine the owners. In 1913, California, home to many Chinese immigrants, enacted an [Alien Land Law](/wiki/California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1913 \"California Alien Land Law of 1913\"), which significantly restricted land ownership by Asian immigrants, and [extended it](/wiki/California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1920 \"California Alien Land Law of 1920\") in 1920, ultimately banning virtually all land ownership by Asians.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Sakamoto \\| first1 \\= Taylor \\| year \\= 2007 \\| title \\= The Triumph and Tragedies of Japanese Women in America: A View Across Four Generations \\| journal \\= History Teacher \\| volume \\= 41 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 97–122 }}",
"Japanese immigrants, who were unaffected by the Chinese Exclusion Act, began to enter the United States in large numbers in 1907, filling jobs that were once filled by Chinese workers. This influx also led to discrimination and President [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt \"Theodore Roosevelt\") restricted Japanese immigration. Theodore Roosevelt's [Executive Order 589](/wiki/s:Executive_Order_589 \"Executive Order 589\") specifically prevented Japanese and Korean laborers, who possessed valid passports to go to Mexico, Canada, or Hawaii, from entering the continental United States. Later, Japanese immigration was closed when Japan entered into the [Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907](/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907 \"Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907\") to stop issuing passports to Japanese workers intending to move to the U.S.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Eguchi \\| first1 \\= Shinsuke \\| year \\= 2013 \\| title \\= Revisiting Asia centricity: Toward Thinking Dialectically about Asian American Identities and Negotiation \\| journal \\= Howard Journal of Communications \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 95–115 \\| doi\\=10\\.1080/10646175\\.2013\\.748556\\| s2cid \\= 54718287 }}",
"The immigration of people from all Asian countries was banned by the sweeping [Immigration Act of 1917](/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917 \"Immigration Act of 1917\"), also known as the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, which also banned homosexuals, people with [intellectual disability](/wiki/Intellectual_disability \"Intellectual disability\"), and people with an anarchist worldview.",
"### Anti\\-Japanese sentiment and legislation",
"{{main\\|Anti\\-Japanese sentiment\\#United States\\|Anti\\-Japanese sentiment in the United States}}\n{{See also\\|Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907\\|California Alien Land Law of 1913\\|Internment of Japanese Americans}}",
"### Anti\\-Filipino sentiment and legislation",
"In 1927, the four\\-day [Yakima Valley riots](/wiki/Yakima_Valley_riots \"Yakima Valley riots\") in Washington state resulted in hundreds of Filipinos being forced to leave the valley under threat of death. In 1930, the [Watsonville riots](/wiki/Watsonville_riots \"Watsonville riots\") in California involved a mob of 500 white men and youths causing five days of violent attacks on Filipino farm workers, and the death of one worker who was shot through the heart. In 1934, the [Tydings–McDuffie Act](/wiki/Tydings%E2%80%93McDuffie_Act \"Tydings–McDuffie Act\") allowed the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), then an American colony, to become an independent country after ten years. The act established a quota of 50 Filipino immigrants to the United States per year. The [Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935](/wiki/Filipino_Repatriation_Act_of_1935 \"Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935\") provided voluntary one\\-way passage for Filipinos in the United States to return to the Philippines. However, if they wanted to return to the United States, they would then be subject to the quota of 50 Filipino immigrants per year.",
"### World War II and postwar",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China \"Republic of China\") was an ally of the United States, and the federal government praised the resistance of the Chinese against Japan during the [Second Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War \"Second Sino-Japanese War\"), in an attempt to reduce [anti\\-Chinese sentiment](/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States \"Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States\"). In 1943, the [Magnuson Act](/wiki/Magnuson_Act \"Magnuson Act\") was passed by Congress, repealing the Chinese Exclusion Act and reopening Chinese immigration; at the time, the United States was actively fighting against the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\"), which was a member of the [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\"). [Anti\\-Japanese racism](/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment \"Anti-Japanese sentiment\"), which spiked after the [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor \"Attack on Pearl Harbor\"), was tacitly encouraged by the government, which used slurs such as \"[Jap](/wiki/Jap \"Jap\")\" in [propaganda posters](/wiki/Propaganda_for_Japanese-American_internment \"Propaganda for Japanese-American internment\"). On February 19, 1942, President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") signed [Executive Order 9066](/wiki/Executive_Order_9066 \"Executive Order 9066\") which cleared the way for [internment of 120,000 Japanese Americans](/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans \"Internment of Japanese Americans\"), citing possible security threats. American soldiers who fought in the [Pacific theater](/wiki/Pacific_War \"Pacific War\") frequently dehumanized their enemies, leading them to [mutilate Japanese war dead](/wiki/American_mutilation_of_Japanese_war_dead \"American mutilation of Japanese war dead\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B\\-5\\-JeCa2Z7hN2ZkMWRiNmYtN2M4Ny00YjQ2LWJlMjYtZGY0NmMxMzM5NzQ2/view?ddrp\\=1\\&hl\\=en\\&pli\\=1\\&usp\\=embed\\_facebook\\|title\\=Trophies of War, US Troops and the Mutilation of Japanese War Dead, 1941–1945 – James J Weingartner – PHR Vol 61 No 1 Feb 1992\\|website\\=Google Docs\\|access\\-date\\=December 7, 2016}} The racist nature of this dehumanization is revealed by the different ways in which corpses were treated in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific_War \"Pacific War\") and [European theaters](/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II \"European theatre of World War II\"). Apparently, some soldiers mailed Japanese skulls home as souvenirs, but none of them mailed German or Italian skulls home.{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://uir.ulster.ac.uk/1559/ \\|title\\=Skull trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance \\|pages\\=817–836 \\|last\\=Simon \\|first\\=Harrison \\|date\\=December 7, 2016 \\|journal\\=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute \\|volume\\=12 \\|issue\\=4 \\|access\\-date\\=December 7, 2016 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1467\\-9655\\.2006\\.00365\\.x \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308110400/http://uir.ulster.ac.uk/1559/ \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} This [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") continued to exist for some time after the end of the war, and anti\\-Asian racism also affected U.S. policy during the [Korean](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") and [Vietnam Wars](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"), even though Asians fought on both sides during both of those wars as well as during World War II. Some historians have alleged that a climate of racism, with unofficial rules like the \"mere gook rule\",{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lWjLdLahLToC\\&q\\=mere\\+gook\\+rule\\&pg\\=PA31\\|title\\=The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism\\|last1\\=Chomsky\\|first1\\=Noam\\|last2\\=Herman\\|first2\\=Edward S.\\|date\\=1979\\|publisher\\=South End Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89608\\-090\\-4\\|page\\=31}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.vice.com/read/vietnam\\-and\\-the\\-mere\\-gook\\-rule\\|title\\=The Secret History of the Vietnam War\\|date\\=April 17, 2013\\|work\\=VICE\\|access\\-date\\=December 7, 2016}} allowed a pattern to exist in which [South Vietnamese](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\") civilians were treated as if they were less than human and [war crimes](/wiki/United_States_war_crimes%23Vietnam_War \"United States war crimes#Vietnam War\") were also common.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6q3vpJ3ePH4C\\&q\\=kill\\+anything\\+that\\+moves\\|title\\=Kill Anything That Moves: The Real American War in Vietnam\\|last\\=Turse\\|first\\=Nick\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Macmillan\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8050\\-8691\\-1}} Despite poor treatment by the United States, thousands of [Japanese Americans joined the US military](/wiki/Japanese_American_service_in_World_War_II \"Japanese American service in World War II\") during World War II, in the segregated [442nd Infantry Regiment](/wiki/442nd_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)\") and [100th Infantry Battalion](/wiki/100th_Infantry_Battalion_%28United_States%29 \"100th Infantry Battalion (United States)\"). The 442nd suffered heavy losses during its fight against Nazi Germany while it was rescuing the [Lost Battalion](/wiki/Lost_Battalion_%28Europe%2C_World_War_II%29 \"Lost Battalion (Europe, World War II)\"), and in recognition of these combat casualties, it was nicknamed \"The [Purple Heart](/wiki/Purple_Heart \"Purple Heart\") Battalion.\"",
"On October 18, 1948, President [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman \"Harry S. Truman\") issued [Executive Order 10009](/wiki/List_of_executive_actions_by_Harry_S._Truman%231948 \"List of executive actions by Harry S. Truman#1948\") to revoke in part Executive Orders 589 from March 14, 1907, and Executive Order 1712 from February 24, 1913\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Truman \\|first\\=Harry S. \\|date\\=October 18, 1948 \\|title\\=Executive Order 10009—Revoking in Part Executive Orders No. 589 of March 14, 1907, and No. 1712 of February 24, 1913 \\|url\\=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive\\-order\\-10009\\-revoking\\-part\\-executive\\-orders\\-no\\-589\\-march\\-14\\-1907\\-and\\-no\\-1712 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|publisher\\=American Presidency Project \\|website\\=presidency.ucsb.edu \\|location\\= \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210404174745/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive\\-order\\-10009\\-revoking\\-part\\-executive\\-orders\\-no\\-589\\-march\\-14\\-1907\\-and\\-no\\-1712 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2021}}",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Bhagat Singh Thind](/wiki/Bhagat_Singh_Thind \"Bhagat Singh Thind\") was twice denied citizenship as he was not deemed white.{{cite news\\|title\\=Court Rules Hindu Not a 'White Person'; Bars High Caste Native of India From Naturalization as an American Citizen\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=February 20, 1923\\| access\\-date\\= October 11, 2021 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1923/02/20/archives/court\\-rules\\-hindu\\-not\\-a\\-white\\-person\\-bars\\-high\\-caste\\-native\\-of.html}}](/wiki/File:Bhagatsinghthind.jpg \"Bhagatsinghthind.jpg\")\nPrior to 1965, Indian immigration to the U.S. was small and isolated, with fewer than 50,000 Indian immigrants in the country. The [Bellingham riots](/wiki/Bellingham_riots \"Bellingham riots\") in [Bellingham, Washington](/wiki/Bellingham%2C_Washington \"Bellingham, Washington\"), on September 5, 1907, epitomized the low tolerance in the U.S. for Indians and [Hindus](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\"). While anti\\-Asian racism was embedded in U.S. politics and culture in the early 20th century, Indians were also racialized, with U.S. officials casting them as \"Hindu menaces\" and pushing for Western imperial expansion abroad.{{cite book\\|first\\=Seema\\|last\\=Sohi\\|title\\=Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America\\|year\\=2014\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-937625\\-4\\|page\\=8 \\|quote\\=Indians in North America, nearly 90 percent of whom where Sikhs from the state of Punjab, were also racialized through colonial gendered discourses. During the early decades of the twentieth century, US Immigration, Justice, and State Department officials cast Indian anti\\-colonialists as a \"Hindu\" menace}} In the 1923 case, *[United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind](/wiki/United_States_v._Bhagat_Singh_Thind \"United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind\")*, the Supreme Court ruled that high caste Hindus were not \"white persons\" and were therefore racially ineligible for naturalized citizenship. The Court also argued that the racial difference between Indians and whites was so great that the \"great body of our people\" would reject assimilation with Indians.Zhao, X. \\& Park, E.J.W. (2013\\). Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History. Greenwood. pp. 1142\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-59884\\-239\\-5}} It was after the [Luce–Celler Act](/wiki/Luce%E2%80%93Celler_Act \"Luce–Celler Act\") of 1946 that a quota of 100 Indians per year could immigrate to the U.S. and become citizens.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/rootsinthesand/a\\_lucecellar.html \\|title\\=Roots in the Sand – the Archives \\|publisher\\=PBS \\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2016}}",
"The [Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965](/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965 \"Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965\") facilitated entry to the U.S. for immigrants other than the traditional [Northern European](/wiki/Northern_European \"Northern European\") and [Germanic groups](/wiki/Germanic_peoples \"Germanic peoples\"), and as a result, it would significantly, and unintentionally, alter the demographic mix in the U.S.{{cite news \\|title\\= 1965 immigration law changed face of America \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|last\\=Ludden \\|newspaper\\=NPR.org \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=5391395 \\|publisher\\=NPR \\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2016}} On the U.S. immigration laws prior to 1965, sociologist [Stephen Klineberg](/wiki/Stephen_Klineberg \"Stephen Klineberg\") stated the law \"declared that Northern Europeans are a superior subspecies of the white race.\" In 1990, Asian immigration was encouraged when nonimmigrant temporary working visas were given to help with the shortage of skilled labor within the United States.",
"### The Second Half of the 20th Century",
"Despite the many injustices done unto Asian\\-Americans in the 20th Century, one field of cultural interest that actually saw the opposite trend was [Traditional Martial Arts](/wiki/Martial_arts \"Martial arts\"). This trend arguably began when American soldiers brought home, various Japanese and Okinawan martial arts that they had studied while living in Japan, in the years following the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Nicol\\|first\\=C.W.\\|author\\-link\\=C.W. Nicol\\|year\\=1975\\|title\\=Moving Zen: Karate as a Way to Gentleness\\|isbn\\=0710082810}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Bishop\\|first\\=Mark\\|author\\-link\\=Mark Bishop\\|year\\=1989\\|title\\=Okinawan Karate: Teachers, Styles, and Secret Techniques\\|isbn\\=978\\-0713650839}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Woodman\\|first\\=Allen\\|author\\-link\\=Allen Woodman\\|year\\=2014\\|title\\=The Birth of Karate in America\\|isbn\\=978\\-1365095757}} In other instances, local caucasian and black Americans who studied under Asian\\-American masters, helped popularized their styles and culture.{{cite book\\|last\\=Lowry\\|first\\=Dave\\|author\\-link\\=Dave Lowry\\|year\\=1995\\|title\\=Autumn Lightning: The Education of an American Samurai\\|isbn\\=978\\-1570621154}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Lowry\\|first\\=Dave\\|author\\-link\\=Dave Lowry\\|year\\=1998\\|title\\=Persimmon Wind: A Martial Artist's Journey in Japan\\|isbn\\=978\\-0804831420}} Such was the case of [Ed Parker](/wiki/Ed_Parker \"Ed Parker\") with his art of [American Kenpo](/wiki/American_Kenpo \"American Kenpo\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Parker\\|first\\=Ed\\|author\\-link\\=Ed Parker\\|year\\=2010\\|title\\=Kenpo Karate: Law of the Fist and the Empty Hand\\|isbn\\=978\\-1453618806}} What else was instrumental in promoting this positive image of Asian\\-Americans, was existence of television shows such as [Kung Fu](/wiki/Kung_Fu_%281972_TV_series%29 \"Kung Fu (1972 TV series)\"). Due to these varying phenomenon Asian\\-Americans, and especially Chinese\\-Americans, became culturally cast as having a positive association with martial arts skills, which many amongst the American non\\-Asian public were then seeking to acquire.{{cite book\\|last\\=Bluestein\\|first\\=Jonathan\\|author\\-link\\=Jonathan Bluestein\\|year\\=2024\\|title\\=Martial Arts Politics Explained\\|isbn\\=979\\-8335564984}} The general cultural sentiment was expressed in art and popular as well, such as in the song [Kung Fu Fighting](/wiki/Kung_Fu_Fighting \"Kung Fu Fighting\") and the band [Wu\\-Tang Clan](/wiki/Wu-Tang_Clan \"Wu-Tang Clan\") \\- both of which were initiatives of African\\-Americans. All of this has contributed greatly to the rise of many notable Asian martial arts teachers in the United States, such as [Bruce Lee](/wiki/Bruce_Lee \"Bruce Lee\"), [Brandon Lee](/wiki/Brandon_Lee \"Brandon Lee\"), [Dan Inosanto](/wiki/Dan_Inosanto \"Dan Inosanto\"), [Fumio Demura](/wiki/Fumio_Demura \"Fumio Demura\"), [Pat Morita](/wiki/Pat_Morita \"Pat Morita\") (who portrayed a martial arts master in film but did not practice himself), [Jason Scott Lee](/wiki/Jason_Scott_Lee \"Jason Scott Lee\"), [Mark Dacascos](/wiki/Mark_Dacascos \"Mark Dacascos\"), and others.Darcy Coover, From the Gilded Ghetto to Hollywood: Bruce Lee, Kung Fu, and the Evolution of Chinese America, Clemson University, 2008; [https://open.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=1503\\&context\\=all\\_theses\\#:\\~:text\\=Chinese%20kung%20fu%2C%20in%20particular,Kong%20Chinese%2C%20provided%20one%20of](https://open.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1503&context=all_theses#:~:text=Chinese%20kung%20fu%2C%20in%20particular,Kong%20Chinese%2C%20provided%20one%20of)",
"### 21st century",
"{{see also\\|China Initiative}}\nSince the 20th century, Asians, particularly East Asians, have been [cast](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_East_Asians_in_the_United_States \"Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States\") as a \"[model minority](/wiki/Model_minority \"Model minority\")\". They are categorized as being more educated and successful, and they are also stereotyped as being intelligent and hard\\-working, but they are also stereotyped as being socially inept.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Lai \\| first1 \\= Lei \\| last2 \\= Babcock \\| first2 \\= Linda C. \\| year \\= 2013 \\| title \\= Asian Americans and Workplace Discrimination: The Interplay between Sex of Evaluators and the Perception of Social Skills \\| journal \\= Journal of Organizational Behavior \\| volume \\= 34 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 310–326 \\| doi\\=10\\.1002/job.1799}} Asians may experience expectations of natural intelligence and excellence from whites as well as from members of other minority groups.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Kim \\| first1 \\= Isok \\| year \\= 2014 \\| title \\= The Role of Critical Ethnic Awareness and Social Support in the discrimination–depression Relationship among Asian Americans: Path Analysis \\| journal \\= Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology \\| volume \\= 20 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 52–60 \\| doi\\=10\\.1037/a0034529\\| pmid \\= 24491128 }} This has led to discrimination in the workplace, as Asian Americans may face unreasonable expectations because of this stereotype. According to the *Journal of Organizational Behavior*, in 2000, out of 1,218 adult Asian Americans, 92 percent of those who experienced personal discrimination believed that the unfair treatment which they were subjected to was due to their ethnicity. These stereotypes can also render the experience of the large number of Asians who are living in poverty in the United States invisible.",
"These stereotypes can also obstruct career paths; because Asians are seen as better skilled in engineering, computing, and mathematics, they are often encouraged to pursue technical careers. They are also discouraged from pursuing non\\-technical occupations as well as executive occupations which require more social interaction, since Asians are perceived as having poor social skills. In the 2000 study, forty percent of those surveyed who experienced discrimination believed that they had lost hiring or promotion opportunities. In 2007, the [Equal Employment Opportunity Commission](/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission \"Equal Employment Opportunity Commission\") reported that Asians make up 10 percent of professional jobs, while 3\\.7 percent of them held executive, senior level, or manager positions.",
"Other forms of discrimination against Asian Americans include [racial profiling](/wiki/Racial_profiling \"Racial profiling\") and [hate crimes](/wiki/Hate_crime \"Hate crime\"). The FBI noted that in 2015, 3\\.2 percent of all hate crimes involved anti\\-Asian bias.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate\\-crime/2015/topic\\-pages/victims\\_final\\|title\\=Victims\\|website\\=FBI\\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2018}} In 2016, the [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\") Police Department reported that there was a 40 percent increase in race\\-based crimes against Asian Americans, both criminal and non\\-criminal.Kebba, Michael T. Bias Crimes and Incidents Synopsis. Seattle: Seattle Police Department Memorandum, 2016\\. Print.",
"Research shows that discrimination has led to more use of informal mental health services by Asian Americans. Asian Americans who feel discriminated against also tend to smoke more.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Chae \\| first1 \\= David H. \\| display\\-authors \\= etal \\| year \\= 2008 \\| title \\= Unfair Treatment, Racial/Ethnic Discrimination, Ethnic Identification, and Smoking among Asian Americans in the National Latino and Asian American Study \\| journal \\= American Journal of Public Health \\| volume \\= 98 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 485–492 \\| doi\\=10\\.2105/ajph.2006\\.102012 \\| pmid\\=18235073 \\| pmc\\=2253562}}",
"There have been widespread [incidents of xenophobia, racist bullying, and racist violence](/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic%23United_States \"Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic#United States\") against Chinese Americans and other Asian Americans in response to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States \"COVID-19 pandemic in the United States\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Tavernise \\|first1\\=Sabrina \\|last2\\=Oppel \\|first2\\=Richard A. Jr. \\|title\\=Spit On, Yelled At, Attacked: Chinese\\-Americans Fear for Their Safety \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/us/chinese\\-coronavirus\\-racist\\-attacks.html \\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=March 23, 2020}}{{Cite news \\|title\\=Attacks on Asian Americans Spiked by 150% in First Quarter of 2021 \\|work\\=Voice of America \\|url\\=https://www.voanews.com/usa/attacks\\-asian\\-americans\\-spiked\\-150\\-first\\-quarter\\-2021\\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2021 \\|language\\=en}}",
"According to a poll done in 2022, 33 percent of Americans believe Asian Americans are \"more loyal to their country of origin\" than the US while 21 percent falsely believe Asian Americans are at least \"partially responsible\" for the COVID\\-19 pandemic.{{Cite web \\|author\\=Shawna Chen \\|author2\\=Hope King \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-04 \\|title\\=Poll: Distrust of Asian Americans is rising \\|url\\=https://www.axios.com/2022/05/04/asian\\-americans\\-covid\\-hate\\-survey \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-21 \\|website\\=Axios \\|language\\=en}} Additionally, only 29 percent of Asian Americans believe they \"completely agree\" with the statement that they feel they belong and are accepted in the US, while 71 percent say they are discriminated in the US.",
"According to a poll conducted in 2023, only 22 percent of Asian Americans completely agree that \"Personally, I feel like I belong and am accepted in the U.S.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Attitudes towards Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders\\|website\\=TAAF: The Asian American Foundation}} More than half of Asian Americans answered that they did not feel safe in public spaces.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/05/04/asian\\-americans\\-dont\\-feel\\-safe\\-or\\-welcome\\-in\\-us\\-due\\-to\\-discrimination/70177197007/\\|title\\=Asian Americans feel a lack of belonging and safety, national surveys find\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-06\\|website\\=USA Today}}",
""
] |
Consequences
------------
{{See also\|Racial inequality in the United States}}
### Developmental
Using [The Schedule of Racist Events](/wiki/Psychometrics_of_racism "Psychometrics of racism") (SRE), an 18\-item self\-report inventory which assesses the frequency of racist discrimination, [Hope Landrine](/wiki/Hope_Landrine "Hope Landrine") and Elizabeth A. Klonoff found that racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and as a result, it is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms.*The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences* Journal of Black Psychology, Vol. 22, No. 2, 144–168 (1996\) A study on racist events in the lives of African American women found that lifetime experiences of racism were positively related to lifetime histories of both physical disease and the frequency of recent common colds. These relationships were largely unaccounted for by other variables. Demographic variables such as [income](/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States "Income inequality in the United States") and [educational inequality](/wiki/Educational_inequality_in_the_United_States "Educational inequality in the United States") were not related to experiences of racism. The results suggest that racism can be detrimental to African Americans' well\-being.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Kwate NO, Valdimarsdottir HB, Guevarra JS, Bovbjerg DH \|title\=Experiences of racist events are associated with negative health consequences for African American women \|journal\=J Natl Med Assoc \|volume\=95 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=450–460 \|date\=June 2003 \|pmid\=12856911 \|pmc\=2594553}} The physiological stress caused by racism has been documented in studies by [Claude Steele](/wiki/Claude_Steele "Claude Steele"), Joshua Aronson, and Steven Spencer on what they term "[stereotype threat](/wiki/Stereotype_threat "Stereotype threat")."{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Blascovich J, Spencer SJ, Quinn D, Steele C \|title\=African Americans and high blood pressure: the role of stereotype threat \|journal\=Psychol Sci \|volume\=12 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=225–229 \|date\=May 2001 \|pmid\=11437305 \|doi\=10\.1111/1467\-9280\.00340 \|s2cid\=2590855 }}
Much research has been done on the effects of racism on adults, but racism and discrimination also affect children and teens.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Benner\|first1\=Aprile D.\|last2\=Wang\|first2\=Yijie\|last3\=Shen\|first3\=Yishan\|last4\=Boyle\|first4\=Alaina E.\|last5\=Polk\|first5\=Richelle\|last6\=Cheng\|first6\=Yen\-Pi\|date\=October 2018\|title\=Racial/ethnic discrimination and well\-being during adolescence: A meta\-analytic review.\|journal\=American Psychologist\|language\=en\|volume\=73\|issue\=7\|pages\=855–883\|doi\=10\.1037/amp0000204\|issn\=1935\-990X\|pmc\=6172152\|pmid\=30024216}} From infancy to adolescence, studies document a children's growth in understanding of race from being aware of race to later understanding how race and prejudice affects their life, the lives of others', and society as a whole.{{Cite journal\|last\=Katz\|first\=Phyllis A.\|date\=November 2003\|title\=Racists or Tolerant Multiculturalists? How Do They Begin?\|journal\=American Psychologist\|language\=en\|volume\=58\|issue\=11\|pages\=897–909\|doi\=10\.1037/0003\-066X.58\.11\.897b\|pmid\=14609382\|issn\=1935\-990X}}{{Citation\|last1\=Quintana\|first1\=Stephen M.\|title\=Introduction: Race, Racism, and the Developing Child\|date\=January 9, 2012\|work\=Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child\|pages\=1–15\|place\=Hoboken, NJ\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons, Inc.\|isbn\=978\-1\-118\-26993\-0\|last2\=McKown\|first2\=Clark\|doi\=10\.1002/9781118269930\.ch1}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Umaña\-Taylor\|first\=Adriana J.\|date\=April 2016\|title\=A Post\-Racial Society in Which Ethnic\-Racial Discrimination Still Exists and Has Significant Consequences for Youths' Adjustment\|journal\=Current Directions in Psychological Science\|volume\=25\|issue\=2\|pages\=111–118\|doi\=10\.1177/0963721415627858\|s2cid\=147671823\|issn\=0963\-7214}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Karcher\|first1\=Michael J\|last2\=Fischer\|first2\=Kurt W\|date\=May 2004\|title\=A developmental sequence of skills in adolescents' intergroup understanding\|journal\=Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology\|volume\=25\|issue\=3\|pages\=259–282\|doi\=10\.1016/j.appdev.2004\.04\.001\|issn\=0193\-3973}} The comprehensive literature review of 214 published articles with key words related to the topic, such as [discrimination](/wiki/Racial_discrimination "Racial discrimination"), racism, and [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") for adolescents aged 10–20 years (Benner et al., 2008\) highlighted a link between teens' experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination and "their socioemotional distress, academic success, and risky health behaviors". This study chose larger sample sized and [peer reviewed](/wiki/Peer_review "Peer review") studies, over smaller sampled and non\-peer reviewed studies.
In this review, researchers showed links between racial discrimination and lower socioemotional, academic, and behavioral outcomes. The socioemotional variable included depression, internalized symptoms, self\-esteem, and positive well\-being; academics included achievement, engagement, and motivation; and behavioral outcomes included externalized behaviors, substance abuse, deviant peer associations, and risky sexual behaviors. Researchers examined the links between discrimination and other demographic variables such as race, age, and country of residence. When looking at the impact of race/ethnicity, results show that Asian and Latino youth show greater socioemotional distress and Latino youth show lower academic outcomes. Younger teens (10 to 13 years) experience more socioemotional distress than those in middle or late teens. Furthermore, when looking at county of residence, teens in the United States have a much stronger link to socioemotional distress than other countries included in the review.
In 2023 a study was released that looked at the effect of structural inequities on the brains of Black children. Examining MRI scans of 7,350 White and 1,786 Black children ages 9 and 10 researchers reported that Black children living in poverty face increased instances of stress and trauma that can alter their brain development. The study defines the stressors as "prolonged exposure to adverse experiences" including neighborhood disadvantage, family conflict, and income. Researchers found Black children had greater exposure to adversity, lower volume of different brain regions, and more PTSD symptoms. Accounting for differences in exposure to adversity significantly attenuated race\-related differences in volume in several brain regions.{{cite journal \|title\=Racial Disparities in Adversity During Childhood and the False Appearance of Race\-Related Differences in Brain Structure \|journal\=The American Journal of Psychiatry \|year\=2023 \|doi\=10\.1176/appi.ajp.21090961 \|last1\=Dumornay \|first1\=Nathalie M. \|last2\=Lebois \|first2\=Lauren A.M. \|last3\=Ressler \|first3\=Kerry J. \|last4\=Harnett \|first4\=Nathaniel G. \|volume\=180 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=127–138 \|pmid\=36722118 \|pmc\=9897449}}{{cite web \|title\=New study reveals the effect of racism and poverty on children's brains \|url\=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/new\-study\-reveals\-the\-effect\-of\-racism\-and\-poverty\-on\-childrens\-brains \|website\=PBS (audio) \|date\=February 18, 2023 \|access\-date\=February 18, 2023}}
### Societal
#### Schemas and stereotypes
[thumb\|This racist [postcard](/wiki/Postcard "Postcard") from the 1900s shows the casual denigration of Black women. It states "I know you're not particular to a fault / Though I'm not sure you'll never be sued for assault / You're so fond of women that even a wench / Attracts your gross fancy despite her strong stench"](/wiki/File:1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg "1900sc Mammy Card Interracial.jpg")
**Media**
{{Main\|Stereotypes of groups within the United States}}
{{See also\|Stereotypes of East Asians in the Western world\|Stereotypes of African Americans\|Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States
\|Stereotypes of Native Americans}}
Popular culture (songs, theater) for European American audiences in the 19th century created and perpetuated negative [stereotypes of African Americans](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans "Stereotypes of African Americans"). One key symbol of racism against African Americans was the use of [blackface](/wiki/Blackface "Blackface"). Directly related to this was the institution of [minstrelsy](/wiki/Minstrel_show "Minstrel show"). Other stereotypes of African Americans included the fat, dark\-skinned "[mammy](/wiki/Mammy_archetype "Mammy archetype")" and the irrational, hypersexual male "buck".
Many of these stereotypes entered public media with an {{lang\|la\|imprimatur}} from the highest levels of white society. In a 1943 speech on the floor of Congress quoted in both [*The Jewish News* of Detroit](/wiki/The_Jewish_News_%28Detroit%29 "The Jewish News (Detroit)"){{cite news\|date\=July 16, 1943\|title\=A Rest From Bigotry\|url\=https://digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1943\.07\.16\.001/4\|url\-status\=live\|editor\-surname\=Slomovitz\|editor\-given\=Philip\|department\=As the Editor Views the News\|newspaper\=\[\[The Jewish News (Detroit)\|The Jewish News]]\|volume\=3\|issue\=17\|location\=Detroit\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427181426/https://digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1943\.07\.16\.001/4\|archive\-date\=April 27, 2021}} and the antisemitic magazine *The Defender* of Wichita{{cite magazine\|date\=September 1943\|editor\-surname\=Winrod\|editor\-given\=Gerald Burton\|editor\-link\=Gerald Burton Winrod\|title\=Congressman Says Negroes Deceived\|url\=http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/D%20Disk/Defender%20The/Item%2001\.pdf\|url\-status\=live\|magazine\=\[\[The Defender (magazine)\|The Defender]]\|location\=\[\[Wichita, Kansas]]\|page\=12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530213109/http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/D%20Disk/Defender%20The/Item%2001\.pdf\|archive\-date\=May 30, 2013}} [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi "Mississippi") Representative [John E. Rankin](/wiki/John_E._Rankin "John E. Rankin") stated that Jewish Communists were arranging for white women to be raped by Black American men.
In recent years increasing numbers of African\-American activists have asserted that [rap music](/wiki/Rap_music "Rap music") videos commonly use scantily clothed African\-American performers posing as thugs or pimps. The [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP "NAACP") and the [National Congress of Black Women](/wiki/National_Congress_of_Black_Women "National Congress of Black Women") also have called for the reform of images on videos and on television. [Julian Bond](/wiki/Julian_Bond "Julian Bond") said that in a segregated society, people get their impressions of other groups from what they see in videos and what they hear in music.Felicia R. Lee, "[Protesting Demeaning Images in Media](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/05/arts/05enou.html)" *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* November 5, 2007Marissa Newhall, "[Channeling Their Discontent, 500 Gather at Executive's D.C. Home to Protest Stereotypes](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/15/AR2007091501441.html)," *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post "Washington Post")*, September 16, 2007{{cite web\|url\=http://www.enoughisenoughcampaign.com/ \|title\=Enough is Enough! Campaign \|publisher\=Enough is Enough! Campaign \|date\=March 9, 2011 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.whataboutourdaughters.com/ \|title\=What About Our Daughters? \|publisher\=Whataboutourdaughters.com \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013 \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308050708/http://www.whataboutourdaughters.com/ }}
[thumb\|left\|In 1899 Uncle Sam balances his new possessions which are depicted as "savage" children. The figures are [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico"), Hawaii, [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"), [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") and "Ladrone Is." (the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands "Mariana Islands")).](/wiki/File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg "1899BalanceCartoon.jpg")
It is understood that representations of minorities in the media have the ability to reinforce or change stereotypes. For example, in one study, a collection of white subjects were primed by a comedy skit either showing a stereotypical or neutral portrayal of African\-American characters. Participants were then required to read a vignette describing an incident of sexual violence, with the alleged offender either white or black, and assign a rating for perceived guilt. For those shown the stereotypical African\-American character, there was a significantly higher guilt rating for black alleged offender in the subsequent vignette, in comparison to the other conditions.{{cite journal\|last\=Ford\|first\=Thomas\|title\=Effects of Stereotypical Television Portrayals of African\-Americans on Person Perception\|journal\=Social Psychology Quarterly\|year\=1997\|volume\=60\|issue\=3\|pages\=266–275\|doi\=10\.2307/2787086\|jstor\=2787086}}
While schemas have an overt societal consequence, the strong development of them have lasting effect on recipients. Overall, it is found that strong in\-group attitudes are correlated with academic and economic success. In a study analyzing the interaction of assimilation and racial\-ethnic schemas for Hispanic youth found that strong schematic identities for Hispanic youth undermined academic achievement.{{cite journal\|last1\=Altschul\|first1\=Inna \|first2\=Daphna \|last2\=Oyserman \|first3\=Deborah\|last3\=Bybee\|title\=Racial\-Ethnic Self\-Schemas and Segmented Assimilation: Identity and the Academic Achievement of Hispanic Youth\|journal\=Social Psychology Quarterly\|date\=September 2008\|volume\=71\|issue\=3\|pages\=302–320 \|doi\=10\.1177/019027250807100309\|jstor\=20141842\|s2cid\=18018980 }}
Additional stereotypes attributed to minorities continue to influence societal interactions. For example, a 1993 *Harvard Law Review* article states that Asian Americans are commonly viewed as submissive, as a combination of relative physical stature and Western comparisons of cultural attitudes. Furthermore, Asian Americans are depicted as the model minority, unfair competitors, foreigners, and indistinguishable. These stereotypes can serve to dehumanize Asian Americans and catalyze hostility and violence.{{cite journal\|title\=Racial Violence against Asian Americans\|journal\=Harvard Law Review\|year\=1993\|volume\=106\|issue\=8\|pages\=1926–1943\|jstor\=1341790\|doi\=10\.2307/1341790}}
#### Minority\-minority racism
{{Main\|Interminority racism in the United States}}
Minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of [power](/wiki/Power_%28sociology%29 "Power (sociology)") in society. Some [theories of racism](/wiki/Prejudice_plus_power "Prejudice plus power") insist that racism can only exist in the context of social power so it can be imposed upon others.For example, Catherine A. Hansman, Leon Spencer, Dale Grant, Mary Jackson, "Beyond Diversity: Dismantling Barriers in Education," *Journal of Instructional Psychology*, March 1999 Yet discrimination and racism has also been noted between racially [marginalized](/wiki/Marginalized "Marginalized") groups. For example, there has been ongoing violence between African American and [Mexican American](/wiki/Mexican_American "Mexican American") gangs, particularly in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California").Andrew Blankstein And Joel Rubin. [L.A.'s top cops at odds: William Bratton, Lee Baca disagree on role of race in gang violence.](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-jun-13-me-race13-story.html) *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, June 13, 2008\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story\_id\=9587776 \|title\=Race relations \| Where black and brown collide \|publisher\=Economist.com \|date\=August 2, 2007 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618\.shtml \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120723174537/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618\.shtml \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=July 23, 2012 \|title\=Riot Breaks Out at Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts at Southern California School \|publisher\=Cbsnews.com \|date\=February 11, 2009 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=5192595\&ft\=1\&f\=1001 \|title\=California Prisons on Alert After Weekend Violence \|publisher\=NPR \|date\=February 6, 2006 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}
Conflict has also been noted between recent immigrant groups and their established ethnic counterparts within the United States. Rapidly\-growing communities of [African](/wiki/Africans_in_the_United_States "Africans in the United States") and [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") immigrants have come into conflict with African Americans. The amount of interaction and cooperation between Black immigrants and African Americans are considered to be disputable. One can argue that racial discrimination and cooperation are not ordinarily based on skin color, but are instead based on shared or common, cultural experiences and beliefs.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613\.stm \|title\=African immigrants face bias from blacks \|publisher\=Post\-gazette.com \|date\=December 31, 1969 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013 \|archive\-date\=October 10, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010124348/http://www.post\-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613\.stm }}{{cite web\|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/Story?id\=5237459\&page\=1 \|title\=Racism not always black and white \|publisher\=Abcnews.go.com \|date\=June 25, 2008 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}
#### Interpersonal discrimination
In a manner that defines interpersonal discrimination in the United States, Darryl Brown of the *Virginia Law Review* states that while "our society has established a consensus against blatant, intentional racism in the decades since Brown v Board of Education and it has also developed a sizeable set of legal remedies to address it", our legal system "ignores the possibility that 'race' is structural or interstitial, that it can be the root of injury even when it is not traceable to a specific intention or action".{{cite journal\|last\=Brown\|first\=Darryl\|title\=Racism and Race Relations in the University\|journal\=Virginia Law Review\|date\=March 1990\|volume\=76\|issue\=2\|pages\=295–335\|jstor\=1073204\|doi\=10\.2307/1073204\|hdl\=10288/8306\|url\=https://digitalarchive.wm.edu/xmlui/bitstream/10288/8306/1/BrownDarrylwm.pdf\|hdl\-access\=free}}
Unlike formal discrimination, interpersonal discrimination is often not an overt or deliberate act of racism. For example, in an incident regarding a racial remark which was made by a professor at Virginia Law, a rift was created by conflicting definitions of racism. For the students who defended the professor's innocence, "racism was defined as an act of intentional maliciousness". Yet for African Americans, racism was broadened to a detrimental influence on "the substantive dynamics of the classroom". As an effect, it is argued that the "daily repetition of subtle racism and subordination in the classroom can ultimately be, for African Americans, even more reductive of stress, anxiety and alienation than blatant racist acts can be." Moreover, the attention which is given to these acts of discrimination diverts energy from academics, becoming a distraction that white students do not generally face.
#### Ethnic\-racial socialization
Ethnic\-racial socialization refers to the transfer of knowledge about various aspects of race or ethnicity through generations.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Wang\|first1\=Ming\-Te\|last2\=Henry\|first2\=Daphne A.\|last3\=Smith\|first3\=Leann V.\|last4\=Huguley\|first4\=James P.\|last5\=Guo\|first5\=Jiesi\|date\=January 2020\|title\=Parental ethnic\-racial socialization practices and children of color's psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta\-analysis.\|journal\=American Psychologist\|volume\=75\|issue\=1\|pages\=1–22\|doi\=10\.1037/amp0000464\|pmid\=31058521\|s2cid\=145820076\|issn\=1935\-990X}} Parents of color use ethnic\-racial socialization to transfer cultural knowledge to their children to protect them from potential biases which they may face as a result of their ethnicity and/or race. However, how parents choose to socialize their children regarding issues of ethnicity and race may affect children differently. For example, when parent's socialization efforts focus on positive aspects of their race or ethnicity, children of color tend to report higher self\-esteem. On the other hand, if the focus of socialization mainly revolves around mistrust about interracial or inter\-ethnic relations, children's self\-concept, or how children view themselves might suffer. Promotion of socialization that centers on mistrust is especially harmful when parents present it without also teaching positive coping skills.
Wang et al. (2020\) conducted a meta\-analytic review of 334 articles examining the effects of ethnic\-racial socialization on children of color's psychosocial adjustment. Researchers evaluated the stage of children's development in which the effects of ethnic\-racial socialization would be most prominent. Their findings using their systematic review process showed a positive relationship between parental ethnic\-racial socialization and psychosocial well\-being measures, including self\-perception, confidence, and interpersonal relationships.
The effects of age varied based on the psychosocial well\-being measure a study used. Results showed that the link between positive self\-perception and ethnic\-racial socialization was most effective when it occurred in childhood and early adolescence. On the other hand, children who reported positive relationships between their interpersonal relationships and ethnic\-racial socialization showed this paper in middle to late adolescence. The effects of ethnic\-racial socialization also varied based on children's race/ethnicity. Self\-perception and ethnic\-racial socialization are related more positively among African Americans, suggesting that parents used ethnic\-racial socialization to buffer against the deep\-rooted stigma and biases African Americans face in the United States. Contrary to the experiences of African Americans, ethnic\-racial socialization was related to low self\-perception among Asian Americans. Extensive research is required to better understand the connection of ethnic\-racial socialization for Asian American children's psychosocial well\-being.
To better understand the effects of ethnic\-racial socialization and psychological development, research should take into account known moderating factors similar to [stereotype threat](/wiki/Stereotype_threat "Stereotype threat"). It is important to note that the research findings were correlational and as such does not imply causality.
### Institutional racism
[Institutional racism](/wiki/Institutional_racism_in_the_United_States "Institutional racism in the United States") is the theory that aspects of the existing social structure, pervasive attitudes, and established institutions in society disadvantage some racial groups, but not with an overtly discriminatory mechanism.[What is Institutional and Structural Racism?](http://www.eraseracismny.org/html/whatis/whatis.php) ERASE RACISM There are several factors which play into institutional racism, including: accumulated wealth/benefits for racial groups which have benefited from past discrimination, educational and occupational disadvantages which are faced by non\-native English speakers in the United States, ingrained stereotypical images which still exist in American society (e.g. black men are likely to be criminals).{{cite journal \| last1 \= Bullock \| first1 \= III \| last2 \= Rodgers \| first2 \= Jr. \| year \= 1976 \| title \= Institutional Racism: Prerequisites, Freezing, and Mapping \| journal \= Phylon \| volume \= 37 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 212–223 \| doi\=10\.2307/274450\| jstor \= 274450 }} Institutional racism impacts the lives of racial groups negatively as although legislations where passed in the mid 20th century to abolish any sort of segregation and discrimination it still does not change the fact that institutional racism is still able to occur to anyone. Peter Kaufman, a former sociology professor at the State University of New York{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sociologyexperiment.com/about\-us/\|title\=About Us – A Sociology Experiment}} published an article in which Kaufman describes three instances in which institutional racism has contributed to current views of race.{{Cite web\|title \= Everyday Sociology Blog: Michael Brown, Ferguson, Missouri, and the Invisibility of Race\|url \= http://www.everydaysociologyblog.com/2014/08/michael\-brown\-ferguson\-missouri\-and\-the\-invisibility\-of\-race.html\|website \= www.everydaysociologyblog.com\|access\-date \= December 15, 2015}} These are:
1. The mis\- and Missing Education of Race, in which he describes problems which the educational system has in discussing "slavery, race, racism, and topics such as white privilege." He goes on to say that schools are still segregated based on class and race, which also contributes to the poor state of race relations
2. Residential Racial Segregation. According to Kaufman, schools are still segregated because towns and cities are still largely segregated.
3. Media Monsters. This describes the role which the media plays in the portrayal of race. The mass media tends to play on "depictions of racialized stereotypes in the mass media \[which are] ubiquitous, and such caricaturized images shape our perceptions of various racial groups." An example of this is the stereotyping of Blacks as criminals.\* {{cite book \|first\=Wilson \|last\=Head \|title\=A Life on the Edge: Experiences in Black and White in North America \|publisher\=University of Toronto Press \|date\=1995 \|isbn\=978\-0\-9680066\-0\-3}}
#### Nazi Germany's inspiration from American racism
{{See also\|Nazi racial theories\|Racial policy of Nazi Germany}}
The U.S. was a global leader in codified racism, and its race laws fascinated [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") and other German [Nazis](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party"), who praised America's system of institutional racism, believing it to be a model to follow in their [Reich](/wiki/Reich "Reich"). Hitler's book *[Mein Kampf](/wiki/Mein_Kampf "Mein Kampf")* praised America as the only contemporary example of a country with racist ("völkisch") citizenship statutes in the 1920s. The *National Socialist Handbook for Law and Legislation* of 1934–35, edited by lawyer [Hans Frank](/wiki/Hans_Frank "Hans Frank"), contains a pivotal essay by Herbert Kier on the recommendations for race legislation which devoted a quarter of its pages to U.S. legislation—from segregation, race based citizenship, immigration regulations, and anti\-miscegenation. Nazi lawyers were inspired by American laws when they designed their [own laws](/wiki/Anti-Jewish_legislation_in_pre-war_Nazi_Germany "Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany") in [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany"), including racist citizenship laws, and [anti\-miscegenation laws](/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws "Anti-miscegenation laws") which inspired the two principal [Nuremberg Laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws "Nuremberg Laws")—the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law.{{cite book\|last1\=Whitman\|first1\=James Q.\|title\=Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law\|date\=2017\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|pages\=37–47}}
Hitler and other Nazis were also inspired by America's 19th century westward expansion, believing it to be a model for the [expansion of German territory into the territories of other nations](/wiki/Lebensraum "Lebensraum") and [elimination of their indigenous inhabitants](/wiki/Generalplan_Ost "Generalplan Ost"). In 1928, Hitler praised the United States for having "gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keep the modest remnant under observation in a cage".Whitman, James Q. (2017\). Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law. Princeton University Press. p. 47\. On Nazi Germany's expansion eastward, in 1941 Hitler stated, "Our Mississippi \[the line beyond which Thomas Jefferson wanted all Indians expelled] must be the Volga, and not the Niger."{{cite book\|last1\=Westermann\|first1\=Edward. B.\|title\=Hitler's Ostkrieg and the Indian Wars: Comparing Genocide and Conquest\|date\=2016\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|page\=3}} In a later speech Hitler stated, "in the East a similar process will repeat itself for a second time as in the conquest of America", and Nazi troops "had a duty to look upon natives as Redskins".{{cite book \|last1\=Watson \|first1\=Irene \|title\=Indigenous Peoples as Subjects of International Law \|date\=2017 \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|page\=62}}{{cite news \|title\=Hitler on the Mississippi Banks \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/01/hitler\-on\-the\-mississippi\-banks/283127/ \|access\-date\=August 15, 2022 \|work\=The Atlantic}}
|
[
"Consequences\n------------",
"{{See also\\|Racial inequality in the United States}}",
"### Developmental",
"Using [The Schedule of Racist Events](/wiki/Psychometrics_of_racism \"Psychometrics of racism\") (SRE), an 18\\-item self\\-report inventory which assesses the frequency of racist discrimination, [Hope Landrine](/wiki/Hope_Landrine \"Hope Landrine\") and Elizabeth A. Klonoff found that racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and as a result, it is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms.*The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences* Journal of Black Psychology, Vol. 22, No. 2, 144–168 (1996\\) A study on racist events in the lives of African American women found that lifetime experiences of racism were positively related to lifetime histories of both physical disease and the frequency of recent common colds. These relationships were largely unaccounted for by other variables. Demographic variables such as [income](/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States \"Income inequality in the United States\") and [educational inequality](/wiki/Educational_inequality_in_the_United_States \"Educational inequality in the United States\") were not related to experiences of racism. The results suggest that racism can be detrimental to African Americans' well\\-being.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Kwate NO, Valdimarsdottir HB, Guevarra JS, Bovbjerg DH \\|title\\=Experiences of racist events are associated with negative health consequences for African American women \\|journal\\=J Natl Med Assoc \\|volume\\=95 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=450–460 \\|date\\=June 2003 \\|pmid\\=12856911 \\|pmc\\=2594553}} The physiological stress caused by racism has been documented in studies by [Claude Steele](/wiki/Claude_Steele \"Claude Steele\"), Joshua Aronson, and Steven Spencer on what they term \"[stereotype threat](/wiki/Stereotype_threat \"Stereotype threat\").\"{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Blascovich J, Spencer SJ, Quinn D, Steele C \\|title\\=African Americans and high blood pressure: the role of stereotype threat \\|journal\\=Psychol Sci \\|volume\\=12 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=225–229 \\|date\\=May 2001 \\|pmid\\=11437305 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/1467\\-9280\\.00340 \\|s2cid\\=2590855 }}",
"Much research has been done on the effects of racism on adults, but racism and discrimination also affect children and teens.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Benner\\|first1\\=Aprile D.\\|last2\\=Wang\\|first2\\=Yijie\\|last3\\=Shen\\|first3\\=Yishan\\|last4\\=Boyle\\|first4\\=Alaina E.\\|last5\\=Polk\\|first5\\=Richelle\\|last6\\=Cheng\\|first6\\=Yen\\-Pi\\|date\\=October 2018\\|title\\=Racial/ethnic discrimination and well\\-being during adolescence: A meta\\-analytic review.\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=73\\|issue\\=7\\|pages\\=855–883\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/amp0000204\\|issn\\=1935\\-990X\\|pmc\\=6172152\\|pmid\\=30024216}} From infancy to adolescence, studies document a children's growth in understanding of race from being aware of race to later understanding how race and prejudice affects their life, the lives of others', and society as a whole.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Katz\\|first\\=Phyllis A.\\|date\\=November 2003\\|title\\=Racists or Tolerant Multiculturalists? How Do They Begin?\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=58\\|issue\\=11\\|pages\\=897–909\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0003\\-066X.58\\.11\\.897b\\|pmid\\=14609382\\|issn\\=1935\\-990X}}{{Citation\\|last1\\=Quintana\\|first1\\=Stephen M.\\|title\\=Introduction: Race, Racism, and the Developing Child\\|date\\=January 9, 2012\\|work\\=Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child\\|pages\\=1–15\\|place\\=Hoboken, NJ\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons, Inc.\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-118\\-26993\\-0\\|last2\\=McKown\\|first2\\=Clark\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/9781118269930\\.ch1}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Umaña\\-Taylor\\|first\\=Adriana J.\\|date\\=April 2016\\|title\\=A Post\\-Racial Society in Which Ethnic\\-Racial Discrimination Still Exists and Has Significant Consequences for Youths' Adjustment\\|journal\\=Current Directions in Psychological Science\\|volume\\=25\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=111–118\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0963721415627858\\|s2cid\\=147671823\\|issn\\=0963\\-7214}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Karcher\\|first1\\=Michael J\\|last2\\=Fischer\\|first2\\=Kurt W\\|date\\=May 2004\\|title\\=A developmental sequence of skills in adolescents' intergroup understanding\\|journal\\=Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology\\|volume\\=25\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=259–282\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.appdev.2004\\.04\\.001\\|issn\\=0193\\-3973}} The comprehensive literature review of 214 published articles with key words related to the topic, such as [discrimination](/wiki/Racial_discrimination \"Racial discrimination\"), racism, and [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") for adolescents aged 10–20 years (Benner et al., 2008\\) highlighted a link between teens' experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination and \"their socioemotional distress, academic success, and risky health behaviors\". This study chose larger sample sized and [peer reviewed](/wiki/Peer_review \"Peer review\") studies, over smaller sampled and non\\-peer reviewed studies.",
"In this review, researchers showed links between racial discrimination and lower socioemotional, academic, and behavioral outcomes. The socioemotional variable included depression, internalized symptoms, self\\-esteem, and positive well\\-being; academics included achievement, engagement, and motivation; and behavioral outcomes included externalized behaviors, substance abuse, deviant peer associations, and risky sexual behaviors. Researchers examined the links between discrimination and other demographic variables such as race, age, and country of residence. When looking at the impact of race/ethnicity, results show that Asian and Latino youth show greater socioemotional distress and Latino youth show lower academic outcomes. Younger teens (10 to 13 years) experience more socioemotional distress than those in middle or late teens. Furthermore, when looking at county of residence, teens in the United States have a much stronger link to socioemotional distress than other countries included in the review.",
"In 2023 a study was released that looked at the effect of structural inequities on the brains of Black children. Examining MRI scans of 7,350 White and 1,786 Black children ages 9 and 10 researchers reported that Black children living in poverty face increased instances of stress and trauma that can alter their brain development. The study defines the stressors as \"prolonged exposure to adverse experiences\" including neighborhood disadvantage, family conflict, and income. Researchers found Black children had greater exposure to adversity, lower volume of different brain regions, and more PTSD symptoms. Accounting for differences in exposure to adversity significantly attenuated race\\-related differences in volume in several brain regions.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Racial Disparities in Adversity During Childhood and the False Appearance of Race\\-Related Differences in Brain Structure \\|journal\\=The American Journal of Psychiatry \\|year\\=2023 \\|doi\\=10\\.1176/appi.ajp.21090961 \\|last1\\=Dumornay \\|first1\\=Nathalie M. \\|last2\\=Lebois \\|first2\\=Lauren A.M. \\|last3\\=Ressler \\|first3\\=Kerry J. \\|last4\\=Harnett \\|first4\\=Nathaniel G. \\|volume\\=180 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=127–138 \\|pmid\\=36722118 \\|pmc\\=9897449}}{{cite web \\|title\\=New study reveals the effect of racism and poverty on children's brains \\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/new\\-study\\-reveals\\-the\\-effect\\-of\\-racism\\-and\\-poverty\\-on\\-childrens\\-brains \\|website\\=PBS (audio) \\|date\\=February 18, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=February 18, 2023}}",
"### Societal",
"#### Schemas and stereotypes",
"[thumb\\|This racist [postcard](/wiki/Postcard \"Postcard\") from the 1900s shows the casual denigration of Black women. It states \"I know you're not particular to a fault / Though I'm not sure you'll never be sued for assault / You're so fond of women that even a wench / Attracts your gross fancy despite her strong stench\"](/wiki/File:1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg \"1900sc Mammy Card Interracial.jpg\")",
"**Media**\n{{Main\\|Stereotypes of groups within the United States}}\n{{See also\\|Stereotypes of East Asians in the Western world\\|Stereotypes of African Americans\\|Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States\n\\|Stereotypes of Native Americans}}\nPopular culture (songs, theater) for European American audiences in the 19th century created and perpetuated negative [stereotypes of African Americans](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans \"Stereotypes of African Americans\"). One key symbol of racism against African Americans was the use of [blackface](/wiki/Blackface \"Blackface\"). Directly related to this was the institution of [minstrelsy](/wiki/Minstrel_show \"Minstrel show\"). Other stereotypes of African Americans included the fat, dark\\-skinned \"[mammy](/wiki/Mammy_archetype \"Mammy archetype\")\" and the irrational, hypersexual male \"buck\".",
"Many of these stereotypes entered public media with an {{lang\\|la\\|imprimatur}} from the highest levels of white society. In a 1943 speech on the floor of Congress quoted in both [*The Jewish News* of Detroit](/wiki/The_Jewish_News_%28Detroit%29 \"The Jewish News (Detroit)\"){{cite news\\|date\\=July 16, 1943\\|title\\=A Rest From Bigotry\\|url\\=https://digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1943\\.07\\.16\\.001/4\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|editor\\-surname\\=Slomovitz\\|editor\\-given\\=Philip\\|department\\=As the Editor Views the News\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Jewish News (Detroit)\\|The Jewish News]]\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=17\\|location\\=Detroit\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427181426/https://digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1943\\.07\\.16\\.001/4\\|archive\\-date\\=April 27, 2021}} and the antisemitic magazine *The Defender* of Wichita{{cite magazine\\|date\\=September 1943\\|editor\\-surname\\=Winrod\\|editor\\-given\\=Gerald Burton\\|editor\\-link\\=Gerald Burton Winrod\\|title\\=Congressman Says Negroes Deceived\\|url\\=http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/D%20Disk/Defender%20The/Item%2001\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[The Defender (magazine)\\|The Defender]]\\|location\\=\\[\\[Wichita, Kansas]]\\|page\\=12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530213109/http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/D%20Disk/Defender%20The/Item%2001\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=May 30, 2013}} [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi \"Mississippi\") Representative [John E. Rankin](/wiki/John_E._Rankin \"John E. Rankin\") stated that Jewish Communists were arranging for white women to be raped by Black American men.",
"In recent years increasing numbers of African\\-American activists have asserted that [rap music](/wiki/Rap_music \"Rap music\") videos commonly use scantily clothed African\\-American performers posing as thugs or pimps. The [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP \"NAACP\") and the [National Congress of Black Women](/wiki/National_Congress_of_Black_Women \"National Congress of Black Women\") also have called for the reform of images on videos and on television. [Julian Bond](/wiki/Julian_Bond \"Julian Bond\") said that in a segregated society, people get their impressions of other groups from what they see in videos and what they hear in music.Felicia R. Lee, \"[Protesting Demeaning Images in Media](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/05/arts/05enou.html)\" *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* November 5, 2007Marissa Newhall, \"[Channeling Their Discontent, 500 Gather at Executive's D.C. Home to Protest Stereotypes](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/15/AR2007091501441.html),\" *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post \"Washington Post\")*, September 16, 2007{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.enoughisenoughcampaign.com/ \\|title\\=Enough is Enough! Campaign \\|publisher\\=Enough is Enough! Campaign \\|date\\=March 9, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.whataboutourdaughters.com/ \\|title\\=What About Our Daughters? \\|publisher\\=Whataboutourdaughters.com \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308050708/http://www.whataboutourdaughters.com/ }}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|In 1899 Uncle Sam balances his new possessions which are depicted as \"savage\" children. The figures are [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\"), Hawaii, [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"), [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") and \"Ladrone Is.\" (the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\")).](/wiki/File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg \"1899BalanceCartoon.jpg\")\nIt is understood that representations of minorities in the media have the ability to reinforce or change stereotypes. For example, in one study, a collection of white subjects were primed by a comedy skit either showing a stereotypical or neutral portrayal of African\\-American characters. Participants were then required to read a vignette describing an incident of sexual violence, with the alleged offender either white or black, and assign a rating for perceived guilt. For those shown the stereotypical African\\-American character, there was a significantly higher guilt rating for black alleged offender in the subsequent vignette, in comparison to the other conditions.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Ford\\|first\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Effects of Stereotypical Television Portrayals of African\\-Americans on Person Perception\\|journal\\=Social Psychology Quarterly\\|year\\=1997\\|volume\\=60\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=266–275\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2787086\\|jstor\\=2787086}}",
"While schemas have an overt societal consequence, the strong development of them have lasting effect on recipients. Overall, it is found that strong in\\-group attitudes are correlated with academic and economic success. In a study analyzing the interaction of assimilation and racial\\-ethnic schemas for Hispanic youth found that strong schematic identities for Hispanic youth undermined academic achievement.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Altschul\\|first1\\=Inna \\|first2\\=Daphna \\|last2\\=Oyserman \\|first3\\=Deborah\\|last3\\=Bybee\\|title\\=Racial\\-Ethnic Self\\-Schemas and Segmented Assimilation: Identity and the Academic Achievement of Hispanic Youth\\|journal\\=Social Psychology Quarterly\\|date\\=September 2008\\|volume\\=71\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=302–320 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/019027250807100309\\|jstor\\=20141842\\|s2cid\\=18018980 }}",
"Additional stereotypes attributed to minorities continue to influence societal interactions. For example, a 1993 *Harvard Law Review* article states that Asian Americans are commonly viewed as submissive, as a combination of relative physical stature and Western comparisons of cultural attitudes. Furthermore, Asian Americans are depicted as the model minority, unfair competitors, foreigners, and indistinguishable. These stereotypes can serve to dehumanize Asian Americans and catalyze hostility and violence.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Racial Violence against Asian Americans\\|journal\\=Harvard Law Review\\|year\\=1993\\|volume\\=106\\|issue\\=8\\|pages\\=1926–1943\\|jstor\\=1341790\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1341790}}",
"#### Minority\\-minority racism",
"{{Main\\|Interminority racism in the United States}}\nMinority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of [power](/wiki/Power_%28sociology%29 \"Power (sociology)\") in society. Some [theories of racism](/wiki/Prejudice_plus_power \"Prejudice plus power\") insist that racism can only exist in the context of social power so it can be imposed upon others.For example, Catherine A. Hansman, Leon Spencer, Dale Grant, Mary Jackson, \"Beyond Diversity: Dismantling Barriers in Education,\" *Journal of Instructional Psychology*, March 1999 Yet discrimination and racism has also been noted between racially [marginalized](/wiki/Marginalized \"Marginalized\") groups. For example, there has been ongoing violence between African American and [Mexican American](/wiki/Mexican_American \"Mexican American\") gangs, particularly in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\").Andrew Blankstein And Joel Rubin. [L.A.'s top cops at odds: William Bratton, Lee Baca disagree on role of race in gang violence.](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-jun-13-me-race13-story.html) *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, June 13, 2008\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story\\_id\\=9587776 \\|title\\=Race relations \\| Where black and brown collide \\|publisher\\=Economist.com \\|date\\=August 2, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618\\.shtml \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120723174537/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=July 23, 2012 \\|title\\=Riot Breaks Out at Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts at Southern California School \\|publisher\\=Cbsnews.com \\|date\\=February 11, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=5192595\\&ft\\=1\\&f\\=1001 \\|title\\=California Prisons on Alert After Weekend Violence \\|publisher\\=NPR \\|date\\=February 6, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}",
"Conflict has also been noted between recent immigrant groups and their established ethnic counterparts within the United States. Rapidly\\-growing communities of [African](/wiki/Africans_in_the_United_States \"Africans in the United States\") and [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") immigrants have come into conflict with African Americans. The amount of interaction and cooperation between Black immigrants and African Americans are considered to be disputable. One can argue that racial discrimination and cooperation are not ordinarily based on skin color, but are instead based on shared or common, cultural experiences and beliefs.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613\\.stm \\|title\\=African immigrants face bias from blacks \\|publisher\\=Post\\-gazette.com \\|date\\=December 31, 1969 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 10, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010124348/http://www.post\\-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613\\.stm }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/Story?id\\=5237459\\&page\\=1 \\|title\\=Racism not always black and white \\|publisher\\=Abcnews.go.com \\|date\\=June 25, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}",
"#### Interpersonal discrimination",
"In a manner that defines interpersonal discrimination in the United States, Darryl Brown of the *Virginia Law Review* states that while \"our society has established a consensus against blatant, intentional racism in the decades since Brown v Board of Education and it has also developed a sizeable set of legal remedies to address it\", our legal system \"ignores the possibility that 'race' is structural or interstitial, that it can be the root of injury even when it is not traceable to a specific intention or action\".{{cite journal\\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=Darryl\\|title\\=Racism and Race Relations in the University\\|journal\\=Virginia Law Review\\|date\\=March 1990\\|volume\\=76\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=295–335\\|jstor\\=1073204\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1073204\\|hdl\\=10288/8306\\|url\\=https://digitalarchive.wm.edu/xmlui/bitstream/10288/8306/1/BrownDarrylwm.pdf\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}",
"Unlike formal discrimination, interpersonal discrimination is often not an overt or deliberate act of racism. For example, in an incident regarding a racial remark which was made by a professor at Virginia Law, a rift was created by conflicting definitions of racism. For the students who defended the professor's innocence, \"racism was defined as an act of intentional maliciousness\". Yet for African Americans, racism was broadened to a detrimental influence on \"the substantive dynamics of the classroom\". As an effect, it is argued that the \"daily repetition of subtle racism and subordination in the classroom can ultimately be, for African Americans, even more reductive of stress, anxiety and alienation than blatant racist acts can be.\" Moreover, the attention which is given to these acts of discrimination diverts energy from academics, becoming a distraction that white students do not generally face.",
"#### Ethnic\\-racial socialization",
"Ethnic\\-racial socialization refers to the transfer of knowledge about various aspects of race or ethnicity through generations.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wang\\|first1\\=Ming\\-Te\\|last2\\=Henry\\|first2\\=Daphne A.\\|last3\\=Smith\\|first3\\=Leann V.\\|last4\\=Huguley\\|first4\\=James P.\\|last5\\=Guo\\|first5\\=Jiesi\\|date\\=January 2020\\|title\\=Parental ethnic\\-racial socialization practices and children of color's psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta\\-analysis.\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|volume\\=75\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1–22\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/amp0000464\\|pmid\\=31058521\\|s2cid\\=145820076\\|issn\\=1935\\-990X}} Parents of color use ethnic\\-racial socialization to transfer cultural knowledge to their children to protect them from potential biases which they may face as a result of their ethnicity and/or race. However, how parents choose to socialize their children regarding issues of ethnicity and race may affect children differently. For example, when parent's socialization efforts focus on positive aspects of their race or ethnicity, children of color tend to report higher self\\-esteem. On the other hand, if the focus of socialization mainly revolves around mistrust about interracial or inter\\-ethnic relations, children's self\\-concept, or how children view themselves might suffer. Promotion of socialization that centers on mistrust is especially harmful when parents present it without also teaching positive coping skills.",
"Wang et al. (2020\\) conducted a meta\\-analytic review of 334 articles examining the effects of ethnic\\-racial socialization on children of color's psychosocial adjustment. Researchers evaluated the stage of children's development in which the effects of ethnic\\-racial socialization would be most prominent. Their findings using their systematic review process showed a positive relationship between parental ethnic\\-racial socialization and psychosocial well\\-being measures, including self\\-perception, confidence, and interpersonal relationships.",
"The effects of age varied based on the psychosocial well\\-being measure a study used. Results showed that the link between positive self\\-perception and ethnic\\-racial socialization was most effective when it occurred in childhood and early adolescence. On the other hand, children who reported positive relationships between their interpersonal relationships and ethnic\\-racial socialization showed this paper in middle to late adolescence. The effects of ethnic\\-racial socialization also varied based on children's race/ethnicity. Self\\-perception and ethnic\\-racial socialization are related more positively among African Americans, suggesting that parents used ethnic\\-racial socialization to buffer against the deep\\-rooted stigma and biases African Americans face in the United States. Contrary to the experiences of African Americans, ethnic\\-racial socialization was related to low self\\-perception among Asian Americans. Extensive research is required to better understand the connection of ethnic\\-racial socialization for Asian American children's psychosocial well\\-being.",
"To better understand the effects of ethnic\\-racial socialization and psychological development, research should take into account known moderating factors similar to [stereotype threat](/wiki/Stereotype_threat \"Stereotype threat\"). It is important to note that the research findings were correlational and as such does not imply causality.",
"### Institutional racism",
"[Institutional racism](/wiki/Institutional_racism_in_the_United_States \"Institutional racism in the United States\") is the theory that aspects of the existing social structure, pervasive attitudes, and established institutions in society disadvantage some racial groups, but not with an overtly discriminatory mechanism.[What is Institutional and Structural Racism?](http://www.eraseracismny.org/html/whatis/whatis.php) ERASE RACISM There are several factors which play into institutional racism, including: accumulated wealth/benefits for racial groups which have benefited from past discrimination, educational and occupational disadvantages which are faced by non\\-native English speakers in the United States, ingrained stereotypical images which still exist in American society (e.g. black men are likely to be criminals).{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Bullock \\| first1 \\= III \\| last2 \\= Rodgers \\| first2 \\= Jr. \\| year \\= 1976 \\| title \\= Institutional Racism: Prerequisites, Freezing, and Mapping \\| journal \\= Phylon \\| volume \\= 37 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 212–223 \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/274450\\| jstor \\= 274450 }} Institutional racism impacts the lives of racial groups negatively as although legislations where passed in the mid 20th century to abolish any sort of segregation and discrimination it still does not change the fact that institutional racism is still able to occur to anyone. Peter Kaufman, a former sociology professor at the State University of New York{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sociologyexperiment.com/about\\-us/\\|title\\=About Us – A Sociology Experiment}} published an article in which Kaufman describes three instances in which institutional racism has contributed to current views of race.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Everyday Sociology Blog: Michael Brown, Ferguson, Missouri, and the Invisibility of Race\\|url \\= http://www.everydaysociologyblog.com/2014/08/michael\\-brown\\-ferguson\\-missouri\\-and\\-the\\-invisibility\\-of\\-race.html\\|website \\= www.everydaysociologyblog.com\\|access\\-date \\= December 15, 2015}} These are:\n1. The mis\\- and Missing Education of Race, in which he describes problems which the educational system has in discussing \"slavery, race, racism, and topics such as white privilege.\" He goes on to say that schools are still segregated based on class and race, which also contributes to the poor state of race relations\n2. Residential Racial Segregation. According to Kaufman, schools are still segregated because towns and cities are still largely segregated.\n3. Media Monsters. This describes the role which the media plays in the portrayal of race. The mass media tends to play on \"depictions of racialized stereotypes in the mass media \\[which are] ubiquitous, and such caricaturized images shape our perceptions of various racial groups.\" An example of this is the stereotyping of Blacks as criminals.\\* {{cite book \\|first\\=Wilson \\|last\\=Head \\|title\\=A Life on the Edge: Experiences in Black and White in North America \\|publisher\\=University of Toronto Press \\|date\\=1995 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9680066\\-0\\-3}}",
"#### Nazi Germany's inspiration from American racism",
"{{See also\\|Nazi racial theories\\|Racial policy of Nazi Germany}}\nThe U.S. was a global leader in codified racism, and its race laws fascinated [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") and other German [Nazis](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\"), who praised America's system of institutional racism, believing it to be a model to follow in their [Reich](/wiki/Reich \"Reich\"). Hitler's book *[Mein Kampf](/wiki/Mein_Kampf \"Mein Kampf\")* praised America as the only contemporary example of a country with racist (\"völkisch\") citizenship statutes in the 1920s. The *National Socialist Handbook for Law and Legislation* of 1934–35, edited by lawyer [Hans Frank](/wiki/Hans_Frank \"Hans Frank\"), contains a pivotal essay by Herbert Kier on the recommendations for race legislation which devoted a quarter of its pages to U.S. legislation—from segregation, race based citizenship, immigration regulations, and anti\\-miscegenation. Nazi lawyers were inspired by American laws when they designed their [own laws](/wiki/Anti-Jewish_legislation_in_pre-war_Nazi_Germany \"Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany\") in [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\"), including racist citizenship laws, and [anti\\-miscegenation laws](/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws \"Anti-miscegenation laws\") which inspired the two principal [Nuremberg Laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws \"Nuremberg Laws\")—the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Whitman\\|first1\\=James Q.\\|title\\=Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law\\|date\\=2017\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|pages\\=37–47}}",
"Hitler and other Nazis were also inspired by America's 19th century westward expansion, believing it to be a model for the [expansion of German territory into the territories of other nations](/wiki/Lebensraum \"Lebensraum\") and [elimination of their indigenous inhabitants](/wiki/Generalplan_Ost \"Generalplan Ost\"). In 1928, Hitler praised the United States for having \"gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keep the modest remnant under observation in a cage\".Whitman, James Q. (2017\\). Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law. Princeton University Press. p. 47\\. On Nazi Germany's expansion eastward, in 1941 Hitler stated, \"Our Mississippi \\[the line beyond which Thomas Jefferson wanted all Indians expelled] must be the Volga, and not the Niger.\"{{cite book\\|last1\\=Westermann\\|first1\\=Edward. B.\\|title\\=Hitler's Ostkrieg and the Indian Wars: Comparing Genocide and Conquest\\|date\\=2016\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|page\\=3}} In a later speech Hitler stated, \"in the East a similar process will repeat itself for a second time as in the conquest of America\", and Nazi troops \"had a duty to look upon natives as Redskins\".{{cite book \\|last1\\=Watson \\|first1\\=Irene \\|title\\=Indigenous Peoples as Subjects of International Law \\|date\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|page\\=62}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Hitler on the Mississippi Banks \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/01/hitler\\-on\\-the\\-mississippi\\-banks/283127/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2022 \\|work\\=The Atlantic}}",
""
] |
### Societal
#### Schemas and stereotypes
[thumb\|This racist [postcard](/wiki/Postcard "Postcard") from the 1900s shows the casual denigration of Black women. It states "I know you're not particular to a fault / Though I'm not sure you'll never be sued for assault / You're so fond of women that even a wench / Attracts your gross fancy despite her strong stench"](/wiki/File:1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg "1900sc Mammy Card Interracial.jpg")
**Media**
{{Main\|Stereotypes of groups within the United States}}
{{See also\|Stereotypes of East Asians in the Western world\|Stereotypes of African Americans\|Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States
\|Stereotypes of Native Americans}}
Popular culture (songs, theater) for European American audiences in the 19th century created and perpetuated negative [stereotypes of African Americans](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans "Stereotypes of African Americans"). One key symbol of racism against African Americans was the use of [blackface](/wiki/Blackface "Blackface"). Directly related to this was the institution of [minstrelsy](/wiki/Minstrel_show "Minstrel show"). Other stereotypes of African Americans included the fat, dark\-skinned "[mammy](/wiki/Mammy_archetype "Mammy archetype")" and the irrational, hypersexual male "buck".
Many of these stereotypes entered public media with an {{lang\|la\|imprimatur}} from the highest levels of white society. In a 1943 speech on the floor of Congress quoted in both [*The Jewish News* of Detroit](/wiki/The_Jewish_News_%28Detroit%29 "The Jewish News (Detroit)"){{cite news\|date\=July 16, 1943\|title\=A Rest From Bigotry\|url\=https://digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1943\.07\.16\.001/4\|url\-status\=live\|editor\-surname\=Slomovitz\|editor\-given\=Philip\|department\=As the Editor Views the News\|newspaper\=\[\[The Jewish News (Detroit)\|The Jewish News]]\|volume\=3\|issue\=17\|location\=Detroit\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427181426/https://digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1943\.07\.16\.001/4\|archive\-date\=April 27, 2021}} and the antisemitic magazine *The Defender* of Wichita{{cite magazine\|date\=September 1943\|editor\-surname\=Winrod\|editor\-given\=Gerald Burton\|editor\-link\=Gerald Burton Winrod\|title\=Congressman Says Negroes Deceived\|url\=http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/D%20Disk/Defender%20The/Item%2001\.pdf\|url\-status\=live\|magazine\=\[\[The Defender (magazine)\|The Defender]]\|location\=\[\[Wichita, Kansas]]\|page\=12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530213109/http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/D%20Disk/Defender%20The/Item%2001\.pdf\|archive\-date\=May 30, 2013}} [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi "Mississippi") Representative [John E. Rankin](/wiki/John_E._Rankin "John E. Rankin") stated that Jewish Communists were arranging for white women to be raped by Black American men.
In recent years increasing numbers of African\-American activists have asserted that [rap music](/wiki/Rap_music "Rap music") videos commonly use scantily clothed African\-American performers posing as thugs or pimps. The [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP "NAACP") and the [National Congress of Black Women](/wiki/National_Congress_of_Black_Women "National Congress of Black Women") also have called for the reform of images on videos and on television. [Julian Bond](/wiki/Julian_Bond "Julian Bond") said that in a segregated society, people get their impressions of other groups from what they see in videos and what they hear in music.Felicia R. Lee, "[Protesting Demeaning Images in Media](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/05/arts/05enou.html)" *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* November 5, 2007Marissa Newhall, "[Channeling Their Discontent, 500 Gather at Executive's D.C. Home to Protest Stereotypes](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/15/AR2007091501441.html)," *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post "Washington Post")*, September 16, 2007{{cite web\|url\=http://www.enoughisenoughcampaign.com/ \|title\=Enough is Enough! Campaign \|publisher\=Enough is Enough! Campaign \|date\=March 9, 2011 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.whataboutourdaughters.com/ \|title\=What About Our Daughters? \|publisher\=Whataboutourdaughters.com \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013 \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308050708/http://www.whataboutourdaughters.com/ }}
[thumb\|left\|In 1899 Uncle Sam balances his new possessions which are depicted as "savage" children. The figures are [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico"), Hawaii, [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"), [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") and "Ladrone Is." (the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands "Mariana Islands")).](/wiki/File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg "1899BalanceCartoon.jpg")
It is understood that representations of minorities in the media have the ability to reinforce or change stereotypes. For example, in one study, a collection of white subjects were primed by a comedy skit either showing a stereotypical or neutral portrayal of African\-American characters. Participants were then required to read a vignette describing an incident of sexual violence, with the alleged offender either white or black, and assign a rating for perceived guilt. For those shown the stereotypical African\-American character, there was a significantly higher guilt rating for black alleged offender in the subsequent vignette, in comparison to the other conditions.{{cite journal\|last\=Ford\|first\=Thomas\|title\=Effects of Stereotypical Television Portrayals of African\-Americans on Person Perception\|journal\=Social Psychology Quarterly\|year\=1997\|volume\=60\|issue\=3\|pages\=266–275\|doi\=10\.2307/2787086\|jstor\=2787086}}
While schemas have an overt societal consequence, the strong development of them have lasting effect on recipients. Overall, it is found that strong in\-group attitudes are correlated with academic and economic success. In a study analyzing the interaction of assimilation and racial\-ethnic schemas for Hispanic youth found that strong schematic identities for Hispanic youth undermined academic achievement.{{cite journal\|last1\=Altschul\|first1\=Inna \|first2\=Daphna \|last2\=Oyserman \|first3\=Deborah\|last3\=Bybee\|title\=Racial\-Ethnic Self\-Schemas and Segmented Assimilation: Identity and the Academic Achievement of Hispanic Youth\|journal\=Social Psychology Quarterly\|date\=September 2008\|volume\=71\|issue\=3\|pages\=302–320 \|doi\=10\.1177/019027250807100309\|jstor\=20141842\|s2cid\=18018980 }}
Additional stereotypes attributed to minorities continue to influence societal interactions. For example, a 1993 *Harvard Law Review* article states that Asian Americans are commonly viewed as submissive, as a combination of relative physical stature and Western comparisons of cultural attitudes. Furthermore, Asian Americans are depicted as the model minority, unfair competitors, foreigners, and indistinguishable. These stereotypes can serve to dehumanize Asian Americans and catalyze hostility and violence.{{cite journal\|title\=Racial Violence against Asian Americans\|journal\=Harvard Law Review\|year\=1993\|volume\=106\|issue\=8\|pages\=1926–1943\|jstor\=1341790\|doi\=10\.2307/1341790}}
#### Minority\-minority racism
{{Main\|Interminority racism in the United States}}
Minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of [power](/wiki/Power_%28sociology%29 "Power (sociology)") in society. Some [theories of racism](/wiki/Prejudice_plus_power "Prejudice plus power") insist that racism can only exist in the context of social power so it can be imposed upon others.For example, Catherine A. Hansman, Leon Spencer, Dale Grant, Mary Jackson, "Beyond Diversity: Dismantling Barriers in Education," *Journal of Instructional Psychology*, March 1999 Yet discrimination and racism has also been noted between racially [marginalized](/wiki/Marginalized "Marginalized") groups. For example, there has been ongoing violence between African American and [Mexican American](/wiki/Mexican_American "Mexican American") gangs, particularly in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California").Andrew Blankstein And Joel Rubin. [L.A.'s top cops at odds: William Bratton, Lee Baca disagree on role of race in gang violence.](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-jun-13-me-race13-story.html) *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, June 13, 2008\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story\_id\=9587776 \|title\=Race relations \| Where black and brown collide \|publisher\=Economist.com \|date\=August 2, 2007 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618\.shtml \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120723174537/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618\.shtml \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=July 23, 2012 \|title\=Riot Breaks Out at Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts at Southern California School \|publisher\=Cbsnews.com \|date\=February 11, 2009 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=5192595\&ft\=1\&f\=1001 \|title\=California Prisons on Alert After Weekend Violence \|publisher\=NPR \|date\=February 6, 2006 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}
Conflict has also been noted between recent immigrant groups and their established ethnic counterparts within the United States. Rapidly\-growing communities of [African](/wiki/Africans_in_the_United_States "Africans in the United States") and [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") immigrants have come into conflict with African Americans. The amount of interaction and cooperation between Black immigrants and African Americans are considered to be disputable. One can argue that racial discrimination and cooperation are not ordinarily based on skin color, but are instead based on shared or common, cultural experiences and beliefs.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613\.stm \|title\=African immigrants face bias from blacks \|publisher\=Post\-gazette.com \|date\=December 31, 1969 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013 \|archive\-date\=October 10, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010124348/http://www.post\-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613\.stm }}{{cite web\|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/Story?id\=5237459\&page\=1 \|title\=Racism not always black and white \|publisher\=Abcnews.go.com \|date\=June 25, 2008 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2013}}
#### Interpersonal discrimination
In a manner that defines interpersonal discrimination in the United States, Darryl Brown of the *Virginia Law Review* states that while "our society has established a consensus against blatant, intentional racism in the decades since Brown v Board of Education and it has also developed a sizeable set of legal remedies to address it", our legal system "ignores the possibility that 'race' is structural or interstitial, that it can be the root of injury even when it is not traceable to a specific intention or action".{{cite journal\|last\=Brown\|first\=Darryl\|title\=Racism and Race Relations in the University\|journal\=Virginia Law Review\|date\=March 1990\|volume\=76\|issue\=2\|pages\=295–335\|jstor\=1073204\|doi\=10\.2307/1073204\|hdl\=10288/8306\|url\=https://digitalarchive.wm.edu/xmlui/bitstream/10288/8306/1/BrownDarrylwm.pdf\|hdl\-access\=free}}
Unlike formal discrimination, interpersonal discrimination is often not an overt or deliberate act of racism. For example, in an incident regarding a racial remark which was made by a professor at Virginia Law, a rift was created by conflicting definitions of racism. For the students who defended the professor's innocence, "racism was defined as an act of intentional maliciousness". Yet for African Americans, racism was broadened to a detrimental influence on "the substantive dynamics of the classroom". As an effect, it is argued that the "daily repetition of subtle racism and subordination in the classroom can ultimately be, for African Americans, even more reductive of stress, anxiety and alienation than blatant racist acts can be." Moreover, the attention which is given to these acts of discrimination diverts energy from academics, becoming a distraction that white students do not generally face.
#### Ethnic\-racial socialization
Ethnic\-racial socialization refers to the transfer of knowledge about various aspects of race or ethnicity through generations.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Wang\|first1\=Ming\-Te\|last2\=Henry\|first2\=Daphne A.\|last3\=Smith\|first3\=Leann V.\|last4\=Huguley\|first4\=James P.\|last5\=Guo\|first5\=Jiesi\|date\=January 2020\|title\=Parental ethnic\-racial socialization practices and children of color's psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta\-analysis.\|journal\=American Psychologist\|volume\=75\|issue\=1\|pages\=1–22\|doi\=10\.1037/amp0000464\|pmid\=31058521\|s2cid\=145820076\|issn\=1935\-990X}} Parents of color use ethnic\-racial socialization to transfer cultural knowledge to their children to protect them from potential biases which they may face as a result of their ethnicity and/or race. However, how parents choose to socialize their children regarding issues of ethnicity and race may affect children differently. For example, when parent's socialization efforts focus on positive aspects of their race or ethnicity, children of color tend to report higher self\-esteem. On the other hand, if the focus of socialization mainly revolves around mistrust about interracial or inter\-ethnic relations, children's self\-concept, or how children view themselves might suffer. Promotion of socialization that centers on mistrust is especially harmful when parents present it without also teaching positive coping skills.
Wang et al. (2020\) conducted a meta\-analytic review of 334 articles examining the effects of ethnic\-racial socialization on children of color's psychosocial adjustment. Researchers evaluated the stage of children's development in which the effects of ethnic\-racial socialization would be most prominent. Their findings using their systematic review process showed a positive relationship between parental ethnic\-racial socialization and psychosocial well\-being measures, including self\-perception, confidence, and interpersonal relationships.
The effects of age varied based on the psychosocial well\-being measure a study used. Results showed that the link between positive self\-perception and ethnic\-racial socialization was most effective when it occurred in childhood and early adolescence. On the other hand, children who reported positive relationships between their interpersonal relationships and ethnic\-racial socialization showed this paper in middle to late adolescence. The effects of ethnic\-racial socialization also varied based on children's race/ethnicity. Self\-perception and ethnic\-racial socialization are related more positively among African Americans, suggesting that parents used ethnic\-racial socialization to buffer against the deep\-rooted stigma and biases African Americans face in the United States. Contrary to the experiences of African Americans, ethnic\-racial socialization was related to low self\-perception among Asian Americans. Extensive research is required to better understand the connection of ethnic\-racial socialization for Asian American children's psychosocial well\-being.
To better understand the effects of ethnic\-racial socialization and psychological development, research should take into account known moderating factors similar to [stereotype threat](/wiki/Stereotype_threat "Stereotype threat"). It is important to note that the research findings were correlational and as such does not imply causality.
|
[
"### Societal",
"#### Schemas and stereotypes",
"[thumb\\|This racist [postcard](/wiki/Postcard \"Postcard\") from the 1900s shows the casual denigration of Black women. It states \"I know you're not particular to a fault / Though I'm not sure you'll never be sued for assault / You're so fond of women that even a wench / Attracts your gross fancy despite her strong stench\"](/wiki/File:1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg \"1900sc Mammy Card Interracial.jpg\")",
"**Media**\n{{Main\\|Stereotypes of groups within the United States}}\n{{See also\\|Stereotypes of East Asians in the Western world\\|Stereotypes of African Americans\\|Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States\n\\|Stereotypes of Native Americans}}\nPopular culture (songs, theater) for European American audiences in the 19th century created and perpetuated negative [stereotypes of African Americans](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans \"Stereotypes of African Americans\"). One key symbol of racism against African Americans was the use of [blackface](/wiki/Blackface \"Blackface\"). Directly related to this was the institution of [minstrelsy](/wiki/Minstrel_show \"Minstrel show\"). Other stereotypes of African Americans included the fat, dark\\-skinned \"[mammy](/wiki/Mammy_archetype \"Mammy archetype\")\" and the irrational, hypersexual male \"buck\".",
"Many of these stereotypes entered public media with an {{lang\\|la\\|imprimatur}} from the highest levels of white society. In a 1943 speech on the floor of Congress quoted in both [*The Jewish News* of Detroit](/wiki/The_Jewish_News_%28Detroit%29 \"The Jewish News (Detroit)\"){{cite news\\|date\\=July 16, 1943\\|title\\=A Rest From Bigotry\\|url\\=https://digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1943\\.07\\.16\\.001/4\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|editor\\-surname\\=Slomovitz\\|editor\\-given\\=Philip\\|department\\=As the Editor Views the News\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Jewish News (Detroit)\\|The Jewish News]]\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=17\\|location\\=Detroit\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427181426/https://digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1943\\.07\\.16\\.001/4\\|archive\\-date\\=April 27, 2021}} and the antisemitic magazine *The Defender* of Wichita{{cite magazine\\|date\\=September 1943\\|editor\\-surname\\=Winrod\\|editor\\-given\\=Gerald Burton\\|editor\\-link\\=Gerald Burton Winrod\\|title\\=Congressman Says Negroes Deceived\\|url\\=http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/D%20Disk/Defender%20The/Item%2001\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[The Defender (magazine)\\|The Defender]]\\|location\\=\\[\\[Wichita, Kansas]]\\|page\\=12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530213109/http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/D%20Disk/Defender%20The/Item%2001\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=May 30, 2013}} [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi \"Mississippi\") Representative [John E. Rankin](/wiki/John_E._Rankin \"John E. Rankin\") stated that Jewish Communists were arranging for white women to be raped by Black American men.",
"In recent years increasing numbers of African\\-American activists have asserted that [rap music](/wiki/Rap_music \"Rap music\") videos commonly use scantily clothed African\\-American performers posing as thugs or pimps. The [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP \"NAACP\") and the [National Congress of Black Women](/wiki/National_Congress_of_Black_Women \"National Congress of Black Women\") also have called for the reform of images on videos and on television. [Julian Bond](/wiki/Julian_Bond \"Julian Bond\") said that in a segregated society, people get their impressions of other groups from what they see in videos and what they hear in music.Felicia R. Lee, \"[Protesting Demeaning Images in Media](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/05/arts/05enou.html)\" *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* November 5, 2007Marissa Newhall, \"[Channeling Their Discontent, 500 Gather at Executive's D.C. Home to Protest Stereotypes](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/15/AR2007091501441.html),\" *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post \"Washington Post\")*, September 16, 2007{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.enoughisenoughcampaign.com/ \\|title\\=Enough is Enough! Campaign \\|publisher\\=Enough is Enough! Campaign \\|date\\=March 9, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.whataboutourdaughters.com/ \\|title\\=What About Our Daughters? \\|publisher\\=Whataboutourdaughters.com \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308050708/http://www.whataboutourdaughters.com/ }}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|In 1899 Uncle Sam balances his new possessions which are depicted as \"savage\" children. The figures are [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\"), Hawaii, [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"), [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") and \"Ladrone Is.\" (the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\")).](/wiki/File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg \"1899BalanceCartoon.jpg\")\nIt is understood that representations of minorities in the media have the ability to reinforce or change stereotypes. For example, in one study, a collection of white subjects were primed by a comedy skit either showing a stereotypical or neutral portrayal of African\\-American characters. Participants were then required to read a vignette describing an incident of sexual violence, with the alleged offender either white or black, and assign a rating for perceived guilt. For those shown the stereotypical African\\-American character, there was a significantly higher guilt rating for black alleged offender in the subsequent vignette, in comparison to the other conditions.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Ford\\|first\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Effects of Stereotypical Television Portrayals of African\\-Americans on Person Perception\\|journal\\=Social Psychology Quarterly\\|year\\=1997\\|volume\\=60\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=266–275\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2787086\\|jstor\\=2787086}}",
"While schemas have an overt societal consequence, the strong development of them have lasting effect on recipients. Overall, it is found that strong in\\-group attitudes are correlated with academic and economic success. In a study analyzing the interaction of assimilation and racial\\-ethnic schemas for Hispanic youth found that strong schematic identities for Hispanic youth undermined academic achievement.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Altschul\\|first1\\=Inna \\|first2\\=Daphna \\|last2\\=Oyserman \\|first3\\=Deborah\\|last3\\=Bybee\\|title\\=Racial\\-Ethnic Self\\-Schemas and Segmented Assimilation: Identity and the Academic Achievement of Hispanic Youth\\|journal\\=Social Psychology Quarterly\\|date\\=September 2008\\|volume\\=71\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=302–320 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/019027250807100309\\|jstor\\=20141842\\|s2cid\\=18018980 }}",
"Additional stereotypes attributed to minorities continue to influence societal interactions. For example, a 1993 *Harvard Law Review* article states that Asian Americans are commonly viewed as submissive, as a combination of relative physical stature and Western comparisons of cultural attitudes. Furthermore, Asian Americans are depicted as the model minority, unfair competitors, foreigners, and indistinguishable. These stereotypes can serve to dehumanize Asian Americans and catalyze hostility and violence.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Racial Violence against Asian Americans\\|journal\\=Harvard Law Review\\|year\\=1993\\|volume\\=106\\|issue\\=8\\|pages\\=1926–1943\\|jstor\\=1341790\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1341790}}",
"#### Minority\\-minority racism",
"{{Main\\|Interminority racism in the United States}}\nMinority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of [power](/wiki/Power_%28sociology%29 \"Power (sociology)\") in society. Some [theories of racism](/wiki/Prejudice_plus_power \"Prejudice plus power\") insist that racism can only exist in the context of social power so it can be imposed upon others.For example, Catherine A. Hansman, Leon Spencer, Dale Grant, Mary Jackson, \"Beyond Diversity: Dismantling Barriers in Education,\" *Journal of Instructional Psychology*, March 1999 Yet discrimination and racism has also been noted between racially [marginalized](/wiki/Marginalized \"Marginalized\") groups. For example, there has been ongoing violence between African American and [Mexican American](/wiki/Mexican_American \"Mexican American\") gangs, particularly in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\").Andrew Blankstein And Joel Rubin. [L.A.'s top cops at odds: William Bratton, Lee Baca disagree on role of race in gang violence.](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-jun-13-me-race13-story.html) *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, June 13, 2008\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story\\_id\\=9587776 \\|title\\=Race relations \\| Where black and brown collide \\|publisher\\=Economist.com \\|date\\=August 2, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618\\.shtml \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120723174537/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=July 23, 2012 \\|title\\=Riot Breaks Out at Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts at Southern California School \\|publisher\\=Cbsnews.com \\|date\\=February 11, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=5192595\\&ft\\=1\\&f\\=1001 \\|title\\=California Prisons on Alert After Weekend Violence \\|publisher\\=NPR \\|date\\=February 6, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}",
"Conflict has also been noted between recent immigrant groups and their established ethnic counterparts within the United States. Rapidly\\-growing communities of [African](/wiki/Africans_in_the_United_States \"Africans in the United States\") and [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") immigrants have come into conflict with African Americans. The amount of interaction and cooperation between Black immigrants and African Americans are considered to be disputable. One can argue that racial discrimination and cooperation are not ordinarily based on skin color, but are instead based on shared or common, cultural experiences and beliefs.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613\\.stm \\|title\\=African immigrants face bias from blacks \\|publisher\\=Post\\-gazette.com \\|date\\=December 31, 1969 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 10, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010124348/http://www.post\\-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613\\.stm }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/Story?id\\=5237459\\&page\\=1 \\|title\\=Racism not always black and white \\|publisher\\=Abcnews.go.com \\|date\\=June 25, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2013}}",
"#### Interpersonal discrimination",
"In a manner that defines interpersonal discrimination in the United States, Darryl Brown of the *Virginia Law Review* states that while \"our society has established a consensus against blatant, intentional racism in the decades since Brown v Board of Education and it has also developed a sizeable set of legal remedies to address it\", our legal system \"ignores the possibility that 'race' is structural or interstitial, that it can be the root of injury even when it is not traceable to a specific intention or action\".{{cite journal\\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=Darryl\\|title\\=Racism and Race Relations in the University\\|journal\\=Virginia Law Review\\|date\\=March 1990\\|volume\\=76\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=295–335\\|jstor\\=1073204\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1073204\\|hdl\\=10288/8306\\|url\\=https://digitalarchive.wm.edu/xmlui/bitstream/10288/8306/1/BrownDarrylwm.pdf\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}",
"Unlike formal discrimination, interpersonal discrimination is often not an overt or deliberate act of racism. For example, in an incident regarding a racial remark which was made by a professor at Virginia Law, a rift was created by conflicting definitions of racism. For the students who defended the professor's innocence, \"racism was defined as an act of intentional maliciousness\". Yet for African Americans, racism was broadened to a detrimental influence on \"the substantive dynamics of the classroom\". As an effect, it is argued that the \"daily repetition of subtle racism and subordination in the classroom can ultimately be, for African Americans, even more reductive of stress, anxiety and alienation than blatant racist acts can be.\" Moreover, the attention which is given to these acts of discrimination diverts energy from academics, becoming a distraction that white students do not generally face.",
"#### Ethnic\\-racial socialization",
"Ethnic\\-racial socialization refers to the transfer of knowledge about various aspects of race or ethnicity through generations.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wang\\|first1\\=Ming\\-Te\\|last2\\=Henry\\|first2\\=Daphne A.\\|last3\\=Smith\\|first3\\=Leann V.\\|last4\\=Huguley\\|first4\\=James P.\\|last5\\=Guo\\|first5\\=Jiesi\\|date\\=January 2020\\|title\\=Parental ethnic\\-racial socialization practices and children of color's psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta\\-analysis.\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|volume\\=75\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1–22\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/amp0000464\\|pmid\\=31058521\\|s2cid\\=145820076\\|issn\\=1935\\-990X}} Parents of color use ethnic\\-racial socialization to transfer cultural knowledge to their children to protect them from potential biases which they may face as a result of their ethnicity and/or race. However, how parents choose to socialize their children regarding issues of ethnicity and race may affect children differently. For example, when parent's socialization efforts focus on positive aspects of their race or ethnicity, children of color tend to report higher self\\-esteem. On the other hand, if the focus of socialization mainly revolves around mistrust about interracial or inter\\-ethnic relations, children's self\\-concept, or how children view themselves might suffer. Promotion of socialization that centers on mistrust is especially harmful when parents present it without also teaching positive coping skills.",
"Wang et al. (2020\\) conducted a meta\\-analytic review of 334 articles examining the effects of ethnic\\-racial socialization on children of color's psychosocial adjustment. Researchers evaluated the stage of children's development in which the effects of ethnic\\-racial socialization would be most prominent. Their findings using their systematic review process showed a positive relationship between parental ethnic\\-racial socialization and psychosocial well\\-being measures, including self\\-perception, confidence, and interpersonal relationships.",
"The effects of age varied based on the psychosocial well\\-being measure a study used. Results showed that the link between positive self\\-perception and ethnic\\-racial socialization was most effective when it occurred in childhood and early adolescence. On the other hand, children who reported positive relationships between their interpersonal relationships and ethnic\\-racial socialization showed this paper in middle to late adolescence. The effects of ethnic\\-racial socialization also varied based on children's race/ethnicity. Self\\-perception and ethnic\\-racial socialization are related more positively among African Americans, suggesting that parents used ethnic\\-racial socialization to buffer against the deep\\-rooted stigma and biases African Americans face in the United States. Contrary to the experiences of African Americans, ethnic\\-racial socialization was related to low self\\-perception among Asian Americans. Extensive research is required to better understand the connection of ethnic\\-racial socialization for Asian American children's psychosocial well\\-being.",
"To better understand the effects of ethnic\\-racial socialization and psychological development, research should take into account known moderating factors similar to [stereotype threat](/wiki/Stereotype_threat \"Stereotype threat\"). It is important to note that the research findings were correlational and as such does not imply causality.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Criminal evidence
Dawson was expert witness in the 2014 re\-trial of the [World's End](/wiki/World%27s_End_Murders "World's End Murders") pub murders of teenagers, Christine Eadie and Helen Scott, found Angus Sinclair, guilty when soil samples (taken in 1977\) from Helen Scott's bare feet, were studied using her techniques, after the law on '[double jeopardy](/wiki/Double_jeopardy "Double jeopardy")' in Scotland had changed.{{Cite news\|date\=2014\-10\-22\|title\=World's End murders: Possible DNA match between accused and victims\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-scotland\-edinburgh\-east\-fife\-29723298\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06}} And also her expert evidence on soil from the accused boots was critical in the Emma Faulds murder trial.{{Cite news\|last\=McCabe\|first\=Grant\|title\=Prison officer Ross Willox convicted of murdering Emma Faulds\|newspaper\=\[\[The Times]]\|language\=en\|url\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/prison\-officer\-ross\-willox\-convicted\-of\-murdering\-emma\-faulds\-mmf95kqfw\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|issn\=0140\-0460}} Dawson was also sent samples to be examined in relation to the missing toddler [Ben Needham](/wiki/Disappearance_of_Ben_Needham "Disappearance of Ben Needham"), 26 years after he was lost in Greece.{{Cite news\|date\=2017\-07\-24\|title\=Ben Needham: Blood found on sandal and inside toy car\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\-england\-south\-yorkshire\-40684276\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06}} And her expertise was brought in to the re\-opening of the case on the 60 year old disappearance of schoolgirl Moira Anderson.{{Cite web\|last\=Ruffell\|first\=Alastair\|title\=How science is helping the police search for bodies in water\|url\=http://theconversation.com/how\-science\-is\-helping\-the\-police\-search\-for\-bodies\-in\-water\-73931\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=The Conversation\|date\=23 March 2017 \|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|title\=Police focus on canal in search for remains of missing schoolgirl Moira Anderson who disappeared 60 years ago\|url\=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15154935\.moira\-anderson\-police\-focus\-canal\-search\-missing\-schoolgirl\-disappeared\-60\-years\-ago/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=HeraldScotland\|date\=14 March 2017 \|language\=en}} Dawson has advised and reported on more than 150 cases, written more than 100 expert witness reports and presented evidence in 13 courts, in the UK and abroad.
### Research
She is a Fellow of the British Society of Soil Science (BSSS), and has conducted online events (2021\);{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-02\-22\|title\=Zoom into Soil: Soil Functions\|url\=https://sciencecouncil.org/zoom\-into\-soil\-soil\-functions/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=The Science Council \~\|language\=en\-GB}} a Chartered Soil Scientist, keynote speaker in 2020 at the first BSSS Annual Conference for United Nations Soil Day.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-11\-09\|title\=BSSS Annual Conference \- Soil in Action\|url\=https://soils.org.uk/news/bsss\-annual\-conference\-soil\-in\-action/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=British Society of Soil Science\|language\=en\-GB}} Dawson was a council member of the Institute of Professional Soil Scientists (2009\-2013\) and was a member of the [Science and Technology Facilities Council](/wiki/Science_and_Technology_Facilities_Council "Science and Technology Facilities Council"), Science in Society panel (2007\-2011\). Dawson has developed techniques on soil organo\-mineral markers in forensic investigations with police authorities and European research collaborators. She is involved in international Geoforensics network as treasurer{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-05\-01\|title\=IUGS Imitative on Forensic Geology\|url\=http://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/iugs/index.html\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=www.qub.ac.uk\|language\=en}} and is a member of the ENFSI (European Network of Forensic Science Institutes) Animals, Plants, Soils Traces working group. She serves on the Technical Committee of the [University of Messina](/wiki/University_of_Messina "University of Messina"), Rome, where she teaches a Masters in Forensic Geology.
As head of soil forensics, she now has thirty years experience, including crime scene research and forensic evidence, and leads a team studying botany, [mycology](/wiki/Mycology "Mycology"), [palynology](/wiki/Palynology "Palynology"), mineralogy, organic and isotope chemistry, plant [DNA](/wiki/DNA "DNA") and statistics.{{Cite web\|title\=Professor Lorna Dawson {{!}} SEFARI\|url\=https://sefari.scot/directory\-of\-expertise/professor\-lorna\-dawson\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=sefari.scot}} Dawson has published extensively on the subject of soil forensics and soil\-plant interactions, with more than 100 peer\-reviewed publications, books, and book chapters. She is also an expert advisor to the National Crime Agency, and has worked with numerous police forces in Scotland , England , Wales , [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") , [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") , [Belize](/wiki/Belize "Belize"), and [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") .
She serves on SEFARI [Scottish Environment, Food and Agriculture Research Institutes](/wiki/Scottish_Environment%2C_Food_and_Agriculture_Research_Institutes "Scottish Environment, Food and Agriculture Research Institutes") research consortium, conducting research under the Scottish Government Strategic Research Programme 2016\-2021 on agriculture, environment, food and land.{{Cite web\|date\=29 March 2021\|title\=About Us {{!}} SEFARI\|url\=https://sefari.scot/about\-us\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=sefari.scot}} There she is leading a programme on Climate and the Environment, focussing on understanding impact on soils, [biodiversity](/wiki/Biodiversity "Biodiversity") and ecosystems and considering [adaptation](/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation "Climate change adaptation") and resilience, and part of the organisations gateway team for external engagement.{{Cite web\|title\=Climate and the Environment {{!}} SEFARI\|url\=https://sefari.scot/climate\-and\-the\-environment\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=sefari.scot}}
Dawson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 2019, and is a Commander of the Order of the British Empire.
### Expert advisor
Dawson is an honorary professor in [Forensic Science](/wiki/Forensic_science "Forensic science") at [Robert Gordon University](/wiki/Robert_Gordon_University "Robert Gordon University"), Aberdeen, as well as lecturing at the universities of Aberdeen, [Strathclyde](/wiki/University_of_Strathclyde "University of Strathclyde") and Edinburgh. She was a member of the General Committee of the [British Science Association](/wiki/British_Science_Association "British Science Association") from 2013\. And she works on the Soil Quality Expert Advisory Group of Environment Protection Scotland. In 2016, she was a co\-convenor of the international Symposium “Forensic Soil Science and Geology in South Africa,{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/iugs/NewsandEvents/PastEvents/PastPDF/Filetoupload,927869,en.pdf\|title\=Symposium: Forensic soil science and geology. 5th International conference on Criminal \& Environmental Soil Forensics. Soil Forensic International (SFI\-2016\)\|publisher\=35th International Geological Congress\|year\=1916}} and also convened major international conferences.
Dawson's leadership on the Royal Society of Edinburgh Food, Farming and Countryside Scotland Inquiry, produced a report which concluded 'Farmers and farming groups are very much part of the solution to the issues of climate change and biodiversity loss'.{{Cite web\|title\=Research finds climate change innovation at the heart of Scotland's rural life\|url\=https://www.thenational.scot/news/17989069\.scottish\-rural\-life\-leading\-way\-climate\-change/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=The National\|date\=24 October 2019 \|language\=en}} And her conclusions are summarised from a [virtual tour](/wiki/Virtual_tour "Virtual tour") of Scottish agriculture and biodiversity, for delegates to 2021 UN Climate Change conference ([COP26](/wiki/2021_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference "2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference")).{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-10\-21\|title\=Climate solutions from peatlands to parasites\|url\=https://www.dgwgo.com/rural\-farming\-news/climate\-solutions\-from\-peatlands\-to\-parasites/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=DGWGO\|language\=en\-GB}}
She continues to push at improving the science of forensic evidence from soils and promotes practical database collaboration.{{Cite web\|last\=Hornyak\|first\=Tim\|date\=2021\-08\-16\|title\=Predictive Forensics Helps Determine Where Soil Samples Came From\|url\=http://eos.org/articles/predictive\-forensics\-helps\-determine\-where\-soil\-samples\-came\-from\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-06\|website\=Eos\|language\=en\-US}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Criminal evidence",
"Dawson was expert witness in the 2014 re\\-trial of the [World's End](/wiki/World%27s_End_Murders \"World's End Murders\") pub murders of teenagers, Christine Eadie and Helen Scott, found Angus Sinclair, guilty when soil samples (taken in 1977\\) from Helen Scott's bare feet, were studied using her techniques, after the law on '[double jeopardy](/wiki/Double_jeopardy \"Double jeopardy\")' in Scotland had changed.{{Cite news\\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-22\\|title\\=World's End murders: Possible DNA match between accused and victims\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-scotland\\-edinburgh\\-east\\-fife\\-29723298\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06}} And also her expert evidence on soil from the accused boots was critical in the Emma Faulds murder trial.{{Cite news\\|last\\=McCabe\\|first\\=Grant\\|title\\=Prison officer Ross Willox convicted of murdering Emma Faulds\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Times]]\\|language\\=en\\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/prison\\-officer\\-ross\\-willox\\-convicted\\-of\\-murdering\\-emma\\-faulds\\-mmf95kqfw\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|issn\\=0140\\-0460}} Dawson was also sent samples to be examined in relation to the missing toddler [Ben Needham](/wiki/Disappearance_of_Ben_Needham \"Disappearance of Ben Needham\"), 26 years after he was lost in Greece.{{Cite news\\|date\\=2017\\-07\\-24\\|title\\=Ben Needham: Blood found on sandal and inside toy car\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk\\-england\\-south\\-yorkshire\\-40684276\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06}} And her expertise was brought in to the re\\-opening of the case on the 60 year old disappearance of schoolgirl Moira Anderson.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Ruffell\\|first\\=Alastair\\|title\\=How science is helping the police search for bodies in water\\|url\\=http://theconversation.com/how\\-science\\-is\\-helping\\-the\\-police\\-search\\-for\\-bodies\\-in\\-water\\-73931\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=The Conversation\\|date\\=23 March 2017 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Police focus on canal in search for remains of missing schoolgirl Moira Anderson who disappeared 60 years ago\\|url\\=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15154935\\.moira\\-anderson\\-police\\-focus\\-canal\\-search\\-missing\\-schoolgirl\\-disappeared\\-60\\-years\\-ago/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=HeraldScotland\\|date\\=14 March 2017 \\|language\\=en}} Dawson has advised and reported on more than 150 cases, written more than 100 expert witness reports and presented evidence in 13 courts, in the UK and abroad.",
"### Research",
"She is a Fellow of the British Society of Soil Science (BSSS), and has conducted online events (2021\\);{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-22\\|title\\=Zoom into Soil: Soil Functions\\|url\\=https://sciencecouncil.org/zoom\\-into\\-soil\\-soil\\-functions/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=The Science Council \\~\\|language\\=en\\-GB}} a Chartered Soil Scientist, keynote speaker in 2020 at the first BSSS Annual Conference for United Nations Soil Day.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-09\\|title\\=BSSS Annual Conference \\- Soil in Action\\|url\\=https://soils.org.uk/news/bsss\\-annual\\-conference\\-soil\\-in\\-action/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=British Society of Soil Science\\|language\\=en\\-GB}} Dawson was a council member of the Institute of Professional Soil Scientists (2009\\-2013\\) and was a member of the [Science and Technology Facilities Council](/wiki/Science_and_Technology_Facilities_Council \"Science and Technology Facilities Council\"), Science in Society panel (2007\\-2011\\). Dawson has developed techniques on soil organo\\-mineral markers in forensic investigations with police authorities and European research collaborators. She is involved in international Geoforensics network as treasurer{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-05\\-01\\|title\\=IUGS Imitative on Forensic Geology\\|url\\=http://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/iugs/index.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=www.qub.ac.uk\\|language\\=en}} and is a member of the ENFSI (European Network of Forensic Science Institutes) Animals, Plants, Soils Traces working group. She serves on the Technical Committee of the [University of Messina](/wiki/University_of_Messina \"University of Messina\"), Rome, where she teaches a Masters in Forensic Geology.",
"As head of soil forensics, she now has thirty years experience, including crime scene research and forensic evidence, and leads a team studying botany, [mycology](/wiki/Mycology \"Mycology\"), [palynology](/wiki/Palynology \"Palynology\"), mineralogy, organic and isotope chemistry, plant [DNA](/wiki/DNA \"DNA\") and statistics.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Professor Lorna Dawson {{!}} SEFARI\\|url\\=https://sefari.scot/directory\\-of\\-expertise/professor\\-lorna\\-dawson\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=sefari.scot}} Dawson has published extensively on the subject of soil forensics and soil\\-plant interactions, with more than 100 peer\\-reviewed publications, books, and book chapters. She is also an expert advisor to the National Crime Agency, and has worked with numerous police forces in Scotland , England , Wales , [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") , [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\") , [Belize](/wiki/Belize \"Belize\"), and [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") .",
"She serves on SEFARI [Scottish Environment, Food and Agriculture Research Institutes](/wiki/Scottish_Environment%2C_Food_and_Agriculture_Research_Institutes \"Scottish Environment, Food and Agriculture Research Institutes\") research consortium, conducting research under the Scottish Government Strategic Research Programme 2016\\-2021 on agriculture, environment, food and land.{{Cite web\\|date\\=29 March 2021\\|title\\=About Us {{!}} SEFARI\\|url\\=https://sefari.scot/about\\-us\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=sefari.scot}} There she is leading a programme on Climate and the Environment, focussing on understanding impact on soils, [biodiversity](/wiki/Biodiversity \"Biodiversity\") and ecosystems and considering [adaptation](/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation \"Climate change adaptation\") and resilience, and part of the organisations gateway team for external engagement.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Climate and the Environment {{!}} SEFARI\\|url\\=https://sefari.scot/climate\\-and\\-the\\-environment\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=sefari.scot}}",
"Dawson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 2019, and is a Commander of the Order of the British Empire.",
"### Expert advisor",
"Dawson is an honorary professor in [Forensic Science](/wiki/Forensic_science \"Forensic science\") at [Robert Gordon University](/wiki/Robert_Gordon_University \"Robert Gordon University\"), Aberdeen, as well as lecturing at the universities of Aberdeen, [Strathclyde](/wiki/University_of_Strathclyde \"University of Strathclyde\") and Edinburgh. She was a member of the General Committee of the [British Science Association](/wiki/British_Science_Association \"British Science Association\") from 2013\\. And she works on the Soil Quality Expert Advisory Group of Environment Protection Scotland. In 2016, she was a co\\-convenor of the international Symposium “Forensic Soil Science and Geology in South Africa,{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/iugs/NewsandEvents/PastEvents/PastPDF/Filetoupload,927869,en.pdf\\|title\\=Symposium: Forensic soil science and geology. 5th International conference on Criminal \\& Environmental Soil Forensics. Soil Forensic International (SFI\\-2016\\)\\|publisher\\=35th International Geological Congress\\|year\\=1916}} and also convened major international conferences.",
"Dawson's leadership on the Royal Society of Edinburgh Food, Farming and Countryside Scotland Inquiry, produced a report which concluded 'Farmers and farming groups are very much part of the solution to the issues of climate change and biodiversity loss'.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Research finds climate change innovation at the heart of Scotland's rural life\\|url\\=https://www.thenational.scot/news/17989069\\.scottish\\-rural\\-life\\-leading\\-way\\-climate\\-change/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=The National\\|date\\=24 October 2019 \\|language\\=en}} And her conclusions are summarised from a [virtual tour](/wiki/Virtual_tour \"Virtual tour\") of Scottish agriculture and biodiversity, for delegates to 2021 UN Climate Change conference ([COP26](/wiki/2021_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference \"2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference\")).{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-21\\|title\\=Climate solutions from peatlands to parasites\\|url\\=https://www.dgwgo.com/rural\\-farming\\-news/climate\\-solutions\\-from\\-peatlands\\-to\\-parasites/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=DGWGO\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"She continues to push at improving the science of forensic evidence from soils and promotes practical database collaboration.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Hornyak\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-16\\|title\\=Predictive Forensics Helps Determine Where Soil Samples Came From\\|url\\=http://eos.org/articles/predictive\\-forensics\\-helps\\-determine\\-where\\-soil\\-samples\\-came\\-from\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-06\\|website\\=Eos\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
""
] |
Overview
--------
Following the report of the [Commission on Legislative Democracy](/wiki/Commission_on_Legislative_Democracy "Commission on Legislative Democracy") in December 2004, which recommended fixed election dates beginning on October 15, 2007, [Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_New_Brunswick "Premier of New Brunswick") [Bernard Lord](/wiki/Bernard_Lord "Bernard Lord") pledged to introduce legislation fixing election dates, beginning on that date. Due to this, and because it is tradition in New Brunswick to hold elections every four years, the [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_New_Brunswick "Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick") government and media had routinely referred to this as the **"2007 election"** through early 2006\. The [opposition](/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition "Parliamentary opposition") [Liberals](/wiki/New_Brunswick_Liberal_Association "New Brunswick Liberal Association") however always pledged to try to force an early election.
From February through May 2006, it seemed possible that the Liberals might be successful in their goal as on February 17, 2006 [Michael Malley](/wiki/Michael_Malley "Michael Malley") left the Progressive Conservative [caucus](/wiki/Caucus "Caucus") creating a [minority government](/wiki/Minority_government "Minority government") situation, Malley later became [Speaker](/wiki/Speaker_%28politics%29 "Speaker (politics)") and, as Speaker, controversially rejoined the government caucus. The situation remained difficult for some time as the Liberals gained control of several key committees upon Malley's defection and would not return control to the government as they did not recognize Malley's change of affiliation while speaker. On May 30, 2006, the House reaffirmed its confidence in Malley in a vote and on May 31, 2006 the government and opposition announced a truce to allow the House to function more easily including a legislative calendar through 2007\. As a result, it seemed unlikely that the government would fall prior to its chosen date to go to the polls.
However, [Peter Mesheau](/wiki/Peter_Mesheau "Peter Mesheau"), a Progressive Conservative MLA who had already announced that he would not run for re\-election, said he would have to resign his seat as he had accepted a job in the private sector. Lord said that he would not face another [hung parliament](/wiki/Hung_parliament "Hung parliament") and announced on August 10, 2006 that he would seek an election date of September 18\. On August 18, Lord asked [Lieutenant\-Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant-Governor_of_New_Brunswick "Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick") [Herménégilde Chiasson](/wiki/Herm%C3%A9n%C3%A9gilde_Chiasson "Herménégilde Chiasson") to dissolve the legislature and set the election date.[http://www.cbc.ca/cp/Atlantic/060818/t081818\.html\&cid\=0](http://www.cbc.ca/cp/Atlantic/060818/t081818.html&cid=0){{dead link\|date\=May 2011}}
The emerging key issues of the campaign seem to be leadership and energy prices. The Progressive Conservatives have for some years questioned the leadership abilities of [Shawn Graham](/wiki/Shawn_Graham "Shawn Graham"), the [leader of the opposition](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_%28New_Brunswick%29 "Leader of the Opposition (New Brunswick)") while the Liberals have been focusing on energy in general as a theme for some time. Moreover, energy has come to the forefront due to the introduction of [gas price regulation](/wiki/Gas_price_regulation "Gas price regulation") by Lord's government on July 1, 2006, and the Liberals announced their energy platform prior to the beginning of the campaign.
This election was the first campaign since the [1987 election](/wiki/1987_New_Brunswick_general_election "1987 New Brunswick general election") in which [Elizabeth Weir](/wiki/Elizabeth_Weir "Elizabeth Weir") did not lead the smaller [social democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy "Social democracy") [New Democratic Party](/wiki/New_Brunswick_New_Democratic_Party "New Brunswick New Democratic Party") (NDP). In 2005, Weir stepped down after seventeen years as NDP leader. She was succeeded by [Fredericton](/wiki/Fredericton%2C_New_Brunswick "Fredericton, New Brunswick")\-based social activist [Allison Brewer](/wiki/Allison_Brewer "Allison Brewer"), who stood for election in the riding of [Fredericton\-Lincoln](/wiki/Fredericton-Lincoln "Fredericton-Lincoln").
The Progressive Conservative party were again led by Bernard Lord and the Liberal Party by Shawn Graham.
The campaign was derided by journalists and political scientists as boring in part because much of the campaign was before Labour Day when many families were still taking summer holidays and also because the overall aspects of the two main parties were similar.
There were three English language debates and two French languages debates with some being declared draws, some wins for Lord and some wins for Graham by the experts. Opinion polls showed the Conservatives with a lead in the early days of the campaign but the last few weeks showed ties or slight edges to the Liberals within the margin of error.
On election day, Shawn Graham and the Liberals won the most seats, however, they lost the popular vote. Bernard Lord was the first premier not elected to a third term since [Hugh John Flemming](/wiki/Hugh_John_Flemming "Hugh John Flemming") lost his bid for a third term in the [1960 election](/wiki/1960_New_Brunswick_general_election "1960 New Brunswick general election") while the NDP suffered a considerable blow being shut out of the legislature despite having won a seat in 5 of the last 6 elections and seeing their popular vote slip 4% to their worst showing since the [1974 election](/wiki/1974_New_Brunswick_general_election "1974 New Brunswick general election").
### Issues
The Fredericton [Daily Gleaner](/wiki/The_Daily_Gleaner "The Daily Gleaner") reported on August 11, 2006 that they had asked the leaders of each party for what they thought the key issues of the campaign would be:
* Benard Lord, PC Leader: jobs, the economy, health care and senior care
* Shawn Graham, Liberal Leader: education, economic development and energy
* Allison Brewer, NDP Leader: high energy prices
An [opinion poll](/wiki/Opinion_poll "Opinion poll"), conducted for [CTV Atlantic](/wiki/CTV_Atlantic "CTV Atlantic") by the [Innovative Research Group](/wiki/Innovative_Research_Group "Innovative Research Group") the last week of the campaign found the follow issues were top of mind for voters:
* Health Care (22%)
* Education (11%)
* Jobs/Unemployment (10%)
* Gas Prices/Oil (8%)
* Political Leaders/Leadership (4%)
* Senior Care/Nursing Homes (4%)
* Taxes/Taxation (3%)
* Cost of living/Inflation (3%)
* Social Issues (2%)
|
[
"Overview\n--------",
"Following the report of the [Commission on Legislative Democracy](/wiki/Commission_on_Legislative_Democracy \"Commission on Legislative Democracy\") in December 2004, which recommended fixed election dates beginning on October 15, 2007, [Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_New_Brunswick \"Premier of New Brunswick\") [Bernard Lord](/wiki/Bernard_Lord \"Bernard Lord\") pledged to introduce legislation fixing election dates, beginning on that date. Due to this, and because it is tradition in New Brunswick to hold elections every four years, the [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_New_Brunswick \"Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick\") government and media had routinely referred to this as the **\"2007 election\"** through early 2006\\. The [opposition](/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition \"Parliamentary opposition\") [Liberals](/wiki/New_Brunswick_Liberal_Association \"New Brunswick Liberal Association\") however always pledged to try to force an early election.",
"From February through May 2006, it seemed possible that the Liberals might be successful in their goal as on February 17, 2006 [Michael Malley](/wiki/Michael_Malley \"Michael Malley\") left the Progressive Conservative [caucus](/wiki/Caucus \"Caucus\") creating a [minority government](/wiki/Minority_government \"Minority government\") situation, Malley later became [Speaker](/wiki/Speaker_%28politics%29 \"Speaker (politics)\") and, as Speaker, controversially rejoined the government caucus. The situation remained difficult for some time as the Liberals gained control of several key committees upon Malley's defection and would not return control to the government as they did not recognize Malley's change of affiliation while speaker. On May 30, 2006, the House reaffirmed its confidence in Malley in a vote and on May 31, 2006 the government and opposition announced a truce to allow the House to function more easily including a legislative calendar through 2007\\. As a result, it seemed unlikely that the government would fall prior to its chosen date to go to the polls.",
"However, [Peter Mesheau](/wiki/Peter_Mesheau \"Peter Mesheau\"), a Progressive Conservative MLA who had already announced that he would not run for re\\-election, said he would have to resign his seat as he had accepted a job in the private sector. Lord said that he would not face another [hung parliament](/wiki/Hung_parliament \"Hung parliament\") and announced on August 10, 2006 that he would seek an election date of September 18\\. On August 18, Lord asked [Lieutenant\\-Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant-Governor_of_New_Brunswick \"Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick\") [Herménégilde Chiasson](/wiki/Herm%C3%A9n%C3%A9gilde_Chiasson \"Herménégilde Chiasson\") to dissolve the legislature and set the election date.[http://www.cbc.ca/cp/Atlantic/060818/t081818\\.html\\&cid\\=0](http://www.cbc.ca/cp/Atlantic/060818/t081818.html&cid=0){{dead link\\|date\\=May 2011}}",
"The emerging key issues of the campaign seem to be leadership and energy prices. The Progressive Conservatives have for some years questioned the leadership abilities of [Shawn Graham](/wiki/Shawn_Graham \"Shawn Graham\"), the [leader of the opposition](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_%28New_Brunswick%29 \"Leader of the Opposition (New Brunswick)\") while the Liberals have been focusing on energy in general as a theme for some time. Moreover, energy has come to the forefront due to the introduction of [gas price regulation](/wiki/Gas_price_regulation \"Gas price regulation\") by Lord's government on July 1, 2006, and the Liberals announced their energy platform prior to the beginning of the campaign.",
"This election was the first campaign since the [1987 election](/wiki/1987_New_Brunswick_general_election \"1987 New Brunswick general election\") in which [Elizabeth Weir](/wiki/Elizabeth_Weir \"Elizabeth Weir\") did not lead the smaller [social democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") [New Democratic Party](/wiki/New_Brunswick_New_Democratic_Party \"New Brunswick New Democratic Party\") (NDP). In 2005, Weir stepped down after seventeen years as NDP leader. She was succeeded by [Fredericton](/wiki/Fredericton%2C_New_Brunswick \"Fredericton, New Brunswick\")\\-based social activist [Allison Brewer](/wiki/Allison_Brewer \"Allison Brewer\"), who stood for election in the riding of [Fredericton\\-Lincoln](/wiki/Fredericton-Lincoln \"Fredericton-Lincoln\").",
"The Progressive Conservative party were again led by Bernard Lord and the Liberal Party by Shawn Graham.",
"The campaign was derided by journalists and political scientists as boring in part because much of the campaign was before Labour Day when many families were still taking summer holidays and also because the overall aspects of the two main parties were similar.",
"There were three English language debates and two French languages debates with some being declared draws, some wins for Lord and some wins for Graham by the experts. Opinion polls showed the Conservatives with a lead in the early days of the campaign but the last few weeks showed ties or slight edges to the Liberals within the margin of error.",
"On election day, Shawn Graham and the Liberals won the most seats, however, they lost the popular vote. Bernard Lord was the first premier not elected to a third term since [Hugh John Flemming](/wiki/Hugh_John_Flemming \"Hugh John Flemming\") lost his bid for a third term in the [1960 election](/wiki/1960_New_Brunswick_general_election \"1960 New Brunswick general election\") while the NDP suffered a considerable blow being shut out of the legislature despite having won a seat in 5 of the last 6 elections and seeing their popular vote slip 4% to their worst showing since the [1974 election](/wiki/1974_New_Brunswick_general_election \"1974 New Brunswick general election\").",
"### Issues",
"The Fredericton [Daily Gleaner](/wiki/The_Daily_Gleaner \"The Daily Gleaner\") reported on August 11, 2006 that they had asked the leaders of each party for what they thought the key issues of the campaign would be:\n* Benard Lord, PC Leader: jobs, the economy, health care and senior care\n* Shawn Graham, Liberal Leader: education, economic development and energy\n* Allison Brewer, NDP Leader: high energy prices",
"An [opinion poll](/wiki/Opinion_poll \"Opinion poll\"), conducted for [CTV Atlantic](/wiki/CTV_Atlantic \"CTV Atlantic\") by the [Innovative Research Group](/wiki/Innovative_Research_Group \"Innovative Research Group\") the last week of the campaign found the follow issues were top of mind for voters:\n* Health Care (22%)\n* Education (11%)\n* Jobs/Unemployment (10%)\n* Gas Prices/Oil (8%)\n* Political Leaders/Leadership (4%)\n* Senior Care/Nursing Homes (4%)\n* Taxes/Taxation (3%)\n* Cost of living/Inflation (3%)\n* Social Issues (2%)",
""
] |
Plot
----
Jean, Polaire, and Schatzi are former [showgirls](/wiki/Showgirl "Showgirl") who put their money together in order to rent a luxurious penthouse apartment. Jean is on her way back from France after a failed engagement which left her penniless. She manipulates a fellow male ship passenger into paying her dining bill, claiming that she can't find her checkbook. After she's home the girls scheme to get Jean engaged again, Jean suggests an old flame named Pops (whom the audience never sees), but she is surprised to find that Schatzi is now engaged to him. Polaire loans Jean her "bad dime" bracelet which has brought her good luck (the dime has a hole in it). Polaire phones Dey Emery to arrange a party for that night and asks him to set Jean up with a date for the evening. Later at a nightclub, Dey introduces Jean to pianist Boris Feldman, but she doesn't like him. Boris bets Jean that he can make her fall in love with him just by playing the piano for her, $5,000 if she doesn't fall in love with him, "everything" if she does.
Later that night the group go to Boris' apartment where Polaire plays piano and Boris falls in love with her, forgetting the arrangement he made with Jean. He proposes to make Polaire his protégé, and she agrees to come back to his apartment in ten minutes after she gets her things. Meanwhile, Jean has taken off her dress, put on her coat and hides upstairs until Polaire leaves. She schemes to make Boris her own by seducing him. Polaire returns after ten minutes but it is too late, Boris is too busy to answer the door. After leaving Boris' apartment, Polaire is involved in a bad car accident when her taxi driver collides with a milk truck, and she is hospitalized.
Some time passes, Boris is upset that Jean slept through his concert performance and she breaks it off with him, telling him she sleeps when she wants to. Later Schatzi runs into Jean at a salon, Dey and Jean have been seeing each other and he arrives to pick her up. Schatzi pulls Dey into another room and tells him about Polaire's car accident and he goes to her hospital room and they reunite.
Schatzi discovers that her fiancé, Pops, has died. Schatzi and Polaire go to Pops' will reading and discover that Jean is also there dressed head to toe in [mourning](/wiki/Mourning "Mourning") clothes and feigns grief. The lawyer plays a recording of Pops' own voice recognizing Schatzi as his heiress and warning that Jean may be scheming for his assets.
Later, Schatzi and Polaire are living in a fancy hotel when Jean phones saying she will visit at 3 o'clock. Polaire hires the hotel waiter to be their butler for only a half hour at 3 o'clock. Jean doesn't fall for it. Dey phones Polaire to say he and his father are coming over to meet her, she asks Jean to leave but she refuses. Jean hides her gloves under a pillow but Polaire is wise to it and makes sure she leaves with all her things so she doesn't need to stop by while Dey and his father are there. Jean tries to give Polaire her pearls but she refuses to accept them, Jean puts them in Polaire's coat pocket anyway. Dey arrives to take Polaire to meet his father but Jean rushes to the Emery residence to scheme for a husband, and accuses Polaire of stealing her pearls. Dey's father insists that his son call off his wedding to Polaire, and the father gets engaged to Jean.
Schatzi and Polaire arrive at Jean's wedding and Jean finally returns the bad dime bracelet to Polaire. The two girls discover that Jean now has a million dollars, they get Jean drunk and convince her to run off with them to Paris instead of getting married. Dey follows the three girls and catches up with them before their ship sails, and he and Polaire are reunited.{{cite book \|last\=Kael \|first\=Pauline \|author\-link\= \|date\=2011 \|title\=5001 Nights at the Movies \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=w4LzeUZ03vQC\&dq\=the\+greeks\+had\+a\+word\+for\+them\+1932\&pg\=PA305 \|location\=New York, New York, USA \|publisher\=Henry Holt and Company \|page\=305 \|isbn\=9781250033574}}
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Jean, Polaire, and Schatzi are former [showgirls](/wiki/Showgirl \"Showgirl\") who put their money together in order to rent a luxurious penthouse apartment. Jean is on her way back from France after a failed engagement which left her penniless. She manipulates a fellow male ship passenger into paying her dining bill, claiming that she can't find her checkbook. After she's home the girls scheme to get Jean engaged again, Jean suggests an old flame named Pops (whom the audience never sees), but she is surprised to find that Schatzi is now engaged to him. Polaire loans Jean her \"bad dime\" bracelet which has brought her good luck (the dime has a hole in it). Polaire phones Dey Emery to arrange a party for that night and asks him to set Jean up with a date for the evening. Later at a nightclub, Dey introduces Jean to pianist Boris Feldman, but she doesn't like him. Boris bets Jean that he can make her fall in love with him just by playing the piano for her, $5,000 if she doesn't fall in love with him, \"everything\" if she does.",
"Later that night the group go to Boris' apartment where Polaire plays piano and Boris falls in love with her, forgetting the arrangement he made with Jean. He proposes to make Polaire his protégé, and she agrees to come back to his apartment in ten minutes after she gets her things. Meanwhile, Jean has taken off her dress, put on her coat and hides upstairs until Polaire leaves. She schemes to make Boris her own by seducing him. Polaire returns after ten minutes but it is too late, Boris is too busy to answer the door. After leaving Boris' apartment, Polaire is involved in a bad car accident when her taxi driver collides with a milk truck, and she is hospitalized.",
"Some time passes, Boris is upset that Jean slept through his concert performance and she breaks it off with him, telling him she sleeps when she wants to. Later Schatzi runs into Jean at a salon, Dey and Jean have been seeing each other and he arrives to pick her up. Schatzi pulls Dey into another room and tells him about Polaire's car accident and he goes to her hospital room and they reunite.",
"Schatzi discovers that her fiancé, Pops, has died. Schatzi and Polaire go to Pops' will reading and discover that Jean is also there dressed head to toe in [mourning](/wiki/Mourning \"Mourning\") clothes and feigns grief. The lawyer plays a recording of Pops' own voice recognizing Schatzi as his heiress and warning that Jean may be scheming for his assets.",
"Later, Schatzi and Polaire are living in a fancy hotel when Jean phones saying she will visit at 3 o'clock. Polaire hires the hotel waiter to be their butler for only a half hour at 3 o'clock. Jean doesn't fall for it. Dey phones Polaire to say he and his father are coming over to meet her, she asks Jean to leave but she refuses. Jean hides her gloves under a pillow but Polaire is wise to it and makes sure she leaves with all her things so she doesn't need to stop by while Dey and his father are there. Jean tries to give Polaire her pearls but she refuses to accept them, Jean puts them in Polaire's coat pocket anyway. Dey arrives to take Polaire to meet his father but Jean rushes to the Emery residence to scheme for a husband, and accuses Polaire of stealing her pearls. Dey's father insists that his son call off his wedding to Polaire, and the father gets engaged to Jean.",
"Schatzi and Polaire arrive at Jean's wedding and Jean finally returns the bad dime bracelet to Polaire. The two girls discover that Jean now has a million dollars, they get Jean drunk and convince her to run off with them to Paris instead of getting married. Dey follows the three girls and catches up with them before their ship sails, and he and Polaire are reunited.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kael \\|first\\=Pauline \\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\=2011 \\|title\\=5001 Nights at the Movies \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=w4LzeUZ03vQC\\&dq\\=the\\+greeks\\+had\\+a\\+word\\+for\\+them\\+1932\\&pg\\=PA305 \\|location\\=New York, New York, USA \\|publisher\\=Henry Holt and Company \\|page\\=305 \\|isbn\\=9781250033574}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
He was born in 1945 in [Sheikh](/wiki/Sheikh%2C_Somaliland "Sheikh, Somaliland").
He attended elementary school in [Hargeisa](/wiki/Hargeisa "Hargeisa") and Sheikh. He attended [Amud](/wiki/Amud "Amud") high school from 1962 to 1966\.
He attended [Egyptian Military College](/wiki/Egyptian_Military_College "Egyptian Military College") from 1966 to 1968\. During his studies, he participated in the defense of the [Cairo International Airport](/wiki/Cairo_International_Airport "Cairo International Airport") during the [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War"). He took the Chief of Staff course from 1973 to 1974\.
From 1975 to 1977 he studied at the [Frunze Military Academy](/wiki/Frunze_Military_Academy "Frunze Military Academy") in [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia").
He participated in the 1977 war between Ethiopia and Somalia, [Ogaden War](/wiki/Ogaden_War "Ogaden War"), as a major, fighting in [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa "Dire Dawa") and elsewhere.
### SNM Period
In 1986 he joined the [Somali National Movement](/wiki/Somali_National_Movement "Somali National Movement") (SNM) in [Mustahīl](/wiki/Mustah%C4%ABl_%28town%29 "Mustahīl (town)"), [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia").
In September 1988, he participated in a conference of the [Workers' Party of Ethiopia](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Ethiopia "Workers' Party of Ethiopia"), the [Somali Salvation Democratic Front](/wiki/Somali_Salvation_Democratic_Front "Somali Salvation Democratic Front"), and the SNM in [Harar](/wiki/Harar "Harar"), Ethiopia, as a member of the SNM delegation with [Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud](/wiki/Ahmed_Mohamed_Mohamoud "Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud"), [Hadrawi](/wiki/Hadrawi "Hadrawi"), and others.
### After the foundation of Somaliland
In 1991 he became commander of the 17th Army Base in [Berbera](/wiki/Berbera "Berbera").
He was Commander of the Somaliland National Army from 2003 to 2004\.
From 2004 to 2010 he was Army Commander with President [Dahir Riyale Kahin](/wiki/Dahir_Riyale_Kahin "Dahir Riyale Kahin").
In 2007, he participated in the preparation of the plan for the [occupation of Las Anod by Somaliland](/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Anod_%282007%29 "Battle of Las Anod (2007)").
From 2010 to 2017 he was Army Commander with President [Silanyo](/wiki/Ahmed_Mohamed_Mohamoud "Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud").
In [Las Anod conflict](/wiki/Las_Anod_conflict_%282023-present%29 "Las Anod conflict (2023-present)") in 2023, he recommended withdrawing from the [Tukaraq](/wiki/Tukaraq "Tukaraq") base and entering the defense of the Gojacade base near Las Anod.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"He was born in 1945 in [Sheikh](/wiki/Sheikh%2C_Somaliland \"Sheikh, Somaliland\").",
"He attended elementary school in [Hargeisa](/wiki/Hargeisa \"Hargeisa\") and Sheikh. He attended [Amud](/wiki/Amud \"Amud\") high school from 1962 to 1966\\.",
"He attended [Egyptian Military College](/wiki/Egyptian_Military_College \"Egyptian Military College\") from 1966 to 1968\\. During his studies, he participated in the defense of the [Cairo International Airport](/wiki/Cairo_International_Airport \"Cairo International Airport\") during the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\"). He took the Chief of Staff course from 1973 to 1974\\.",
"From 1975 to 1977 he studied at the [Frunze Military Academy](/wiki/Frunze_Military_Academy \"Frunze Military Academy\") in [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\").",
"He participated in the 1977 war between Ethiopia and Somalia, [Ogaden War](/wiki/Ogaden_War \"Ogaden War\"), as a major, fighting in [Dire Dawa](/wiki/Dire_Dawa \"Dire Dawa\") and elsewhere.",
"### SNM Period",
"In 1986 he joined the [Somali National Movement](/wiki/Somali_National_Movement \"Somali National Movement\") (SNM) in [Mustahīl](/wiki/Mustah%C4%ABl_%28town%29 \"Mustahīl (town)\"), [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\").",
"In September 1988, he participated in a conference of the [Workers' Party of Ethiopia](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Ethiopia \"Workers' Party of Ethiopia\"), the [Somali Salvation Democratic Front](/wiki/Somali_Salvation_Democratic_Front \"Somali Salvation Democratic Front\"), and the SNM in [Harar](/wiki/Harar \"Harar\"), Ethiopia, as a member of the SNM delegation with [Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud](/wiki/Ahmed_Mohamed_Mohamoud \"Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud\"), [Hadrawi](/wiki/Hadrawi \"Hadrawi\"), and others.",
"### After the foundation of Somaliland",
"In 1991 he became commander of the 17th Army Base in [Berbera](/wiki/Berbera \"Berbera\").",
"He was Commander of the Somaliland National Army from 2003 to 2004\\.",
"From 2004 to 2010 he was Army Commander with President [Dahir Riyale Kahin](/wiki/Dahir_Riyale_Kahin \"Dahir Riyale Kahin\").",
"In 2007, he participated in the preparation of the plan for the [occupation of Las Anod by Somaliland](/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Anod_%282007%29 \"Battle of Las Anod (2007)\").",
"From 2010 to 2017 he was Army Commander with President [Silanyo](/wiki/Ahmed_Mohamed_Mohamoud \"Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud\").",
"In [Las Anod conflict](/wiki/Las_Anod_conflict_%282023-present%29 \"Las Anod conflict (2023-present)\") in 2023, he recommended withdrawing from the [Tukaraq](/wiki/Tukaraq \"Tukaraq\") base and entering the defense of the Gojacade base near Las Anod.",
""
] |
Hardware
--------
When Microsoft's Xbox development team started work on the successor to the Xbox One consoles around 2016, they had already envisioned the need to have two console versions similar to their Xbox One X and Xbox One S models to meet the needs of different markets. By developing both units in concert, they would be able to make sure games developed would be able to be played on both systems without exception. As has been tradition with past Xbox projects, the consoles were given code names based on cities.{{cite video\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=fYtJWIxt3\-M\|title\=Inside the Xbox Series S\|date\=September 9, 2020\|publisher\=\[\[Microsoft]]\|access\-date\=September 10, 2020\|via\=\[\[YouTube]]\|archive\-date\=September 9, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909225506/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=fYtJWIxt3\-M\&app\=desktop\|url\-status\=live}} The Xbox Series S was named Project Lockhart, based on the city of [Lockhart, Texas](/wiki/Lockhart%2C_Texas "Lockhart, Texas"), which Aaron Greenberg said was known as "the little city with the big heart".{{cite web\|last\=Makuch\|first\=Eddie\|date\=September 10, 2020\|title\=Xbox Series S: Here's Where The "Lockhart" Codename Came From\|url\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\-series\-s\-heres\-where\-the\-lockhart\-codename\-ca/1100\-6482056/\|access\-date\=September 10, 2020\|work\=\[\[GameSpot]]\|archive\-date\=September 11, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911163748/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\-series\-s\-heres\-where\-the\-lockhart\-codename\-ca/1100\-6482056/\|url\-status\=live}}
For the high\-end console, the Xbox Series X, Microsoft's primary goals were to: at least double the graphical performance of the [Xbox One X](/wiki/Xbox_One_X "Xbox One X") as measured by its [floating point operations per second](/wiki/FLOPS "FLOPS") (FLOPS), and to increase CPU performance four\-fold compared to Xbox One X while maintaining the same acoustic performance from the Xbox One consoles.{{cite web\|last\=Leadbetter\|first\=Richard\|date\=March 28, 2020\|title\=Building Xbox Series X: why Microsoft redefined the console form factor\|url\=https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry\-2020\-constructing\-xbox\-series\-x\-a\-revolution\-in\-console\-design\|access\-date\=March 29, 2020\|work\=\[\[Eurogamer]]\|archive\-date\=March 28, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328232225/https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry\-2020\-constructing\-xbox\-series\-x\-a\-revolution\-in\-console\-design\|url\-status\=live}} As the engineers collected power requirements to meet these specifications, they saw these parts would draw a large amount of internal power (approximately 315 [W](/wiki/Watt "Watt")) and would generate a significant amount of heat.
This led to the decision to split the components onto two separate [circuit boards](/wiki/Circuit_board "Circuit board"); one would house the CPU/GPU, memory, and power regulators, and a second board would act as a [Southbridge](/wiki/Southbridge_%28computing%29 "Southbridge (computing)") board for slower [input/output](/wiki/Input/output "Input/output") (I/O) functions. The boards mounted on opposite sides of an aluminum chassis helped to create air channels for cooling. The remaining components—the [heat sink](/wiki/Heat_sink "Heat sink"), the [electric shielding](/wiki/Electromagnetic_shielding "Electromagnetic shielding"), the [power supply](/wiki/Power_supply "Power supply"), the [optical drive](/wiki/Optical_drive "Optical drive"), and the [cooling fan](/wiki/Cooling_fan "Cooling fan")—were then arranged in a *[Tetris](/wiki/Tetris "Tetris")*\-like fashion, according to principal designer Chris Kujawski, to achieve a compact form factor, resulting in the tower\-like structure. To meet the acoustics factor, the system includes numerous sensors for controlling the speed of the fan, and the large open top was necessary to ensure good airflow through the system. While certain elements like the optical drive, air flow requirements, and heat sink size fixed certain dimensions in the overall form factor, they were satisfied they were able to end up with a square footprint for the unit.
### Xbox Series X
[thumb\|upright\|The Xbox Series X logo](/wiki/File:Xbox_Series_X_logo.svg "Xbox Series X logo.svg")
Xbox head Phil Spencer said that Microsoft was prioritizing high frame rates and faster load times over higher resolutions; the Series X achieves this via the better\-matched capabilities of the CPU and [graphics processing unit](/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit "Graphics processing unit").{{cite web\|last\=Olsen\|first\=Matthew\|date\=January 29, 2020\|title\=Phil Spencer Really, Really Wants to Push Frame Rates With the Xbox Series X\|url\=https://www.usgamer.net/articles/phil\-spencer\-still\-prioritizing\-frame\-rate\-and\-feel\-for\-xbox\-series\-x\|access\-date\=January 29, 2020\|work\=\[\[USGamer]]\|archive\-date\=January 29, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129195259/https://www.usgamer.net/articles/phil\-spencer\-still\-prioritizing\-frame\-rate\-and\-feel\-for\-xbox\-series\-x\|url\-status\=dead}} Compared to the Xbox One X, the CPU is about four times as powerful and the GPU is twice as powerful.{{Cite web \|last\=Henderson \|first\=Rik \|date\=2020\-04\-30 \|title\=Xbox Series X vs Xbox One X: What's the difference? \|url\=https://www.pocket\-lint.com/xbox\-series\-x\-vs\-xbox\-one\-x\-console\-specs\-compared\-whats\-the\-difference/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-02 \|website\=Pocket\-lint \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=May 2, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502213514/https://www.pocket\-lint.com/xbox\-series\-x\-vs\-xbox\-one\-x\-console\-specs\-compared\-whats\-the\-difference/ \|url\-status\=live }}
The Xbox Series X is powered by a custom 7 nm (6 nm in refresh) [AMD](/wiki/Advanced_Micro_Devices "Advanced Micro Devices") [Zen 2](/wiki/Zen_2 "Zen 2") CPU with eight cores running at a nominal 3\.8 GHz or, when [simultaneous multithreading](/wiki/Simultaneous_multithreading "Simultaneous multithreading") (SMT) is used, at 3\.66 GHz. One CPU core is dedicated to the underlying operating system. The integrated GPU is also a custom unit based on AMD's [RDNA 2](/wiki/RDNA_2 "RDNA 2") graphics architecture. It has a total of 56 compute units (CUs) with 3,584 cores, with 52 CUs and 3,328 cores enabled, and will run at a fixed 1\.825 GHz. This unit is capable of 12\.14 [teraflops](/wiki/FLOPS "FLOPS") of computational power. The unit ships with 16 GB of [GDDR6 SDRAM](/wiki/GDDR6_SDRAM "GDDR6 SDRAM"), with 10 GB running at 560 GB/s primarily to be used with the graphics system and the other 6 GB at 336 GB/s to be used for the other computing functions. After accounting for the system software, about 13\.5 GB of memory will be available for games and other applications, with the system software only drawing from the slower pool. The Xbox Series X is intended to render games at [4K resolution](/wiki/4K_resolution "4K resolution") at 60 frames per second, and can support up to 120 frames per second and can render up to [8K resolution](/wiki/8K_resolution "8K resolution").
The Xbox Series X's console form is designed to be unobtrusive and minimalistic. It has a {{convert\|15\.1\|x\|15\.1\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}} footprint, is {{convert\|30\.1\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}} high, and weighs {{convert\|4\.45\|kg\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. Designed to sit vertically, it can also be used on its side. Its front has the main power button and an [Ultra HD Blu\-ray](/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray "Ultra HD Blu-ray") drive. The top of the unit is a single powerful fan. Spencer said that the console is as quiet as the Xbox One X.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/goodbye\-project\-scarlett\-hello\-xbox\-series\-x\-exclu/1100\-6472190/ \|title\=Goodbye, Project Scarlett, Hello Xbox Series X – Exclusive First Look And Interview \|first\=Peter \|last\=Brown \|date\=December 12, 2019 \|access\-date\=December 12, 2019 \|work\=\[\[GameSpot]] \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20191213021815/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/goodbye\-project\-scarlett\-hello\-xbox\-series\-x\-exclu/1100\-6472190/ \| archive\-date \= December 13, 2019 \| url\-status \= live}} The Series X includes an HDMI 2\.1 output, the storage expansion slot, three [USB 3\.2](/wiki/USB_3.2 "USB 3.2") ports, and an [Ethernet port](/wiki/Ethernet_port "Ethernet port").{{Cite web \|last\=Warren \|first\=Tom \|date\=March 16, 2020 \|title\=Here's how Xbox Series X removable storage will work \|url\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/16/21181854/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-x\-expansion\-cards\-removable\-storage\-support\-features \|access\-date\=July 17, 2020 \|website\=\[\[The Verge]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=March 16, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316210634/https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/16/21181854/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-x\-expansion\-cards\-removable\-storage\-support\-features \|url\-status\=live}} The console does not include an infrared blaster or HDMI pass\-through like the Xbox One line, supporting [HDMI\-CEC](/wiki/HDMI-CEC "HDMI-CEC") instead. An earlier leak had suggested a [TOSLINK](/wiki/TOSLINK "TOSLINK") port for digital audio, but this was eliminated in the final design.{{cite web \|url\=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2020/03/xbox\-series\-x\-loses\-xbox\-ones\-s\-pdif\-optical\-audio\-output/ \|title\=Another port bites the dust: Xbox Series X drops S/PDIF audio \|first\=Kyle \|last\=Orland \|date\=March 19, 2020 \|access\-date\=March 19, 2020 \|work\=\[\[Ars Technica]] \|archive\-date\=March 19, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319185446/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2020/03/xbox\-series\-x\-loses\-xbox\-ones\-s\-pdif\-optical\-audio\-output/ \|url\-status\=live }} The console has an IR receiver in its controller pairing button next to the front USB port.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-10\-22\|title\=Xbox One Media Remotes still work with the Xbox Series X and S\|url\=https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\-series\-x\-and\-xbox\-series\-s\-still\-have\-ir\-receiver\-will\-work\-xbox\-one\-media\-remotes\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-03\|website\=Windows Central\|archive\-date\=November 1, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101013629/https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\-series\-x\-and\-xbox\-series\-s\-still\-have\-ir\-receiver\-will\-work\-xbox\-one\-media\-remotes\|url\-status\=live}}
### Xbox Series S
[thumb\|upright\|The Xbox Series S logo](/wiki/File:Xbox_Series_S.png "Xbox Series S.png")
The Xbox Series S is comparable in its hardware to the Xbox Series X, similar to how the Xbox One S relates to the Xbox One X, but has less processing power. While it runs the same CPU with slightly slower clock frequencies, it uses a slower GPU, a custom RDNA2 with 20 CUs at 1\.55 GHz for 4\.006 TFLOPS, compared to 12\.14 TFLOPS of the Series X. It ships with 10 GB of RAM, with 8 GB running at 224 GB/s primarily to be used with the graphics system and the other 2 GB at 56 GB/s to be used for the other computing functions, and a 512 GB SSD storage unit with a raw input/output throughput of 2\.4 GB/s.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2020/09/09/introducing\-xbox\-series\-s/\|title\=Introducing Xbox Series S, Delivering Next\-Gen Performance in Our Smallest Xbox Ever, Available November 10 at $299\|work\=Xbox News\|date\=September 9, 2020\|access\-date\=September 9, 2020\|archive\-date\=September 9, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909203059/https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2020/09/09/introducing\-xbox\-series\-s/\|url\-status\=live}} It does not include an optical drive, so all games and software must be obtained [digitally](/wiki/Digital_distribution "Digital distribution") via [Microsoft Store](/wiki/Microsoft_Store "Microsoft Store"). It is intended to render games nominally at [1440p](/wiki/1440p "1440p"), with support for a 4K [upscaler](/wiki/Video_scaler "Video scaler"), at 60 frames per second, although it can go as high at 120 frames per second at this resolution. It starts at $299\.99\. Selected games can support native 4K resolution output on the Series S, such as *[Ori and the Will of the Wisps](/wiki/Ori_and_the_Will_of_the_Wisps "Ori and the Will of the Wisps")*.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.windowscentral.com/does\-xbox\-series\-s\-support\-4k\-gaming \| title \= Does Xbox Series S support 4K gaming? \| first \= Zachary \| last \= Boddy \| date \= November 10, 2020 \| access\-date \= December 7, 2020 \| work \= \[\[Windows Central]] \| archive\-date \= November 10, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201110220541/https://www.windowscentral.com/does\-xbox\-series\-s\-support\-4k\-gaming \| url\-status \= live }} Otherwise, the console has the same functions as the Xbox Series X, including ports, expansions, and game support.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\-series\-x\-vs\-xbox\-series\-s \| title \= Xbox Series X vs. Xbox Series S: Which next\-gen console is for you? \| first \= Matt \| last \= Brown \| date \= September 8, 2020 \| access\-date \= September 8, 2020 \| work \= Windows Central \| archive\-date \= September 8, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200908233324/https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\-series\-x\-vs\-xbox\-series\-s \| url\-status \= live }}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/9/21428792/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-s\-specs\-cpu\-teraflops\-performance\-gpu\|title\=Microsoft reveals Xbox Series S specs, promises four times the processing power of Xbox One\|last\=Warren\|first\=Tom\|work\=The Verge\|date\=September 9, 2020\|access\-date\=September 9, 2020\|archive\-date\=September 9, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909192757/https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/9/21428792/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-s\-specs\-cpu\-teraflops\-performance\-gpu\|url\-status\=live}}
Microsoft designed the Series S to easily fit inside of a small bag or backpack for portability and travel usage.{{cite web\|last\=Tuttle\|first\=Will\|date\=September 23, 2020\|url\=https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2020/09/23/designing\-the\-next\-generation\-of\-consoles\-xbox\-series\-x\-and\-xbox\-series\-s/\|title\=Xbox Series X and Xbox Series S: Designing the Next Generation of Consoles\|website\=Xbox.com\|access\-date\=October 15, 2020\|archive\-date\=October 6, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006200446/https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2020/09/23/designing\-the\-next\-generation\-of\-consoles\-xbox\-series\-x\-and\-xbox\-series\-s/\|url\-status\=live}} The Series S unit is about 60% smaller by volume than the Series X, measuring {{convert\|275\|x\|151\|x\|63\.5\|mm\|in}} in its vertical orientation. In this orientation, its large side surface features the major exhaust port for active air cooling, similar to the top surface of the Series X; additional vents are then located on the top of the Series S. Like the Series X, the front of the Series S features one USB port and a controller pairing button with an integrated IR receiver. The rear of the console includes the power connector, one HDMI port, two additional USB ports, and an Ethernet port. Like the Series X, the Series S can also be placed horizontally with the exhaust port facing upward to maintain airflow. The Series S launched in a matte white case along with a matching controller, distinguishing it from the matte black that the Series X uses.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/10/21430298/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-s\-hands\-on\-photos\-price \| title \= Microsoft's new Xbox Series S is surprisingly small in size and price \| first \= Tom \| last \= Warren \| date \= September 10, 2020 \| access\-date \= September 10, 2020 \| work \= \[\[The Verge]] \| archive\-date \= September 10, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200910160351/https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/10/21430298/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-s\-hands\-on\-photos\-price \| url\-status \= live }}
### Common features
#### Xbox Velocity Architecture
[thumb\|right\|The Xbox Velocity Architecture logo](/wiki/File:Xbox_Velocity_Architecture_logo.svg "Xbox Velocity Architecture logo.svg")
Both consoles use a new storage solution, the Xbox Velocity Architecture, that includes hardware and software components to improve transfer speeds within the console, reduce the size of digital downloads, and give developers more flexibility. Central to this is the internal storage, a custom [NVM Express](/wiki/NVM_Express "NVM Express") (NVMe) [SSD](/wiki/Solid-state_drive "Solid-state drive"). On the Series X, this is a 1 TB SSD (802 GB available){{cite web \| url \= https://www.gamesradar.com/uk/xbox\-series\-s\-reportedly\-has\-364gb\-storage\-for\-games\-and\-apps/ \| title \= Xbox Series S reportedly has 364 GB storage for games and apps \| first \= Heather \| last \= Wald \| date \= November 4, 2020 \| access\-date \= November 7, 2020 \| work \= \[\[GamesRadar\+]] \| archive\-date \= November 28, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201128172235/https://www.gamesradar.com/uk/xbox\-series\-s\-reportedly\-has\-364gb\-storage\-for\-games\-and\-apps/ \| url\-status \= live }} with a raw input/output throughput of 2\.4 GB/s. An on\-board compression/decompression block includes both the industry standard [zlib](/wiki/Zlib "Zlib") decompression algorithm and a proprietary BCPack algorithm geared for [game textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping "Texture mapping"), and it gives a combined throughput as high as 4\.8 GB/s. Within the software, a new DirectStorage [API](/wiki/API "API") within [DirectX](/wiki/DirectX "DirectX") allows developers to fine\-tune priority to input/output aspects with other processing threads. The software provides sampler feedback streaming that aids in loading multiple textures in segments to deal with [level of detail](/wiki/Level_of_detail_%28computer_graphics%29 "Level of detail (computer graphics)") rendering, rather than having to read these textures as a whole before using them.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ign.com/articles/xbox\-series\-x\-velocity\-architecture\-explained\-loading\-times\-file\-sizes \|title\=Xbox Series X Velocity Architecture Should Mean Smaller Game File Sizes, Less Loading, and More \|first\=Joe \|last\=Skrebels \|date\=July 14, 2020 \|access\-date\=July 14, 2020 \|work\=\[\[IGN]] \|archive\-date\=July 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715102807/https://www.ign.com/articles/xbox\-series\-x\-velocity\-architecture\-explained\-loading\-times\-file\-sizes \|url\-status\=live }} The Series S includes a 512 GB SSD (364 GB available) with similar custom hardware and software specifications. All SSD storage on the architecture use a [PCI Express 4\.0](/wiki/PCI_Express_4.0 "PCI Express 4.0") x2 link.
Developers at [The Coalition](/wiki/The_Coalition_%28company%29 "The Coalition (company)") found that, without any changes to their code, *[Gears 5](/wiki/Gears_5 "Gears 5")* loaded four times faster on Xbox Series X than Xbox One X due to the higher throughput on memory and storage and that they would be able to increase this further once they incorporated the new DirectStorage API routines.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\-series\-x\-what\-do\-game\-devs\-think \|title\=Xbox Series X: What do game developers say about next\-gen? We asked several for their thoughts. \|first\=Jez \|last\=Corden \|date\=April 22, 2020 \|access\-date\=April 23, 2020 \|work\=Windows Central \|archive\-date\=May 18, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518051030/https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\-series\-x\-what\-do\-game\-devs\-think \|url\-status\=live }}
The consoles support external storage through a proprietary SSD [expansion card](/wiki/Memory_card "Memory card") inserted into the back of the console, which was manufactured exclusively by [Seagate Technology](/wiki/Seagate_Technology "Seagate Technology") on launch and limited to a 1 TB size when first released.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.pcmag.com/news/seagate\-launches\-xbox\-series\-x\-storage\-expansion\-card\-website \| title \= Seagate Teases Super\-Fast Xbox Series X Storage Expansion Card \| first \= Matthew \| last \= Humphries \| date \= July 21, 2020 \| access\-date \= July 13, 2020 \| work \= \[\[PC Magazine]] \| archive\-date \= July 21, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200721231319/https://www.pcmag.com/news/seagate\-launches\-xbox\-series\-x\-storage\-expansion\-card\-website \| url\-status \= live }} Later versions included 512 GB and 2 TB versions and were released at the end of 2021,{{cite web \| url \= https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2021\-10\-21\-microsoft\-announces\-new\-2tb\-and\-512gb\-seagate\-storage\-expansion\-cards\-for\-xbox\-series\-x\-and\-s \| title \= Microsoft announces new 2 TB and 512 GB Seagate storage expansion cards for Xbox Series X and S \| first \= Wesley \| last \= Yin\-Poole \| date \= October 21, 2021 \| access\-date \= October 21, 2021 \| work \= \[\[Eurogamer]] \| archive\-date \= October 21, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20211021141733/https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2021\-10\-21\-microsoft\-announces\-new\-2tb\-and\-512gb\-seagate\-storage\-expansion\-cards\-for\-xbox\-series\-x\-and\-s \| url\-status \= live }} while expansion cards manufactured by [Western Digital](/wiki/Western_Digital "Western Digital") were released in June 2023\.{{cite web \|last1\=Warren \|first1\=Tom \|title\=Western Digital announces Xbox expandable storage cards, starting at $79\.99 \|url\=https://www.theverge.com/2023/6/6/23750797/western\-digital\-xbox\-storage\-expansion\-card\-price\-release\-date \|website\=The Verge \|date\=6 June 2023 \|access\-date\=July 1, 2023 \|archive\-date\=June 16, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616003249/https://www.theverge.com/2023/6/6/23750797/western\-digital\-xbox\-storage\-expansion\-card\-price\-release\-date \|url\-status\=live }} As with the Xbox One, the consoles will also support external USB storage, but only [backward compatible games](/wiki/%23Backward_compatibility "#Backward compatibility") (which can also be transferred directly from an Xbox One console) will be able to run directly from external USB storage. Xbox Series X\- and S\-native games must be stored on the internal SSD or an expansion card in order to be played, but they can be moved to a USB storage device to make room for other games.
The DirectStorage API was released in March 2022 for Windows\-based computers for [graphics cards](/wiki/Graphics_card "Graphics card") that support DirectX 12 and NVMe SSDs, though games must be programmed to take advantage of the DirectStorage API.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.pcgamesn.com/directstorage\-pc\-support \| title \= Xbox Series X DirectStorage feature is coming to PC, will support all DX12 GPUs \| first \= Theo \| last \= Binns \| date \= April 21, 2021 \| access\-date \= April 21, 2021 \| work \= \[\[PCGamesN]] \| archive\-date \= April 21, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210421164341/https://www.pcgamesn.com/directstorage\-pc\-support \| url\-status \= live }}{{cite web \| url \= https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/14/22978223/microsoft\-directstorage\-api\-xbox\-velocity\-windows\-pc\-nvme\-load\-times \| title \= Microsoft releases DirectStorage: 'a new era of fast load times and detailed worlds in PC games' \| first \= Sean \| last \= Hollister \| date \= March 14, 2022 \| accessdate \= March 14, 2022 \| work \= \[\[The Verge]] \| archive\-date \= March 14, 2022 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20220314235134/https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/14/22978223/microsoft\-directstorage\-api\-xbox\-velocity\-windows\-pc\-nvme\-load\-times \| url\-status \= live }} DirectStorage was planned to be a built\-in feature along with Auto HDR for [Windows 11](/wiki/Windows_11 "Windows 11") at release in late 2021,{{cite web \| url \= https://www.polygon.com/22548822/windows\-11\-xbox\-game\-pass\-pc\-auto\-hdr\-directstorage \| title \= Xbox Game Pass is built into Windows 11 \| first \= Samit \| last \= Sarkar \| date \= June 24, 2021 \| access\-date \= June 24, 2021 \| work \= \[\[Polygon (website)\|Polygon]] \| archive\-date \= June 24, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210624163435/https://www.polygon.com/22548822/windows\-11\-xbox\-game\-pass\-pc\-auto\-hdr\-directstorage \| url\-status \= live }} as well as offered within Windows 10\.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.pcgamesn.com/windows\-10\-direct\-storage\-api\-support \| title \= Windows 10 gaming PCs will get the NVMe SSD\-enhancing DirectStorage API after all \| first \= Theo \| last \= Binns \| date \= July 19, 2021 \| access\-date \= July 19, 2021 \| work \= \[\[PCGamesN]] \| archive\-date \= July 19, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210719162952/https://www.pcgamesn.com/windows\-10\-direct\-storage\-api\-support \| url\-status \= live }}
#### Video and audio rendering technologies
Both the Series X and Series S support real\-time [ray\-tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 "Ray tracing (graphics)") and support the new features of the [HDMI 2\.1](/wiki/HDMI_2.1 "HDMI 2.1") standard including [variable refresh rate](/wiki/Variable_refresh_rate "Variable refresh rate") (VRR) and Auto Low Latency Mode (ALLM) that are currently being incorporated into newer televisions.{{cite web\|last\=Warren\|first\=Tom\|date\=February 24, 2020\|title\=Microsoft reveals more Xbox Series X specs, confirms 12 teraflops GPU\|url\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/24/21150578/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-x\-specs\-performance\-12\-teraflops\-gpu\-details\-features\|access\-date\=February 24, 2020\|work\=\[\[The Verge]]\|archive\-date\=February 24, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224151432/https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/24/21150578/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-x\-specs\-performance\-12\-teraflops\-gpu\-details\-features\|url\-status\=live}} The console will have dedicated audio hardware acceleration.{{cite web\|last\=Nunneley\|first\=Stephany\|date\=February 19, 2020\|title\=Xbox Series X to have dedicated audio hardware acceleration\|url\=https://www.vg247\.com/2020/02/19/xbox\-series\-x\-dedicated\-audio\-hardware\-acceleration/\|access\-date\=February 19, 2020\|work\=\[\[VG247]]\|archive\-date\=February 20, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220152648/https://www.vg247\.com/2020/02/19/xbox\-series\-x\-dedicated\-audio\-hardware\-acceleration/\|url\-status\=live}} A feature called "audio ray tracing" will use the graphics ray tracing processors to process spatial audio in the same manner to improve the audio immersion for the player.{{cite web\|last\=Warren\|first\=Tom\|date\=February 26, 2020\|title\=Microsoft's Xbox Series X will be able to resume games even after a reboot\|url\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/26/21154897/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-x\-resume\-games\-reboot\-features\-ray\-tracing\-audio\|access\-date\=February 26, 2020\|work\=\[\[The Verge]]\|archive\-date\=February 26, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226234325/https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/26/21154897/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-x\-resume\-games\-reboot\-features\-ray\-tracing\-audio\|url\-status\=live}}
Another goal for Microsoft was to reduce the effects of input latency to improve responsiveness, adding support for HDMI 2\.1 Auto Low Latency Mode and Variable Refresh Rate features, and "dynamic latency input" technology—a new input pathway that allows developers to incorporate potential controller lag into their games.
AMD's [FidelityFX Super Resolution](/wiki/FidelityFX_Super_Resolution "FidelityFX Super Resolution"), an image upscaling technology competitor to [Nvidia](/wiki/Nvidia "Nvidia")'s [deep learning super sampling](/wiki/Deep_learning_super_sampling "Deep learning super sampling") (DLSS) to enable higher resolutions and framerates, was added to the Xbox Series X/S in June 2021\.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.ign.com/articles/xbox\-series\-x\-s\-amd\-fidelity\-fx\-super\-resolution\-support\-confirmed \| title \= Xbox Series X: New AMD Tech Could Improve Framerate and Resolution Even More \| first \= Taylor \| last \= Lyles \| date \= June 5, 2021 \| access\-date \= June 5, 2021 \| work \= \[\[IGN]] \| archive\-date \= June 4, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210604234521/https://www.ign.com/articles/xbox\-series\-x\-s\-amd\-fidelity\-fx\-super\-resolution\-support\-confirmed \| url\-status \= live }}
Both consoles support [Dolby Vision](/wiki/Dolby_Vision "Dolby Vision") and [Dolby Atmos](/wiki/Dolby_Atmos "Dolby Atmos") technologies.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.vg247\.com/2020/09/11/xbox\-series\-x\-s\-dolby\-vision\-atmos\-support/ \| title \= Xbox Series X/S to support Dolby Vision and Dolby Atmos \| first \= Sherif \| last \= Saed \| date \= September 11, 2020 \| access\-date \= September 11, 2020 \| work \= \[\[VG247]] \| archive\-date \= September 26, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200926153744/https://www.vg247\.com/2020/09/11/xbox\-series\-x\-s\-dolby\-vision\-atmos\-support/ \| url\-status \= live }} Dolby Vision was initially limited to streaming apps at launch, but was released for games in September 2021\.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.polygon.com/22697096/dolby\-vision\-xbox\-series\-x\-s\-hdr\-games \| title \= Dolby Vision gaming goes live on Xbox Series X \| first \= Samit \| last \= Sarkar \| date \= September 28, 2021 \| access\-date \= September 28, 2021 \| work \= \[\[Polygon (website)\|Polygon]] \| archive\-date \= September 28, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210928123509/https://www.polygon.com/22697096/dolby\-vision\-xbox\-series\-x\-s\-hdr\-games \| url\-status \= live }}
### Comparison
The following table is a comparison of the major components of the fourth generation of Xbox consoles.{{cite web \| url \= https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2020/09/09/introducing\-xbox\-series\-s/ \| title \= Introducing Xbox Series S, Delivering Next\-Gen Performance in Our Smallest Xbox Ever, Available November 10 at $299 \| first \= Liz \| last \= Harmen \| date \= September 9, 2020 \| access\-date \= September 9, 2020 \| work \= \[\[Microsoft]] \| archive\-date \= September 9, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200909203059/https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2020/09/09/introducing\-xbox\-series\-s/ \| url\-status \= live }}
| Component | | Series X{{cite web \| url \= https://www.xbox.com/en\-US/consoles/xbox\-series\-x\#specs \| title \= Xbox Series X – Specification \| access\-date \= September 14, 2020 \| publisher \= \[\[Microsoft]] \| archive\-date \= September 13, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200913193828/https://www.xbox.com/en\-US/consoles/xbox\-series\-x\#specs \| url\-status \= live }} | | | Series S{{cite web \| url \= https://www.xbox.com/en\-US/consoles/xbox\-series\-s\#specs \| title \= Xbox Series S – Specification \| access\-date \= September 14, 2020 \| publisher \= \[\[Microsoft]] \| archive\-date \= September 13, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200913171846/https://www.xbox.com/en\-US/consoles/xbox\-series\-s\#specs \| url\-status \= live }} | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2TB | 1TB | | | 512GB |
| Processors | CPU | Custom AMD [Zen 2](/wiki/Zen_2 "Zen 2")8 Cores @ 3\.8 GHz (3\.66 GHz with SMT) | | | Custom AMD Zen 28 Cores @ 3\.6 GHz (3\.4 GHz with SMT) | |
| GPU | Custom [RDNA 2](/wiki/RDNA_2 "RDNA 2")52 CUs @ 1\.825 GHz12\.14 TFLOPS | | | Custom RDNA 220 CUs @ 1\.565 GHz4\.006 TFLOPS | |
| Memory | | 16 GB GDDR610 GB with 320\-bit bus (560 GB/s) and 6 GB with 192\-bit bus (336 GB/s) | | | 10 GB GDDR68 GB with 128\-bit bus (224 GB/s) and 2 GB with 32\-bit bus (56 GB/s) | |
| Storage | Internal | [PCIe](/wiki/PCI_Express "PCI Express") Gen 4 custom [NVMe](/wiki/NVM_Express "NVM Express") [SSD](/wiki/Solid-state_drive "Solid-state drive")2\.4 GB/s raw or uncompressed, 4\.8 GB/s compressed | | | | |
| Expandable | 0\.5–2 TB expansion card (rear) | | | | |
| External | USB 3\.1 external HDD support | | | | |
| [Ultra HD Blu\-ray](/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray "Ultra HD Blu-ray") drive | | colspan\="2" {{yes}} | colspan\="3" {{no}} |
| Performance target | | [4K resolution](/wiki/4K_resolution "4K resolution") at 60 FPS, up to 120 FPS | | | [1440p](/wiki/1440p "1440p") at 60 FPS, up to 120 FPS | |
| Dimensions | Size | {{convert\|301\|x\|151\|x\|151\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2\|disp\=br()}} | | | {{convert\|275\|x\|151\|x\|65\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2\|disp\=br()}} | |
| Weight | {{convert\|4\.45\|kg\|lb}} | | | {{convert\|1\.93\|kg\|lb}} | |
| Colors | | {{Color box\|\#111\|border\=silver}} | {{Color box\|\#000\|border\=silver}} | {{Color box\|\#fff\|border\=silver}} | {{Color box\|\#fff\|border\=silver}} | |
| Model | | | 1882 | | 1883 | 1881 |
| Launch price | | US$599 | US$499€499£449A$749C$599 | US$449 | US$349€349£299A$549C$449 | US$299€299£249A$499C$379 |
### Xbox Wireless Controller
{{See also\|Xbox Wireless Controller\#Third revision (2020\)}}
[thumb\|right\|alt\=Front view of the Xbox Series X and Series S wireless controller, showing the additional share button and revised cosmetics.\|An Xbox Series X/S controller in "Shock Blue"](/wiki/File:Xbox_Wireless_Controller%2C_Model_1914_%27Shock_Blue%27.jpg "Xbox Wireless Controller, Model 1914 'Shock Blue'.jpg")
The Series X and Series S ship with an updated version of the [Xbox Wireless Controller](/wiki/Xbox_Wireless_Controller "Xbox Wireless Controller") intended to fit a larger range of hand sizes. They include same key buttons as the past controllers: two analog joysticks that can be depressed, a [circle pad](/wiki/D-pad "D-pad"), four action buttons, two system buttons ("View" and "Menu"), the main Xbox home button, two grip triggers (left and right), and two shoulder buttons (left and right). The new controller adds a "Share" button alongside the "View" and "Menu" buttons; pressing "Share" once takes a screenshot, while holding the button begins a Game DVR recording.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\-series\-x\-and\-s\-make\-it\-much\-easier\-to\-take\-screenshots\-and\-videos/1100\-6482417/ \| title \= Xbox Series X And S Make It Much Easier To Take Screenshots And Videos \| first \= Darrys \| last \= Bonthuys \| date \= September 21, 2020 \| access\-date \= September 21, 2020 \| work \= \[\[GameSpot]] \| archive\-date \= September 22, 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200922091210/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\-series\-x\-and\-s\-make\-it\-much\-easier\-to\-take\-screenshots\-and\-videos/1100\-6482417/ \| url\-status \= live }}
Microsoft found that by aiming the size to fit an eight\-year\-old's hands, they were able to make the design fit a larger section of the population; it thus features more sculpted grips, and has reduced and rounded trigger buttons.{{cite web \|url\=https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2020/03/16/xbox\-series\-x\-controller/ \|title\=Xbox Series X: Making Gaming's Best Controller Even Better \|first\=Will \|last\=Tuttle \|date\=March 16, 2020 \|access\-date\=March 16, 2020 \|work\=Xbox Wire \|publisher\=\[\[Microsoft]] \|archive\-date\=July 29, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729010607/https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2020/03/16/xbox\-series\-x\-controller/ \|url\-status\=live }} The D\-pad is a new concave design that senior console designer Ryan Whitaker said was a means to merge the normal D\-pad style on the standard Xbox One controller and the version on the Elite variant to accommodate a range of playstyles. Small tactile dot patterns have been added to the buttons to help players orient fingers on the controls. The controller continues to use two [AA batteries](/wiki/AA_battery "AA battery"), though a rechargeable battery pack is available as an accessory. Microsoft found from focus group studies that players were split nearly 50/50 on the use of batteries versus recharging and thus gave the controller the option to use either.
The controller uses the same wireless protocol introduced by the Xbox One and is backward compatible with existing Xbox One consoles. Existing Xbox One controllers are also compatible with Xbox Series X.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/inside\-the\-new\-xbox\-series\-x\-controller\-share\-butt/1100\-6472197/ \|title\=Inside The New Xbox Series X Controller: Share Button \& More Changes \|website\=GameSpot \|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=December 13, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213070301/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/inside\-the\-new\-xbox\-series\-x\-controller\-share\-butt/1100\-6472197/\|archive\-date\=December 13, 2019\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2019/12/12/21019908/xbox\-series\-x\-controller\-design\-features\-announced \|title\=The Xbox Series X controller has a tweaked design and a Share button \|last\=Byford \|first\=Sam \|date\=December 12, 2019 \|website\=The Verge \|language\=en\|access\-date\=December 13, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213054036/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2019/12/12/21019908/xbox\-series\-x\-controller\-design\-features\-announced\|archive\-date\=December 13, 2019\|url\-status\=live}} The new controller also supports the [Bluetooth Low Energy](/wiki/Bluetooth_Low_Energy "Bluetooth Low Energy") standard allowing it to pair with mobile devices and other hardware supporting that standard, and has internal storage to remember those connections. It uses a [USB\-C](/wiki/USB-C "USB-C") connector for wired use and charging (with the optional battery kit) rather than [USB Micro\-B](/wiki/USB_Micro-B "USB Micro-B").
### Other accessories
Many of the first\-party accessories designed to work with the preceding Xbox One remain compatible with the Xbox Series X, including the Xbox Stereo Headset and Xbox Wireless Headset.{{cite web \|url\=https://support.xbox.com/en\-US/help/hardware\-network/controller/which\-xbox\-one\-accessories\-work\-on\-series\-x\-s\-controller \|title\=Which Xbox One accessories are compatible with Xbox Series X{{!}}S \|website\=Xbox Support \|access\-date\=8 January 2024}}
Spencer said that the Xbox Series X will likely not have immediate [virtual reality](/wiki/Virtual_reality "Virtual reality") (VR) support at launch, and that they expect that any VR support will be based on the [Windows Mixed Reality](/wiki/Windows_Mixed_Reality "Windows Mixed Reality") components contained within the console's [Windows 10](/wiki/Windows_10 "Windows 10") components, but was otherwise not a focus of the console's development prior to release.{{cite web\|last\=Watts\|first\=Steve\|date\=February 10, 2020\|title\=Xbox Boss Phil Spencer Clarifies Controversial VR Comments\|url\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\-boss\-phil\-spencer\-clarifies\-controversial\-vr\-/1100\-6473539/\|access\-date\=February 10, 2020\|work\=\[\[GameSpot]]\|archive\-date\=December 20, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220175954/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\-boss\-phil\-spencer\-sets\-the\-record\-straight\-on/1100\-6473539/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Mid\-generation refreshes
An updated Xbox Series S with a matte black finish and 1 TB of storage launched on September 1, 2023; the internal design remains otherwise unchanged.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.cnet.com/tech/gaming/xbox\-series\-s\-1tb\-review\-new\-outside\-almost\-the\-same\-insides/ \|title\=Xbox Series S 1 TB Review: New Outside, Almost the Same Insides \|first\=Oscar \|last\=Gonzalez \|date\=September 28, 2023 \|work\=CNET \|access\-date\=8 January 2024}}
Unrelated court documents from the 2022 court case *[FTC v. Microsoft](/wiki/FTC_v._Microsoft "FTC v. Microsoft")* included plans for refreshed mid\-generation consoles planned to be released in 2024\. The updated Xbox Series X, codenamed "Brooklin", would feature a cylindrical design that drops the optical drive, draws less power, increases internal storage to 2 TB, and improves wireless connectivity with [Wi\-Fi 6E](/wiki/Wi-Fi_6E "Wi-Fi 6E"). The updated Xbox Series S, codenamed "Ellewood", would retain the same design as the current Series S, reducing power consumption and adding Wi\-Fi 6E and 1 TB of internal storage. Both console refreshes are planned to ship with a new Xbox controller, codenamed "Sebile".{{cite news \| url\=https://www.eurogamer.net/new\-xbox\-series\-xs\-consoles\-detailed\-in\-enormous\-microsoft\-leak \| title\=New Xbox Series X/S consoles detailed in enormous Microsoft leak \|first\=Tom \|last\=Phillips \| newspaper\=Eurogamer.net \| date\=September 19, 2023 }} The new controller will be named the Xbox Universal Controller and will include a rechargeable, swappable battery.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.eurogamer.net/new\-xbox\-controller\-with\-swappable\-battery\-spotted\-in\-huge\-microsoft\-leak \|title\=New Xbox controller with swappable battery spotted in huge Microsoft leak \|first\=Liv \|last\=Ngan \|date\=19 September 2023 \|work\=Eurogamer.net \|access\-date\=8 January 2024}}
Microsoft released refreshed versions of both consoles on October 15, 2024, which included a 1TB Xbox Series S in a white finish, an Xbox Series X in white without the optical drive, and the 2TB Xbox Series X Galaxy Black Special Edition.{{Cite web \|last\=Nelson \|first\=Mike \|date\=2024\-06\-09 \|title\=More Choices Than Ever Before with Three New Xbox Series X{{!}}S Consoles Coming Holiday 2024 \|url\=https://news.xbox.com/en\-us/2024/06/09/xbox\-series\-x\-s\-new\-console\-options/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-09 \|website\=Xbox Wire \|language\=en\-US}} The new Series X models use a redesigned motherboard with a smaller system\-on\-chip, and replace its [vapor chamber](/wiki/Vapor_chamber "Vapor chamber") cooling mechanism with copper heat pipes. The new models were reported to have slightly reduced power consumption.{{Cite web \|last\=Warren \|first\=Tom \|date\=2024\-10\-15 \|title\=Microsoft’s new Xbox Series X models have a smaller chip and different cooling \|url\=https://www.theverge.com/2024/10/15/24270805/microsoft\-xbox\-series\-x\-6nm\-chip\-cooling\-changes\-motherboard\-design\-teardown \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-15 \|website\=The Verge \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Hardware\n--------",
"When Microsoft's Xbox development team started work on the successor to the Xbox One consoles around 2016, they had already envisioned the need to have two console versions similar to their Xbox One X and Xbox One S models to meet the needs of different markets. By developing both units in concert, they would be able to make sure games developed would be able to be played on both systems without exception. As has been tradition with past Xbox projects, the consoles were given code names based on cities.{{cite video\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=fYtJWIxt3\\-M\\|title\\=Inside the Xbox Series S\\|date\\=September 9, 2020\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Microsoft]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 10, 2020\\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]\\|archive\\-date\\=September 9, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909225506/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=fYtJWIxt3\\-M\\&app\\=desktop\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Xbox Series S was named Project Lockhart, based on the city of [Lockhart, Texas](/wiki/Lockhart%2C_Texas \"Lockhart, Texas\"), which Aaron Greenberg said was known as \"the little city with the big heart\".{{cite web\\|last\\=Makuch\\|first\\=Eddie\\|date\\=September 10, 2020\\|title\\=Xbox Series S: Here's Where The \"Lockhart\" Codename Came From\\|url\\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\\-series\\-s\\-heres\\-where\\-the\\-lockhart\\-codename\\-ca/1100\\-6482056/\\|access\\-date\\=September 10, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[GameSpot]]\\|archive\\-date\\=September 11, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911163748/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\\-series\\-s\\-heres\\-where\\-the\\-lockhart\\-codename\\-ca/1100\\-6482056/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"For the high\\-end console, the Xbox Series X, Microsoft's primary goals were to: at least double the graphical performance of the [Xbox One X](/wiki/Xbox_One_X \"Xbox One X\") as measured by its [floating point operations per second](/wiki/FLOPS \"FLOPS\") (FLOPS), and to increase CPU performance four\\-fold compared to Xbox One X while maintaining the same acoustic performance from the Xbox One consoles.{{cite web\\|last\\=Leadbetter\\|first\\=Richard\\|date\\=March 28, 2020\\|title\\=Building Xbox Series X: why Microsoft redefined the console form factor\\|url\\=https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry\\-2020\\-constructing\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-a\\-revolution\\-in\\-console\\-design\\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[Eurogamer]]\\|archive\\-date\\=March 28, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328232225/https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry\\-2020\\-constructing\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-a\\-revolution\\-in\\-console\\-design\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As the engineers collected power requirements to meet these specifications, they saw these parts would draw a large amount of internal power (approximately 315 [W](/wiki/Watt \"Watt\")) and would generate a significant amount of heat.",
"This led to the decision to split the components onto two separate [circuit boards](/wiki/Circuit_board \"Circuit board\"); one would house the CPU/GPU, memory, and power regulators, and a second board would act as a [Southbridge](/wiki/Southbridge_%28computing%29 \"Southbridge (computing)\") board for slower [input/output](/wiki/Input/output \"Input/output\") (I/O) functions. The boards mounted on opposite sides of an aluminum chassis helped to create air channels for cooling. The remaining components—the [heat sink](/wiki/Heat_sink \"Heat sink\"), the [electric shielding](/wiki/Electromagnetic_shielding \"Electromagnetic shielding\"), the [power supply](/wiki/Power_supply \"Power supply\"), the [optical drive](/wiki/Optical_drive \"Optical drive\"), and the [cooling fan](/wiki/Cooling_fan \"Cooling fan\")—were then arranged in a *[Tetris](/wiki/Tetris \"Tetris\")*\\-like fashion, according to principal designer Chris Kujawski, to achieve a compact form factor, resulting in the tower\\-like structure. To meet the acoustics factor, the system includes numerous sensors for controlling the speed of the fan, and the large open top was necessary to ensure good airflow through the system. While certain elements like the optical drive, air flow requirements, and heat sink size fixed certain dimensions in the overall form factor, they were satisfied they were able to end up with a square footprint for the unit.",
"### Xbox Series X",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The Xbox Series X logo](/wiki/File:Xbox_Series_X_logo.svg \"Xbox Series X logo.svg\")",
"Xbox head Phil Spencer said that Microsoft was prioritizing high frame rates and faster load times over higher resolutions; the Series X achieves this via the better\\-matched capabilities of the CPU and [graphics processing unit](/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit \"Graphics processing unit\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Olsen\\|first\\=Matthew\\|date\\=January 29, 2020\\|title\\=Phil Spencer Really, Really Wants to Push Frame Rates With the Xbox Series X\\|url\\=https://www.usgamer.net/articles/phil\\-spencer\\-still\\-prioritizing\\-frame\\-rate\\-and\\-feel\\-for\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[USGamer]]\\|archive\\-date\\=January 29, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129195259/https://www.usgamer.net/articles/phil\\-spencer\\-still\\-prioritizing\\-frame\\-rate\\-and\\-feel\\-for\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Compared to the Xbox One X, the CPU is about four times as powerful and the GPU is twice as powerful.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Henderson \\|first\\=Rik \\|date\\=2020\\-04\\-30 \\|title\\=Xbox Series X vs Xbox One X: What's the difference? \\|url\\=https://www.pocket\\-lint.com/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-vs\\-xbox\\-one\\-x\\-console\\-specs\\-compared\\-whats\\-the\\-difference/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-02 \\|website\\=Pocket\\-lint \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=May 2, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502213514/https://www.pocket\\-lint.com/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-vs\\-xbox\\-one\\-x\\-console\\-specs\\-compared\\-whats\\-the\\-difference/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The Xbox Series X is powered by a custom 7 nm (6 nm in refresh) [AMD](/wiki/Advanced_Micro_Devices \"Advanced Micro Devices\") [Zen 2](/wiki/Zen_2 \"Zen 2\") CPU with eight cores running at a nominal 3\\.8 GHz or, when [simultaneous multithreading](/wiki/Simultaneous_multithreading \"Simultaneous multithreading\") (SMT) is used, at 3\\.66 GHz. One CPU core is dedicated to the underlying operating system. The integrated GPU is also a custom unit based on AMD's [RDNA 2](/wiki/RDNA_2 \"RDNA 2\") graphics architecture. It has a total of 56 compute units (CUs) with 3,584 cores, with 52 CUs and 3,328 cores enabled, and will run at a fixed 1\\.825 GHz. This unit is capable of 12\\.14 [teraflops](/wiki/FLOPS \"FLOPS\") of computational power. The unit ships with 16 GB of [GDDR6 SDRAM](/wiki/GDDR6_SDRAM \"GDDR6 SDRAM\"), with 10 GB running at 560 GB/s primarily to be used with the graphics system and the other 6 GB at 336 GB/s to be used for the other computing functions. After accounting for the system software, about 13\\.5 GB of memory will be available for games and other applications, with the system software only drawing from the slower pool. The Xbox Series X is intended to render games at [4K resolution](/wiki/4K_resolution \"4K resolution\") at 60 frames per second, and can support up to 120 frames per second and can render up to [8K resolution](/wiki/8K_resolution \"8K resolution\").",
"The Xbox Series X's console form is designed to be unobtrusive and minimalistic. It has a {{convert\\|15\\.1\\|x\\|15\\.1\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} footprint, is {{convert\\|30\\.1\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} high, and weighs {{convert\\|4\\.45\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}. Designed to sit vertically, it can also be used on its side. Its front has the main power button and an [Ultra HD Blu\\-ray](/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray \"Ultra HD Blu-ray\") drive. The top of the unit is a single powerful fan. Spencer said that the console is as quiet as the Xbox One X.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/goodbye\\-project\\-scarlett\\-hello\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-exclu/1100\\-6472190/ \\|title\\=Goodbye, Project Scarlett, Hello Xbox Series X – Exclusive First Look And Interview \\|first\\=Peter \\|last\\=Brown \\|date\\=December 12, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2019 \\|work\\=\\[\\[GameSpot]] \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20191213021815/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/goodbye\\-project\\-scarlett\\-hello\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-exclu/1100\\-6472190/ \\| archive\\-date \\= December 13, 2019 \\| url\\-status \\= live}} The Series X includes an HDMI 2\\.1 output, the storage expansion slot, three [USB 3\\.2](/wiki/USB_3.2 \"USB 3.2\") ports, and an [Ethernet port](/wiki/Ethernet_port \"Ethernet port\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Warren \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=March 16, 2020 \\|title\\=Here's how Xbox Series X removable storage will work \\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/16/21181854/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-expansion\\-cards\\-removable\\-storage\\-support\\-features \\|access\\-date\\=July 17, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Verge]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=March 16, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316210634/https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/16/21181854/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-expansion\\-cards\\-removable\\-storage\\-support\\-features \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The console does not include an infrared blaster or HDMI pass\\-through like the Xbox One line, supporting [HDMI\\-CEC](/wiki/HDMI-CEC \"HDMI-CEC\") instead. An earlier leak had suggested a [TOSLINK](/wiki/TOSLINK \"TOSLINK\") port for digital audio, but this was eliminated in the final design.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2020/03/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-loses\\-xbox\\-ones\\-s\\-pdif\\-optical\\-audio\\-output/ \\|title\\=Another port bites the dust: Xbox Series X drops S/PDIF audio \\|first\\=Kyle \\|last\\=Orland \\|date\\=March 19, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=March 19, 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Ars Technica]] \\|archive\\-date\\=March 19, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319185446/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2020/03/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-loses\\-xbox\\-ones\\-s\\-pdif\\-optical\\-audio\\-output/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The console has an IR receiver in its controller pairing button next to the front USB port.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-22\\|title\\=Xbox One Media Remotes still work with the Xbox Series X and S\\|url\\=https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-and\\-xbox\\-series\\-s\\-still\\-have\\-ir\\-receiver\\-will\\-work\\-xbox\\-one\\-media\\-remotes\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-03\\|website\\=Windows Central\\|archive\\-date\\=November 1, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101013629/https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-and\\-xbox\\-series\\-s\\-still\\-have\\-ir\\-receiver\\-will\\-work\\-xbox\\-one\\-media\\-remotes\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Xbox Series S",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The Xbox Series S logo](/wiki/File:Xbox_Series_S.png \"Xbox Series S.png\")",
"The Xbox Series S is comparable in its hardware to the Xbox Series X, similar to how the Xbox One S relates to the Xbox One X, but has less processing power. While it runs the same CPU with slightly slower clock frequencies, it uses a slower GPU, a custom RDNA2 with 20 CUs at 1\\.55 GHz for 4\\.006 TFLOPS, compared to 12\\.14 TFLOPS of the Series X. It ships with 10 GB of RAM, with 8 GB running at 224 GB/s primarily to be used with the graphics system and the other 2 GB at 56 GB/s to be used for the other computing functions, and a 512 GB SSD storage unit with a raw input/output throughput of 2\\.4 GB/s.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2020/09/09/introducing\\-xbox\\-series\\-s/\\|title\\=Introducing Xbox Series S, Delivering Next\\-Gen Performance in Our Smallest Xbox Ever, Available November 10 at $299\\|work\\=Xbox News\\|date\\=September 9, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=September 9, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=September 9, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909203059/https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2020/09/09/introducing\\-xbox\\-series\\-s/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} It does not include an optical drive, so all games and software must be obtained [digitally](/wiki/Digital_distribution \"Digital distribution\") via [Microsoft Store](/wiki/Microsoft_Store \"Microsoft Store\"). It is intended to render games nominally at [1440p](/wiki/1440p \"1440p\"), with support for a 4K [upscaler](/wiki/Video_scaler \"Video scaler\"), at 60 frames per second, although it can go as high at 120 frames per second at this resolution. It starts at $299\\.99\\. Selected games can support native 4K resolution output on the Series S, such as *[Ori and the Will of the Wisps](/wiki/Ori_and_the_Will_of_the_Wisps \"Ori and the Will of the Wisps\")*.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.windowscentral.com/does\\-xbox\\-series\\-s\\-support\\-4k\\-gaming \\| title \\= Does Xbox Series S support 4K gaming? \\| first \\= Zachary \\| last \\= Boddy \\| date \\= November 10, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= December 7, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[Windows Central]] \\| archive\\-date \\= November 10, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201110220541/https://www.windowscentral.com/does\\-xbox\\-series\\-s\\-support\\-4k\\-gaming \\| url\\-status \\= live }} Otherwise, the console has the same functions as the Xbox Series X, including ports, expansions, and game support.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-vs\\-xbox\\-series\\-s \\| title \\= Xbox Series X vs. Xbox Series S: Which next\\-gen console is for you? \\| first \\= Matt \\| last \\= Brown \\| date \\= September 8, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= September 8, 2020 \\| work \\= Windows Central \\| archive\\-date \\= September 8, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200908233324/https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-vs\\-xbox\\-series\\-s \\| url\\-status \\= live }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/9/21428792/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-s\\-specs\\-cpu\\-teraflops\\-performance\\-gpu\\|title\\=Microsoft reveals Xbox Series S specs, promises four times the processing power of Xbox One\\|last\\=Warren\\|first\\=Tom\\|work\\=The Verge\\|date\\=September 9, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=September 9, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=September 9, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909192757/https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/9/21428792/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-s\\-specs\\-cpu\\-teraflops\\-performance\\-gpu\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Microsoft designed the Series S to easily fit inside of a small bag or backpack for portability and travel usage.{{cite web\\|last\\=Tuttle\\|first\\=Will\\|date\\=September 23, 2020\\|url\\=https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2020/09/23/designing\\-the\\-next\\-generation\\-of\\-consoles\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-and\\-xbox\\-series\\-s/\\|title\\=Xbox Series X and Xbox Series S: Designing the Next Generation of Consoles\\|website\\=Xbox.com\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=October 6, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006200446/https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2020/09/23/designing\\-the\\-next\\-generation\\-of\\-consoles\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-and\\-xbox\\-series\\-s/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Series S unit is about 60% smaller by volume than the Series X, measuring {{convert\\|275\\|x\\|151\\|x\\|63\\.5\\|mm\\|in}} in its vertical orientation. In this orientation, its large side surface features the major exhaust port for active air cooling, similar to the top surface of the Series X; additional vents are then located on the top of the Series S. Like the Series X, the front of the Series S features one USB port and a controller pairing button with an integrated IR receiver. The rear of the console includes the power connector, one HDMI port, two additional USB ports, and an Ethernet port. Like the Series X, the Series S can also be placed horizontally with the exhaust port facing upward to maintain airflow. The Series S launched in a matte white case along with a matching controller, distinguishing it from the matte black that the Series X uses.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/10/21430298/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-s\\-hands\\-on\\-photos\\-price \\| title \\= Microsoft's new Xbox Series S is surprisingly small in size and price \\| first \\= Tom \\| last \\= Warren \\| date \\= September 10, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= September 10, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[The Verge]] \\| archive\\-date \\= September 10, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200910160351/https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/10/21430298/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-s\\-hands\\-on\\-photos\\-price \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"### Common features",
"#### Xbox Velocity Architecture",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The Xbox Velocity Architecture logo](/wiki/File:Xbox_Velocity_Architecture_logo.svg \"Xbox Velocity Architecture logo.svg\")\nBoth consoles use a new storage solution, the Xbox Velocity Architecture, that includes hardware and software components to improve transfer speeds within the console, reduce the size of digital downloads, and give developers more flexibility. Central to this is the internal storage, a custom [NVM Express](/wiki/NVM_Express \"NVM Express\") (NVMe) [SSD](/wiki/Solid-state_drive \"Solid-state drive\"). On the Series X, this is a 1 TB SSD (802 GB available){{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.gamesradar.com/uk/xbox\\-series\\-s\\-reportedly\\-has\\-364gb\\-storage\\-for\\-games\\-and\\-apps/ \\| title \\= Xbox Series S reportedly has 364 GB storage for games and apps \\| first \\= Heather \\| last \\= Wald \\| date \\= November 4, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= November 7, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[GamesRadar\\+]] \\| archive\\-date \\= November 28, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201128172235/https://www.gamesradar.com/uk/xbox\\-series\\-s\\-reportedly\\-has\\-364gb\\-storage\\-for\\-games\\-and\\-apps/ \\| url\\-status \\= live }} with a raw input/output throughput of 2\\.4 GB/s. An on\\-board compression/decompression block includes both the industry standard [zlib](/wiki/Zlib \"Zlib\") decompression algorithm and a proprietary BCPack algorithm geared for [game textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\"), and it gives a combined throughput as high as 4\\.8 GB/s. Within the software, a new DirectStorage [API](/wiki/API \"API\") within [DirectX](/wiki/DirectX \"DirectX\") allows developers to fine\\-tune priority to input/output aspects with other processing threads. The software provides sampler feedback streaming that aids in loading multiple textures in segments to deal with [level of detail](/wiki/Level_of_detail_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Level of detail (computer graphics)\") rendering, rather than having to read these textures as a whole before using them.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ign.com/articles/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-velocity\\-architecture\\-explained\\-loading\\-times\\-file\\-sizes \\|title\\=Xbox Series X Velocity Architecture Should Mean Smaller Game File Sizes, Less Loading, and More \\|first\\=Joe \\|last\\=Skrebels \\|date\\=July 14, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=July 14, 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[IGN]] \\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715102807/https://www.ign.com/articles/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-velocity\\-architecture\\-explained\\-loading\\-times\\-file\\-sizes \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Series S includes a 512 GB SSD (364 GB available) with similar custom hardware and software specifications. All SSD storage on the architecture use a [PCI Express 4\\.0](/wiki/PCI_Express_4.0 \"PCI Express 4.0\") x2 link.",
"Developers at [The Coalition](/wiki/The_Coalition_%28company%29 \"The Coalition (company)\") found that, without any changes to their code, *[Gears 5](/wiki/Gears_5 \"Gears 5\")* loaded four times faster on Xbox Series X than Xbox One X due to the higher throughput on memory and storage and that they would be able to increase this further once they incorporated the new DirectStorage API routines.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-what\\-do\\-game\\-devs\\-think \\|title\\=Xbox Series X: What do game developers say about next\\-gen? We asked several for their thoughts. \\|first\\=Jez \\|last\\=Corden \\|date\\=April 22, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2020 \\|work\\=Windows Central \\|archive\\-date\\=May 18, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518051030/https://www.windowscentral.com/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-what\\-do\\-game\\-devs\\-think \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The consoles support external storage through a proprietary SSD [expansion card](/wiki/Memory_card \"Memory card\") inserted into the back of the console, which was manufactured exclusively by [Seagate Technology](/wiki/Seagate_Technology \"Seagate Technology\") on launch and limited to a 1 TB size when first released.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.pcmag.com/news/seagate\\-launches\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-storage\\-expansion\\-card\\-website \\| title \\= Seagate Teases Super\\-Fast Xbox Series X Storage Expansion Card \\| first \\= Matthew \\| last \\= Humphries \\| date \\= July 21, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= July 13, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[PC Magazine]] \\| archive\\-date \\= July 21, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200721231319/https://www.pcmag.com/news/seagate\\-launches\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-storage\\-expansion\\-card\\-website \\| url\\-status \\= live }} Later versions included 512 GB and 2 TB versions and were released at the end of 2021,{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2021\\-10\\-21\\-microsoft\\-announces\\-new\\-2tb\\-and\\-512gb\\-seagate\\-storage\\-expansion\\-cards\\-for\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-and\\-s \\| title \\= Microsoft announces new 2 TB and 512 GB Seagate storage expansion cards for Xbox Series X and S \\| first \\= Wesley \\| last \\= Yin\\-Poole \\| date \\= October 21, 2021 \\| access\\-date \\= October 21, 2021 \\| work \\= \\[\\[Eurogamer]] \\| archive\\-date \\= October 21, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20211021141733/https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2021\\-10\\-21\\-microsoft\\-announces\\-new\\-2tb\\-and\\-512gb\\-seagate\\-storage\\-expansion\\-cards\\-for\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-and\\-s \\| url\\-status \\= live }} while expansion cards manufactured by [Western Digital](/wiki/Western_Digital \"Western Digital\") were released in June 2023\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Warren \\|first1\\=Tom \\|title\\=Western Digital announces Xbox expandable storage cards, starting at $79\\.99 \\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/2023/6/6/23750797/western\\-digital\\-xbox\\-storage\\-expansion\\-card\\-price\\-release\\-date \\|website\\=The Verge \\|date\\=6 June 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=July 1, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 16, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616003249/https://www.theverge.com/2023/6/6/23750797/western\\-digital\\-xbox\\-storage\\-expansion\\-card\\-price\\-release\\-date \\|url\\-status\\=live }} As with the Xbox One, the consoles will also support external USB storage, but only [backward compatible games](/wiki/%23Backward_compatibility \"#Backward compatibility\") (which can also be transferred directly from an Xbox One console) will be able to run directly from external USB storage. Xbox Series X\\- and S\\-native games must be stored on the internal SSD or an expansion card in order to be played, but they can be moved to a USB storage device to make room for other games.",
"The DirectStorage API was released in March 2022 for Windows\\-based computers for [graphics cards](/wiki/Graphics_card \"Graphics card\") that support DirectX 12 and NVMe SSDs, though games must be programmed to take advantage of the DirectStorage API.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.pcgamesn.com/directstorage\\-pc\\-support \\| title \\= Xbox Series X DirectStorage feature is coming to PC, will support all DX12 GPUs \\| first \\= Theo \\| last \\= Binns \\| date \\= April 21, 2021 \\| access\\-date \\= April 21, 2021 \\| work \\= \\[\\[PCGamesN]] \\| archive\\-date \\= April 21, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210421164341/https://www.pcgamesn.com/directstorage\\-pc\\-support \\| url\\-status \\= live }}{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/14/22978223/microsoft\\-directstorage\\-api\\-xbox\\-velocity\\-windows\\-pc\\-nvme\\-load\\-times \\| title \\= Microsoft releases DirectStorage: 'a new era of fast load times and detailed worlds in PC games' \\| first \\= Sean \\| last \\= Hollister \\| date \\= March 14, 2022 \\| accessdate \\= March 14, 2022 \\| work \\= \\[\\[The Verge]] \\| archive\\-date \\= March 14, 2022 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220314235134/https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/14/22978223/microsoft\\-directstorage\\-api\\-xbox\\-velocity\\-windows\\-pc\\-nvme\\-load\\-times \\| url\\-status \\= live }} DirectStorage was planned to be a built\\-in feature along with Auto HDR for [Windows 11](/wiki/Windows_11 \"Windows 11\") at release in late 2021,{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.polygon.com/22548822/windows\\-11\\-xbox\\-game\\-pass\\-pc\\-auto\\-hdr\\-directstorage \\| title \\= Xbox Game Pass is built into Windows 11 \\| first \\= Samit \\| last \\= Sarkar \\| date \\= June 24, 2021 \\| access\\-date \\= June 24, 2021 \\| work \\= \\[\\[Polygon (website)\\|Polygon]] \\| archive\\-date \\= June 24, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210624163435/https://www.polygon.com/22548822/windows\\-11\\-xbox\\-game\\-pass\\-pc\\-auto\\-hdr\\-directstorage \\| url\\-status \\= live }} as well as offered within Windows 10\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.pcgamesn.com/windows\\-10\\-direct\\-storage\\-api\\-support \\| title \\= Windows 10 gaming PCs will get the NVMe SSD\\-enhancing DirectStorage API after all \\| first \\= Theo \\| last \\= Binns \\| date \\= July 19, 2021 \\| access\\-date \\= July 19, 2021 \\| work \\= \\[\\[PCGamesN]] \\| archive\\-date \\= July 19, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210719162952/https://www.pcgamesn.com/windows\\-10\\-direct\\-storage\\-api\\-support \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"#### Video and audio rendering technologies",
"Both the Series X and Series S support real\\-time [ray\\-tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") and support the new features of the [HDMI 2\\.1](/wiki/HDMI_2.1 \"HDMI 2.1\") standard including [variable refresh rate](/wiki/Variable_refresh_rate \"Variable refresh rate\") (VRR) and Auto Low Latency Mode (ALLM) that are currently being incorporated into newer televisions.{{cite web\\|last\\=Warren\\|first\\=Tom\\|date\\=February 24, 2020\\|title\\=Microsoft reveals more Xbox Series X specs, confirms 12 teraflops GPU\\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/24/21150578/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-specs\\-performance\\-12\\-teraflops\\-gpu\\-details\\-features\\|access\\-date\\=February 24, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Verge]]\\|archive\\-date\\=February 24, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224151432/https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/24/21150578/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-specs\\-performance\\-12\\-teraflops\\-gpu\\-details\\-features\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The console will have dedicated audio hardware acceleration.{{cite web\\|last\\=Nunneley\\|first\\=Stephany\\|date\\=February 19, 2020\\|title\\=Xbox Series X to have dedicated audio hardware acceleration\\|url\\=https://www.vg247\\.com/2020/02/19/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-dedicated\\-audio\\-hardware\\-acceleration/\\|access\\-date\\=February 19, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[VG247]]\\|archive\\-date\\=February 20, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220152648/https://www.vg247\\.com/2020/02/19/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-dedicated\\-audio\\-hardware\\-acceleration/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} A feature called \"audio ray tracing\" will use the graphics ray tracing processors to process spatial audio in the same manner to improve the audio immersion for the player.{{cite web\\|last\\=Warren\\|first\\=Tom\\|date\\=February 26, 2020\\|title\\=Microsoft's Xbox Series X will be able to resume games even after a reboot\\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/26/21154897/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-resume\\-games\\-reboot\\-features\\-ray\\-tracing\\-audio\\|access\\-date\\=February 26, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Verge]]\\|archive\\-date\\=February 26, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226234325/https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/26/21154897/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-resume\\-games\\-reboot\\-features\\-ray\\-tracing\\-audio\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Another goal for Microsoft was to reduce the effects of input latency to improve responsiveness, adding support for HDMI 2\\.1 Auto Low Latency Mode and Variable Refresh Rate features, and \"dynamic latency input\" technology—a new input pathway that allows developers to incorporate potential controller lag into their games.",
"AMD's [FidelityFX Super Resolution](/wiki/FidelityFX_Super_Resolution \"FidelityFX Super Resolution\"), an image upscaling technology competitor to [Nvidia](/wiki/Nvidia \"Nvidia\")'s [deep learning super sampling](/wiki/Deep_learning_super_sampling \"Deep learning super sampling\") (DLSS) to enable higher resolutions and framerates, was added to the Xbox Series X/S in June 2021\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.ign.com/articles/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-s\\-amd\\-fidelity\\-fx\\-super\\-resolution\\-support\\-confirmed \\| title \\= Xbox Series X: New AMD Tech Could Improve Framerate and Resolution Even More \\| first \\= Taylor \\| last \\= Lyles \\| date \\= June 5, 2021 \\| access\\-date \\= June 5, 2021 \\| work \\= \\[\\[IGN]] \\| archive\\-date \\= June 4, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210604234521/https://www.ign.com/articles/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-s\\-amd\\-fidelity\\-fx\\-super\\-resolution\\-support\\-confirmed \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"Both consoles support [Dolby Vision](/wiki/Dolby_Vision \"Dolby Vision\") and [Dolby Atmos](/wiki/Dolby_Atmos \"Dolby Atmos\") technologies.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.vg247\\.com/2020/09/11/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-s\\-dolby\\-vision\\-atmos\\-support/ \\| title \\= Xbox Series X/S to support Dolby Vision and Dolby Atmos \\| first \\= Sherif \\| last \\= Saed \\| date \\= September 11, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= September 11, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[VG247]] \\| archive\\-date \\= September 26, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200926153744/https://www.vg247\\.com/2020/09/11/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-s\\-dolby\\-vision\\-atmos\\-support/ \\| url\\-status \\= live }} Dolby Vision was initially limited to streaming apps at launch, but was released for games in September 2021\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.polygon.com/22697096/dolby\\-vision\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-s\\-hdr\\-games \\| title \\= Dolby Vision gaming goes live on Xbox Series X \\| first \\= Samit \\| last \\= Sarkar \\| date \\= September 28, 2021 \\| access\\-date \\= September 28, 2021 \\| work \\= \\[\\[Polygon (website)\\|Polygon]] \\| archive\\-date \\= September 28, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210928123509/https://www.polygon.com/22697096/dolby\\-vision\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-s\\-hdr\\-games \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"### Comparison",
"The following table is a comparison of the major components of the fourth generation of Xbox consoles.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2020/09/09/introducing\\-xbox\\-series\\-s/ \\| title \\= Introducing Xbox Series S, Delivering Next\\-Gen Performance in Our Smallest Xbox Ever, Available November 10 at $299 \\| first \\= Liz \\| last \\= Harmen \\| date \\= September 9, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= September 9, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[Microsoft]] \\| archive\\-date \\= September 9, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200909203059/https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2020/09/09/introducing\\-xbox\\-series\\-s/ \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"",
"| Component | | Series X{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.xbox.com/en\\-US/consoles/xbox\\-series\\-x\\#specs \\| title \\= Xbox Series X – Specification \\| access\\-date \\= September 14, 2020 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Microsoft]] \\| archive\\-date \\= September 13, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200913193828/https://www.xbox.com/en\\-US/consoles/xbox\\-series\\-x\\#specs \\| url\\-status \\= live }} | | | Series S{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.xbox.com/en\\-US/consoles/xbox\\-series\\-s\\#specs \\| title \\= Xbox Series S – Specification \\| access\\-date \\= September 14, 2020 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Microsoft]] \\| archive\\-date \\= September 13, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200913171846/https://www.xbox.com/en\\-US/consoles/xbox\\-series\\-s\\#specs \\| url\\-status \\= live }} | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2TB | 1TB | | | 512GB |\n| Processors | CPU | Custom AMD [Zen 2](/wiki/Zen_2 \"Zen 2\")8 Cores @ 3\\.8 GHz (3\\.66 GHz with SMT) | | | Custom AMD Zen 28 Cores @ 3\\.6 GHz (3\\.4 GHz with SMT) | |\n| GPU | Custom [RDNA 2](/wiki/RDNA_2 \"RDNA 2\")52 CUs @ 1\\.825 GHz12\\.14 TFLOPS | | | Custom RDNA 220 CUs @ 1\\.565 GHz4\\.006 TFLOPS | |\n| Memory | | 16 GB GDDR610 GB with 320\\-bit bus (560 GB/s) and 6 GB with 192\\-bit bus (336 GB/s) | | | 10 GB GDDR68 GB with 128\\-bit bus (224 GB/s) and 2 GB with 32\\-bit bus (56 GB/s) | |\n| Storage | Internal | [PCIe](/wiki/PCI_Express \"PCI Express\") Gen 4 custom [NVMe](/wiki/NVM_Express \"NVM Express\") [SSD](/wiki/Solid-state_drive \"Solid-state drive\")2\\.4 GB/s raw or uncompressed, 4\\.8 GB/s compressed | | | | |\n| Expandable | 0\\.5–2 TB expansion card (rear) | | | | |\n| External | USB 3\\.1 external HDD support | | | | |\n| [Ultra HD Blu\\-ray](/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray \"Ultra HD Blu-ray\") drive | | colspan\\=\"2\" {{yes}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{no}} |\n| Performance target | | [4K resolution](/wiki/4K_resolution \"4K resolution\") at 60 FPS, up to 120 FPS | | | [1440p](/wiki/1440p \"1440p\") at 60 FPS, up to 120 FPS | |\n| Dimensions | Size | {{convert\\|301\\|x\\|151\\|x\\|151\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2\\|disp\\=br()}} | | | {{convert\\|275\\|x\\|151\\|x\\|65\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2\\|disp\\=br()}} | |\n| Weight | {{convert\\|4\\.45\\|kg\\|lb}} | | | {{convert\\|1\\.93\\|kg\\|lb}} | |\n| Colors | | {{Color box\\|\\#111\\|border\\=silver}} | {{Color box\\|\\#000\\|border\\=silver}} | {{Color box\\|\\#fff\\|border\\=silver}} | {{Color box\\|\\#fff\\|border\\=silver}} | |\n| Model | | | 1882 | | 1883 | 1881 |\n| Launch price | | US$599 | US$499€499£449A$749C$599 | US$449 | US$349€349£299A$549C$449 | US$299€299£249A$499C$379 |",
"### Xbox Wireless Controller",
"{{See also\\|Xbox Wireless Controller\\#Third revision (2020\\)}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=Front view of the Xbox Series X and Series S wireless controller, showing the additional share button and revised cosmetics.\\|An Xbox Series X/S controller in \"Shock Blue\"](/wiki/File:Xbox_Wireless_Controller%2C_Model_1914_%27Shock_Blue%27.jpg \"Xbox Wireless Controller, Model 1914 'Shock Blue'.jpg\")\nThe Series X and Series S ship with an updated version of the [Xbox Wireless Controller](/wiki/Xbox_Wireless_Controller \"Xbox Wireless Controller\") intended to fit a larger range of hand sizes. They include same key buttons as the past controllers: two analog joysticks that can be depressed, a [circle pad](/wiki/D-pad \"D-pad\"), four action buttons, two system buttons (\"View\" and \"Menu\"), the main Xbox home button, two grip triggers (left and right), and two shoulder buttons (left and right). The new controller adds a \"Share\" button alongside the \"View\" and \"Menu\" buttons; pressing \"Share\" once takes a screenshot, while holding the button begins a Game DVR recording.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-and\\-s\\-make\\-it\\-much\\-easier\\-to\\-take\\-screenshots\\-and\\-videos/1100\\-6482417/ \\| title \\= Xbox Series X And S Make It Much Easier To Take Screenshots And Videos \\| first \\= Darrys \\| last \\= Bonthuys \\| date \\= September 21, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= September 21, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[GameSpot]] \\| archive\\-date \\= September 22, 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200922091210/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-and\\-s\\-make\\-it\\-much\\-easier\\-to\\-take\\-screenshots\\-and\\-videos/1100\\-6482417/ \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"Microsoft found that by aiming the size to fit an eight\\-year\\-old's hands, they were able to make the design fit a larger section of the population; it thus features more sculpted grips, and has reduced and rounded trigger buttons.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2020/03/16/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-controller/ \\|title\\=Xbox Series X: Making Gaming's Best Controller Even Better \\|first\\=Will \\|last\\=Tuttle \\|date\\=March 16, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=March 16, 2020 \\|work\\=Xbox Wire \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Microsoft]] \\|archive\\-date\\=July 29, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729010607/https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2020/03/16/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-controller/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The D\\-pad is a new concave design that senior console designer Ryan Whitaker said was a means to merge the normal D\\-pad style on the standard Xbox One controller and the version on the Elite variant to accommodate a range of playstyles. Small tactile dot patterns have been added to the buttons to help players orient fingers on the controls. The controller continues to use two [AA batteries](/wiki/AA_battery \"AA battery\"), though a rechargeable battery pack is available as an accessory. Microsoft found from focus group studies that players were split nearly 50/50 on the use of batteries versus recharging and thus gave the controller the option to use either.",
"The controller uses the same wireless protocol introduced by the Xbox One and is backward compatible with existing Xbox One consoles. Existing Xbox One controllers are also compatible with Xbox Series X.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/inside\\-the\\-new\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-controller\\-share\\-butt/1100\\-6472197/ \\|title\\=Inside The New Xbox Series X Controller: Share Button \\& More Changes \\|website\\=GameSpot \\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213070301/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/inside\\-the\\-new\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-controller\\-share\\-butt/1100\\-6472197/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2019/12/12/21019908/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-controller\\-design\\-features\\-announced \\|title\\=The Xbox Series X controller has a tweaked design and a Share button \\|last\\=Byford \\|first\\=Sam \\|date\\=December 12, 2019 \\|website\\=The Verge \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213054036/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2019/12/12/21019908/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-controller\\-design\\-features\\-announced\\|archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The new controller also supports the [Bluetooth Low Energy](/wiki/Bluetooth_Low_Energy \"Bluetooth Low Energy\") standard allowing it to pair with mobile devices and other hardware supporting that standard, and has internal storage to remember those connections. It uses a [USB\\-C](/wiki/USB-C \"USB-C\") connector for wired use and charging (with the optional battery kit) rather than [USB Micro\\-B](/wiki/USB_Micro-B \"USB Micro-B\").",
"### Other accessories",
"Many of the first\\-party accessories designed to work with the preceding Xbox One remain compatible with the Xbox Series X, including the Xbox Stereo Headset and Xbox Wireless Headset.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://support.xbox.com/en\\-US/help/hardware\\-network/controller/which\\-xbox\\-one\\-accessories\\-work\\-on\\-series\\-x\\-s\\-controller \\|title\\=Which Xbox One accessories are compatible with Xbox Series X{{!}}S \\|website\\=Xbox Support \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2024}}",
"Spencer said that the Xbox Series X will likely not have immediate [virtual reality](/wiki/Virtual_reality \"Virtual reality\") (VR) support at launch, and that they expect that any VR support will be based on the [Windows Mixed Reality](/wiki/Windows_Mixed_Reality \"Windows Mixed Reality\") components contained within the console's [Windows 10](/wiki/Windows_10 \"Windows 10\") components, but was otherwise not a focus of the console's development prior to release.{{cite web\\|last\\=Watts\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=February 10, 2020\\|title\\=Xbox Boss Phil Spencer Clarifies Controversial VR Comments\\|url\\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\\-boss\\-phil\\-spencer\\-clarifies\\-controversial\\-vr\\-/1100\\-6473539/\\|access\\-date\\=February 10, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[GameSpot]]\\|archive\\-date\\=December 20, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220175954/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/xbox\\-boss\\-phil\\-spencer\\-sets\\-the\\-record\\-straight\\-on/1100\\-6473539/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Mid\\-generation refreshes",
"An updated Xbox Series S with a matte black finish and 1 TB of storage launched on September 1, 2023; the internal design remains otherwise unchanged.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.cnet.com/tech/gaming/xbox\\-series\\-s\\-1tb\\-review\\-new\\-outside\\-almost\\-the\\-same\\-insides/ \\|title\\=Xbox Series S 1 TB Review: New Outside, Almost the Same Insides \\|first\\=Oscar \\|last\\=Gonzalez \\|date\\=September 28, 2023 \\|work\\=CNET \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2024}}",
"Unrelated court documents from the 2022 court case *[FTC v. Microsoft](/wiki/FTC_v._Microsoft \"FTC v. Microsoft\")* included plans for refreshed mid\\-generation consoles planned to be released in 2024\\. The updated Xbox Series X, codenamed \"Brooklin\", would feature a cylindrical design that drops the optical drive, draws less power, increases internal storage to 2 TB, and improves wireless connectivity with [Wi\\-Fi 6E](/wiki/Wi-Fi_6E \"Wi-Fi 6E\"). The updated Xbox Series S, codenamed \"Ellewood\", would retain the same design as the current Series S, reducing power consumption and adding Wi\\-Fi 6E and 1 TB of internal storage. Both console refreshes are planned to ship with a new Xbox controller, codenamed \"Sebile\".{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.eurogamer.net/new\\-xbox\\-series\\-xs\\-consoles\\-detailed\\-in\\-enormous\\-microsoft\\-leak \\| title\\=New Xbox Series X/S consoles detailed in enormous Microsoft leak \\|first\\=Tom \\|last\\=Phillips \\| newspaper\\=Eurogamer.net \\| date\\=September 19, 2023 }} The new controller will be named the Xbox Universal Controller and will include a rechargeable, swappable battery.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.eurogamer.net/new\\-xbox\\-controller\\-with\\-swappable\\-battery\\-spotted\\-in\\-huge\\-microsoft\\-leak \\|title\\=New Xbox controller with swappable battery spotted in huge Microsoft leak \\|first\\=Liv \\|last\\=Ngan \\|date\\=19 September 2023 \\|work\\=Eurogamer.net \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2024}}",
"Microsoft released refreshed versions of both consoles on October 15, 2024, which included a 1TB Xbox Series S in a white finish, an Xbox Series X in white without the optical drive, and the 2TB Xbox Series X Galaxy Black Special Edition.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nelson \\|first\\=Mike \\|date\\=2024\\-06\\-09 \\|title\\=More Choices Than Ever Before with Three New Xbox Series X{{!}}S Consoles Coming Holiday 2024 \\|url\\=https://news.xbox.com/en\\-us/2024/06/09/xbox\\-series\\-x\\-s\\-new\\-console\\-options/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-09 \\|website\\=Xbox Wire \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The new Series X models use a redesigned motherboard with a smaller system\\-on\\-chip, and replace its [vapor chamber](/wiki/Vapor_chamber \"Vapor chamber\") cooling mechanism with copper heat pipes. The new models were reported to have slightly reduced power consumption.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Warren \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=2024\\-10\\-15 \\|title\\=Microsoft’s new Xbox Series X models have a smaller chip and different cooling \\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/2024/10/15/24270805/microsoft\\-xbox\\-series\\-x\\-6nm\\-chip\\-cooling\\-changes\\-motherboard\\-design\\-teardown \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-15 \\|website\\=The Verge \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Construction and career
-----------------------
### Soviet service
The ship was built at [Stocznia Północna](/wiki/Stocznia_P%C3%B3%C5%82nocna "Stocznia Północna") ([pl](/wiki/Remontowa_Shipbuilding "Remontowa Shipbuilding")) shipyard in [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk "Gdańsk"), Poland in 1970 for the [Soviet Navy](/wiki/Soviet_Navy "Soviet Navy") and was numbered *SDK\-137*. SDK is a Russian abbreviation for a mid\-size landing ship ({{lang\-ru\|средний десантный корабль}}, Sredniy Desantnyi Korabl, SDK).
Although officially the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") was not involved in the 1973 [Yom Kippur War](/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War "Yom Kippur War"), *SDK 137* was part of the Soviet Mediterranean squadron that was in the area along with a marine infantry detachment loaded. The vessel's enlisted [starshina 1st stage](/wiki/Starshina_1st_stage "Starshina 1st stage") P. Grinev downed one of the Israeli [F\-4 Phantom](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II "McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II") planes with the ship's AK\-230 artillery system and was awarded for that the [Order of Red Star](/wiki/Order_of_Red_Star "Order of Red Star").
### Ukrainian service
As a result of the Soviet [Black Sea Fleet](/wiki/Black_Sea_Fleet "Black Sea Fleet") division between Russian Black Sea Fleet and the [Ukrainian Navy](/wiki/Ukrainian_Navy "Ukrainian Navy"), in 1994 *SDK 137* was passed to the Ukrainian Navy and was renamed *SKD Kirovohrad*. In 1996 it was commissioned and given the [pennant number](/wiki/Pennant_number "Pennant number") U\-401 *Kirovohrad*.
In 1998–2002 *Kirovohrad* was repaired at the Metallist Ship Repair Factory in [Balaklava](/wiki/Balaklava "Balaklava") and once again in 2012–2013 at the [Black Sea Shipyard](/wiki/Black_Sea_Shipyard "Black Sea Shipyard") in [Mykolaiv](/wiki/Mykolaiv "Mykolaiv").
At the start of the 2014 [Russian military intervention in Ukraine](/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War "Russo-Ukrainian War"), on 21 March 2014 *Kirovohrad* was surrendered to unmarked Russian naval personnel at Lake [Donuzlav](/wiki/Donuzlav "Donuzlav") along with the minesweeper *Chernihiv*. On 19 April 2014 the Russian military returned the ship along with the {{ship\|Ukrainian corvette\|Vinnytsia}}.
In 2016 it was renamed again to U\-401 *Yuri Olefirenko* in a memory of a Ukrainian marine who perished during the [War in Donbass](/wiki/War_in_Donbas_%282014%E2%80%932022%29 "War in Donbas (2014–2022)").
In April 2022 the ship was claimed by Russian media to have again been captured by Russia at the port of [Berdyansk](/wiki/Berdyansk "Berdyansk") and that she may have been moved to [Novorossiysk](/wiki/Novorossiysk "Novorossiysk").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hisutton.com/Captured\-Ukrainian\-Vessels\-Now\-in\-Russian\-Navy.html \|title\=Russia Taking Captured Ukrainian Navy Vessels Into Service \|first\=H I \|last\=Sutton \|work\=Covert Shores \|date\=26 May 2022 \|access\-date\=3 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=28 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328183730/http://www.hisutton.com/Captured\-Ukrainian\-Vessels\-Now\-in\-Russian\-Navy.html \|url\-status\=live }} However, on 3 June 2022 *Yuri Olefirenko* was spotted in Ukrainian control near [Ochakiv](/wiki/Ochakiv "Ochakiv"), Ukraine under fire by Russian artillery. The ship is believed to have survived the strikes and that it had not been captured at Berdyansk as previously claimed by Russian media.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.navalnews.com/naval\-news/2022/06/ukrainian\-navy\-ship\-in\-dramatic\-escape\-survives\-russian\-artillery\-attack/ \|title\=Ukrainian Navy Ship In Dramatic Escape, Survives Russian Artillery Attack \|first\=H I \|last\=Sutton \|work\=Naval News \|date\=10 June 2022 \|access\-date\=3 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025175633/http://www.navalnews.com/naval\-news/2022/06/ukrainian\-navy\-ship\-in\-dramatic\-escape\-survives\-russian\-artillery\-attack/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Russia’s Defense Ministry said on 31 May 2023 that the ship had been destroyed two days prior.{{Cite news \|date\=31 May 2023 \|work\=The Moscow Times \|title\=Russia Says Destroyed Ukraine's 'Last Warship' \|url\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/05/31/russia\-says\-destroyed\-ukraines\-last\-warship\-a81344 \|access\-date\=31 May 2023 \|archive\-date\=31 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531125037/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/05/31/russia\-says\-destroyed\-ukraines\-last\-warship\-a81344 \|url\-status\=live }} Russian Defense Ministry spokesman [Igor Konashenkov](/wiki/Igor_Konashenkov "Igor Konashenkov") claimed that the ship had been hit with "high\-precision weapons" \- a term he often uses to describe missiles.{{Cite news \|last\=Nanu \|first\=Maighna \|date\=2023\-05\-31 \|title\=Russia 'destroys Ukraine's last warship' \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world\-news/2023/05/31/ukraine\-russia\-war\-latest\-news\-putin\-moscow\-wagner/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-13 \|work\=The Telegraph \|language\=en\-GB \|issn\=0307\-1235}} The Ukrainian Navy told reporters that they refuse to comment on any Russian claims and that they generally do not talk about any such losses in public.{{Cite news \|date\=31 May 2023 \|work\=Reuters \|title\=Russia says it destroys Ukraine's 'last warship' \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia\-says\-it\-destroys\-ukraines\-last\-warship\-2023\-05\-31/ \|access\-date\=31 May 2023 \|archive\-date\=31 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531194735/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia\-says\-it\-destroys\-ukraines\-last\-warship\-2023\-05\-31/ \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Construction and career\n-----------------------",
"### Soviet service",
"The ship was built at [Stocznia Północna](/wiki/Stocznia_P%C3%B3%C5%82nocna \"Stocznia Północna\") ([pl](/wiki/Remontowa_Shipbuilding \"Remontowa Shipbuilding\")) shipyard in [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk \"Gdańsk\"), Poland in 1970 for the [Soviet Navy](/wiki/Soviet_Navy \"Soviet Navy\") and was numbered *SDK\\-137*. SDK is a Russian abbreviation for a mid\\-size landing ship ({{lang\\-ru\\|средний десантный корабль}}, Sredniy Desantnyi Korabl, SDK).",
"Although officially the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") was not involved in the 1973 [Yom Kippur War](/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War \"Yom Kippur War\"), *SDK 137* was part of the Soviet Mediterranean squadron that was in the area along with a marine infantry detachment loaded. The vessel's enlisted [starshina 1st stage](/wiki/Starshina_1st_stage \"Starshina 1st stage\") P. Grinev downed one of the Israeli [F\\-4 Phantom](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II \"McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II\") planes with the ship's AK\\-230 artillery system and was awarded for that the [Order of Red Star](/wiki/Order_of_Red_Star \"Order of Red Star\").",
"### Ukrainian service",
"As a result of the Soviet [Black Sea Fleet](/wiki/Black_Sea_Fleet \"Black Sea Fleet\") division between Russian Black Sea Fleet and the [Ukrainian Navy](/wiki/Ukrainian_Navy \"Ukrainian Navy\"), in 1994 *SDK 137* was passed to the Ukrainian Navy and was renamed *SKD Kirovohrad*. In 1996 it was commissioned and given the [pennant number](/wiki/Pennant_number \"Pennant number\") U\\-401 *Kirovohrad*.",
"In 1998–2002 *Kirovohrad* was repaired at the Metallist Ship Repair Factory in [Balaklava](/wiki/Balaklava \"Balaklava\") and once again in 2012–2013 at the [Black Sea Shipyard](/wiki/Black_Sea_Shipyard \"Black Sea Shipyard\") in [Mykolaiv](/wiki/Mykolaiv \"Mykolaiv\").",
"At the start of the 2014 [Russian military intervention in Ukraine](/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War \"Russo-Ukrainian War\"), on 21 March 2014 *Kirovohrad* was surrendered to unmarked Russian naval personnel at Lake [Donuzlav](/wiki/Donuzlav \"Donuzlav\") along with the minesweeper *Chernihiv*. On 19 April 2014 the Russian military returned the ship along with the {{ship\\|Ukrainian corvette\\|Vinnytsia}}.",
"In 2016 it was renamed again to U\\-401 *Yuri Olefirenko* in a memory of a Ukrainian marine who perished during the [War in Donbass](/wiki/War_in_Donbas_%282014%E2%80%932022%29 \"War in Donbas (2014–2022)\").",
"In April 2022 the ship was claimed by Russian media to have again been captured by Russia at the port of [Berdyansk](/wiki/Berdyansk \"Berdyansk\") and that she may have been moved to [Novorossiysk](/wiki/Novorossiysk \"Novorossiysk\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hisutton.com/Captured\\-Ukrainian\\-Vessels\\-Now\\-in\\-Russian\\-Navy.html \\|title\\=Russia Taking Captured Ukrainian Navy Vessels Into Service \\|first\\=H I \\|last\\=Sutton \\|work\\=Covert Shores \\|date\\=26 May 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328183730/http://www.hisutton.com/Captured\\-Ukrainian\\-Vessels\\-Now\\-in\\-Russian\\-Navy.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} However, on 3 June 2022 *Yuri Olefirenko* was spotted in Ukrainian control near [Ochakiv](/wiki/Ochakiv \"Ochakiv\"), Ukraine under fire by Russian artillery. The ship is believed to have survived the strikes and that it had not been captured at Berdyansk as previously claimed by Russian media.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.navalnews.com/naval\\-news/2022/06/ukrainian\\-navy\\-ship\\-in\\-dramatic\\-escape\\-survives\\-russian\\-artillery\\-attack/ \\|title\\=Ukrainian Navy Ship In Dramatic Escape, Survives Russian Artillery Attack \\|first\\=H I \\|last\\=Sutton \\|work\\=Naval News \\|date\\=10 June 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025175633/http://www.navalnews.com/naval\\-news/2022/06/ukrainian\\-navy\\-ship\\-in\\-dramatic\\-escape\\-survives\\-russian\\-artillery\\-attack/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Russia’s Defense Ministry said on 31 May 2023 that the ship had been destroyed two days prior.{{Cite news \\|date\\=31 May 2023 \\|work\\=The Moscow Times \\|title\\=Russia Says Destroyed Ukraine's 'Last Warship' \\|url\\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/05/31/russia\\-says\\-destroyed\\-ukraines\\-last\\-warship\\-a81344 \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531125037/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/05/31/russia\\-says\\-destroyed\\-ukraines\\-last\\-warship\\-a81344 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Russian Defense Ministry spokesman [Igor Konashenkov](/wiki/Igor_Konashenkov \"Igor Konashenkov\") claimed that the ship had been hit with \"high\\-precision weapons\" \\- a term he often uses to describe missiles.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Nanu \\|first\\=Maighna \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-31 \\|title\\=Russia 'destroys Ukraine's last warship' \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world\\-news/2023/05/31/ukraine\\-russia\\-war\\-latest\\-news\\-putin\\-moscow\\-wagner/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-13 \\|work\\=The Telegraph \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|issn\\=0307\\-1235}} The Ukrainian Navy told reporters that they refuse to comment on any Russian claims and that they generally do not talk about any such losses in public.{{Cite news \\|date\\=31 May 2023 \\|work\\=Reuters \\|title\\=Russia says it destroys Ukraine's 'last warship' \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia\\-says\\-it\\-destroys\\-ukraines\\-last\\-warship\\-2023\\-05\\-31/ \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531194735/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia\\-says\\-it\\-destroys\\-ukraines\\-last\\-warship\\-2023\\-05\\-31/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
### Early career
Shimizu’s career as a saxophone player took off in the 1970s. He released his first solo album, *Get You*, in 1978 and from 1980 won a following with his experimental rock band Mariah,{{cite web\|url\=http://sudo.3\.pro.tok2\.com/Quest/cards/M/Mariah/index.html \|title\=MARIAH \|publisher\=Sudo.3\.pro.tok2\.com \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} with whom he released five albums.
Mariah’s final recording *Utakata no Hibi* (1983\) weaved traditional Japanese festival rhythms with rock tempos and sounds. Over the same period Shimizu recorded solo albums including *IQ 179* (1981\) and *[Kakashi](/wiki/Kakashi_%28album%29 "Kakashi (album)")* (1982\), which built on the alternative\-music foundations set down by Mariah.
From these beginnings Shimizu’s delight in pushing boundaries is apparent in such projects as the satellite link\-up performance of *Bye Bye Kipling* with [Ryuichi Sakamoto](/wiki/Ryuichi_Sakamoto "Ryuichi Sakamoto") for a [Nam June Paik](/wiki/Nam_June_Paik "Nam June Paik") happening (1986\), or his enigmatic, solo “live installation” as a *Human Cuckoo Clock* in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo") (2002\).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.2dk.net/exhibition/e\_taj.html \|title\=Tokyo International Forum 5th Anniversary TOKYO ART JUNGLE \|publisher\=2dk.net \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}}
### The Saxophonettes I
In 1983, he created the Yasuaki Shimizu \& Saxophonettes project—initially a one\-man band—which has since become the main focus of his recording activities. His first recording as the Saxophonettes was *L'Automne à Pékin* (1983\), a tribute to the [Golden Age of Hollywood](/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Hollywood "Golden Age of Hollywood"): classic soundtrack\-flavored tunes rendered with a combination of lush yet minimal orchestration and layered electronic sounds laid over reggae bass and drums.
This was followed by *Stardust* (1985\), *Latin* (1991\) and *Time and Again* (1993\); the latter revisiting the textures of *L'Automne à Pékin* with original compositions highlighting Shimizu’s orchestral arrangements and his tenor saxophone.
The Saxophonettes project released Shimizu’s landmark *Cello Suites* albums in 1996 (nos 1\-3\) and 1999 (nos 4\-6\). These were reissued in 2007 as a two\-disc set (nos 1\-6\).
### Europe
From 1985 through 1991 Shimizu divided his time between [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and [London](/wiki/London "London"), making his contribution to the multicultural and re\-energized European music scene by recording, collaborating and performing with various international artists. His experiences over this period also gave him an altogether new perspective on his own musical roots.
He made three albums: *Subliminal* (1987\) with French producer [Martin Meissonnier](/wiki/Martin_Meissonnier "Martin Meissonnier"), *Dementos* (1988\) with various British artists including ex\-[Flying Lizards](/wiki/Flying_Lizards "Flying Lizards") [David Cunningham](/wiki/David_Cunningham_%28musician%29 "David Cunningham (musician)"), and *Aduna* (1989\) with Senegalese vocalist [Wasis Diop](/wiki/Wasis_Diop "Wasis Diop"), whose 1994 album *No Sant* Shimizu co\-produced.
### Bach recordings
Shimizu has always paid meticulous attention to recording and studio techniques.
In 1997 his mini\-album *Bach Box* won the Best Production prize at the 39th annual [Japan Record Awards](/wiki/Japan_Record_Awards "Japan Record Awards").[http://www.jacompa.or.jp/rekishi/s1959\.htm](http://www.jacompa.or.jp/rekishi/s1959.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219170108/http://www.jacompa.or.jp/rekishi/s1959\.htm \|date\=February 19, 2010 }} This recording, while expressing the highest respect for the baroque master, revisited Bach’s music with an audacious approach to form and flashes of wit, interweaving the original musical structures with treated voices and intermittent [sine wave](/wiki/Sine_wave "Sine wave") signals.
On his *Cello Suites* projects Shimizu utilized unconventional acoustic environments, which he selected for their high degree of reverberation—an underground quarry, a mine in Japan, a palazzo in Italy—in order to “play the space” as a resonating instrument.
This approach is also reflected in his "Bach\-Saxophone\-Space" concert series performed at such locations as [Kodaiji Temple](/wiki/Kodaiji_Temple "Kodaiji Temple") in [Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto "Kyoto") in 1996 (Osaka Shinbun 6 Dec 1996\), the Niitsu, Genichiro\-Inokuma and [Mito](/wiki/Art_Tower_Mito "Art Tower Mito") art museums between 2000 and 2003, and an underground car park in [Shibuya](/wiki/Shibuya%2C_Tokyo "Shibuya, Tokyo") (Mainichi Daily Sept 1997\), Tokyo (1997\).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.simonjames.com/sitespecific.html \|title\=Concert installation \|publisher\=Simon James \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}}
### The Saxophonettes II
In 2006, Shimizu made his playful one\-man\-band concept of the Saxophonettes into a real\-life quintet, featuring Ryoko Egawa, Hirokazu Hayashida, Ryota Higashi and Hiroshi Suzuki in an ensemble of three [tenor](/wiki/Tenor_saxophone "Tenor saxophone") and two [baritone saxophones](/wiki/Baritone_saxophone "Baritone saxophone").
Their album *Pentatonica* (2007\) transcends genre limitations in a recording based on the five\-note [pentatonic scale](/wiki/Pentatonic_scale "Pentatonic scale"). Featuring new compositions as well as arrangements of [Ethiopian](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia") traditional music, it displays Shimizu's individuality: from his choice of recording locations and painstaking approach to sound production, to the immediacy of live performance conveyed through the interplay between musicians.
Beyond recording, the group has performed extensively in Japan as well as in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), [Havana](/wiki/Havana "Havana"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.cubaabsolutely.com/events/whats\_on\_month\_nov\_09\.php \|title\=What's On Havana, listings and reviews of cultural events in Havana, updated monthly, Havana events and schedules and timetables for nightlife and cultural events \|publisher\=Cubaabsolutely.com \|date\=2010\-01\-15 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), with other tours in the works.
At a performance in Tokyo (2010\) commissioned by Sumida Triphony Hall, Shimizu reaffirmed his passion for [Bach](/wiki/J.S.Bach "J.S.Bach") by premiering the world’s first saxophone/contrabass arrangement of Bach's *[Goldberg Variations](/wiki/Goldberg_Variations "Goldberg Variations")*, adding four contrabasses to his saxophone quintet.{{cite web\|url\=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/fm20100219a1\.html \|title\=Shimizu takes sax to Bach's 'Goldberg' \| The Japan Times Online \|publisher\=Search.japantimes.co.jp \|date\=2010\-02\-19 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} He went on to hone the arrangement for release as the album *Goldberg Variations* in 2015\.
### Film and TV
Shimizu with his band Mariah had composed soundtracks for the anime series [The New Adventures of Gigantor](/wiki/The_New_Adventures_of_Gigantor "The New Adventures of Gigantor") in 1980/1981\.
He created music for [Juliet Berto's](/wiki/Juliet_Berto "Juliet Berto") *Havre* (1985\),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cinebaseinternational.com/realisateursenJ/Juliet\-Berto.htm \|title\=Juliet Berto \|publisher\=Cinebaseinternational.com \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} Oscar\-winner [Yōjirō Takita](/wiki/Y%C5%8Djir%C5%8D_Takita "Yōjirō Takita")’s *We Are Not Alone* (1993\),[Bokura wa minna ikiteiru (1993\) \- IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0106456/) three films by [Mitsuo Yanagimachi](/wiki/Mitsuo_Yanagimachi "Mitsuo Yanagimachi") including most recently *Who's Camus Anyway?* (2006\), and contributed a piece to [Peter Greenaway's](/wiki/Peter_Greenaway "Peter Greenaway") *Pillow Book* (1996\). He also wrote the score for the Oscar\-nominated and award\-winning documentary [Cutie and the Boxer](/wiki/Cutie_and_the_Boxer "Cutie and the Boxer") (2013\) by [Zachary Heinzerling](/wiki/Zachary_Heinzerling "Zachary Heinzerling").
He has composed soundtracks for [Hiroyuki Nakano’s](/wiki/Hiroyuki_Nakano "Hiroyuki Nakano") art video *Issey Miyake Dancing Pleats* (1993\), the feature film *Stereo Future* (2000\) and in 2008 the two short films *Ferris Wheel at 3:03:15 PM*, and *Seven Samurai*.
The album *Music for Commercials*, a collection of his melodies aired as TV jingles, was released in 1987\. He authored the “sound identity” for TV film channel Cinefil Imagica, then released an album of related tracks entitled *Cinefil* (2001\).
He wrote scores for a number TV dramas, plus a documentary and experimental film for the Japanese national broadcaster [NHK TV](/wiki/NHK "NHK"). In 2007 NHK adopted his music for the educational series *Mathematica II*. His 2014 soundtrack to the dramatization of [Ryu Murakami's](/wiki/Ryu_Murakami "Ryu Murakami") *Gojūgo\-sai kara no Harōraifu* (*Finding Life After 55*) was later released as an album.
A major event in 2008 saw Shimizu compose music for a one\-off screening of the newly restored 1925 silent film [*Orochi*](/wiki/Orochi_%28film%29 "Orochi (film)"), a samurai “*[chambara](/wiki/Chambara "Chambara")*” sword\-fighting drama. He performed this “live soundtrack” with the Saxophonettes and a 23\-piece orchestra inside the grounds of [Meiji Shrine](/wiki/Meiji_Shrine "Meiji Shrine") in Tokyo.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cofesta.jp/2008/english/orochi.html \|title\=Cofesta 〜Japan International Contents Festival(Cofesta)〜 \|publisher\=Cofesta.jp \|date\=2008\-10\-17 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}}
He has worked with iconic Japanese comedian and director [Hitoshi Matsumoto](/wiki/Hitoshi_Matsumoto "Hitoshi Matsumoto"),{{cite web\|url\=http://en.festivalmarrakech.info/SYMBOL\_a276\.html \|title\=SYMBOL \|publisher\=En.festivalmarrakech.info \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} scoring the films *Symbol* (2009\) and *Scabbard Samurai* (2011\).
### Collaborations
Shimizu’s partnerships with video, multimedia, and dance artists include commissions for Mao Kawaguchi’s video installations *La Cite Délire* (1987\) and *Niwa* (1992\), the performances by butoh dancer Goro Namerikawa *Kioku no Gekijo* (1990\) and *Flaneur vol. 5* (1997\),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.oya909\.co.jp/museum/chika\_riyou/gorou02\.html \|title\=地下空間の利用:滑川 五郎「フラヌール」 \|publisher\=Oya909\.co.jp \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} and the Simon James art installations *Look Don't Touch* (1998\), and *Chasing Light* (2002\).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.simonjames.com/chasinglight/chasinglight1a.html \|title\=Chasing Light \|publisher\=Simon James \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}}
In 2004 he composed music for the sound installations featured in “Dream Garden Factory,” a landscape of six gardens with different themes at the Pacific Flora 2004 expo. Excerpts from the installation were released on the album *Seventh Garden* (2004\).{{cite web\|url\=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi\-bin/fm20040711l1\.html \|title\=Yasuaki Shimizu \| The Japan Times Online \|publisher\=Search.japantimes.co.jp \|date\=2004\-07\-11 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}}
Between 2006 and 2007, his concerts with the Saxophonettes at venues in Tokyo and Osaka featured as guest artist the contemporary dancer Masako Yasumoto.{{cite web\|author\=Ozaki Tetsuya \|url\=http://www.realtokyo.co.jp/docs/en/column/outoftokyo/bn/ozaki\_148\_en/ \|title\=Column \| Out of Tokyo \| 148: Shimizu Yasuaki's New Challenge \|publisher\=Realtokyo \|date\=2006\-10\-12 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}}
In 2012 Shimizu collaborated with media artist [Masaki Fujihata](/wiki/Masaki_Fujihata "Masaki Fujihata") on his project *Voices of Aliveness*,{{cite web\|url\=http://voicesofaliveness.net \| title\=Voices of Aliveness – Masaki Fujihata \| date\=May–June 2012 \|access\-date\=2016\-04\-17}} a multimedia public recording, installation and performance for the [Estuaire Biennale](/wiki/Estuaire_%28biennale%29 "Estuaire (biennale)") in [Nantes](/wiki/Nantes "Nantes"), France. The work won the Award of Distinction at the [Prix Ars Electronica](/wiki/Prix_Ars_Electronica "Prix Ars Electronica").
As a composer\-producer\-arranger, he has collaborated with artists as diverse as Japanese enka balladeer [Saburo Kitajima](/wiki/Saburo_Kitajima "Saburo Kitajima"), composers [Ryuichi Sakamoto](/wiki/Ryuichi_Sakamoto "Ryuichi Sakamoto") and [Koji Ueno](/wiki/Koji_Ueno "Koji Ueno"), jazz vocalists [Helen Merrill](/wiki/Helen_Merrill "Helen Merrill") and [Karin Krog](/wiki/Karin_Krog "Karin Krog"), guitarist [Kazumi Watanabe](/wiki/Kazumi_Watanabe "Kazumi Watanabe"), French pop singer [Pierre Barouh](/wiki/Pierre_Barouh "Pierre Barouh"), and DJ [Towa Tei](/wiki/Towa_Tei "Towa Tei"). He has also contributed to recordings by trumpeter [Toshinori Kondo](/wiki/Toshinori_Kondo "Toshinori Kondo"), DJ [Dee Nasty](/wiki/Dee_Nasty "Dee Nasty"), [Björk](/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rk "Björk") and others.
Live collaborations include appearances with [Bill Laswell](/wiki/Bill_Laswell "Bill Laswell"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tokyorotation.com/ \|title\=Bill Laswell Presents Tokyo Rotation \|publisher\=Tokyorotation.com \|date\=2011\-05\-17 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} [Elvin Jones](/wiki/Elvin_Jones "Elvin Jones"), [Yosuke Yamashita](/wiki/Yosuke_Yamashita "Yosuke Yamashita"), [Van Dyke Parks](/wiki/Van_Dyke_Parks "Van Dyke Parks"), [Urban Sax](/wiki/Urban_Sax "Urban Sax"), [Manu Dibango](/wiki/Manu_Dibango "Manu Dibango"), [David Cunningham](/wiki/David_Cunningham_%28musician%29 "David Cunningham (musician)"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.stalk.net/piano/staubgold91\.htm \|title\=One Hundred \- Yasuaki Shimizu and David Cunningham \|publisher\=Stalk.net \|date\=2004\-12\-26 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} and [Carl Stone](/wiki/Carl_Stone "Carl Stone").
From 1991 to 1994 he teamed up with ex\-[YMO](/wiki/Yellow_Magic_Orchestra "Yellow Magic Orchestra") artist [Haruomi Hosono](/wiki/Haruomi_Hosono "Haruomi Hosono") to produce the Tokyo Mura Mura Festival, presenting improbable line\-ups of talents such as [Michael Nyman](/wiki/Michael_Nyman "Michael Nyman"), [John Zorn](/wiki/John_Zorn "John Zorn"), [Julee Cruise](/wiki/Julee_Cruise "Julee Cruise"), and [The Orb](/wiki/The_Orb "The Orb").
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"### Early career",
"Shimizu’s career as a saxophone player took off in the 1970s. He released his first solo album, *Get You*, in 1978 and from 1980 won a following with his experimental rock band Mariah,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sudo.3\\.pro.tok2\\.com/Quest/cards/M/Mariah/index.html \\|title\\=MARIAH \\|publisher\\=Sudo.3\\.pro.tok2\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} with whom he released five albums.",
"Mariah’s final recording *Utakata no Hibi* (1983\\) weaved traditional Japanese festival rhythms with rock tempos and sounds. Over the same period Shimizu recorded solo albums including *IQ 179* (1981\\) and *[Kakashi](/wiki/Kakashi_%28album%29 \"Kakashi (album)\")* (1982\\), which built on the alternative\\-music foundations set down by Mariah.",
"From these beginnings Shimizu’s delight in pushing boundaries is apparent in such projects as the satellite link\\-up performance of *Bye Bye Kipling* with [Ryuichi Sakamoto](/wiki/Ryuichi_Sakamoto \"Ryuichi Sakamoto\") for a [Nam June Paik](/wiki/Nam_June_Paik \"Nam June Paik\") happening (1986\\), or his enigmatic, solo “live installation” as a *Human Cuckoo Clock* in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") (2002\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.2dk.net/exhibition/e\\_taj.html \\|title\\=Tokyo International Forum 5th Anniversary TOKYO ART JUNGLE \\|publisher\\=2dk.net \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}}",
"### The Saxophonettes I",
"In 1983, he created the Yasuaki Shimizu \\& Saxophonettes project—initially a one\\-man band—which has since become the main focus of his recording activities. His first recording as the Saxophonettes was *L'Automne à Pékin* (1983\\), a tribute to the [Golden Age of Hollywood](/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Hollywood \"Golden Age of Hollywood\"): classic soundtrack\\-flavored tunes rendered with a combination of lush yet minimal orchestration and layered electronic sounds laid over reggae bass and drums.",
"This was followed by *Stardust* (1985\\), *Latin* (1991\\) and *Time and Again* (1993\\); the latter revisiting the textures of *L'Automne à Pékin* with original compositions highlighting Shimizu’s orchestral arrangements and his tenor saxophone.",
"The Saxophonettes project released Shimizu’s landmark *Cello Suites* albums in 1996 (nos 1\\-3\\) and 1999 (nos 4\\-6\\). These were reissued in 2007 as a two\\-disc set (nos 1\\-6\\).",
"### Europe",
"From 1985 through 1991 Shimizu divided his time between [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), making his contribution to the multicultural and re\\-energized European music scene by recording, collaborating and performing with various international artists. His experiences over this period also gave him an altogether new perspective on his own musical roots.",
"He made three albums: *Subliminal* (1987\\) with French producer [Martin Meissonnier](/wiki/Martin_Meissonnier \"Martin Meissonnier\"), *Dementos* (1988\\) with various British artists including ex\\-[Flying Lizards](/wiki/Flying_Lizards \"Flying Lizards\") [David Cunningham](/wiki/David_Cunningham_%28musician%29 \"David Cunningham (musician)\"), and *Aduna* (1989\\) with Senegalese vocalist [Wasis Diop](/wiki/Wasis_Diop \"Wasis Diop\"), whose 1994 album *No Sant* Shimizu co\\-produced.",
"### Bach recordings",
"Shimizu has always paid meticulous attention to recording and studio techniques.",
"In 1997 his mini\\-album *Bach Box* won the Best Production prize at the 39th annual [Japan Record Awards](/wiki/Japan_Record_Awards \"Japan Record Awards\").[http://www.jacompa.or.jp/rekishi/s1959\\.htm](http://www.jacompa.or.jp/rekishi/s1959.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219170108/http://www.jacompa.or.jp/rekishi/s1959\\.htm \\|date\\=February 19, 2010 }} This recording, while expressing the highest respect for the baroque master, revisited Bach’s music with an audacious approach to form and flashes of wit, interweaving the original musical structures with treated voices and intermittent [sine wave](/wiki/Sine_wave \"Sine wave\") signals.",
"On his *Cello Suites* projects Shimizu utilized unconventional acoustic environments, which he selected for their high degree of reverberation—an underground quarry, a mine in Japan, a palazzo in Italy—in order to “play the space” as a resonating instrument.",
"This approach is also reflected in his \"Bach\\-Saxophone\\-Space\" concert series performed at such locations as [Kodaiji Temple](/wiki/Kodaiji_Temple \"Kodaiji Temple\") in [Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto \"Kyoto\") in 1996 (Osaka Shinbun 6 Dec 1996\\), the Niitsu, Genichiro\\-Inokuma and [Mito](/wiki/Art_Tower_Mito \"Art Tower Mito\") art museums between 2000 and 2003, and an underground car park in [Shibuya](/wiki/Shibuya%2C_Tokyo \"Shibuya, Tokyo\") (Mainichi Daily Sept 1997\\), Tokyo (1997\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.simonjames.com/sitespecific.html \\|title\\=Concert installation \\|publisher\\=Simon James \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}}",
"### The Saxophonettes II",
"In 2006, Shimizu made his playful one\\-man\\-band concept of the Saxophonettes into a real\\-life quintet, featuring Ryoko Egawa, Hirokazu Hayashida, Ryota Higashi and Hiroshi Suzuki in an ensemble of three [tenor](/wiki/Tenor_saxophone \"Tenor saxophone\") and two [baritone saxophones](/wiki/Baritone_saxophone \"Baritone saxophone\").",
"Their album *Pentatonica* (2007\\) transcends genre limitations in a recording based on the five\\-note [pentatonic scale](/wiki/Pentatonic_scale \"Pentatonic scale\"). Featuring new compositions as well as arrangements of [Ethiopian](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\") traditional music, it displays Shimizu's individuality: from his choice of recording locations and painstaking approach to sound production, to the immediacy of live performance conveyed through the interplay between musicians.",
"Beyond recording, the group has performed extensively in Japan as well as in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), [Havana](/wiki/Havana \"Havana\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cubaabsolutely.com/events/whats\\_on\\_month\\_nov\\_09\\.php \\|title\\=What's On Havana, listings and reviews of cultural events in Havana, updated monthly, Havana events and schedules and timetables for nightlife and cultural events \\|publisher\\=Cubaabsolutely.com \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-15 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), with other tours in the works.",
"At a performance in Tokyo (2010\\) commissioned by Sumida Triphony Hall, Shimizu reaffirmed his passion for [Bach](/wiki/J.S.Bach \"J.S.Bach\") by premiering the world’s first saxophone/contrabass arrangement of Bach's *[Goldberg Variations](/wiki/Goldberg_Variations \"Goldberg Variations\")*, adding four contrabasses to his saxophone quintet.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/fm20100219a1\\.html \\|title\\=Shimizu takes sax to Bach's 'Goldberg' \\| The Japan Times Online \\|publisher\\=Search.japantimes.co.jp \\|date\\=2010\\-02\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} He went on to hone the arrangement for release as the album *Goldberg Variations* in 2015\\.",
"### Film and TV",
"Shimizu with his band Mariah had composed soundtracks for the anime series [The New Adventures of Gigantor](/wiki/The_New_Adventures_of_Gigantor \"The New Adventures of Gigantor\") in 1980/1981\\.\nHe created music for [Juliet Berto's](/wiki/Juliet_Berto \"Juliet Berto\") *Havre* (1985\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cinebaseinternational.com/realisateursenJ/Juliet\\-Berto.htm \\|title\\=Juliet Berto \\|publisher\\=Cinebaseinternational.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} Oscar\\-winner [Yōjirō Takita](/wiki/Y%C5%8Djir%C5%8D_Takita \"Yōjirō Takita\")’s *We Are Not Alone* (1993\\),[Bokura wa minna ikiteiru (1993\\) \\- IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0106456/) three films by [Mitsuo Yanagimachi](/wiki/Mitsuo_Yanagimachi \"Mitsuo Yanagimachi\") including most recently *Who's Camus Anyway?* (2006\\), and contributed a piece to [Peter Greenaway's](/wiki/Peter_Greenaway \"Peter Greenaway\") *Pillow Book* (1996\\). He also wrote the score for the Oscar\\-nominated and award\\-winning documentary [Cutie and the Boxer](/wiki/Cutie_and_the_Boxer \"Cutie and the Boxer\") (2013\\) by [Zachary Heinzerling](/wiki/Zachary_Heinzerling \"Zachary Heinzerling\").",
"He has composed soundtracks for [Hiroyuki Nakano’s](/wiki/Hiroyuki_Nakano \"Hiroyuki Nakano\") art video *Issey Miyake Dancing Pleats* (1993\\), the feature film *Stereo Future* (2000\\) and in 2008 the two short films *Ferris Wheel at 3:03:15 PM*, and *Seven Samurai*.",
"The album *Music for Commercials*, a collection of his melodies aired as TV jingles, was released in 1987\\. He authored the “sound identity” for TV film channel Cinefil Imagica, then released an album of related tracks entitled *Cinefil* (2001\\).",
"He wrote scores for a number TV dramas, plus a documentary and experimental film for the Japanese national broadcaster [NHK TV](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\"). In 2007 NHK adopted his music for the educational series *Mathematica II*. His 2014 soundtrack to the dramatization of [Ryu Murakami's](/wiki/Ryu_Murakami \"Ryu Murakami\") *Gojūgo\\-sai kara no Harōraifu* (*Finding Life After 55*) was later released as an album.",
"A major event in 2008 saw Shimizu compose music for a one\\-off screening of the newly restored 1925 silent film [*Orochi*](/wiki/Orochi_%28film%29 \"Orochi (film)\"), a samurai “*[chambara](/wiki/Chambara \"Chambara\")*” sword\\-fighting drama. He performed this “live soundtrack” with the Saxophonettes and a 23\\-piece orchestra inside the grounds of [Meiji Shrine](/wiki/Meiji_Shrine \"Meiji Shrine\") in Tokyo.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cofesta.jp/2008/english/orochi.html \\|title\\=Cofesta 〜Japan International Contents Festival(Cofesta)〜 \\|publisher\\=Cofesta.jp \\|date\\=2008\\-10\\-17 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}}",
"He has worked with iconic Japanese comedian and director [Hitoshi Matsumoto](/wiki/Hitoshi_Matsumoto \"Hitoshi Matsumoto\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://en.festivalmarrakech.info/SYMBOL\\_a276\\.html \\|title\\=SYMBOL \\|publisher\\=En.festivalmarrakech.info \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} scoring the films *Symbol* (2009\\) and *Scabbard Samurai* (2011\\).",
"### Collaborations",
"Shimizu’s partnerships with video, multimedia, and dance artists include commissions for Mao Kawaguchi’s video installations *La Cite Délire* (1987\\) and *Niwa* (1992\\), the performances by butoh dancer Goro Namerikawa *Kioku no Gekijo* (1990\\) and *Flaneur vol. 5* (1997\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oya909\\.co.jp/museum/chika\\_riyou/gorou02\\.html \\|title\\=地下空間の利用:滑川 五郎「フラヌール」 \\|publisher\\=Oya909\\.co.jp \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} and the Simon James art installations *Look Don't Touch* (1998\\), and *Chasing Light* (2002\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.simonjames.com/chasinglight/chasinglight1a.html \\|title\\=Chasing Light \\|publisher\\=Simon James \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}}",
"In 2004 he composed music for the sound installations featured in “Dream Garden Factory,” a landscape of six gardens with different themes at the Pacific Flora 2004 expo. Excerpts from the installation were released on the album *Seventh Garden* (2004\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi\\-bin/fm20040711l1\\.html \\|title\\=Yasuaki Shimizu \\| The Japan Times Online \\|publisher\\=Search.japantimes.co.jp \\|date\\=2004\\-07\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}}",
"Between 2006 and 2007, his concerts with the Saxophonettes at venues in Tokyo and Osaka featured as guest artist the contemporary dancer Masako Yasumoto.{{cite web\\|author\\=Ozaki Tetsuya \\|url\\=http://www.realtokyo.co.jp/docs/en/column/outoftokyo/bn/ozaki\\_148\\_en/ \\|title\\=Column \\| Out of Tokyo \\| 148: Shimizu Yasuaki's New Challenge \\|publisher\\=Realtokyo \\|date\\=2006\\-10\\-12 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}}",
"In 2012 Shimizu collaborated with media artist [Masaki Fujihata](/wiki/Masaki_Fujihata \"Masaki Fujihata\") on his project *Voices of Aliveness*,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://voicesofaliveness.net \\| title\\=Voices of Aliveness – Masaki Fujihata \\| date\\=May–June 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-17}} a multimedia public recording, installation and performance for the [Estuaire Biennale](/wiki/Estuaire_%28biennale%29 \"Estuaire (biennale)\") in [Nantes](/wiki/Nantes \"Nantes\"), France. The work won the Award of Distinction at the [Prix Ars Electronica](/wiki/Prix_Ars_Electronica \"Prix Ars Electronica\").",
"As a composer\\-producer\\-arranger, he has collaborated with artists as diverse as Japanese enka balladeer [Saburo Kitajima](/wiki/Saburo_Kitajima \"Saburo Kitajima\"), composers [Ryuichi Sakamoto](/wiki/Ryuichi_Sakamoto \"Ryuichi Sakamoto\") and [Koji Ueno](/wiki/Koji_Ueno \"Koji Ueno\"), jazz vocalists [Helen Merrill](/wiki/Helen_Merrill \"Helen Merrill\") and [Karin Krog](/wiki/Karin_Krog \"Karin Krog\"), guitarist [Kazumi Watanabe](/wiki/Kazumi_Watanabe \"Kazumi Watanabe\"), French pop singer [Pierre Barouh](/wiki/Pierre_Barouh \"Pierre Barouh\"), and DJ [Towa Tei](/wiki/Towa_Tei \"Towa Tei\"). He has also contributed to recordings by trumpeter [Toshinori Kondo](/wiki/Toshinori_Kondo \"Toshinori Kondo\"), DJ [Dee Nasty](/wiki/Dee_Nasty \"Dee Nasty\"), [Björk](/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rk \"Björk\") and others.",
"Live collaborations include appearances with [Bill Laswell](/wiki/Bill_Laswell \"Bill Laswell\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tokyorotation.com/ \\|title\\=Bill Laswell Presents Tokyo Rotation \\|publisher\\=Tokyorotation.com \\|date\\=2011\\-05\\-17 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} [Elvin Jones](/wiki/Elvin_Jones \"Elvin Jones\"), [Yosuke Yamashita](/wiki/Yosuke_Yamashita \"Yosuke Yamashita\"), [Van Dyke Parks](/wiki/Van_Dyke_Parks \"Van Dyke Parks\"), [Urban Sax](/wiki/Urban_Sax \"Urban Sax\"), [Manu Dibango](/wiki/Manu_Dibango \"Manu Dibango\"), [David Cunningham](/wiki/David_Cunningham_%28musician%29 \"David Cunningham (musician)\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stalk.net/piano/staubgold91\\.htm \\|title\\=One Hundred \\- Yasuaki Shimizu and David Cunningham \\|publisher\\=Stalk.net \\|date\\=2004\\-12\\-26 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} and [Carl Stone](/wiki/Carl_Stone \"Carl Stone\").",
"From 1991 to 1994 he teamed up with ex\\-[YMO](/wiki/Yellow_Magic_Orchestra \"Yellow Magic Orchestra\") artist [Haruomi Hosono](/wiki/Haruomi_Hosono \"Haruomi Hosono\") to produce the Tokyo Mura Mura Festival, presenting improbable line\\-ups of talents such as [Michael Nyman](/wiki/Michael_Nyman \"Michael Nyman\"), [John Zorn](/wiki/John_Zorn \"John Zorn\"), [Julee Cruise](/wiki/Julee_Cruise \"Julee Cruise\"), and [The Orb](/wiki/The_Orb \"The Orb\").",
""
] |
### Film and TV
Shimizu with his band Mariah had composed soundtracks for the anime series [The New Adventures of Gigantor](/wiki/The_New_Adventures_of_Gigantor "The New Adventures of Gigantor") in 1980/1981\.
He created music for [Juliet Berto's](/wiki/Juliet_Berto "Juliet Berto") *Havre* (1985\),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cinebaseinternational.com/realisateursenJ/Juliet\-Berto.htm \|title\=Juliet Berto \|publisher\=Cinebaseinternational.com \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} Oscar\-winner [Yōjirō Takita](/wiki/Y%C5%8Djir%C5%8D_Takita "Yōjirō Takita")’s *We Are Not Alone* (1993\),[Bokura wa minna ikiteiru (1993\) \- IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0106456/) three films by [Mitsuo Yanagimachi](/wiki/Mitsuo_Yanagimachi "Mitsuo Yanagimachi") including most recently *Who's Camus Anyway?* (2006\), and contributed a piece to [Peter Greenaway's](/wiki/Peter_Greenaway "Peter Greenaway") *Pillow Book* (1996\). He also wrote the score for the Oscar\-nominated and award\-winning documentary [Cutie and the Boxer](/wiki/Cutie_and_the_Boxer "Cutie and the Boxer") (2013\) by [Zachary Heinzerling](/wiki/Zachary_Heinzerling "Zachary Heinzerling").
He has composed soundtracks for [Hiroyuki Nakano’s](/wiki/Hiroyuki_Nakano "Hiroyuki Nakano") art video *Issey Miyake Dancing Pleats* (1993\), the feature film *Stereo Future* (2000\) and in 2008 the two short films *Ferris Wheel at 3:03:15 PM*, and *Seven Samurai*.
The album *Music for Commercials*, a collection of his melodies aired as TV jingles, was released in 1987\. He authored the “sound identity” for TV film channel Cinefil Imagica, then released an album of related tracks entitled *Cinefil* (2001\).
He wrote scores for a number TV dramas, plus a documentary and experimental film for the Japanese national broadcaster [NHK TV](/wiki/NHK "NHK"). In 2007 NHK adopted his music for the educational series *Mathematica II*. His 2014 soundtrack to the dramatization of [Ryu Murakami's](/wiki/Ryu_Murakami "Ryu Murakami") *Gojūgo\-sai kara no Harōraifu* (*Finding Life After 55*) was later released as an album.
A major event in 2008 saw Shimizu compose music for a one\-off screening of the newly restored 1925 silent film [*Orochi*](/wiki/Orochi_%28film%29 "Orochi (film)"), a samurai “*[chambara](/wiki/Chambara "Chambara")*” sword\-fighting drama. He performed this “live soundtrack” with the Saxophonettes and a 23\-piece orchestra inside the grounds of [Meiji Shrine](/wiki/Meiji_Shrine "Meiji Shrine") in Tokyo.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cofesta.jp/2008/english/orochi.html \|title\=Cofesta 〜Japan International Contents Festival(Cofesta)〜 \|publisher\=Cofesta.jp \|date\=2008\-10\-17 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}}
He has worked with iconic Japanese comedian and director [Hitoshi Matsumoto](/wiki/Hitoshi_Matsumoto "Hitoshi Matsumoto"),{{cite web\|url\=http://en.festivalmarrakech.info/SYMBOL\_a276\.html \|title\=SYMBOL \|publisher\=En.festivalmarrakech.info \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} scoring the films *Symbol* (2009\) and *Scabbard Samurai* (2011\).
|
[
"### Film and TV",
"Shimizu with his band Mariah had composed soundtracks for the anime series [The New Adventures of Gigantor](/wiki/The_New_Adventures_of_Gigantor \"The New Adventures of Gigantor\") in 1980/1981\\.\nHe created music for [Juliet Berto's](/wiki/Juliet_Berto \"Juliet Berto\") *Havre* (1985\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cinebaseinternational.com/realisateursenJ/Juliet\\-Berto.htm \\|title\\=Juliet Berto \\|publisher\\=Cinebaseinternational.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} Oscar\\-winner [Yōjirō Takita](/wiki/Y%C5%8Djir%C5%8D_Takita \"Yōjirō Takita\")’s *We Are Not Alone* (1993\\),[Bokura wa minna ikiteiru (1993\\) \\- IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0106456/) three films by [Mitsuo Yanagimachi](/wiki/Mitsuo_Yanagimachi \"Mitsuo Yanagimachi\") including most recently *Who's Camus Anyway?* (2006\\), and contributed a piece to [Peter Greenaway's](/wiki/Peter_Greenaway \"Peter Greenaway\") *Pillow Book* (1996\\). He also wrote the score for the Oscar\\-nominated and award\\-winning documentary [Cutie and the Boxer](/wiki/Cutie_and_the_Boxer \"Cutie and the Boxer\") (2013\\) by [Zachary Heinzerling](/wiki/Zachary_Heinzerling \"Zachary Heinzerling\").",
"He has composed soundtracks for [Hiroyuki Nakano’s](/wiki/Hiroyuki_Nakano \"Hiroyuki Nakano\") art video *Issey Miyake Dancing Pleats* (1993\\), the feature film *Stereo Future* (2000\\) and in 2008 the two short films *Ferris Wheel at 3:03:15 PM*, and *Seven Samurai*.",
"The album *Music for Commercials*, a collection of his melodies aired as TV jingles, was released in 1987\\. He authored the “sound identity” for TV film channel Cinefil Imagica, then released an album of related tracks entitled *Cinefil* (2001\\).",
"He wrote scores for a number TV dramas, plus a documentary and experimental film for the Japanese national broadcaster [NHK TV](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\"). In 2007 NHK adopted his music for the educational series *Mathematica II*. His 2014 soundtrack to the dramatization of [Ryu Murakami's](/wiki/Ryu_Murakami \"Ryu Murakami\") *Gojūgo\\-sai kara no Harōraifu* (*Finding Life After 55*) was later released as an album.",
"A major event in 2008 saw Shimizu compose music for a one\\-off screening of the newly restored 1925 silent film [*Orochi*](/wiki/Orochi_%28film%29 \"Orochi (film)\"), a samurai “*[chambara](/wiki/Chambara \"Chambara\")*” sword\\-fighting drama. He performed this “live soundtrack” with the Saxophonettes and a 23\\-piece orchestra inside the grounds of [Meiji Shrine](/wiki/Meiji_Shrine \"Meiji Shrine\") in Tokyo.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cofesta.jp/2008/english/orochi.html \\|title\\=Cofesta 〜Japan International Contents Festival(Cofesta)〜 \\|publisher\\=Cofesta.jp \\|date\\=2008\\-10\\-17 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}}",
"He has worked with iconic Japanese comedian and director [Hitoshi Matsumoto](/wiki/Hitoshi_Matsumoto \"Hitoshi Matsumoto\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://en.festivalmarrakech.info/SYMBOL\\_a276\\.html \\|title\\=SYMBOL \\|publisher\\=En.festivalmarrakech.info \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}} scoring the films *Symbol* (2009\\) and *Scabbard Samurai* (2011\\).",
""
] |
Postwar years in Virginia
-------------------------
By May, 1865, Bayne had returned to Norfolk and located his daughter, whom he sent to Massachusetts. The following month, he made a speech extolling equal suffrage in Norfolk. However, unlike Frederick Douglass, Bayne opposed women's suffrage, preaching that women's basic right is to raise and bear children.Eric Foner, *Reconstruction 1863\-1877* (Harper \& Row 1988\), p. 87\.
In January 1866, Bayne attended the [Colored National Convention](/wiki/Colored_Conventions_Movement "Colored Conventions Movement") in Washington, D.C., serving as vice president of the convention which lobbied Congress not to readmit the former Confederate states before assuring that the rights of African Americans would be honored. On February 3, 1866, Bayne testified before a subcommittee of the Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction about the harsh conditions in postwar Virginia. The Radical Republicans in Congress soon imposed [Congressional Reconstruction](/wiki/Congressional_Reconstruction "Congressional Reconstruction"), including military rule, on Virginia.
On January 7, 1867, President [Andrew Johnson](/wiki/Andrew_Johnson "Andrew Johnson") vetoed the District of Columbia Negro suffrage bill, prompting Radical Republicans including [James M. Ashley](/wiki/James_M._Ashley "James M. Ashley") of Ohio to begin impeachment investigations. Three months later, on April 17, 1867, Union Republicans met in Richmond and elected Bayne as their convention's vice president, as they planned for the upcoming Virginia Constitutional Convention, since Congress had conditioned readmission of Virginia and other Confederate states upon adopting new constitutions which did not permit slavery and which did permit African Americans to vote.
On October 22, 1867, Norfolk voters elected Bayne and Unionist Democrat [Henry M. Bowden](/wiki/Henry_M._Bowden "Henry M. Bowden") (1819\-1871\)Encyclopedia Virginia/Bowden to represent their city in the upcoming state constitutional convention.
The [Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1868](/wiki/Virginia_Constitutional_Convention_of_1868 "Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1868") first met on December 3, 1867 (the same day the 40th U.S. Congress convened), and Bayne was assigned to the Committee on Rules and Regulations and the Committee on the Executive Department of Government. However, the delegates soon adjourned until January.
Conservative Virginians had begun meeting in Richmond on December 11, led by [Alexander H. H. Stuart](/wiki/Alexander_H._H._Stuart "Alexander H. H. Stuart") of [Staunton](/wiki/Staunton%2C_Virginia "Staunton, Virginia") to select candidates opposed to whatever the convention would produce; some were particularly offended by the presence of African\-American delegates, though their numbers were small, and some white voters had deliberately not voted in the October elections to elect constitutional convention delegates. By December 13, the *Richmond Enquirer* was lampooning the Convention's African Americans.Henry p. 284
The Constitutional Convention reconvened on January 2, 1868, and Bayne was perhaps the most powerful or outspoken African\-American. He wanted to disenfranchise Confederates, as well as limit poll taxes in favor of high land taxes that could break up large estates, and was also among the minority who wanted to integrate public schools (public schools being an innovation in the constitution).Foner pp. 311, 322, 327, available at digitalcommons.odu.edu Bayne also supported a resolution to continue the [Freedmen's Bureau](/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau "Freedmen's Bureau") in Virginia, although seemingly outside the convention's mandate.Michlael Hucles, "Many Voices, Similar Concerns2, *The Virginia Magazine*, p. 554\. On March 24, a fellow delegate offered a resolution limiting Bayne to five speeches per day. On April 17, 1868, the convention adjourned after passing a proposed constitution (and a controversial confederate disenfranchisement clause) by a vote of 51 to 36\. Originally, the convention began with 105 members, of whom 72 were Radicals (including 25 African Americans), and 33 Conservatives.[Robert Selph Henry](/wiki/Robert_Selph_Henry "Robert Selph Henry"), *The Story of Reconstruction* (New York: Grosset \& Dunlap, 1938\), p. 283\.
On July 6, 1869, the Radical Republicans nominated Bayne as their candidate to Congress from the Second Congressional District. He lost to [James H. Platt, Jr.](/wiki/James_H._Platt%2C_Jr. "James H. Platt, Jr."), whom Petersburg's voters had sent to the Constitutional Convention as their delegate. Bayne appealed to Congress, but no\-one wanted to enforce the new constitution's rejected clause which would have disenfranchised Confederates and their sympathizers.
Moreover, months after federal troops left in early 1870, Conservatives won Norfolk's local election in May. John B. Whitehead defeated Radical Peter Dilworth, and Conservatives took over Norfolk's city council, although four blacks won city council seats.Thomas C. Parramore, Peter C. Stewart, *Norfolk: the First 400 Centuries* (University of Virginia Press), p. 237\. Bayne had been nominated by the Radicals for Commissioner of the Revenue, but voters elected Conservative Republican A.K. Hill, Esq.H.W. Burton, The History of Norfolk, Virginia (Norfolk Virginian, 1877\) p. 134 available at internet archive Bayne later ran for the post of physician to the almshouse. However, he lost a debate with [Joseph T. Wilson](/wiki/Joseph_T._Wilson "Joseph T. Wilson"), another African American and who had been running for customs officer and inspector, and whom the *Norfolk Virginian* considered the community's new negro leader.Hucles, pp. 560, 564, citing *Norfolk Virginian*, May 10, 1870, and January 29, 1873\.
However, Bayne continued in Norfolk. The censuses of 1870 and 1880 show him as living alone, with his status as widower noted on the latter.
|
[
"Postwar years in Virginia\n-------------------------",
"By May, 1865, Bayne had returned to Norfolk and located his daughter, whom he sent to Massachusetts. The following month, he made a speech extolling equal suffrage in Norfolk. However, unlike Frederick Douglass, Bayne opposed women's suffrage, preaching that women's basic right is to raise and bear children.Eric Foner, *Reconstruction 1863\\-1877* (Harper \\& Row 1988\\), p. 87\\.",
"In January 1866, Bayne attended the [Colored National Convention](/wiki/Colored_Conventions_Movement \"Colored Conventions Movement\") in Washington, D.C., serving as vice president of the convention which lobbied Congress not to readmit the former Confederate states before assuring that the rights of African Americans would be honored. On February 3, 1866, Bayne testified before a subcommittee of the Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction about the harsh conditions in postwar Virginia. The Radical Republicans in Congress soon imposed [Congressional Reconstruction](/wiki/Congressional_Reconstruction \"Congressional Reconstruction\"), including military rule, on Virginia.",
"On January 7, 1867, President [Andrew Johnson](/wiki/Andrew_Johnson \"Andrew Johnson\") vetoed the District of Columbia Negro suffrage bill, prompting Radical Republicans including [James M. Ashley](/wiki/James_M._Ashley \"James M. Ashley\") of Ohio to begin impeachment investigations. Three months later, on April 17, 1867, Union Republicans met in Richmond and elected Bayne as their convention's vice president, as they planned for the upcoming Virginia Constitutional Convention, since Congress had conditioned readmission of Virginia and other Confederate states upon adopting new constitutions which did not permit slavery and which did permit African Americans to vote.",
"On October 22, 1867, Norfolk voters elected Bayne and Unionist Democrat [Henry M. Bowden](/wiki/Henry_M._Bowden \"Henry M. Bowden\") (1819\\-1871\\)Encyclopedia Virginia/Bowden to represent their city in the upcoming state constitutional convention.",
"The [Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1868](/wiki/Virginia_Constitutional_Convention_of_1868 \"Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1868\") first met on December 3, 1867 (the same day the 40th U.S. Congress convened), and Bayne was assigned to the Committee on Rules and Regulations and the Committee on the Executive Department of Government. However, the delegates soon adjourned until January.",
"Conservative Virginians had begun meeting in Richmond on December 11, led by [Alexander H. H. Stuart](/wiki/Alexander_H._H._Stuart \"Alexander H. H. Stuart\") of [Staunton](/wiki/Staunton%2C_Virginia \"Staunton, Virginia\") to select candidates opposed to whatever the convention would produce; some were particularly offended by the presence of African\\-American delegates, though their numbers were small, and some white voters had deliberately not voted in the October elections to elect constitutional convention delegates. By December 13, the *Richmond Enquirer* was lampooning the Convention's African Americans.Henry p. 284",
"The Constitutional Convention reconvened on January 2, 1868, and Bayne was perhaps the most powerful or outspoken African\\-American. He wanted to disenfranchise Confederates, as well as limit poll taxes in favor of high land taxes that could break up large estates, and was also among the minority who wanted to integrate public schools (public schools being an innovation in the constitution).Foner pp. 311, 322, 327, available at digitalcommons.odu.edu Bayne also supported a resolution to continue the [Freedmen's Bureau](/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau \"Freedmen's Bureau\") in Virginia, although seemingly outside the convention's mandate.Michlael Hucles, \"Many Voices, Similar Concerns2, *The Virginia Magazine*, p. 554\\. On March 24, a fellow delegate offered a resolution limiting Bayne to five speeches per day. On April 17, 1868, the convention adjourned after passing a proposed constitution (and a controversial confederate disenfranchisement clause) by a vote of 51 to 36\\. Originally, the convention began with 105 members, of whom 72 were Radicals (including 25 African Americans), and 33 Conservatives.[Robert Selph Henry](/wiki/Robert_Selph_Henry \"Robert Selph Henry\"), *The Story of Reconstruction* (New York: Grosset \\& Dunlap, 1938\\), p. 283\\.",
"On July 6, 1869, the Radical Republicans nominated Bayne as their candidate to Congress from the Second Congressional District. He lost to [James H. Platt, Jr.](/wiki/James_H._Platt%2C_Jr. \"James H. Platt, Jr.\"), whom Petersburg's voters had sent to the Constitutional Convention as their delegate. Bayne appealed to Congress, but no\\-one wanted to enforce the new constitution's rejected clause which would have disenfranchised Confederates and their sympathizers.",
"Moreover, months after federal troops left in early 1870, Conservatives won Norfolk's local election in May. John B. Whitehead defeated Radical Peter Dilworth, and Conservatives took over Norfolk's city council, although four blacks won city council seats.Thomas C. Parramore, Peter C. Stewart, *Norfolk: the First 400 Centuries* (University of Virginia Press), p. 237\\. Bayne had been nominated by the Radicals for Commissioner of the Revenue, but voters elected Conservative Republican A.K. Hill, Esq.H.W. Burton, The History of Norfolk, Virginia (Norfolk Virginian, 1877\\) p. 134 available at internet archive Bayne later ran for the post of physician to the almshouse. However, he lost a debate with [Joseph T. Wilson](/wiki/Joseph_T._Wilson \"Joseph T. Wilson\"), another African American and who had been running for customs officer and inspector, and whom the *Norfolk Virginian* considered the community's new negro leader.Hucles, pp. 560, 564, citing *Norfolk Virginian*, May 10, 1870, and January 29, 1873\\.",
"However, Bayne continued in Norfolk. The censuses of 1870 and 1880 show him as living alone, with his status as widower noted on the latter.",
""
] |
Streets and transport
---------------------
[thumb\|160px\|left\|San Fernando Plaza Complex.](/wiki/File:SanFernando_Plaza-Medellin.JPG "SanFernando Plaza-Medellin.JPG")
### Streets
The main streets of the communes are oriented north to south following the direction of the Medellín River. Due to the undulating and varied relief of the area, there are many kind of streets, which are often named due to their orientation:
* **Avenidas** (Avenues): a major thoroughfare or main street.
* **Carrera**: a street that goes from north to south.
* **Calle** (Street): a thoroughfare that goes from east to west.
* **Loma**: a street that goes to a specific hill.
* **Circunvalar**: a street that goes around a specific area.
* **Transversal**: a street that is not oriented east to west.
El Poblado follows the Medellín tradition of using names for the streets, rather than numbers, though it has its own kind of numbering for its streets (*calles*), different from the rest of the Medellín municipality. The number of the *calles* (those that go from east to west) increases from south to north: *Calle 1* at the south of the city and *Calle 120* at its north. However, this order is reversed in El Poblado. The numbers instead increase from north to south. They are also easily distinguished by the word "*sur*" (south) appended to their names: *Calle 1 Sur* is at the northernmost part of El Poblado and *Calle 10 Sur* is at its southern limits.
#### El Poblado Avenue
[right\|thumb\|200px\|A view of El Poblado Avenue toward the north.](/wiki/File:Avenida_El_Poblado-Medellin.jpg "Avenida El Poblado-Medellin.jpg")
This is one of the main thoroughfares in Medellín,Avenida El Poblado, pictures by Carbet. SkyscraperCity, June 2005\. Link retrieved June 1, 2008\. and it changes name several times as it traverses the eastern hills of the city connecting the most northern neighborhoods of Medellín like Manrique to southern [Envigado](/wiki/Envigado "Envigado"). In El Poblado it starts at an intersection with the 30th Street (*Calle 30*) at its north and connects El Poblado to Envigado at its southern terminus. The avenue passes by El Poblado Square and *Calle 10* (10th Street), which is noted for its thriving businesses and nightlife.
#### Las Vegas Avenue
The avenue is oriented north to south and runs along the eastern side of the Medellín River and is the urban limit of the Commune. It is also the continuation of Industrialist Avenue (*Avenida los Industriales*) that starts in 33rd Street finishing in 10th Street, where it becomes *Las Vegas* until the end of the commune in the south.
#### Las Palmas Highway
This is a road that connects Medellín to the near eastern region of the [Antioquia](/wiki/Antioquia_Department "Antioquia Department") State (for example to [La Ceja](/wiki/La_Ceja_%28Colombia%29 "La Ceja (Colombia)") and [El Retiro](/wiki/El_Retiro%2C_Antioquia "El Retiro, Antioquia")). The road is also the eastern limit of the commune and has many commercial buildings, hotels, restaurants and places to view the Aburrá Valley. The road starts in the intersection of 33rd Street and El Poblado Avenue. It is a long ascent to the eastern mountain, which gives a good view of the valley. There is also a small and twisting road that goes from the center of the commune to the highway crossing and named *La Cola del Zorro* (The Tail of the Fox road).
#### Other important ways
As an alternative from going north to south through El Poblado there are two *transversales* (transverse streets): the Transversal Inferior (Bottom Transverse Street) and Transversal Superior (Top Transverse Street). The main streets are oriented mostly from north to south, due to the rising mountainous terrain running from west to east. The most well known west–east streets following the rising terrain to the highest area of the commune are:
* 10th Street (*Calle 10*)
* 14th Street (*Calle 14*)
* 5th South Street (*Calle 5Sur*)
* Los Balsos Hill Street (*Loma de los Balsos*)
The commune is connected to the Guayabal Commune in the west by four bridges crossing the Medellín River in the following streets:
* 37th Street.
* 29th Street.
* 10th Street.
* 12th South Street.
### Transportation
### Metro de Medellín
The Metro of Medellín has three stations in the city of El Poblado along the 1st Line going from north to south through the Industriales and Las Vegas Avenue.
* **El Poblado Station** on the cross of Las Vegas Avenue and 10th Street. It is also near to the bridge of 10th Street that connects with Guayabal Commune.
* **Aguacatala Station** near 12th South Street.
* **Ayurá Station**, the last Metro station within the municipality of Medellín.
### Buses
Five bus lines provide service to El Poblado from downtown Medellín:
* The Poblado 130\.
* The Poblado 131 Barrio Colombia.
* The Poblado\-Exito 132\.
* The Poblado\-San Lucas 133\.
* The Poblado [Intercontinental](/wiki/Intercontinental_Hotel "Intercontinental Hotel")\-Las Lomas 134\.
The buses from Medellín to the towns of [Envigado](/wiki/Envigado "Envigado") and [Sabaneta](/wiki/Sabaneta%2C_Antioquia "Sabaneta, Antioquia") also run through El Poblado.
### Metroplús
The Metroplus is a new transportation project in Medellín that will integrate the current subway stations to different sectors of the city. In the case of El Poblado, the Metroplus will provide service from the Industriales Station near El Poblado Avenue to Zúñiga Creek. It will have 12 stations.
|
[
"Streets and transport\n---------------------",
"[thumb\\|160px\\|left\\|San Fernando Plaza Complex.](/wiki/File:SanFernando_Plaza-Medellin.JPG \"SanFernando Plaza-Medellin.JPG\")",
"### Streets",
"The main streets of the communes are oriented north to south following the direction of the Medellín River. Due to the undulating and varied relief of the area, there are many kind of streets, which are often named due to their orientation:",
"* **Avenidas** (Avenues): a major thoroughfare or main street.\n* **Carrera**: a street that goes from north to south.\n* **Calle** (Street): a thoroughfare that goes from east to west.\n* **Loma**: a street that goes to a specific hill.\n* **Circunvalar**: a street that goes around a specific area.\n* **Transversal**: a street that is not oriented east to west.",
"El Poblado follows the Medellín tradition of using names for the streets, rather than numbers, though it has its own kind of numbering for its streets (*calles*), different from the rest of the Medellín municipality. The number of the *calles* (those that go from east to west) increases from south to north: *Calle 1* at the south of the city and *Calle 120* at its north. However, this order is reversed in El Poblado. The numbers instead increase from north to south. They are also easily distinguished by the word \"*sur*\" (south) appended to their names: *Calle 1 Sur* is at the northernmost part of El Poblado and *Calle 10 Sur* is at its southern limits.",
"#### El Poblado Avenue",
"[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|A view of El Poblado Avenue toward the north.](/wiki/File:Avenida_El_Poblado-Medellin.jpg \"Avenida El Poblado-Medellin.jpg\") \nThis is one of the main thoroughfares in Medellín,Avenida El Poblado, pictures by Carbet. SkyscraperCity, June 2005\\. Link retrieved June 1, 2008\\. and it changes name several times as it traverses the eastern hills of the city connecting the most northern neighborhoods of Medellín like Manrique to southern [Envigado](/wiki/Envigado \"Envigado\"). In El Poblado it starts at an intersection with the 30th Street (*Calle 30*) at its north and connects El Poblado to Envigado at its southern terminus. The avenue passes by El Poblado Square and *Calle 10* (10th Street), which is noted for its thriving businesses and nightlife.",
"#### Las Vegas Avenue",
"The avenue is oriented north to south and runs along the eastern side of the Medellín River and is the urban limit of the Commune. It is also the continuation of Industrialist Avenue (*Avenida los Industriales*) that starts in 33rd Street finishing in 10th Street, where it becomes *Las Vegas* until the end of the commune in the south.",
"#### Las Palmas Highway",
"This is a road that connects Medellín to the near eastern region of the [Antioquia](/wiki/Antioquia_Department \"Antioquia Department\") State (for example to [La Ceja](/wiki/La_Ceja_%28Colombia%29 \"La Ceja (Colombia)\") and [El Retiro](/wiki/El_Retiro%2C_Antioquia \"El Retiro, Antioquia\")). The road is also the eastern limit of the commune and has many commercial buildings, hotels, restaurants and places to view the Aburrá Valley. The road starts in the intersection of 33rd Street and El Poblado Avenue. It is a long ascent to the eastern mountain, which gives a good view of the valley. There is also a small and twisting road that goes from the center of the commune to the highway crossing and named *La Cola del Zorro* (The Tail of the Fox road).",
"#### Other important ways",
"As an alternative from going north to south through El Poblado there are two *transversales* (transverse streets): the Transversal Inferior (Bottom Transverse Street) and Transversal Superior (Top Transverse Street). The main streets are oriented mostly from north to south, due to the rising mountainous terrain running from west to east. The most well known west–east streets following the rising terrain to the highest area of the commune are:",
"* 10th Street (*Calle 10*)\n* 14th Street (*Calle 14*)\n* 5th South Street (*Calle 5Sur*)\n* Los Balsos Hill Street (*Loma de los Balsos*)",
"The commune is connected to the Guayabal Commune in the west by four bridges crossing the Medellín River in the following streets:",
"* 37th Street.\n* 29th Street.\n* 10th Street.\n* 12th South Street.",
"### Transportation",
"### Metro de Medellín",
"The Metro of Medellín has three stations in the city of El Poblado along the 1st Line going from north to south through the Industriales and Las Vegas Avenue.",
"* **El Poblado Station** on the cross of Las Vegas Avenue and 10th Street. It is also near to the bridge of 10th Street that connects with Guayabal Commune.\n* **Aguacatala Station** near 12th South Street.\n* **Ayurá Station**, the last Metro station within the municipality of Medellín.",
"### Buses",
"Five bus lines provide service to El Poblado from downtown Medellín:",
"* The Poblado 130\\.\n* The Poblado 131 Barrio Colombia.\n* The Poblado\\-Exito 132\\.\n* The Poblado\\-San Lucas 133\\.\n* The Poblado [Intercontinental](/wiki/Intercontinental_Hotel \"Intercontinental Hotel\")\\-Las Lomas 134\\.",
"The buses from Medellín to the towns of [Envigado](/wiki/Envigado \"Envigado\") and [Sabaneta](/wiki/Sabaneta%2C_Antioquia \"Sabaneta, Antioquia\") also run through El Poblado.",
"### Metroplús",
"The Metroplus is a new transportation project in Medellín that will integrate the current subway stations to different sectors of the city. In the case of El Poblado, the Metroplus will provide service from the Industriales Station near El Poblado Avenue to Zúñiga Creek. It will have 12 stations.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Pre\-revolutionary period
The founding date of the settlement is considered to be 1751\.{{cite web \|url\=http://altlib.ru/files/text/k2011/37\.pdf \|title\=Алтайский край 2011\. Календарь знаменательных и памятных дат. 260 лет со времени первого упоминания деревни Камень (ныне г. Камень\-на\-Оби) \|accessdate\=2012\-07\-23 \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623110921/http://altlib.ru/files/text/k2011/37\.pdf \|archivedate\=2015\-06\-23}} Previously, the founding date was considered to be 1670,[Большой энциклопедический словарь](http://www.vedu.ru/BigEncDic/25659) however, in 2000, a scientific study was carried out, during which it turned out that the founding date of the village of Kamen is 1751\. The name has a literal explanation: the village was named so because of the rocky outcrop of a spur of the [Salair Ridge](/wiki/Salair_Ridge "Salair Ridge") on the surface of the earth near it.
On a detailed map of the Kolyvan\-Voznesensk mountain district in 1816,[Подробная карта Колывано\-Вознесенской горной округи](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-barnaul_kolyvan-1816/) the village is called Kamenka.
On the General Map of Western Siberia in 1848,[Генеральная карта западной Сибири 1848 года](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-atlas_zapadnaya-sibir-1848/) the village is labeled Kamenka (Buksilova).
On the map of Tomsk province in Ilyin's atlas (1871\){{Cite web \|url\=http://www.etomesto.ru/map\-tomsk\_guberniya\-1871\-ilyn/ \|title\=Томская губерния в атласе Ильина \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-30 \|archive\-date\=2023\-01\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130061618/http://www.etomesto.ru/map\-tomsk\_guberniya\-1871\-ilyn/}} the village is called Kuksilovo.
On the map Map of provinces and regions of the Russian Empire along the Siberian Railway (1893\) the village is called Katelnarskaya (Kamen).[http://www.etomesto.ru/map\-atlas\_1893/](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-atlas_1893/) Карта губерний и областей Российской Империи вдоль Сибирской железной дороги 1893 г.
Since 1886, it has been classified as a village. It was formed by the merger of several smaller settlements located in the neighborhood.
The favorable geographical location and the presence of a pier determined the economic development of the village. By the end of the 19th century, the village of Kamen was a large trading village in the Barnaul Uezd of the [Tomsk Governorate](/wiki/Tomsk_Governorate "Tomsk Governorate") and became (until 1925\) the center of the Kamensk volost. Local merchants established economic trade ties with Russian and European enterprises. The main commodity sold at that time was grain. The largest suppliers of wheat were local merchants Vinokurov and Falkov. In 1912, in terms of trade turnover, the village of Kamen ranked 4th in the Tomsk Governorate, after [Tomsk](/wiki/Tomsk "Tomsk"), [Novonikolaevsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk "Novosibirsk") (now Novosibirsk) and [Barnaul](/wiki/Barnaul "Barnaul"). There was also a handicraft industry in the city and county: tanneries, oil churns, mills and other small enterprises for processing agricultural raw materials. In the district there were about 200 butter\-making artels, many private butter factories and grain storage centers. The labor force, represented by landless peasant migrants from Central Russia, was unusually cheap.
After the construction of the [Trans\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway "Trans-Siberian Railway") in Novonikolaevsk (now Novosibirsk), the importance of water transport decreased and the economic role of the village in the region began to gradually fade away. However, railway transport did not develop so quickly and the village remained a major grain transshipment point. On May 10 (23\), 1915, the village of Kamen was given the status of a city; by 1917 there were 15 thousand inhabitants.
### Kamen during the October Revolution
A feature of the political development of the city in 1917 was the hegemony of the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks"), who were among the first in Siberia to form a party organization separate from the [Mensheviks](/wiki/Mensheviks "Mensheviks") and took power in the city peacefully. Power passed to the Soviets at the end of December 1917\. The executive committee of the Council adopted the name "District Council of People's Commissars". Ignatiy Vladimirovich Gromov (Mamonov) was elected chairman of the Kamensky District Soviet. After the establishment of Soviet power, the People's House was opened in the city, clubs were opened in the volost villages, and reading huts were opened in the villages. The council nationalized several houses of large landlords and turned them over to schools. To finance public education, as well as the fight against counter\-revolution, an indemnity in the amount of 3 million rubles was imposed on the local bourgeoisie (of which they managed to collect about 2 million).И.Кадыкова\-Городецкая Е. А. Большевики Камня в борьбе за Советскую власть //Незабываемое. Барнаул, 1960\. С.5–28\.
At the suggestion of the anarchists elected to the Council, the issue of creating the Kamensk district federal republic was discussed. Local anarchists wanted to achieve independence from the province so as not to supply food to the center.
In February – March 1918, a counter\-revolutionary rebellion broke out in Kamen and its district, led by the head of the district police, former lieutenant Samoilov. The rebels killed Bolsheviks, Soviet activists, and destroyed Soviet institutions. Red Guard detachments from Barnaul and Novonikolaevsk arrived to eliminate the rebellion. The Barnaul detachment of Red Guard railwaymen, numbering up to 150 bayonets, was led by I. M. Tsaritsyn and M. A. Fomin. As a result, the rebellion was suppressed, moreover, Soviets appeared in those villages of the district where they had not previously existed.
By May 1918, Kamen's Red Guard detachment numbered about 300 fighters, but its main forces were sent to Transbaikalia to fight against the gangs of Ataman Semyonov. By the time of the White Czech uprising, the Kamensk Bolsheviks were practically unarmed. On June 9, 1918, the city was taken without a fight by the White Guards, who arrived by boat from Novonikolaevsk. 8 Bolsheviks remained in the city to conduct underground work.
In August 1919, Kamen became a frontline city. A peasant uprising began in the village of [Ust\-Mosikha](/wiki/Ust-Mosikha "Ust-Mosikha"), organized by a local teacher, Bolshevik A. N. Danilov. On August 29, 1919, the partisan detachment of Ignatius Gromov occupied the city for several hours. This action pursued not so much military as political goals: to show the increased power of pro\-Bolshevik partisans. In the afternoon, the Whites returned to the city, supported by one and a half thousand Poles, with two steamships, two cannons and machine guns. The Red partisans and peasants retreated, capturing 400 rifles and looting warehouses with ammunition, uniforms, textiles and leather goods. The Reds freed about five hundred captured Hungarians, from whom a company of Red Magyars was formed under the command of Max Lamberg.
Soviet power in the city was restored on November 28, 1919 by partisan detachments and units of the regular Red Army that occupied Kamen.
### Soviet period and the present
In 1930, according to the project and under the leadership of [Yuri Kondratyuk](/wiki/Yuri_Kondratyuk "Yuri Kondratyuk"), a unique structure named "Mastodon" was built – the largest wooden granary in the world with a capacity of 13,000 tons. This structure was built without a single nail. In the mid\-1990s, Mastodon was seriously damaged during a major fire and was subsequently destroyed.
Since April 10, 1933, the city has had its modern name – Kamen\-na\-Obi.
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), some enterprises and institutions were evacuated to Kamen\-on\-Ob: in particular, the Voronezh Agricultural Institute{{cite web \|url\=http://www.vsau.ru/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F \|title\=ФГБОУ ВПО Воронежский ГАУ. История/ Эвакуация \|accessdate\=2019\-08\-03 \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022043408/http://www.vsau.ru/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F \|archivedate\=2018\-10\-22}} and the [Altai State Pedagogical University](/wiki/Altai_State_Pedagogical_University "Altai State Pedagogical University").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.uni\-altai.ru/Journal/pedagog/pedagog\_6/a01\.html \|title\=СТУПЕНИ РОСТА Барнаульского государственного педагогического университета \|accessdate\=2009\-12\-07 \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923105821/http://www.uni\-altai.ru/Journal/pedagog/pedagog\_6/a01\.html \|archivedate\=2011\-09\-23}}
In the post\-war years, Kamen\-na\-Obi developed as an agricultural center in the region. Thus, in the early 1960s, the Central Siberian Mainline of the [West Siberian Railway](/wiki/West_Siberian_Railway "West Siberian Railway") was put into operation, which made it possible to establish stable transport links with major cities of [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia"). From 1973 to 1983, the [Kulunda Main Canal](/wiki/Kulunda_Main_Canal "Kulunda Main Canal") was built, designed to irrigate agricultural lands in the arid steppe of [Altai Krai](/wiki/Altai_Krai "Altai Krai"). In 1977, the head pumping station and the head section, starting in Kamen\-na\-Obi, were put into operation. In 1979, construction of the largest [grain elevator](/wiki/Grain_elevator "Grain elevator") beyond the Urals was completed.
Until 2015 it was a city of regional significance; since then it has been a city of district significance.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Pre\\-revolutionary period",
"The founding date of the settlement is considered to be 1751\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://altlib.ru/files/text/k2011/37\\.pdf \\|title\\=Алтайский край 2011\\. Календарь знаменательных и памятных дат. 260 лет со времени первого упоминания деревни Камень (ныне г. Камень\\-на\\-Оби) \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-23 \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623110921/http://altlib.ru/files/text/k2011/37\\.pdf \\|archivedate\\=2015\\-06\\-23}} Previously, the founding date was considered to be 1670,[Большой энциклопедический словарь](http://www.vedu.ru/BigEncDic/25659) however, in 2000, a scientific study was carried out, during which it turned out that the founding date of the village of Kamen is 1751\\. The name has a literal explanation: the village was named so because of the rocky outcrop of a spur of the [Salair Ridge](/wiki/Salair_Ridge \"Salair Ridge\") on the surface of the earth near it.",
"On a detailed map of the Kolyvan\\-Voznesensk mountain district in 1816,[Подробная карта Колывано\\-Вознесенской горной округи](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-barnaul_kolyvan-1816/) the village is called Kamenka.",
"On the General Map of Western Siberia in 1848,[Генеральная карта западной Сибири 1848 года](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-atlas_zapadnaya-sibir-1848/) the village is labeled Kamenka (Buksilova).",
"On the map of Tomsk province in Ilyin's atlas (1871\\){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.etomesto.ru/map\\-tomsk\\_guberniya\\-1871\\-ilyn/ \\|title\\=Томская губерния в атласе Ильина \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-30 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130061618/http://www.etomesto.ru/map\\-tomsk\\_guberniya\\-1871\\-ilyn/}} the village is called Kuksilovo.",
"On the map Map of provinces and regions of the Russian Empire along the Siberian Railway (1893\\) the village is called Katelnarskaya (Kamen).[http://www.etomesto.ru/map\\-atlas\\_1893/](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-atlas_1893/) Карта губерний и областей Российской Империи вдоль Сибирской железной дороги 1893 г.",
"Since 1886, it has been classified as a village. It was formed by the merger of several smaller settlements located in the neighborhood.",
"The favorable geographical location and the presence of a pier determined the economic development of the village. By the end of the 19th century, the village of Kamen was a large trading village in the Barnaul Uezd of the [Tomsk Governorate](/wiki/Tomsk_Governorate \"Tomsk Governorate\") and became (until 1925\\) the center of the Kamensk volost. Local merchants established economic trade ties with Russian and European enterprises. The main commodity sold at that time was grain. The largest suppliers of wheat were local merchants Vinokurov and Falkov. In 1912, in terms of trade turnover, the village of Kamen ranked 4th in the Tomsk Governorate, after [Tomsk](/wiki/Tomsk \"Tomsk\"), [Novonikolaevsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk \"Novosibirsk\") (now Novosibirsk) and [Barnaul](/wiki/Barnaul \"Barnaul\"). There was also a handicraft industry in the city and county: tanneries, oil churns, mills and other small enterprises for processing agricultural raw materials. In the district there were about 200 butter\\-making artels, many private butter factories and grain storage centers. The labor force, represented by landless peasant migrants from Central Russia, was unusually cheap.",
"After the construction of the [Trans\\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway \"Trans-Siberian Railway\") in Novonikolaevsk (now Novosibirsk), the importance of water transport decreased and the economic role of the village in the region began to gradually fade away. However, railway transport did not develop so quickly and the village remained a major grain transshipment point. On May 10 (23\\), 1915, the village of Kamen was given the status of a city; by 1917 there were 15 thousand inhabitants.",
"### Kamen during the October Revolution",
"A feature of the political development of the city in 1917 was the hegemony of the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\"), who were among the first in Siberia to form a party organization separate from the [Mensheviks](/wiki/Mensheviks \"Mensheviks\") and took power in the city peacefully. Power passed to the Soviets at the end of December 1917\\. The executive committee of the Council adopted the name \"District Council of People's Commissars\". Ignatiy Vladimirovich Gromov (Mamonov) was elected chairman of the Kamensky District Soviet. After the establishment of Soviet power, the People's House was opened in the city, clubs were opened in the volost villages, and reading huts were opened in the villages. The council nationalized several houses of large landlords and turned them over to schools. To finance public education, as well as the fight against counter\\-revolution, an indemnity in the amount of 3 million rubles was imposed on the local bourgeoisie (of which they managed to collect about 2 million).И.Кадыкова\\-Городецкая Е. А. Большевики Камня в борьбе за Советскую власть //Незабываемое. Барнаул, 1960\\. С.5–28\\.",
"At the suggestion of the anarchists elected to the Council, the issue of creating the Kamensk district federal republic was discussed. Local anarchists wanted to achieve independence from the province so as not to supply food to the center.",
"In February – March 1918, a counter\\-revolutionary rebellion broke out in Kamen and its district, led by the head of the district police, former lieutenant Samoilov. The rebels killed Bolsheviks, Soviet activists, and destroyed Soviet institutions. Red Guard detachments from Barnaul and Novonikolaevsk arrived to eliminate the rebellion. The Barnaul detachment of Red Guard railwaymen, numbering up to 150 bayonets, was led by I. M. Tsaritsyn and M. A. Fomin. As a result, the rebellion was suppressed, moreover, Soviets appeared in those villages of the district where they had not previously existed.",
"By May 1918, Kamen's Red Guard detachment numbered about 300 fighters, but its main forces were sent to Transbaikalia to fight against the gangs of Ataman Semyonov. By the time of the White Czech uprising, the Kamensk Bolsheviks were practically unarmed. On June 9, 1918, the city was taken without a fight by the White Guards, who arrived by boat from Novonikolaevsk. 8 Bolsheviks remained in the city to conduct underground work.",
"In August 1919, Kamen became a frontline city. A peasant uprising began in the village of [Ust\\-Mosikha](/wiki/Ust-Mosikha \"Ust-Mosikha\"), organized by a local teacher, Bolshevik A. N. Danilov. On August 29, 1919, the partisan detachment of Ignatius Gromov occupied the city for several hours. This action pursued not so much military as political goals: to show the increased power of pro\\-Bolshevik partisans. In the afternoon, the Whites returned to the city, supported by one and a half thousand Poles, with two steamships, two cannons and machine guns. The Red partisans and peasants retreated, capturing 400 rifles and looting warehouses with ammunition, uniforms, textiles and leather goods. The Reds freed about five hundred captured Hungarians, from whom a company of Red Magyars was formed under the command of Max Lamberg.",
"Soviet power in the city was restored on November 28, 1919 by partisan detachments and units of the regular Red Army that occupied Kamen.",
"### Soviet period and the present",
"In 1930, according to the project and under the leadership of [Yuri Kondratyuk](/wiki/Yuri_Kondratyuk \"Yuri Kondratyuk\"), a unique structure named \"Mastodon\" was built – the largest wooden granary in the world with a capacity of 13,000 tons. This structure was built without a single nail. In the mid\\-1990s, Mastodon was seriously damaged during a major fire and was subsequently destroyed.",
"Since April 10, 1933, the city has had its modern name – Kamen\\-na\\-Obi.",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), some enterprises and institutions were evacuated to Kamen\\-on\\-Ob: in particular, the Voronezh Agricultural Institute{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.vsau.ru/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F \\|title\\=ФГБОУ ВПО Воронежский ГАУ. История/ Эвакуация \\|accessdate\\=2019\\-08\\-03 \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022043408/http://www.vsau.ru/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F \\|archivedate\\=2018\\-10\\-22}} and the [Altai State Pedagogical University](/wiki/Altai_State_Pedagogical_University \"Altai State Pedagogical University\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uni\\-altai.ru/Journal/pedagog/pedagog\\_6/a01\\.html \\|title\\=СТУПЕНИ РОСТА Барнаульского государственного педагогического университета \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-12\\-07 \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923105821/http://www.uni\\-altai.ru/Journal/pedagog/pedagog\\_6/a01\\.html \\|archivedate\\=2011\\-09\\-23}}",
"In the post\\-war years, Kamen\\-na\\-Obi developed as an agricultural center in the region. Thus, in the early 1960s, the Central Siberian Mainline of the [West Siberian Railway](/wiki/West_Siberian_Railway \"West Siberian Railway\") was put into operation, which made it possible to establish stable transport links with major cities of [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\"). From 1973 to 1983, the [Kulunda Main Canal](/wiki/Kulunda_Main_Canal \"Kulunda Main Canal\") was built, designed to irrigate agricultural lands in the arid steppe of [Altai Krai](/wiki/Altai_Krai \"Altai Krai\"). In 1977, the head pumping station and the head section, starting in Kamen\\-na\\-Obi, were put into operation. In 1979, construction of the largest [grain elevator](/wiki/Grain_elevator \"Grain elevator\") beyond the Urals was completed.",
"Until 2015 it was a city of regional significance; since then it has been a city of district significance.",
""
] |
### Pre\-revolutionary period
The founding date of the settlement is considered to be 1751\.{{cite web \|url\=http://altlib.ru/files/text/k2011/37\.pdf \|title\=Алтайский край 2011\. Календарь знаменательных и памятных дат. 260 лет со времени первого упоминания деревни Камень (ныне г. Камень\-на\-Оби) \|accessdate\=2012\-07\-23 \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623110921/http://altlib.ru/files/text/k2011/37\.pdf \|archivedate\=2015\-06\-23}} Previously, the founding date was considered to be 1670,[Большой энциклопедический словарь](http://www.vedu.ru/BigEncDic/25659) however, in 2000, a scientific study was carried out, during which it turned out that the founding date of the village of Kamen is 1751\. The name has a literal explanation: the village was named so because of the rocky outcrop of a spur of the [Salair Ridge](/wiki/Salair_Ridge "Salair Ridge") on the surface of the earth near it.
On a detailed map of the Kolyvan\-Voznesensk mountain district in 1816,[Подробная карта Колывано\-Вознесенской горной округи](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-barnaul_kolyvan-1816/) the village is called Kamenka.
On the General Map of Western Siberia in 1848,[Генеральная карта западной Сибири 1848 года](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-atlas_zapadnaya-sibir-1848/) the village is labeled Kamenka (Buksilova).
On the map of Tomsk province in Ilyin's atlas (1871\){{Cite web \|url\=http://www.etomesto.ru/map\-tomsk\_guberniya\-1871\-ilyn/ \|title\=Томская губерния в атласе Ильина \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-30 \|archive\-date\=2023\-01\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130061618/http://www.etomesto.ru/map\-tomsk\_guberniya\-1871\-ilyn/}} the village is called Kuksilovo.
On the map Map of provinces and regions of the Russian Empire along the Siberian Railway (1893\) the village is called Katelnarskaya (Kamen).[http://www.etomesto.ru/map\-atlas\_1893/](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-atlas_1893/) Карта губерний и областей Российской Империи вдоль Сибирской железной дороги 1893 г.
Since 1886, it has been classified as a village. It was formed by the merger of several smaller settlements located in the neighborhood.
The favorable geographical location and the presence of a pier determined the economic development of the village. By the end of the 19th century, the village of Kamen was a large trading village in the Barnaul Uezd of the [Tomsk Governorate](/wiki/Tomsk_Governorate "Tomsk Governorate") and became (until 1925\) the center of the Kamensk volost. Local merchants established economic trade ties with Russian and European enterprises. The main commodity sold at that time was grain. The largest suppliers of wheat were local merchants Vinokurov and Falkov. In 1912, in terms of trade turnover, the village of Kamen ranked 4th in the Tomsk Governorate, after [Tomsk](/wiki/Tomsk "Tomsk"), [Novonikolaevsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk "Novosibirsk") (now Novosibirsk) and [Barnaul](/wiki/Barnaul "Barnaul"). There was also a handicraft industry in the city and county: tanneries, oil churns, mills and other small enterprises for processing agricultural raw materials. In the district there were about 200 butter\-making artels, many private butter factories and grain storage centers. The labor force, represented by landless peasant migrants from Central Russia, was unusually cheap.
After the construction of the [Trans\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway "Trans-Siberian Railway") in Novonikolaevsk (now Novosibirsk), the importance of water transport decreased and the economic role of the village in the region began to gradually fade away. However, railway transport did not develop so quickly and the village remained a major grain transshipment point. On May 10 (23\), 1915, the village of Kamen was given the status of a city; by 1917 there were 15 thousand inhabitants.
|
[
"### Pre\\-revolutionary period",
"The founding date of the settlement is considered to be 1751\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://altlib.ru/files/text/k2011/37\\.pdf \\|title\\=Алтайский край 2011\\. Календарь знаменательных и памятных дат. 260 лет со времени первого упоминания деревни Камень (ныне г. Камень\\-на\\-Оби) \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-23 \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623110921/http://altlib.ru/files/text/k2011/37\\.pdf \\|archivedate\\=2015\\-06\\-23}} Previously, the founding date was considered to be 1670,[Большой энциклопедический словарь](http://www.vedu.ru/BigEncDic/25659) however, in 2000, a scientific study was carried out, during which it turned out that the founding date of the village of Kamen is 1751\\. The name has a literal explanation: the village was named so because of the rocky outcrop of a spur of the [Salair Ridge](/wiki/Salair_Ridge \"Salair Ridge\") on the surface of the earth near it.",
"On a detailed map of the Kolyvan\\-Voznesensk mountain district in 1816,[Подробная карта Колывано\\-Вознесенской горной округи](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-barnaul_kolyvan-1816/) the village is called Kamenka.",
"On the General Map of Western Siberia in 1848,[Генеральная карта западной Сибири 1848 года](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-atlas_zapadnaya-sibir-1848/) the village is labeled Kamenka (Buksilova).",
"On the map of Tomsk province in Ilyin's atlas (1871\\){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.etomesto.ru/map\\-tomsk\\_guberniya\\-1871\\-ilyn/ \\|title\\=Томская губерния в атласе Ильина \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-30 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130061618/http://www.etomesto.ru/map\\-tomsk\\_guberniya\\-1871\\-ilyn/}} the village is called Kuksilovo.",
"On the map Map of provinces and regions of the Russian Empire along the Siberian Railway (1893\\) the village is called Katelnarskaya (Kamen).[http://www.etomesto.ru/map\\-atlas\\_1893/](http://www.etomesto.ru/map-atlas_1893/) Карта губерний и областей Российской Империи вдоль Сибирской железной дороги 1893 г.",
"Since 1886, it has been classified as a village. It was formed by the merger of several smaller settlements located in the neighborhood.",
"The favorable geographical location and the presence of a pier determined the economic development of the village. By the end of the 19th century, the village of Kamen was a large trading village in the Barnaul Uezd of the [Tomsk Governorate](/wiki/Tomsk_Governorate \"Tomsk Governorate\") and became (until 1925\\) the center of the Kamensk volost. Local merchants established economic trade ties with Russian and European enterprises. The main commodity sold at that time was grain. The largest suppliers of wheat were local merchants Vinokurov and Falkov. In 1912, in terms of trade turnover, the village of Kamen ranked 4th in the Tomsk Governorate, after [Tomsk](/wiki/Tomsk \"Tomsk\"), [Novonikolaevsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk \"Novosibirsk\") (now Novosibirsk) and [Barnaul](/wiki/Barnaul \"Barnaul\"). There was also a handicraft industry in the city and county: tanneries, oil churns, mills and other small enterprises for processing agricultural raw materials. In the district there were about 200 butter\\-making artels, many private butter factories and grain storage centers. The labor force, represented by landless peasant migrants from Central Russia, was unusually cheap.",
"After the construction of the [Trans\\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway \"Trans-Siberian Railway\") in Novonikolaevsk (now Novosibirsk), the importance of water transport decreased and the economic role of the village in the region began to gradually fade away. However, railway transport did not develop so quickly and the village remained a major grain transshipment point. On May 10 (23\\), 1915, the village of Kamen was given the status of a city; by 1917 there were 15 thousand inhabitants.",
""
] |
### Kamen during the October Revolution
A feature of the political development of the city in 1917 was the hegemony of the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks"), who were among the first in Siberia to form a party organization separate from the [Mensheviks](/wiki/Mensheviks "Mensheviks") and took power in the city peacefully. Power passed to the Soviets at the end of December 1917\. The executive committee of the Council adopted the name "District Council of People's Commissars". Ignatiy Vladimirovich Gromov (Mamonov) was elected chairman of the Kamensky District Soviet. After the establishment of Soviet power, the People's House was opened in the city, clubs were opened in the volost villages, and reading huts were opened in the villages. The council nationalized several houses of large landlords and turned them over to schools. To finance public education, as well as the fight against counter\-revolution, an indemnity in the amount of 3 million rubles was imposed on the local bourgeoisie (of which they managed to collect about 2 million).И.Кадыкова\-Городецкая Е. А. Большевики Камня в борьбе за Советскую власть //Незабываемое. Барнаул, 1960\. С.5–28\.
At the suggestion of the anarchists elected to the Council, the issue of creating the Kamensk district federal republic was discussed. Local anarchists wanted to achieve independence from the province so as not to supply food to the center.
In February – March 1918, a counter\-revolutionary rebellion broke out in Kamen and its district, led by the head of the district police, former lieutenant Samoilov. The rebels killed Bolsheviks, Soviet activists, and destroyed Soviet institutions. Red Guard detachments from Barnaul and Novonikolaevsk arrived to eliminate the rebellion. The Barnaul detachment of Red Guard railwaymen, numbering up to 150 bayonets, was led by I. M. Tsaritsyn and M. A. Fomin. As a result, the rebellion was suppressed, moreover, Soviets appeared in those villages of the district where they had not previously existed.
By May 1918, Kamen's Red Guard detachment numbered about 300 fighters, but its main forces were sent to Transbaikalia to fight against the gangs of Ataman Semyonov. By the time of the White Czech uprising, the Kamensk Bolsheviks were practically unarmed. On June 9, 1918, the city was taken without a fight by the White Guards, who arrived by boat from Novonikolaevsk. 8 Bolsheviks remained in the city to conduct underground work.
In August 1919, Kamen became a frontline city. A peasant uprising began in the village of [Ust\-Mosikha](/wiki/Ust-Mosikha "Ust-Mosikha"), organized by a local teacher, Bolshevik A. N. Danilov. On August 29, 1919, the partisan detachment of Ignatius Gromov occupied the city for several hours. This action pursued not so much military as political goals: to show the increased power of pro\-Bolshevik partisans. In the afternoon, the Whites returned to the city, supported by one and a half thousand Poles, with two steamships, two cannons and machine guns. The Red partisans and peasants retreated, capturing 400 rifles and looting warehouses with ammunition, uniforms, textiles and leather goods. The Reds freed about five hundred captured Hungarians, from whom a company of Red Magyars was formed under the command of Max Lamberg.
Soviet power in the city was restored on November 28, 1919 by partisan detachments and units of the regular Red Army that occupied Kamen.
|
[
"### Kamen during the October Revolution",
"A feature of the political development of the city in 1917 was the hegemony of the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\"), who were among the first in Siberia to form a party organization separate from the [Mensheviks](/wiki/Mensheviks \"Mensheviks\") and took power in the city peacefully. Power passed to the Soviets at the end of December 1917\\. The executive committee of the Council adopted the name \"District Council of People's Commissars\". Ignatiy Vladimirovich Gromov (Mamonov) was elected chairman of the Kamensky District Soviet. After the establishment of Soviet power, the People's House was opened in the city, clubs were opened in the volost villages, and reading huts were opened in the villages. The council nationalized several houses of large landlords and turned them over to schools. To finance public education, as well as the fight against counter\\-revolution, an indemnity in the amount of 3 million rubles was imposed on the local bourgeoisie (of which they managed to collect about 2 million).И.Кадыкова\\-Городецкая Е. А. Большевики Камня в борьбе за Советскую власть //Незабываемое. Барнаул, 1960\\. С.5–28\\.",
"At the suggestion of the anarchists elected to the Council, the issue of creating the Kamensk district federal republic was discussed. Local anarchists wanted to achieve independence from the province so as not to supply food to the center.",
"In February – March 1918, a counter\\-revolutionary rebellion broke out in Kamen and its district, led by the head of the district police, former lieutenant Samoilov. The rebels killed Bolsheviks, Soviet activists, and destroyed Soviet institutions. Red Guard detachments from Barnaul and Novonikolaevsk arrived to eliminate the rebellion. The Barnaul detachment of Red Guard railwaymen, numbering up to 150 bayonets, was led by I. M. Tsaritsyn and M. A. Fomin. As a result, the rebellion was suppressed, moreover, Soviets appeared in those villages of the district where they had not previously existed.",
"By May 1918, Kamen's Red Guard detachment numbered about 300 fighters, but its main forces were sent to Transbaikalia to fight against the gangs of Ataman Semyonov. By the time of the White Czech uprising, the Kamensk Bolsheviks were practically unarmed. On June 9, 1918, the city was taken without a fight by the White Guards, who arrived by boat from Novonikolaevsk. 8 Bolsheviks remained in the city to conduct underground work.",
"In August 1919, Kamen became a frontline city. A peasant uprising began in the village of [Ust\\-Mosikha](/wiki/Ust-Mosikha \"Ust-Mosikha\"), organized by a local teacher, Bolshevik A. N. Danilov. On August 29, 1919, the partisan detachment of Ignatius Gromov occupied the city for several hours. This action pursued not so much military as political goals: to show the increased power of pro\\-Bolshevik partisans. In the afternoon, the Whites returned to the city, supported by one and a half thousand Poles, with two steamships, two cannons and machine guns. The Red partisans and peasants retreated, capturing 400 rifles and looting warehouses with ammunition, uniforms, textiles and leather goods. The Reds freed about five hundred captured Hungarians, from whom a company of Red Magyars was formed under the command of Max Lamberg.",
"Soviet power in the city was restored on November 28, 1919 by partisan detachments and units of the regular Red Army that occupied Kamen.",
""
] |
Economy
-------
### Industry
Kamen\-na\-Obi has a very developed trade and food industry, and other industries are also represented in small numbers.
The main enterprises in the town are a metal plant, a Voskhod meat processing plant, a butter and cheese factory, a fish factory, a poultry farm, a grain elevator, a furniture factory, and an enterprise for the production of deep\-frozen products.
In 2011, one of the largest woodworking plants in the Siberian region, the Kamensky Timber and Wood Processing Plant, was launched.{{cite web\|title\=«Алтайлес»\|url\=https://www.altailes.com/production/plant/\|website\=altailes.com\|access\-date\=2022\-12\-18\|archive\-date\=2022\-12\-18\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218082620/https://www.altailes.com/production/plant/}} The processing capacity of the plant is 1000 cubic meters of wood per day.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.bankfax.ru/news/81557/ \|title\=Руководство «Каменского ЛДК» в связи с выходом на проектную мощность по переработке 1000 кубометров древесины в сутки уверяет, что леса в Алтайском крае для «выборочных рубок» ещё достаточно. \|access\-date\=2013\-04\-04 \|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002133855/http://www.bankfax.ru/news/81557/}} The volume of wood processing at Kamenskoye LDK is 220–240 thousand m³ per year.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.bankfax.ru/news/81557/ \|title\=Руководство «Каменского ЛДК» в связи с выходом на проектную мощность по переработке 1000 кубометров древесины в сутки уверяет, что леса в Алтайском крае для «выборочных рубок» ещё достаточно. \|access\-date\=2013\-04\-04 \|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002133855/http://www.bankfax.ru/news/81557/}}{{cite web\|title\=Каменский ЛДК\|url\=https://lesprominform.ru/jarticles.html?id\=3097\|website\=lesprominform.ru\|date\=2013\|access\-date\=2022\-12\-18\|archive\-date\=2022\-12\-18\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218082619/https://lesprominform.ru/jarticles.html?id\=3097}}
### Transport
The city has rail, road and river transport.
The Central Siberian Mainline of the West Siberian Railway passes through the Kamen\-na\-Obi railway station. With the commissioning of the second bridgeа{{cite web \|url\=http://zszd.rzd.ru/isvp/public/zszd?STRUCTURE\_ID\=42\&layer\_id\=4069\&page3307\_810\=2\&refererLayerId\=3307\&id\=120761 \|title\=Новости \|website\=Западно\-Сибирская ЖД \|accessdate\=2009\-12\-07 \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110192631/http://zszd.rzd.ru/isvp/public/zszd?STRUCTURE\_ID\=42 \|archivedate\=2011\-11\-10}}{{cite web \|url \= http://zszd.rzd.ru/isvp/public/zszd/popup?STRUCTURE\_ID\=704\&layer\_id\=4072\&vp\=17\&refererLayerId\=3947\&photorep\_id\=25543 \|title \= Фоторепортаж с открытия железнодорожного моста}} across the [Ob](/wiki/Ob_%28river%29 "Ob (river)") on September 25, 2009, the Central Siberian Railway became the main freight route of the West Siberian Railway. Long\-distance passenger trains to Moscow, [Omsk](/wiki/Omsk "Omsk") and [Rubtsovsk](/wiki/Rubtsovsk "Rubtsovsk") and commuter trains to [Karasuk](/wiki/Karasuk%2C_Novosibirsk_Oblast "Karasuk, Novosibirsk Oblast"), [Barnaul](/wiki/Barnaul "Barnaul") and [Plotinnaya](/wiki/Plotinnaya "Plotinnaya") run through the Kamen\-na\-Obi station.
Public transport is represented by intercity, suburban and city bus transportation. From the Kamen bus station, buses depart to Novosibirsk, Barnaul, Rubtsovsk, Slavgorod, Bayevo, Tyumentsevo, Zavyalovo and other settlements of the region. Suburban passenger transportation is carried out in the villages of Kamensky and Krutikhinsky districts. The urban transport route network consists of eight bus routes. The regional highway P380 Novosibirsk – Kamen\-na\-Obi – Barnaul passes through the city.
River transport is represented by passenger transportation (2 suburban routes) and freight transportation (barge transportation of sand, crushed stone, etc.).
There is a [military airfield](/wiki/Kamen-na-Obi_%28air_base%29 "Kamen-na-Obi (air base)") 9 km west of the city. Until the mid\-1990s, the 96th training aviation regiment of the Barnaul VVAUL was based at the airfield. Currently, the airfield is mothballed. The airfield accepts civil aircraft (medical and agricultural aviation).
Main highways of the city:
* Barnaulskiy Trakt (to Barnaul on highway P380\),
* Kamenskaya Street (to Novosibirsk on highway P380\),
* Novoyarkovsky Trakt (to [Bayevo](/wiki/Bayevo%2C_Altai_Krai "Bayevo, Altai Krai"), [Zavyalovo](/wiki/Zavyalovo%2C_Altai_Krai "Zavyalovo, Altai Krai")),
as well as inner city streets such as Kolesnikova, Pushkina, Leningradskaya and Gogol streets as well as others.
|
[
"Economy\n-------",
"### Industry",
"Kamen\\-na\\-Obi has a very developed trade and food industry, and other industries are also represented in small numbers.",
"The main enterprises in the town are a metal plant, a Voskhod meat processing plant, a butter and cheese factory, a fish factory, a poultry farm, a grain elevator, a furniture factory, and an enterprise for the production of deep\\-frozen products.",
"In 2011, one of the largest woodworking plants in the Siberian region, the Kamensky Timber and Wood Processing Plant, was launched.{{cite web\\|title\\=«Алтайлес»\\|url\\=https://www.altailes.com/production/plant/\\|website\\=altailes.com\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-18\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-18\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218082620/https://www.altailes.com/production/plant/}} The processing capacity of the plant is 1000 cubic meters of wood per day.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bankfax.ru/news/81557/ \\|title\\=Руководство «Каменского ЛДК» в связи с выходом на проектную мощность по переработке 1000 кубометров древесины в сутки уверяет, что леса в Алтайском крае для «выборочных рубок» ещё достаточно. \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002133855/http://www.bankfax.ru/news/81557/}} The volume of wood processing at Kamenskoye LDK is 220–240 thousand m³ per year.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bankfax.ru/news/81557/ \\|title\\=Руководство «Каменского ЛДК» в связи с выходом на проектную мощность по переработке 1000 кубометров древесины в сутки уверяет, что леса в Алтайском крае для «выборочных рубок» ещё достаточно. \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002133855/http://www.bankfax.ru/news/81557/}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Каменский ЛДК\\|url\\=https://lesprominform.ru/jarticles.html?id\\=3097\\|website\\=lesprominform.ru\\|date\\=2013\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-18\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-18\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218082619/https://lesprominform.ru/jarticles.html?id\\=3097}}",
"### Transport",
"The city has rail, road and river transport.",
"The Central Siberian Mainline of the West Siberian Railway passes through the Kamen\\-na\\-Obi railway station. With the commissioning of the second bridgeа{{cite web \\|url\\=http://zszd.rzd.ru/isvp/public/zszd?STRUCTURE\\_ID\\=42\\&layer\\_id\\=4069\\&page3307\\_810\\=2\\&refererLayerId\\=3307\\&id\\=120761 \\|title\\=Новости \\|website\\=Западно\\-Сибирская ЖД \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-12\\-07 \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110192631/http://zszd.rzd.ru/isvp/public/zszd?STRUCTURE\\_ID\\=42 \\|archivedate\\=2011\\-11\\-10}}{{cite web \\|url \\= http://zszd.rzd.ru/isvp/public/zszd/popup?STRUCTURE\\_ID\\=704\\&layer\\_id\\=4072\\&vp\\=17\\&refererLayerId\\=3947\\&photorep\\_id\\=25543 \\|title \\= Фоторепортаж с открытия железнодорожного моста}} across the [Ob](/wiki/Ob_%28river%29 \"Ob (river)\") on September 25, 2009, the Central Siberian Railway became the main freight route of the West Siberian Railway. Long\\-distance passenger trains to Moscow, [Omsk](/wiki/Omsk \"Omsk\") and [Rubtsovsk](/wiki/Rubtsovsk \"Rubtsovsk\") and commuter trains to [Karasuk](/wiki/Karasuk%2C_Novosibirsk_Oblast \"Karasuk, Novosibirsk Oblast\"), [Barnaul](/wiki/Barnaul \"Barnaul\") and [Plotinnaya](/wiki/Plotinnaya \"Plotinnaya\") run through the Kamen\\-na\\-Obi station.",
"Public transport is represented by intercity, suburban and city bus transportation. From the Kamen bus station, buses depart to Novosibirsk, Barnaul, Rubtsovsk, Slavgorod, Bayevo, Tyumentsevo, Zavyalovo and other settlements of the region. Suburban passenger transportation is carried out in the villages of Kamensky and Krutikhinsky districts. The urban transport route network consists of eight bus routes. The regional highway P380 Novosibirsk – Kamen\\-na\\-Obi – Barnaul passes through the city.",
"River transport is represented by passenger transportation (2 suburban routes) and freight transportation (barge transportation of sand, crushed stone, etc.).",
"There is a [military airfield](/wiki/Kamen-na-Obi_%28air_base%29 \"Kamen-na-Obi (air base)\") 9 km west of the city. Until the mid\\-1990s, the 96th training aviation regiment of the Barnaul VVAUL was based at the airfield. Currently, the airfield is mothballed. The airfield accepts civil aircraft (medical and agricultural aviation).",
"Main highways of the city:",
"* Barnaulskiy Trakt (to Barnaul on highway P380\\),\n* Kamenskaya Street (to Novosibirsk on highway P380\\),\n* Novoyarkovsky Trakt (to [Bayevo](/wiki/Bayevo%2C_Altai_Krai \"Bayevo, Altai Krai\"), [Zavyalovo](/wiki/Zavyalovo%2C_Altai_Krai \"Zavyalovo, Altai Krai\")),\nas well as inner city streets such as Kolesnikova, Pushkina, Leningradskaya and Gogol streets as well as others."
] |
Attractions
-----------
The main attractions are located on Lenin Street (formerly Main Street), which runs parallel to the Ob River for more than 3 km from Bazarnaya Square (currently home to the Spartak stadium) to the port facilities.
At the beginning of the street on a hill is the Epiphany Church (consecrated in 1902\). The construction and arrangement of a stone church on the site of a dilapidated wooden one was carried out with donations from merchants Vinokurov, Zorin, Pudovkin, Simonin and Chaigin. The temple was based on an exemplary design in the [Russian Revival architectural style](/wiki/Russian_Revival_architecture "Russian Revival architecture"), with elements of ancient Russian religious architecture. In the 1930s, the crosses were removed from the temple, and a distillery was located inside. Archived from the original on September 17, 2013\. Currently, the plant's facilities have been transferred to another building – the temple building is being restored.
In the building of the mansion of the merchant A.S. Khomutov (Lenin St., 18\), next to the church, there was a medical school until 2007\. This is a two\-story brick house with a basement. The façade is decorated with white brick ornaments. The building is made in an [Eclectic](/wiki/Eclecticism_in_architecture "Eclecticism in architecture") style using elements of [classicism](/wiki/Classicism "Classicism"). In connection with the start of construction in 2006 of the second railway bridge across the Ob, the school moved to a new building on Pushkin Street.
At house number 49 on Lenin Street there is the Kamensk State Museum of Local Lore. The city museum is located in the [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassicism "Neoclassicism") mansion of the Vinokurov merchants ("Vinokurovsky House"). In 1942–1944\. the building housed the evacuated Voronezh Agricultural Institute. Since May 2008, the Vinokurov and Sons trading house has been protected by the state as an architectural monument of federal significance.{{Cite web \|url\=http://kamenonline.ru/ \|title\=Камень\-на\-Оби \|access\-date\=2012\-08\-12 \|archive\-date\=2012\-05\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508040248/http://kamenonline.ru/}}
On the corner of Lenin Street (No. 66\) and Komsomolskaya there is a beautiful two\-story brick house of the merchant Pudovkin with a rounded corner shape. Its architecture contains elements of early century [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau"). On the second floor there are twisted wrought iron balconies and decorative elements. At the address st. Lenina, 78 is the main building of the estate of the merchant Zorin (now the Office of the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation for Kamen\-na\-Obi and [Kamensky District](/wiki/Kamensky_District%2C_Altai_Krai "Kamensky District, Altai Krai")), also built in the eclectic style of the early 20th century. It is also a two\-story brick building with a cubic shape. On the second floor of the central facade there is a beautiful wrought\-iron balcony; the windows are decorated with white brick [ornaments](/wiki/Ornament_%28art%29 "Ornament (art)").
Among the modern attractions, one can note the embankment, stretching along the river bank from Krasnoarmeyskaya Street to the city park.
|
[
"Attractions\n-----------",
"The main attractions are located on Lenin Street (formerly Main Street), which runs parallel to the Ob River for more than 3 km from Bazarnaya Square (currently home to the Spartak stadium) to the port facilities.",
"At the beginning of the street on a hill is the Epiphany Church (consecrated in 1902\\). The construction and arrangement of a stone church on the site of a dilapidated wooden one was carried out with donations from merchants Vinokurov, Zorin, Pudovkin, Simonin and Chaigin. The temple was based on an exemplary design in the [Russian Revival architectural style](/wiki/Russian_Revival_architecture \"Russian Revival architecture\"), with elements of ancient Russian religious architecture. In the 1930s, the crosses were removed from the temple, and a distillery was located inside. Archived from the original on September 17, 2013\\. Currently, the plant's facilities have been transferred to another building – the temple building is being restored.",
"In the building of the mansion of the merchant A.S. Khomutov (Lenin St., 18\\), next to the church, there was a medical school until 2007\\. This is a two\\-story brick house with a basement. The façade is decorated with white brick ornaments. The building is made in an [Eclectic](/wiki/Eclecticism_in_architecture \"Eclecticism in architecture\") style using elements of [classicism](/wiki/Classicism \"Classicism\"). In connection with the start of construction in 2006 of the second railway bridge across the Ob, the school moved to a new building on Pushkin Street.",
"At house number 49 on Lenin Street there is the Kamensk State Museum of Local Lore. The city museum is located in the [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassicism \"Neoclassicism\") mansion of the Vinokurov merchants (\"Vinokurovsky House\"). In 1942–1944\\. the building housed the evacuated Voronezh Agricultural Institute. Since May 2008, the Vinokurov and Sons trading house has been protected by the state as an architectural monument of federal significance.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://kamenonline.ru/ \\|title\\=Камень\\-на\\-Оби \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508040248/http://kamenonline.ru/}}",
"On the corner of Lenin Street (No. 66\\) and Komsomolskaya there is a beautiful two\\-story brick house of the merchant Pudovkin with a rounded corner shape. Its architecture contains elements of early century [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\"). On the second floor there are twisted wrought iron balconies and decorative elements. At the address st. Lenina, 78 is the main building of the estate of the merchant Zorin (now the Office of the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation for Kamen\\-na\\-Obi and [Kamensky District](/wiki/Kamensky_District%2C_Altai_Krai \"Kamensky District, Altai Krai\")), also built in the eclectic style of the early 20th century. It is also a two\\-story brick building with a cubic shape. On the second floor of the central facade there is a beautiful wrought\\-iron balcony; the windows are decorated with white brick [ornaments](/wiki/Ornament_%28art%29 \"Ornament (art)\").",
"Among the modern attractions, one can note the embankment, stretching along the river bank from Krasnoarmeyskaya Street to the city park.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|Santa Fe Trail through New Mexico](/wiki/File:1845_trailmap.png "1845 trailmap.png")
### Early trails
The earliest trails used by [Plains Indians](/wiki/Plains_Indians "Plains Indians") and [Puebloan peoples](/wiki/Puebloan_people "Puebloan people") were those created by buffalo and were followed for hunting. The buffalo were considered "the best civil engineers in the world" for their ability to find the easiest, lowest paths through the mountains. The Old Kiowa Trail, still used today by Native Americans on horseback, is at the base of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains "Rocky Mountains"). An old Navajo Trail criss\-crossed the Rio Grande before heading west at Warmsley Crossing ([John Dunn Bridge](/wiki/John_Dunn_Bridge "John Dunn Bridge") at [Arroyo Hondo](/wiki/Arroyo_Hondo%2C_Taos_County%2C_New_Mexico "Arroyo Hondo, Taos County, New Mexico")) There were additional trails that radiated out of Taos[Blanche Grant](/wiki/Blanche_Grant "Blanche Grant") (August 2007\). [*When Old Trails Were New.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=56Rd3k959P8C&pg=PA44) Sunstone Press. p. 44\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-86534\-606\-2}}. from [Taos Plaza](/wiki/Taos_Plaza "Taos Plaza").Best Books on; Federal Writers' Project (1940\). *[New Mexico, a Guide to the Colorful State](https://books.google.com/books?id=goxoBAmtZIkC&pg=PA220)*. Best Books on. p. 220\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-62376\-030\-4}}.
### Trails of the 19th century
A key trail into Taos was "[The Old Taos Trail](/wiki/Taos_Mountain_Trail "Taos Mountain Trail")", which began at the [Bent's Fort](/wiki/Bent%27s_Old_Fort_National_Historic_Site "Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site") on the [Arkansas River](/wiki/Arkansas_River "Arkansas River") in Colorado, west of the [Spanish Peaks](/wiki/Spanish_Peaks "Spanish Peaks"), through [Sangre de Cristo Pass](/wiki/Sangre_de_Cristo_Pass "Sangre de Cristo Pass") (west of [Walsenburg, Colorado](/wiki/Walsenburg%2C_Colorado "Walsenburg, Colorado")), [Old La Veta Pass](/wiki/La_Veta_Pass "La Veta Pass") and into [Questa](/wiki/Questa%2C_New_Mexico "Questa, New Mexico") area (NM 522/NM38 area).Stewart M. Green (1 June 2008\). [Scenic Driving Colorado](https://books.google.com/books?id=FKQzP83hhCAC&pg=PA47). Globe Pequot Press. p. 47\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7627\-4791\-7}}.
It came into Taos at either Taos Pueblo road or half a mile west on Couse Hill. Another route into Taos was along the Cimarron Route. It was this route that most wagon trains entered into the Rio de Fernando canyon valley.[Blanche Grant](/wiki/Blanche_Grant "Blanche Grant") (August 2007\). [*When Old Trails Were New.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=56Rd3k959P8C&pg=PA45) Sunstone Press. p. 45\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-86534\-606\-2}}. The two routes are the "mountain route" and the "Cimarron Route" of the [Santa Fe Trail](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Trail "Santa Fe Trail"). One of the Cimarron Mountain Routes paralleled the present [U.S. Route 64](/wiki/U.S._Route_64 "U.S. Route 64") from I\-25 to [Cimarron](/wiki/Cimarron%2C_New_Mexico "Cimarron, New Mexico"). Trails branched off of the Cimarron Route into several communities.[Santa Fe Trail Historic Routes and National Scenic Byway Routes.](http://www.santafetrailnm.org/map.html) New Mexico Santa Fe Trail Scenic Byway. Federal Highway Administration and the New Mexico Department of Tourism. Retrieved August 11, 2014\.[History of the Santa Fe Trail in New Mexico \- Cimarron Cutoff.](http://www.santafetrailnm.org/sfthistory.html#cimarroncutoff) New Mexico Santa Fe Trail Scenic Byway. Federal Highway Administration and the New Mexico Department of Tourism. Retrieved August 11, 2014\. A branch of the route from Bent's Fort went into Taos in or after the founding of the Santa Fe Trail in 1821\.[Brief History of Taos](http://www.laplaza.org/comm/about_taos/history/19th_century.html). laplaza.org Retrieved August 11, 2014\. The first wagon train was led by [Charles Bent](/wiki/Charles_Bent "Charles Bent") in 1831\. Bent, the brother of [William Bent](/wiki/William_Bent "William Bent") of [Bent's Fort](/wiki/Bent%27s_Fort "Bent's Fort"), became the most successful merchant in Taos before being made [governor of New Mexico](/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_New_Mexico "List of Governors of New Mexico").[Blanche Grant](/wiki/Blanche_Grant "Blanche Grant") (August 2007\). [*When Old Trails Were New.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=56Rd3k959P8C&pg=PA47) Sunstone Press. pp. 47\-49\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-86534\-606\-2}}.
### Highways from the 20th century
History of individual highways:
* [U.S. Route 64](/wiki/U.S._Route_64 "U.S. Route 64"). In 1927 the road into Taos from the northeast was highway 485, a branch of 85 from [Raton, New Mexico](/wiki/Raton%2C_New_Mexico "Raton, New Mexico"). It ran south east from [Cimarron](/wiki/Cimarron%2C_New_Mexico "Cimarron, New Mexico") to Taos and continued south to [Santa Fe.](/wiki/Santa_Fe%2C_New_Mexico "Santa Fe, New Mexico") In 1931, U.S. 485 was replaced by U.S. Route 64\. In 1974 the route of 64 changed from Taos, and rather than taking a southerly route, it traveled north and west over the mountains of [Tres Piedras](/wiki/Tres_Piedras%2C_New_Mexico "Tres Piedras, New Mexico"), replacing the former NM 111 and NM 553 highways.[U.S. Highways in New Mexico.](http://www.steve-riner.com/nmhighways/us-interstates.htm) New Mexico Highways. steve\-riner.com Retrieved August 11, 2014\.Randall M. MacDonald; Gene Lamm; Sarah E. MacDonald (2012\). Cimarrón and Philmont. Arcadia Publishing. p. 11\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7385\-9527\-6}}.Randall M. MacDonald; Gene Lamm; Sarah E. MacDonald (2012\). [*Cimarrón and Philmont.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wmeCYsNft98C&pg=PA11) Arcadia Publishing. p. 11\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7385\-9527\-6}}.[US Highway System \- State of New Mexico. New Mexico's U.S. highway network as approved November 11, 1926\.](https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/us666map.cfm) Federal Highway Administration. U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved August 11, 2014\.
* [New Mexico State Road 38](/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_38 "New Mexico State Road 38"). The highway was named NM 38 in or before 1912 for the road between Questa and Eagle Nest.Laurel T. Wallace. (October 2004\) [*Historic Highways in the NMDOT System. Cultural Resource. Technical Series 2004\-1\.*](http://dot.state.nm.us/content/dam/nmdot/Infrastructure/EDS/2004-1.pdf) New Mexico Department of Transportation. p. 79\. Retrieved August 12, 2014\.
* [New Mexico State Road 434](/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_434 "New Mexico State Road 434"). The road runs south from U.S. Route 64 south to [Mora](/wiki/Mora%2C_New_Mexico "Mora, New Mexico"). It was a part of NM\-38 when the highway was extended south of Eagle Nest by 1917 and at least into the 1950s.Laurel T. Wallace. (October 2004\) [*Historic Highways in the NMDOT System. Cultural Resource. Technical Series 2004\-1\.*](http://dot.state.nm.us/content/dam/nmdot/Infrastructure/EDS/2004-1.pdf) New Mexico Department of Transportation. p. 100\. Retrieved August 12, 2014\. It was renumbered to NM 434 in 1988 to eliminate a concurrent section with U.W. 64 and NM 38\.[State Routes 401\-450\.](http://www.steve-riner.com/nmhighways/NM401-450.htm) New Mexico Highways. steve\-riner.com Retrieved August 11, 2014\.
* [New Mexico State Road 522](/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_522 "New Mexico State Road 522"). It was New Mexico State Road 3 from 1930\.Laurel T. Wallace. (October 2004\) [*Historic Highways in the NMDOT System. Cultural Resource. Technical Series 2004\-1\.*](http://dot.state.nm.us/content/dam/nmdot/Infrastructure/EDS/2004-1.pdf) New Mexico Department of Transportation. p. 103\. Retrieved August 12, 2014\. It was renumbered NM 522 in 1988\. North of Costilla at the Colorado state line it becomes CO Highway 159\.[New Mexico Highways 501 to 550\.](http://www.steve-riner.com/nmhighways/NM501-550.htm) New Mexico Highways. steve\-riner.com Retrieved August 11, 2014\.
### Scenic byway designation
The Enchanted Circle Scenic Byway was named a [New Mexico Scenic Byways](/wiki/New_Mexico_Scenic_Byways "New Mexico Scenic Byways") on July 31, 1998\.
It was designated as a [National Forest Scenic Byway](/wiki/National_Forest_Scenic_Byway "National Forest Scenic Byway") by the [U.S. Forest Service](/wiki/U.S._Forest_Service "U.S. Forest Service") on December 14, 1989\.{{cite web \|title\= Enchanted Circle Scenic Byway: Official Designations
\|url\= http://byways.org/explore/byways/2082/designation.html \|archiveurl\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111230042701/http://byways.org/explore/byways/2082/designation.html \|archivedate\= December 30, 2011 \|work\= America's Byways \|publisher\= \[\[Federal Highway Administration]] }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Santa Fe Trail through New Mexico](/wiki/File:1845_trailmap.png \"1845 trailmap.png\")",
"### Early trails",
"The earliest trails used by [Plains Indians](/wiki/Plains_Indians \"Plains Indians\") and [Puebloan peoples](/wiki/Puebloan_people \"Puebloan people\") were those created by buffalo and were followed for hunting. The buffalo were considered \"the best civil engineers in the world\" for their ability to find the easiest, lowest paths through the mountains. The Old Kiowa Trail, still used today by Native Americans on horseback, is at the base of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains \"Rocky Mountains\"). An old Navajo Trail criss\\-crossed the Rio Grande before heading west at Warmsley Crossing ([John Dunn Bridge](/wiki/John_Dunn_Bridge \"John Dunn Bridge\") at [Arroyo Hondo](/wiki/Arroyo_Hondo%2C_Taos_County%2C_New_Mexico \"Arroyo Hondo, Taos County, New Mexico\")) There were additional trails that radiated out of Taos[Blanche Grant](/wiki/Blanche_Grant \"Blanche Grant\") (August 2007\\). [*When Old Trails Were New.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=56Rd3k959P8C&pg=PA44) Sunstone Press. p. 44\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-86534\\-606\\-2}}. from [Taos Plaza](/wiki/Taos_Plaza \"Taos Plaza\").Best Books on; Federal Writers' Project (1940\\). *[New Mexico, a Guide to the Colorful State](https://books.google.com/books?id=goxoBAmtZIkC&pg=PA220)*. Best Books on. p. 220\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-62376\\-030\\-4}}.",
"### Trails of the 19th century",
"A key trail into Taos was \"[The Old Taos Trail](/wiki/Taos_Mountain_Trail \"Taos Mountain Trail\")\", which began at the [Bent's Fort](/wiki/Bent%27s_Old_Fort_National_Historic_Site \"Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site\") on the [Arkansas River](/wiki/Arkansas_River \"Arkansas River\") in Colorado, west of the [Spanish Peaks](/wiki/Spanish_Peaks \"Spanish Peaks\"), through [Sangre de Cristo Pass](/wiki/Sangre_de_Cristo_Pass \"Sangre de Cristo Pass\") (west of [Walsenburg, Colorado](/wiki/Walsenburg%2C_Colorado \"Walsenburg, Colorado\")), [Old La Veta Pass](/wiki/La_Veta_Pass \"La Veta Pass\") and into [Questa](/wiki/Questa%2C_New_Mexico \"Questa, New Mexico\") area (NM 522/NM38 area).Stewart M. Green (1 June 2008\\). [Scenic Driving Colorado](https://books.google.com/books?id=FKQzP83hhCAC&pg=PA47). Globe Pequot Press. p. 47\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7627\\-4791\\-7}}.",
"It came into Taos at either Taos Pueblo road or half a mile west on Couse Hill. Another route into Taos was along the Cimarron Route. It was this route that most wagon trains entered into the Rio de Fernando canyon valley.[Blanche Grant](/wiki/Blanche_Grant \"Blanche Grant\") (August 2007\\). [*When Old Trails Were New.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=56Rd3k959P8C&pg=PA45) Sunstone Press. p. 45\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-86534\\-606\\-2}}. The two routes are the \"mountain route\" and the \"Cimarron Route\" of the [Santa Fe Trail](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Trail \"Santa Fe Trail\"). One of the Cimarron Mountain Routes paralleled the present [U.S. Route 64](/wiki/U.S._Route_64 \"U.S. Route 64\") from I\\-25 to [Cimarron](/wiki/Cimarron%2C_New_Mexico \"Cimarron, New Mexico\"). Trails branched off of the Cimarron Route into several communities.[Santa Fe Trail Historic Routes and National Scenic Byway Routes.](http://www.santafetrailnm.org/map.html) New Mexico Santa Fe Trail Scenic Byway. Federal Highway Administration and the New Mexico Department of Tourism. Retrieved August 11, 2014\\.[History of the Santa Fe Trail in New Mexico \\- Cimarron Cutoff.](http://www.santafetrailnm.org/sfthistory.html#cimarroncutoff) New Mexico Santa Fe Trail Scenic Byway. Federal Highway Administration and the New Mexico Department of Tourism. Retrieved August 11, 2014\\. A branch of the route from Bent's Fort went into Taos in or after the founding of the Santa Fe Trail in 1821\\.[Brief History of Taos](http://www.laplaza.org/comm/about_taos/history/19th_century.html). laplaza.org Retrieved August 11, 2014\\. The first wagon train was led by [Charles Bent](/wiki/Charles_Bent \"Charles Bent\") in 1831\\. Bent, the brother of [William Bent](/wiki/William_Bent \"William Bent\") of [Bent's Fort](/wiki/Bent%27s_Fort \"Bent's Fort\"), became the most successful merchant in Taos before being made [governor of New Mexico](/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_New_Mexico \"List of Governors of New Mexico\").[Blanche Grant](/wiki/Blanche_Grant \"Blanche Grant\") (August 2007\\). [*When Old Trails Were New.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=56Rd3k959P8C&pg=PA47) Sunstone Press. pp. 47\\-49\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-86534\\-606\\-2}}.",
"### Highways from the 20th century",
"History of individual highways:\n* [U.S. Route 64](/wiki/U.S._Route_64 \"U.S. Route 64\"). In 1927 the road into Taos from the northeast was highway 485, a branch of 85 from [Raton, New Mexico](/wiki/Raton%2C_New_Mexico \"Raton, New Mexico\"). It ran south east from [Cimarron](/wiki/Cimarron%2C_New_Mexico \"Cimarron, New Mexico\") to Taos and continued south to [Santa Fe.](/wiki/Santa_Fe%2C_New_Mexico \"Santa Fe, New Mexico\") In 1931, U.S. 485 was replaced by U.S. Route 64\\. In 1974 the route of 64 changed from Taos, and rather than taking a southerly route, it traveled north and west over the mountains of [Tres Piedras](/wiki/Tres_Piedras%2C_New_Mexico \"Tres Piedras, New Mexico\"), replacing the former NM 111 and NM 553 highways.[U.S. Highways in New Mexico.](http://www.steve-riner.com/nmhighways/us-interstates.htm) New Mexico Highways. steve\\-riner.com Retrieved August 11, 2014\\.Randall M. MacDonald; Gene Lamm; Sarah E. MacDonald (2012\\). Cimarrón and Philmont. Arcadia Publishing. p. 11\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7385\\-9527\\-6}}.Randall M. MacDonald; Gene Lamm; Sarah E. MacDonald (2012\\). [*Cimarrón and Philmont.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wmeCYsNft98C&pg=PA11) Arcadia Publishing. p. 11\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7385\\-9527\\-6}}.[US Highway System \\- State of New Mexico. New Mexico's U.S. highway network as approved November 11, 1926\\.](https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/us666map.cfm) Federal Highway Administration. U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved August 11, 2014\\.\n* [New Mexico State Road 38](/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_38 \"New Mexico State Road 38\"). The highway was named NM 38 in or before 1912 for the road between Questa and Eagle Nest.Laurel T. Wallace. (October 2004\\) [*Historic Highways in the NMDOT System. Cultural Resource. Technical Series 2004\\-1\\.*](http://dot.state.nm.us/content/dam/nmdot/Infrastructure/EDS/2004-1.pdf) New Mexico Department of Transportation. p. 79\\. Retrieved August 12, 2014\\.\n* [New Mexico State Road 434](/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_434 \"New Mexico State Road 434\"). The road runs south from U.S. Route 64 south to [Mora](/wiki/Mora%2C_New_Mexico \"Mora, New Mexico\"). It was a part of NM\\-38 when the highway was extended south of Eagle Nest by 1917 and at least into the 1950s.Laurel T. Wallace. (October 2004\\) [*Historic Highways in the NMDOT System. Cultural Resource. Technical Series 2004\\-1\\.*](http://dot.state.nm.us/content/dam/nmdot/Infrastructure/EDS/2004-1.pdf) New Mexico Department of Transportation. p. 100\\. Retrieved August 12, 2014\\. It was renumbered to NM 434 in 1988 to eliminate a concurrent section with U.W. 64 and NM 38\\.[State Routes 401\\-450\\.](http://www.steve-riner.com/nmhighways/NM401-450.htm) New Mexico Highways. steve\\-riner.com Retrieved August 11, 2014\\.\n* [New Mexico State Road 522](/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_522 \"New Mexico State Road 522\"). It was New Mexico State Road 3 from 1930\\.Laurel T. Wallace. (October 2004\\) [*Historic Highways in the NMDOT System. Cultural Resource. Technical Series 2004\\-1\\.*](http://dot.state.nm.us/content/dam/nmdot/Infrastructure/EDS/2004-1.pdf) New Mexico Department of Transportation. p. 103\\. Retrieved August 12, 2014\\. It was renumbered NM 522 in 1988\\. North of Costilla at the Colorado state line it becomes CO Highway 159\\.[New Mexico Highways 501 to 550\\.](http://www.steve-riner.com/nmhighways/NM501-550.htm) New Mexico Highways. steve\\-riner.com Retrieved August 11, 2014\\.",
"### Scenic byway designation",
"The Enchanted Circle Scenic Byway was named a [New Mexico Scenic Byways](/wiki/New_Mexico_Scenic_Byways \"New Mexico Scenic Byways\") on July 31, 1998\\.",
"It was designated as a [National Forest Scenic Byway](/wiki/National_Forest_Scenic_Byway \"National Forest Scenic Byway\") by the [U.S. Forest Service](/wiki/U.S._Forest_Service \"U.S. Forest Service\") on December 14, 1989\\.{{cite web \\|title\\= Enchanted Circle Scenic Byway: Official Designations\n\\|url\\= http://byways.org/explore/byways/2082/designation.html \\|archiveurl\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111230042701/http://byways.org/explore/byways/2082/designation.html \\|archivedate\\= December 30, 2011 \\|work\\= America's Byways \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Federal Highway Administration]] }}",
""
] |
Route description
-----------------
State Highway 104 serves as a north–south and an east–west route between [Sunburg](/wiki/Sunburg%2C_Minnesota "Sunburg, Minnesota") and [Glenwood](/wiki/Glenwood%2C_Minnesota "Glenwood, Minnesota") in west\-central Minnesota.
Highway 104 changes direction to east–west in [Chippewa Falls Township](/wiki/Chippewa_Falls_Township%2C_Pope_County%2C_Minnesota "Chippewa Falls Township, Pope County, Minnesota") and continues as east–west for 6 miles before returning again to a north–south direction in [Barsness Township](/wiki/Barsness_Township%2C_Pope_County%2C_Minnesota "Barsness Township, Pope County, Minnesota") for the remainder of its route to Glenwood.
The highway is officially marked as a north–south route by its highway shields from beginning to end.
The route serves as the county line in northwest [Kandiyohi County](/wiki/Kandiyohi_County%2C_Minnesota "Kandiyohi County, Minnesota") and northeast [Swift County](/wiki/Swift_County%2C_Minnesota "Swift County, Minnesota").
Highway 104 is also known as *Franklin Street South* in the city of Glenwood.
[Monson Lake State Park](/wiki/Monson_Lake_State_Park "Monson Lake State Park") is located west of [Sunburg](/wiki/Sunburg%2C_Minnesota "Sunburg, Minnesota") and west of the [junction](/wiki/Junction_%28traffic%29 "Junction (traffic)") of Highway 104 and [State Highway 9](/wiki/Minnesota_State_Highway_9 "Minnesota State Highway 9"). The park entrance is located off Highway 9 via County Road 95\.[Minnesota DNR website for Monson Lake State Park \- Link](http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/state_parks/monson_lake/index.html)
The route is legally defined as Route 143 in the Minnesota Statutes.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/?id\=161\.115 \|title\=161\.115, Additional Trunk Highways \|work\=Minnesota Statutes \|publisher\=Office of the Revisor of Statutes, State of Minnesota \|year\=2010 \|accessdate\=November 17, 2010}} It is not marked with this number.
|
[
"Route description\n-----------------",
"State Highway 104 serves as a north–south and an east–west route between [Sunburg](/wiki/Sunburg%2C_Minnesota \"Sunburg, Minnesota\") and [Glenwood](/wiki/Glenwood%2C_Minnesota \"Glenwood, Minnesota\") in west\\-central Minnesota.",
"Highway 104 changes direction to east–west in [Chippewa Falls Township](/wiki/Chippewa_Falls_Township%2C_Pope_County%2C_Minnesota \"Chippewa Falls Township, Pope County, Minnesota\") and continues as east–west for 6 miles before returning again to a north–south direction in [Barsness Township](/wiki/Barsness_Township%2C_Pope_County%2C_Minnesota \"Barsness Township, Pope County, Minnesota\") for the remainder of its route to Glenwood.",
"The highway is officially marked as a north–south route by its highway shields from beginning to end.",
"The route serves as the county line in northwest [Kandiyohi County](/wiki/Kandiyohi_County%2C_Minnesota \"Kandiyohi County, Minnesota\") and northeast [Swift County](/wiki/Swift_County%2C_Minnesota \"Swift County, Minnesota\").",
"Highway 104 is also known as *Franklin Street South* in the city of Glenwood.",
"[Monson Lake State Park](/wiki/Monson_Lake_State_Park \"Monson Lake State Park\") is located west of [Sunburg](/wiki/Sunburg%2C_Minnesota \"Sunburg, Minnesota\") and west of the [junction](/wiki/Junction_%28traffic%29 \"Junction (traffic)\") of Highway 104 and [State Highway 9](/wiki/Minnesota_State_Highway_9 \"Minnesota State Highway 9\"). The park entrance is located off Highway 9 via County Road 95\\.[Minnesota DNR website for Monson Lake State Park \\- Link](http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/state_parks/monson_lake/index.html)",
"The route is legally defined as Route 143 in the Minnesota Statutes.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/?id\\=161\\.115 \\|title\\=161\\.115, Additional Trunk Highways \\|work\\=Minnesota Statutes \\|publisher\\=Office of the Revisor of Statutes, State of Minnesota \\|year\\=2010 \\|accessdate\\=November 17, 2010}} It is not marked with this number.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
The former Croydon Hospital ward building is a single storey timber building on the western corner of Sircom and Brown Streets, Croydon. There is a timber [picket fence](/wiki/Picket_fence "Picket fence") around the property.
The building is rectangular in plan with an encircling [verandah](/wiki/Veranda "Veranda"), built in on the north\-western side. It is raised on low stumps, those at the perimeter being timber and the remainder, steel. The [hipped roof](/wiki/Hipped_roof "Hipped roof") is clad with corrugated iron and has two roof ventilators on the ridge and new [ogee](/wiki/Ogee "Ogee") gutters and [acroteria](/wiki/Acroterion "Acroterion").
The main entry is a through a [porch](/wiki/Porch "Porch") with a curved corrugated iron roof on the verandah facing Brown Street. There are also [stairs](/wiki/Stairs "Stairs") at the centre of the rear verandah, and at the southern corner. At the centre of each end is a pair of French doors into the hall.
The verandahs are about {{convert\|3\.7\|m}} wide, with stop\-chamfered posts, arched boarded [valance](/wiki/Window_valance "Window valance"), a [handrail](/wiki/Handrail "Handrail") but no [balustrade](/wiki/Balustrade "Balustrade") between the posts, and are unlined. The external walls have exposed timber framing, lined with 185 [chamferboards](/wiki/Chamferboard "Chamferboard"). The Brown Street side wall has five casement windows, with 3\-panes per sash and 2\-pane toplights. The height of the sill of these windows alternates from floor level to sill level. Inside the hall, the walls and ceiling are lined with fibro sheet. The ceiling is raked up to the line of the collar tie.
The south\-west verandah has been infilled with rooms, clad with external boarding and smaller casements, and internal vertically jointed boards.
At the rear are two [sheds](/wiki/Sheds "Sheds"). The closest is a corrugated iron garage with two rooms. It has a [gabled roof](/wiki/Gable "Gable") over two rooms with a lean\-to roof over the garage. The rooms are clad in corrugated iron, with shutters opening to the outside and the inside. The doors to the rooms are boarded. There is also a recent metal\-clad structure behind.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"The former Croydon Hospital ward building is a single storey timber building on the western corner of Sircom and Brown Streets, Croydon. There is a timber [picket fence](/wiki/Picket_fence \"Picket fence\") around the property.",
"The building is rectangular in plan with an encircling [verandah](/wiki/Veranda \"Veranda\"), built in on the north\\-western side. It is raised on low stumps, those at the perimeter being timber and the remainder, steel. The [hipped roof](/wiki/Hipped_roof \"Hipped roof\") is clad with corrugated iron and has two roof ventilators on the ridge and new [ogee](/wiki/Ogee \"Ogee\") gutters and [acroteria](/wiki/Acroterion \"Acroterion\").",
"The main entry is a through a [porch](/wiki/Porch \"Porch\") with a curved corrugated iron roof on the verandah facing Brown Street. There are also [stairs](/wiki/Stairs \"Stairs\") at the centre of the rear verandah, and at the southern corner. At the centre of each end is a pair of French doors into the hall.",
"The verandahs are about {{convert\\|3\\.7\\|m}} wide, with stop\\-chamfered posts, arched boarded [valance](/wiki/Window_valance \"Window valance\"), a [handrail](/wiki/Handrail \"Handrail\") but no [balustrade](/wiki/Balustrade \"Balustrade\") between the posts, and are unlined. The external walls have exposed timber framing, lined with 185 [chamferboards](/wiki/Chamferboard \"Chamferboard\"). The Brown Street side wall has five casement windows, with 3\\-panes per sash and 2\\-pane toplights. The height of the sill of these windows alternates from floor level to sill level. Inside the hall, the walls and ceiling are lined with fibro sheet. The ceiling is raked up to the line of the collar tie.",
"The south\\-west verandah has been infilled with rooms, clad with external boarding and smaller casements, and internal vertically jointed boards.",
"At the rear are two [sheds](/wiki/Sheds \"Sheds\"). The closest is a corrugated iron garage with two rooms. It has a [gabled roof](/wiki/Gable \"Gable\") over two rooms with a lean\\-to roof over the garage. The rooms are clad in corrugated iron, with shutters opening to the outside and the inside. The doors to the rooms are boarded. There is also a recent metal\\-clad structure behind.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
As no biography of Albar exists, information about his life can only be found in letters written to and by him, as well as his own writings.Wolf, Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain, 51\-53\. According to one of his letters, he may have had Jewish background and been born into or converted to Christianity, or he might have been purely Christian; the uncertainty is due to his metaphorical use of the term "Jew" to possibly refer to God's chosen people rather than the ethnic/religious identity used today.Coope, *The Martyrs of Cordoba*, 37\-38\.
### Education
Our more certain knowledge of Albar begins when he met his friend [Eulogius](/wiki/Eulogius_of_C%C3%B3rdoba "Eulogius of Córdoba") for the first time while studying under [Speraindeo](/wiki/Speraindeo "Speraindeo"), *magister* ('teacher') of young clerics. Albar and Eulogius developed a strong friendship which was to last until Eulogius's martyrdom, a friendship which developed into some sort of [Platonic love](/wiki/Platonic_love "Platonic love"). In his biography of Eulogius, Albar writes that Eulogius once said to him "let there be no other Albar but Eulogius, and may the whole love of Eulogius be settled nowhere but in Albar.'"Alvarus, *Vita Eulogii*, trans. Carlton M. Sage in *Paul Albar of Cordoba: Studies on His Life and Writings*, 211\. The two students were perhaps overconfident in their learning and frequently debated issues of Christian doctrine that they did not understand well enough to have any meaningful contribution to make; later they destroyed the "volumes'" of their letters that resulted from these friendly but overzealous debates.Alvarus, *Vita Eulogii*, 193\. They also each developed a love for poetry during this time which would be a secondary lifelong passion.Wolf, *Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain*, 53\.
After his time as a student Albar appears not to have taken up any profession but rather remained a theologian for the rest of his life.Sage, *Paul Albar of Córdoba*, 215\. He and Eulogius made it part of their lives' works to preserve Latin\-Christian culture despite it becoming eroded by the ruling Muslim culture; in particular Albar saw the gradual replacement of Latin as the language of high culture and learning with [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic_language "Arabic language") as a problem he had to correct.Wolf, *Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain*, 45\. One method of achieving this goal was to import Latin literature from the North into the South of Spain, such as [Augustine's](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo "Augustine of Hippo") *City of God* which would not have been a rare volume under Christian rule.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 9\.
Albar exchanged letters with a certain [John of Seville](/wiki/John_of_Seville_%289th_century%29 "John of Seville (9th century)"), who sent him a summary of the *[Storia de Mahometh](/wiki/Storia_de_Mahometh "Storia de Mahometh")*, a Latin biography of Muhammad.
### Illness and the sacrament of penance
Sometime in the mid\-850s Albar became seriously ill, the nature of which is unknown but it was severe enough for him to believe that he would not recover. Believing death to be close at hand he received the [anointing of the sick](/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Anointing of the Sick (Catholic Church)"), a common choice for those on their deathbeds; it was a [sacrament](/wiki/Catholic_sacraments "Catholic sacraments") that could only be performed once in one's lifetime, and the penitent would live the rest of his or her life according to a very strict set of rules. For most people, the onset of death alleviated this problem but for Albar it remained problematic because he recovered from his illness unexpectedly.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 38\. As a result of being a living penitent he could not participate in communion until he had proved he could lead a virtuous life. His unfriendly relations with the clergy who performed the sacrament meant that he had to write to the in\-hiding Bishop [Saul of Córdoba](/wiki/Saul_of_C%C3%B3rdoba "Saul of Córdoba") to request that he be readmitted, which Saul refused.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 61\. Albar's illness also caused him legal and property issues: Before and during his illness Albar had sold and repurchased some of his family's land which was granted to a [monastery](/wiki/Monastery "Monastery"), and then immediately resold it to an unnamed official (seemingly under duress). The monastery later sued Albar when the official did not comply with the terms of its grant. Despite the fact that a man named Romanus, an important courtier, was exactly the sort of Christian that Albar deplored in his writings, he was forced to flatter Romanus for legal help in this case.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 38\-39\.
### Persecutions of 850–859
{{Main\|Martyrs of Córdoba}}
The extent to which Albar may have had a hand in guiding Christians to become martyrs is uncertain; however, he had very close ties to Eulogius who played a central role in motivating Christians not to actively provoke Muslim officials into arresting and executing them. On one occasion he and Eulogius met the soon\-to\-be\-martyr Aurelius, to whom they certainly gave advice and encouragement.Wolf, *Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain*, 70\. Unlike Eulogius, Albar did not choose to become a martyr and did not spend time in jail, which suggests that he chose not to publicly attack Islam in a setting where it might get him arrested for blasphemy. Instead, his main legacy from the persecutions is his documentation of them. Most true Christians generally did support the actions of the martyrs and were negatively impacted by the resulting persecutions. The martyrs therefore achieved the opposite of their goal; rather than rally the Christians against the Muslims, their deaths resulted in further distancing of moderate Christians from the radical cause. Albar's writings are consequently as much focused on convincing these moderates of his point of view – the sanctity of the martyrs – as they are a direct attack on Islam.Tolan, *Saracens*, 89\.
Albar, Eulogius, and earlier their mutual teacher Speraindeo were the first Iberian Christians who systematically and theologically attacked Islam in their writings.Tolan, *Saracens*, 78\. They also viewed the Christian community around them as divided by a distinct line. On one side were those who cooperated significantly with the Muslim officials and embraced Arabic culture and language, or at the least chose to conceal their Christian beliefs in public; on the other side lay Albar, Eulogius, and other devoted Christians including the martyrs who believed that no ground whatsoever could be given to the Muslims. If Christians and Muslims were to exist side\-by\-side, they believed, there should be no intermixing of their religion or culture, nor suppression of Christian expression.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 65\. This was not only an ideological divide but also a physical divide, manifested in the temporary splitting of the church into two halves: one in support of the martyrs, and one against them.Tolan, *Saracens*, 88\-89\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"As no biography of Albar exists, information about his life can only be found in letters written to and by him, as well as his own writings.Wolf, Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain, 51\\-53\\. According to one of his letters, he may have had Jewish background and been born into or converted to Christianity, or he might have been purely Christian; the uncertainty is due to his metaphorical use of the term \"Jew\" to possibly refer to God's chosen people rather than the ethnic/religious identity used today.Coope, *The Martyrs of Cordoba*, 37\\-38\\.",
"### Education",
"Our more certain knowledge of Albar begins when he met his friend [Eulogius](/wiki/Eulogius_of_C%C3%B3rdoba \"Eulogius of Córdoba\") for the first time while studying under [Speraindeo](/wiki/Speraindeo \"Speraindeo\"), *magister* ('teacher') of young clerics. Albar and Eulogius developed a strong friendship which was to last until Eulogius's martyrdom, a friendship which developed into some sort of [Platonic love](/wiki/Platonic_love \"Platonic love\"). In his biography of Eulogius, Albar writes that Eulogius once said to him \"let there be no other Albar but Eulogius, and may the whole love of Eulogius be settled nowhere but in Albar.'\"Alvarus, *Vita Eulogii*, trans. Carlton M. Sage in *Paul Albar of Cordoba: Studies on His Life and Writings*, 211\\. The two students were perhaps overconfident in their learning and frequently debated issues of Christian doctrine that they did not understand well enough to have any meaningful contribution to make; later they destroyed the \"volumes'\" of their letters that resulted from these friendly but overzealous debates.Alvarus, *Vita Eulogii*, 193\\. They also each developed a love for poetry during this time which would be a secondary lifelong passion.Wolf, *Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain*, 53\\.",
"After his time as a student Albar appears not to have taken up any profession but rather remained a theologian for the rest of his life.Sage, *Paul Albar of Córdoba*, 215\\. He and Eulogius made it part of their lives' works to preserve Latin\\-Christian culture despite it becoming eroded by the ruling Muslim culture; in particular Albar saw the gradual replacement of Latin as the language of high culture and learning with [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic_language \"Arabic language\") as a problem he had to correct.Wolf, *Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain*, 45\\. One method of achieving this goal was to import Latin literature from the North into the South of Spain, such as [Augustine's](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo \"Augustine of Hippo\") *City of God* which would not have been a rare volume under Christian rule.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 9\\.",
"Albar exchanged letters with a certain [John of Seville](/wiki/John_of_Seville_%289th_century%29 \"John of Seville (9th century)\"), who sent him a summary of the *[Storia de Mahometh](/wiki/Storia_de_Mahometh \"Storia de Mahometh\")*, a Latin biography of Muhammad.",
"### Illness and the sacrament of penance",
"Sometime in the mid\\-850s Albar became seriously ill, the nature of which is unknown but it was severe enough for him to believe that he would not recover. Believing death to be close at hand he received the [anointing of the sick](/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Anointing of the Sick (Catholic Church)\"), a common choice for those on their deathbeds; it was a [sacrament](/wiki/Catholic_sacraments \"Catholic sacraments\") that could only be performed once in one's lifetime, and the penitent would live the rest of his or her life according to a very strict set of rules. For most people, the onset of death alleviated this problem but for Albar it remained problematic because he recovered from his illness unexpectedly.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 38\\. As a result of being a living penitent he could not participate in communion until he had proved he could lead a virtuous life. His unfriendly relations with the clergy who performed the sacrament meant that he had to write to the in\\-hiding Bishop [Saul of Córdoba](/wiki/Saul_of_C%C3%B3rdoba \"Saul of Córdoba\") to request that he be readmitted, which Saul refused.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 61\\. Albar's illness also caused him legal and property issues: Before and during his illness Albar had sold and repurchased some of his family's land which was granted to a [monastery](/wiki/Monastery \"Monastery\"), and then immediately resold it to an unnamed official (seemingly under duress). The monastery later sued Albar when the official did not comply with the terms of its grant. Despite the fact that a man named Romanus, an important courtier, was exactly the sort of Christian that Albar deplored in his writings, he was forced to flatter Romanus for legal help in this case.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 38\\-39\\.",
"### Persecutions of 850–859",
"{{Main\\|Martyrs of Córdoba}}\nThe extent to which Albar may have had a hand in guiding Christians to become martyrs is uncertain; however, he had very close ties to Eulogius who played a central role in motivating Christians not to actively provoke Muslim officials into arresting and executing them. On one occasion he and Eulogius met the soon\\-to\\-be\\-martyr Aurelius, to whom they certainly gave advice and encouragement.Wolf, *Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain*, 70\\. Unlike Eulogius, Albar did not choose to become a martyr and did not spend time in jail, which suggests that he chose not to publicly attack Islam in a setting where it might get him arrested for blasphemy. Instead, his main legacy from the persecutions is his documentation of them. Most true Christians generally did support the actions of the martyrs and were negatively impacted by the resulting persecutions. The martyrs therefore achieved the opposite of their goal; rather than rally the Christians against the Muslims, their deaths resulted in further distancing of moderate Christians from the radical cause. Albar's writings are consequently as much focused on convincing these moderates of his point of view – the sanctity of the martyrs – as they are a direct attack on Islam.Tolan, *Saracens*, 89\\.",
"Albar, Eulogius, and earlier their mutual teacher Speraindeo were the first Iberian Christians who systematically and theologically attacked Islam in their writings.Tolan, *Saracens*, 78\\. They also viewed the Christian community around them as divided by a distinct line. On one side were those who cooperated significantly with the Muslim officials and embraced Arabic culture and language, or at the least chose to conceal their Christian beliefs in public; on the other side lay Albar, Eulogius, and other devoted Christians including the martyrs who believed that no ground whatsoever could be given to the Muslims. If Christians and Muslims were to exist side\\-by\\-side, they believed, there should be no intermixing of their religion or culture, nor suppression of Christian expression.Coope, *Martyrs of Córdoba*, 65\\. This was not only an ideological divide but also a physical divide, manifested in the temporary splitting of the church into two halves: one in support of the martyrs, and one against them.Tolan, *Saracens*, 88\\-89\\.",
""
] |
Chief of staff
--------------
[Chief of staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Defence_Forces_%28Ireland%29 "Chief of Staff of the Defence Forces (Ireland)") is a three\-star general rank, and the holder of this post has authority and responsibility in respect to all staff duties relating to the management of the Irish Defence Forces.
* **[Chief of staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Defence_Forces_%28Ireland%29 "Chief of Staff of the Defence Forces (Ireland)")**, in [Newbridge](/wiki/Newbridge%2C_County_Kildare "Newbridge, County Kildare"){{cite web \|title\=About the General Staff \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/the\-general\-staff/about\-the\-general\-staff/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
+ **Chief of Staff's Division**, headed by the assistant chief of staff, based in Newbridge
- Office of the Chief of Staff
- Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff
- Strategic Planning Branch
- Public Relations Branch
- The Military Judge
+ **Operations Division**, headed by the deputy chief of staff operations, based in Newbridge and Dublin
- Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff Operations
- J2 Intelligence Branch
- J3 \& J5 Planning \& Operations Branch
- Combat Support Branch
- J6 CIS Branch
* Defence Forces Headquarters CIS Company
- J7 Training Branch
+ **Support Division**, headed by the Deputy Chief of Staff Support, based in Newbridge and Dublin
- Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff Support
- J1 Human Resources Management Branch
- J4 Logistics
- CAOGA
- Conciliation \& Arbitration (Mil)
- Transport Branch
- Legal Services Branch
- Engineers Branch
- Ordnance Branch
- Medical Branch
- Military Police Branch
- Military Chaplaincy Service
+ Military Police [Government Buildings](/wiki/Government_Buildings "Government Buildings") Company, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin")
### Army
[thumb\|right\|[Army Ranger Wing](/wiki/Army_Ranger_Wing "Army Ranger Wing") on patrol in [Chad](/wiki/Chad "Chad")](/wiki/File:Irish_Army_Ranger_Wing_Ford_Special_Recon_Vehicle_in_Chad_%284109830420%29.jpg "Irish Army Ranger Wing Ford Special Recon Vehicle in Chad (4109830420).jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Piranha IIIH](/wiki/Mowag_Piranha "Mowag Piranha") Medium Reconnaissance Vehicle armed with a 30 mm autocannon](/wiki/File:MOWAG_%284120180412%29.jpg "MOWAG (4120180412).jpg")
The [Army](/wiki/Irish_Army "Irish Army") is the land warfare branch of the Irish Defence Forces and consists of two brigades, a training centre, providing training to all the defense forces, and other units, including musical units.
* [25px](/wiki/File:Badge_of_the_Irish_Defence_Forces.svg "Badge of the Irish Defence Forces.svg") **Army Headquarters**, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin")
+ [Army Ranger Wing](/wiki/Army_Ranger_Wing "Army Ranger Wing"), in [Curragh](/wiki/Curragh "Curragh")
+ 1st Mechanised Infantry Company, in Curragh
+ 1st Armoured Cavalry Squadron, in Curragh
+ [Defence Forces School of Music](/wiki/Irish_Defence_Forces_School_of_Music "Irish Defence Forces School of Music"), in Dublin{{cite web \|title\=Defence Forces School of Music \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/defence\-forces\-school\-of\-music/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
- Army No 1 Band, in Dublin
- Band of the 1st Brigade, in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 "Cork (city)")
- Band of the 2nd Brigade, in Dublin
+ [Equitation School](/wiki/Irish_Army_Equitation_School "Irish Army Equitation School"), in Dublin{{cite web \|title\=The Equitation School \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/equitation\-school/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
#### 1st Brigade
[thumb\|right\|105mm artillery during a live fire exercise](/wiki/File:Best_52_%2811292053356%29_%282%29.jpg "Best 52 (11292053356) (2).jpg")
The [1st Brigade](/wiki/1st_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 "1st Brigade (Ireland)") is headquartered at [Collins Barracks](/wiki/Collins_Barracks_%28Cork%29 "Collins Barracks (Cork)") in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 "Cork (city)"). The brigade is responsible for the counties of [Carlow](/wiki/County_Carlow "County Carlow"), [Clare](/wiki/County_Clare "County Clare"), [Cork](/wiki/County_Cork "County Cork"), [Galway](/wiki/County_Galway "County Galway"), [Kerry](/wiki/County_Kerry "County Kerry"), [Kilkenny](/wiki/County_Kilkenny "County Kilkenny"), [Laois](/wiki/County_Laois "County Laois"), [Limerick](/wiki/County_Limerick "County Limerick"), [Offaly](/wiki/County_Offaly "County Offaly"), [Tipperary](/wiki/County_Tipperary "County Tipperary"), [Waterford](/wiki/County_Waterford "County Waterford"), and [Wexford](/wiki/County_Wexford "County Wexford").{{cite web \|title\=1st Brigade \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/1\-brigade/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}}
* [25px](/wiki/File:Southern_Brigade_Flash.svg "Southern Brigade Flash.svg") **[1st Brigade](/wiki/1st_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 "1st Brigade (Ireland)")**, in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 "Cork (city)")
+ [1st Infantry Battalion](/wiki/An_Ch%C3%A9ad_Chathl%C3%A1n_Coisithe "An Chéad Chathlán Coisithe"), in [Galway](/wiki/Galway "Galway")
+ [3rd Infantry Battalion](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Battalion_%28Ireland%29 "3rd Infantry Battalion (Ireland)"), in [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny "Kilkenny")
+ 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick "Limerick")
+ 1st [Artillery](/wiki/Artillery_Corps_%28Ireland%29 "Artillery Corps (Ireland)") Regiment, in Cork, with [L118/119](/wiki/L118_light_gun "L118 light gun") 105 mm light guns and 120 mm mortars{{cite web \|title\=Artillery Corps \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/army\-corps/artillery\-corps/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}}
+ 1st [Cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry_Corps_%28Ireland%29 "Cavalry Corps (Ireland)") Squadron, in Cork
+ 1st [Engineer](/wiki/Corps_of_Engineers_%28Ireland%29 "Corps of Engineers (Ireland)") Group, in Cork
+ 1st [Supply and Transport](/wiki/Transport_Corps_%28Ireland%29 "Transport Corps (Ireland)") Group, in Cork
+ 1st [Ordnance](/wiki/Ordnance_Corps_%28Ireland%29 "Ordnance Corps (Ireland)") Group, in Cork
+ 1st [Field CIS](/wiki/Communications_%26_Information_Services_Corps "Communications & Information Services Corps") Company, in Cork
+ 1st [Military Police](/wiki/Military_Police_Corps_%28Ireland%29 "Military Police Corps (Ireland)") Company, in Cork
#### 2nd Brigade
[thumb\|right\|Irish troops exercising with the [Nordic Battle Group](/wiki/Nordic_Battle_Group "Nordic Battle Group")](/wiki/File:Nordic_Battle_Group_%285187101773%29.jpg "Nordic Battle Group (5187101773).jpg")
The [2nd Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 "2nd Brigade (Ireland)") is headquartered at the [Cathal Brugha Barracks](/wiki/Cathal_Brugha_Barracks "Cathal Brugha Barracks") in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"). The brigade is responsible for the counties of [Cavan](/wiki/County_Cavan "County Cavan"), [Donegal](/wiki/County_Donegal "County Donegal"), [Dublin](/wiki/County_Dublin "County Dublin"), [Kildare](/wiki/County_Kildare "County Kildare"), [Leitrim](/wiki/County_Leitrim "County Leitrim"), [Longford](/wiki/County_Longford "County Longford"), [Louth](/wiki/County_Louth "County Louth"), [Mayo](/wiki/County_Mayo "County Mayo"), [Meath](/wiki/County_Meath "County Meath"), [Monaghan](/wiki/County_Monaghan "County Monaghan"), [Roscommon](/wiki/County_Roscommon "County Roscommon"), [Sligo](/wiki/County_Sligo "County Sligo"), [Westmeath](/wiki/County_Westmeath "County Westmeath"), and [Wicklow](/wiki/County_Wicklow "County Wicklow").{{cite web \|title\=2nd Brigade \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/2\-brigade/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}}
* [25px](/wiki/File:Eastern_Brigade_%28Irish_Army%29.svg "Eastern Brigade (Irish Army).svg") **[2nd Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 "2nd Brigade (Ireland)")**, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin")
+ 6th Infantry Battalion, in [Athlone](/wiki/Athlone "Athlone")
+ 7th Infantry Battalion, in Dublin
+ [27th Infantry Battalion](/wiki/27_Infantry_Battalion_%28Ireland%29 "27 Infantry Battalion (Ireland)"), in [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk "Dundalk")
+ 28th Infantry Battalion, in [Ballyshannon](/wiki/Ballyshannon "Ballyshannon")
+ 2nd Artillery Regiment, in Athlone, with L118/119 105mm light guns and 120mm mortars
+ 2nd Cavalry Squadron, in Dublin
+ 2nd Engineer Group, in Athlone
+ 2nd Supply and Transport Group, in Athlone
+ 2nd Ordnance Group, in Athlone
+ 2nd Field CIS Company, in Dublin
+ 2nd Military Police Company, in Dublin
#### Defence Forces Training Centre
[thumb\|right\|Artillery School live fire exercise](/wiki/File:The_Arty_School_exercising_both_a_Young_Officers_course_and_an_Artillery_Standard_NCO_cse_Live_Firing_Day_and_night_shoot_46_%2816756784100%29.jpg "The Arty School exercising both a Young Officers course and an Artillery Standard NCO cse Live Firing Day and night shoot 46 (16756784100).jpg")
The [Defence Forces Training Centre](/wiki/Defence_Forces_Training_Centre "Defence Forces Training Centre") (DFTC) based at the [Curragh Camp](/wiki/Curragh_Camp "Curragh Camp") is provides professional training to the Irish Army:
* [25px](/wiki/File:Defence_Forces_Training_Centre.png "Defence Forces Training Centre.png") **Defence Forces Training Centre**, in [Curragh](/wiki/Curragh "Curragh")
+ Military College{{cite web \|title\=The Military College \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/defence\-forces\-training\-centre/the\-military\-college/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
- Command and Staff School
- Cadet School
- Infantry School{{cite web \|title\=The Infantry School \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/defence\-forces\-training\-centre/the\-military\-college/infantry\-school/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
* Officer Training Wing
* Non Commissioned Officer Training Wing
* Infantry Weapons Wing
- Artillery School
- Cavalry School
- United Nations Training School Ireland
- Military Administration School
- Defence Forces Physical Education School
+ CIS Group
- Communications and Information Services School{{cite web \|title\=Schools of the DFTC \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/defence\-forces\-training\-centre/schools\-of\-the\-dftc/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
+ Engineer Group
- Military Engineering School
+ Ordnance Group
- Ordnance School
+ Military Police Group
- Military Police School
+ Transport Group
- Transport and Vehicle Maintenance School
+ Medical School
+ Defence Forces Catering School
+ Central Medical Unit Detachment
+ Defence Forces Training Centre Military Police Company
+ Defence Forces Training Centre Support Unit
#### Army Reserve
The [Army Reserve](/wiki/Army_Reserve_%28Ireland%29 "Army Reserve (Ireland)") is a part\-time, voluntary organisation established on 1 October 2005, whose members round out regular army units. The Army Reserve is present at the following locations:{{cite web \|title\=Army Reserve Locations \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/reserve\-defence\-forces/army\-reserve/army\-reserve\-locations/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
* **[1st Brigade](/wiki/1st_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 "1st Brigade (Ireland)")**, in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 "Cork (city)"){{cite web \|title\=Reserve Defence Forces Contacts \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/contact\-us/reserve\-defence\-forces\-contacts/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
+ C Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in [Clifden](/wiki/Clifden "Clifden")
+ D Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in [Galway](/wiki/Galway "Galway"){{cite web \|title\=Defence Forces Permanent Barracks \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/contact\-us/defence\-forces\-barracks/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
+ E Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in [Ennis](/wiki/Ennis "Ennis")
+ C Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny "Kilkenny")
+ D Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Mallow](/wiki/Mallow%2C_County_Cork "Mallow, County Cork")
+ E Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Tralee](/wiki/Tralee "Tralee")
+ F Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Skibbereen](/wiki/Skibbereen "Skibbereen")
+ C Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick "Limerick")
+ D Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in [Templemore](/wiki/Templemore "Templemore")
+ E Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in [Wexford](/wiki/Wexford "Wexford")
+ F Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in [Waterford](/wiki/Waterford "Waterford")
+ 4th and 5th Artillery Battery, 1st Artillery Regiment, 2x Cavalry Squadron Troops, 1x CIS Radio Platoon, 2x Transport Platoons, 1x Military Police Platoon, in Cork
* **[2nd Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 "2nd Brigade (Ireland)")**, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin")
+ C Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in [Mullingar](/wiki/Mullingar "Mullingar")
+ D Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in [Castlebar](/wiki/Castlebar "Castlebar")
+ E Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in [Boyle](/wiki/Boyle%2C_County_Roscommon "Boyle, County Roscommon")
+ D Company, 7th Infantry Battalion, 2x Cavalry Squadron Troops, 1x CIS Radio Platoon, 2x Transport Platoons, 1x Military Police Platoon, in Dublin
+ E Company, 7th Infantry Battalion, in [Bray](/wiki/Bray%2C_County_Wicklow "Bray, County Wicklow")
+ C Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in [Cavan](/wiki/Cavan "Cavan")
+ D Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk "Dundalk")
+ E Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in [Navan](/wiki/Navan "Navan")
+ C Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in [Letterkenny](/wiki/Letterkenny "Letterkenny")
+ D Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in [Sligo](/wiki/Sligo "Sligo")
+ E Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in [Donegal](/wiki/Donegal_%28town%29 "Donegal (town)")
+ 4th and 5th Artillery Battery, 2nd Artillery Regiment, 1x Field Engineer Platoon, in [Athlone](/wiki/Athlone "Athlone")
* **Defence Forces Training Centre**, in [Curragh](/wiki/Curragh "Curragh")
+ various units, in Curragh
#### Infantry battalion organization
[thumb\|right\|Infantry with [RG\-32M](/wiki/RG_Outrider "RG Outrider") light tactical vehicles](/wiki/File:New_Light_Tactical_Armoured_Vehicle_%284521060858%29.jpg "New Light Tactical Armoured Vehicle (4521060858).jpg")
The infantry battalions of the Irish Army are organized as follows:
* **Infantry Battalion**{{cite web \|title\=Infantry Corps \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/army\-corps/infatnry\-corps/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
+ Headquarters Company
- Administrative Platoon
- Communications Platoon
- Transport Platoon
- Logistic Platoon
+ 3x to 6x Infantry companies
- 3x Infantry platoons
- Weapons Platoon, with [M1 60 mm](/wiki/Denel_Vektor_M1_60mm_Mortar "Denel Vektor M1 60mm Mortar") [mortars](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)"), [FN MAG](/wiki/FN_MAG "FN MAG") machine guns, and [84 mm recoilless rifles](/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_8.4cm_recoilless_rifle "Carl Gustaf 8.4cm recoilless rifle"){{cite web \|title\=Company Level Weapons \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/weapons/company\-level\-weapons/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
+ Support Company{{cite web \|title\=Battalion Level Weapons \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/army/weapons/battalion\-level\-weapons/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
- Reconnaissance Platoon, includes a sniper section
- Heavy Machine Gun Platoon, with [M2 Browning](/wiki/M2_Browning "M2 Browning") heavy machine guns
- Anti\-armour Platoon, with [Javelin](/wiki/FGM-148_Javelin "FGM-148 Javelin") [anti\-tank missiles](/wiki/Anti-tank_missiles "Anti-tank missiles")
- Mortar Platoon, with [LLR 81mm](/wiki/LLR_81mm "LLR 81mm") [mortars](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)")
### Air Corps
The [Air Corps](/wiki/Irish_Air_Corps "Irish Air Corps") is the air branch of the Irish Defence Forces. Headed by a [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general "Brigadier general") it comprises a staff headquarters, two operational wings, two support wings, one independent squadron and the Air Corps College.
* [25px](/wiki/File:Irish_Air_Corps_insignia.svg "Irish Air Corps insignia.svg") **Air Corps Headquarters**, at [Casement Aerodrome](/wiki/Casement_Aerodrome "Casement Aerodrome") in [Baldonnel](/wiki/Baldonnel%2C_Dublin "Baldonnel, Dublin"){{cite web \|title\=Air Corps Headquarters \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/air\-corps/about\-the\-air\-corps/air\-corps\-headquarters/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}}
+ Office of General Officer Commanding
+ Operations Section
+ Support Section
+ Military Airworthiness Authority
+ Flight Safety Section
+ Military Police Section
+ [CIS](/wiki/Communications_%26_Information_Services_Corps "Communications & Information Services Corps") Squadron{{cite web \|title\=CIS Squadron \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/air\-corps/about\-the\-air\-corps/cis\-squadron/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}} (former 501 CIS Squadron, No 5 Support Wing)
- Squadron Headquarters
- Airfield Services Flight
- Communications Flight
- Technical Services Flight
- Information Technology Flight
#### No 1 Operations Wing
[thumb\|right\|Air Corps [CN\-235 MPA](/wiki/CASA/IPTN_CN-235 "CASA/IPTN CN-235") [maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft "Maritime patrol aircraft")](/wiki/File:A2503-Ireland-CN235-253-RIAT2013.JPG "A2503-Ireland-CN235-253-RIAT2013.JPG")
No 1 Operations Wing operates the fixed\-wing assets of the Air Corps.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/air\-corps/about\-the\-air\-corps/no\-1\-operations\-wing/ \|title\=No 1 Operations Wing \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}} The wing is divided into four flying and two non\-flying squadrons:
* **No 1 Operations Wing**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel
+ 101 Maritime Surveillance and Airlift Squadron, with 2x [CN\-235 MPA](/wiki/CASA/IPTN_CN-235 "CASA/IPTN CN-235") [maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft "Maritime patrol aircraft") (to be replaced by 2x [C\-295 MPA](/wiki/EADS_CASA_C-295 "EADS CASA C-295"){{cite web \|title\=Irish Air Corps to Acquire Two New Maritime Patrol Aircraft \|date\=20 December 2019 \|url\=https://flyinginireland.com/2019/12/irish\-air\-corps\-to\-acquire\-two\-new\-maritime\-patrol\-aircraft/ \|publisher\=Flying in Ireland \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}})
+ 102 Ministerial Transport Squadron, with 1x [Learjet 45](/wiki/Learjet_45 "Learjet 45") plane
+ 103 [Garda Air Support Unit](/wiki/Garda_Air_Support_Unit "Garda Air Support Unit"), with 1x [Defender](/wiki/Britten-Norman_Defender "Britten-Norman Defender") plane
+ 104 Army Co\-op and Reconnaissance Squadron, with 4x [PC\-12NG](/wiki/Pilatus_PC-12 "Pilatus PC-12") planes
+ 105 Defence Forces Photographic Section
+ 106 Maintenance Squadron
#### No 3 Operations Wing
[thumb\|right\|Air Corps [AW139](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW139 "AgustaWestland AW139") helicopter](/wiki/File:MRE_10_%2812676752883%29.jpg "MRE 10 (12676752883).jpg")
No 3 Operations Wing is operates all Air Corps helicopters,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/air\-corps/about\-the\-air\-corps/no\-3\-operations\-wing/ \|title\=No 3 Operations Wing \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}} and is divided into three squadrons. It provides pilots for the [Emergency Aeromedical Service](/wiki/Emergency_Aeromedical_Service "Emergency Aeromedical Service"), the [air ambulance](/wiki/Air_ambulance "Air ambulance") service which is jointly operated by the Air Corps and the [HSE National Ambulance Service](/wiki/HSE_National_Ambulance_Service "HSE National Ambulance Service").
* **No 3 Operations Wing**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel
+ 301 Tactical Helicopter Squadron, with 6x [AW139](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW139 "AgustaWestland AW139") helicopters
+ 302 Training and Surveillance Squadron, with 2x [EC135 P2](/wiki/Eurocopter_EC135 "Eurocopter EC135") helicopters, and 2x [EC135 T2](/wiki/Eurocopter_EC135 "Eurocopter EC135") helicopters for the [Garda Air Support Unit](/wiki/Garda_Air_Support_Unit "Garda Air Support Unit") (Detachment at [Finner Camp](/wiki/Finner_Camp "Finner Camp"))
+ 303 Maintenance Squadron
#### No 4 Support Wing
No 4 Support Wing carries out second line maintenance and manages the procurement of spares and aviation fuel.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/air\-corps/about\-the\-air\-corps/no\-4\-support\-wing/ \|title\=No 4 Support Wing \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}} This formation has two squadrons.
* **No 4 Support Wing**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel
+ 401 Mechanical Support Squadron
+ 402 Avionics Support Squadron
#### No 5 Support Wing
No 5 Support Wing is responsible for the logistic support for the Air Corps and the management and security of [Casement Aerodrome](/wiki/Casement_Aerodrome "Casement Aerodrome").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/air\-corps/about\-the\-air\-corps/no\-5\-support\-wing/ \|title\=No 5 Support Wing \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}}
* **No 5 Support Wing**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel
+ 502 Logistics Squadron
+ 503 Transport Squadron
+ 504 Medical Squadron
+ 505 Air Traffic Control Squadron
+ 506 Crash Rescue Squadron
+ 507 Security and Maintenance Squadron
#### Air Corps College
[thumb\|right\|Two Air Corps [PC\-9](/wiki/Pilatus_PC-9 "Pilatus PC-9") aircraft](/wiki/File:Pilatus_PC-9_of_the_Irish_Air_Corp_flying_in_formation_3.jpg "Pilatus PC-9 of the Irish Air Corp flying in formation 3.jpg")
{{main article\|Air Corps College (Ireland)}}
The Air Corps College is the principal training unit of the Irish Air Corps, where all entrants into the service undertake their training. The College is divided into three distinct schools:
{{cite web \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/air\-corps/air\-corps\-college/\|title\=Air Corps College \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=17 May 2020}}
* **Air Corps College**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel
+ Flying Training School, pilot and officer training, with [PC\-9](/wiki/Pilatus_PC-9 "Pilatus PC-9") [trainer aircraft](/wiki/Trainer_aircraft "Trainer aircraft")
+ Technical Training School, aircraft technicians training
+ Military Training and Survival School, basic military, [Non\-commissioned Officer](/wiki/Non-commissioned_Officer "Non-commissioned Officer"), and [SERE training](/wiki/SERE_training "SERE training")
### Naval Service
The [Naval Service](/wiki/Irish_Naval_Service "Irish Naval Service") is the sea branch of the Irish Defence Forces. Headed by a [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general "Brigadier general") it comprises a staff headquarters, two commands, and the Naval College.
* [25px](/wiki/File:Badge_of_the_Irish_Naval_Service.svg "Badge of the Irish Naval Service.svg") **Naval Headquarters**, at [Haulbowline](/wiki/Haulbowline "Haulbowline") Naval Base
#### Naval Operations Command
[thumb\|right\|[LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Samuel_Beckett_%28P61%29 "LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61)") underway](/wiki/File:L%C3%89_Samuel_Beckett.jpg "LÉ Samuel Beckett.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Naval Service Diving Section](/wiki/Naval_Service_Diving_Section "Naval Service Diving Section") members](/wiki/File:Naval_Service_Dive_Team_%2813062306065%29.jpg "Naval Service Dive Team (13062306065).jpg")
[Naval Operations Command](/wiki/Naval_Operations_Command_%28Ireland%29 "Naval Operations Command (Ireland)") is the command component of the Irish Naval Service responsible for all day\-to\-day activities of the service, both at sea and on shore.
* **Naval Operations Command**, at Haulbowline Naval Base{{cite web \|title\=Naval Operations Command \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/naval\-service/about\-the\-naval\-service/naval\-operations\-command/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
+ Operations Command Headquarters
+ Fleet Operational Readiness Standards and Training
- [LÉ Eithne (P31\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Eithne_%28P31%29 "LÉ Eithne (P31)"), [LÉ Orla (P41\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Orla_%28P41%29 "LÉ Orla (P41)") (in operational reserve), [LÉ Ciara (P42\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Ciara_%28P42%29 "LÉ Ciara (P42)"), [LÉ Róisín (P51\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_R%C3%B3is%C3%ADn_%28P51%29 "LÉ Róisín (P51)"), [LÉ Niamh (P52\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Niamh_%28P52%29 "LÉ Niamh (P52)"), [LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Samuel_Beckett_%28P61%29 "LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61)"), [LÉ James Joyce (P62\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_James_Joyce_%28P62%29 "LÉ James Joyce (P62)"), [LÉ William Butler Yeats (P63\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_William_Butler_Yeats_%28P63%29 "LÉ William Butler Yeats (P63)"), and [LÉ George Bernard Shaw (P64\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_George_Bernard_Shaw_%28P64%29 "LÉ George Bernard Shaw (P64)")
+ Intelligence and Fishery Section
- Naval Intelligence Cell
- Navigation Cell
- Naval Computer Centre
- [Fisheries Monitoring Centre](/wiki/Fisheries_Monitoring_Centre "Fisheries Monitoring Centre"){{cite web \|title\=Fisheries Monitoring Centre \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/naval\-service/specialist\-units/fisheries\-monitoring\-centre/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
* Vessel Monitoring System
* Fishery Protection System \- Lirguard
+ Fishery Information System
+ Fishery Geographic System
+ Fishery Legislative System
+ Electronic Recording and Reporting System
+ Shore Operations
- Headquarters Section
- Naval Service Operations Room
- Naval Service Reserve Staff
- Naval Base Communications Centre
- Operations Security Section
- [Naval Service Diving Section](/wiki/Naval_Service_Diving_Section "Naval Service Diving Section"){{cite web \|title\=Naval Service Diving Section \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/naval\-service/specialist\-units/diving\-section/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
- Harbour Master Naval Base
* Boat Transport
#### Naval Support Command
[thumb\|right\|Naval Service armed boarding party underway](/wiki/File:Irish_Navy_armed_boarding_party.jpg "Irish Navy armed boarding party.jpg")
[Naval Support Command](/wiki/Naval_Support_Command_%28Ireland%29 "Naval Support Command (Ireland)") oversees the personnel, logistical and technical resources of the Naval Service, allowing the service to meets its operational and training commitments. Ship procurement, maintenance, repair, provisions, ordnance, food, fuel, personnel and transportation are handled by Naval Support Command.{{cite web \|title\=Naval Support Command \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/naval\-service/about\-the\-naval\-service/naval\-support\-command/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
* **Naval Support Command**, at Haulbowline Naval Base
+ Support Command Headquarters
- Personnel Management Section
- Maintenance Management/Planning and Inspectorate
+ Mechanical Engineering and Naval Dockyard Unit
- Plant and Machinery Section
- Naval Dockyard
+ Base Logistic Department
- Naval Technical Stores
- Central Supply Unit
- Accommodation and Messes Section
- Base Engineering Maintenance Section
- Road Transport Section
+ Weapons Electrical Unit
- Communications Technical Section
- Electrical/Electronics Section
- Ordnance Section
#### Naval College
The [Naval College](/wiki/Naval_College_%28Ireland%29 "Naval College (Ireland)") provides training to cadets, non\-commissioned officers, and recruits of the Naval Service. The Naval College trains and educates personnel for service, providing a mixture of different courses ranging from officer training right through to Naval Engineering. The Naval College is based out of the Naval Service's headquarters at Naval Base Haulbowline but also provides classes and lessons in non\-military naval training at the nearby [National Maritime College of Ireland](/wiki/National_Maritime_College_of_Ireland "National Maritime College of Ireland") in [Ringaskiddy](/wiki/Ringaskiddy "Ringaskiddy").{{cite web \|title\=Naval Service College \|url\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\-we\-are/naval\-service/naval\-service\-college/ \|publisher\=Irish Defence Forces \|accessdate\=18 May 2020}}
* **Naval College**, at Haulbowline Naval Base
+ Officer Training School
+ Military and Naval Operational Training School
+ School of Naval Engineering
#### Naval Service Reserve
The [Naval Service Reserve](/wiki/Naval_Service_Reserve "Naval Service Reserve") is the reserve force of the Naval Service. Its personnel supplements the crew of vessels of the Naval Service during operations, and conducts stand\-alone operations within their respective ports, such as security duties, sighting reports and intelligence gathering.
* **Naval Service Reserve**, at Haulbowline Naval Base
+ Dublin Unit Naval Service Reserve, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin")
+ Waterford Unit Naval Service Reserve, in [Waterford](/wiki/Waterford "Waterford")
+ Cork Unit Naval Service Reserve, in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 "Cork (city)")
+ Limerick Unit Naval Service Reserve, in [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick "Limerick")
|
[
"Chief of staff\n--------------",
"[Chief of staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Defence_Forces_%28Ireland%29 \"Chief of Staff of the Defence Forces (Ireland)\") is a three\\-star general rank, and the holder of this post has authority and responsibility in respect to all staff duties relating to the management of the Irish Defence Forces.",
"* **[Chief of staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Defence_Forces_%28Ireland%29 \"Chief of Staff of the Defence Forces (Ireland)\")**, in [Newbridge](/wiki/Newbridge%2C_County_Kildare \"Newbridge, County Kildare\"){{cite web \\|title\\=About the General Staff \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/the\\-general\\-staff/about\\-the\\-general\\-staff/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t+ **Chief of Staff's Division**, headed by the assistant chief of staff, based in Newbridge\n\t\t- Office of the Chief of Staff\n\t\t- Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff\n\t\t- Strategic Planning Branch\n\t\t- Public Relations Branch\n\t\t- The Military Judge\n\t+ **Operations Division**, headed by the deputy chief of staff operations, based in Newbridge and Dublin\n\t\t- Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff Operations\n\t\t- J2 Intelligence Branch\n\t\t- J3 \\& J5 Planning \\& Operations Branch\n\t\t- Combat Support Branch\n\t\t- J6 CIS Branch\n\t\t\t* Defence Forces Headquarters CIS Company\n\t\t- J7 Training Branch\n\t+ **Support Division**, headed by the Deputy Chief of Staff Support, based in Newbridge and Dublin\n\t\t- Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff Support\n\t\t- J1 Human Resources Management Branch\n\t\t- J4 Logistics\n\t\t- CAOGA\n\t\t- Conciliation \\& Arbitration (Mil)\n\t\t- Transport Branch\n\t\t- Legal Services Branch\n\t\t- Engineers Branch\n\t\t- Ordnance Branch\n\t\t- Medical Branch\n\t\t- Military Police Branch\n\t\t- Military Chaplaincy Service\n\t+ Military Police [Government Buildings](/wiki/Government_Buildings \"Government Buildings\") Company, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\")",
"### Army",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Army Ranger Wing](/wiki/Army_Ranger_Wing \"Army Ranger Wing\") on patrol in [Chad](/wiki/Chad \"Chad\")](/wiki/File:Irish_Army_Ranger_Wing_Ford_Special_Recon_Vehicle_in_Chad_%284109830420%29.jpg \"Irish Army Ranger Wing Ford Special Recon Vehicle in Chad (4109830420).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Piranha IIIH](/wiki/Mowag_Piranha \"Mowag Piranha\") Medium Reconnaissance Vehicle armed with a 30 mm autocannon](/wiki/File:MOWAG_%284120180412%29.jpg \"MOWAG (4120180412).jpg\")",
"The [Army](/wiki/Irish_Army \"Irish Army\") is the land warfare branch of the Irish Defence Forces and consists of two brigades, a training centre, providing training to all the defense forces, and other units, including musical units.",
"* [25px](/wiki/File:Badge_of_the_Irish_Defence_Forces.svg \"Badge of the Irish Defence Forces.svg\") **Army Headquarters**, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\")\n\t+ [Army Ranger Wing](/wiki/Army_Ranger_Wing \"Army Ranger Wing\"), in [Curragh](/wiki/Curragh \"Curragh\")\n\t+ 1st Mechanised Infantry Company, in Curragh\n\t+ 1st Armoured Cavalry Squadron, in Curragh\n\t+ [Defence Forces School of Music](/wiki/Irish_Defence_Forces_School_of_Music \"Irish Defence Forces School of Music\"), in Dublin{{cite web \\|title\\=Defence Forces School of Music \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/defence\\-forces\\-school\\-of\\-music/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t\t- Army No 1 Band, in Dublin\n\t\t- Band of the 1st Brigade, in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 \"Cork (city)\")\n\t\t- Band of the 2nd Brigade, in Dublin\n\t+ [Equitation School](/wiki/Irish_Army_Equitation_School \"Irish Army Equitation School\"), in Dublin{{cite web \\|title\\=The Equitation School \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/equitation\\-school/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}",
"#### 1st Brigade",
"[thumb\\|right\\|105mm artillery during a live fire exercise](/wiki/File:Best_52_%2811292053356%29_%282%29.jpg \"Best 52 (11292053356) (2).jpg\")",
"The [1st Brigade](/wiki/1st_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 \"1st Brigade (Ireland)\") is headquartered at [Collins Barracks](/wiki/Collins_Barracks_%28Cork%29 \"Collins Barracks (Cork)\") in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 \"Cork (city)\"). The brigade is responsible for the counties of [Carlow](/wiki/County_Carlow \"County Carlow\"), [Clare](/wiki/County_Clare \"County Clare\"), [Cork](/wiki/County_Cork \"County Cork\"), [Galway](/wiki/County_Galway \"County Galway\"), [Kerry](/wiki/County_Kerry \"County Kerry\"), [Kilkenny](/wiki/County_Kilkenny \"County Kilkenny\"), [Laois](/wiki/County_Laois \"County Laois\"), [Limerick](/wiki/County_Limerick \"County Limerick\"), [Offaly](/wiki/County_Offaly \"County Offaly\"), [Tipperary](/wiki/County_Tipperary \"County Tipperary\"), [Waterford](/wiki/County_Waterford \"County Waterford\"), and [Wexford](/wiki/County_Wexford \"County Wexford\").{{cite web \\|title\\=1st Brigade \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/1\\-brigade/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}}",
"* [25px](/wiki/File:Southern_Brigade_Flash.svg \"Southern Brigade Flash.svg\") **[1st Brigade](/wiki/1st_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 \"1st Brigade (Ireland)\")**, in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 \"Cork (city)\")\n\t+ [1st Infantry Battalion](/wiki/An_Ch%C3%A9ad_Chathl%C3%A1n_Coisithe \"An Chéad Chathlán Coisithe\"), in [Galway](/wiki/Galway \"Galway\")\n\t+ [3rd Infantry Battalion](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Battalion_%28Ireland%29 \"3rd Infantry Battalion (Ireland)\"), in [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny \"Kilkenny\")\n\t+ 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick \"Limerick\")\n\t+ 1st [Artillery](/wiki/Artillery_Corps_%28Ireland%29 \"Artillery Corps (Ireland)\") Regiment, in Cork, with [L118/119](/wiki/L118_light_gun \"L118 light gun\") 105 mm light guns and 120 mm mortars{{cite web \\|title\\=Artillery Corps \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/army\\-corps/artillery\\-corps/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}}\n\t+ 1st [Cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry_Corps_%28Ireland%29 \"Cavalry Corps (Ireland)\") Squadron, in Cork\n\t+ 1st [Engineer](/wiki/Corps_of_Engineers_%28Ireland%29 \"Corps of Engineers (Ireland)\") Group, in Cork\n\t+ 1st [Supply and Transport](/wiki/Transport_Corps_%28Ireland%29 \"Transport Corps (Ireland)\") Group, in Cork\n\t+ 1st [Ordnance](/wiki/Ordnance_Corps_%28Ireland%29 \"Ordnance Corps (Ireland)\") Group, in Cork\n\t+ 1st [Field CIS](/wiki/Communications_%26_Information_Services_Corps \"Communications & Information Services Corps\") Company, in Cork\n\t+ 1st [Military Police](/wiki/Military_Police_Corps_%28Ireland%29 \"Military Police Corps (Ireland)\") Company, in Cork",
"#### 2nd Brigade",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Irish troops exercising with the [Nordic Battle Group](/wiki/Nordic_Battle_Group \"Nordic Battle Group\")](/wiki/File:Nordic_Battle_Group_%285187101773%29.jpg \"Nordic Battle Group (5187101773).jpg\")",
"The [2nd Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 \"2nd Brigade (Ireland)\") is headquartered at the [Cathal Brugha Barracks](/wiki/Cathal_Brugha_Barracks \"Cathal Brugha Barracks\") in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\"). The brigade is responsible for the counties of [Cavan](/wiki/County_Cavan \"County Cavan\"), [Donegal](/wiki/County_Donegal \"County Donegal\"), [Dublin](/wiki/County_Dublin \"County Dublin\"), [Kildare](/wiki/County_Kildare \"County Kildare\"), [Leitrim](/wiki/County_Leitrim \"County Leitrim\"), [Longford](/wiki/County_Longford \"County Longford\"), [Louth](/wiki/County_Louth \"County Louth\"), [Mayo](/wiki/County_Mayo \"County Mayo\"), [Meath](/wiki/County_Meath \"County Meath\"), [Monaghan](/wiki/County_Monaghan \"County Monaghan\"), [Roscommon](/wiki/County_Roscommon \"County Roscommon\"), [Sligo](/wiki/County_Sligo \"County Sligo\"), [Westmeath](/wiki/County_Westmeath \"County Westmeath\"), and [Wicklow](/wiki/County_Wicklow \"County Wicklow\").{{cite web \\|title\\=2nd Brigade \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/2\\-brigade/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}}",
"* [25px](/wiki/File:Eastern_Brigade_%28Irish_Army%29.svg \"Eastern Brigade (Irish Army).svg\") **[2nd Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 \"2nd Brigade (Ireland)\")**, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\")\n\t+ 6th Infantry Battalion, in [Athlone](/wiki/Athlone \"Athlone\")\n\t+ 7th Infantry Battalion, in Dublin\n\t+ [27th Infantry Battalion](/wiki/27_Infantry_Battalion_%28Ireland%29 \"27 Infantry Battalion (Ireland)\"), in [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk \"Dundalk\")\n\t+ 28th Infantry Battalion, in [Ballyshannon](/wiki/Ballyshannon \"Ballyshannon\")\n\t+ 2nd Artillery Regiment, in Athlone, with L118/119 105mm light guns and 120mm mortars\n\t+ 2nd Cavalry Squadron, in Dublin\n\t+ 2nd Engineer Group, in Athlone\n\t+ 2nd Supply and Transport Group, in Athlone\n\t+ 2nd Ordnance Group, in Athlone\n\t+ 2nd Field CIS Company, in Dublin\n\t+ 2nd Military Police Company, in Dublin",
"#### Defence Forces Training Centre",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Artillery School live fire exercise](/wiki/File:The_Arty_School_exercising_both_a_Young_Officers_course_and_an_Artillery_Standard_NCO_cse_Live_Firing_Day_and_night_shoot_46_%2816756784100%29.jpg \"The Arty School exercising both a Young Officers course and an Artillery Standard NCO cse Live Firing Day and night shoot 46 (16756784100).jpg\")",
"The [Defence Forces Training Centre](/wiki/Defence_Forces_Training_Centre \"Defence Forces Training Centre\") (DFTC) based at the [Curragh Camp](/wiki/Curragh_Camp \"Curragh Camp\") is provides professional training to the Irish Army:",
"* [25px](/wiki/File:Defence_Forces_Training_Centre.png \"Defence Forces Training Centre.png\") **Defence Forces Training Centre**, in [Curragh](/wiki/Curragh \"Curragh\")\n\t+ Military College{{cite web \\|title\\=The Military College \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/defence\\-forces\\-training\\-centre/the\\-military\\-college/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t\t- Command and Staff School\n\t\t- Cadet School\n\t\t- Infantry School{{cite web \\|title\\=The Infantry School \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/defence\\-forces\\-training\\-centre/the\\-military\\-college/infantry\\-school/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t\t\t* Officer Training Wing\n\t\t\t* Non Commissioned Officer Training Wing\n\t\t\t* Infantry Weapons Wing\n\t\t- Artillery School\n\t\t- Cavalry School\n\t\t- United Nations Training School Ireland\n\t\t- Military Administration School\n\t\t- Defence Forces Physical Education School\n\t+ CIS Group\n\t\t- Communications and Information Services School{{cite web \\|title\\=Schools of the DFTC \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/defence\\-forces\\-training\\-centre/schools\\-of\\-the\\-dftc/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t+ Engineer Group\n\t\t- Military Engineering School\n\t+ Ordnance Group\n\t\t- Ordnance School\n\t+ Military Police Group\n\t\t- Military Police School\n\t+ Transport Group\n\t\t- Transport and Vehicle Maintenance School\n\t+ Medical School\n\t+ Defence Forces Catering School\n\t+ Central Medical Unit Detachment\n\t+ Defence Forces Training Centre Military Police Company\n\t+ Defence Forces Training Centre Support Unit",
"#### Army Reserve",
"The [Army Reserve](/wiki/Army_Reserve_%28Ireland%29 \"Army Reserve (Ireland)\") is a part\\-time, voluntary organisation established on 1 October 2005, whose members round out regular army units. The Army Reserve is present at the following locations:{{cite web \\|title\\=Army Reserve Locations \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/reserve\\-defence\\-forces/army\\-reserve/army\\-reserve\\-locations/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}",
"* **[1st Brigade](/wiki/1st_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 \"1st Brigade (Ireland)\")**, in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 \"Cork (city)\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Reserve Defence Forces Contacts \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/contact\\-us/reserve\\-defence\\-forces\\-contacts/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t+ C Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in [Clifden](/wiki/Clifden \"Clifden\")\n\t+ D Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in [Galway](/wiki/Galway \"Galway\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Defence Forces Permanent Barracks \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/contact\\-us/defence\\-forces\\-barracks/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t+ E Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in [Ennis](/wiki/Ennis \"Ennis\")\n\t+ C Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny \"Kilkenny\")\n\t+ D Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Mallow](/wiki/Mallow%2C_County_Cork \"Mallow, County Cork\")\n\t+ E Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Tralee](/wiki/Tralee \"Tralee\")\n\t+ F Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Skibbereen](/wiki/Skibbereen \"Skibbereen\")\n\t+ C Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick \"Limerick\")\n\t+ D Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in [Templemore](/wiki/Templemore \"Templemore\")\n\t+ E Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in [Wexford](/wiki/Wexford \"Wexford\")\n\t+ F Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in [Waterford](/wiki/Waterford \"Waterford\")\n\t+ 4th and 5th Artillery Battery, 1st Artillery Regiment, 2x Cavalry Squadron Troops, 1x CIS Radio Platoon, 2x Transport Platoons, 1x Military Police Platoon, in Cork\n* **[2nd Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Brigade_%28Ireland%29 \"2nd Brigade (Ireland)\")**, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\")\n\t+ C Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in [Mullingar](/wiki/Mullingar \"Mullingar\")\n\t+ D Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in [Castlebar](/wiki/Castlebar \"Castlebar\")\n\t+ E Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in [Boyle](/wiki/Boyle%2C_County_Roscommon \"Boyle, County Roscommon\")\n\t+ D Company, 7th Infantry Battalion, 2x Cavalry Squadron Troops, 1x CIS Radio Platoon, 2x Transport Platoons, 1x Military Police Platoon, in Dublin\n\t+ E Company, 7th Infantry Battalion, in [Bray](/wiki/Bray%2C_County_Wicklow \"Bray, County Wicklow\")\n\t+ C Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in [Cavan](/wiki/Cavan \"Cavan\")\n\t+ D Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk \"Dundalk\")\n\t+ E Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in [Navan](/wiki/Navan \"Navan\")\n\t+ C Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in [Letterkenny](/wiki/Letterkenny \"Letterkenny\")\n\t+ D Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in [Sligo](/wiki/Sligo \"Sligo\")\n\t+ E Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in [Donegal](/wiki/Donegal_%28town%29 \"Donegal (town)\")\n\t+ 4th and 5th Artillery Battery, 2nd Artillery Regiment, 1x Field Engineer Platoon, in [Athlone](/wiki/Athlone \"Athlone\")\n* **Defence Forces Training Centre**, in [Curragh](/wiki/Curragh \"Curragh\")\n\t+ various units, in Curragh",
"#### Infantry battalion organization",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Infantry with [RG\\-32M](/wiki/RG_Outrider \"RG Outrider\") light tactical vehicles](/wiki/File:New_Light_Tactical_Armoured_Vehicle_%284521060858%29.jpg \"New Light Tactical Armoured Vehicle (4521060858).jpg\")",
"The infantry battalions of the Irish Army are organized as follows:",
"* **Infantry Battalion**{{cite web \\|title\\=Infantry Corps \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/army\\-corps/infatnry\\-corps/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t+ Headquarters Company\n\t\t- Administrative Platoon\n\t\t- Communications Platoon\n\t\t- Transport Platoon\n\t\t- Logistic Platoon\n\t+ 3x to 6x Infantry companies\n\t\t- 3x Infantry platoons\n\t\t- Weapons Platoon, with [M1 60 mm](/wiki/Denel_Vektor_M1_60mm_Mortar \"Denel Vektor M1 60mm Mortar\") [mortars](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\"), [FN MAG](/wiki/FN_MAG \"FN MAG\") machine guns, and [84 mm recoilless rifles](/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_8.4cm_recoilless_rifle \"Carl Gustaf 8.4cm recoilless rifle\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Company Level Weapons \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/weapons/company\\-level\\-weapons/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t+ Support Company{{cite web \\|title\\=Battalion Level Weapons \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/army/weapons/battalion\\-level\\-weapons/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t\t- Reconnaissance Platoon, includes a sniper section\n\t\t- Heavy Machine Gun Platoon, with [M2 Browning](/wiki/M2_Browning \"M2 Browning\") heavy machine guns\n\t\t- Anti\\-armour Platoon, with [Javelin](/wiki/FGM-148_Javelin \"FGM-148 Javelin\") [anti\\-tank missiles](/wiki/Anti-tank_missiles \"Anti-tank missiles\")\n\t\t- Mortar Platoon, with [LLR 81mm](/wiki/LLR_81mm \"LLR 81mm\") [mortars](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\")",
"### Air Corps",
"The [Air Corps](/wiki/Irish_Air_Corps \"Irish Air Corps\") is the air branch of the Irish Defence Forces. Headed by a [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general \"Brigadier general\") it comprises a staff headquarters, two operational wings, two support wings, one independent squadron and the Air Corps College.",
"* [25px](/wiki/File:Irish_Air_Corps_insignia.svg \"Irish Air Corps insignia.svg\") **Air Corps Headquarters**, at [Casement Aerodrome](/wiki/Casement_Aerodrome \"Casement Aerodrome\") in [Baldonnel](/wiki/Baldonnel%2C_Dublin \"Baldonnel, Dublin\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Air Corps Headquarters \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/air\\-corps/about\\-the\\-air\\-corps/air\\-corps\\-headquarters/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}}\n\t+ Office of General Officer Commanding\n\t+ Operations Section\n\t+ Support Section\n\t+ Military Airworthiness Authority\n\t+ Flight Safety Section\n\t+ Military Police Section\n\t+ [CIS](/wiki/Communications_%26_Information_Services_Corps \"Communications & Information Services Corps\") Squadron{{cite web \\|title\\=CIS Squadron \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/air\\-corps/about\\-the\\-air\\-corps/cis\\-squadron/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}} (former 501 CIS Squadron, No 5 Support Wing)\n\t\t- Squadron Headquarters\n\t\t- Airfield Services Flight\n\t\t- Communications Flight\n\t\t- Technical Services Flight\n\t\t- Information Technology Flight",
"#### No 1 Operations Wing",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Air Corps [CN\\-235 MPA](/wiki/CASA/IPTN_CN-235 \"CASA/IPTN CN-235\") [maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft \"Maritime patrol aircraft\")](/wiki/File:A2503-Ireland-CN235-253-RIAT2013.JPG \"A2503-Ireland-CN235-253-RIAT2013.JPG\")",
"No 1 Operations Wing operates the fixed\\-wing assets of the Air Corps.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/air\\-corps/about\\-the\\-air\\-corps/no\\-1\\-operations\\-wing/ \\|title\\=No 1 Operations Wing \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}} The wing is divided into four flying and two non\\-flying squadrons:",
"* **No 1 Operations Wing**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel\n\t+ 101 Maritime Surveillance and Airlift Squadron, with 2x [CN\\-235 MPA](/wiki/CASA/IPTN_CN-235 \"CASA/IPTN CN-235\") [maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft \"Maritime patrol aircraft\") (to be replaced by 2x [C\\-295 MPA](/wiki/EADS_CASA_C-295 \"EADS CASA C-295\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Irish Air Corps to Acquire Two New Maritime Patrol Aircraft \\|date\\=20 December 2019 \\|url\\=https://flyinginireland.com/2019/12/irish\\-air\\-corps\\-to\\-acquire\\-two\\-new\\-maritime\\-patrol\\-aircraft/ \\|publisher\\=Flying in Ireland \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}})\n\t+ 102 Ministerial Transport Squadron, with 1x [Learjet 45](/wiki/Learjet_45 \"Learjet 45\") plane\n\t+ 103 [Garda Air Support Unit](/wiki/Garda_Air_Support_Unit \"Garda Air Support Unit\"), with 1x [Defender](/wiki/Britten-Norman_Defender \"Britten-Norman Defender\") plane\n\t+ 104 Army Co\\-op and Reconnaissance Squadron, with 4x [PC\\-12NG](/wiki/Pilatus_PC-12 \"Pilatus PC-12\") planes\n\t+ 105 Defence Forces Photographic Section\n\t+ 106 Maintenance Squadron",
"#### No 3 Operations Wing",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Air Corps [AW139](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW139 \"AgustaWestland AW139\") helicopter](/wiki/File:MRE_10_%2812676752883%29.jpg \"MRE 10 (12676752883).jpg\")",
"No 3 Operations Wing is operates all Air Corps helicopters,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/air\\-corps/about\\-the\\-air\\-corps/no\\-3\\-operations\\-wing/ \\|title\\=No 3 Operations Wing \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}} and is divided into three squadrons. It provides pilots for the [Emergency Aeromedical Service](/wiki/Emergency_Aeromedical_Service \"Emergency Aeromedical Service\"), the [air ambulance](/wiki/Air_ambulance \"Air ambulance\") service which is jointly operated by the Air Corps and the [HSE National Ambulance Service](/wiki/HSE_National_Ambulance_Service \"HSE National Ambulance Service\").",
"* **No 3 Operations Wing**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel\n\t+ 301 Tactical Helicopter Squadron, with 6x [AW139](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW139 \"AgustaWestland AW139\") helicopters\n\t+ 302 Training and Surveillance Squadron, with 2x [EC135 P2](/wiki/Eurocopter_EC135 \"Eurocopter EC135\") helicopters, and 2x [EC135 T2](/wiki/Eurocopter_EC135 \"Eurocopter EC135\") helicopters for the [Garda Air Support Unit](/wiki/Garda_Air_Support_Unit \"Garda Air Support Unit\") (Detachment at [Finner Camp](/wiki/Finner_Camp \"Finner Camp\"))\n\t+ 303 Maintenance Squadron",
"#### No 4 Support Wing",
"No 4 Support Wing carries out second line maintenance and manages the procurement of spares and aviation fuel.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/air\\-corps/about\\-the\\-air\\-corps/no\\-4\\-support\\-wing/ \\|title\\=No 4 Support Wing \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}} This formation has two squadrons.",
"* **No 4 Support Wing**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel\n\t+ 401 Mechanical Support Squadron\n\t+ 402 Avionics Support Squadron",
"#### No 5 Support Wing",
"No 5 Support Wing is responsible for the logistic support for the Air Corps and the management and security of [Casement Aerodrome](/wiki/Casement_Aerodrome \"Casement Aerodrome\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/air\\-corps/about\\-the\\-air\\-corps/no\\-5\\-support\\-wing/ \\|title\\=No 5 Support Wing \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}}",
"* **No 5 Support Wing**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel\n\t+ 502 Logistics Squadron\n\t+ 503 Transport Squadron\n\t+ 504 Medical Squadron\n\t+ 505 Air Traffic Control Squadron\n\t+ 506 Crash Rescue Squadron\n\t+ 507 Security and Maintenance Squadron",
"#### Air Corps College",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Two Air Corps [PC\\-9](/wiki/Pilatus_PC-9 \"Pilatus PC-9\") aircraft](/wiki/File:Pilatus_PC-9_of_the_Irish_Air_Corp_flying_in_formation_3.jpg \"Pilatus PC-9 of the Irish Air Corp flying in formation 3.jpg\")\n{{main article\\|Air Corps College (Ireland)}}",
"The Air Corps College is the principal training unit of the Irish Air Corps, where all entrants into the service undertake their training. The College is divided into three distinct schools:\n{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/air\\-corps/air\\-corps\\-college/\\|title\\=Air Corps College \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=17 May 2020}}",
"",
"* **Air Corps College**, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel\n\t+ Flying Training School, pilot and officer training, with [PC\\-9](/wiki/Pilatus_PC-9 \"Pilatus PC-9\") [trainer aircraft](/wiki/Trainer_aircraft \"Trainer aircraft\")\n\t+ Technical Training School, aircraft technicians training\n\t+ Military Training and Survival School, basic military, [Non\\-commissioned Officer](/wiki/Non-commissioned_Officer \"Non-commissioned Officer\"), and [SERE training](/wiki/SERE_training \"SERE training\")",
"### Naval Service",
"The [Naval Service](/wiki/Irish_Naval_Service \"Irish Naval Service\") is the sea branch of the Irish Defence Forces. Headed by a [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general \"Brigadier general\") it comprises a staff headquarters, two commands, and the Naval College.",
"* [25px](/wiki/File:Badge_of_the_Irish_Naval_Service.svg \"Badge of the Irish Naval Service.svg\") **Naval Headquarters**, at [Haulbowline](/wiki/Haulbowline \"Haulbowline\") Naval Base",
"#### Naval Operations Command",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Samuel_Beckett_%28P61%29 \"LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61)\") underway](/wiki/File:L%C3%89_Samuel_Beckett.jpg \"LÉ Samuel Beckett.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Naval Service Diving Section](/wiki/Naval_Service_Diving_Section \"Naval Service Diving Section\") members](/wiki/File:Naval_Service_Dive_Team_%2813062306065%29.jpg \"Naval Service Dive Team (13062306065).jpg\")",
"[Naval Operations Command](/wiki/Naval_Operations_Command_%28Ireland%29 \"Naval Operations Command (Ireland)\") is the command component of the Irish Naval Service responsible for all day\\-to\\-day activities of the service, both at sea and on shore.",
"* **Naval Operations Command**, at Haulbowline Naval Base{{cite web \\|title\\=Naval Operations Command \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/naval\\-service/about\\-the\\-naval\\-service/naval\\-operations\\-command/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t+ Operations Command Headquarters\n\t+ Fleet Operational Readiness Standards and Training\n\t\t- [LÉ Eithne (P31\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Eithne_%28P31%29 \"LÉ Eithne (P31)\"), [LÉ Orla (P41\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Orla_%28P41%29 \"LÉ Orla (P41)\") (in operational reserve), [LÉ Ciara (P42\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Ciara_%28P42%29 \"LÉ Ciara (P42)\"), [LÉ Róisín (P51\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_R%C3%B3is%C3%ADn_%28P51%29 \"LÉ Róisín (P51)\"), [LÉ Niamh (P52\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Niamh_%28P52%29 \"LÉ Niamh (P52)\"), [LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_Samuel_Beckett_%28P61%29 \"LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61)\"), [LÉ James Joyce (P62\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_James_Joyce_%28P62%29 \"LÉ James Joyce (P62)\"), [LÉ William Butler Yeats (P63\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_William_Butler_Yeats_%28P63%29 \"LÉ William Butler Yeats (P63)\"), and [LÉ George Bernard Shaw (P64\\)](/wiki/L%C3%89_George_Bernard_Shaw_%28P64%29 \"LÉ George Bernard Shaw (P64)\")\n\t+ Intelligence and Fishery Section\n\t\t- Naval Intelligence Cell\n\t\t- Navigation Cell\n\t\t- Naval Computer Centre\n\t\t- [Fisheries Monitoring Centre](/wiki/Fisheries_Monitoring_Centre \"Fisheries Monitoring Centre\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Fisheries Monitoring Centre \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/naval\\-service/specialist\\-units/fisheries\\-monitoring\\-centre/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t\t\t* Vessel Monitoring System\n\t\t\t* Fishery Protection System \\- Lirguard\n\t\t\t\t+ Fishery Information System\n\t\t\t\t+ Fishery Geographic System\n\t\t\t\t+ Fishery Legislative System\n\t\t\t\t+ Electronic Recording and Reporting System\n\t+ Shore Operations\n\t\t- Headquarters Section\n\t\t- Naval Service Operations Room\n\t\t- Naval Service Reserve Staff\n\t\t- Naval Base Communications Centre\n\t\t- Operations Security Section\n\t\t- [Naval Service Diving Section](/wiki/Naval_Service_Diving_Section \"Naval Service Diving Section\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Naval Service Diving Section \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/naval\\-service/specialist\\-units/diving\\-section/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}\n\t\t- Harbour Master Naval Base\n\t\t\t* Boat Transport",
"#### Naval Support Command",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Naval Service armed boarding party underway](/wiki/File:Irish_Navy_armed_boarding_party.jpg \"Irish Navy armed boarding party.jpg\")",
"[Naval Support Command](/wiki/Naval_Support_Command_%28Ireland%29 \"Naval Support Command (Ireland)\") oversees the personnel, logistical and technical resources of the Naval Service, allowing the service to meets its operational and training commitments. Ship procurement, maintenance, repair, provisions, ordnance, food, fuel, personnel and transportation are handled by Naval Support Command.{{cite web \\|title\\=Naval Support Command \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/naval\\-service/about\\-the\\-naval\\-service/naval\\-support\\-command/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}",
"* **Naval Support Command**, at Haulbowline Naval Base\n\t+ Support Command Headquarters\n\t\t- Personnel Management Section\n\t\t- Maintenance Management/Planning and Inspectorate\n\t+ Mechanical Engineering and Naval Dockyard Unit\n\t\t- Plant and Machinery Section\n\t\t- Naval Dockyard\n\t+ Base Logistic Department\n\t\t- Naval Technical Stores\n\t\t- Central Supply Unit\n\t\t- Accommodation and Messes Section\n\t\t- Base Engineering Maintenance Section\n\t\t- Road Transport Section\n\t+ Weapons Electrical Unit\n\t\t- Communications Technical Section\n\t\t- Electrical/Electronics Section\n\t\t- Ordnance Section",
"#### Naval College",
"The [Naval College](/wiki/Naval_College_%28Ireland%29 \"Naval College (Ireland)\") provides training to cadets, non\\-commissioned officers, and recruits of the Naval Service. The Naval College trains and educates personnel for service, providing a mixture of different courses ranging from officer training right through to Naval Engineering. The Naval College is based out of the Naval Service's headquarters at Naval Base Haulbowline but also provides classes and lessons in non\\-military naval training at the nearby [National Maritime College of Ireland](/wiki/National_Maritime_College_of_Ireland \"National Maritime College of Ireland\") in [Ringaskiddy](/wiki/Ringaskiddy \"Ringaskiddy\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Naval Service College \\|url\\=https://www.military.ie/en/who\\-we\\-are/naval\\-service/naval\\-service\\-college/ \\|publisher\\=Irish Defence Forces \\|accessdate\\=18 May 2020}}",
"* **Naval College**, at Haulbowline Naval Base\n\t+ Officer Training School\n\t+ Military and Naval Operational Training School\n\t+ School of Naval Engineering",
"#### Naval Service Reserve",
"The [Naval Service Reserve](/wiki/Naval_Service_Reserve \"Naval Service Reserve\") is the reserve force of the Naval Service. Its personnel supplements the crew of vessels of the Naval Service during operations, and conducts stand\\-alone operations within their respective ports, such as security duties, sighting reports and intelligence gathering.",
"* **Naval Service Reserve**, at Haulbowline Naval Base\n\t+ Dublin Unit Naval Service Reserve, in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\")\n\t+ Waterford Unit Naval Service Reserve, in [Waterford](/wiki/Waterford \"Waterford\")\n\t+ Cork Unit Naval Service Reserve, in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 \"Cork (city)\")\n\t+ Limerick Unit Naval Service Reserve, in [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick \"Limerick\")"
] |
Gameplay
--------
{{Main article\|Gameplay of Dance Dance Revolution}}
The interface used is a recoloring and smoothing of the song wheel interface first introduced in *[Dance Dance Revolution 5thMix](/wiki/Dance_Dance_Revolution_5thMix "Dance Dance Revolution 5thMix")*, with the addition of changeable sort settings and a longer time limit. Core gameplay remained mostly the same on *6thMix* and *7thMix*, with the addition of Freeze Arrows and a new scoring system:
Freeze Arrows appear as green arrows with a long extension. If they are held for the entire length successfully, a *O.K.* is scored. If it is not held down for the entire length, a *N.G.* (no good) is scored. Freezes affect the life bar. Scores are calculated with 2 distinct scoring systems, the **long\-score** system used to determine rankings, and an independent **dance point** system (known on later games as EX SCORE) now used to determine the grade.
All songs have a long\-score ceiling of 50 million points, and a bonus score is tacked onto it based on the difficulty of the song and other factors. Rankings are given for the highest long\-score accumulations a round. If a player plays more than three songs, then it only counts the last three played. If a song is played repeatedly among the three songs used for ranking, then the repeated songs carry no bonus score.
The dance\-point system uses raw step values to determine the grade. A 'perfect' step adds two points, a 'great' step adds one point, a 'good' step is worth nothing, a 'boo' step takes away four points, and a 'miss' step takes away eight points. An 'O.K.' freeze adds six points, and an 'N.G.' freeze is worth nothing. The dance points are also tied to the life bar. As always, if a player takes too many bad steps and depletes the life bar, they will fail, and the game will end immediately. If the first song is in Light mode, then the game will allow a player to fail that song and continue, but will fail the player out if they fail a second song. In two\-player games, if one player fails, they can continue dancing, but it ceases to accumulate dance points for the failed player, accumulates score points at only 10 points per step, and automatically gives the failed player an 'E' for the song.
The grade is dependent on the number of dance points accumulated: 100% dance points is 'AAA', at least 93% is 'AA', at least 80% is 'A', at least 65% is 'B', at least 45% is 'C' and anything below 45% is a 'D'. If a net dance\-point total of zero is obtained without depleting the life bar and, thus, failing, an 'E' is awarded. The final grade for the entire game is an average of the grades from the last three songs and not derived from the actual dance points scored.
This 2\-tiered scoring system is still utilized on DDRMax2, though the long\-score system is reformed.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2015}} For the long\-score system in DDRMax2, it now has a maximum for each song of 10,000,000 multiplied by the foot rating for the routine. Maximum scores can range from 10 million to 100 million for individual songs. Bonus scores are abolished, though the new long\-score system tends to be weighted so that errors early in a routine are not as costly as errors late. The dance point system, which determines grade, remains unchanged. This scoring system would be kept for [Dance Dance Revolution Extreme](/wiki/Dance_Dance_Revolution_Extreme "Dance Dance Revolution Extreme").{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2015}}
*6thMix* was intended to be the Next Generation of Dance Dance Revolution. As such, there are many changes. First, the difficulty levels were renamed. 'Basic' was renamed 'Light', 'Trick' was named 'Standard', and 'Maniac' was named 'Heavy'. They are also given Japanese difficulty names in conjunction: 楽 (*raku*), 踊 (*you*), and 激 (*geki*), respectively. Their color codes—orange, fuchsia and green, respectively—remain the same. Also, all songs from previous versions have been removed in 6thMix (although the prototype version of this game had some songs from previous DDR versions), intending the game to start from scratch. Many past songs do return on 7thMix and later releases, however.
### Interface and graphics
Dancing characters have been removed in 6thMix, 7thMix and Extreme. Instead, the arrows scroll over clips of [full motion video](/wiki/Full_motion_video "Full motion video"), hence the game does not render any polygons. The screen refreshes at a full speed of 60 frames per second. In addition, the arrows themselves have been tweaked too, now having a rounded edge on their outer tip rather than the V\-shaped cut used in all previous games.
These games retain the Song Wheel interface introduced in 5thMix, but add an easier method to enter modifiers. In previous versions, modifiers like "Sudden" or "Shuffle" required a combination of dance steps. Beginning in 6thMix, a player only needs to hold the Start button when they select a song to bring up a full menu of available modifiers, including the ability to speed up or slow down the scrolling of arrows, and a final chance to select the song difficulty they wish to play.
### Modifiers
{{See also\|Dance Dance Revolution\#Modifiers}}
A new options menu accessed by holding down the Start button when selecting a song debuted on 6thMix, and is retained on future mixes.
Some of the available modifiers include Speed mods, which change the arrow speed. Boost, which causes the arrows to accelerate as they near the step zone, Appearance, which changes the appearance of the arrows. Turn mods modify the stepchart itself, Other affects the difficulty of the steps, Scroll changes the scroll direction of the arrows, and Freeze Arrows can also be turned off.
### Extra Stage
New to 6thMix is the "Extra Stage", where players are rewarded for meeting conditions set by the game. If a AA is scored on the final stage on Heavy mode, a message inviting the player to "Try Extra Stage" is shown instead of the Cleared graphic. For the Extra Stage, the song wheel is locked on "MAX 300", and the song is played with several forced modifiers, including 1\.5x speed and Reverse. The song is also played in Pressure mode, where the dance gauge starts filled, and can only go down.
If the player scores a AA or higher on the Extra Stage the game again rewards them with "One More Extra Stage". This time, the song wheel is locked to "CANDY☆", an easier song but with more difficult Modifiers. The exact same modifiers are used, but the song is played in Sudden Death mode, where any step judgment which breaks a combo immediately ends the game. If the player clears the song with a full combo (which is the only way to do so in Sudden Death mode), a special credits movie is shown. When this second Boss Song is passed for the first time it too will be unlocked for normal play, also displayed on the Song Wheel in red.
### Link data
Some machines have the ports to insert PlayStation memory cards. Such memory cards have to be original PlayStation (not PS2\) memory cards with Link Data from the home version of DDR 5thMix (the home version of 6thMix cannot create arcade\-compatible Link Data). 5thMix can create two different kinds of arcade link data; the Link Data file for 6thMix is known as "New Version" Link Data and is forward\-compatible with 7thMix arcade machines as well. Link Data serves two primary purposes: Score\-saving and Internet Ranking. The user can save his or her scores from arcade performances, and whenever the game is played in the future, the arcade game will load the scores for each user and show them on the song\-selection screen to show the player's best performances. These scores can also be viewed at home with 5thMix. 6thMix also provides Internet Ranking codes based on the user's performance in a given set of songs. As with all of Konami's Internet Ranking events, the website for the game would allow users to enter in a generated password which contains their initials and scores for that session, and the website would display the rankings for those who have submitted codes. Link Data saves these passwords so that they may be entered much more conveniently.
The arcade game can exchange custom stepchart data with 6thMix, as well as any earlier version that has songs that are in 6thMix, though this requires special steps to be taken in 6thMix to write a PlayStation\-formatted save file, which must then be copied to the PlayStation memory card by the user.
|
[
"Gameplay\n--------",
"{{Main article\\|Gameplay of Dance Dance Revolution}}\nThe interface used is a recoloring and smoothing of the song wheel interface first introduced in *[Dance Dance Revolution 5thMix](/wiki/Dance_Dance_Revolution_5thMix \"Dance Dance Revolution 5thMix\")*, with the addition of changeable sort settings and a longer time limit. Core gameplay remained mostly the same on *6thMix* and *7thMix*, with the addition of Freeze Arrows and a new scoring system:",
"Freeze Arrows appear as green arrows with a long extension. If they are held for the entire length successfully, a *O.K.* is scored. If it is not held down for the entire length, a *N.G.* (no good) is scored. Freezes affect the life bar. Scores are calculated with 2 distinct scoring systems, the **long\\-score** system used to determine rankings, and an independent **dance point** system (known on later games as EX SCORE) now used to determine the grade.",
"All songs have a long\\-score ceiling of 50 million points, and a bonus score is tacked onto it based on the difficulty of the song and other factors. Rankings are given for the highest long\\-score accumulations a round. If a player plays more than three songs, then it only counts the last three played. If a song is played repeatedly among the three songs used for ranking, then the repeated songs carry no bonus score.",
"The dance\\-point system uses raw step values to determine the grade. A 'perfect' step adds two points, a 'great' step adds one point, a 'good' step is worth nothing, a 'boo' step takes away four points, and a 'miss' step takes away eight points. An 'O.K.' freeze adds six points, and an 'N.G.' freeze is worth nothing. The dance points are also tied to the life bar. As always, if a player takes too many bad steps and depletes the life bar, they will fail, and the game will end immediately. If the first song is in Light mode, then the game will allow a player to fail that song and continue, but will fail the player out if they fail a second song. In two\\-player games, if one player fails, they can continue dancing, but it ceases to accumulate dance points for the failed player, accumulates score points at only 10 points per step, and automatically gives the failed player an 'E' for the song.",
"The grade is dependent on the number of dance points accumulated: 100% dance points is 'AAA', at least 93% is 'AA', at least 80% is 'A', at least 65% is 'B', at least 45% is 'C' and anything below 45% is a 'D'. If a net dance\\-point total of zero is obtained without depleting the life bar and, thus, failing, an 'E' is awarded. The final grade for the entire game is an average of the grades from the last three songs and not derived from the actual dance points scored.",
"This 2\\-tiered scoring system is still utilized on DDRMax2, though the long\\-score system is reformed.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2015}} For the long\\-score system in DDRMax2, it now has a maximum for each song of 10,000,000 multiplied by the foot rating for the routine. Maximum scores can range from 10 million to 100 million for individual songs. Bonus scores are abolished, though the new long\\-score system tends to be weighted so that errors early in a routine are not as costly as errors late. The dance point system, which determines grade, remains unchanged. This scoring system would be kept for [Dance Dance Revolution Extreme](/wiki/Dance_Dance_Revolution_Extreme \"Dance Dance Revolution Extreme\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2015}}",
"*6thMix* was intended to be the Next Generation of Dance Dance Revolution. As such, there are many changes. First, the difficulty levels were renamed. 'Basic' was renamed 'Light', 'Trick' was named 'Standard', and 'Maniac' was named 'Heavy'. They are also given Japanese difficulty names in conjunction: 楽 (*raku*), 踊 (*you*), and 激 (*geki*), respectively. Their color codes—orange, fuchsia and green, respectively—remain the same. Also, all songs from previous versions have been removed in 6thMix (although the prototype version of this game had some songs from previous DDR versions), intending the game to start from scratch. Many past songs do return on 7thMix and later releases, however.",
"### Interface and graphics",
"Dancing characters have been removed in 6thMix, 7thMix and Extreme. Instead, the arrows scroll over clips of [full motion video](/wiki/Full_motion_video \"Full motion video\"), hence the game does not render any polygons. The screen refreshes at a full speed of 60 frames per second. In addition, the arrows themselves have been tweaked too, now having a rounded edge on their outer tip rather than the V\\-shaped cut used in all previous games.",
"These games retain the Song Wheel interface introduced in 5thMix, but add an easier method to enter modifiers. In previous versions, modifiers like \"Sudden\" or \"Shuffle\" required a combination of dance steps. Beginning in 6thMix, a player only needs to hold the Start button when they select a song to bring up a full menu of available modifiers, including the ability to speed up or slow down the scrolling of arrows, and a final chance to select the song difficulty they wish to play.",
"### Modifiers",
"{{See also\\|Dance Dance Revolution\\#Modifiers}}",
"A new options menu accessed by holding down the Start button when selecting a song debuted on 6thMix, and is retained on future mixes.",
"Some of the available modifiers include Speed mods, which change the arrow speed. Boost, which causes the arrows to accelerate as they near the step zone, Appearance, which changes the appearance of the arrows. Turn mods modify the stepchart itself, Other affects the difficulty of the steps, Scroll changes the scroll direction of the arrows, and Freeze Arrows can also be turned off.",
"### Extra Stage",
"New to 6thMix is the \"Extra Stage\", where players are rewarded for meeting conditions set by the game. If a AA is scored on the final stage on Heavy mode, a message inviting the player to \"Try Extra Stage\" is shown instead of the Cleared graphic. For the Extra Stage, the song wheel is locked on \"MAX 300\", and the song is played with several forced modifiers, including 1\\.5x speed and Reverse. The song is also played in Pressure mode, where the dance gauge starts filled, and can only go down.",
"If the player scores a AA or higher on the Extra Stage the game again rewards them with \"One More Extra Stage\". This time, the song wheel is locked to \"CANDY☆\", an easier song but with more difficult Modifiers. The exact same modifiers are used, but the song is played in Sudden Death mode, where any step judgment which breaks a combo immediately ends the game. If the player clears the song with a full combo (which is the only way to do so in Sudden Death mode), a special credits movie is shown. When this second Boss Song is passed for the first time it too will be unlocked for normal play, also displayed on the Song Wheel in red.",
"### Link data",
"Some machines have the ports to insert PlayStation memory cards. Such memory cards have to be original PlayStation (not PS2\\) memory cards with Link Data from the home version of DDR 5thMix (the home version of 6thMix cannot create arcade\\-compatible Link Data). 5thMix can create two different kinds of arcade link data; the Link Data file for 6thMix is known as \"New Version\" Link Data and is forward\\-compatible with 7thMix arcade machines as well. Link Data serves two primary purposes: Score\\-saving and Internet Ranking. The user can save his or her scores from arcade performances, and whenever the game is played in the future, the arcade game will load the scores for each user and show them on the song\\-selection screen to show the player's best performances. These scores can also be viewed at home with 5thMix. 6thMix also provides Internet Ranking codes based on the user's performance in a given set of songs. As with all of Konami's Internet Ranking events, the website for the game would allow users to enter in a generated password which contains their initials and scores for that session, and the website would display the rankings for those who have submitted codes. Link Data saves these passwords so that they may be entered much more conveniently.",
"The arcade game can exchange custom stepchart data with 6thMix, as well as any earlier version that has songs that are in 6thMix, though this requires special steps to be taken in 6thMix to write a PlayStation\\-formatted save file, which must then be copied to the PlayStation memory card by the user.",
""
] |
Episodes
--------
{{Episode table \| background\=\#FAE033 \|overall\= \|season \= \|title\= \|aux1\= \|aux1T\=Timeline \|airdate\= \|episodes\=
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 103
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 1
\|Title \= {{anchor\|1}}Episode 1
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|07\|24\|df\=y}}
\|Aux1 \= Days 1—2
\|ShortSummary \= Just as the previous season, the 12 champions of their field and 12 everyday Australians arrived on the island. There, they battled in their first challenge for tribal necessities.
\*'''Reward challenge''': One castaway from each tribe will race towards a sandbag and bring it back to their team; the winner scores a point. The first tribe to score three points would win a survival start\-up kit, which includes fruits, vegetables, rope, firewood and a \[\[flint]]. The Champions won.
At the Champions camp, Steven made alliances with his fellow athletes on the tribe, calling themselves the "Sporty Seven". This included E.T., Simon, Ross, Susie, Abbey, and Nova. However, Luke started catching onto the fact that the athletes were starting to band together. Luke bonded with David, seeing him as a friend like Jericho from his last season, and the former approached Pia, Anastasia, and Janine for alliances.
At the Contenders camp, while everyone is introducing themselves, Andy lies and tells everyone he is a freelance writer when he is actually an entrepreneur and poker player. Andy hopes to play the most dominant game, to date, and has been practicing various challenge skills in his backyard to prepare. On the first night, the Contenders' shelter ends up collapsing on them and they end up getting sick the next morning after eating the beans that they soaked in water overnight.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Both tribes will race through a series of walls and a giant A\-frame. At the end of the A\-frame, the tribes will push a heavy deck though their track; at the end of the track, they will foot the deck up to create a ramp to climb over a tower. Once every tribe member is on the tower, the tribe will get down to the other side and pull up a heavy frame with five tiles. Two members of each tribe will throw war clubs though the tiles. The first tribe to break all tiles will win immunity.
At the immunity challenge, the Champions were leading, but the Contenders pulled off an upset to win immunity. With Tribal Council looming, the Sporty Seven targeted Pia to keep the tribe stronger. Steven was concerned about being seen as the leader of the group and hoped to label E.T. as a false leader to keep himself safe. Luke's group wanted to target Susie as they perceived her as weakest, but Nova eavesdropped on their conversation. Nova was put off by how Anastasia was campaigning to her, leading Nova to believe that Anastasia might be a huge threat down the road and should leave first. Nova told Susie that her name was being thrown around and both attempted to convince the rest of the Sporty Seven to vote out Anastasia. E.T. had doubts because of how well Anastasia performed in the first challenge. Nova told Luke that she wanted Anastasia out, but Luke ended up revealing this information to Anastasia. In order to keep the tribe and their alliance stronger, Luke and David were willing to vote out Pia first to keep Anastasia in the game as they knew the Sporty Seven was unbreakable and they didn't have the numbers. Pia realized that her allies would rather keep Anastasia over her and began to campaign within the Sporty Seven to convince them to keep her instead.
At Tribal Council, both Anastasia and Pia acknowledged that they were on the chopping block. Pia hoped that her positive attitude would make people want to keep her while Anastasia referred to her good performances in the challenges as the reason why she should stay. When the votes were read, the Sporty Seven agreed to go along with Nova's plan to eliminate Anastasia. Anastasia becomes the first person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 104
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 2
\|Title \= {{anchor\|2}}Episode 2
\|Aux1 \= Days 3—5
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|07\|25\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At the Champions camp, Pia believes her acting skills helped her survive the vote. Susie is hoping that her Sporty Seven alliance will continue to stay strong moving forward. However, Luke has intentions on trying to break up the alliance. Luke creates another "Spy Shack" (a tactic also used by \[\[Tony Vlachos\|Tony]] of ''\[\[Survivor: Cagayan\|Survivor US: Cagayan]]'') and speaks with David about their plans moving forward. David knows that they need to flip two people from the Sporty Seven and he plans on using his charm and looks to flip Abbey and Ross to their side.
\*'''Reward challenge''': One pair from each tribe will face off, pushing against each other on a giant turnstile. First pair to cross the finish line will score a point for their tribe. The first tribe to score three points will win a tarp, a fishing kit and materials to build their own raft that will be waiting on their camp.
After a close battle, Abbey and Janine scored the third point, winning the challenge for the Champions. Having played before, Luke surmised there would likely be a clue hidden among the reward items. When night falls, Luke searches the raft the tribe won and finds an idol clue inside. The clue reveals the idol is buried underground.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Each castaway from each tribe will slide into a mud pit. Once all the tribe members are across the mud pit, four tribe members will climb over two big walls and push them down to create a clear path. Then, the whole tribe will drag a box full of puzzle pieces through the path; at the end of the path, the'll have to create a giant puzzle from the box to win immunity.
As the area was muddy, both tribes struggled to drag the box across the path. The Champions were the first to successfully do so, and Ross and Steven completed the puzzle to win immunity for the Champions.
At Contenders, Baden is extremely worried that he'll be voted out because he isn't physically strong and he doesn't feel like he's fitting in socially with his tribe. There is a consensus among the tribe that Baden should be first out, with Matt being the strongest advocate. However, Andy and Harry believe that Laura is more of a threat moving forward than Baden. Laura had previously been upset to have been sat out of the Reward Challenge, so Laura began working on her social and strategic game by talking with everyone because she felt her being sat out meant the tribe viewed her as weak. Harry had noticed Laura talking and believed that she was playing the game hard. Harry begins to approach everyone to try and flip the vote towards Laura.
Matt is not happy that people are suggesting Laura because he believes Laura has been underestimated and can contribute more than Baden. Laura can tell that Harry has been talking with everyone, except her, and asks who Baden is supposed to be voting for. Harry says that they told Baden to vote for Sarah, which doesn't make a lot of sense to Laura. Laura begins to feel like people are targeting her so she begins to reaffirm some relationships to keep herself safe.
At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses keeping themselves strong and Matt specifically states that some people have not contributed equally in the strength in the challenges. Both Laura and Baden state that they are on the chopping block. Baden gives an impassioned speech to plead his case and believes he will be valuable to the tribe in future challenges. When the votes are cast, Andy and Harry have both interestingly voted for Baden along with Daisy and Laura, but their plan to have Laura voted out works as the remaining eight players vote for Laura. Laura becomes the second person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 105
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 3
\|Title \= {{anchor\|3}}Episode 3
\|Aux1 \= Days 6—7
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|07\|28\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At the Champions camp, Luke, David, Janine, and Pia continue to look for cracks in the Sporty Seven alliance. They believe they might have found one when Nova instructs her tribemates to only eat one banana per day, which doesn't make Ross very happy. Luke observes that Ross is a free spirit, he doesn't really take well to being told what to do, and he believes that he can use this to get Ross to flip to his side.
\*'''Reward challenge''': One castaway from each tribe will face off on a trench, where they'll race towards a bell at the opposite end, while the opponent will block the other castaway. First castaway to ring the rival's bell will score a point. The first tribe to score five points will win a crate of mystery items.
Shaun scored the fifth point to win the crate for the Contenders. Back at camp, the Contenders find out that they must select one of their tribe members to divide up the reward items among the tribe. The tribe chooses John. Andy observes the items being handed out and deduces that Shaun, Daisy, Matt, and John are running the camp; Baden, Hannah, and Sarah are on the bottom, while he, Sam, Casey, and Harry were in the middle.
At the Champions camp, Luke and David find the idol from the clue Luke had and Luke takes possession of the idol.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Both tribes will race through a log that they'll have to dig under. When all the tribe mates crossed the log, they'll carry a heavy plank through a series of obstacles. They'll use the plank as a seesaw to collect sand bags. Once all sand bags are collected, five castaways will hold on a pole, while two tribe mates will try to land the sandbags on the top of the pole. The first tribe to land sandbags on all five poles will win immunity.
Andy and Hannah landed all the sandbags to win immunity for the Contenders. Several of the Champions blamed Janine for the loss since she suggested that the tribe dig a longways trench under the log instead of a deep trench and the tribe followed her instructions. Steven, Nova, and Susie believe that Janine should own up to her mistake and be voted out. However, Abbey is not in agreement with the rest of the Sporty Seven and believes that Janine will be beneficial to the Champions. Abbey expresses concern that she doesn't have a voice in the decision making in the Sporty Seven and she is instead being told what to do. David and Janine pitch to Abbey that Susie is the weakest tribe member and should be voted out. David tells Abbey that she can use this opportunity to send a message to the Sporty Seven to take her more seriously. Meanwhile, Luke also attempts to convince Ross to join their alliance to vote out Susie. Both Abbey and Ross are on the fence about the vote and are not sure which way to go.
At Tribal Council, the tribe talks about relationships that have been built and keeping the tribe strong. Susie hopes that the trust she has built already in the game will come through for her tonight. Janine takes the opportunity to plea to everyone to think about the strength in the tribe and not to just follow along with a plan. Janine argues that voting her out is not the smartest move and hopes if anyone is on the fence, they consider that when they vote. When the votes are cast, Abbey and Ross decide to flip and cast their votes for Susie, making the vote 6\-5\. Susie becomes the third person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 106
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 4
\|Title \= {{anchor\|4}}Episode 4
\|Aux1 \= Days 8—10
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|07\|29\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At the Champions, Luke celebrates his victory of splitting up the Sporty Seven and having his alliance bring Ross and Abbey over to their side. Abbey and Ross are both feeling the heat from flipping as Steven and Nova have been very bitter towards them. Steven is feeling extremely vulnerable as he organized this alliance and he thinks he's next to go.
\*'''Reward challenge''': One by one, castaways from each tribe ran out and jump from a tower in an attempt to grab a flag. Once they have their flag, they will swim to a platform, and put the flag into a holder. Once all ten flags have been collected, they'll dive down to retrieve a set of buoys. Once they have all of their buoys, they will use them to solve a word puzzle. The first tribe to finish their puzzle wins hot chocolate and marshmallows.
At the challenge, Sarah, remembering her experience surviving the Boxing Day Tsunami, froze before leaping in the water. The Champions ultimately won reward; Jonathan told them to pick a Contender to join them, and they selected John. Janine searched the reward items for an advantage and found a clue to an idol. David sees her take the clue, but doesn't say anything. Janine does find the idol, but it is an idol with limited powers: Janine has found an idol that only has power if a Contender takes possession of it and plays it. The parchment states that another idol is hidden at the Contenders beach which can only be played by a Champion. Janine knows that she'll have to try and figure out if there's anyone on the Contenders she can trust in order to give them the idol and hopefully build some trust.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Eight castaways from each tribe will be tethered to a rope wrapped around several obstacles. Two at a time, they will go through the course. The last pair to finish the course will have a key, used to unlock a gate and release four balls. The last two members of the tribe will use the balls to toss up a vertical ramp and get them in a bucket. The first tribe to get all four balls in their bucket wins immunity. (Contenders win)
At the Champions, Luke and Pia feel responsible for the tribe's loss. Simon takes an opportunity to talk to Abbey to see if she would rejoin the Sporty Seven. Abbey states that she cannot because she feels Steven and Nova did nothing to make her feel welcome and she cannot work with them. Abbey does talk with Steven and Nova about why she flipped on the Sporty Seven, but Steven cannot accept her explanation and states that Abbey was weak, she lied, and he doesn't appreciate her deceptive gameplay. Abbey is very upset by this conversation and is moved to tears, which prompts David to confront Steven over his behavior. Several people are mad because Steven called Abbey weak. Steven claims that he didn't say Abbey was weak, but rather he stated that her gameplay was weak. Nova comes to Steven's defense stating that Steven did not get confrontational or personal. Nova states that Abbey was called out for her actions, she couldn't handle the pressure, and she accuses Abbey of fake crying. While Steven does apologize to Abbey for how he made her feel, he knows that he's in a position where he will likely be next to go.
At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses the tension that arose at camp between Steven and Abbey. Members of Abbey's alliance accuse Steven of launching a personal attack against Abbey while Steven and Nova dispute that and state that Steven never called Abbey weak and was just confronting her about her game. The tribe states that it is feeling a lot of pressure because they've lost three out of the four immunity challenges. When the votes take place, the majority alliance actually decides to vote Nova out to keep the tribe strong and for her defending Steven. Nova becomes the fourth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 107
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 5
\|Title \= {{anchor\|5}}Episode 5
\|Aux1 \= Days 11—12
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|07\|30\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At Contenders, Shaun and Daisy have made a tight alliance. During a trip to the well, Shaun discovers an idol with Daisy that turns out to be the idol with special rules that Janine found last episode. Shaun knows he has to give it to a Champion in order for it to have any power. Shaun is hoping that he can use this idol to establish tight relationships on the other tribe for the merge.
At Champions, Steven is surprised to still be in the game and is trying to work on his social game to get back in the good graces of the tribe. However, David states that Steven has no clue how to play the game and he'll surely be out next. David is liking his position in the game with his alliances, his knowledge of Luke and Janine's idol, but he wants an idol of his own. Janine does finally tell David about her idol in order to gain his trust. David believes he might be able to use this knowledge to his advantage.
\*'''Reward challenge''': Three members from each tribe must race through the water to get control of the ball. They will then pass the ball onto a fourth member on a platform, who will kick it in. The first tribe to kick five goals wins fish and chips. (Champions win)
At the reward challenge, David and Shaun reveal their knowledge of the special idols and agree to swap them at the next immunity challenge. When David asks Janine if he can have the idol, Janine states that she wants to keep it for the merge. However, David wants to get a hold of Shaun's idol so he creates a fake idol to discreetly swap with Shaun's real one.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Five members of each tribe will be locked in a series of cages throughout an obstacle course. Two more members of the tribe will run the course, freeing their tribemates along the way. Once everyone is free, all members of the tribe will go under a net and collect a set of sandbags. The final two members will use a set of blocks to create the ''Australian Survivor'' logo. Once that is finished, they will use the sandbags to knock down the blocks. The first tribe to knock down all of their blocks wins immunity. (Contenders win)
During the immunity challenge, David and Shaun swap idols but Shaun is not aware he got a fake one while David does get the real idol. Back at camp, the majority alliance decides to split their votes between E.T. and Steven in case Steven has an idol. In order to prevent a possible blindside, David tells E.T. and Simon to vote Steven out tonight in order to save themselves. The tribe feels David was a little too arrogant and bossy with his pitch and his alliance wonders if the power is going to David's head. E.T. and Simon don't appreciate the way David spoke to them and believe that the majority alliance is splitting the vote. Steven, E.T., and Simon attempt to convince Ross to join back with them to blindside Pia in order to keep the tribe strong and upset the majority alliance. Pia observes Simon talking to Ross and tells her alliance that they should just all vote for Steven instead of splitting the vote. The alliance is concerned whether Ross will stay loyal to them or will flip back.
At Tribal Council, there is whispering among the majority alliance about whether to split the vote or just vote Steven and whether they can trust Ross. At once point, Ross actually states that he deserves to go home for his poor performance. However, the tribe observes that the vote is not about challenge performance, but about numbers and alliances. Steven states that he is still vulnerable and David states that Steven put himself in that position with the way he played the game. Pia also admits that she is in danger and worries about the vote going awry because of various plans. However, when the votes are cast, the tribe unanimously votes for Steven. Steven becomes the fifth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 108
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 6
\|Title \= {{anchor\|6}}Episode 6
\|Aux1 \= Days 13—14
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|04\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At the Contenders, the tribe is enjoying their life of not going to Tribal Council and are bonding better as a team.
At the Champions, E.T. and Simon know that they are on the bottom of the tribe and perceive David to be running the camp. E.T. approaches Luke and Ross to convince them to join in an alliance with him and Simon to keep the tribe strong moving forward. Meanwhile, Janine, Pia, and Abbey have formed a tight girls alliance.
\*'''Reward challenge''': Members of each tribe will face off in a tug\-o\-war in an attempt to smash a pole into a wooden board to score a point. The first two rounds are three\-on\-three, the next two are four\-on\-four, and the final round is one\-on\-one. The first tribe to score 3 points wins burgers and ice\-cold beer. (Champions win)
Despite being down in numbers, the Champions continued their dominance in reward challenges, selecting Baden to join them on reward. Baden then chose Shaun to also accompany them. David is not thrilled that Shaun is visiting and worries he'll discover the idol is fake. While eating, David and Shaun talk about their idols. David lies to Shaun and tells him that he had to play his idol for Pia at the last Tribal Council because Steven tried to take her out. Abbey notices Shaun and David whispering frequently and she worries that David might be trying to make plans with the other tribe.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Two members of each tribe will stand on a narrow beam atop a tower. Two of the remaining six members will hold a pair of rope in order to keep a sandbag within a painted area. If the sandbag goes below the painted area, the castaway on the beam will fall into the water. Three castaways are assigned to one rope, and are able to switch out at any time, but only once. The last castaway standing on their beam wins immunity for their tribe. (Contenders win)
During the challenge, Casey asks Pia and Simon if David really played an idol for Pia and the two relate back that they are confused about the story. Back at camp, David candidly tells E.T. that he is leaving next. David believes that the vote will be a simple split between E.T. and Simon. E.T. tries to convince Abbey to come back into an alliance with him and keep him around. Abbey is in a true dilemma as she trusts and likes both E.T. and Simon. After David talks with Abbey about blindsiding Pia at the very next Tribal Council, Abbey discusses with Janine and Pia the possibility of blindsiding David tonight as they believe his ego is out of control and that he is playing too hard of a game.
At Tribal Council, E.T. and Simon discuss why their tribe should keep them in the game. Abbey relates to the tribe that this vote is very difficult for her while David states that the vote is very simple and essentially tells everyone in his alliance that they should do what they were told. Despite the earlier discussions, the majority alliance stays strong and cast more votes against E.T.. E.T. becomes the sixth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 109
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 7
\|Title \= {{anchor\|7}}Episode 7
\|Aux1 \= Days 15—16
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|05\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At Contenders, Shaun is concerned about the strong strategic games Andy and Harry are playing and he wants to keep them on his side so they don't blindside him. Shaun shares with Andy that he and David swapped idols and both possess idols. Andy is happy to learn about the idol, but reveals in private that Shaun was foolish to reveal this to him and he plans to use it against Shaun when the time is right.
On the morning of Day 15, a tribe swap occurs. The new tribes are as follows:
New Champions: Andy, Baden, Daisy, David, Hannah, John, Luke, Sam, and Sarah
New Contenders: Abbey, Casey, Harry, Janine, Matt, Pia, Ross, Shaun, and Simon
At New Contenders, Simon believes that he finally has new life in the game. Janine is happy that on this tribe there are five Champions versus four Contenders so they have the numbers. Harry is very concerned that he is now on the bottom of the new Contenders tribe. While the tribe introduces themselves, Harry finds that the Champions are all very family oriented so he lies to the tribe and tells them he has a three\-year\-old son named Oscar. Harry doesn't have children, but he is hoping that the lie will coerce people into liking him and allow him to infiltrate the Champions alliance.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Four pairs of two on each tribe will assume a squatting position while attempting to balance a bar on their shoulders together. If the bar moves enough, it will knock over a stack of blocks, eliminating the pair from the challenge. The last pair standing wins immunity for their tribe. (Contenders win)
During the challenge, it comes down to Daisy/Sam versus Janine/Abbey. Luke actually asks Janine and Abbey in front of everyone to throw the challenge. Nobody responds to Luke's plea and Contenders go on to win.
At New Champions, Luke and David realize that they are completely outnumbered as they are the only two Champions on this tribe against seven Contenders. Andy knows that David has an idol, so he plans to split the votes between Luke and David to ensure one of them leaves. Andy proposes that the deciding vote should be based on a coin flip so Luke and David don't know which one is leaving. Luke and David begin to pull people aside to see if there are any cracks in the Contenders. Both Baden and Sam shoot them down, stating that the Contenders are strong. Luke and David both have idols and decide that they are going to double down and play both of their idols to ensure a Contender leaves. David proposes getting rid of Sam because he didn't like the way she spoke to him during their talk.
Luke and David pulling everyone aside begins to worry Andy. Andy informs the Contenders, minus Daisy, that David has an idol and reveals that Shaun told him about the idol swap. Daisy was not present for this conversation, but overhears Andy talking once she gets back to camp. Daisy is furious that Andy would reveal Shaun's idol to the group when Shaun shared that to Andy in private. Daisy talks privately with John and tells him that she isn't interested in moving forward Contender strong anymore. Daisy doesn't trust Andy and believes he's gotten too much power in this game. Daisy proposes to John that they join with Luke and David to vote out Sam tonight because they need Andy for the challenges, but taking out Sam will weaken Andy's control on the tribe. However, they know they will need five votes for a majority. David and Luke easily agree to this plan. Daisy and John then approach Baden to see if he will join with them. Baden is unsure of how to vote because he believes Luke and David are a huge power duo in the game, but Baden also wants to establish his position in the game and this could do it.
At Tribal Council, Luke and David discuss their precarious positions on the tribe. The tribe also discusses whether tonight is the right time to make a move or not. Several Contenders believe that tonight is not the right time to make a move, but Daisy states that she is going to be voting for whatever is best for her game. When the votes are cast, Baden decides to flip on the Contenders along with Daisy and John as Sam is blindsided with five votes. Sam becomes the seventh person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 110
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 8
\|Title \= {{anchor\|8}}Episode 8
\|Aux1 \= Days 17—18
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|06\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At Champions, David is thrilled that he was able to turn the Contenders against each other and he feels powerful in his position. Andy is feeling very shaken by the last vote and tries to align with David to see if he can improve his position in the game. However, David doesn't really want to align with Andy as he believes Andy is too good of a player to keep around. Sarah is also upset that the Contenders have suddenly flipped on each other and is particularly mad at Daisy for ruining the Contenders alliance. Sarah and Hannah hope to blindside Daisy at the next Tribal Council and discuss getting Andy and Baden to come onboard with their plan.
At Contenders, the former Champions are determined to stick together and get rid of the other Contenders on the tribe. However, Harry is hoping to take down the Champions and plans to look for an idol to help give the Contenders a better advantage. Harry is convinced that either David or Luke went home last night and is sure that the Contenders are going strong on the new Champions tribe.
\*'''Reward challenge''': One person from each tribe will attempt to fight a strong current and keeping within a marked area. The last person in the marked area earns a point for their tribe. The first tribe to 3 points wins pastries and coffee at a ''Survivor'' café. (Contenders win)
At the reward site, Harry is stunned that Sam went home and believes that Daisy flipped on the Contenders. Harry knows now that he can only rely on himself to try and improve his situation on the new Contenders tribe. Harry attempts to build a bond with Janine as he sees her as the leader of the Champions alliance. Harry is concerned that either himself or Casey will be voted out if the Contenders lose since Matt and Shaun are good competitors. In order to improve her situation, Casey begins to play both sides and tries to get close with Janine, Pia, and Abbey. Later that day, Harry is able to find the idol in the woods and hopes to use it to blindside Janine.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Two members of each tribe will lie in a chamber. The remaining six members of the tribe will race to get a bucket of water from the ocean, then cross a balance beam. From there, they will pour it into a barrel with a pipe, filling the chamber. Once there is enough water in the chamber, it will become more confined and difficult to get air, pressuring them to drop out. The last person standing wins for their tribe. (Contenders win)
Back at camp, Andy again proposes to David that they join forces in the game. David gathers up the majority alliance, including Andy, and proposes that they vote Sarah out tonight as he perceives her as the weakest member of the tribe. The alliance comes to a consensus that Sarah should go. Later, Sarah approaches Andy and Hannah with a plan to blindside Daisy to take back control of the Contenders. However, Sarah later observes Andy speaking with Daisy in the shelter and overhears Andy tell Daisy about Sarah's plan to blindside Daisy. Sarah is furious at Andy and now knows that Andy will do whatever it takes to keep himself safe and he needs to go. Sarah tells Luke, Baden, Hannah, and David about Andy spilling the beans to Daisy. David proposes to the group that they should instead vote Andy out because he's been playing the game hard and is having a tough time keeping his lies straight. Sarah is confident that she can turn the tide against Andy tonight.
At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses how Sam's blindside had a huge impact on the tribe. Sarah states that the lines and loyalties have blurred between the Champions and Contenders on this tribe. Daisy remarks that the loyalty may not have been there to begin with. The tribe also brings up the situation between Andy and Sarah where Andy was caught talking to Daisy. Sarah states that Andy proved today that he cannot be trusted. However, Andy is hoping that what he has done today will show that trust has been rebuilt and the tribe can move forward. When the votes are cast, Hannah and Sarah voted for Andy, but the remainder of the tribe banded together to get rid of Sarah. Sarah becomes the eighth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 111
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 9
\|Title \= {{anchor\|9}}Episode 9
\|Aux1 \= Day 19—20
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|11\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At the Contenders camp, Shaun has not yet had an opportunity to look at the hidden immunity idol David gave him a few episodes ago. Shaun finally does take a look at it and realizes that it is not the same idol that he gave to David. Shaun is convinced that David has given him a fake idol and he is furious. Shaun shares this with the tribe and Janine confirms that the idol Shaun received is fake. Janine, Pia, and Abbey realize that David is playing an intense game and they know they need to get him out. Shaun is determined to make sure that he votes David out the first chance he gets.
\*'''Reward challenge''': In one\-on\-one match\-ups, each castaway is tethered to an idol. They must knock down their opponent's idol first to score a point for their tribe. The first tribe to 5 points wins a toasted sandwich making kit and souvenir plates with messages from their loved ones.
The Champions won reward. After the win, Shaun gives Daisy a hug and informs her that David gave him a fake idol and asks her to get rid of David for him. Back at camp, Daisy lets Baden know about David giving Shaun the fake idol.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': One tribe member will chop through a log to release a set of blocks from an arch. The remaining six members will balance the blocks on a disk across a pair of balance beams and a bamboo curtain. Once all the blocks from the first set are across the bamboo curtain, two members will then untie a set of poles, then use them to get a second set of blocks from an overhead net. Once the tribe has all of their blocks, they must stack them. The first tribe to finish their stack of blocks that can stay up for 3 seconds wins immunity.
The Champions finally ended their losing streak in immunity challenges and won immunity. After the challenge, Harry whispers to Daisy that if he is voted out tonight then she should be aware that Shaun is next. Jonathan then informs the tribes that the Champions will attend the Contenders' Tribal Council tonight.
Back at Contenders, Janine is confident that her alliance of five will stick together and this will be a perfect opportunity to eliminate some Contenders to better their position in the merge. The Champions all meet and agree to get rid of Harry tonight. However, Harry has the idol and he is determined to use his idol to get rid of Janine as he believes she is the leader of the Champions Alliance. Harry hopes to create paranoia in the Champions by sending Casey to spread rumors that Harry has an idol. Casey does talk with the girls and reveals that Harry absolutely has an idol. However, this makes Janine believe that Casey is playing both sides and is not to be trusted. The Champions note that Casey is relaying information back and forth. The Champions agree that they should maintain the idea that it is going to be Harry, but instead vote for Casey to flush Harry's idol and get rid of a threat.
Going into Tribal Council, Harry knows that the Champions might vote out a different Contender to make sure the idol doesn't affect them. Harry decides that he's going to draw attention to himself at Tribal Council by calling people out to make the Champions all vote for him and then he can use the idol to get rid of Janine. At Tribal Council, Janine acknowledges that the Champions were blessed during the swap. Casey states that she feels vulnerable because Ross has told her that he cannot trust her. Harry goes on the offense and states that only six people in this game are really playing to win and everyone else is cruising. Harry accuses the Champions of following Janine and not really playing the game. Harry then drops the biggest bombshell when he reveals that he lied about having a son. It is during this Tribal Council that Harry earns his nickname, "Dirty Harry", and Janine is dubbed by Harry as the Godmother.
Despite the big build up to the vote, Jonathan reveals that tonight's vote is going to be different. Jonathan reveals that nobody is leaving the game tonight. Instead, the Champions are going to be voting for someone on the Contenders that they would like to kidnap and have join the Champions tribe. When the votes are revealed, the majority has chosen Shaun to join the Champions. Shaun joins the Champions tribe and nobody leaves the game on this night.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 112
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 10
\|Title \= {{anchor\|10}}Episode 10
\|Aux1 \= Day 21—22
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|12\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At Champions, Shaun is happy to have joined the Champions tribe and reuniting with his allies Daisy and John. Shaun shares with them that the Champions on the Contenders tribe were unbreakable which leads Daisy and John to conclude that the Contenders here need to stick together and get rid of David and Luke. Shaun is also looking to get revenge on David for giving him the fake idol. David and Luke are beginning to realize that with Shaun joining the tribe, he has been able to rally the Contenders and the two of them are no longer able to control the vote. David does talk with Shaun in the hopes of solidifying their alliance and David is still convinced that Shaun has no clue the idol is fake.
At Contenders, the tribe is still dealing from the fallout of losing Shaun and the drama at Tribal. Janine is worried about Harry painting a target on her and showing his true colors. Harry is also feeling upset because he acted up at Tribal so that he could draw the votes and play his idol, but the twist ruined his plans. Harry knows that he's put himself in a bad position with his behavior and wonders how he will be able to survive.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Two at a time, castaways will go through an obstacle course, collecting a pair of balls. Once they've collected their balls, they'll go to the top of a tower, where one member of the tribe will dive underwater to pull on a rope, opening a goal. The first tribe to get all eight balls into a goal wins immunity.
During the Challenge, the Contenders fell behind at the beginning. However, at the second half, Simon's accuracy and Ross's remarkable ability to hold his breath allowed the Contenders to come back and win immunity.
Back at Champions, the former Contenders agree to split their votes between Luke and David. The group is aware that David has an idol, so they attempt to paint Hannah as the fake target because she came back from the challenge feeling sick. Because Daisy had prior connections with Luke and David, she tells them that the plan is to unanimously vote out Hannah to keep the tribe strong. The Contenders tell Hannah to play up the fact she is sick and to act like she is worried about being voted out. David and Luke believe that the plan is to truly get rid of Hannah and feel pretty safe about not playing their idols.
However, Andy begins to believe that getting rid of David is not the best move for him as he wants to work with David and is tired of Shaun and Daisy being in control. Shortly before Tribal, Andy approaches David and Luke to tell them that the Contenders lied to them, the plan is to split the votes against the two. Andy proposes that the two of them join him and vote out Daisy to break up her and Shaun's strong alliance. After hearing this, David and Luke have no idea what to think because they still have reservations about whether they can trust Andy.
At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses how Shaun's addition has been good for the tribe and Hannah shares that she is feeling vulnerable and on the bottom of the tribe. The tribe seems to indicate that what Hannah has said is true. As Hannah speaks, David whispers to Luke that he doesn't think Hannah is telling the truth and that they need to play their idols tonight. Luke agrees, but the two debate whether or not they should vote for Daisy like Andy proposed. The tribe notices Luke and David whispering. David states that he thought the tribe was united in the vote, but it is clear something different is happening and he pulls out his idol to reveal it to everyone. As the tribe scrambles to figure out what to do, David proposes to Luke that they vote for Shaun because he thinks the six Contenders will vote for both of them and then their votes will be the only ones that count. When the voting takes place, both David and Luke play their idols. Nobody voted for Luke, but David's idol negates three votes that were cast against him. Andy did indeed vote for Daisy, while David and Luke voted for Shaun. However, Baden and John have cast their votes for Hannah, resulting in a 2\-2 tie between Shaun and Hannah. The tribe is told to vote again for either Hannah or Shaun. While David and Luke vote for Shaun again, the remaining Contenders decide that they need to keep Shaun and cast their votes for Hannah. Hannah becomes the ninth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 113
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 11
\|Title \= {{anchor\|11}}Episode 11
\|Aux1 \= Day 23—24
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|13\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
After Tribal, the former Contenders are still in shock that both David and Luke had idols. Andy is very upset that David and Luke didn't follow his plan. David and Luke begin to realize that they made a mistake voting for Shaun as Andy gave them a lifeline and they turned it down. Now, the two realize that the Contenders can easily vote them out if they lose again. The next morning, Shaun does reveal to David that he knows the idol is fake and makes it clear David is next to leave. David knows that he needs to find an idol to get some power back.
At Contenders, the former Champions are still a strong unit with Matt, Casey, and Harry trying to figure out how to survive. While Matt relies on his strength and Harry relies on his idol, Casey is still attempting to convince Janine, Pia, and Abbey that she wants to work with them. However, Janine doesn't believe she can trust Casey because Casey has been playing both sides and sharing information back and forth.
\*'''Reward challenge''': In one\-on\-one match\-ups, castaways will race across a set of monkey bars to grab a flag. The first person to grab the flag earns a point for their tribe. If they fall into the water, they are out, but the person still on the monkey bars does not automatically earn a point. The first tribe to 3 wins a private viewing of their loved ones' videos from home at a ''Survivor'' cinema. (Champions win)
After the reward challenge, David whispers to Simon that he had to play his idol and him and Luke are in trouble if they lose again. The Champions find out at the reward site that the movies will be a private viewing so the players will go in one at a time to watch the movies and they have to decide on an order. Surprisingly, the tribe agrees to let David go first, which they later realize was a mistake as these kinds of rewards have either an idol or a clue hidden. David is very much aware of this and is able to locate an idol in the large popcorn machine underneath the popcorn.
Back at Contenders, the former Champions discuss throwing the next immunity challenge to get rid of a Contender and keep Luke and David safe on the other tribe. Casey overhears this conversation take place.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Three pairs of two will stand on a narrow perch while hold a gutter with a ball in it. The goal to try to keep the ball in the gutter. If the ball falls out of the gutter or fall off the beam, that pair is eliminated. At regular intervals, they will move down on a narrower beam. The last pair standing wins for their tribe. (Champions win)
During the immunity challenge, Pia and Simon do fall off the balancing beam during the transition which is indicative that they threw the challenge. Back at Contenders, Casey tells Harry and Matt about the Champions' conversation to throw the challenge. Harry tells Matt and Casey that he will play his idol and they should vote for Abbey tonight. However, Casey believes it is in her best interest to join the Champions to save herself and tells Abbey and Janine about Harry's plan. However, the women don't believe that Harry actually has an idol. The Champions also doubt whether they can trust Casey because she plays both sides. To be safe, the Champions agree to split their votes between Harry and Casey that way if Harry plays his idol, Casey will leave. The Champions do approach Casey and Matt to tell them to vote for Harry to save themselves. Matt is on the fence because he knows he needs to watch out for his own interests, but he also wants a Contender to win the game. Harry notices the conversations going on around camp and does suspect that Matt and Casey might have turned on him.
At Tribal, Harry continues to assert that Janine is the leader of the Champions while Janine states that Harry's game is just about putting the spotlight on other people. Harry does bring up the fact that the former Champions might have conspired to throw the challenge. Matt does confirm that he was told about this conversation. Initially, Casey claims that Harry told them this, but Matt and Harry both state that it was Casey who informed them the Champions told her they would throw the challenge so they could get rid of the Contenders. Casey denies doing this and Janine denies that any conversation about throwing the challenge took place with Casey. Harry warns that if the Contenders don't stick together, then they are going to get picked off by the Champions. After the votes, Harry does play his idol which negates four votes. It is revealed that Matt and Casey did join the Champions to vote out Harry. However, the Champions did follow through with splitting their votes and Casey received the other four votes. Casey becomes the tenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 114
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 12
\|Title \= {{anchor\|12}}Episode 12
\|Aux1 \= Day 25—26
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|18\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
At Contenders, Harry and Matt acknowledge that if their tribe loses again one of them will be voted out. Harry has begun looking for an idol again while Ross tries to follow him. Harry is able to give him the slip and finds a clue by the watering well stating that the idol is above the shelter. Before the tribe leaves for the reward challenge, Harry is able to lean the tribe's flag up against the shelter and grabs the idol as the tribe leaves.
At Champions, David and Luke still find themselves in a precarious position. David tells Luke he has found the idol, but David also wants to plan ahead for the future as the idol won't protect him for long. David attempts to make amends with Shaun, trying to convince him that the physical threats need to stay together after the merge or they will be picked off. Shaun cannot trust David, but believes that David has made some good points that make him think about the future.
\*'''Reward challenge''': On one\-on\-one match\-ups, castaways will be blindfolded and attempt to collect a ring at the end of a narrow beam on top of a tower. Once they have a ring, they will dive in the water and remove their blindfold and attempt to land the ring on a peg. The first person to get their ring on the peg earns a point for their tribe. The first tribe to 3 points wins a trip to a Survivor pub.
The Champions win the reward and are allowed to select one person from Contenders to join them. The Champions choose Harry with the hopes that he will give them information. Harry absolutely spills everything to the Champions tribe about what has been going on at Contenders and informs his former Contenders that the Champions are sticking together. While this is good news for Luke and David, tribe members Daisy, Shaun, and Andy consider throwing the next immunity challenge to vote out Luke or David to keep the Champions and Contenders numbers even.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': One at a time, five castaways from each tribe will slide down a water slide and attempt to grab one of four number tiles. Once all four tiles are collected and all five members are down the slide, they will use the number tiles to unlock a combination lock, releasing a sledgehammer. Once they have the sledgehammer, they will use it to smash three wooden targets, releasing three sets of bags containing puzzle pieces. The final two tribe members will use the puzzle pieces to complete a puzzle. The first tribe to complete their puzzle wins.
During the challenge, it appears Andy might be throwing it as he does poorly on the puzzle. However, Baden is not in on the plan to throw the challenge and ends up winning it for the Champions.
Back at Contenders, Matt expresses frustration over his position in the game and the tribe's consistent losses. The Champions decide to throw their votes towards Harry because they believe he doesn't have an idol. However, Harry and Matt are not giving up and both decide to approach Simon and Ross to see if they will join them in a men's alliance. Harry and Matt point out to Simon that he was on the bottom of the Champions before the switch and try to convince both Ross and Simon that Janine, Pia, and Abbey are in control and would vote them out if Harry and Matt weren't there. Ross does tell Harry that he would be interested to shake things up, but Harry can't tell if Ross is being serious. Harry decides to put on some tears to convince Ross to keep him in the game and Ross does seem to genuinely want to help Harry. While Janine sees Harry and Ross working hard on the men, she remains confident in her position.
At Tribal, the tribe discusses the tension between Harry and Janine. Harry actually states that he wants to play against tough players and he has a lot of respect for Janine. Harry and Matt discuss their helpless positions in the game which Janine and Abbey pretty much confirm. Harry and Matt make one last pitch to Simon and Ross to flip and vote out Pia with them to break up Janine's strong alliance. When the votes are cast, Harry plays his idol, which negates three votes cast against him. Janine also decides to play her idol, but she receives no votes. Harry and Matt do vote for Pia, however, it is revealed the Champions did decide to split the vote between Harry and Matt. The vote ends up in a 2\-2 tie between Pia and Matt. On the revote, the Champions remain solid and cast their votes for Matt. Matt becomes the eleventh person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 115
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 13
\|Title \= {{anchor\|13}}Episode 13
\|Aux1 \= Day 27—28
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|19\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
On Contenders, Ross seems to be genuinely enjoying life on the island and found that ''Survivor'' is teaching him what is important in life. Ross states that his strategy for ''Survivor'' is like surfing: you be patient, wait for the best wave, and then go get it when the time is right. Harry is feeling somewhat victorious at surviving another Tribal and making Janine waste her idol. However, Harry wants to survive longer and actually approaches Janine with a pitch to work together in the game. Harry tells Janine that he has connections with the former Contenders that can help her in the game. Janine begins to seriously consider Harry's proposal as her strategy is to play the game like she does her business and she is weighing the pros and cons of Harry's arguments very seriously.
At Champions, David and Luke are convinced that Andy tried to throw the immunity challenge yesterday, which Andy confirms in a confessional. Luke is appreciative that Baden did not join in on the plan to throw the challenge and he thinks that he can work with him moving forward. Luke states that the social game is the most important part of ''Survivor'' so he approaches Baden with the hope of making an alliance moving forward.
\*'''Immunity challenge''': Castaways will race across a series of stepping poles and swing across on a rope swing. Then one person will toss a pair monkey's fist into a pair of fork to make a set safety lines for a pair of hanging balance beams. Two members will then unscrew a crate of ladder rungs. The tribes will then use the ladder rungs to complete a ladder to the top of a tower. The first tribe to get all of their castaways to the top of the tower and light their fire wins.
During the immunity challenge, a terrible accident occurs. While Ross is swinging across the rope to the other platform, the rope comes undone and Ross ends up hitting his legs onto the platform and falls to the ground. Ross screams in pain, believing he has broken his ankle. The medics come in to check him out and determine they need to take Ross out of the challenge to run more tests. The contestants resume the challenge without Ross and the Champions win immunity.
Back at camp, the Contenders are devastated that Ross suffered an injury and they have to go to Tribal again. Pia also feels very embarrassed about her performance in the challenge, which she believes held her team back. The Champions come to a consensus that Harry could not have found another idol in such a short amount of time and plan to vote him out. However, Janine and Pia discuss Harry's proposal and believe that he might be worth keeping for the merge. Janine proposes to Pia that they switch up the vote and get rid of Simon as he was already on the bottom of the Champions and she doesn't think Simon can offer as much in the merge as Harry can. Pia appears onboard with the plan, but when they make the pitch to Abbey, she doesn't agree believing that they should stick to their word with Simon. Janine observes that Abbey sometimes plays the game with emotions and encourages her to make a strategic decision. Pia believes that voting Simon out would be a good move as Harry does have connections and Simon would be a physical threat at the merge. Janine and Pia inform Harry that he should vote for Simon tonight and Harry is thrilled that things have changed for him.
Later that day, Ross and Jonathan return to the beach. Jonathan informs the contestants that Ross has fractured his ankle in the challenge and he must be evacuated from the game as a result. The tribe is very sad to hear this news. Jonathan informs the Contenders that with Ross leaving, there will be no Tribal Council and nobody else will leave. The Champions and the Contenders tribe both gather together to say goodbye to Ross. Everyone is in agreement that Ross has been a morale boost for the entire camp and everyone has truly grown to love his presence and company. Ross becomes the twelfth person to be eliminated from ''Australian Survivor''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 116
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 14
\|Title \= {{anchor\|14}}Episode 14
\|Aux1 \= Day 29—30
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|20\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
On Day 29, the Champions and Contenders tribes merge into one. Everyone celebrates the achievements that they've made in the game and are looking forward to the next stage of the game. The contestants immediately compete in their first reward challenge.
\*'''Reward challenge:''' Castaways will stand holding a sandbag tethered to a bucket of water above their head. During the challenge, castaways will be offered various temptations including food items, a call home and game advantages, which they may eliminate themselves to receive. The last person left standing wins a mystery crate which will provide them with exactly what they need "to start the next phase of the game".
During the Challenge, Pia and Harry drop out for a phone call home and everyone else except for Daisy, David, and Simon drop out for food. Daisy wins the reward challenge.
Back at camp, Andy names the merged tribe, "Soli Bula", which he claims means coming together, but he reveals later it means "sacrifice". After the initial meet and greet, David gathers the original Champions, minus Luke, to discuss reuniting to take out the Contenders. David fills the Champions in about everything going on with his tribe, including Shaun and Daisy's relationship and Andy's lies and trying to throw the immunity challenge. David proposes that either Shaun or Daisy go first as they are a powerful duo and Shaun could win a lot of challenges moving forward. Luke remains back at camp to be a spy on the Contenders and prevent them from talking together too much. Shaun does attempt to rally the original Contenders together to get rid of the Champions because he feels they are a united group. Later, Janine, Pia, and Abbey do discuss potentially blindsiding David as they believe his ego is getting out of hand and he is a dangerous player.
Later, Daisy does receive the crate from the reward challenge and it contains all of the items used to tempt people to drop out of the challenge, including food, a phone call home, and an advantage in the next immunity challenge. Daisy also discovers a hidden immunity idol in the crate. When Daisy returns to camp, she tells everyone that the crate contained the food items. However, David believes she is lying because Jonathan said the crate would contain the tools to get you through the next phase of the game and he believes that this means Daisy got an idol. Daisy only reveals to Shaun that she got an idol, which gives the Contenders hope that they can use it to gain power.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' Castaways will stand holding a rope which holds up a barrel containing 60 per cent of their individual body weight. The rope is threaded through a tile which will smash when the barrel is dropped. The last person left standing wins immunity.
Daisy's advantage is revealed to be that she can start the competition ten minutes after everyone else. After fifty minutes, the competition comes down to Abbey, Daisy, and Shaun. Shaun outlasts the others to win immunity.
Back at camp, the Champions know their plan to get rid of Shaun will not happen as he won immunity. Since they are also concerned Daisy has an idol, the Champions propose to take out Andy as they believe that Andy is a strategic threat and they believe he has told several lies in the game which make him untrustworthy. The Champions even approach the Contenders to see if they would get rid of Andy. David also hopes to flush Daisy's idol and tells her that she is going to receive some votes because people believe she has an idol. Shaun believes that the Contenders should remain together and proposes to Daisy that the Contenders place their votes on David and that Daisy play her idol on Andy. However, Daisy has a concern about whether she can trust Andy because he tried to blindside her before. In an effort to save himself, Andy approaches David and tells him that he wasn't trying to throw the challenge and that Shaun and Daisy were the ones that wanted to lose the challenge. David doesn't know whether he can trust Andy or not and tells him that the only way he can prove his trust is if he votes for Daisy tonight.
At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses the tribal lines, whether it is still Champions versus Contenders, and the concept of loyalty. During this discussion, Andy takes a lot of heat from David and Luke regarding some previous lies he's told, including throwing the immunity challenge and his attempt to blindside Daisy when Hannah left. Andy attempts to defend his actions to the tribe. After the votes are cast, Daisy decides to play her idol for herself. Daisy does negate one vote cast against her by Andy. However, the rest of the tribe unanimously determines that Andy's lies have caught up to him and he cannot be trusted. Andy becomes the thirteenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''. On the way out, Andy admits to Daisy he did cast a vote or two for her and also blurts out that David has an idol with the hopes that he derails David's game.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 117
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 15
\|Title \= {{anchor\|15}}Episode 15
\|Aux1 \= Day 31—32
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|25\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
On Day 31, the Champions celebrate winning the battle last night as they were able to force the Contenders to get rid of Andy and now they believe they can pick off the Contenders one by one. Some Champions are considering their own personal strategies: David is hoping to keep playing the model stereotype to throw people off, but he hopes to keep the Champions united to the end. Pia believes that she has been playing a good social game, she believes other Champions are her shields, and she hopes that if there is a blindside against a Champion, it would not be against her. Luke also believes that a good social game will get him far like it did the last time he played.
Meanwhile, some of the Contenders are thinking about their own future. Shaun is very upset that the Contenders could not unite together because there was so much distrust between Andy and Daisy. Shaun believes that the Contenders will be picked off one by one unless they can sway some Champions to get rid of David. Baden incorporates a strategy of playing the middle and talks with Luke about moving forward together.
\*'''Reward challenge:''' The contestants will use their arms to brace themselves between two poles while their feet are perched on footholds. Throughout the challenge, they'll be moving down the pole to narrower footholds. The last person remaining on the poles will win a brand new MG ZS SUV and a picnic lunch.
After 100 minutes, Abbey wins reward. Abbey chooses David and John to go with her. While on the reward, David attempts to propose a final three with John and Abbey, but Abbey considers blindsiding him next Tribal. Back at camp, Shaun attempts to talk to Janine about getting rid of David because he's a strategic threat. Janine does take Shaun's arguments into consideration and strongly considers blindsiding David next.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' Each contestant will take their position in between a barrier with bars. As the water comes in, the tide will rise and the breathing room will start to get shallower. Last person left under the bars will win immunity.
The challenge comes down to a fierce battle between Shaun and David. In the end, David wins immunity. Because of how late the challenge has gone, the tribe will be going to Tribal Council immediately after the challenge. In between, there are discussion regarding who should leave. Because David has won immunity, Shaun's plan to blindside him will not work. Shaun proposes to the Contenders that they vote Luke out because he is the biggest threat of the Contenders and he will win the game if he makes it to the end with his backstory. Meanwhile, the Champions consider sticking with their original plan to get rid of Shaun because he's been doing well in the challenges.
At Tribal, David proposes to the Champions that they should just focus on the conversations from before the immunity challenge. Shaun proposes his plan to everyone that Luke should be voted out now because he's been playing a strong game and if he makes it to the end, he will win. David and Luke argue that Shaun will always be a physical threat in the challenges. Janine states that, tonight, she is intending on getting rid of a competition threat with her vote. The Contenders try to argue that Shaun is not going to win every immunity as the odds are so against that. When the voting takes place, Harry and Shaun vote for Luke, Baden and Simon vote for Daisy, but the remaining members of the tribe, including Shaun's closest ally Daisy, cast their votes for Shaun. Shaun becomes the fourteenth person voted out and the first member of the jury.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 118
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 16
\|Title \= {{anchor\|16}}Episode 16
\|Aux1 \= Day 33—34
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|26\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
On Day 33, Daisy is feeling upset that she had to vote for Shaun last night, but she did so for her own protection as she felt she might have been voted out. Daisy believes that the Champions are just going to pick the Contenders off one by one. Meanwhile, David does believe that he is in control of the entire game as he has loyal allies in the Champions and he has an idol. David proposes to the Champions that they continue picking off the Contenders and vote Daisy out next as she has no connections to use in the game. However, Janine, Pia, and Abbey have been feeling for some time that David has been too overconfident and that if they don't take David out he will win. The three believe it is time to blindside David.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will race to dig up a bag of balls which they will bring back to a paddle. They will then have to roll their balls down the handle and land them on notches on the board of their paddle. The first person to land all six balls win win immunity.
Only Luke, Baden, and Abbey are able to actually dig up the balls and work on the paddle. Luke is able to land all six balls and wins his first immunity in any season he's participated.
Back at camp, Janine, Pia, and Abbey put their plan into action to blindside David. Pia tells John and Harry while Abbey tells Daisy that David will be blindsided, but she needs to act like she is upset and going home to fool David. Pia believes that her acting skills will help with this blindside as she acts like she is being nice to David to prevent him from realizing something is up. Everyone is told about the blindside against David, except for Luke and David as they believe Luke would tip David off as they've been pals since the beginning. Janine and Pia hope that nobody tips David off because if they do, he could play an idol and really mess up plans. David states that he always brings his idol to Tribal with him and if he believes that something is up, he will play it.
At Tribal, David and Janine both discuss how the Champions alliance has been strong since the merge and their votes tonight will be about keeping the numbers and alliances solid in the game. Daisy expresses concern that tonight will be her turn to leave. John also proposes to the Champions that they need to start thinking about their own positions in the game as somebody is on the bottom of the Champions alliance and that the Champions are playing it too safe. However, Janine specifically vocalizes that tonight is not the night to start making moves. These conversations are all done in an attempt to not make David suspect where the votes are actually going. When the voting takes place, Luke and David both vote for Harry. However, the rest of the tribe follows through with blindsiding David and David does not play his idol before the votes are read. David becomes the fifteenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and the second member of the jury.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 119
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 17
\|Title \= {{anchor\|17}}Episode 17
\|Aux1 \= Day 35—36
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|08\|27\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
After Tribal, the tribe celebrates the blindside against David. However, the Champions are very concerned about how Luke is feeling since he was left out of the plan. Daisy, Harry, and Baden still believe that the Champions will stay tight and try to look for an idol. Daisy is able to find an idol, but Luke and Pia discover that she found it when they come upon her and she starts acting suspicious. Luke and Pia consider keeping Daisy's idol a secret to possibly benefit them.
\*'''Reward challenge:''' The contestants will be divided into pairs and will use a pole to balance an idol. At regular intervals, they will add a section of pole to make the idol more difficult to hold up. If the idol drops, they are out. The last pair remaining will win a Chinese takeout.
Abbey and Janine win reward. Harry also wins because he sat out and picked the right pair to win. Simon is also picked to come on the reward. While on the reward, Janine proposes that Daisy be sent home next as the Champions are remaining strong and she has been able to build some trust with Harry.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will balance between two rails in a plank position. As the challenge goes on, the contestants' bodies will tire and they will fall off. Last person balanced between the rails will win immunity. (Simon wins)
Back at camp, Daisy attempts to rally Harry, John, and Baden together with the hopes of taking out one of the former Champions. Daisy reveals to them that she found the idol, but that Luke and Pia found out about it. The former Contenders agree that tonight is their only night left to unite and they are just going to have to gamble that Daisy plays the idol on the right person. They also note that the Champions cannot split the vote. The Champions initially consider voting Daisy out like they initially planned, but Luke and Pia do reveal to the Champions that Daisy found an idol. In addition, Baden also reveals to Luke the Contenders' intention to unite as he wants to keep playing the middle and have options down the road. The Champions then consider whether they want to vote for Harry as the second option or vote for John because he would be third in line. The Champions also try to make Daisy paranoid that the votes are coming for her because she previously played her idol on herself last time she had it.
At Tribal, Daisy openly wears her idol for everyone to see. The scenario is clearly laid out that the Champions are staying united and the Contenders will be playing their idol to try and overthrow them. The issue is whether Daisy plays the idol on the right person. Harry and John try to put in the minds of the Champions that they will eventually have to vote each other out and someone is on the bottom. Janine appeals to Daisy not to play her idol on the wrong person because as long as Daisy is in the game, she will still have life in the game and things can change. The voting takes place and Daisy plays her idol on herself. However, the Champions decided to place their votes on John. Luke threw a vote towards Harry and the Contenders placed their votes on Abbey. This results in a 4\-4 tie between Abbey and John. The tribe revotes and this time the Champions unite in their vote to vote out John. John becomes the sixteenth person voted out and becomes the third member of the jury.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 120
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 18
\|Title \= {{anchor\|18}}Episode 18
\|Aux1 \= Day 37—38
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|09\|01\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
On Day 37, the Champions have once again claimed victory with the vote and Daisy is feeling down about playing her idol incorrectly. Daisy and Harry both try to look for another idol. In order to stir up trouble, Daisy lies and tells Luke that someone from his alliance told her that Luke revealed Daisy's idol discovery to the Champions. This upsets Luke and causes him to believe that there might be a mole feeding information to the Contenders. Luke believes it might be Pia as she was also there when Daisy's idol was discovered.
\*'''Reward challenge:''' The contestants will be divide into pairs and will hold onto a wall using numbered pegs. At regular intervals, the contestants will alternate removing pegs from the wall. If anyone falls off the wall, the pair is out. Last pair standing wins an overnight stay at the ''Survivor'' spa.
Simon and Janine win the reward and choose Pia and Daisy to join them on the reward. While at the spa reward, the four discuss Daisy's previous idol play and how Luke thinks Pia told Daisy about the idol reveal to the Champions. Pia is very concerned that this might have damaged her relationship with Luke and she isn't able to talk to him until tomorrow. The four discuss the fact that Luke is a strong competitor and will win the game if he gets to the end. They discuss blindsiding Luke at the next Tribal.
Back at camp, Luke questions Harry and Baden about whether there is a mole from the Contenders. Harry and Baden state that Pia told Daisy about the idol revelation. Luke believes that if he doesn't make a move soon, then the Champions are just going to blindside him. Harry proposes to Luke that he join them to take out Janine at the next Tribal and Luke actually states that he would be onboard to vote out Janine.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will pull up on a weighted frame, clamping a ball between two jaws. If the contestant releases the pressure, the ball will drop and they are out. The last person holding their ball up will win immunity.
At the end of the challenge, Simon cuts a deal with Janine that if he gives her immunity, she'll take him on one of the next two rewards. Janine agrees and ends up winning immunity.
Back at camp, Janine rallies Abbey, Pia, and Simon and proposes to vote Daisy out next because she doesn't have many strong relationships and she is an unpredictable player. Simon believes that they should stick with the plan to get rid of Luke since they discussed it at the spa. In order to make Daisy feel safe, Janine tells Daisy that the vote is against Harry. This makes Daisy suspicious as the plan at the spa was to vote out Luke. Daisy then pulls Luke aside and reveals the plan at the spa to blindside Luke. Pia does talk with Luke to see if she can convince him that she never revealed information to the Contenders. Because Janine won immunity, the Contenders propose to Luke that they vote out Pia as she is Janine's closest ally. Luke is unsure of what to do because he doesn't know if he can trust his Champions alliance anymore, but he also doesn't know how much farther he would get with the Contenders.
At Tribal, the discussions at the spa reward regarding voting Luke out are discussed. Janine argues that the plan to vote Luke out was merely a plan to misdirect Daisy into believing that she was safe because Daisy was the next to go. Daisy argues that this was not a misdirection and believes that the Champions were truly intending to turn on Luke. At this point, Jonathan reveals to the group that there is a twist. Jonathan states that the next two people vote out will go to Exile Beach, compete in a duel, and the winner will return to the game. After the tribe votes, Pia and Daisy vote for Harry, but the remaining members of the tribe all vote Daisy out. Daisy is sent to Exile Beach.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 121
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 19
\|Title \= {{anchor\|19}}Episode 19
\|Aux1 \= Day 39—40
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|09\|02\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
On Day 39, Baden and Harry are concerned about the Champions sending one of them to Exile Beach to battle Daisy and hope to make a move to split up the Champions. Harry and Baden approach Luke to see if he is ready to make a move and Luke states that he's ready to shake up the game. In order to have the majority, Harry also approaches Abbey to convince her to flip on Janine, Simon, and Pia. Harry argues that it would be risky for Abbey to go to the end with Janine or Pia because Janine is perceived to be in control and Pia has an amazing social game. Abbey begins to ponder on whether she has relied too much on her allies and whether she does need to make a move to improve her chances of winning.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will lay on a steep ramp with water running down it while holding onto a bar. If they let go of the bar and fall, they are out. Last person holding the bar will win Immunity. (Pia wins)
Back at camp, Janine proposes to the Champions that they send Baden to Exile Beach as he has proven himself in the challenges. Harry, Baden, and Luke are set to blindside Janine, but when they approach Abbey with the plan she is not comfortable with it. Abbey believes that if she blindsides Janine and Janine comes back into the game then she could rally the votes to get rid of her. Abbey does express an interest in sending Simon to Exile Beach because he's a physical threat and he likely wouldn't be able to orchestrate a move against her if he came back.
At Tribal, Janine believes that the Champions will stay solid and send another Contender to Exile Beach because sending a Champion would just cause more tension in camp. Harry and Baden argue that with seven people left, now would be a smart time for certain Champions to make their move. When the votes are cast, Simon voted for Abbey, Pia and Janine voted for Baden, but Luke and Abbey joined with Harry and Baden to blindside Simon. Simon is sent to Exile Beach.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 122
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 20
\|Title \= {{anchor\|20}}Episode 20
\|Aux1 \= Day 41—42
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|09\|03\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
Simon arrives on Exile Beach, stunned that he was blindsided by Abbey and Luke. Daisy is also surprised to see that Simon was voted out and expected a Contender to join her. Both are motivated to get back into the game and get revenge on the people that blindsided them.
\*'''Exile Duel:''' Daisy and Simon will walk across a balance beam with a long pole and use that pole to guide a series of discs through a maze, stacking the discs on top of each other. If they hit the maze, it will cause the discs to fall and they will have to start over. First person to stack all ten discs will win their spot back into the game.
After a close back and forth battle, Simon defeats Daisy and reenters the game. Daisy becomes the seventeenth person eliminated from ''Australian Survivor'' and the fourth member of the jury. Back at camp, Simon sets out to look for an idol to keep himself in the game. As it stands, Janine and Pia now feel like they are on the bottom of the tribe after Luke and Abbey blindsided Simon and are feeling vulnerable.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will hold onto a rope to balance a wobbly table, race out to collect wooden blocks, and stack them on the table to spell the word, "Immunity". First person to finish will win. (Luke wins)
Back at camp, Abbey is hoping to vote Simon out again as he has proven himself to be a physical threat. Abbey and Luke try to get Janine and Pia onboard with a plan to blindside Simon, promising to reunite the Champions once Simon is gone. However, Janine and Pia believe they've lost all trust in Abbey and attempt to convince Simon and Harry to join with them to blindside Abbey as she has proven herself to be untrustworthy. Simon joins the plan as he knows that Janine and Pia did not vote him out at the last Tribal. Harry considers his options as he does want to continue making big moves, but questions if Abbey is the right person to vote out.
At Tribal, the tribe discusses Simon's previous elimination and the fact that they are getting so close to the end. Janine does acknowledge how blindsided she felt after the last Tribal and Abbey justifies the moves she has made in the game, thus far. When the votes are cast, it is revealed that the alliance of Harry, Abbey, Baden, and Luke have stuck together and even Janine and Pia joined with them to unanimously eliminate Simon for the second time. Simon becomes the eighteenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and the fifth member of the jury.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 123
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 21
\|Title \= {{anchor\|21}}Episode 21
\|Aux1 \= Days 43—44
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|09\|09\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
On Day 43, Pia celebrates her birthday while the game is still going. Pia hopes to be able to turn the game around as she does feel like she is on the bottom after Abbey flipped. Luke is starting to feel like he's become a target and hopes to continue winning immunity to get to the end. Harry believes that in order for him to win, he does need to take Luke out. Harry, Pia, Janine, and Baden propose to band together and vote Luke out next if he doesn't win immunity.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will be tethered to a rope woven through a frame. They will have to untangle as much rope as they think they need to get across a balance beam to throw beanbags at a target to release a key. They will then unlock themselves from the rope and complete a puzzle. First to finish the puzzle wins immunity. (Luke wins)
With Luke winning immunity, plans to blindside him cannot occur. Janine proposes to Pia, Harry, and Baden that they vote Abbey out as she is the next biggest physical threat. However, Harry considers blindsiding Janine next as she has been seen as a leader among the Champions and he believes that getting rid of his nemesis will allow him to win the game. In order to get Luke and Abbey to stay on their side, Harry and Baden reveal that they had previously talked with Janine and Pia about getting rid of Luke. This surprises both Abbey and Luke as they thought they could trust Harry and Baden. Luke and Abbey both discuss plans with Janine and Pia about reuniting the Champions to get rid of Harry and Baden and also consider sticking with Harry and Baden to get rid of Janine.
At Tribal, there are discussions about the Champions reuniting and going to the end together. Harry and Baden try to convince Luke and Abbey to stick with them and make the right move for their own games. In the end, Janine and Pia both vote for Baden, but Luke and Abbey stick with their alliance with Harry and Baden to blindside Godmother Janine. Janine becomes the nineteenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and becomes the sixth member of the jury.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 124
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 22
\|Title \= {{anchor\|22}}Episode 22
\|Aux1 \= Days 45—46
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|09\|10\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
After Janine's elimination, Abbey, Harry, and Baden make a final three deal and propose to get rid of Luke next with Pia as a backup option if Luke wins immunity. Meanwhile, Pia is very aware that she is on the bottom with Janine being eliminated. Pia tries to reestablish her connection with Luke and tells him that she has no interest in voting him out. Luke knows that he has established himself as a physical threat and his strong game and he needs to keep winning immunity. While walking in the woods, Luke spots a note on a tree branch and is led to a marked coconut near the beach. He opens and finds an advantage: he has the power to send anyone back to camp at the next Tribal Council. This person would not take part in the vote, but would be safe. Luke is thrilled to have found this power.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will stack a series of blocks on a beam while attempting to avoid a trip obstacle. They will stack the blocks like dominoes, knocking them over, and hitting a gong at the end. The first to do this successfully will win immunity. (Luke wins)
Back at camp, Abbey, Baden, and Harry agree to vote Pia out next since Luke won immunity. Pia proposes to Luke that they vote Abbey out because she is the next biggest physical threat next to Luke. However, Pia knows that they don't have the numbers to do so. Luke tells Pia to trust him tonight because he has a plan that can help them.
At Tribal, Luke plays his advantage and sends Baden back to camp. Luke then has private, whisper conversations with Pia and Abbey. The Tribal is full of whispering and Harry believes that it is going to be him voted out as nobody has whispered to him. It is believed that Luke whispered to Abbey that the plan was to vote out Harry to split up Harry and Abbey's votes and prevent a tie. When the votes are read, Harry voted for Pia, Abbey voted for Harry, but Luke and Pia have banded together and their two votes for Abbey are enough. Abbey becomes the twentieth person voted out and the seventh member of the jury.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 125
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 23
\|Title \= {{anchor\|23}}Episode 23
\|Aux1 \= Days 47
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|09\|16\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
After Tribal, Luke is happy that everything went according to plan and Abbey left. Pia is pleased with herself for reestablishing her relationship with Luke and believes that this saved her. At this point, Luke hopes to continue winning immunity to get to the end as he believes he has played the best game and he will surely be voted out without immunity.
The final four receive a small box at tree mail which is a small question and answer game about their fellow contestants. During the challenge, Luke and Baden win a reward of burgers.
\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will drop a ball into the top of a maze, run back down the stairs to catch the ball at the bottom, and feed it back into the top. At regular intervals, they will add three additional balls. If any ball drops, they are out. Last person to keep all their balls in the maze wins. (Harry wins)
Back at camp, Harry is intent on voting Luke out as he knows that Luke will win the game if he makes it to the end. Luke is very aware of his precarious position. Luke talks with Baden and Pia to see if they would be willing to give him a chance at fire. Baden is set on getting rid of Luke, but Pia antagonizes over the decision of whether to vote for Baden or Luke. Pia knows that Luke is here for his family and she knows that the money would mean a lot to his children, but she also has her own family to provide for. This conversations causes Luke and Pia to both express emotion about the scenario they find themselves in the game.
At Tribal, Harry expresses that Luke must leave if the other three want a chance to win. Luke makes his final pitch to Pia asking if she would force a tie vote and at least give Luke a chance at a fire challenge with Baden and reminds her that he did save her the previous night when he voted out Abbey. Luke also promises Pia the spot in the final two with him. Pia observes that tonight is a crucial moment for her because she has to weigh whether she can beat Luke versus whether Harry or Baden would take her to the final two. After the votes are cast, Pia ultimately decides to join Harry and Baden in the vote to eliminate Luke. Luke becomes the twenty\-first person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and the eighth member of the jury.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
{{Episode list/sublist\|Australian Survivor season 6
\|EpisodeNumber \= 126
\|EpisodeNumber2 \= 24
\|Title \= {{anchor\|24}}Episode 24
\|Aux1 \= Days 48—50
\|OriginalAirDate \= {{start date\|2019\|09\|17\|df\=y}}
\|ShortSummary \=
The final three arrive for the final immunity challenge of the season. They are joined by their family: Baden's parents and brother, Harry's girlfriend and mother, and Pia's husband and her children.
\*'''Final immunity challenge:''' The contestants will stand on narrow pedestals while holding onto ropes attached to two heavy idols. If they release their idols or take a foot off the pedestal, they will be out. The last person remaining will win immunity and guarantee their spot in the final two.
All three contestants last more than six hours and break the record for longest challenge in ''Australian Survivor'' history. Harry is the first to drop out with Pia dropping out soon after. Baden wins final immunity.
At Tribal, both Harry and Pia make pitches to Baden for their spot in the final two. Pia argues that Harry has played a stronger game, if Harry goes to the end then Baden might have trouble claiming some moves, and Pia also argues that Harry has been a target in the game and taking him out would be a good move for Baden. Harry argues that Pia has played a strong social game, Champions outnumbers Contenders on the jury, and Harry also notes to Baden that Baden has made stronger connections with the Champions than Harry ever did. In the end, Baden decides to cast his vote to eliminate Harry. Harry becomes the twenty\-second person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and the ninth and final member of the jury.
\*'''Final Tribal Council:'''
At final Tribal, both Baden and Pia make their arguments to the jury for why they should be crowned Sole Survivor.
Baden states that his game was to always play the middle, he knew the Contenders would not be united going into the merge so he made relationships with the Champions, gathered as much information as he could from them, and he argues that he was never blindsided by any vote because he knew what would happen. Baden states that leaders in ''Australian Survivor'' get voted out so he waited until the last possible moment to step up, which is why he fought hard for immunity and eliminated Harry. Baden also cites his personal growth from being shy and awkward to actually being social and making friendships.
Pia states that her game was to play a very social game as she knew she wasn't the most athletic and she was put on a Champions tribe of athletes. Pia notes how she was almost voted out first and helped change the vote to Anastasia. Pia states that she made strong alliances in the game and argues that she played a very strategic game when she blindsided David and aligned herself with bigger threats like Simon, Janine, and Luke to make sure that when the Champions alliance broke apart, she was not going to be voted out.
From the jury questioning, Shaun wants both finalists to state why the other person shouldn't win, David accuses both Baden and Pia of being goats, Janine praises Pia as being the smiling assassin and having a strong social game, the jury does acknowledge that Baden did always seem to know what was going on with the votes, Luke asks Pia why he should vote for her, and Harry asks them to differentiate between being a passenger and navigating the votes.
Both Baden and Pia admit that their games were more reserved and that they were never playing visible, out in the open games like some other players were. Both argue that when players put their games out in the open in ''Australian Survivor'', it immediately makes them a target and they'll be voted out. Both believe that they guided votes and orchestrated blindsides behind the scenes and that neither one of them were just riding along in the game.
Baden argues that Pia shouldn't win because she only rode the coattails of her alliance and was blindsided twice by the Simon and Janine votes whereas he was never blindsided. Baden also argues that he was always giving his input on the vote and he argues he was able to put a target more on David rather than Luke because he was working so well with Luke.
Pia argues that Baden shouldn't win because he did not play any strategic game and surrounded himself with people who would just take him to the final two. Pia argues to David that she was never a goat and that she did orchestrate his blindside with Janine and Abbey. Pia also argues that she utilized her acting skills and social skills to make moves like when she got Anastasia voted out and when she blindsided David, she made sure David never saw the blindside coming. In addressing Luke, Pia states that voting him out was the hardest decision she made, she knew she could not beat him, but Pia argues that she stayed in the challenge for six hours to beat Harry because she knew if she took the opportunity away from Luke, then she was going to make it worth it.
In the end, all nine members of the jury unanimously vote for Pia to be crowned the winner of ''Australian Survivor: Champions vs. Contenders II''.
\|LineColor \= FAE033
}}
}}
|
[
"Episodes\n--------",
"{{Episode table \\| background\\=\\#FAE033 \\|overall\\= \\|season \\= \\|title\\= \\|aux1\\= \\|aux1T\\=Timeline \\|airdate\\= \\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 103\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|1}}Episode 1\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|07\\|24\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 1—2\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Just as the previous season, the 12 champions of their field and 12 everyday Australians arrived on the island. There, they battled in their first challenge for tribal necessities.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': One castaway from each tribe will race towards a sandbag and bring it back to their team; the winner scores a point. The first tribe to score three points would win a survival start\\-up kit, which includes fruits, vegetables, rope, firewood and a \\[\\[flint]]. The Champions won.",
"At the Champions camp, Steven made alliances with his fellow athletes on the tribe, calling themselves the \"Sporty Seven\". This included E.T., Simon, Ross, Susie, Abbey, and Nova. However, Luke started catching onto the fact that the athletes were starting to band together. Luke bonded with David, seeing him as a friend like Jericho from his last season, and the former approached Pia, Anastasia, and Janine for alliances.",
"At the Contenders camp, while everyone is introducing themselves, Andy lies and tells everyone he is a freelance writer when he is actually an entrepreneur and poker player. Andy hopes to play the most dominant game, to date, and has been practicing various challenge skills in his backyard to prepare. On the first night, the Contenders' shelter ends up collapsing on them and they end up getting sick the next morning after eating the beans that they soaked in water overnight.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Both tribes will race through a series of walls and a giant A\\-frame. At the end of the A\\-frame, the tribes will push a heavy deck though their track; at the end of the track, they will foot the deck up to create a ramp to climb over a tower. Once every tribe member is on the tower, the tribe will get down to the other side and pull up a heavy frame with five tiles. Two members of each tribe will throw war clubs though the tiles. The first tribe to break all tiles will win immunity.",
"At the immunity challenge, the Champions were leading, but the Contenders pulled off an upset to win immunity. With Tribal Council looming, the Sporty Seven targeted Pia to keep the tribe stronger. Steven was concerned about being seen as the leader of the group and hoped to label E.T. as a false leader to keep himself safe. Luke's group wanted to target Susie as they perceived her as weakest, but Nova eavesdropped on their conversation. Nova was put off by how Anastasia was campaigning to her, leading Nova to believe that Anastasia might be a huge threat down the road and should leave first. Nova told Susie that her name was being thrown around and both attempted to convince the rest of the Sporty Seven to vote out Anastasia. E.T. had doubts because of how well Anastasia performed in the first challenge. Nova told Luke that she wanted Anastasia out, but Luke ended up revealing this information to Anastasia. In order to keep the tribe and their alliance stronger, Luke and David were willing to vote out Pia first to keep Anastasia in the game as they knew the Sporty Seven was unbreakable and they didn't have the numbers. Pia realized that her allies would rather keep Anastasia over her and began to campaign within the Sporty Seven to convince them to keep her instead.",
"At Tribal Council, both Anastasia and Pia acknowledged that they were on the chopping block. Pia hoped that her positive attitude would make people want to keep her while Anastasia referred to her good performances in the challenges as the reason why she should stay. When the votes were read, the Sporty Seven agreed to go along with Nova's plan to eliminate Anastasia. Anastasia becomes the first person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 104\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|2}}Episode 2\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 3—5\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|07\\|25\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At the Champions camp, Pia believes her acting skills helped her survive the vote. Susie is hoping that her Sporty Seven alliance will continue to stay strong moving forward. However, Luke has intentions on trying to break up the alliance. Luke creates another \"Spy Shack\" (a tactic also used by \\[\\[Tony Vlachos\\|Tony]] of ''\\[\\[Survivor: Cagayan\\|Survivor US: Cagayan]]'') and speaks with David about their plans moving forward. David knows that they need to flip two people from the Sporty Seven and he plans on using his charm and looks to flip Abbey and Ross to their side.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': One pair from each tribe will face off, pushing against each other on a giant turnstile. First pair to cross the finish line will score a point for their tribe. The first tribe to score three points will win a tarp, a fishing kit and materials to build their own raft that will be waiting on their camp.",
"After a close battle, Abbey and Janine scored the third point, winning the challenge for the Champions. Having played before, Luke surmised there would likely be a clue hidden among the reward items. When night falls, Luke searches the raft the tribe won and finds an idol clue inside. The clue reveals the idol is buried underground.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Each castaway from each tribe will slide into a mud pit. Once all the tribe members are across the mud pit, four tribe members will climb over two big walls and push them down to create a clear path. Then, the whole tribe will drag a box full of puzzle pieces through the path; at the end of the path, the'll have to create a giant puzzle from the box to win immunity.",
"As the area was muddy, both tribes struggled to drag the box across the path. The Champions were the first to successfully do so, and Ross and Steven completed the puzzle to win immunity for the Champions.",
"At Contenders, Baden is extremely worried that he'll be voted out because he isn't physically strong and he doesn't feel like he's fitting in socially with his tribe. There is a consensus among the tribe that Baden should be first out, with Matt being the strongest advocate. However, Andy and Harry believe that Laura is more of a threat moving forward than Baden. Laura had previously been upset to have been sat out of the Reward Challenge, so Laura began working on her social and strategic game by talking with everyone because she felt her being sat out meant the tribe viewed her as weak. Harry had noticed Laura talking and believed that she was playing the game hard. Harry begins to approach everyone to try and flip the vote towards Laura.",
"Matt is not happy that people are suggesting Laura because he believes Laura has been underestimated and can contribute more than Baden. Laura can tell that Harry has been talking with everyone, except her, and asks who Baden is supposed to be voting for. Harry says that they told Baden to vote for Sarah, which doesn't make a lot of sense to Laura. Laura begins to feel like people are targeting her so she begins to reaffirm some relationships to keep herself safe.",
"At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses keeping themselves strong and Matt specifically states that some people have not contributed equally in the strength in the challenges. Both Laura and Baden state that they are on the chopping block. Baden gives an impassioned speech to plead his case and believes he will be valuable to the tribe in future challenges. When the votes are cast, Andy and Harry have both interestingly voted for Baden along with Daisy and Laura, but their plan to have Laura voted out works as the remaining eight players vote for Laura. Laura becomes the second person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 105\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|3}}Episode 3\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 6—7\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|07\\|28\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At the Champions camp, Luke, David, Janine, and Pia continue to look for cracks in the Sporty Seven alliance. They believe they might have found one when Nova instructs her tribemates to only eat one banana per day, which doesn't make Ross very happy. Luke observes that Ross is a free spirit, he doesn't really take well to being told what to do, and he believes that he can use this to get Ross to flip to his side.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': One castaway from each tribe will face off on a trench, where they'll race towards a bell at the opposite end, while the opponent will block the other castaway. First castaway to ring the rival's bell will score a point. The first tribe to score five points will win a crate of mystery items.",
"Shaun scored the fifth point to win the crate for the Contenders. Back at camp, the Contenders find out that they must select one of their tribe members to divide up the reward items among the tribe. The tribe chooses John. Andy observes the items being handed out and deduces that Shaun, Daisy, Matt, and John are running the camp; Baden, Hannah, and Sarah are on the bottom, while he, Sam, Casey, and Harry were in the middle.",
"At the Champions camp, Luke and David find the idol from the clue Luke had and Luke takes possession of the idol.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Both tribes will race through a log that they'll have to dig under. When all the tribe mates crossed the log, they'll carry a heavy plank through a series of obstacles. They'll use the plank as a seesaw to collect sand bags. Once all sand bags are collected, five castaways will hold on a pole, while two tribe mates will try to land the sandbags on the top of the pole. The first tribe to land sandbags on all five poles will win immunity.",
"Andy and Hannah landed all the sandbags to win immunity for the Contenders. Several of the Champions blamed Janine for the loss since she suggested that the tribe dig a longways trench under the log instead of a deep trench and the tribe followed her instructions. Steven, Nova, and Susie believe that Janine should own up to her mistake and be voted out. However, Abbey is not in agreement with the rest of the Sporty Seven and believes that Janine will be beneficial to the Champions. Abbey expresses concern that she doesn't have a voice in the decision making in the Sporty Seven and she is instead being told what to do. David and Janine pitch to Abbey that Susie is the weakest tribe member and should be voted out. David tells Abbey that she can use this opportunity to send a message to the Sporty Seven to take her more seriously. Meanwhile, Luke also attempts to convince Ross to join their alliance to vote out Susie. Both Abbey and Ross are on the fence about the vote and are not sure which way to go.",
"At Tribal Council, the tribe talks about relationships that have been built and keeping the tribe strong. Susie hopes that the trust she has built already in the game will come through for her tonight. Janine takes the opportunity to plea to everyone to think about the strength in the tribe and not to just follow along with a plan. Janine argues that voting her out is not the smartest move and hopes if anyone is on the fence, they consider that when they vote. When the votes are cast, Abbey and Ross decide to flip and cast their votes for Susie, making the vote 6\\-5\\. Susie becomes the third person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 106\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|4}}Episode 4\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 8—10\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|07\\|29\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At the Champions, Luke celebrates his victory of splitting up the Sporty Seven and having his alliance bring Ross and Abbey over to their side. Abbey and Ross are both feeling the heat from flipping as Steven and Nova have been very bitter towards them. Steven is feeling extremely vulnerable as he organized this alliance and he thinks he's next to go.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': One by one, castaways from each tribe ran out and jump from a tower in an attempt to grab a flag. Once they have their flag, they will swim to a platform, and put the flag into a holder. Once all ten flags have been collected, they'll dive down to retrieve a set of buoys. Once they have all of their buoys, they will use them to solve a word puzzle. The first tribe to finish their puzzle wins hot chocolate and marshmallows.",
"At the challenge, Sarah, remembering her experience surviving the Boxing Day Tsunami, froze before leaping in the water. The Champions ultimately won reward; Jonathan told them to pick a Contender to join them, and they selected John. Janine searched the reward items for an advantage and found a clue to an idol. David sees her take the clue, but doesn't say anything. Janine does find the idol, but it is an idol with limited powers: Janine has found an idol that only has power if a Contender takes possession of it and plays it. The parchment states that another idol is hidden at the Contenders beach which can only be played by a Champion. Janine knows that she'll have to try and figure out if there's anyone on the Contenders she can trust in order to give them the idol and hopefully build some trust.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Eight castaways from each tribe will be tethered to a rope wrapped around several obstacles. Two at a time, they will go through the course. The last pair to finish the course will have a key, used to unlock a gate and release four balls. The last two members of the tribe will use the balls to toss up a vertical ramp and get them in a bucket. The first tribe to get all four balls in their bucket wins immunity. (Contenders win)",
"At the Champions, Luke and Pia feel responsible for the tribe's loss. Simon takes an opportunity to talk to Abbey to see if she would rejoin the Sporty Seven. Abbey states that she cannot because she feels Steven and Nova did nothing to make her feel welcome and she cannot work with them. Abbey does talk with Steven and Nova about why she flipped on the Sporty Seven, but Steven cannot accept her explanation and states that Abbey was weak, she lied, and he doesn't appreciate her deceptive gameplay. Abbey is very upset by this conversation and is moved to tears, which prompts David to confront Steven over his behavior. Several people are mad because Steven called Abbey weak. Steven claims that he didn't say Abbey was weak, but rather he stated that her gameplay was weak. Nova comes to Steven's defense stating that Steven did not get confrontational or personal. Nova states that Abbey was called out for her actions, she couldn't handle the pressure, and she accuses Abbey of fake crying. While Steven does apologize to Abbey for how he made her feel, he knows that he's in a position where he will likely be next to go.",
"At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses the tension that arose at camp between Steven and Abbey. Members of Abbey's alliance accuse Steven of launching a personal attack against Abbey while Steven and Nova dispute that and state that Steven never called Abbey weak and was just confronting her about her game. The tribe states that it is feeling a lot of pressure because they've lost three out of the four immunity challenges. When the votes take place, the majority alliance actually decides to vote Nova out to keep the tribe strong and for her defending Steven. Nova becomes the fourth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 107\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|5}}Episode 5\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 11—12\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|07\\|30\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At Contenders, Shaun and Daisy have made a tight alliance. During a trip to the well, Shaun discovers an idol with Daisy that turns out to be the idol with special rules that Janine found last episode. Shaun knows he has to give it to a Champion in order for it to have any power. Shaun is hoping that he can use this idol to establish tight relationships on the other tribe for the merge.",
"At Champions, Steven is surprised to still be in the game and is trying to work on his social game to get back in the good graces of the tribe. However, David states that Steven has no clue how to play the game and he'll surely be out next. David is liking his position in the game with his alliances, his knowledge of Luke and Janine's idol, but he wants an idol of his own. Janine does finally tell David about her idol in order to gain his trust. David believes he might be able to use this knowledge to his advantage.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': Three members from each tribe must race through the water to get control of the ball. They will then pass the ball onto a fourth member on a platform, who will kick it in. The first tribe to kick five goals wins fish and chips. (Champions win)",
"At the reward challenge, David and Shaun reveal their knowledge of the special idols and agree to swap them at the next immunity challenge. When David asks Janine if he can have the idol, Janine states that she wants to keep it for the merge. However, David wants to get a hold of Shaun's idol so he creates a fake idol to discreetly swap with Shaun's real one.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Five members of each tribe will be locked in a series of cages throughout an obstacle course. Two more members of the tribe will run the course, freeing their tribemates along the way. Once everyone is free, all members of the tribe will go under a net and collect a set of sandbags. The final two members will use a set of blocks to create the ''Australian Survivor'' logo. Once that is finished, they will use the sandbags to knock down the blocks. The first tribe to knock down all of their blocks wins immunity. (Contenders win)",
"During the immunity challenge, David and Shaun swap idols but Shaun is not aware he got a fake one while David does get the real idol. Back at camp, the majority alliance decides to split their votes between E.T. and Steven in case Steven has an idol. In order to prevent a possible blindside, David tells E.T. and Simon to vote Steven out tonight in order to save themselves. The tribe feels David was a little too arrogant and bossy with his pitch and his alliance wonders if the power is going to David's head. E.T. and Simon don't appreciate the way David spoke to them and believe that the majority alliance is splitting the vote. Steven, E.T., and Simon attempt to convince Ross to join back with them to blindside Pia in order to keep the tribe strong and upset the majority alliance. Pia observes Simon talking to Ross and tells her alliance that they should just all vote for Steven instead of splitting the vote. The alliance is concerned whether Ross will stay loyal to them or will flip back.",
"At Tribal Council, there is whispering among the majority alliance about whether to split the vote or just vote Steven and whether they can trust Ross. At once point, Ross actually states that he deserves to go home for his poor performance. However, the tribe observes that the vote is not about challenge performance, but about numbers and alliances. Steven states that he is still vulnerable and David states that Steven put himself in that position with the way he played the game. Pia also admits that she is in danger and worries about the vote going awry because of various plans. However, when the votes are cast, the tribe unanimously votes for Steven. Steven becomes the fifth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 108\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|6}}Episode 6\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 13—14\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|04\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At the Contenders, the tribe is enjoying their life of not going to Tribal Council and are bonding better as a team.",
"At the Champions, E.T. and Simon know that they are on the bottom of the tribe and perceive David to be running the camp. E.T. approaches Luke and Ross to convince them to join in an alliance with him and Simon to keep the tribe strong moving forward. Meanwhile, Janine, Pia, and Abbey have formed a tight girls alliance.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': Members of each tribe will face off in a tug\\-o\\-war in an attempt to smash a pole into a wooden board to score a point. The first two rounds are three\\-on\\-three, the next two are four\\-on\\-four, and the final round is one\\-on\\-one. The first tribe to score 3 points wins burgers and ice\\-cold beer. (Champions win)",
"Despite being down in numbers, the Champions continued their dominance in reward challenges, selecting Baden to join them on reward. Baden then chose Shaun to also accompany them. David is not thrilled that Shaun is visiting and worries he'll discover the idol is fake. While eating, David and Shaun talk about their idols. David lies to Shaun and tells him that he had to play his idol for Pia at the last Tribal Council because Steven tried to take her out. Abbey notices Shaun and David whispering frequently and she worries that David might be trying to make plans with the other tribe.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Two members of each tribe will stand on a narrow beam atop a tower. Two of the remaining six members will hold a pair of rope in order to keep a sandbag within a painted area. If the sandbag goes below the painted area, the castaway on the beam will fall into the water. Three castaways are assigned to one rope, and are able to switch out at any time, but only once. The last castaway standing on their beam wins immunity for their tribe. (Contenders win)",
"During the challenge, Casey asks Pia and Simon if David really played an idol for Pia and the two relate back that they are confused about the story. Back at camp, David candidly tells E.T. that he is leaving next. David believes that the vote will be a simple split between E.T. and Simon. E.T. tries to convince Abbey to come back into an alliance with him and keep him around. Abbey is in a true dilemma as she trusts and likes both E.T. and Simon. After David talks with Abbey about blindsiding Pia at the very next Tribal Council, Abbey discusses with Janine and Pia the possibility of blindsiding David tonight as they believe his ego is out of control and that he is playing too hard of a game.",
"At Tribal Council, E.T. and Simon discuss why their tribe should keep them in the game. Abbey relates to the tribe that this vote is very difficult for her while David states that the vote is very simple and essentially tells everyone in his alliance that they should do what they were told. Despite the earlier discussions, the majority alliance stays strong and cast more votes against E.T.. E.T. becomes the sixth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 109\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|7}}Episode 7\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 15—16\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|05\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At Contenders, Shaun is concerned about the strong strategic games Andy and Harry are playing and he wants to keep them on his side so they don't blindside him. Shaun shares with Andy that he and David swapped idols and both possess idols. Andy is happy to learn about the idol, but reveals in private that Shaun was foolish to reveal this to him and he plans to use it against Shaun when the time is right.",
"On the morning of Day 15, a tribe swap occurs. The new tribes are as follows:",
"New Champions: Andy, Baden, Daisy, David, Hannah, John, Luke, Sam, and Sarah",
"New Contenders: Abbey, Casey, Harry, Janine, Matt, Pia, Ross, Shaun, and Simon",
"At New Contenders, Simon believes that he finally has new life in the game. Janine is happy that on this tribe there are five Champions versus four Contenders so they have the numbers. Harry is very concerned that he is now on the bottom of the new Contenders tribe. While the tribe introduces themselves, Harry finds that the Champions are all very family oriented so he lies to the tribe and tells them he has a three\\-year\\-old son named Oscar. Harry doesn't have children, but he is hoping that the lie will coerce people into liking him and allow him to infiltrate the Champions alliance.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Four pairs of two on each tribe will assume a squatting position while attempting to balance a bar on their shoulders together. If the bar moves enough, it will knock over a stack of blocks, eliminating the pair from the challenge. The last pair standing wins immunity for their tribe. (Contenders win)",
"During the challenge, it comes down to Daisy/Sam versus Janine/Abbey. Luke actually asks Janine and Abbey in front of everyone to throw the challenge. Nobody responds to Luke's plea and Contenders go on to win.",
"At New Champions, Luke and David realize that they are completely outnumbered as they are the only two Champions on this tribe against seven Contenders. Andy knows that David has an idol, so he plans to split the votes between Luke and David to ensure one of them leaves. Andy proposes that the deciding vote should be based on a coin flip so Luke and David don't know which one is leaving. Luke and David begin to pull people aside to see if there are any cracks in the Contenders. Both Baden and Sam shoot them down, stating that the Contenders are strong. Luke and David both have idols and decide that they are going to double down and play both of their idols to ensure a Contender leaves. David proposes getting rid of Sam because he didn't like the way she spoke to him during their talk.",
"Luke and David pulling everyone aside begins to worry Andy. Andy informs the Contenders, minus Daisy, that David has an idol and reveals that Shaun told him about the idol swap. Daisy was not present for this conversation, but overhears Andy talking once she gets back to camp. Daisy is furious that Andy would reveal Shaun's idol to the group when Shaun shared that to Andy in private. Daisy talks privately with John and tells him that she isn't interested in moving forward Contender strong anymore. Daisy doesn't trust Andy and believes he's gotten too much power in this game. Daisy proposes to John that they join with Luke and David to vote out Sam tonight because they need Andy for the challenges, but taking out Sam will weaken Andy's control on the tribe. However, they know they will need five votes for a majority. David and Luke easily agree to this plan. Daisy and John then approach Baden to see if he will join with them. Baden is unsure of how to vote because he believes Luke and David are a huge power duo in the game, but Baden also wants to establish his position in the game and this could do it.",
"At Tribal Council, Luke and David discuss their precarious positions on the tribe. The tribe also discusses whether tonight is the right time to make a move or not. Several Contenders believe that tonight is not the right time to make a move, but Daisy states that she is going to be voting for whatever is best for her game. When the votes are cast, Baden decides to flip on the Contenders along with Daisy and John as Sam is blindsided with five votes. Sam becomes the seventh person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 110\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|8}}Episode 8\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 17—18\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|06\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At Champions, David is thrilled that he was able to turn the Contenders against each other and he feels powerful in his position. Andy is feeling very shaken by the last vote and tries to align with David to see if he can improve his position in the game. However, David doesn't really want to align with Andy as he believes Andy is too good of a player to keep around. Sarah is also upset that the Contenders have suddenly flipped on each other and is particularly mad at Daisy for ruining the Contenders alliance. Sarah and Hannah hope to blindside Daisy at the next Tribal Council and discuss getting Andy and Baden to come onboard with their plan.",
"At Contenders, the former Champions are determined to stick together and get rid of the other Contenders on the tribe. However, Harry is hoping to take down the Champions and plans to look for an idol to help give the Contenders a better advantage. Harry is convinced that either David or Luke went home last night and is sure that the Contenders are going strong on the new Champions tribe.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': One person from each tribe will attempt to fight a strong current and keeping within a marked area. The last person in the marked area earns a point for their tribe. The first tribe to 3 points wins pastries and coffee at a ''Survivor'' café. (Contenders win)",
"At the reward site, Harry is stunned that Sam went home and believes that Daisy flipped on the Contenders. Harry knows now that he can only rely on himself to try and improve his situation on the new Contenders tribe. Harry attempts to build a bond with Janine as he sees her as the leader of the Champions alliance. Harry is concerned that either himself or Casey will be voted out if the Contenders lose since Matt and Shaun are good competitors. In order to improve her situation, Casey begins to play both sides and tries to get close with Janine, Pia, and Abbey. Later that day, Harry is able to find the idol in the woods and hopes to use it to blindside Janine.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Two members of each tribe will lie in a chamber. The remaining six members of the tribe will race to get a bucket of water from the ocean, then cross a balance beam. From there, they will pour it into a barrel with a pipe, filling the chamber. Once there is enough water in the chamber, it will become more confined and difficult to get air, pressuring them to drop out. The last person standing wins for their tribe. (Contenders win)",
"Back at camp, Andy again proposes to David that they join forces in the game. David gathers up the majority alliance, including Andy, and proposes that they vote Sarah out tonight as he perceives her as the weakest member of the tribe. The alliance comes to a consensus that Sarah should go. Later, Sarah approaches Andy and Hannah with a plan to blindside Daisy to take back control of the Contenders. However, Sarah later observes Andy speaking with Daisy in the shelter and overhears Andy tell Daisy about Sarah's plan to blindside Daisy. Sarah is furious at Andy and now knows that Andy will do whatever it takes to keep himself safe and he needs to go. Sarah tells Luke, Baden, Hannah, and David about Andy spilling the beans to Daisy. David proposes to the group that they should instead vote Andy out because he's been playing the game hard and is having a tough time keeping his lies straight. Sarah is confident that she can turn the tide against Andy tonight.",
"At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses how Sam's blindside had a huge impact on the tribe. Sarah states that the lines and loyalties have blurred between the Champions and Contenders on this tribe. Daisy remarks that the loyalty may not have been there to begin with. The tribe also brings up the situation between Andy and Sarah where Andy was caught talking to Daisy. Sarah states that Andy proved today that he cannot be trusted. However, Andy is hoping that what he has done today will show that trust has been rebuilt and the tribe can move forward. When the votes are cast, Hannah and Sarah voted for Andy, but the remainder of the tribe banded together to get rid of Sarah. Sarah becomes the eighth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 111\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 9\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|9}}Episode 9\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 19—20\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|11\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At the Contenders camp, Shaun has not yet had an opportunity to look at the hidden immunity idol David gave him a few episodes ago. Shaun finally does take a look at it and realizes that it is not the same idol that he gave to David. Shaun is convinced that David has given him a fake idol and he is furious. Shaun shares this with the tribe and Janine confirms that the idol Shaun received is fake. Janine, Pia, and Abbey realize that David is playing an intense game and they know they need to get him out. Shaun is determined to make sure that he votes David out the first chance he gets.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': In one\\-on\\-one match\\-ups, each castaway is tethered to an idol. They must knock down their opponent's idol first to score a point for their tribe. The first tribe to 5 points wins a toasted sandwich making kit and souvenir plates with messages from their loved ones.",
"The Champions won reward. After the win, Shaun gives Daisy a hug and informs her that David gave him a fake idol and asks her to get rid of David for him. Back at camp, Daisy lets Baden know about David giving Shaun the fake idol.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': One tribe member will chop through a log to release a set of blocks from an arch. The remaining six members will balance the blocks on a disk across a pair of balance beams and a bamboo curtain. Once all the blocks from the first set are across the bamboo curtain, two members will then untie a set of poles, then use them to get a second set of blocks from an overhead net. Once the tribe has all of their blocks, they must stack them. The first tribe to finish their stack of blocks that can stay up for 3 seconds wins immunity.",
"The Champions finally ended their losing streak in immunity challenges and won immunity. After the challenge, Harry whispers to Daisy that if he is voted out tonight then she should be aware that Shaun is next. Jonathan then informs the tribes that the Champions will attend the Contenders' Tribal Council tonight.",
"Back at Contenders, Janine is confident that her alliance of five will stick together and this will be a perfect opportunity to eliminate some Contenders to better their position in the merge. The Champions all meet and agree to get rid of Harry tonight. However, Harry has the idol and he is determined to use his idol to get rid of Janine as he believes she is the leader of the Champions Alliance. Harry hopes to create paranoia in the Champions by sending Casey to spread rumors that Harry has an idol. Casey does talk with the girls and reveals that Harry absolutely has an idol. However, this makes Janine believe that Casey is playing both sides and is not to be trusted. The Champions note that Casey is relaying information back and forth. The Champions agree that they should maintain the idea that it is going to be Harry, but instead vote for Casey to flush Harry's idol and get rid of a threat.",
"Going into Tribal Council, Harry knows that the Champions might vote out a different Contender to make sure the idol doesn't affect them. Harry decides that he's going to draw attention to himself at Tribal Council by calling people out to make the Champions all vote for him and then he can use the idol to get rid of Janine. At Tribal Council, Janine acknowledges that the Champions were blessed during the swap. Casey states that she feels vulnerable because Ross has told her that he cannot trust her. Harry goes on the offense and states that only six people in this game are really playing to win and everyone else is cruising. Harry accuses the Champions of following Janine and not really playing the game. Harry then drops the biggest bombshell when he reveals that he lied about having a son. It is during this Tribal Council that Harry earns his nickname, \"Dirty Harry\", and Janine is dubbed by Harry as the Godmother.",
"Despite the big build up to the vote, Jonathan reveals that tonight's vote is going to be different. Jonathan reveals that nobody is leaving the game tonight. Instead, the Champions are going to be voting for someone on the Contenders that they would like to kidnap and have join the Champions tribe. When the votes are revealed, the majority has chosen Shaun to join the Champions. Shaun joins the Champions tribe and nobody leaves the game on this night.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 112\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 10\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|10}}Episode 10\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 21—22\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|12\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At Champions, Shaun is happy to have joined the Champions tribe and reuniting with his allies Daisy and John. Shaun shares with them that the Champions on the Contenders tribe were unbreakable which leads Daisy and John to conclude that the Contenders here need to stick together and get rid of David and Luke. Shaun is also looking to get revenge on David for giving him the fake idol. David and Luke are beginning to realize that with Shaun joining the tribe, he has been able to rally the Contenders and the two of them are no longer able to control the vote. David does talk with Shaun in the hopes of solidifying their alliance and David is still convinced that Shaun has no clue the idol is fake.",
"At Contenders, the tribe is still dealing from the fallout of losing Shaun and the drama at Tribal. Janine is worried about Harry painting a target on her and showing his true colors. Harry is also feeling upset because he acted up at Tribal so that he could draw the votes and play his idol, but the twist ruined his plans. Harry knows that he's put himself in a bad position with his behavior and wonders how he will be able to survive.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Two at a time, castaways will go through an obstacle course, collecting a pair of balls. Once they've collected their balls, they'll go to the top of a tower, where one member of the tribe will dive underwater to pull on a rope, opening a goal. The first tribe to get all eight balls into a goal wins immunity.",
"During the Challenge, the Contenders fell behind at the beginning. However, at the second half, Simon's accuracy and Ross's remarkable ability to hold his breath allowed the Contenders to come back and win immunity.",
"Back at Champions, the former Contenders agree to split their votes between Luke and David. The group is aware that David has an idol, so they attempt to paint Hannah as the fake target because she came back from the challenge feeling sick. Because Daisy had prior connections with Luke and David, she tells them that the plan is to unanimously vote out Hannah to keep the tribe strong. The Contenders tell Hannah to play up the fact she is sick and to act like she is worried about being voted out. David and Luke believe that the plan is to truly get rid of Hannah and feel pretty safe about not playing their idols.",
"However, Andy begins to believe that getting rid of David is not the best move for him as he wants to work with David and is tired of Shaun and Daisy being in control. Shortly before Tribal, Andy approaches David and Luke to tell them that the Contenders lied to them, the plan is to split the votes against the two. Andy proposes that the two of them join him and vote out Daisy to break up her and Shaun's strong alliance. After hearing this, David and Luke have no idea what to think because they still have reservations about whether they can trust Andy.",
"At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses how Shaun's addition has been good for the tribe and Hannah shares that she is feeling vulnerable and on the bottom of the tribe. The tribe seems to indicate that what Hannah has said is true. As Hannah speaks, David whispers to Luke that he doesn't think Hannah is telling the truth and that they need to play their idols tonight. Luke agrees, but the two debate whether or not they should vote for Daisy like Andy proposed. The tribe notices Luke and David whispering. David states that he thought the tribe was united in the vote, but it is clear something different is happening and he pulls out his idol to reveal it to everyone. As the tribe scrambles to figure out what to do, David proposes to Luke that they vote for Shaun because he thinks the six Contenders will vote for both of them and then their votes will be the only ones that count. When the voting takes place, both David and Luke play their idols. Nobody voted for Luke, but David's idol negates three votes that were cast against him. Andy did indeed vote for Daisy, while David and Luke voted for Shaun. However, Baden and John have cast their votes for Hannah, resulting in a 2\\-2 tie between Shaun and Hannah. The tribe is told to vote again for either Hannah or Shaun. While David and Luke vote for Shaun again, the remaining Contenders decide that they need to keep Shaun and cast their votes for Hannah. Hannah becomes the ninth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 113\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 11\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|11}}Episode 11\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 23—24\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|13\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"After Tribal, the former Contenders are still in shock that both David and Luke had idols. Andy is very upset that David and Luke didn't follow his plan. David and Luke begin to realize that they made a mistake voting for Shaun as Andy gave them a lifeline and they turned it down. Now, the two realize that the Contenders can easily vote them out if they lose again. The next morning, Shaun does reveal to David that he knows the idol is fake and makes it clear David is next to leave. David knows that he needs to find an idol to get some power back.",
"At Contenders, the former Champions are still a strong unit with Matt, Casey, and Harry trying to figure out how to survive. While Matt relies on his strength and Harry relies on his idol, Casey is still attempting to convince Janine, Pia, and Abbey that she wants to work with them. However, Janine doesn't believe she can trust Casey because Casey has been playing both sides and sharing information back and forth.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': In one\\-on\\-one match\\-ups, castaways will race across a set of monkey bars to grab a flag. The first person to grab the flag earns a point for their tribe. If they fall into the water, they are out, but the person still on the monkey bars does not automatically earn a point. The first tribe to 3 wins a private viewing of their loved ones' videos from home at a ''Survivor'' cinema. (Champions win)",
"After the reward challenge, David whispers to Simon that he had to play his idol and him and Luke are in trouble if they lose again. The Champions find out at the reward site that the movies will be a private viewing so the players will go in one at a time to watch the movies and they have to decide on an order. Surprisingly, the tribe agrees to let David go first, which they later realize was a mistake as these kinds of rewards have either an idol or a clue hidden. David is very much aware of this and is able to locate an idol in the large popcorn machine underneath the popcorn.",
"Back at Contenders, the former Champions discuss throwing the next immunity challenge to get rid of a Contender and keep Luke and David safe on the other tribe. Casey overhears this conversation take place.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Three pairs of two will stand on a narrow perch while hold a gutter with a ball in it. The goal to try to keep the ball in the gutter. If the ball falls out of the gutter or fall off the beam, that pair is eliminated. At regular intervals, they will move down on a narrower beam. The last pair standing wins for their tribe. (Champions win)",
"During the immunity challenge, Pia and Simon do fall off the balancing beam during the transition which is indicative that they threw the challenge. Back at Contenders, Casey tells Harry and Matt about the Champions' conversation to throw the challenge. Harry tells Matt and Casey that he will play his idol and they should vote for Abbey tonight. However, Casey believes it is in her best interest to join the Champions to save herself and tells Abbey and Janine about Harry's plan. However, the women don't believe that Harry actually has an idol. The Champions also doubt whether they can trust Casey because she plays both sides. To be safe, the Champions agree to split their votes between Harry and Casey that way if Harry plays his idol, Casey will leave. The Champions do approach Casey and Matt to tell them to vote for Harry to save themselves. Matt is on the fence because he knows he needs to watch out for his own interests, but he also wants a Contender to win the game. Harry notices the conversations going on around camp and does suspect that Matt and Casey might have turned on him.",
"At Tribal, Harry continues to assert that Janine is the leader of the Champions while Janine states that Harry's game is just about putting the spotlight on other people. Harry does bring up the fact that the former Champions might have conspired to throw the challenge. Matt does confirm that he was told about this conversation. Initially, Casey claims that Harry told them this, but Matt and Harry both state that it was Casey who informed them the Champions told her they would throw the challenge so they could get rid of the Contenders. Casey denies doing this and Janine denies that any conversation about throwing the challenge took place with Casey. Harry warns that if the Contenders don't stick together, then they are going to get picked off by the Champions. After the votes, Harry does play his idol which negates four votes. It is revealed that Matt and Casey did join the Champions to vote out Harry. However, the Champions did follow through with splitting their votes and Casey received the other four votes. Casey becomes the tenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 114\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 12\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|12}}Episode 12\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 25—26\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|18\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"At Contenders, Harry and Matt acknowledge that if their tribe loses again one of them will be voted out. Harry has begun looking for an idol again while Ross tries to follow him. Harry is able to give him the slip and finds a clue by the watering well stating that the idol is above the shelter. Before the tribe leaves for the reward challenge, Harry is able to lean the tribe's flag up against the shelter and grabs the idol as the tribe leaves.",
"At Champions, David and Luke still find themselves in a precarious position. David tells Luke he has found the idol, but David also wants to plan ahead for the future as the idol won't protect him for long. David attempts to make amends with Shaun, trying to convince him that the physical threats need to stay together after the merge or they will be picked off. Shaun cannot trust David, but believes that David has made some good points that make him think about the future.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge''': On one\\-on\\-one match\\-ups, castaways will be blindfolded and attempt to collect a ring at the end of a narrow beam on top of a tower. Once they have a ring, they will dive in the water and remove their blindfold and attempt to land the ring on a peg. The first person to get their ring on the peg earns a point for their tribe. The first tribe to 3 points wins a trip to a Survivor pub.",
"The Champions win the reward and are allowed to select one person from Contenders to join them. The Champions choose Harry with the hopes that he will give them information. Harry absolutely spills everything to the Champions tribe about what has been going on at Contenders and informs his former Contenders that the Champions are sticking together. While this is good news for Luke and David, tribe members Daisy, Shaun, and Andy consider throwing the next immunity challenge to vote out Luke or David to keep the Champions and Contenders numbers even.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': One at a time, five castaways from each tribe will slide down a water slide and attempt to grab one of four number tiles. Once all four tiles are collected and all five members are down the slide, they will use the number tiles to unlock a combination lock, releasing a sledgehammer. Once they have the sledgehammer, they will use it to smash three wooden targets, releasing three sets of bags containing puzzle pieces. The final two tribe members will use the puzzle pieces to complete a puzzle. The first tribe to complete their puzzle wins.",
"During the challenge, it appears Andy might be throwing it as he does poorly on the puzzle. However, Baden is not in on the plan to throw the challenge and ends up winning it for the Champions.",
"Back at Contenders, Matt expresses frustration over his position in the game and the tribe's consistent losses. The Champions decide to throw their votes towards Harry because they believe he doesn't have an idol. However, Harry and Matt are not giving up and both decide to approach Simon and Ross to see if they will join them in a men's alliance. Harry and Matt point out to Simon that he was on the bottom of the Champions before the switch and try to convince both Ross and Simon that Janine, Pia, and Abbey are in control and would vote them out if Harry and Matt weren't there. Ross does tell Harry that he would be interested to shake things up, but Harry can't tell if Ross is being serious. Harry decides to put on some tears to convince Ross to keep him in the game and Ross does seem to genuinely want to help Harry. While Janine sees Harry and Ross working hard on the men, she remains confident in her position.",
"At Tribal, the tribe discusses the tension between Harry and Janine. Harry actually states that he wants to play against tough players and he has a lot of respect for Janine. Harry and Matt discuss their helpless positions in the game which Janine and Abbey pretty much confirm. Harry and Matt make one last pitch to Simon and Ross to flip and vote out Pia with them to break up Janine's strong alliance. When the votes are cast, Harry plays his idol, which negates three votes cast against him. Janine also decides to play her idol, but she receives no votes. Harry and Matt do vote for Pia, however, it is revealed the Champions did decide to split the vote between Harry and Matt. The vote ends up in a 2\\-2 tie between Pia and Matt. On the revote, the Champions remain solid and cast their votes for Matt. Matt becomes the eleventh person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 115\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 13\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|13}}Episode 13\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 27—28\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|19\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"On Contenders, Ross seems to be genuinely enjoying life on the island and found that ''Survivor'' is teaching him what is important in life. Ross states that his strategy for ''Survivor'' is like surfing: you be patient, wait for the best wave, and then go get it when the time is right. Harry is feeling somewhat victorious at surviving another Tribal and making Janine waste her idol. However, Harry wants to survive longer and actually approaches Janine with a pitch to work together in the game. Harry tells Janine that he has connections with the former Contenders that can help her in the game. Janine begins to seriously consider Harry's proposal as her strategy is to play the game like she does her business and she is weighing the pros and cons of Harry's arguments very seriously.",
"At Champions, David and Luke are convinced that Andy tried to throw the immunity challenge yesterday, which Andy confirms in a confessional. Luke is appreciative that Baden did not join in on the plan to throw the challenge and he thinks that he can work with him moving forward. Luke states that the social game is the most important part of ''Survivor'' so he approaches Baden with the hope of making an alliance moving forward.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge''': Castaways will race across a series of stepping poles and swing across on a rope swing. Then one person will toss a pair monkey's fist into a pair of fork to make a set safety lines for a pair of hanging balance beams. Two members will then unscrew a crate of ladder rungs. The tribes will then use the ladder rungs to complete a ladder to the top of a tower. The first tribe to get all of their castaways to the top of the tower and light their fire wins.",
"During the immunity challenge, a terrible accident occurs. While Ross is swinging across the rope to the other platform, the rope comes undone and Ross ends up hitting his legs onto the platform and falls to the ground. Ross screams in pain, believing he has broken his ankle. The medics come in to check him out and determine they need to take Ross out of the challenge to run more tests. The contestants resume the challenge without Ross and the Champions win immunity.",
"Back at camp, the Contenders are devastated that Ross suffered an injury and they have to go to Tribal again. Pia also feels very embarrassed about her performance in the challenge, which she believes held her team back. The Champions come to a consensus that Harry could not have found another idol in such a short amount of time and plan to vote him out. However, Janine and Pia discuss Harry's proposal and believe that he might be worth keeping for the merge. Janine proposes to Pia that they switch up the vote and get rid of Simon as he was already on the bottom of the Champions and she doesn't think Simon can offer as much in the merge as Harry can. Pia appears onboard with the plan, but when they make the pitch to Abbey, she doesn't agree believing that they should stick to their word with Simon. Janine observes that Abbey sometimes plays the game with emotions and encourages her to make a strategic decision. Pia believes that voting Simon out would be a good move as Harry does have connections and Simon would be a physical threat at the merge. Janine and Pia inform Harry that he should vote for Simon tonight and Harry is thrilled that things have changed for him.",
"Later that day, Ross and Jonathan return to the beach. Jonathan informs the contestants that Ross has fractured his ankle in the challenge and he must be evacuated from the game as a result. The tribe is very sad to hear this news. Jonathan informs the Contenders that with Ross leaving, there will be no Tribal Council and nobody else will leave. The Champions and the Contenders tribe both gather together to say goodbye to Ross. Everyone is in agreement that Ross has been a morale boost for the entire camp and everyone has truly grown to love his presence and company. Ross becomes the twelfth person to be eliminated from ''Australian Survivor''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 116\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 14\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|14}}Episode 14\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 29—30\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|20\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"On Day 29, the Champions and Contenders tribes merge into one. Everyone celebrates the achievements that they've made in the game and are looking forward to the next stage of the game. The contestants immediately compete in their first reward challenge.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge:''' Castaways will stand holding a sandbag tethered to a bucket of water above their head. During the challenge, castaways will be offered various temptations including food items, a call home and game advantages, which they may eliminate themselves to receive. The last person left standing wins a mystery crate which will provide them with exactly what they need \"to start the next phase of the game\".",
"During the Challenge, Pia and Harry drop out for a phone call home and everyone else except for Daisy, David, and Simon drop out for food. Daisy wins the reward challenge.",
"Back at camp, Andy names the merged tribe, \"Soli Bula\", which he claims means coming together, but he reveals later it means \"sacrifice\". After the initial meet and greet, David gathers the original Champions, minus Luke, to discuss reuniting to take out the Contenders. David fills the Champions in about everything going on with his tribe, including Shaun and Daisy's relationship and Andy's lies and trying to throw the immunity challenge. David proposes that either Shaun or Daisy go first as they are a powerful duo and Shaun could win a lot of challenges moving forward. Luke remains back at camp to be a spy on the Contenders and prevent them from talking together too much. Shaun does attempt to rally the original Contenders together to get rid of the Champions because he feels they are a united group. Later, Janine, Pia, and Abbey do discuss potentially blindsiding David as they believe his ego is getting out of hand and he is a dangerous player.",
"Later, Daisy does receive the crate from the reward challenge and it contains all of the items used to tempt people to drop out of the challenge, including food, a phone call home, and an advantage in the next immunity challenge. Daisy also discovers a hidden immunity idol in the crate. When Daisy returns to camp, she tells everyone that the crate contained the food items. However, David believes she is lying because Jonathan said the crate would contain the tools to get you through the next phase of the game and he believes that this means Daisy got an idol. Daisy only reveals to Shaun that she got an idol, which gives the Contenders hope that they can use it to gain power.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' Castaways will stand holding a rope which holds up a barrel containing 60 per cent of their individual body weight. The rope is threaded through a tile which will smash when the barrel is dropped. The last person left standing wins immunity.",
"Daisy's advantage is revealed to be that she can start the competition ten minutes after everyone else. After fifty minutes, the competition comes down to Abbey, Daisy, and Shaun. Shaun outlasts the others to win immunity.",
"Back at camp, the Champions know their plan to get rid of Shaun will not happen as he won immunity. Since they are also concerned Daisy has an idol, the Champions propose to take out Andy as they believe that Andy is a strategic threat and they believe he has told several lies in the game which make him untrustworthy. The Champions even approach the Contenders to see if they would get rid of Andy. David also hopes to flush Daisy's idol and tells her that she is going to receive some votes because people believe she has an idol. Shaun believes that the Contenders should remain together and proposes to Daisy that the Contenders place their votes on David and that Daisy play her idol on Andy. However, Daisy has a concern about whether she can trust Andy because he tried to blindside her before. In an effort to save himself, Andy approaches David and tells him that he wasn't trying to throw the challenge and that Shaun and Daisy were the ones that wanted to lose the challenge. David doesn't know whether he can trust Andy or not and tells him that the only way he can prove his trust is if he votes for Daisy tonight.",
"At Tribal Council, the tribe discusses the tribal lines, whether it is still Champions versus Contenders, and the concept of loyalty. During this discussion, Andy takes a lot of heat from David and Luke regarding some previous lies he's told, including throwing the immunity challenge and his attempt to blindside Daisy when Hannah left. Andy attempts to defend his actions to the tribe. After the votes are cast, Daisy decides to play her idol for herself. Daisy does negate one vote cast against her by Andy. However, the rest of the tribe unanimously determines that Andy's lies have caught up to him and he cannot be trusted. Andy becomes the thirteenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor''. On the way out, Andy admits to Daisy he did cast a vote or two for her and also blurts out that David has an idol with the hopes that he derails David's game.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 117\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 15\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|15}}Episode 15\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 31—32\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|25\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"On Day 31, the Champions celebrate winning the battle last night as they were able to force the Contenders to get rid of Andy and now they believe they can pick off the Contenders one by one. Some Champions are considering their own personal strategies: David is hoping to keep playing the model stereotype to throw people off, but he hopes to keep the Champions united to the end. Pia believes that she has been playing a good social game, she believes other Champions are her shields, and she hopes that if there is a blindside against a Champion, it would not be against her. Luke also believes that a good social game will get him far like it did the last time he played.",
"Meanwhile, some of the Contenders are thinking about their own future. Shaun is very upset that the Contenders could not unite together because there was so much distrust between Andy and Daisy. Shaun believes that the Contenders will be picked off one by one unless they can sway some Champions to get rid of David. Baden incorporates a strategy of playing the middle and talks with Luke about moving forward together.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge:''' The contestants will use their arms to brace themselves between two poles while their feet are perched on footholds. Throughout the challenge, they'll be moving down the pole to narrower footholds. The last person remaining on the poles will win a brand new MG ZS SUV and a picnic lunch.",
"After 100 minutes, Abbey wins reward. Abbey chooses David and John to go with her. While on the reward, David attempts to propose a final three with John and Abbey, but Abbey considers blindsiding him next Tribal. Back at camp, Shaun attempts to talk to Janine about getting rid of David because he's a strategic threat. Janine does take Shaun's arguments into consideration and strongly considers blindsiding David next.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' Each contestant will take their position in between a barrier with bars. As the water comes in, the tide will rise and the breathing room will start to get shallower. Last person left under the bars will win immunity.",
"The challenge comes down to a fierce battle between Shaun and David. In the end, David wins immunity. Because of how late the challenge has gone, the tribe will be going to Tribal Council immediately after the challenge. In between, there are discussion regarding who should leave. Because David has won immunity, Shaun's plan to blindside him will not work. Shaun proposes to the Contenders that they vote Luke out because he is the biggest threat of the Contenders and he will win the game if he makes it to the end with his backstory. Meanwhile, the Champions consider sticking with their original plan to get rid of Shaun because he's been doing well in the challenges.",
"At Tribal, David proposes to the Champions that they should just focus on the conversations from before the immunity challenge. Shaun proposes his plan to everyone that Luke should be voted out now because he's been playing a strong game and if he makes it to the end, he will win. David and Luke argue that Shaun will always be a physical threat in the challenges. Janine states that, tonight, she is intending on getting rid of a competition threat with her vote. The Contenders try to argue that Shaun is not going to win every immunity as the odds are so against that. When the voting takes place, Harry and Shaun vote for Luke, Baden and Simon vote for Daisy, but the remaining members of the tribe, including Shaun's closest ally Daisy, cast their votes for Shaun. Shaun becomes the fourteenth person voted out and the first member of the jury.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 118\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 16\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|16}}Episode 16\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 33—34\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|26\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"On Day 33, Daisy is feeling upset that she had to vote for Shaun last night, but she did so for her own protection as she felt she might have been voted out. Daisy believes that the Champions are just going to pick the Contenders off one by one. Meanwhile, David does believe that he is in control of the entire game as he has loyal allies in the Champions and he has an idol. David proposes to the Champions that they continue picking off the Contenders and vote Daisy out next as she has no connections to use in the game. However, Janine, Pia, and Abbey have been feeling for some time that David has been too overconfident and that if they don't take David out he will win. The three believe it is time to blindside David.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will race to dig up a bag of balls which they will bring back to a paddle. They will then have to roll their balls down the handle and land them on notches on the board of their paddle. The first person to land all six balls win win immunity.",
"Only Luke, Baden, and Abbey are able to actually dig up the balls and work on the paddle. Luke is able to land all six balls and wins his first immunity in any season he's participated.",
"Back at camp, Janine, Pia, and Abbey put their plan into action to blindside David. Pia tells John and Harry while Abbey tells Daisy that David will be blindsided, but she needs to act like she is upset and going home to fool David. Pia believes that her acting skills will help with this blindside as she acts like she is being nice to David to prevent him from realizing something is up. Everyone is told about the blindside against David, except for Luke and David as they believe Luke would tip David off as they've been pals since the beginning. Janine and Pia hope that nobody tips David off because if they do, he could play an idol and really mess up plans. David states that he always brings his idol to Tribal with him and if he believes that something is up, he will play it.",
"At Tribal, David and Janine both discuss how the Champions alliance has been strong since the merge and their votes tonight will be about keeping the numbers and alliances solid in the game. Daisy expresses concern that tonight will be her turn to leave. John also proposes to the Champions that they need to start thinking about their own positions in the game as somebody is on the bottom of the Champions alliance and that the Champions are playing it too safe. However, Janine specifically vocalizes that tonight is not the night to start making moves. These conversations are all done in an attempt to not make David suspect where the votes are actually going. When the voting takes place, Luke and David both vote for Harry. However, the rest of the tribe follows through with blindsiding David and David does not play his idol before the votes are read. David becomes the fifteenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and the second member of the jury.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 119\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 17\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|17}}Episode 17\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 35—36\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|08\\|27\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"After Tribal, the tribe celebrates the blindside against David. However, the Champions are very concerned about how Luke is feeling since he was left out of the plan. Daisy, Harry, and Baden still believe that the Champions will stay tight and try to look for an idol. Daisy is able to find an idol, but Luke and Pia discover that she found it when they come upon her and she starts acting suspicious. Luke and Pia consider keeping Daisy's idol a secret to possibly benefit them.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge:''' The contestants will be divided into pairs and will use a pole to balance an idol. At regular intervals, they will add a section of pole to make the idol more difficult to hold up. If the idol drops, they are out. The last pair remaining will win a Chinese takeout.",
"Abbey and Janine win reward. Harry also wins because he sat out and picked the right pair to win. Simon is also picked to come on the reward. While on the reward, Janine proposes that Daisy be sent home next as the Champions are remaining strong and she has been able to build some trust with Harry.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will balance between two rails in a plank position. As the challenge goes on, the contestants' bodies will tire and they will fall off. Last person balanced between the rails will win immunity. (Simon wins)",
"Back at camp, Daisy attempts to rally Harry, John, and Baden together with the hopes of taking out one of the former Champions. Daisy reveals to them that she found the idol, but that Luke and Pia found out about it. The former Contenders agree that tonight is their only night left to unite and they are just going to have to gamble that Daisy plays the idol on the right person. They also note that the Champions cannot split the vote. The Champions initially consider voting Daisy out like they initially planned, but Luke and Pia do reveal to the Champions that Daisy found an idol. In addition, Baden also reveals to Luke the Contenders' intention to unite as he wants to keep playing the middle and have options down the road. The Champions then consider whether they want to vote for Harry as the second option or vote for John because he would be third in line. The Champions also try to make Daisy paranoid that the votes are coming for her because she previously played her idol on herself last time she had it.",
"At Tribal, Daisy openly wears her idol for everyone to see. The scenario is clearly laid out that the Champions are staying united and the Contenders will be playing their idol to try and overthrow them. The issue is whether Daisy plays the idol on the right person. Harry and John try to put in the minds of the Champions that they will eventually have to vote each other out and someone is on the bottom. Janine appeals to Daisy not to play her idol on the wrong person because as long as Daisy is in the game, she will still have life in the game and things can change. The voting takes place and Daisy plays her idol on herself. However, the Champions decided to place their votes on John. Luke threw a vote towards Harry and the Contenders placed their votes on Abbey. This results in a 4\\-4 tie between Abbey and John. The tribe revotes and this time the Champions unite in their vote to vote out John. John becomes the sixteenth person voted out and becomes the third member of the jury.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 120\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 18\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|18}}Episode 18\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 37—38\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|09\\|01\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"On Day 37, the Champions have once again claimed victory with the vote and Daisy is feeling down about playing her idol incorrectly. Daisy and Harry both try to look for another idol. In order to stir up trouble, Daisy lies and tells Luke that someone from his alliance told her that Luke revealed Daisy's idol discovery to the Champions. This upsets Luke and causes him to believe that there might be a mole feeding information to the Contenders. Luke believes it might be Pia as she was also there when Daisy's idol was discovered.",
"\\*'''Reward challenge:''' The contestants will be divide into pairs and will hold onto a wall using numbered pegs. At regular intervals, the contestants will alternate removing pegs from the wall. If anyone falls off the wall, the pair is out. Last pair standing wins an overnight stay at the ''Survivor'' spa.",
"Simon and Janine win the reward and choose Pia and Daisy to join them on the reward. While at the spa reward, the four discuss Daisy's previous idol play and how Luke thinks Pia told Daisy about the idol reveal to the Champions. Pia is very concerned that this might have damaged her relationship with Luke and she isn't able to talk to him until tomorrow. The four discuss the fact that Luke is a strong competitor and will win the game if he gets to the end. They discuss blindsiding Luke at the next Tribal.",
"Back at camp, Luke questions Harry and Baden about whether there is a mole from the Contenders. Harry and Baden state that Pia told Daisy about the idol revelation. Luke believes that if he doesn't make a move soon, then the Champions are just going to blindside him. Harry proposes to Luke that he join them to take out Janine at the next Tribal and Luke actually states that he would be onboard to vote out Janine.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will pull up on a weighted frame, clamping a ball between two jaws. If the contestant releases the pressure, the ball will drop and they are out. The last person holding their ball up will win immunity.",
"At the end of the challenge, Simon cuts a deal with Janine that if he gives her immunity, she'll take him on one of the next two rewards. Janine agrees and ends up winning immunity.",
"Back at camp, Janine rallies Abbey, Pia, and Simon and proposes to vote Daisy out next because she doesn't have many strong relationships and she is an unpredictable player. Simon believes that they should stick with the plan to get rid of Luke since they discussed it at the spa. In order to make Daisy feel safe, Janine tells Daisy that the vote is against Harry. This makes Daisy suspicious as the plan at the spa was to vote out Luke. Daisy then pulls Luke aside and reveals the plan at the spa to blindside Luke. Pia does talk with Luke to see if she can convince him that she never revealed information to the Contenders. Because Janine won immunity, the Contenders propose to Luke that they vote out Pia as she is Janine's closest ally. Luke is unsure of what to do because he doesn't know if he can trust his Champions alliance anymore, but he also doesn't know how much farther he would get with the Contenders.",
"At Tribal, the discussions at the spa reward regarding voting Luke out are discussed. Janine argues that the plan to vote Luke out was merely a plan to misdirect Daisy into believing that she was safe because Daisy was the next to go. Daisy argues that this was not a misdirection and believes that the Champions were truly intending to turn on Luke. At this point, Jonathan reveals to the group that there is a twist. Jonathan states that the next two people vote out will go to Exile Beach, compete in a duel, and the winner will return to the game. After the tribe votes, Pia and Daisy vote for Harry, but the remaining members of the tribe all vote Daisy out. Daisy is sent to Exile Beach.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 121\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 19\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|19}}Episode 19\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 39—40\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|09\\|02\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"On Day 39, Baden and Harry are concerned about the Champions sending one of them to Exile Beach to battle Daisy and hope to make a move to split up the Champions. Harry and Baden approach Luke to see if he is ready to make a move and Luke states that he's ready to shake up the game. In order to have the majority, Harry also approaches Abbey to convince her to flip on Janine, Simon, and Pia. Harry argues that it would be risky for Abbey to go to the end with Janine or Pia because Janine is perceived to be in control and Pia has an amazing social game. Abbey begins to ponder on whether she has relied too much on her allies and whether she does need to make a move to improve her chances of winning.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will lay on a steep ramp with water running down it while holding onto a bar. If they let go of the bar and fall, they are out. Last person holding the bar will win Immunity. (Pia wins)",
"Back at camp, Janine proposes to the Champions that they send Baden to Exile Beach as he has proven himself in the challenges. Harry, Baden, and Luke are set to blindside Janine, but when they approach Abbey with the plan she is not comfortable with it. Abbey believes that if she blindsides Janine and Janine comes back into the game then she could rally the votes to get rid of her. Abbey does express an interest in sending Simon to Exile Beach because he's a physical threat and he likely wouldn't be able to orchestrate a move against her if he came back.",
"At Tribal, Janine believes that the Champions will stay solid and send another Contender to Exile Beach because sending a Champion would just cause more tension in camp. Harry and Baden argue that with seven people left, now would be a smart time for certain Champions to make their move. When the votes are cast, Simon voted for Abbey, Pia and Janine voted for Baden, but Luke and Abbey joined with Harry and Baden to blindside Simon. Simon is sent to Exile Beach.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 122\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 20\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|20}}Episode 20\n\\|Aux1 \\= Day 41—42\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|09\\|03\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"Simon arrives on Exile Beach, stunned that he was blindsided by Abbey and Luke. Daisy is also surprised to see that Simon was voted out and expected a Contender to join her. Both are motivated to get back into the game and get revenge on the people that blindsided them.",
"\\*'''Exile Duel:''' Daisy and Simon will walk across a balance beam with a long pole and use that pole to guide a series of discs through a maze, stacking the discs on top of each other. If they hit the maze, it will cause the discs to fall and they will have to start over. First person to stack all ten discs will win their spot back into the game.",
"After a close back and forth battle, Simon defeats Daisy and reenters the game. Daisy becomes the seventeenth person eliminated from ''Australian Survivor'' and the fourth member of the jury. Back at camp, Simon sets out to look for an idol to keep himself in the game. As it stands, Janine and Pia now feel like they are on the bottom of the tribe after Luke and Abbey blindsided Simon and are feeling vulnerable.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will hold onto a rope to balance a wobbly table, race out to collect wooden blocks, and stack them on the table to spell the word, \"Immunity\". First person to finish will win. (Luke wins)",
"Back at camp, Abbey is hoping to vote Simon out again as he has proven himself to be a physical threat. Abbey and Luke try to get Janine and Pia onboard with a plan to blindside Simon, promising to reunite the Champions once Simon is gone. However, Janine and Pia believe they've lost all trust in Abbey and attempt to convince Simon and Harry to join with them to blindside Abbey as she has proven herself to be untrustworthy. Simon joins the plan as he knows that Janine and Pia did not vote him out at the last Tribal. Harry considers his options as he does want to continue making big moves, but questions if Abbey is the right person to vote out.",
"At Tribal, the tribe discusses Simon's previous elimination and the fact that they are getting so close to the end. Janine does acknowledge how blindsided she felt after the last Tribal and Abbey justifies the moves she has made in the game, thus far. When the votes are cast, it is revealed that the alliance of Harry, Abbey, Baden, and Luke have stuck together and even Janine and Pia joined with them to unanimously eliminate Simon for the second time. Simon becomes the eighteenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and the fifth member of the jury.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 123\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 21\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|21}}Episode 21\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 43—44\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|09\\|09\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"On Day 43, Pia celebrates her birthday while the game is still going. Pia hopes to be able to turn the game around as she does feel like she is on the bottom after Abbey flipped. Luke is starting to feel like he's become a target and hopes to continue winning immunity to get to the end. Harry believes that in order for him to win, he does need to take Luke out. Harry, Pia, Janine, and Baden propose to band together and vote Luke out next if he doesn't win immunity.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will be tethered to a rope woven through a frame. They will have to untangle as much rope as they think they need to get across a balance beam to throw beanbags at a target to release a key. They will then unlock themselves from the rope and complete a puzzle. First to finish the puzzle wins immunity. (Luke wins)",
"With Luke winning immunity, plans to blindside him cannot occur. Janine proposes to Pia, Harry, and Baden that they vote Abbey out as she is the next biggest physical threat. However, Harry considers blindsiding Janine next as she has been seen as a leader among the Champions and he believes that getting rid of his nemesis will allow him to win the game. In order to get Luke and Abbey to stay on their side, Harry and Baden reveal that they had previously talked with Janine and Pia about getting rid of Luke. This surprises both Abbey and Luke as they thought they could trust Harry and Baden. Luke and Abbey both discuss plans with Janine and Pia about reuniting the Champions to get rid of Harry and Baden and also consider sticking with Harry and Baden to get rid of Janine.",
"At Tribal, there are discussions about the Champions reuniting and going to the end together. Harry and Baden try to convince Luke and Abbey to stick with them and make the right move for their own games. In the end, Janine and Pia both vote for Baden, but Luke and Abbey stick with their alliance with Harry and Baden to blindside Godmother Janine. Janine becomes the nineteenth person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and becomes the sixth member of the jury.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 124\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 22\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|22}}Episode 22\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 45—46\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|09\\|10\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"After Janine's elimination, Abbey, Harry, and Baden make a final three deal and propose to get rid of Luke next with Pia as a backup option if Luke wins immunity. Meanwhile, Pia is very aware that she is on the bottom with Janine being eliminated. Pia tries to reestablish her connection with Luke and tells him that she has no interest in voting him out. Luke knows that he has established himself as a physical threat and his strong game and he needs to keep winning immunity. While walking in the woods, Luke spots a note on a tree branch and is led to a marked coconut near the beach. He opens and finds an advantage: he has the power to send anyone back to camp at the next Tribal Council. This person would not take part in the vote, but would be safe. Luke is thrilled to have found this power.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will stack a series of blocks on a beam while attempting to avoid a trip obstacle. They will stack the blocks like dominoes, knocking them over, and hitting a gong at the end. The first to do this successfully will win immunity. (Luke wins)",
"Back at camp, Abbey, Baden, and Harry agree to vote Pia out next since Luke won immunity. Pia proposes to Luke that they vote Abbey out because she is the next biggest physical threat next to Luke. However, Pia knows that they don't have the numbers to do so. Luke tells Pia to trust him tonight because he has a plan that can help them.",
"At Tribal, Luke plays his advantage and sends Baden back to camp. Luke then has private, whisper conversations with Pia and Abbey. The Tribal is full of whispering and Harry believes that it is going to be him voted out as nobody has whispered to him. It is believed that Luke whispered to Abbey that the plan was to vote out Harry to split up Harry and Abbey's votes and prevent a tie. When the votes are read, Harry voted for Pia, Abbey voted for Harry, but Luke and Pia have banded together and their two votes for Abbey are enough. Abbey becomes the twentieth person voted out and the seventh member of the jury.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 125\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 23\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|23}}Episode 23\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 47\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|09\\|16\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"After Tribal, Luke is happy that everything went according to plan and Abbey left. Pia is pleased with herself for reestablishing her relationship with Luke and believes that this saved her. At this point, Luke hopes to continue winning immunity to get to the end as he believes he has played the best game and he will surely be voted out without immunity.",
"The final four receive a small box at tree mail which is a small question and answer game about their fellow contestants. During the challenge, Luke and Baden win a reward of burgers.",
"\\*'''Immunity challenge:''' The contestants will drop a ball into the top of a maze, run back down the stairs to catch the ball at the bottom, and feed it back into the top. At regular intervals, they will add three additional balls. If any ball drops, they are out. Last person to keep all their balls in the maze wins. (Harry wins)",
"Back at camp, Harry is intent on voting Luke out as he knows that Luke will win the game if he makes it to the end. Luke is very aware of his precarious position. Luke talks with Baden and Pia to see if they would be willing to give him a chance at fire. Baden is set on getting rid of Luke, but Pia antagonizes over the decision of whether to vote for Baden or Luke. Pia knows that Luke is here for his family and she knows that the money would mean a lot to his children, but she also has her own family to provide for. This conversations causes Luke and Pia to both express emotion about the scenario they find themselves in the game.",
"At Tribal, Harry expresses that Luke must leave if the other three want a chance to win. Luke makes his final pitch to Pia asking if she would force a tie vote and at least give Luke a chance at a fire challenge with Baden and reminds her that he did save her the previous night when he voted out Abbey. Luke also promises Pia the spot in the final two with him. Pia observes that tonight is a crucial moment for her because she has to weigh whether she can beat Luke versus whether Harry or Baden would take her to the final two. After the votes are cast, Pia ultimately decides to join Harry and Baden in the vote to eliminate Luke. Luke becomes the twenty\\-first person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and the eighth member of the jury.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Australian Survivor season 6\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 126\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 24\n\\|Title \\= {{anchor\\|24}}Episode 24\n\\|Aux1 \\= Days 48—50\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{start date\\|2019\\|09\\|17\\|df\\=y}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\=",
"The final three arrive for the final immunity challenge of the season. They are joined by their family: Baden's parents and brother, Harry's girlfriend and mother, and Pia's husband and her children.",
"\\*'''Final immunity challenge:''' The contestants will stand on narrow pedestals while holding onto ropes attached to two heavy idols. If they release their idols or take a foot off the pedestal, they will be out. The last person remaining will win immunity and guarantee their spot in the final two.",
"All three contestants last more than six hours and break the record for longest challenge in ''Australian Survivor'' history. Harry is the first to drop out with Pia dropping out soon after. Baden wins final immunity.",
"At Tribal, both Harry and Pia make pitches to Baden for their spot in the final two. Pia argues that Harry has played a stronger game, if Harry goes to the end then Baden might have trouble claiming some moves, and Pia also argues that Harry has been a target in the game and taking him out would be a good move for Baden. Harry argues that Pia has played a strong social game, Champions outnumbers Contenders on the jury, and Harry also notes to Baden that Baden has made stronger connections with the Champions than Harry ever did. In the end, Baden decides to cast his vote to eliminate Harry. Harry becomes the twenty\\-second person voted out of ''Australian Survivor'' and the ninth and final member of the jury.",
"\\*'''Final Tribal Council:'''",
"At final Tribal, both Baden and Pia make their arguments to the jury for why they should be crowned Sole Survivor.",
"Baden states that his game was to always play the middle, he knew the Contenders would not be united going into the merge so he made relationships with the Champions, gathered as much information as he could from them, and he argues that he was never blindsided by any vote because he knew what would happen. Baden states that leaders in ''Australian Survivor'' get voted out so he waited until the last possible moment to step up, which is why he fought hard for immunity and eliminated Harry. Baden also cites his personal growth from being shy and awkward to actually being social and making friendships.",
"Pia states that her game was to play a very social game as she knew she wasn't the most athletic and she was put on a Champions tribe of athletes. Pia notes how she was almost voted out first and helped change the vote to Anastasia. Pia states that she made strong alliances in the game and argues that she played a very strategic game when she blindsided David and aligned herself with bigger threats like Simon, Janine, and Luke to make sure that when the Champions alliance broke apart, she was not going to be voted out.",
"From the jury questioning, Shaun wants both finalists to state why the other person shouldn't win, David accuses both Baden and Pia of being goats, Janine praises Pia as being the smiling assassin and having a strong social game, the jury does acknowledge that Baden did always seem to know what was going on with the votes, Luke asks Pia why he should vote for her, and Harry asks them to differentiate between being a passenger and navigating the votes.",
"Both Baden and Pia admit that their games were more reserved and that they were never playing visible, out in the open games like some other players were. Both argue that when players put their games out in the open in ''Australian Survivor'', it immediately makes them a target and they'll be voted out. Both believe that they guided votes and orchestrated blindsides behind the scenes and that neither one of them were just riding along in the game.",
"Baden argues that Pia shouldn't win because she only rode the coattails of her alliance and was blindsided twice by the Simon and Janine votes whereas he was never blindsided. Baden also argues that he was always giving his input on the vote and he argues he was able to put a target more on David rather than Luke because he was working so well with Luke.",
"Pia argues that Baden shouldn't win because he did not play any strategic game and surrounded himself with people who would just take him to the final two. Pia argues to David that she was never a goat and that she did orchestrate his blindside with Janine and Abbey. Pia also argues that she utilized her acting skills and social skills to make moves like when she got Anastasia voted out and when she blindsided David, she made sure David never saw the blindside coming. In addressing Luke, Pia states that voting him out was the hardest decision she made, she knew she could not beat him, but Pia argues that she stayed in the challenge for six hours to beat Harry because she knew if she took the opportunity away from Luke, then she was going to make it worth it.",
"In the end, all nine members of the jury unanimously vote for Pia to be crowned the winner of ''Australian Survivor: Champions vs. Contenders II''.",
"\\|LineColor \\= FAE033\n}}\n}}",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Rudi Mackenzie and company stage a rescue of Mathilda Arminger, Odard Liu, and Ingolf Vogeler from High Seeker Kuttner. They come upon a group of [Mormon](/wiki/Mormon "Mormon") rebels, who join up with Rudi and reach the town of [Picabo](/wiki/Picabo%2C_Idaho "Picabo, Idaho"), now occupied by [Church Universal and Triumphant](/wiki/Church_Universal_and_Triumphant "Church Universal and Triumphant") (CUT). They attempt to infiltrate the town, but are discovered and chased out by Graber.
After recovering in the woods, the whole company is discovered by a group of [Buddhist monks](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") and they winter in their monastery. While at the monastery, Ignatius receives a vision from [Mary](/wiki/Mary_%28mother_of_Jesus%29 "Mary (mother of Jesus)") telling him to look after Mathilda.
As the group enters [Sioux](/wiki/Sioux "Sioux") territory, they are greeted by Sioux chief Red Leaf and his soldiers. Red Leaf gives the group sanctuary, but Major Graber catches up with them. The ranchers and the CUT are driven away after the two forces accidentally upset some lions. Rudi and his group stay with Red Leaf's tribe, but leave just before Graber returns with reinforcements. With the help of Red Leaf's son, they manage to get on the other side of a huge stream of migrating [buffalo](/wiki/American_bison "American bison"), thus losing Graber.
Rudi and company make it to Iowa and, thanks to Ingolf's connections with a local influential farmer, are able to make it to [Des Moines](/wiki/Des_Moines%2C_Iowa "Des Moines, Iowa"), where they hope to finance a trip into the eastern deathlands. The group is ambushed and captured by the [State Police](/wiki/Iowa_State_Patrol "Iowa State Patrol"). It appears that the Bossman of Iowa is angry with Ingolf for not completing a salvaging expedition he had paid for into the eastern Death zones. Rudi volunteers to retrieve the goods that were abandoned in [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois"). The Bossman agrees on the condition that Rudi must do it alone in one month.
Back in Oregon, the leaders of the Meeting march toward Pendleton to capture the Bossman of Pendleton and his family. With the help of a spy in the service of Sandra Arminger, the Rangers sneak into the city and get access to the Bossman's palace. Astrid captures the Bossman and his family, but Sethaz incites the crowd to attack the Rangers, who are forced to flee with only the Bossman. Tiphaine rescues them, but Astrid has been injured and has to cede command of the army to Tiphaine. Tiphaine attempts a fighting retreat in an effort to buy time for the infantry to escape.
Back home, the Mackenzies and Bearkillers mourn their dead.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Rudi Mackenzie and company stage a rescue of Mathilda Arminger, Odard Liu, and Ingolf Vogeler from High Seeker Kuttner. They come upon a group of [Mormon](/wiki/Mormon \"Mormon\") rebels, who join up with Rudi and reach the town of [Picabo](/wiki/Picabo%2C_Idaho \"Picabo, Idaho\"), now occupied by [Church Universal and Triumphant](/wiki/Church_Universal_and_Triumphant \"Church Universal and Triumphant\") (CUT). They attempt to infiltrate the town, but are discovered and chased out by Graber.",
"After recovering in the woods, the whole company is discovered by a group of [Buddhist monks](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\") and they winter in their monastery. While at the monastery, Ignatius receives a vision from [Mary](/wiki/Mary_%28mother_of_Jesus%29 \"Mary (mother of Jesus)\") telling him to look after Mathilda.",
"As the group enters [Sioux](/wiki/Sioux \"Sioux\") territory, they are greeted by Sioux chief Red Leaf and his soldiers. Red Leaf gives the group sanctuary, but Major Graber catches up with them. The ranchers and the CUT are driven away after the two forces accidentally upset some lions. Rudi and his group stay with Red Leaf's tribe, but leave just before Graber returns with reinforcements. With the help of Red Leaf's son, they manage to get on the other side of a huge stream of migrating [buffalo](/wiki/American_bison \"American bison\"), thus losing Graber.",
"Rudi and company make it to Iowa and, thanks to Ingolf's connections with a local influential farmer, are able to make it to [Des Moines](/wiki/Des_Moines%2C_Iowa \"Des Moines, Iowa\"), where they hope to finance a trip into the eastern deathlands. The group is ambushed and captured by the [State Police](/wiki/Iowa_State_Patrol \"Iowa State Patrol\"). It appears that the Bossman of Iowa is angry with Ingolf for not completing a salvaging expedition he had paid for into the eastern Death zones. Rudi volunteers to retrieve the goods that were abandoned in [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\"). The Bossman agrees on the condition that Rudi must do it alone in one month.",
"Back in Oregon, the leaders of the Meeting march toward Pendleton to capture the Bossman of Pendleton and his family. With the help of a spy in the service of Sandra Arminger, the Rangers sneak into the city and get access to the Bossman's palace. Astrid captures the Bossman and his family, but Sethaz incites the crowd to attack the Rangers, who are forced to flee with only the Bossman. Tiphaine rescues them, but Astrid has been injured and has to cede command of the army to Tiphaine. Tiphaine attempts a fighting retreat in an effort to buy time for the infantry to escape.",
"Back home, the Mackenzies and Bearkillers mourn their dead.",
""
] |
Generalizations
---------------
If it is considered as a type (1,1\) [tensor](/wiki/Tensor "Tensor"), the Kronecker tensor can be written \\delta^i\_j with a [covariant](/wiki/Covariance_and_contravariance_of_vectors "Covariance and contravariance of vectors") index j and [contravariant](/wiki/Covariance_and_contravariance_of_vectors "Covariance and contravariance of vectors") index i:
\\delta^{i}\_{j} \= \\begin{cases} 0 \& (i \\ne j), \\\\ 1 \& (i \= j). \\end{cases}
This tensor represents:
* The identity mapping (or identity matrix), considered as a [linear mapping](/wiki/Linear_mapping "Linear mapping") V\\to V or V^\*\\to V^\*
* The [trace](/wiki/Trace_%28linear_algebra%29 "Trace (linear algebra)") or [tensor contraction](/wiki/Tensor_contraction "Tensor contraction"), considered as a mapping V^\* \\otimes V\\to K
* The map K\\to V^\*\\otimes V, representing scalar multiplication as a sum of [outer products](/wiki/Outer_product "Outer product").
The **{{visible anchor\|generalized Kronecker delta}}** or **multi\-index Kronecker delta** of order 2p is a type (p,p) tensor that is completely [antisymmetric](/wiki/Antisymmetric_tensor "Antisymmetric tensor") in its p upper indices, and also in its p lower indices.
Two definitions that differ by a factor of p! are in use. Below, the version is presented has nonzero components scaled to be \\pm 1. The second version has nonzero components that are \\pm 1/p!, with consequent changes scaling factors in formulae, such as the scaling factors of 1/p! in *{{section link\|\|Properties of the generalized Kronecker delta}}* below disappearing.{{cite web\| url\=http://people.physics.tamu.edu/pope/geom\-group.pdf\| first\=Christopher\|last\=Pope\| date\=2008\| title\=Geometry and Group Theory}}
### Definitions of the generalized Kronecker delta
In terms of the indices, the generalized Kronecker delta is defined as:{{cite book\|first\=Theodore\|last\=Frankel\|title\=The Geometry of Physics: An Introduction\|edition\=3rd\|date\=2012\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=9781107602601}}{{cite book\|first\=D. C.\|last\=Agarwal\|title\=Tensor Calculus and Riemannian Geometry\|edition\=22nd\|date\=2007\|publisher\=Krishna Prakashan Media}}{{ISBN missing}}
\\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p }\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p} \= \\begin{cases}
\\phantom\-1 \& \\quad \\text{if } \\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p \\text{ are distinct integers and are an even permutation of } \\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p \\\\
\-1 \& \\quad \\text{if } \\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p \\text{ are distinct integers and are an odd permutation of } \\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p \\\\
\\phantom\-0 \& \\quad \\text{in all other cases}.
\\end{cases}
Let \\mathrm{S}\_p be the [symmetric group](/wiki/Symmetric_group "Symmetric group") of degree p, then:
\\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p}
\= \\sum\_{\\sigma \\in \\mathrm{S}\_p} \\sgn(\\sigma)\\, \\delta^{\\mu\_1}\_{\\nu\_{\\sigma(1\)}}\\cdots\\delta^{\\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_{\\sigma(p)}}
\= \\sum\_{\\sigma \\in \\mathrm{S}\_p} \\sgn(\\sigma)\\, \\delta^{\\mu\_{\\sigma(1\)}}\_{\\nu\_1}\\cdots\\delta^{\\mu\_{\\sigma(p)}}\_{\\nu\_p}.
Using [anti\-symmetrization](/wiki/Antisymmetric_tensor%23Notation "Antisymmetric tensor#Notation"):
\\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p}
\= p! \\delta^{\\mu\_1}\_{\[ \\nu\_1} \\dots \\delta^{\\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_p ]}
\= p! \\delta^{\[ \\mu\_1}\_{\\nu\_1} \\dots \\delta^{\\mu\_p ]}\_{\\nu\_p}.
In terms of a p\\times p [determinant](/wiki/Determinant "Determinant"):{{cite book \|first1\=David \|last1\=Lovelock \|first2\=Hanno \|last2\=Rund \|title\=Tensors, Differential Forms, and Variational Principles \|publisher\=Courier Dover Publications \|year\=1989 \|isbn\=0\-486\-65840\-6 }}
\\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p }\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p} \=
\\begin{vmatrix}
\\delta^{\\mu\_1}\_{\\nu\_1} \& \\cdots \& \\delta^{\\mu\_1}\_{\\nu\_p} \\\\
\\vdots \& \\ddots \& \\vdots \\\\
\\delta^{\\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_1} \& \\cdots \& \\delta^{\\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_p}
\\end{vmatrix}.
Using the [Laplace expansion](/wiki/Laplace_expansion "Laplace expansion") ([Laplace's formula](/wiki/Determinant%23Laplace%27s_expansion_and_the_adjugate_matrix "Determinant#Laplace's expansion and the adjugate matrix")) of determinant, it may be defined [recursively](/wiki/Recursion "Recursion"):A recursive definition requires a first case, which may be taken as {{math\|1\=''δ'' \= 1}} for {{math\|1\=''p'' \= 0}}, or alternatively {{math\|1\=''δ''{{su\|p\=''μ''\|b\=''ν''\|lh\=0\.9em}} \= ''δ''{{su\|p\=''μ''\|b\=''ν''\|lh\=0\.9em}}}} for {{math\|1\=''p'' \= 1}} (generalized delta in terms of standard delta).
\\begin{align}
```
\delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_p}_{\nu_1 \dots \nu_p}
&= \sum_{k=1}^p (-1)^{p+k} \delta^{\mu_p}_{\nu_k} \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_{k} \dots \check\mu_p}_{\nu_1 \dots \check\nu_k \dots \nu_p} \\
&= \delta^{\mu_p}_{\nu_p} \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_{p - 1}}_{\nu_1 \dots \nu_{p-1}} - \sum_{k=1}^{p-1} \delta^{\mu_p}_{\nu_k} \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_{k-1}\, \mu_k\, \mu_{k+1} \dots \mu_{p-1}}_{\nu_1 \dots \nu_{k-1}\, \nu_p\, \nu_{k+1} \dots \nu_{p-1}},
```
\\end{align}
where the caron, \\check{}, indicates an index that is omitted from the sequence.
When p\=n (the dimension of the vector space), in terms of the [Levi\-Civita symbol](/wiki/Levi-Civita_symbol "Levi-Civita symbol"):
\\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_n}\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_n} \= \\varepsilon^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_n}\\varepsilon\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_n}\\,.
More generally, for m\=n\-p, using the [Einstein summation convention](/wiki/Einstein_summation_convention "Einstein summation convention"):
\\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p} \= \\tfrac{1}{m!} \\varepsilon^{\\kappa\_1 \\dots \\kappa\_m \\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p}\\varepsilon\_{\\kappa\_1 \\dots \\kappa\_m \\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p}\\,.
### Contractions of the generalized Kronecker delta
Kronecker Delta contractions depend on the dimension of the space. For example,
\\delta^{\\nu\_1}\_{\\mu\_1} \\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\mu\_2}\_{\\nu\_1 \\nu\_2} \= (d\-1\) \\delta^{\\mu\_2}\_{\\nu\_2} ,
where {{mvar\|d}} is the dimension of the space. From this relation the full contracted delta is obtained as
\\delta^{\\nu\_1 \\nu\_2}\_{\\mu\_1 \\mu\_2} \\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\mu\_2}\_{\\nu\_1 \\nu\_2} \= 2d(d\-1\) .
The generalization of the preceding formulas is{{cn\|date\=January 2023}}
\\delta^{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_n}\_{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_n} \\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p} \= n! \\frac{(d\-p\+n)!}{(d\-p)!} \\delta^{\\mu\_{n\+1} \\dots \\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_{n\+1} \\dots \\nu\_p} .
### Properties of the generalized Kronecker delta
The generalized Kronecker delta may be used for [anti\-symmetrization](/wiki/Antisymmetric_tensor%23Notation "Antisymmetric tensor#Notation"):
\\begin{align}
```
\frac{1}{p!} \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_p}_{\nu_1 \dots \nu_p} a^{\nu_1 \dots \nu_p} &= a^{[ \mu_1 \dots \mu_p ]} , \\
\frac{1}{p!} \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_p}_{\nu_1 \dots \nu_p} a_{\mu_1 \dots \mu_p} &= a_{[ \nu_1 \dots \nu_p ]} . \end{align}
```
From the above equations and the properties of [anti\-symmetric tensors](/wiki/Anti-symmetric_tensor "Anti-symmetric tensor"), we can derive the properties of the generalized Kronecker delta:
\\begin{align}
```
\frac{1}{p!} \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_p}_{\nu_1 \dots \nu_p} a^{[ \nu_1 \dots \nu_p ]} &= a^{[ \mu_1 \dots \mu_p ]} , \\
\frac{1}{p!} \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_p}_{\nu_1 \dots \nu_p} a_{[ \mu_1 \dots \mu_p ]} &= a_{[ \nu_1 \dots \nu_p ]} , \\
\frac{1}{p!} \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_p}_{\nu_1 \dots \nu_p} \delta^{\nu_1 \dots \nu_p}_{\kappa_1 \dots \kappa_p} &= \delta^{\mu_1 \dots \mu_p}_{\kappa_1 \dots \kappa_p} ,
```
\\end{align}
which are the generalized version of formulae written in *{{section link\|\|Properties}}*. The last formula is equivalent to the [Cauchy–Binet formula](/wiki/Cauchy%E2%80%93Binet_formula "Cauchy–Binet formula").
Reducing the order via summation of the indices may be expressed by the identity{{cite book \|first\=Sadri \|last\=Hassani \|title\=Mathematical Methods: For Students of Physics and Related Fields \|edition\=2nd \|publisher\=Springer\-Verlag \|year\=2008 \|isbn\=978\-0\-387\-09503\-5 }}
\\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_s \\, \\mu\_{s\+1} \\dots \\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_s \\, \\mu\_{s\+1} \\dots \\mu\_p} \= \\frac{(n\-s)!}{(n\-p)!} \\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_s}\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_s}.
Using both the summation rule for the case p\=n and the relation with the Levi\-Civita symbol, [the summation rule of the Levi\-Civita symbol](/wiki/Levi-Civita_symbol%23n_dimensions "Levi-Civita symbol#n dimensions") is derived:
\\delta^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p}\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p} \= \\frac{1}{(n\-p)!}\\varepsilon^{\\mu\_1 \\dots \\mu\_p \\, \\kappa\_{p\+1} \\dots \\kappa\_n}\\varepsilon\_{\\nu\_1 \\dots \\nu\_p \\, \\kappa\_{p\+1} \\dots \\kappa\_n}.
The 4D version of the last relation appears in Penrose's [spinor approach to general relativity](/wiki/Mathematics_of_general_relativity%23Spinor_formalism "Mathematics of general relativity#Spinor formalism"){{Cite journal\|last\=Penrose\|first\=Roger\|date\=June 1960\|title\=A spinor approach to general relativity \|url\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/000349166090021X\|journal\=Annals of Physics\|language\=en\| volume\=10\|issue\=2 \|pages\=171–201\|doi\=10\.1016/0003\-4916(60\)90021\-X\|bibcode\=1960AnPhy..10\..171P}} that he later generalized, while he was developing Aitken's diagrams,{{Cite book\|last\=Aitken\|first\=Alexander Craig\|title\=Determinants and Matrices\|publisher\=Oliver and Boyd\|year\=1958\|location\=UK}} to become part of the technique of [Penrose graphical notation](/wiki/Penrose_graphical_notation "Penrose graphical notation").[Roger Penrose](/wiki/Roger_Penrose "Roger Penrose"), "Applications of negative dimensional tensors," in *Combinatorial Mathematics and its Applications*, Academic Press (1971\). Also, this relation is extensively used in [S\-duality](/wiki/S-duality "S-duality") theories, especially when written in the language of [differential forms](/wiki/Differential_form "Differential form") and [Hodge duals](/wiki/Hodge_star_operator%23Duality "Hodge star operator#Duality").
|
[
"Generalizations\n---------------",
"If it is considered as a type (1,1\\) [tensor](/wiki/Tensor \"Tensor\"), the Kronecker tensor can be written \\\\delta^i\\_j with a [covariant](/wiki/Covariance_and_contravariance_of_vectors \"Covariance and contravariance of vectors\") index j and [contravariant](/wiki/Covariance_and_contravariance_of_vectors \"Covariance and contravariance of vectors\") index i:\n\\\\delta^{i}\\_{j} \\= \\\\begin{cases} 0 \\& (i \\\\ne j), \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& (i \\= j). \\\\end{cases}",
"This tensor represents:\n* The identity mapping (or identity matrix), considered as a [linear mapping](/wiki/Linear_mapping \"Linear mapping\") V\\\\to V or V^\\*\\\\to V^\\*\n* The [trace](/wiki/Trace_%28linear_algebra%29 \"Trace (linear algebra)\") or [tensor contraction](/wiki/Tensor_contraction \"Tensor contraction\"), considered as a mapping V^\\* \\\\otimes V\\\\to K\n* The map K\\\\to V^\\*\\\\otimes V, representing scalar multiplication as a sum of [outer products](/wiki/Outer_product \"Outer product\").",
"The **{{visible anchor\\|generalized Kronecker delta}}** or **multi\\-index Kronecker delta** of order 2p is a type (p,p) tensor that is completely [antisymmetric](/wiki/Antisymmetric_tensor \"Antisymmetric tensor\") in its p upper indices, and also in its p lower indices.",
"Two definitions that differ by a factor of p! are in use. Below, the version is presented has nonzero components scaled to be \\\\pm 1. The second version has nonzero components that are \\\\pm 1/p!, with consequent changes scaling factors in formulae, such as the scaling factors of 1/p! in *{{section link\\|\\|Properties of the generalized Kronecker delta}}* below disappearing.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://people.physics.tamu.edu/pope/geom\\-group.pdf\\| first\\=Christopher\\|last\\=Pope\\| date\\=2008\\| title\\=Geometry and Group Theory}}",
"### Definitions of the generalized Kronecker delta",
"In terms of the indices, the generalized Kronecker delta is defined as:{{cite book\\|first\\=Theodore\\|last\\=Frankel\\|title\\=The Geometry of Physics: An Introduction\\|edition\\=3rd\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=9781107602601}}{{cite book\\|first\\=D. C.\\|last\\=Agarwal\\|title\\=Tensor Calculus and Riemannian Geometry\\|edition\\=22nd\\|date\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Krishna Prakashan Media}}{{ISBN missing}}\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p }\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p} \\= \\\\begin{cases}\n\\\\phantom\\-1 \\& \\\\quad \\\\text{if } \\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p \\\\text{ are distinct integers and are an even permutation of } \\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p \\\\\\\\\n\\-1 \\& \\\\quad \\\\text{if } \\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p \\\\text{ are distinct integers and are an odd permutation of } \\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p \\\\\\\\\n\\\\phantom\\-0 \\& \\\\quad \\\\text{in all other cases}.\n\\\\end{cases}",
"Let \\\\mathrm{S}\\_p be the [symmetric group](/wiki/Symmetric_group \"Symmetric group\") of degree p, then:\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p}\n\\= \\\\sum\\_{\\\\sigma \\\\in \\\\mathrm{S}\\_p} \\\\sgn(\\\\sigma)\\\\, \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1}\\_{\\\\nu\\_{\\\\sigma(1\\)}}\\\\cdots\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_{\\\\sigma(p)}}\n\\= \\\\sum\\_{\\\\sigma \\\\in \\\\mathrm{S}\\_p} \\\\sgn(\\\\sigma)\\\\, \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_{\\\\sigma(1\\)}}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1}\\\\cdots\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_{\\\\sigma(p)}}\\_{\\\\nu\\_p}.",
"Using [anti\\-symmetrization](/wiki/Antisymmetric_tensor%23Notation \"Antisymmetric tensor#Notation\"):\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p}\n\\= p! \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1}\\_{\\[ \\\\nu\\_1} \\\\dots \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_p ]}\n\\= p! \\\\delta^{\\[ \\\\mu\\_1}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1} \\\\dots \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_p ]}\\_{\\\\nu\\_p}.",
"In terms of a p\\\\times p [determinant](/wiki/Determinant \"Determinant\"):{{cite book \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Lovelock \\|first2\\=Hanno \\|last2\\=Rund \\|title\\=Tensors, Differential Forms, and Variational Principles \\|publisher\\=Courier Dover Publications \\|year\\=1989 \\|isbn\\=0\\-486\\-65840\\-6 }}\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p }\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p} \\=\n\\\\begin{vmatrix}\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1} \\& \\\\cdots \\& \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1}\\_{\\\\nu\\_p} \\\\\\\\\n\\\\vdots \\& \\\\ddots \\& \\\\vdots \\\\\\\\\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1} \\& \\\\cdots \\& \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_p}\n\\\\end{vmatrix}.",
"Using the [Laplace expansion](/wiki/Laplace_expansion \"Laplace expansion\") ([Laplace's formula](/wiki/Determinant%23Laplace%27s_expansion_and_the_adjugate_matrix \"Determinant#Laplace's expansion and the adjugate matrix\")) of determinant, it may be defined [recursively](/wiki/Recursion \"Recursion\"):A recursive definition requires a first case, which may be taken as {{math\\|1\\=''δ'' \\= 1}} for {{math\\|1\\=''p'' \\= 0}}, or alternatively {{math\\|1\\=''δ''{{su\\|p\\=''μ''\\|b\\=''ν''\\|lh\\=0\\.9em}} \\= ''δ''{{su\\|p\\=''μ''\\|b\\=''ν''\\|lh\\=0\\.9em}}}} for {{math\\|1\\=''p'' \\= 1}} (generalized delta in terms of standard delta).\n\\\\begin{align}",
"```\n \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p}\n &= \\sum_{k=1}^p (-1)^{p+k} \\delta^{\\mu_p}_{\\nu_k} \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_{k} \\dots \\check\\mu_p}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\check\\nu_k \\dots \\nu_p} \\\\\n &= \\delta^{\\mu_p}_{\\nu_p} \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_{p - 1}}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_{p-1}} - \\sum_{k=1}^{p-1} \\delta^{\\mu_p}_{\\nu_k} \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_{k-1}\\, \\mu_k\\, \\mu_{k+1} \\dots \\mu_{p-1}}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_{k-1}\\, \\nu_p\\, \\nu_{k+1} \\dots \\nu_{p-1}},",
"```\n\\\\end{align}\nwhere the caron, \\\\check{}, indicates an index that is omitted from the sequence.",
"When p\\=n (the dimension of the vector space), in terms of the [Levi\\-Civita symbol](/wiki/Levi-Civita_symbol \"Levi-Civita symbol\"):\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_n}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_n} \\= \\\\varepsilon^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_n}\\\\varepsilon\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_n}\\\\,.\nMore generally, for m\\=n\\-p, using the [Einstein summation convention](/wiki/Einstein_summation_convention \"Einstein summation convention\"):\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p} \\= \\\\tfrac{1}{m!} \\\\varepsilon^{\\\\kappa\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\kappa\\_m \\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p}\\\\varepsilon\\_{\\\\kappa\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\kappa\\_m \\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p}\\\\,.",
"### Contractions of the generalized Kronecker delta",
"Kronecker Delta contractions depend on the dimension of the space. For example,\n\\\\delta^{\\\\nu\\_1}\\_{\\\\mu\\_1} \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\mu\\_2}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\nu\\_2} \\= (d\\-1\\) \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_2}\\_{\\\\nu\\_2} ,\nwhere {{mvar\\|d}} is the dimension of the space. From this relation the full contracted delta is obtained as\n\\\\delta^{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\nu\\_2}\\_{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\mu\\_2} \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\mu\\_2}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\nu\\_2} \\= 2d(d\\-1\\) .\nThe generalization of the preceding formulas is{{cn\\|date\\=January 2023}}\n\\\\delta^{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_n}\\_{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_n} \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p} \\= n! \\\\frac{(d\\-p\\+n)!}{(d\\-p)!} \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_{n\\+1} \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_{n\\+1} \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p} .",
"### Properties of the generalized Kronecker delta",
"The generalized Kronecker delta may be used for [anti\\-symmetrization](/wiki/Antisymmetric_tensor%23Notation \"Antisymmetric tensor#Notation\"):\n\\\\begin{align}",
"```\n\\frac{1}{p!} \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p} a^{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p} &= a^{[ \\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p ]} , \\\\\n\\frac{1}{p!} \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p} a_{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p} &= a_{[ \\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p ]} . \\end{align}\n```",
"",
"From the above equations and the properties of [anti\\-symmetric tensors](/wiki/Anti-symmetric_tensor \"Anti-symmetric tensor\"), we can derive the properties of the generalized Kronecker delta:\n\\\\begin{align}",
"```\n\\frac{1}{p!} \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p} a^{[ \\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p ]} &= a^{[ \\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p ]} , \\\\\n\\frac{1}{p!} \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p} a_{[ \\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p ]} &= a_{[ \\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p ]} , \\\\\n\\frac{1}{p!} \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p}_{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p} \\delta^{\\nu_1 \\dots \\nu_p}_{\\kappa_1 \\dots \\kappa_p} &= \\delta^{\\mu_1 \\dots \\mu_p}_{\\kappa_1 \\dots \\kappa_p} ,",
"```\n\\\\end{align}\nwhich are the generalized version of formulae written in *{{section link\\|\\|Properties}}*. The last formula is equivalent to the [Cauchy–Binet formula](/wiki/Cauchy%E2%80%93Binet_formula \"Cauchy–Binet formula\").",
"Reducing the order via summation of the indices may be expressed by the identity{{cite book \\|first\\=Sadri \\|last\\=Hassani \\|title\\=Mathematical Methods: For Students of Physics and Related Fields \\|edition\\=2nd \\|publisher\\=Springer\\-Verlag \\|year\\=2008 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-387\\-09503\\-5 }}\n \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_s \\\\, \\\\mu\\_{s\\+1} \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_s \\\\, \\\\mu\\_{s\\+1} \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p} \\= \\\\frac{(n\\-s)!}{(n\\-p)!} \\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_s}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_s}.",
"Using both the summation rule for the case p\\=n and the relation with the Levi\\-Civita symbol, [the summation rule of the Levi\\-Civita symbol](/wiki/Levi-Civita_symbol%23n_dimensions \"Levi-Civita symbol#n dimensions\") is derived:\n\\\\delta^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p}\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p} \\= \\\\frac{1}{(n\\-p)!}\\\\varepsilon^{\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\mu\\_p \\\\, \\\\kappa\\_{p\\+1} \\\\dots \\\\kappa\\_n}\\\\varepsilon\\_{\\\\nu\\_1 \\\\dots \\\\nu\\_p \\\\, \\\\kappa\\_{p\\+1} \\\\dots \\\\kappa\\_n}.\nThe 4D version of the last relation appears in Penrose's [spinor approach to general relativity](/wiki/Mathematics_of_general_relativity%23Spinor_formalism \"Mathematics of general relativity#Spinor formalism\"){{Cite journal\\|last\\=Penrose\\|first\\=Roger\\|date\\=June 1960\\|title\\=A spinor approach to general relativity \\|url\\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/000349166090021X\\|journal\\=Annals of Physics\\|language\\=en\\| volume\\=10\\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=171–201\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0003\\-4916(60\\)90021\\-X\\|bibcode\\=1960AnPhy..10\\..171P}} that he later generalized, while he was developing Aitken's diagrams,{{Cite book\\|last\\=Aitken\\|first\\=Alexander Craig\\|title\\=Determinants and Matrices\\|publisher\\=Oliver and Boyd\\|year\\=1958\\|location\\=UK}} to become part of the technique of [Penrose graphical notation](/wiki/Penrose_graphical_notation \"Penrose graphical notation\").[Roger Penrose](/wiki/Roger_Penrose \"Roger Penrose\"), \"Applications of negative dimensional tensors,\" in *Combinatorial Mathematics and its Applications*, Academic Press (1971\\). Also, this relation is extensively used in [S\\-duality](/wiki/S-duality \"S-duality\") theories, especially when written in the language of [differential forms](/wiki/Differential_form \"Differential form\") and [Hodge duals](/wiki/Hodge_star_operator%23Duality \"Hodge star operator#Duality\").",
""
] |
History
-------
### Establishment as Gwanghyewon
In 1885, during the [Gapsin Coup](/wiki/Gapsin_Coup "Gapsin Coup"), Min Young\-ik, the nephew of [Empress Myeongseong](/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong "Empress Myeongseong") (wife of [Emperor Gojong](/wiki/Gojong_of_the_Korean_Empire "Gojong of the Korean Empire")), was stabbed and seriously injured. The German diplomat [Paul Georg von Möllendorff](/wiki/Paul_Georg_von_M%C3%B6llendorff "Paul Georg von Möllendorff") was present at the massacre and quickly requested medical care from American Dr. [Horace Newton Allen](/wiki/Horace_Newton_Allen "Horace Newton Allen"), a missionary who had recently arrived. Allen was an American [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian "Presbyterian") [missionary](/wiki/Christianity_in_Korea "Christianity in Korea") who studied medicine at [Miami University](/wiki/Miami_University "Miami University"). Under his modern medical treatment, unknown to Korea at the time, Min recovered in three months.
Thereafter, Gojong displayed an interest in Western medicine, leading to the appointment of Allen as his personal court physician. Together, they established *Gwanghyewon* ({{ko\-hhrm\|광혜원\|廣惠院\|labels\=no}}; lit. "House of Extended Grace" or "Widespread Relief House"), [Joseon](/wiki/Joseon "Joseon")'s first Western hospital, on 29 February 1885\.{{cite web\|last\=Kim\|first\=Jong\-rok\|title\=The home of modern medicine in Korea\|url\=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid\=2935264\|work\=\[\[Korea JoongAng Daily]]\|accessdate\=2013\-08\-31\|date\=25 April 2011}} The hospital was located in [Jae\-dong](/wiki/Jae-dong "Jae-dong"), [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul "Seoul").
### Renamed as Chejungwon
On 12 March 1885, Gojong renamed Gwanghyewon as *Chejungwon* ({{ko\-hhrm\|제중원\|濟衆院\|labels\=no}}; lit. "House of Universal Helpfulness"). In March 1886, sixteen men were selected as Chejungwon's first class of students to study Western medicine. Twelve of the sixteen students successfully became doctors.
### Renamed as Severance Hospital
In 1893, [Oliver R. Avison](/wiki/Oliver_R._Avison "Oliver R. Avison"), a professor of the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto "University of Toronto"), became the fourth hospital director of Chejungwon. In 1900, while on furlough in North America, Avison was invited to speak at a conference of missions in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). Among the audience was [Louis Severance](/wiki/Louis_Severance "Louis Severance"), an American businessman and philanthropist from [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland") who was connected to Standard Oil.
Severance donated a large sum of money ({{USD\|45\.000}}) to Chejungwon, with which a new hospital was built in front of [Sungnyemun](/wiki/Namdaemun "Namdaemun"). Chejungwon subsequently changed its name to "Severance Hospital" on 3 September 1904\. In the same year, the hospital added the Severance Hospital Medical School and the attached School of Nursing. After Severance's death, his son, John Severance, donated an additional {{USD\|120,000}} to the hospital. Severance Hospital became one of the best\-equipped and most well\-known hospitals in Asia.{{cite web\|last\=Phillips\|first\=Douglas G.\|title\=Avison of Korea\|url\=http://home.cogeco.ca/\~dgphillips/Avison.htm\|work\=Cogeco\|accessdate\=2013\-08\-31\|date\=29 November 2000\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523213826/http://home.cogeco.ca/\~dgphillips/Avison.htm\#\|archive\-date\=23 May 2012\|url\-status\=dead}}
The first seven medical licenses in Korean history were awarded to graduates of Severance Hospital Medical School on 3 June 1908: Hong Jong\-eun, Kim Pil\-soon, Hong Seok\-hoo, [Park Seo\-yang](/wiki/Park_Seo-yang "Park Seo-yang"), Kim Hui\-yeong, Ju Hyun\-cheuk and Shin Chang\-hee. All seven doctors later became important figures in the construction of modern Korea.
In 1942 during [Japanese colonial rule](/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule "Korea under Japanese rule"), the Japanese renamed the hospital and medical school as "Asahi Medical School." When Korea regained independence in 1945, the hospital officially reclaimed its name as Severance Hospital. The medical school was upgraded to "Severance Medical College" in 1947\.
On 5 January 1957, the Severance Medical College was united with Yonhee University under the name of [Yonsei University](/wiki/Yonsei_University "Yonsei University"). The [Severance Hospital](/wiki/Severance_Hospital_%28Yonsei_University_Medical_Center%29 "Severance Hospital (Yonsei University Medical Center)") is currently part of the Yonsei University Health System and affiliated with the Yonsei University College of Medicine.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Establishment as Gwanghyewon",
"In 1885, during the [Gapsin Coup](/wiki/Gapsin_Coup \"Gapsin Coup\"), Min Young\\-ik, the nephew of [Empress Myeongseong](/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong \"Empress Myeongseong\") (wife of [Emperor Gojong](/wiki/Gojong_of_the_Korean_Empire \"Gojong of the Korean Empire\")), was stabbed and seriously injured. The German diplomat [Paul Georg von Möllendorff](/wiki/Paul_Georg_von_M%C3%B6llendorff \"Paul Georg von Möllendorff\") was present at the massacre and quickly requested medical care from American Dr. [Horace Newton Allen](/wiki/Horace_Newton_Allen \"Horace Newton Allen\"), a missionary who had recently arrived. Allen was an American [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian \"Presbyterian\") [missionary](/wiki/Christianity_in_Korea \"Christianity in Korea\") who studied medicine at [Miami University](/wiki/Miami_University \"Miami University\"). Under his modern medical treatment, unknown to Korea at the time, Min recovered in three months.",
"Thereafter, Gojong displayed an interest in Western medicine, leading to the appointment of Allen as his personal court physician. Together, they established *Gwanghyewon* ({{ko\\-hhrm\\|광혜원\\|廣惠院\\|labels\\=no}}; lit. \"House of Extended Grace\" or \"Widespread Relief House\"), [Joseon](/wiki/Joseon \"Joseon\")'s first Western hospital, on 29 February 1885\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Kim\\|first\\=Jong\\-rok\\|title\\=The home of modern medicine in Korea\\|url\\=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid\\=2935264\\|work\\=\\[\\[Korea JoongAng Daily]]\\|accessdate\\=2013\\-08\\-31\\|date\\=25 April 2011}} The hospital was located in [Jae\\-dong](/wiki/Jae-dong \"Jae-dong\"), [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\").",
"### Renamed as Chejungwon",
"On 12 March 1885, Gojong renamed Gwanghyewon as *Chejungwon* ({{ko\\-hhrm\\|제중원\\|濟衆院\\|labels\\=no}}; lit. \"House of Universal Helpfulness\"). In March 1886, sixteen men were selected as Chejungwon's first class of students to study Western medicine. Twelve of the sixteen students successfully became doctors.",
"### Renamed as Severance Hospital",
"In 1893, [Oliver R. Avison](/wiki/Oliver_R._Avison \"Oliver R. Avison\"), a professor of the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\"), became the fourth hospital director of Chejungwon. In 1900, while on furlough in North America, Avison was invited to speak at a conference of missions in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). Among the audience was [Louis Severance](/wiki/Louis_Severance \"Louis Severance\"), an American businessman and philanthropist from [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\") who was connected to Standard Oil.",
"Severance donated a large sum of money ({{USD\\|45\\.000}}) to Chejungwon, with which a new hospital was built in front of [Sungnyemun](/wiki/Namdaemun \"Namdaemun\"). Chejungwon subsequently changed its name to \"Severance Hospital\" on 3 September 1904\\. In the same year, the hospital added the Severance Hospital Medical School and the attached School of Nursing. After Severance's death, his son, John Severance, donated an additional {{USD\\|120,000}} to the hospital. Severance Hospital became one of the best\\-equipped and most well\\-known hospitals in Asia.{{cite web\\|last\\=Phillips\\|first\\=Douglas G.\\|title\\=Avison of Korea\\|url\\=http://home.cogeco.ca/\\~dgphillips/Avison.htm\\|work\\=Cogeco\\|accessdate\\=2013\\-08\\-31\\|date\\=29 November 2000\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523213826/http://home.cogeco.ca/\\~dgphillips/Avison.htm\\#\\|archive\\-date\\=23 May 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The first seven medical licenses in Korean history were awarded to graduates of Severance Hospital Medical School on 3 June 1908: Hong Jong\\-eun, Kim Pil\\-soon, Hong Seok\\-hoo, [Park Seo\\-yang](/wiki/Park_Seo-yang \"Park Seo-yang\"), Kim Hui\\-yeong, Ju Hyun\\-cheuk and Shin Chang\\-hee. All seven doctors later became important figures in the construction of modern Korea.",
"In 1942 during [Japanese colonial rule](/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule \"Korea under Japanese rule\"), the Japanese renamed the hospital and medical school as \"Asahi Medical School.\" When Korea regained independence in 1945, the hospital officially reclaimed its name as Severance Hospital. The medical school was upgraded to \"Severance Medical College\" in 1947\\.",
"On 5 January 1957, the Severance Medical College was united with Yonhee University under the name of [Yonsei University](/wiki/Yonsei_University \"Yonsei University\"). The [Severance Hospital](/wiki/Severance_Hospital_%28Yonsei_University_Medical_Center%29 \"Severance Hospital (Yonsei University Medical Center)\") is currently part of the Yonsei University Health System and affiliated with the Yonsei University College of Medicine.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Conrad (Koert) W. Baars was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands on January 2, 1919\. He was the second of six children.Baars, Suzanne and Bonnie Shayne. [History of Conrad (Koert) W. Baars](http://www.conradbaars.com/history.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129163439/http://www.conradbaars.com/history.htm \|date\=2006\-01\-29 }}. *Conrad Baars*. Retrieved January 15, 2006\.
He began his studies in Chemical Engineering at the University of Amsterdam. Later, he decided to study medicine. During World War II, the Nazis bombed Rotterdam. The Dutch could no longer be neutral in the war; Baars was forced to flee the country. He joined the French underground resistance. During an organized escape to Spain over the Pyrenees mountains, his group got lost in a sudden snowstorm. Later, they were captured by the Nazis.
After being questioned by the Gestapo, Baars was sent to a concentration camp north of Paris. In the winter of 1943, he was transferred to the [Buchenwald Concentration Camp](/wiki/Buchenwald "Buchenwald"). Because he was a medical student, he was put in charge of nursing the sick. Despite having better living conditions because of his position, he lost several teeth and suffered from a weakened heart due to [malnutrition](/wiki/Malnutrition "Malnutrition"). He was freed on April 11, 1945; the day the American army arrived.
In 1946, Baars came to the United States on a student visa. He was an intern at a hospital in Mount Vernon, New York. Later, he moved to Chicago, Illinois, to complete a residency program. There, he met his wife, Mary Jean Kennedy. Because of their marriage, Conrad Baars was able to apply for citizenship. His citizenship was granted on January 15, 1951\.
After his marriage, Baars went into a residency program for psychiatry at the Minneapolis General Hospital in Minnesota. He grew disillusioned with the current practice of psychotherapy (psychoanalysis) and considered leaving the profession. But, he encountered the works of [Anna Terruwe](/wiki/Anna_Terruwe "Anna Terruwe"). He was impressed by her practice of integrating psychology with spirituality. Eventually, he and Terruwe collaborated. They developed a model of practicing psychiatry based on the [mediæval](/wiki/Medi%C3%A6val "Mediæval") theologian [Thomas Aquinas](/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas "Thomas Aquinas").
Conrad Baars held a private practice in San Antonio, Texas. He also wrote books on his ideas and lectured around the country in hopes of reforming the practice of psychiatry. He died on October 18, 1981\. His daughter [Suzanne Baars](/wiki/Suzanne_Baars "Suzanne Baars") carries on his work.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Conrad (Koert) W. Baars was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands on January 2, 1919\\. He was the second of six children.Baars, Suzanne and Bonnie Shayne. [History of Conrad (Koert) W. Baars](http://www.conradbaars.com/history.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129163439/http://www.conradbaars.com/history.htm \\|date\\=2006\\-01\\-29 }}. *Conrad Baars*. Retrieved January 15, 2006\\.",
"He began his studies in Chemical Engineering at the University of Amsterdam. Later, he decided to study medicine. During World War II, the Nazis bombed Rotterdam. The Dutch could no longer be neutral in the war; Baars was forced to flee the country. He joined the French underground resistance. During an organized escape to Spain over the Pyrenees mountains, his group got lost in a sudden snowstorm. Later, they were captured by the Nazis.",
"After being questioned by the Gestapo, Baars was sent to a concentration camp north of Paris. In the winter of 1943, he was transferred to the [Buchenwald Concentration Camp](/wiki/Buchenwald \"Buchenwald\"). Because he was a medical student, he was put in charge of nursing the sick. Despite having better living conditions because of his position, he lost several teeth and suffered from a weakened heart due to [malnutrition](/wiki/Malnutrition \"Malnutrition\"). He was freed on April 11, 1945; the day the American army arrived.",
"In 1946, Baars came to the United States on a student visa. He was an intern at a hospital in Mount Vernon, New York. Later, he moved to Chicago, Illinois, to complete a residency program. There, he met his wife, Mary Jean Kennedy. Because of their marriage, Conrad Baars was able to apply for citizenship. His citizenship was granted on January 15, 1951\\.",
"After his marriage, Baars went into a residency program for psychiatry at the Minneapolis General Hospital in Minnesota. He grew disillusioned with the current practice of psychotherapy (psychoanalysis) and considered leaving the profession. But, he encountered the works of [Anna Terruwe](/wiki/Anna_Terruwe \"Anna Terruwe\"). He was impressed by her practice of integrating psychology with spirituality. Eventually, he and Terruwe collaborated. They developed a model of practicing psychiatry based on the [mediæval](/wiki/Medi%C3%A6val \"Mediæval\") theologian [Thomas Aquinas](/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas \"Thomas Aquinas\").",
"Conrad Baars held a private practice in San Antonio, Texas. He also wrote books on his ideas and lectured around the country in hopes of reforming the practice of psychiatry. He died on October 18, 1981\\. His daughter [Suzanne Baars](/wiki/Suzanne_Baars \"Suzanne Baars\") carries on his work.",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
Scarlatti was born in [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples"), Kingdom of Naples, belonging to the [Spanish Crown](/wiki/Spanish_Crown "Spanish Crown"). He was born in 1685, the same year as [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach") and [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel"). He was the sixth of ten children of the composer and teacher [Alessandro Scarlatti](/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti "Alessandro Scarlatti"). His older brother [Pietro Filippo](/wiki/Pietro_Filippo_Scarlatti "Pietro Filippo Scarlatti") was also a musician.
Scarlatti first studied music under his father.{{cite web \|title\=Domenico Scarlatti \|url\=http://www.arkivmusic.com/classical/Name/Domenico\-Scarlatti/Composer/10743\-1 \|website\=ArkivMusic: the source for classical music \|access\-date\=2 October 2018 \|archive\-date\=27 October 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027063015/http://www.arkivmusic.com/classical/Name/Domenico\-Scarlatti/Composer/10743\-1 \|url\-status\=dead }} Other composers who may have been his early teachers include [Gaetano Greco](/wiki/Gaetano_Greco "Gaetano Greco"), [Francesco Gasparini](/wiki/Francesco_Gasparini "Francesco Gasparini"), and [Bernardo Pasquini](/wiki/Bernardo_Pasquini "Bernardo Pasquini"), all of whom may have influenced his musical style.
Scarlatti was appointed as a composer and [organist](/wiki/Organist "Organist") at the [Chapel Royal of Naples](/wiki/Chapel_Royal_of_Naples "Chapel Royal of Naples") in 1701 and briefly worked under his father, who was then the chapel's *maestro di cappella*. In 1703 he revised [Carlo Francesco Pollarolo](/wiki/Carlo_Francesco_Pollarolo "Carlo Francesco Pollarolo")'s opera *Irene* for performance at Naples. Soon after, his father sent him to [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice"). After this, nothing is known of his life until 1709, when he went to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") and entered the service of the exiled Polish queen [Marie Casimire](/wiki/Marie_Casimire_Louise_de_La_Grange_d%27Arquien "Marie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien"). It was there he met [Thomas Roseingrave](/wiki/Thomas_Roseingrave "Thomas Roseingrave"). Scarlatti was already an accomplished [harpsichordist](/wiki/Harpsichord "Harpsichord"); there is a story of a trial of skill with [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel") at the palace of [Cardinal Ottoboni](/wiki/Pietro_Ottoboni_%28cardinal%29 "Pietro Ottoboni (cardinal)") in Rome, where Scarlatti was judged possibly superior to Handel on the [harpsichord](/wiki/Harpsichord "Harpsichord"), although inferior on the [organ](/wiki/Organ_%28music%29 "Organ (music)"). Later in life, he was known to [cross himself](/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross "Sign of the cross") in veneration when speaking of Handel's skill.Boyd, Malcolm. *Domenico Scarlatti: Master of Music* (1986\)
While in Rome, Scarlatti composed several operas for Queen Casimir's private theatre. He was *Maestro di Cappella* at St. Peter's from 1715 to 1719\. In 1719 he travelled to London to direct his opera *[Narciso](/wiki/Amor_d%27un%27ombra_e_gelosia_d%27un%27aura "Amor d'un'ombra e gelosia d'un'aura")* at the [King's Theatre](/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Theatre "Her Majesty's Theatre").
According to Vicente Bicchi, [Papal Nuncio](/wiki/Nuncio "Nuncio") in Portugal at the time, Scarlatti arrived in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") on 29 November 1719\. There he taught music to the Portuguese princess [Maria Magdalena Barbara](/wiki/Barbara_of_Portugal "Barbara of Portugal"). He left Lisbon on 28 January 1727 for Rome, where he married Maria Caterina Gentili on 6 May 1728\. In 1729 he moved to [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville"), staying for four years. In 1733, he went to Madrid as a music master to Princess Maria Barbara, who had married into the Spanish royal house. She later became Queen of Spain. Scarlatti remained in Spain for the remaining 25 years of his life and had five children there. After his wife died in 1739, he married a Spaniard, Anastasia Maxarti Ximenes. Among his compositions during his time in Madrid were most of the 555 keyboard sonatas for which he is best known.
Scarlatti befriended the [castrato](/wiki/Castrato "Castrato") singer [Farinelli](/wiki/Farinelli "Farinelli"), a fellow Neapolitan also enjoying royal patronage in Madrid. Musicologist and harpsichordist [Ralph Kirkpatrick](/wiki/Ralph_Kirkpatrick "Ralph Kirkpatrick"), who published a biography of Scarlatti in 1953, commented that Farinelli's correspondence provides "most of the direct information about Scarlatti that has transmitted itself to our day".
Scarlatti died in Madrid at the age of 71\. His residence at 35 Calle de Leganitos is designated with a historical plaque, and his descendants still live in Madrid. He was buried at a convent there, but his grave no longer exists.
Minor planet [6480 Scarlatti](/wiki/6480_Scarlatti "6480 Scarlatti") is named in his honour.\|{{cite book\|publisher\=Springer \|date\=2003 \|isbn\=978\-3\-540\-29925\-7 \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-540\-29925\-7\_5896 \|chapter\=(6479\) Leoconnolly \|title\=Dictionary of Minor Planet Names \|page\=536 }}
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"Scarlatti was born in [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\"), Kingdom of Naples, belonging to the [Spanish Crown](/wiki/Spanish_Crown \"Spanish Crown\"). He was born in 1685, the same year as [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\") and [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\"). He was the sixth of ten children of the composer and teacher [Alessandro Scarlatti](/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti \"Alessandro Scarlatti\"). His older brother [Pietro Filippo](/wiki/Pietro_Filippo_Scarlatti \"Pietro Filippo Scarlatti\") was also a musician.",
"Scarlatti first studied music under his father.{{cite web \\|title\\=Domenico Scarlatti \\|url\\=http://www.arkivmusic.com/classical/Name/Domenico\\-Scarlatti/Composer/10743\\-1 \\|website\\=ArkivMusic: the source for classical music \\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027063015/http://www.arkivmusic.com/classical/Name/Domenico\\-Scarlatti/Composer/10743\\-1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Other composers who may have been his early teachers include [Gaetano Greco](/wiki/Gaetano_Greco \"Gaetano Greco\"), [Francesco Gasparini](/wiki/Francesco_Gasparini \"Francesco Gasparini\"), and [Bernardo Pasquini](/wiki/Bernardo_Pasquini \"Bernardo Pasquini\"), all of whom may have influenced his musical style.",
"Scarlatti was appointed as a composer and [organist](/wiki/Organist \"Organist\") at the [Chapel Royal of Naples](/wiki/Chapel_Royal_of_Naples \"Chapel Royal of Naples\") in 1701 and briefly worked under his father, who was then the chapel's *maestro di cappella*. In 1703 he revised [Carlo Francesco Pollarolo](/wiki/Carlo_Francesco_Pollarolo \"Carlo Francesco Pollarolo\")'s opera *Irene* for performance at Naples. Soon after, his father sent him to [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\"). After this, nothing is known of his life until 1709, when he went to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") and entered the service of the exiled Polish queen [Marie Casimire](/wiki/Marie_Casimire_Louise_de_La_Grange_d%27Arquien \"Marie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien\"). It was there he met [Thomas Roseingrave](/wiki/Thomas_Roseingrave \"Thomas Roseingrave\"). Scarlatti was already an accomplished [harpsichordist](/wiki/Harpsichord \"Harpsichord\"); there is a story of a trial of skill with [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\") at the palace of [Cardinal Ottoboni](/wiki/Pietro_Ottoboni_%28cardinal%29 \"Pietro Ottoboni (cardinal)\") in Rome, where Scarlatti was judged possibly superior to Handel on the [harpsichord](/wiki/Harpsichord \"Harpsichord\"), although inferior on the [organ](/wiki/Organ_%28music%29 \"Organ (music)\"). Later in life, he was known to [cross himself](/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross \"Sign of the cross\") in veneration when speaking of Handel's skill.Boyd, Malcolm. *Domenico Scarlatti: Master of Music* (1986\\)",
"While in Rome, Scarlatti composed several operas for Queen Casimir's private theatre. He was *Maestro di Cappella* at St. Peter's from 1715 to 1719\\. In 1719 he travelled to London to direct his opera *[Narciso](/wiki/Amor_d%27un%27ombra_e_gelosia_d%27un%27aura \"Amor d'un'ombra e gelosia d'un'aura\")* at the [King's Theatre](/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Theatre \"Her Majesty's Theatre\").",
"According to Vicente Bicchi, [Papal Nuncio](/wiki/Nuncio \"Nuncio\") in Portugal at the time, Scarlatti arrived in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") on 29 November 1719\\. There he taught music to the Portuguese princess [Maria Magdalena Barbara](/wiki/Barbara_of_Portugal \"Barbara of Portugal\"). He left Lisbon on 28 January 1727 for Rome, where he married Maria Caterina Gentili on 6 May 1728\\. In 1729 he moved to [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\"), staying for four years. In 1733, he went to Madrid as a music master to Princess Maria Barbara, who had married into the Spanish royal house. She later became Queen of Spain. Scarlatti remained in Spain for the remaining 25 years of his life and had five children there. After his wife died in 1739, he married a Spaniard, Anastasia Maxarti Ximenes. Among his compositions during his time in Madrid were most of the 555 keyboard sonatas for which he is best known.",
"Scarlatti befriended the [castrato](/wiki/Castrato \"Castrato\") singer [Farinelli](/wiki/Farinelli \"Farinelli\"), a fellow Neapolitan also enjoying royal patronage in Madrid. Musicologist and harpsichordist [Ralph Kirkpatrick](/wiki/Ralph_Kirkpatrick \"Ralph Kirkpatrick\"), who published a biography of Scarlatti in 1953, commented that Farinelli's correspondence provides \"most of the direct information about Scarlatti that has transmitted itself to our day\".",
"Scarlatti died in Madrid at the age of 71\\. His residence at 35 Calle de Leganitos is designated with a historical plaque, and his descendants still live in Madrid. He was buried at a convent there, but his grave no longer exists.",
"Minor planet [6480 Scarlatti](/wiki/6480_Scarlatti \"6480 Scarlatti\") is named in his honour.\\|{{cite book\\|publisher\\=Springer \\|date\\=2003 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-540\\-29925\\-7 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-540\\-29925\\-7\\_5896 \\|chapter\\=(6479\\) Leoconnolly \\|title\\=Dictionary of Minor Planet Names \\|page\\=536 }}",
""
] |
Regular season
--------------
After a 3–6–1 start to the season, including a shutout loss to Ottawa on February 6, Clarke dealt high\-scoring winger [Mark Recchi](/wiki/Mark_Recchi "Mark Recchi") to the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens "Montreal Canadiens") for [Eric Desjardins](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Desjardins "Éric Desjardins"), [Gilbert Dionne](/wiki/Gilbert_Dionne "Gilbert Dionne") and [John LeClair](/wiki/John_LeClair "John LeClair"). In the following game, at home against Florida, the team lost 3–0, but Lindros and LeClair was placed on a line with sophomore forward [Mikael Renberg](/wiki/Mikael_Renberg "Mikael Renberg") to form the "[Legion of Doom](/wiki/Legion_of_Doom_%28ice_hockey%29 "Legion of Doom (ice hockey)")" line, a mix of scoring talent and physical intimidation. The line registered its first point on Saturday, February 11, 1995, in a game against the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils "New Jersey Devils") at the [Meadowlands](/wiki/Meadowlands_Sports_Complex "Meadowlands Sports Complex"). The line made an immediate impact, as it helped the Flyers defeat the Devils 3–1\.
Less than two weeks later, on Thursday, February 23, Lindros recorded a hat trick in what would be his final game in Quebec City against the [Nordiques](/wiki/Quebec_Nordiques "Quebec Nordiques"), but the Flyers wasted a three\-goal lead into a 6–6 tie. Two nights later in Montreal, LeClair blitzed his former club in his return with a [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick") in a 7–0 rout which saw the Flyers score five times in the third period. LeClair's previous hat trick had come just 11 days earlier in a 5–2 Flyers' win at Tampa Bay. Lindros recorded two more hat tricks during the regular season, and both came in consecutive games; his second one on March 18 in a 4–3 Flyers' overtime win in Florida, and the third on March 20 in an 8–4 Flyers' win over the Montreal Canadiens. [Josef Beranek](/wiki/Josef_Beranek "Josef Beranek") had the other Flyers' regular\-season hat trick in a 5–4 overtime loss to the New York Islanders on February 2\.
During the season, the Flyers had two long winning streaks: one was eight games from March 5–20, the other was nine games from April 2–22\. The final contest in that streak, on April 22 at New Jersey, saw LeClair net the overtime winner which clinched the Atlantic Division. Even though it was scored 54 seconds into the overtime period, it would prove to be the fastest overtime goal scored in the lockout\-shortened regular season.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hockey\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\_1995\_games.html\|title\=1994\-95 NHL Schedule and Results}}
The end of the season saw Lindros go down with an eye injury in the penultimate game against the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers "New York Rangers"), as a shot he took ricocheted off Rangers defenseman [Jeff Beukeboom](/wiki/Jeff_Beukeboom "Jeff Beukeboom") and struck him in the face.
The playoff drought was finally over as the Flyers won their first division title in eight years and clinched the No.2 seed in the Eastern Conference.
Lindros, who scored 70 points, came in second to [Jaromir Jagr](/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_J%C3%A1gr "Jaromír Jágr") by a tiebreaker in the race for the [Art Ross Trophy](/wiki/Art_Ross_Trophy "Art Ross Trophy"), the NHL scoring championship, but was awarded the [Hart Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Hart_Memorial_Trophy "Hart Memorial Trophy") as the league's MVP.
### Season standings
{{1994–95 NHL Atlantic Division standings\|team\=PHI}}
{{1994–95 NHL Eastern Conference standings\|team\=PHI}}
|
[
"Regular season\n--------------",
"After a 3–6–1 start to the season, including a shutout loss to Ottawa on February 6, Clarke dealt high\\-scoring winger [Mark Recchi](/wiki/Mark_Recchi \"Mark Recchi\") to the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens \"Montreal Canadiens\") for [Eric Desjardins](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Desjardins \"Éric Desjardins\"), [Gilbert Dionne](/wiki/Gilbert_Dionne \"Gilbert Dionne\") and [John LeClair](/wiki/John_LeClair \"John LeClair\"). In the following game, at home against Florida, the team lost 3–0, but Lindros and LeClair was placed on a line with sophomore forward [Mikael Renberg](/wiki/Mikael_Renberg \"Mikael Renberg\") to form the \"[Legion of Doom](/wiki/Legion_of_Doom_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Legion of Doom (ice hockey)\")\" line, a mix of scoring talent and physical intimidation. The line registered its first point on Saturday, February 11, 1995, in a game against the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils \"New Jersey Devils\") at the [Meadowlands](/wiki/Meadowlands_Sports_Complex \"Meadowlands Sports Complex\"). The line made an immediate impact, as it helped the Flyers defeat the Devils 3–1\\.",
"Less than two weeks later, on Thursday, February 23, Lindros recorded a hat trick in what would be his final game in Quebec City against the [Nordiques](/wiki/Quebec_Nordiques \"Quebec Nordiques\"), but the Flyers wasted a three\\-goal lead into a 6–6 tie. Two nights later in Montreal, LeClair blitzed his former club in his return with a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") in a 7–0 rout which saw the Flyers score five times in the third period. LeClair's previous hat trick had come just 11 days earlier in a 5–2 Flyers' win at Tampa Bay. Lindros recorded two more hat tricks during the regular season, and both came in consecutive games; his second one on March 18 in a 4–3 Flyers' overtime win in Florida, and the third on March 20 in an 8–4 Flyers' win over the Montreal Canadiens. [Josef Beranek](/wiki/Josef_Beranek \"Josef Beranek\") had the other Flyers' regular\\-season hat trick in a 5–4 overtime loss to the New York Islanders on February 2\\.",
"During the season, the Flyers had two long winning streaks: one was eight games from March 5–20, the other was nine games from April 2–22\\. The final contest in that streak, on April 22 at New Jersey, saw LeClair net the overtime winner which clinched the Atlantic Division. Even though it was scored 54 seconds into the overtime period, it would prove to be the fastest overtime goal scored in the lockout\\-shortened regular season.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hockey\\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\\_1995\\_games.html\\|title\\=1994\\-95 NHL Schedule and Results}}",
"The end of the season saw Lindros go down with an eye injury in the penultimate game against the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers \"New York Rangers\"), as a shot he took ricocheted off Rangers defenseman [Jeff Beukeboom](/wiki/Jeff_Beukeboom \"Jeff Beukeboom\") and struck him in the face.",
"The playoff drought was finally over as the Flyers won their first division title in eight years and clinched the No.2 seed in the Eastern Conference.",
"Lindros, who scored 70 points, came in second to [Jaromir Jagr](/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_J%C3%A1gr \"Jaromír Jágr\") by a tiebreaker in the race for the [Art Ross Trophy](/wiki/Art_Ross_Trophy \"Art Ross Trophy\"), the NHL scoring championship, but was awarded the [Hart Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Hart_Memorial_Trophy \"Hart Memorial Trophy\") as the league's MVP.",
"### Season standings",
"{{1994–95 NHL Atlantic Division standings\\|team\\=PHI}}\n{{1994–95 NHL Eastern Conference standings\\|team\\=PHI}}",
""
] |
Playoffs
--------
Lindros missed the first three games of the Flyers' [Eastern Conference](/wiki/Eastern_Conference_%28NHL%29 "Eastern Conference (NHL)") quarterfinal series against the [Buffalo Sabres](/wiki/Buffalo_Sabres "Buffalo Sabres"). [Karl Dykhuis](/wiki/Karl_Dykhuis "Karl Dykhuis") netted the overtime winner in Game 1 and the club took a 2–0 series lead on the road. Following a narrow Game 3 defeat at [The Aud](/wiki/Buffalo_Memorial_Auditorium "Buffalo Memorial Auditorium"), Lindros returned and the reunited Legion led the club to a 4–2 win. In Game 5, Philly rolled to leads of 4–0 and 5–2 before closing with a 6–4 victory.
More overtime magic came in the semifinal series with the defending [Stanley Cup](/wiki/Stanley_Cup "Stanley Cup") champion Rangers, who upset the Nordiques in the first round. Game 1 at the [Spectrum](/wiki/Spectrum_%28arena%29 "Spectrum (arena)") saw New York race out to a 3–1 lead, only to see the Flyers storm back to go up 4–3\. A late goal from [Pat Verbeek](/wiki/Pat_Verbeek "Pat Verbeek") sent the game into an extra session, where Desjardins won it with a right\-circle shot.
The next night, [Brian Leetch](/wiki/Brian_Leetch "Brian Leetch") recorded a hat\-trick but [Kevin Haller](/wiki/Kevin_Haller "Kevin Haller") struck with under 30 seconds played in OT off a feed from Renberg to give the Flyers a 4–3 win and 2–0 series edge. The Flyers capitalized on multiple mistakes and turnovers in Games 3 and 4 at [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden "Madison Square Garden"), recording 5\-2 and 4\-1 victories to sweep the series.
The Flyers advanced to the conference finals against the Devils. Jersey controlled long stretches of the first two games, winning 4–1 in Game 1 and overcoming an early deficit with a four\-goal blitz to take Game 2, 5–2\. The Devils were on the verge of going up three games to none at the Meadowlands, but a [Rod Brind'Amour](/wiki/Rod_Brind%27Amour "Rod Brind'Amour") floater in the third period and Lindros' wrister in overtime brought the Flyers back. Philly controlled Game 4 and coasted to a 4–2 win, but the Devils continued to use the [neutral zone trap](/wiki/Neutral_zone_trap "Neutral zone trap") to control the Legion in Game 5\. Although Dineen scored early in the third to tie the game, [Claude Lemieux](/wiki/Claude_Lemieux "Claude Lemieux")'s 50\-foot blast got by Hextall and gave New Jersey the shocking 3–2 win and left the Devils one win away from the Cup finals.
In Game 6, [Jim Montgomery](/wiki/Jim_Montgomery_%28ice_hockey%29 "Jim Montgomery (ice hockey)") got the Flyers on the board early in the first period, but the Devils stormed back with four consecutive scores to ice the game and the series 4–2\.
|
[
"Playoffs\n--------",
"Lindros missed the first three games of the Flyers' [Eastern Conference](/wiki/Eastern_Conference_%28NHL%29 \"Eastern Conference (NHL)\") quarterfinal series against the [Buffalo Sabres](/wiki/Buffalo_Sabres \"Buffalo Sabres\"). [Karl Dykhuis](/wiki/Karl_Dykhuis \"Karl Dykhuis\") netted the overtime winner in Game 1 and the club took a 2–0 series lead on the road. Following a narrow Game 3 defeat at [The Aud](/wiki/Buffalo_Memorial_Auditorium \"Buffalo Memorial Auditorium\"), Lindros returned and the reunited Legion led the club to a 4–2 win. In Game 5, Philly rolled to leads of 4–0 and 5–2 before closing with a 6–4 victory.",
"More overtime magic came in the semifinal series with the defending [Stanley Cup](/wiki/Stanley_Cup \"Stanley Cup\") champion Rangers, who upset the Nordiques in the first round. Game 1 at the [Spectrum](/wiki/Spectrum_%28arena%29 \"Spectrum (arena)\") saw New York race out to a 3–1 lead, only to see the Flyers storm back to go up 4–3\\. A late goal from [Pat Verbeek](/wiki/Pat_Verbeek \"Pat Verbeek\") sent the game into an extra session, where Desjardins won it with a right\\-circle shot.",
"The next night, [Brian Leetch](/wiki/Brian_Leetch \"Brian Leetch\") recorded a hat\\-trick but [Kevin Haller](/wiki/Kevin_Haller \"Kevin Haller\") struck with under 30 seconds played in OT off a feed from Renberg to give the Flyers a 4–3 win and 2–0 series edge. The Flyers capitalized on multiple mistakes and turnovers in Games 3 and 4 at [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\"), recording 5\\-2 and 4\\-1 victories to sweep the series.",
"The Flyers advanced to the conference finals against the Devils. Jersey controlled long stretches of the first two games, winning 4–1 in Game 1 and overcoming an early deficit with a four\\-goal blitz to take Game 2, 5–2\\. The Devils were on the verge of going up three games to none at the Meadowlands, but a [Rod Brind'Amour](/wiki/Rod_Brind%27Amour \"Rod Brind'Amour\") floater in the third period and Lindros' wrister in overtime brought the Flyers back. Philly controlled Game 4 and coasted to a 4–2 win, but the Devils continued to use the [neutral zone trap](/wiki/Neutral_zone_trap \"Neutral zone trap\") to control the Legion in Game 5\\. Although Dineen scored early in the third to tie the game, [Claude Lemieux](/wiki/Claude_Lemieux \"Claude Lemieux\")'s 50\\-foot blast got by Hextall and gave New Jersey the shocking 3–2 win and left the Devils one win away from the Cup finals.",
"In Game 6, [Jim Montgomery](/wiki/Jim_Montgomery_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Jim Montgomery (ice hockey)\") got the Flyers on the board early in the first period, but the Devils stormed back with four consecutive scores to ice the game and the series 4–2\\.",
""
] |
Tricia Dingle
-------------
{{Infobox soap character
\|series \= Emmerdale
\|name \= Tricia Dingle
\|portrayer \= \[\[Sheree Murphy]]
\|introducer \= Mervyn Watson
\|years\= 1998–2004
\|first\= 16 September 1998
\|last\= 8 January 2004
\|classification \=\[\[List of former Emmerdale characters\#Last appeared in 2004\|Former; regular]]
\|husband\=Joe Fisher (2000–2002\)
\[\[Marlon Dingle]] (2003–2004\)
\|mother\=\[\[Steph Stokes]]
\|grandfathers\=\[\[Alan Turner (Emmerdale)\|Alan Turner]]
\|uncles\=\[\[Terence Turner]]
\|alias \= Tricia Stokes
Tricia Fisher
}}
**Patricia "Tricia" Dingle** (also **Stokes** and **Fisher**) was the daughter of [Steph Forsythe](/wiki/Steph_Stokes "Steph Stokes") ([Lorraine Chase](/wiki/Lorraine_Chase "Lorraine Chase")) and the granddaughter of [Alan Turner](/wiki/Alan_Turner_%28Emmerdale%29 "Alan Turner (Emmerdale)") ([Richard Thorp](/wiki/Richard_Thorp "Richard Thorp")). Tricia arrived at The Woolpack out of the blue. Alan, who has had troubled relationships with his offspring, didn't recognise her initially, but quickly took her to his heart. She was a big hit behind the bar of The Woolpack, especially with the men of Emmerdale, and could wrap Alan around her little finger. Tricia was a born tease, and immediately caught the attention of [Terry Woods](/wiki/Terry_Woods_%28Emmerdale%29 "Terry Woods (Emmerdale)") ([Billy Hartman](/wiki/Billy_Hartman "Billy Hartman")), especially after she took him breakfast in bed dressed in a skimpy nightie. He was so smitten he took her shopping and forked out for a sexy new dress. This got him into trouble with Alan for missing his shift at the Woolpack. Terry was convinced she felt the same, and was crushed when she rejected his advances.
Tricia tried to help out in the Woolpack but contributed towards its destruction when fireworks she bought set alight and burned down the pub. She slept with both Terry and [Scott Windsor](/wiki/Scott_Windsor "Scott Windsor") ([Ben Freeman](/wiki/Ben_Freeman "Ben Freeman")), but was mortified both when Scott told Terry about their fling and when Terry spilled the beans to the drinkers in the village hall. She felt terribly guilty about her treatment of Terry and was sorry when he came back to the village on Christmas Day only to discover the tragic news about his friend [Vic Windsor](/wiki/Vic_Windsor "Vic Windsor") ([Alun Lewis](/wiki/Alun_Lewis_%28actor%29 "Alun Lewis (actor)")).
Tricia was put out when Alan appointed [Bernice Blackstock](/wiki/Bernice_Blackstock "Bernice Blackstock") ([Samantha Giles](/wiki/Samantha_Giles "Samantha Giles")) bar manager instead of her (tried her best to get the job and even put together a CV); had a mud fight with [Mandy Dingle](/wiki/Mandy_Dingle "Mandy Dingle") ([Lisa Riley](/wiki/Lisa_Riley "Lisa Riley")); discovers Bernice’s plan and laughs at her with Mandy; is surprised when Scott cannot perform in bed with her; goes to the vets ball but doesn’t enjoy being groped all night; thinks Bernice made Gavin Ferris up and is a lunatic; sleeps with Gavin behind Bernice's back; comforts [Roy Glover](/wiki/Roy_Glover "Roy Glover") ([Nicky Evans](/wiki/Nicky_Evans "Nicky Evans")) before his wedding; tries to get the village to buy The Woolpack; flirts with [Chris Tate](/wiki/Chris_Tate "Chris Tate") (Peter Amory) in the hope that he will give her the money; wants to plan her own theme night to prove she is better than Bernice. Hollywood night went well, until a drag queen Marilyn Monroe impersonator turned up and caused a near\-riot. Tricia realised she couldn’t make cocktails either, and had to beg Bernice to help out. She decided to get her revenge on Bernice at the summer fair, where they both had rival beer tents. She hitched Bernice’s marquee to Jack Sugden’s car and pulled it down.
Since it became clear Bernice was going to take over the pub, she and Tricia had buried the hatchet somewhat. Tricia wasn’t silly though – she blackmailed Gavin to ensure that she and her granddad could stay on at the pub after the takeover – and she ‘forgot’ to mention that Bernice’s name was spelled wrong on the new pub sign. She was also not keen on Bernice’s feng shui fad – or as she called it, Chop Suey!
[Paddy Kirk](/wiki/Paddy_Kirk "Paddy Kirk")'s ([Dominic Brunt](/wiki/Dominic_Brunt "Dominic Brunt")) cousin [Jason](/wiki/Jason_Kirk "Jason Kirk") ([James Carlton](/wiki/James_Carlton_%28actor%29 "James Carlton (actor)")) arrived in the village just before Christmas. They hit it off straight away and she thought finally that he could be the man for her. However, Jason had a secret – he was gay and had promised Paddy he wouldn’t tell anyone. Tricia and Bernice found him out in the most shocking way – at [Marlon Dingle](/wiki/Marlon_Dingle "Marlon Dingle")'s ([Mark Charnock](/wiki/Mark_Charnock "Mark Charnock")) Aladdin night in the Woolpack, the two women found Jason and Gavin kissing in Bernice’s bedroom. Tricia tried to be strong for Bernice, but was wracked with guilt all over Christmas about her own fling with Gavin. Alan told her to stop feeling so sorry for herself.
In December 2000, she married Australian Joe Fisher, the partner of her ex\-boyfriend Jason, in a [marriage of convenience](/wiki/Marriage_of_convenience "Marriage of convenience") so he could remain in the country. In 2002, Tricia's mother [Steph](/wiki/Steph_Forsythe "Steph Forsythe") ([Lorraine Chase](/wiki/Lorraine_Chase "Lorraine Chase")) arrived and she also started dating Marlon. They got engaged and planned to marry on 16 October. However, when the day arrived, it was full of mishaps, such as chewing gum getting stuck in Tricia's hair and eventually injuring her neck when she turned her head around too fast, so Tricia called it off and Paddy married [Emily Dingle](/wiki/Emily_Dingle "Emily Dingle") in their place. Marlon and Tricia eventually married on Valentine's Day 2003\.
Tricia got the chance to work on a Bollywood movie and she and Marlon left the village in April. But, Marlon returned a few days later after problems with getting into the country. During Tricia's absence, he had a one\-night stand with his distant cousin [Charity](/wiki/Charity_Tate "Charity Tate") ([Emma Atkins](/wiki/Emma_Atkins "Emma Atkins")). Tricia returned in November that year and Marlon constantly acted odd around her, fearing that she will find out. Eventually, he told her and Tricia struggled to forgive her philandering husband. Tricia decided to leave Marlon. In response, Marlon wrote a list of 101 things he loved about her. Once she was ready to leave at New Year, just as a severe storm arrived, [Diane Blackstock](/wiki/Diane_Blackstock "Diane Blackstock") ([Elizabeth Estensen](/wiki/Elizabeth_Estensen "Elizabeth Estensen")) gave her the list. As she reads through the letter whilst waiting in the bus stop and then in a phone box, she finally realised how much Marlon loved her and returned to the Woolpack. However, disaster struck when a nearby tree was hit by lightning, making Tricia stumble back, while another bolt hit the Woolpack roof and caused a window to collapse down on Tricia and sending the chimney to fall through the ceiling and into the packed pub. Diane and Marlon discovered Tricia lying under the rubble. Soon enough, the emergency services were called and Tricia was airlifted to hospital. Marlon followed suit in Diane's car and him, Steph and Alan arrived at the hospital, where the doctor informed them that Tricia had sustained massive internal injuries and was in a critical condition. While Tricia lay unconscious, she went into cardiac arrest. The consultant summoned Marlon to his office and Marlon was told that Tricia was brain dead and the only option was to switch off her machine. Marlon was conflicted over this decision, until eventually he decided it was for the best. Tricia died and her organs were donated. To this day, Marlon still takes Tricia's death hard and has been mentioned numerous times, most recently in 2013 at Alan's funeral when Marlon gave a eulogy.
In 2017, a writer from *[Inside Soap](/wiki/Inside_Soap "Inside Soap")* commented on how they believed that Tricia was still the "true love" of Marlon.{{cite magazine \|last1\=Heffernan\|first1\=Laura \|title\=A Year in the Life! 2002 \|magazine\=\[\[Inside Soap]] \|date\=18–24 February 2017 \|pages\=54—55\|issue\=7}}
|
[
"Tricia Dingle\n-------------",
"{{Infobox soap character\n\\|series \\= Emmerdale\n\\|name \\= Tricia Dingle\n\\|portrayer \\= \\[\\[Sheree Murphy]]\n\\|introducer \\= Mervyn Watson\n\\|years\\= 1998–2004\n\\|first\\= 16 September 1998\n\\|last\\= 8 January 2004\n\\|classification \\=\\[\\[List of former Emmerdale characters\\#Last appeared in 2004\\|Former; regular]]\n\\|husband\\=Joe Fisher (2000–2002\\) \n\\[\\[Marlon Dingle]] (2003–2004\\)\n\\|mother\\=\\[\\[Steph Stokes]]\n\\|grandfathers\\=\\[\\[Alan Turner (Emmerdale)\\|Alan Turner]]\n\\|uncles\\=\\[\\[Terence Turner]]\n\\|alias \\= Tricia Stokes \nTricia Fisher\n}}\n**Patricia \"Tricia\" Dingle** (also **Stokes** and **Fisher**) was the daughter of [Steph Forsythe](/wiki/Steph_Stokes \"Steph Stokes\") ([Lorraine Chase](/wiki/Lorraine_Chase \"Lorraine Chase\")) and the granddaughter of [Alan Turner](/wiki/Alan_Turner_%28Emmerdale%29 \"Alan Turner (Emmerdale)\") ([Richard Thorp](/wiki/Richard_Thorp \"Richard Thorp\")). Tricia arrived at The Woolpack out of the blue. Alan, who has had troubled relationships with his offspring, didn't recognise her initially, but quickly took her to his heart. She was a big hit behind the bar of The Woolpack, especially with the men of Emmerdale, and could wrap Alan around her little finger. Tricia was a born tease, and immediately caught the attention of [Terry Woods](/wiki/Terry_Woods_%28Emmerdale%29 \"Terry Woods (Emmerdale)\") ([Billy Hartman](/wiki/Billy_Hartman \"Billy Hartman\")), especially after she took him breakfast in bed dressed in a skimpy nightie. He was so smitten he took her shopping and forked out for a sexy new dress. This got him into trouble with Alan for missing his shift at the Woolpack. Terry was convinced she felt the same, and was crushed when she rejected his advances.",
"Tricia tried to help out in the Woolpack but contributed towards its destruction when fireworks she bought set alight and burned down the pub. She slept with both Terry and [Scott Windsor](/wiki/Scott_Windsor \"Scott Windsor\") ([Ben Freeman](/wiki/Ben_Freeman \"Ben Freeman\")), but was mortified both when Scott told Terry about their fling and when Terry spilled the beans to the drinkers in the village hall. She felt terribly guilty about her treatment of Terry and was sorry when he came back to the village on Christmas Day only to discover the tragic news about his friend [Vic Windsor](/wiki/Vic_Windsor \"Vic Windsor\") ([Alun Lewis](/wiki/Alun_Lewis_%28actor%29 \"Alun Lewis (actor)\")).",
"Tricia was put out when Alan appointed [Bernice Blackstock](/wiki/Bernice_Blackstock \"Bernice Blackstock\") ([Samantha Giles](/wiki/Samantha_Giles \"Samantha Giles\")) bar manager instead of her (tried her best to get the job and even put together a CV); had a mud fight with [Mandy Dingle](/wiki/Mandy_Dingle \"Mandy Dingle\") ([Lisa Riley](/wiki/Lisa_Riley \"Lisa Riley\")); discovers Bernice’s plan and laughs at her with Mandy; is surprised when Scott cannot perform in bed with her; goes to the vets ball but doesn’t enjoy being groped all night; thinks Bernice made Gavin Ferris up and is a lunatic; sleeps with Gavin behind Bernice's back; comforts [Roy Glover](/wiki/Roy_Glover \"Roy Glover\") ([Nicky Evans](/wiki/Nicky_Evans \"Nicky Evans\")) before his wedding; tries to get the village to buy The Woolpack; flirts with [Chris Tate](/wiki/Chris_Tate \"Chris Tate\") (Peter Amory) in the hope that he will give her the money; wants to plan her own theme night to prove she is better than Bernice. Hollywood night went well, until a drag queen Marilyn Monroe impersonator turned up and caused a near\\-riot. Tricia realised she couldn’t make cocktails either, and had to beg Bernice to help out. She decided to get her revenge on Bernice at the summer fair, where they both had rival beer tents. She hitched Bernice’s marquee to Jack Sugden’s car and pulled it down.",
"Since it became clear Bernice was going to take over the pub, she and Tricia had buried the hatchet somewhat. Tricia wasn’t silly though – she blackmailed Gavin to ensure that she and her granddad could stay on at the pub after the takeover – and she ‘forgot’ to mention that Bernice’s name was spelled wrong on the new pub sign. She was also not keen on Bernice’s feng shui fad – or as she called it, Chop Suey!",
"[Paddy Kirk](/wiki/Paddy_Kirk \"Paddy Kirk\")'s ([Dominic Brunt](/wiki/Dominic_Brunt \"Dominic Brunt\")) cousin [Jason](/wiki/Jason_Kirk \"Jason Kirk\") ([James Carlton](/wiki/James_Carlton_%28actor%29 \"James Carlton (actor)\")) arrived in the village just before Christmas. They hit it off straight away and she thought finally that he could be the man for her. However, Jason had a secret – he was gay and had promised Paddy he wouldn’t tell anyone. Tricia and Bernice found him out in the most shocking way – at [Marlon Dingle](/wiki/Marlon_Dingle \"Marlon Dingle\")'s ([Mark Charnock](/wiki/Mark_Charnock \"Mark Charnock\")) Aladdin night in the Woolpack, the two women found Jason and Gavin kissing in Bernice’s bedroom. Tricia tried to be strong for Bernice, but was wracked with guilt all over Christmas about her own fling with Gavin. Alan told her to stop feeling so sorry for herself.",
"In December 2000, she married Australian Joe Fisher, the partner of her ex\\-boyfriend Jason, in a [marriage of convenience](/wiki/Marriage_of_convenience \"Marriage of convenience\") so he could remain in the country. In 2002, Tricia's mother [Steph](/wiki/Steph_Forsythe \"Steph Forsythe\") ([Lorraine Chase](/wiki/Lorraine_Chase \"Lorraine Chase\")) arrived and she also started dating Marlon. They got engaged and planned to marry on 16 October. However, when the day arrived, it was full of mishaps, such as chewing gum getting stuck in Tricia's hair and eventually injuring her neck when she turned her head around too fast, so Tricia called it off and Paddy married [Emily Dingle](/wiki/Emily_Dingle \"Emily Dingle\") in their place. Marlon and Tricia eventually married on Valentine's Day 2003\\.",
"Tricia got the chance to work on a Bollywood movie and she and Marlon left the village in April. But, Marlon returned a few days later after problems with getting into the country. During Tricia's absence, he had a one\\-night stand with his distant cousin [Charity](/wiki/Charity_Tate \"Charity Tate\") ([Emma Atkins](/wiki/Emma_Atkins \"Emma Atkins\")). Tricia returned in November that year and Marlon constantly acted odd around her, fearing that she will find out. Eventually, he told her and Tricia struggled to forgive her philandering husband. Tricia decided to leave Marlon. In response, Marlon wrote a list of 101 things he loved about her. Once she was ready to leave at New Year, just as a severe storm arrived, [Diane Blackstock](/wiki/Diane_Blackstock \"Diane Blackstock\") ([Elizabeth Estensen](/wiki/Elizabeth_Estensen \"Elizabeth Estensen\")) gave her the list. As she reads through the letter whilst waiting in the bus stop and then in a phone box, she finally realised how much Marlon loved her and returned to the Woolpack. However, disaster struck when a nearby tree was hit by lightning, making Tricia stumble back, while another bolt hit the Woolpack roof and caused a window to collapse down on Tricia and sending the chimney to fall through the ceiling and into the packed pub. Diane and Marlon discovered Tricia lying under the rubble. Soon enough, the emergency services were called and Tricia was airlifted to hospital. Marlon followed suit in Diane's car and him, Steph and Alan arrived at the hospital, where the doctor informed them that Tricia had sustained massive internal injuries and was in a critical condition. While Tricia lay unconscious, she went into cardiac arrest. The consultant summoned Marlon to his office and Marlon was told that Tricia was brain dead and the only option was to switch off her machine. Marlon was conflicted over this decision, until eventually he decided it was for the best. Tricia died and her organs were donated. To this day, Marlon still takes Tricia's death hard and has been mentioned numerous times, most recently in 2013 at Alan's funeral when Marlon gave a eulogy.",
"In 2017, a writer from *[Inside Soap](/wiki/Inside_Soap \"Inside Soap\")* commented on how they believed that Tricia was still the \"true love\" of Marlon.{{cite magazine \\|last1\\=Heffernan\\|first1\\=Laura \\|title\\=A Year in the Life! 2002 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Inside Soap]] \\|date\\=18–24 February 2017 \\|pages\\=54—55\\|issue\\=7}}",
""
] |
Movement I
----------
Barber's first movement from *Excursions* shows how the composer combines classic forms with contemporary idioms. He uses many characteristics of [Blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues") within the restrictions of classic forms to create these contemporary songs that have a familiar aspect about them.
The first movement of Samuel Barber's *Excursions*, entitled “Un poco allegro,” is a classic five\-part rondo form. Barber begins with the main element of the movement, the bass [Ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato "Ostinato"). This bass pattern is what brings Nathan Broder to call this movement a boogie\-woogie.”Broder, p. 51 The New Grove Dictionary explains that a [Boogie\-woogie](/wiki/Boogie-woogie "Boogie-woogie") is
> a percussive style of piano [Blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues") favoured for its volume and momentum… is characterized by the use of blues chord progressions combined with a forceful, repetitive left\-hand bass figure… \[and] independence of the right\-hand improvisations from the steady, rolling rhythm maintained by the left hand.Oliver, "Boogie\-woogie"
This left hand, bass [Ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato "Ostinato") repeats itself, almost exactly, twenty\-two times within the A1 section alone. As stated above, this repetitive nature of the left hand, under an improvisatory right, is a characteristic of a [Boogie\-woogie](/wiki/Boogie-woogie "Boogie-woogie").
The overall form of movement I is the classic, rondo form Russell Friedewald, in his dissertation entitled "A Formal and Stylistic Analysis of the Published Music of Samuel Barber", divides the sections of this movement into A1BA2CA3 Coda.Friedewald His reasoning for this division of the sections is based upon the bass note of the [ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato "Ostinato") pattern. From the beginning of the movement through measure 37, the bass ostinato stays on C. In measures 38 through 55, the bass ostinato moves to F, signifying the B section.
Sections A1, A2, and A3 are in the tonic key while B is under the sub\-dominant (F) key and C is in the dominant (G) key. The overall I\-IV\-I\-V\-I progression is very simple but it provides a “structural unity of this piece in which motivic material freely crosses sectional boundaries.”Sifferman, p. 9
The first A section introduces the main melodic pattern that can be found within other sections of the movement, which can be seen in measures 4 through 6\.
This figure contains three repeated E\-flats followed by a broken tonic triad. In measure six, there is an added B\-flat creating a seventh\-chord on C. The seventh of the tonic C minor triad does not function correctly in a typical harmonic progression; it is actually treated as a consonant note. These types of harmonies as well as the heavily syncopated rhythms are characteristics “commonly used in blues and [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz").”Carter, p. 34
Both Sifferman and Carter mention Barber's use of the “blue” notes in this movement. The [blue\-note](/wiki/Blue-note "Blue-note"),” which is the third, seventh, and occasionally the fifth, would be sung or played a semitone lower than the diatonic pitch. Initially, musicologists thought that blues singers were using, for example, the E\-flat and B\-flat in the key of C major, but the “downhome” blues musicians tended to bend, or “worry,” the notes, rather than actually change tones.Kubik, "Blue note" In Barber's movement, the lowered third and seventh scale degrees already exist within the key signature as consonant tones. Although the [Blue\-notes](/wiki/Blue-note "Blue-note") exist in the key signature, Barber utilizes the raised tones as well.
In measure 4, for instance, the repeated E\-flat is heavily emphasized as well as the whole C\-minor triad through measure five. Just a few bars later in measure 10, we see the raised third, an E\-natural. Also the first appearance of the raised seventh scale degree occurs enharmonically as a C\-flat in measure 41\. It proceeds to the B\-flat when the A2 section returns in bar 56\. Carter takes it a step further and shows how the G\-flat, the lowered scale degree five and a tritone from C, are emphasized.
> In measures 29 through 32… the melodic figure is centered on G\-flat, accompanied by the ostinato built on C. Another example of emphasis of the tri\-tone occurs in measures 44 through 46: the right hand pattern is based on a B seventh chord, while the left\-hand \[ostinato] pattern is based on F. These passages also hint at bitonality.Carter, p. 6
*New Grove*’s definition of boogie\-woogie includes the term “momentum” as a characteristic. Barber creates forward motion with quarter\-notes followed by eighth\- and sixteenth\-notes in quick succession. Through the use of this rhythm, the momentum of the music quickens until bars 9 through 13, where the rhythm slows down.
The sixteenth notes on beats four and five of measure nine is the beginning of the slowing down momentum. Measure 10 starts slowing the rhythm by the use of eighth\-notes, quarter\-note triplets, and finally, quarter\-notes, when the primary motive pattern returns in measure 13\.
Another instance where the momentum of the piece begins to slow down is right before the start of the A3 section. Six measures before 90, the right hand melody consists of straight sixteenth\-notes creating a very fast pace. In bar 92, the right hand chords allude to the rhythm of the main melodic pattern found in bar 4, but at a slightly slower pace. This same rhythmic pattern, a dotted quarter\-note followed by a half\-note and quarter\-note triplet, persists for twelve measures until measure 103, when we see a change. Each following measure continues to slow down the momentum that has been building throughout the entire piece until the Coda in measure 107\.
These momentum shifts also help to create “textual contrasts \[that] define each section.”Carter, p. 35 The A1 and A2 sections only utilize two voice textures. Sections B and C contain quick rhythmic chords in the right hand, and in the A3 section, the right hand contains rhythmically broader chords.
Another term by which *The New Grove Dictionary* defines a boogie\-woogie is “volume.” In this movement, any one of the sections can contain a ***pp*** dynamic marking (m. 11, 56, 84\-91, and 106 to the end) all the way up to a ***ff*** (m. 53, 77, 80\-83\). This highly contrasting dynamic range in one movement is an aspect of the boogie\-woogie that creates attention and interest.
Barber describes these Excursions by stating that the characteristics, “reminiscent of local instruments, are easily recognized.” There are instances in this movement, and the others, that bring up certain instruments that could be “playing” the melody. Sifferman imagines the “main theme (m. 4\-9\) played on saxophone, while the right\-hand figure in measures 44\-46 sounds like \[a] harmonica, imitating the alternately in and out breath motions.”Sifferman, p. 8
According to Sifferman, the F\-major chords in the right hand on beats one and three, starting halfway through measure 45, are the tones that are created when air is “blown into” a harmonica. The tones that occur when breath is “drawn in” through the instrument comprise the B major seventh chord. On a typical diatonic harmonica, the tones that are created when air is drawn through the instrument correspond to the dominant of the key of the instrument, not the tritone. This further illustrates Barber's use of the tritone in this movement.
Barber uses the bass ostinato, the “blue” chords, improvisatory melodic lines and characteristics that are similar to instruments to achieve an idiomatic style within classic limitations.
|
[
"Movement I\n----------",
"Barber's first movement from *Excursions* shows how the composer combines classic forms with contemporary idioms. He uses many characteristics of [Blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\") within the restrictions of classic forms to create these contemporary songs that have a familiar aspect about them.",
"The first movement of Samuel Barber's *Excursions*, entitled “Un poco allegro,” is a classic five\\-part rondo form. Barber begins with the main element of the movement, the bass [Ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato \"Ostinato\"). This bass pattern is what brings Nathan Broder to call this movement a boogie\\-woogie.”Broder, p. 51 The New Grove Dictionary explains that a [Boogie\\-woogie](/wiki/Boogie-woogie \"Boogie-woogie\") is",
"> a percussive style of piano [Blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\") favoured for its volume and momentum… is characterized by the use of blues chord progressions combined with a forceful, repetitive left\\-hand bass figure… \\[and] independence of the right\\-hand improvisations from the steady, rolling rhythm maintained by the left hand.Oliver, \"Boogie\\-woogie\"",
"",
"This left hand, bass [Ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato \"Ostinato\") repeats itself, almost exactly, twenty\\-two times within the A1 section alone. As stated above, this repetitive nature of the left hand, under an improvisatory right, is a characteristic of a [Boogie\\-woogie](/wiki/Boogie-woogie \"Boogie-woogie\").",
"The overall form of movement I is the classic, rondo form Russell Friedewald, in his dissertation entitled \"A Formal and Stylistic Analysis of the Published Music of Samuel Barber\", divides the sections of this movement into A1BA2CA3 Coda.Friedewald His reasoning for this division of the sections is based upon the bass note of the [ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato \"Ostinato\") pattern. From the beginning of the movement through measure 37, the bass ostinato stays on C. In measures 38 through 55, the bass ostinato moves to F, signifying the B section.",
"Sections A1, A2, and A3 are in the tonic key while B is under the sub\\-dominant (F) key and C is in the dominant (G) key. The overall I\\-IV\\-I\\-V\\-I progression is very simple but it provides a “structural unity of this piece in which motivic material freely crosses sectional boundaries.”Sifferman, p. 9",
"The first A section introduces the main melodic pattern that can be found within other sections of the movement, which can be seen in measures 4 through 6\\.",
"This figure contains three repeated E\\-flats followed by a broken tonic triad. In measure six, there is an added B\\-flat creating a seventh\\-chord on C. The seventh of the tonic C minor triad does not function correctly in a typical harmonic progression; it is actually treated as a consonant note. These types of harmonies as well as the heavily syncopated rhythms are characteristics “commonly used in blues and [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\").”Carter, p. 34",
"Both Sifferman and Carter mention Barber's use of the “blue” notes in this movement. The [blue\\-note](/wiki/Blue-note \"Blue-note\"),” which is the third, seventh, and occasionally the fifth, would be sung or played a semitone lower than the diatonic pitch. Initially, musicologists thought that blues singers were using, for example, the E\\-flat and B\\-flat in the key of C major, but the “downhome” blues musicians tended to bend, or “worry,” the notes, rather than actually change tones.Kubik, \"Blue note\" In Barber's movement, the lowered third and seventh scale degrees already exist within the key signature as consonant tones. Although the [Blue\\-notes](/wiki/Blue-note \"Blue-note\") exist in the key signature, Barber utilizes the raised tones as well.",
"In measure 4, for instance, the repeated E\\-flat is heavily emphasized as well as the whole C\\-minor triad through measure five. Just a few bars later in measure 10, we see the raised third, an E\\-natural. Also the first appearance of the raised seventh scale degree occurs enharmonically as a C\\-flat in measure 41\\. It proceeds to the B\\-flat when the A2 section returns in bar 56\\. Carter takes it a step further and shows how the G\\-flat, the lowered scale degree five and a tritone from C, are emphasized.",
"",
"> In measures 29 through 32… the melodic figure is centered on G\\-flat, accompanied by the ostinato built on C. Another example of emphasis of the tri\\-tone occurs in measures 44 through 46: the right hand pattern is based on a B seventh chord, while the left\\-hand \\[ostinato] pattern is based on F. These passages also hint at bitonality.Carter, p. 6",
"*New Grove*’s definition of boogie\\-woogie includes the term “momentum” as a characteristic. Barber creates forward motion with quarter\\-notes followed by eighth\\- and sixteenth\\-notes in quick succession. Through the use of this rhythm, the momentum of the music quickens until bars 9 through 13, where the rhythm slows down.",
"The sixteenth notes on beats four and five of measure nine is the beginning of the slowing down momentum. Measure 10 starts slowing the rhythm by the use of eighth\\-notes, quarter\\-note triplets, and finally, quarter\\-notes, when the primary motive pattern returns in measure 13\\.",
"Another instance where the momentum of the piece begins to slow down is right before the start of the A3 section. Six measures before 90, the right hand melody consists of straight sixteenth\\-notes creating a very fast pace. In bar 92, the right hand chords allude to the rhythm of the main melodic pattern found in bar 4, but at a slightly slower pace. This same rhythmic pattern, a dotted quarter\\-note followed by a half\\-note and quarter\\-note triplet, persists for twelve measures until measure 103, when we see a change. Each following measure continues to slow down the momentum that has been building throughout the entire piece until the Coda in measure 107\\.",
"These momentum shifts also help to create “textual contrasts \\[that] define each section.”Carter, p. 35 The A1 and A2 sections only utilize two voice textures. Sections B and C contain quick rhythmic chords in the right hand, and in the A3 section, the right hand contains rhythmically broader chords.",
"Another term by which *The New Grove Dictionary* defines a boogie\\-woogie is “volume.” In this movement, any one of the sections can contain a ***pp*** dynamic marking (m. 11, 56, 84\\-91, and 106 to the end) all the way up to a ***ff*** (m. 53, 77, 80\\-83\\). This highly contrasting dynamic range in one movement is an aspect of the boogie\\-woogie that creates attention and interest.",
"Barber describes these Excursions by stating that the characteristics, “reminiscent of local instruments, are easily recognized.” There are instances in this movement, and the others, that bring up certain instruments that could be “playing” the melody. Sifferman imagines the “main theme (m. 4\\-9\\) played on saxophone, while the right\\-hand figure in measures 44\\-46 sounds like \\[a] harmonica, imitating the alternately in and out breath motions.”Sifferman, p. 8",
"According to Sifferman, the F\\-major chords in the right hand on beats one and three, starting halfway through measure 45, are the tones that are created when air is “blown into” a harmonica. The tones that occur when breath is “drawn in” through the instrument comprise the B major seventh chord. On a typical diatonic harmonica, the tones that are created when air is drawn through the instrument correspond to the dominant of the key of the instrument, not the tritone. This further illustrates Barber's use of the tritone in this movement.",
"Barber uses the bass ostinato, the “blue” chords, improvisatory melodic lines and characteristics that are similar to instruments to achieve an idiomatic style within classic limitations.",
""
] |
Movement II
-----------
The second movement, entitled ‘In slow blues tempo,’ encapsulates the popular American idiom, a “rich and elegant blues.”Broder, p. 68 Barber uses “conventional harmonic progressions and melodic and rhythmic features associated with blues”Heyman, p. 236 to continue the overarching idea of the American idiom within classic form.
Movement II contains four twelve\-bar phrases that utilize harmonies very similar to movement I. Russell Friedewald was the first individual to formally analyze this set of *Excursions* in 1957\. His explanation for this movement is the clearest: “the second in this set, a rich and elegant blues, is divided into four twelve\-measure sections, each being improvisatory in nature.”Friedewald, p. 127
As previously mentioned, this movement is what *New Grove* calls “twelve\-bar blues.”
> As the blues was created largely by musicians who had little education and scarcely any of whom could read music, improvisation, both verbal and musical, was an essential part of it... To facilitate improvisation a number of patterns evolved, of which the most familiar is the [Twelve\-bar blues](/wiki/Twelve-bar_blues "Twelve-bar blues").Oliver, "Blues"
The typical harmonic structure of [Blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues"), as identified by *New Grove*, is the [twelve\-bar blues](/wiki/Twelve-bar_blues "Twelve-bar blues").
Because blues is based on improvisation, having a common and familiar chord progression lends itself to an easier improvisation. Not every blues progression is exactly the same, but this one in particular is very common, and Barber uses this progression almost exactly. What ties this movement with the first is the harmonic progression. The boogie\-woogie, which is “a style of piano blues,” also contains the chord progression I\-IV\-I\-V\-I.
Each large phrase of a twelve\-bar blues is broken up into three sub\-phrases consisting of four measures each. In the third sub\-phrase, the third measure contains two harmonic possibilities. In the first and third twelve\-bar phrases of Barber's movement, the subdominant harmony (C) occurs after the dominant harmony (D); however, in the second and fourth twelve\-bar phrases, the subdominant does not occur, but rather the tonic appears. The harmonic movement from V → IV → I, creating a plagal\-type of cadence, is weaker than the V → V → I movement. When Barber uses this type of movement in the last 12\-bar phrase, it creates a strong closing gesture. This is one way in which Barber strays from the typical twelve\-bar blues form.
Another way that Barber differs from the typical twelve\-bar blues pattern is that on the first, second and fourth occurrence of the phrase, there is an added measure to each. The first twelve\-bar phrase, measure 1 through 13, has its repeated measure at the end of the phrase. Through means of extension by repetition, measure 13 is identical to bar 12\. The second and fourth phrases do not contain a repeated measure at the end of the phrase.
In phrase 2, measure 14 through 26, there is an extension by repetition from measures 14 to 16\. Those three measures can be grouped together as can measures 17 and 18 for their melodic similarities. Measures 14 to 16 all contain the melodic bass figure and a parallel right hand pattern as well. The next two measures are the second half of that sub\-phrase. The right hand chord is a G\-major triad with an added second underneath a B to G eighth\-note triplet pattern.
The exact extension that occurred in phrase 2 also occurs in phrase 4 due to their striking similarities. Even though the right\-hand motive in phrase 4 begins a third higher, it is still very similar to phrase 2's occurrence. Measure 39 is repeated twice instead of just one time with a few slight alterations to the rhythmic patterns before moving to the G\-major triad with an added second in bar 42\. Barber uses this addition of one measure to some of the twelve\-bar phrases. By doing this, he makes the overall structure atypical compared to the standard twelve\-bar phrase.
As mentioned briefly before, there are unifying phrases throughout the twelve\-bar phrases that help to connect each section we the other. One way in which Barber unifies all of these sections is through the use of specific melodic figures. The left\-hand bass figure in measures 1 to 2 is used ten times in this movement.
“The rhythmic pattern of the accompaniment motive is a common blues figure.”Carter, p. 38 The other, and more important, unifying motive is the descending third melodic figure within the right hand. This figure occurs at the start of every new twelve\-bar phrase. Within this movement one can find this descending motive returning in either the left or the right hand.
The harmonies of this movement consist of strictly the tonic (G), subdominant (C), and dominant (D) tonalities. However, there is some debate as to whether this movement is indeed in G, or as the key signature says, C. Friedewald claims that this movement is centered on C with each section being “limited to the tonic and dominant chord.” However, through closer analysis, this piece is centered on G. Sifferman explains that “simply listening to or playing the piece… makes the tonal center \[of] G undeniably clear to the ear.”Sifferman, p. 13
In Friedewald's defense, this movement's key signature indicates C major, there are a fair number of G dominant seventh chords, and the final chord of the piece is a perfect fifth on C. There is some truth in saying this movement is in C, but Barber most likely chose not to include a key signature to further emphasize the “blue” notes, specifically, the lowered sevenths. In an analysis of this movement in G major, the “absence of a sharp in the key signature is accounted for by the… F\-natural.” This further explains that the F\-naturals which occur within the tonic harmonies were not written for the purpose of creating dominant seventh chords. “By avoiding the F\-sharp in the key signature, the lowered seventh is established as a constant pitch, while the use of the leading tone is the exception.”Carter, p. 39
In the first measure, Barber incorporates another “blue” note, the lowered third. The B\-flat (enharmonically spelled A\-sharp) creating “increased tension or dissonance… harmonically.”Sifferman, p. 11 Barber continues, throughout this movement with the added “blue” notes that create the harmonic tension characteristic of a blues piece.
In measures 19 through 22 Barber emphasizes the raised and lowered third scale degrees in the left hand octaves. This first begins with the pick up B\-natural. Additionally, Barber makes use of the lowered seventh scale degree, F\-natural as a melodic tone over the tonic chord. This further demonstrates Barber's “bending or worrying” particular scale degrees to create a blues mood.
Clearly the slowest movement of all four, this piece has a subtle uniqueness about it that makes it stand out from the rest. This is especially heard in the final chord of the movement. The movement ends on the subdominant harmony which Sifferman believes it ends as “though the progression could continue ‘ad infinitum.’”Sifferman, 12
|
[
"Movement II\n-----------",
"The second movement, entitled ‘In slow blues tempo,’ encapsulates the popular American idiom, a “rich and elegant blues.”Broder, p. 68 Barber uses “conventional harmonic progressions and melodic and rhythmic features associated with blues”Heyman, p. 236 to continue the overarching idea of the American idiom within classic form.",
"Movement II contains four twelve\\-bar phrases that utilize harmonies very similar to movement I. Russell Friedewald was the first individual to formally analyze this set of *Excursions* in 1957\\. His explanation for this movement is the clearest: “the second in this set, a rich and elegant blues, is divided into four twelve\\-measure sections, each being improvisatory in nature.”Friedewald, p. 127",
"As previously mentioned, this movement is what *New Grove* calls “twelve\\-bar blues.”",
"",
"> As the blues was created largely by musicians who had little education and scarcely any of whom could read music, improvisation, both verbal and musical, was an essential part of it... To facilitate improvisation a number of patterns evolved, of which the most familiar is the [Twelve\\-bar blues](/wiki/Twelve-bar_blues \"Twelve-bar blues\").Oliver, \"Blues\"",
"The typical harmonic structure of [Blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\"), as identified by *New Grove*, is the [twelve\\-bar blues](/wiki/Twelve-bar_blues \"Twelve-bar blues\").",
"Because blues is based on improvisation, having a common and familiar chord progression lends itself to an easier improvisation. Not every blues progression is exactly the same, but this one in particular is very common, and Barber uses this progression almost exactly. What ties this movement with the first is the harmonic progression. The boogie\\-woogie, which is “a style of piano blues,” also contains the chord progression I\\-IV\\-I\\-V\\-I.",
"Each large phrase of a twelve\\-bar blues is broken up into three sub\\-phrases consisting of four measures each. In the third sub\\-phrase, the third measure contains two harmonic possibilities. In the first and third twelve\\-bar phrases of Barber's movement, the subdominant harmony (C) occurs after the dominant harmony (D); however, in the second and fourth twelve\\-bar phrases, the subdominant does not occur, but rather the tonic appears. The harmonic movement from V → IV → I, creating a plagal\\-type of cadence, is weaker than the V → V → I movement. When Barber uses this type of movement in the last 12\\-bar phrase, it creates a strong closing gesture. This is one way in which Barber strays from the typical twelve\\-bar blues form.",
"Another way that Barber differs from the typical twelve\\-bar blues pattern is that on the first, second and fourth occurrence of the phrase, there is an added measure to each. The first twelve\\-bar phrase, measure 1 through 13, has its repeated measure at the end of the phrase. Through means of extension by repetition, measure 13 is identical to bar 12\\. The second and fourth phrases do not contain a repeated measure at the end of the phrase.",
"In phrase 2, measure 14 through 26, there is an extension by repetition from measures 14 to 16\\. Those three measures can be grouped together as can measures 17 and 18 for their melodic similarities. Measures 14 to 16 all contain the melodic bass figure and a parallel right hand pattern as well. The next two measures are the second half of that sub\\-phrase. The right hand chord is a G\\-major triad with an added second underneath a B to G eighth\\-note triplet pattern.",
"The exact extension that occurred in phrase 2 also occurs in phrase 4 due to their striking similarities. Even though the right\\-hand motive in phrase 4 begins a third higher, it is still very similar to phrase 2's occurrence. Measure 39 is repeated twice instead of just one time with a few slight alterations to the rhythmic patterns before moving to the G\\-major triad with an added second in bar 42\\. Barber uses this addition of one measure to some of the twelve\\-bar phrases. By doing this, he makes the overall structure atypical compared to the standard twelve\\-bar phrase.",
"As mentioned briefly before, there are unifying phrases throughout the twelve\\-bar phrases that help to connect each section we the other. One way in which Barber unifies all of these sections is through the use of specific melodic figures. The left\\-hand bass figure in measures 1 to 2 is used ten times in this movement.",
"“The rhythmic pattern of the accompaniment motive is a common blues figure.”Carter, p. 38 The other, and more important, unifying motive is the descending third melodic figure within the right hand. This figure occurs at the start of every new twelve\\-bar phrase. Within this movement one can find this descending motive returning in either the left or the right hand.",
"The harmonies of this movement consist of strictly the tonic (G), subdominant (C), and dominant (D) tonalities. However, there is some debate as to whether this movement is indeed in G, or as the key signature says, C. Friedewald claims that this movement is centered on C with each section being “limited to the tonic and dominant chord.” However, through closer analysis, this piece is centered on G. Sifferman explains that “simply listening to or playing the piece… makes the tonal center \\[of] G undeniably clear to the ear.”Sifferman, p. 13",
"In Friedewald's defense, this movement's key signature indicates C major, there are a fair number of G dominant seventh chords, and the final chord of the piece is a perfect fifth on C. There is some truth in saying this movement is in C, but Barber most likely chose not to include a key signature to further emphasize the “blue” notes, specifically, the lowered sevenths. In an analysis of this movement in G major, the “absence of a sharp in the key signature is accounted for by the… F\\-natural.” This further explains that the F\\-naturals which occur within the tonic harmonies were not written for the purpose of creating dominant seventh chords. “By avoiding the F\\-sharp in the key signature, the lowered seventh is established as a constant pitch, while the use of the leading tone is the exception.”Carter, p. 39",
"In the first measure, Barber incorporates another “blue” note, the lowered third. The B\\-flat (enharmonically spelled A\\-sharp) creating “increased tension or dissonance… harmonically.”Sifferman, p. 11 Barber continues, throughout this movement with the added “blue” notes that create the harmonic tension characteristic of a blues piece.",
"In measures 19 through 22 Barber emphasizes the raised and lowered third scale degrees in the left hand octaves. This first begins with the pick up B\\-natural. Additionally, Barber makes use of the lowered seventh scale degree, F\\-natural as a melodic tone over the tonic chord. This further demonstrates Barber's “bending or worrying” particular scale degrees to create a blues mood.",
"Clearly the slowest movement of all four, this piece has a subtle uniqueness about it that makes it stand out from the rest. This is especially heard in the final chord of the movement. The movement ends on the subdominant harmony which Sifferman believes it ends as “though the progression could continue ‘ad infinitum.’”Sifferman, 12",
""
] |
Movement III
------------
Barber’s third movement of *Excursions*, marked “Allegretto,” is a theme and variations described by Broder as “a sophisticated set of variations on a charming folk\-like melody.” There is no doubt that this movement's melodic nature is that of a folk tune, but there is some debate if this was a pre\-existing tune at the time Barber arranged it. It was not until Allan Kozinn published an interview with Samuel Barber in 1981 that the author confirmed that this movement was based on the tune “Streets of Laredo.”Kozinn, p. 47 There is, however, still some uncertainty.
James Sifferman, in his thesis, states:
> While there is similarity between a small portion of the melodic material found in the cowboy ballad and a melodic fragment in the Excursion, it is uncertain that Barber consciously borrowed preexisting folk material in constructing the *Excursion*.Sifferman, p. 15
When listening to the tune “Streets of Laredo,” one can clearly hear the melodic similarity to Barber's third movement. Furthermore, when looking at a score of the folk tune, one can easily see the connection between the two pieces. It is highly unlikely that Barber based only a small portion of the movement on the folk tune.
Both consequent phrases of “Streets of Laredo” and the theme from Barber's allegretto begin on a D\-flat and proceed to descend to the D\-flat an octave below. In measure 9 of the ballad, the first D\-flat is being prolonged through moving to an inner voice of the I harmony, the B\-flat, before moving to the C in bar 10\. An upper neighbor, the D\-flat, also prolongs the C before continuing to descend. This descent ends in measure 12 on the lower D\-flat.
This motion is also evident in the allegretto stretching from measures 5 and 6\. The first D\-flat moves to the B\-flat by way of an incomplete neighbor, the A\-flat. It then moves up by step into the C before descending down to the lower octave D\-flat. This register change is clearly seen in both the “Streets of Laredo” and in the allegretto.
Starting at the lower octave D\-flat in the ballad, there is an initial upward skip of a fourth followed by a prolongation of the G\-flat by a lower\-neighbor, the F. Then the melody rises by step to the C before stepping down to the B\-flat and eventually skipping to the G\-flat. Finally, to cadence the tune, the melody steps up into the G\-flat before returning to the final G\-flat.
Even when briefly analyzed, the allegretto contains almost the exact melodic line from the cowboy ballad. Beginning on the low D\-flat in measure 6, which is the last note of the septuplet in the melody, the ballad is explicitly borrowed in this section. There are two places in which the two tunes are not exact: the first is measure 13 of the ballad and the second in measure 7 of the allegretto. In measure 13 of the ballad, there is a lower\-neighbor (F) that prolongs the G\-flat; in Barber's movement, the G\-flat (m. 7\) is simply repeated without the neighbor.
The F in bar 13 of the “Streets of Laredo” tune is not as significant as other tones in the melody because of its treatment as a non\-chord tone. That Barber chose not to carry that note over to his arrangement of the tune is not detrimental to the overall shape of the melodic line. When analyzing that beat more closely, there is, in fact, a non\-chord tone that acts as a lower\-neighbor. That non\-chord tone is the D\-flat to the E\-flat. Even though Barber did not include the original F lower\-neighbor in the melody, there is still one included; however it is simply not in the original position. The other location in which Barber has taken liberty with his arrangement of the consequent phrase of the tune is in the first two beats of measure 8\. Barber has chosen to repeat the B\-flat instead of immediately moving to the G\-flat like in the ballad.
Sifferman's analysis of this movement claims that there is some uncertainty whether or not Barber “consciously borrowed” the tune “Streets of Laredo” for this arrangement. There is no direct evidence in previous research that states Barber's intentions with this movement. However, when analyzed more closely, one can clearly see that there is no question about this matter. Barber undoubtedly borrows this melody, if not, quotes it exactly.
The first eight measure phrase is broken into four measures of the antecedent and four measures of the consequent phrase, creating a “binary theme,” *a* \+ *b*.Carter, p. 41 The harmonic progression consists of a two\-measure pattern using the I, vi, ii and V chords. There is one alteration to that harmonic progression in measure 7 where the tonic harmony should return to begin a new two\-measure pattern. Instead of the tonic sonority, the vi chord appears which immediately moves the harmonic rhythm forward half a measure. In measure 8, the dominant chord occurs for the entire measure, making up for the lost half measure in 7\. The last measure of the theme, measure 8 is typically harmonized as I6/4 to V.
This repetitive harmonic progression dominates the entire movement, implying a harmonic ostinato beneath the melody. As seen in the first and the second movements, the third movement utilizes a basic harmonic progression to lay the framework for a seemingly improvisatory melody and variations later on in the piece.
The first few measures of this movement show some very unusual rhythmic organization in the right hand. In Carter's performance analysis of this movement, she explains “this movement poses the greatest number of technical and rhythmic problems for the performer.” She goes on to say that Barber, through this very unusual rhythm of seven against eight, disguises the original theme.Carter, p. 43 This rhythm is very difficult to play because when the two hands are playing together, the only time the beats align is on the downbeat of each measure. Despite this difficult rhythm, Barber “achieves a piquant, casual”Broder, p. 56 and “overall easy\-going bright and cheery mood.”Sifferman, p. 16
When listening to this piece, there seems to be a free, “bar\-less feeling” throughout the main theme. This is accomplished through the unusual rhythmic organization in the right hand. It is also accomplished in the root of specific chords not occurring on the strong beats. Arriving on the fifth of a chord as the lowest sounding pitch (second inversion) is a weak voicing and does not create strong harmonic movement. The submediant chord arrives in root position on the off\-beat of beat three, losing the strong middle pulse of a measure. This also occurs on the V chord, but instead of arriving on the fifth of the chord, it actually arrives on the root. However, immediately after that, the left hand moves an octave down, implying the “true” arrival of the dominant.
The first variation begins in measure 9, but the *a* phrase does not change from its first statement at the beginning of the movement. Only when the *b* section arrives in bar 13 is there a change of the original theme. Instead of continuing the seven\-against\-eight melodic line, Barber uses heavily syncopated, blocked sixteenth chords in the right hand, with the top note in each chord as the main melodic tone. While that is taking place, the left hand continues the eighth notes for two beats before switching to quintuplets for two beats.
As mentioned earlier, each blocked chord in the right hand consists of the melody in the top voice with the basic harmonic progression. However, Barber incorporates an added second or fourth. With those added tones, the triads can be considered cluster chords, or, more likely in this specific instance, as extended tertian harmonies of the basic progression. When analyzed as extended tertian, measures 13 and 14 are I9, vi11, ii11, and V13. This is another way that the melodic theme is “disguised” within the harmonies.
When variation I completes at the end of measure 16, variation II begins the *a* phrase in the original version, except at an octave above. When the *b* phrase appears, it occurs within the same octave as the a section, with a slightly more complex sixteenth\-note rhythm in the right hand. At the same time, the eighth\-note followed by a quintuplet pattern continues. This variation is similar to variation I in this manner.
Variation III occurs in measure 25\. This is the first variation that does not start with the *a* section, but rather, with the *b* section. Carter explains that in “most variation forms, the theme gradually becomes more obscured, as illustrated by the third variation.”Carter, p. 42 Barber uses more complex rhythms between the right and left hands. The right hand uses dotted sixteenth\-notes, triplets, and sextuplets, while the left hand plays the implied ostinato harmonic progression in quintuplets. The *b* section is repeated with increased complexity of rhythms: dotted sixteenth\-note to thirty\-second note patterns. Measure 32 contains a large scale that ascends from the C3 to the high B{{music\|b}}6.
In measure 33, Barber has written a scale with the mood of the section in mind. Every time a cluster appears, it occurs on the two or three consecutive black keys on the piano. Barber composed this passage so that the listener can perceive the entire span of the scale in a shorter amount of time without sounding frantic or rushed. This variation has a natural flowing feeling throughout, and for Barber to include the scale in this manner helps to add to that effect.
Variation IV begins in measure 33 with the original occurrence of the a phrase. When the *b* section appears in measure 37, it is the first time that the melody is heard in the left hand rather the right. The *b* melody is played with open block chords consisting of primarily sixths in parallel motion, creating a new sonority during the *b* section. The right hand has a constant sixteenth\-note ostinato pattern that has an octave displacement every two beats. This section is also the first time in the movement that the rhythmic organization of the melody is simple with a few slightly syncopated dotted eighth\- to sixteenth\-note fragments. These less complicated rhythms are consistent throughout the rest of the movement until the next variation.
At the start of Variation V in measures 41 through 44, the constant sixteenth\-notes of the right hand now continues in both hands. This variation consists of two statements of the consequent phrase from the original theme, instead of the typical *a* plus *b* phrases. The right hand continues with a new ostinato pattern involving D\-flat and E\-flat rather than C and D\-flat. It is similar to the previous variation, but still uses a two\-octave displacement. The left hand utilizes sixteenth\-note arpeggiations down from the main accented melodic tone.
In the music, Barber shows the distinction between the melody and the arpeggiations through the use of upward\-facing stems. For a performer, this can be very difficult to execute due to the need to accent certain tones of constant sixteenth\-note pattern to bring out the melody. This effect creates the feeling of two accompaniment voices alongside a third primary melodic voice.
The second consequent phrase of Variation V, measures 45 through 48\. The rhythmic pattern of the constant sixteenth\-notes continues, but for the first two bars the melody cannot be seen explicitly.
The harmonic progression of the first two measures of the *b* phrase is still preserved; however the melodic line is much more ambiguous. There is one tone that does not exist in the melody, that is the A\-flat that should occur in third or fourth beats of measure 45\. The B\-flat occurs on the very last sixteenth\-note of the measure, but there is not an A\-flat. The A\-flat in the original melody is treated as an incomplete neighbor tone to the B\-flat, so for it not to be present in this variation is not of much importance.
Another instance in which the melody is not exact is in measure 46\. Here, the D\-flat occurs before the F, but because both of those tones are a part of the overall V harmony, the importance is focused on the harmonic movement back to the tonic, rather than the specific melodic movement. In measure 47, the top G\-flat in the right hand has an arrow next to it showing the start of the rest of the melody in the top voice of the right hand.
From Susan Carter's dissertation, she explains the next section, Variation VI.
> The theme is treated broadly, with block chords in both hands. While this variation displays the richest sonority, rhythmic tension is avoided: both hands play the exact same rhythms. Although the pattern is in septuplets, the homorhythmic element gives this variation a sense of great power and stability.
This variation uses both antecedent and consequent phrases of the original theme, differing from the previous variation. Measure 55 consists of the septuplet melody in the right hand over constant eighth\-note movement in parallel octaves by the left hand. This re\-introduces the seven\-against\-eight rhythmic organization heard in the original theme.
As Variation VII begins, the unusual rhythmic organization continues in both consequent phrases. The second *b* phrase is written an octave higher with some mode mixture within the melody and harmony in the first two measures, 61 and 62\. Typically the last variation, number VIII, or the coda, which begins in measure 65, restates the original theme. In this case, Barber restates the *a* phrase, and in bar 69, the a begins as if to repeat itself, however it becomes modified. The last two measures slow down rhythmically, creating a gentle feeling to end the coda section and the overall movement.
As a theme and variations movement with seven different variations and a final coda, Barber is able to expand a popular and much loved cowboy ballad many different ways. With the difficult and unusual rhythmic organization that continually becomes more challenging, he provides the performer an opportunity to show their skill.
|
[
"Movement III\n------------",
"Barber’s third movement of *Excursions*, marked “Allegretto,” is a theme and variations described by Broder as “a sophisticated set of variations on a charming folk\\-like melody.” There is no doubt that this movement's melodic nature is that of a folk tune, but there is some debate if this was a pre\\-existing tune at the time Barber arranged it. It was not until Allan Kozinn published an interview with Samuel Barber in 1981 that the author confirmed that this movement was based on the tune “Streets of Laredo.”Kozinn, p. 47 There is, however, still some uncertainty.",
"James Sifferman, in his thesis, states:",
"> While there is similarity between a small portion of the melodic material found in the cowboy ballad and a melodic fragment in the Excursion, it is uncertain that Barber consciously borrowed preexisting folk material in constructing the *Excursion*.Sifferman, p. 15",
"",
"When listening to the tune “Streets of Laredo,” one can clearly hear the melodic similarity to Barber's third movement. Furthermore, when looking at a score of the folk tune, one can easily see the connection between the two pieces. It is highly unlikely that Barber based only a small portion of the movement on the folk tune.",
"Both consequent phrases of “Streets of Laredo” and the theme from Barber's allegretto begin on a D\\-flat and proceed to descend to the D\\-flat an octave below. In measure 9 of the ballad, the first D\\-flat is being prolonged through moving to an inner voice of the I harmony, the B\\-flat, before moving to the C in bar 10\\. An upper neighbor, the D\\-flat, also prolongs the C before continuing to descend. This descent ends in measure 12 on the lower D\\-flat.",
"This motion is also evident in the allegretto stretching from measures 5 and 6\\. The first D\\-flat moves to the B\\-flat by way of an incomplete neighbor, the A\\-flat. It then moves up by step into the C before descending down to the lower octave D\\-flat. This register change is clearly seen in both the “Streets of Laredo” and in the allegretto.",
"Starting at the lower octave D\\-flat in the ballad, there is an initial upward skip of a fourth followed by a prolongation of the G\\-flat by a lower\\-neighbor, the F. Then the melody rises by step to the C before stepping down to the B\\-flat and eventually skipping to the G\\-flat. Finally, to cadence the tune, the melody steps up into the G\\-flat before returning to the final G\\-flat.",
"Even when briefly analyzed, the allegretto contains almost the exact melodic line from the cowboy ballad. Beginning on the low D\\-flat in measure 6, which is the last note of the septuplet in the melody, the ballad is explicitly borrowed in this section. There are two places in which the two tunes are not exact: the first is measure 13 of the ballad and the second in measure 7 of the allegretto. In measure 13 of the ballad, there is a lower\\-neighbor (F) that prolongs the G\\-flat; in Barber's movement, the G\\-flat (m. 7\\) is simply repeated without the neighbor.",
"The F in bar 13 of the “Streets of Laredo” tune is not as significant as other tones in the melody because of its treatment as a non\\-chord tone. That Barber chose not to carry that note over to his arrangement of the tune is not detrimental to the overall shape of the melodic line. When analyzing that beat more closely, there is, in fact, a non\\-chord tone that acts as a lower\\-neighbor. That non\\-chord tone is the D\\-flat to the E\\-flat. Even though Barber did not include the original F lower\\-neighbor in the melody, there is still one included; however it is simply not in the original position. The other location in which Barber has taken liberty with his arrangement of the consequent phrase of the tune is in the first two beats of measure 8\\. Barber has chosen to repeat the B\\-flat instead of immediately moving to the G\\-flat like in the ballad.",
"Sifferman's analysis of this movement claims that there is some uncertainty whether or not Barber “consciously borrowed” the tune “Streets of Laredo” for this arrangement. There is no direct evidence in previous research that states Barber's intentions with this movement. However, when analyzed more closely, one can clearly see that there is no question about this matter. Barber undoubtedly borrows this melody, if not, quotes it exactly.\n \nThe first eight measure phrase is broken into four measures of the antecedent and four measures of the consequent phrase, creating a “binary theme,” *a* \\+ *b*.Carter, p. 41 The harmonic progression consists of a two\\-measure pattern using the I, vi, ii and V chords. There is one alteration to that harmonic progression in measure 7 where the tonic harmony should return to begin a new two\\-measure pattern. Instead of the tonic sonority, the vi chord appears which immediately moves the harmonic rhythm forward half a measure. In measure 8, the dominant chord occurs for the entire measure, making up for the lost half measure in 7\\. The last measure of the theme, measure 8 is typically harmonized as I6/4 to V.",
"This repetitive harmonic progression dominates the entire movement, implying a harmonic ostinato beneath the melody. As seen in the first and the second movements, the third movement utilizes a basic harmonic progression to lay the framework for a seemingly improvisatory melody and variations later on in the piece.",
"The first few measures of this movement show some very unusual rhythmic organization in the right hand. In Carter's performance analysis of this movement, she explains “this movement poses the greatest number of technical and rhythmic problems for the performer.” She goes on to say that Barber, through this very unusual rhythm of seven against eight, disguises the original theme.Carter, p. 43 This rhythm is very difficult to play because when the two hands are playing together, the only time the beats align is on the downbeat of each measure. Despite this difficult rhythm, Barber “achieves a piquant, casual”Broder, p. 56 and “overall easy\\-going bright and cheery mood.”Sifferman, p. 16",
"When listening to this piece, there seems to be a free, “bar\\-less feeling” throughout the main theme. This is accomplished through the unusual rhythmic organization in the right hand. It is also accomplished in the root of specific chords not occurring on the strong beats. Arriving on the fifth of a chord as the lowest sounding pitch (second inversion) is a weak voicing and does not create strong harmonic movement. The submediant chord arrives in root position on the off\\-beat of beat three, losing the strong middle pulse of a measure. This also occurs on the V chord, but instead of arriving on the fifth of the chord, it actually arrives on the root. However, immediately after that, the left hand moves an octave down, implying the “true” arrival of the dominant.",
"The first variation begins in measure 9, but the *a* phrase does not change from its first statement at the beginning of the movement. Only when the *b* section arrives in bar 13 is there a change of the original theme. Instead of continuing the seven\\-against\\-eight melodic line, Barber uses heavily syncopated, blocked sixteenth chords in the right hand, with the top note in each chord as the main melodic tone. While that is taking place, the left hand continues the eighth notes for two beats before switching to quintuplets for two beats.",
"As mentioned earlier, each blocked chord in the right hand consists of the melody in the top voice with the basic harmonic progression. However, Barber incorporates an added second or fourth. With those added tones, the triads can be considered cluster chords, or, more likely in this specific instance, as extended tertian harmonies of the basic progression. When analyzed as extended tertian, measures 13 and 14 are I9, vi11, ii11, and V13. This is another way that the melodic theme is “disguised” within the harmonies.",
"When variation I completes at the end of measure 16, variation II begins the *a* phrase in the original version, except at an octave above. When the *b* phrase appears, it occurs within the same octave as the a section, with a slightly more complex sixteenth\\-note rhythm in the right hand. At the same time, the eighth\\-note followed by a quintuplet pattern continues. This variation is similar to variation I in this manner.",
"Variation III occurs in measure 25\\. This is the first variation that does not start with the *a* section, but rather, with the *b* section. Carter explains that in “most variation forms, the theme gradually becomes more obscured, as illustrated by the third variation.”Carter, p. 42 Barber uses more complex rhythms between the right and left hands. The right hand uses dotted sixteenth\\-notes, triplets, and sextuplets, while the left hand plays the implied ostinato harmonic progression in quintuplets. The *b* section is repeated with increased complexity of rhythms: dotted sixteenth\\-note to thirty\\-second note patterns. Measure 32 contains a large scale that ascends from the C3 to the high B{{music\\|b}}6.",
"In measure 33, Barber has written a scale with the mood of the section in mind. Every time a cluster appears, it occurs on the two or three consecutive black keys on the piano. Barber composed this passage so that the listener can perceive the entire span of the scale in a shorter amount of time without sounding frantic or rushed. This variation has a natural flowing feeling throughout, and for Barber to include the scale in this manner helps to add to that effect.",
"Variation IV begins in measure 33 with the original occurrence of the a phrase. When the *b* section appears in measure 37, it is the first time that the melody is heard in the left hand rather the right. The *b* melody is played with open block chords consisting of primarily sixths in parallel motion, creating a new sonority during the *b* section. The right hand has a constant sixteenth\\-note ostinato pattern that has an octave displacement every two beats. This section is also the first time in the movement that the rhythmic organization of the melody is simple with a few slightly syncopated dotted eighth\\- to sixteenth\\-note fragments. These less complicated rhythms are consistent throughout the rest of the movement until the next variation.",
"At the start of Variation V in measures 41 through 44, the constant sixteenth\\-notes of the right hand now continues in both hands. This variation consists of two statements of the consequent phrase from the original theme, instead of the typical *a* plus *b* phrases. The right hand continues with a new ostinato pattern involving D\\-flat and E\\-flat rather than C and D\\-flat. It is similar to the previous variation, but still uses a two\\-octave displacement. The left hand utilizes sixteenth\\-note arpeggiations down from the main accented melodic tone.",
"In the music, Barber shows the distinction between the melody and the arpeggiations through the use of upward\\-facing stems. For a performer, this can be very difficult to execute due to the need to accent certain tones of constant sixteenth\\-note pattern to bring out the melody. This effect creates the feeling of two accompaniment voices alongside a third primary melodic voice.\nThe second consequent phrase of Variation V, measures 45 through 48\\. The rhythmic pattern of the constant sixteenth\\-notes continues, but for the first two bars the melody cannot be seen explicitly.",
"The harmonic progression of the first two measures of the *b* phrase is still preserved; however the melodic line is much more ambiguous. There is one tone that does not exist in the melody, that is the A\\-flat that should occur in third or fourth beats of measure 45\\. The B\\-flat occurs on the very last sixteenth\\-note of the measure, but there is not an A\\-flat. The A\\-flat in the original melody is treated as an incomplete neighbor tone to the B\\-flat, so for it not to be present in this variation is not of much importance.",
"Another instance in which the melody is not exact is in measure 46\\. Here, the D\\-flat occurs before the F, but because both of those tones are a part of the overall V harmony, the importance is focused on the harmonic movement back to the tonic, rather than the specific melodic movement. In measure 47, the top G\\-flat in the right hand has an arrow next to it showing the start of the rest of the melody in the top voice of the right hand.",
"From Susan Carter's dissertation, she explains the next section, Variation VI.",
"> The theme is treated broadly, with block chords in both hands. While this variation displays the richest sonority, rhythmic tension is avoided: both hands play the exact same rhythms. Although the pattern is in septuplets, the homorhythmic element gives this variation a sense of great power and stability.",
"",
"This variation uses both antecedent and consequent phrases of the original theme, differing from the previous variation. Measure 55 consists of the septuplet melody in the right hand over constant eighth\\-note movement in parallel octaves by the left hand. This re\\-introduces the seven\\-against\\-eight rhythmic organization heard in the original theme.",
"As Variation VII begins, the unusual rhythmic organization continues in both consequent phrases. The second *b* phrase is written an octave higher with some mode mixture within the melody and harmony in the first two measures, 61 and 62\\. Typically the last variation, number VIII, or the coda, which begins in measure 65, restates the original theme. In this case, Barber restates the *a* phrase, and in bar 69, the a begins as if to repeat itself, however it becomes modified. The last two measures slow down rhythmically, creating a gentle feeling to end the coda section and the overall movement.",
"As a theme and variations movement with seven different variations and a final coda, Barber is able to expand a popular and much loved cowboy ballad many different ways. With the difficult and unusual rhythmic organization that continually becomes more challenging, he provides the performer an opportunity to show their skill.",
""
] |
Movement IV
-----------
The fourth movement is an “exuberant and joyous barn dance,”Carter, p. 45 and functions as the finale of the complete set. This movement in particular captures the idiomatic sounds and styles of a fiddler and his or her accompanying harmonica or accordion player. With a tonal center on F, the primary harmonies used are F\-major and B\-flat major chords, the I and IV harmonies respectively. Added tones are also frequently used.
The form of this movement was first called a “frame form” by Friedewald in his dissertation. The A section from measures 1 to 13, the B from measure 14 to 56 and the return of A’, measures 56 through 70\.Friedewald, p. 131 However, the B section can be further analyzed as its own type of ternary form (a: m. 14\-23, a’: m. 24\-33, b: m. 34\-40, a: m. 41\-48, [retransition](/wiki/Sonata_form%23Development "Sonata form#Development"): m. 49\-56\).Sifferman, p. 20 This way of analyzing the B section tends to be more truthful to what actually occurs in the music.
Sifferman takes the form of this movement a step further by explaining that this movement can be analyzed in an [arch form](/wiki/Arch_form "Arch form"). “The idea of the two A sections being merely a frame seems unjustified in view of their relative length and substance.” Viewing this movement as an arch form combines both Friedewald's analysis of the frame form with better explaining the larger B section. With this analysis, the larger B section now is broken up into B, C and a retransition section.
In the very beginning of this movement, Barber presents two motives upon which he expands throughout the rest of the piece. The initial blocked chords consisting of the tonic and subdominant harmonies is Motive 1\. Because of the strict limitation of harmonies, the music seems to imply that this is idiomatic to a harmonica. The next two measures introduce another voice consisting of a repeated pattern of sixteenth\-notes while the harmonica accompaniment continues. This fast\-paced sixteenth rhythm implies a fiddle\-like feeling. The combination of the fiddle and harmonica, create these two voices that move “like freely improvised parts over the simple alternation of tonic and subdominant harmonies.”Sifferman, p. 18\-19
Barber uses these two motives, with slightly altered versions, multiple times within this piece. In measure 6, the alternating tonic to subdominant chord motive\-1 pattern returns for one measure before moving to the sixteenth\-note pattern in measure 7\. Motive 2 lasts for three bars instead of the regular two. In measure 10 the texture changes over the tonic harmony, beginning the transition into the B1 section. In bar 12 there is an added non\-chord tone, the G\-sharp that adds color and intensity to the tonic harmony. Motive 2 appears returning multiple times in measures 19, 21, 28, 31, and 33\.
The B1 section starts on measure 14 and ends in bar 22 followed by a transition to B2 in measure 23\. There is another motive that Barber composed that is only found within the three middle sections of this movement. Motive 3 is the left\-hand pattern that occurs in measures 14 through 17 can be found two other times in the movement (measures 24 and 41\). The Motive 3 pattern and the proceeding melody that occurs after is very idiomatic to the fiddle while the accompaniment pattern continues to be similar to the harmonica.
The transition in measure 23 that moves the piece from B1 to B2 has a similarity to the transitional measure in bar 12\. The added G\-sharp creates a tension and intensity to move the piece forward. These first two B sections start at a ***mf*** and slowly crescendo all the way to ***ff*** in measure 31\. Barber uses the motive 2 multiple times during this passage and each time it appears, the dynamic level is altered in some way. In bar 19, Motive 2 “fiddling” through its sixteenth\-notes on ***f*** after crescendo\-ing into that. In measures 28 and 31, motive 2 is restated again, except these two times, both are stated in an octave and two octaves higher respectively.
Section B2 ends in measure 33 and in bar 34, the C phrase begins. With the added “*con forza*” and it still being ***ff***, Barber includes shows how these two measures are the most important of the entire piece. These two measures is a modified restatement of the Motive 1\. Instead of alternating quarter\-notes triads, Barber creates more intensity with syncopated eighth\- and sixteenth\-note rhythms. (see Ex. 19\) Also the alternating tonic to subdominant harmonies unifies this movement through every section.
It is still ***ff*** until measure 36 when the dynamic changes to ***mp***. Not only does the dynamics change, but a new melodic idea is introduced. This new melody occurs in the right hand in parallel\-third motion. The occurrence of this one\-bar melodic idea is the only time in the piece that Barber uses it.
Not only does measure 36 contain a melodic rhythm that is only heard once, it also contains E\-flats in the accompaniment as well as beat four in the right hand. As previously discussed in Movement II of the *Excursions* set, Barber uses “blue” notes that are characteristic of the blues style. These “blue” notes are typically the thirds or sevenths that have been bended or “worried” lower than their traditional diatonic tones. In this instance, Barber uses the “blue” E\-flat starting in measure 36 and lasting through measure 40 before B1 returns. In measure 40, the transition from C back to B1 contains A\-flat and E\-flat seventh chords, varying briefly from the limited harmonies of the tonic and subdominant.
The B1 section starting in measure 41 is an exact repetition of the B1 section that began in measure 14\. However, measure 17 of B1 does not repeat as it should in bar 44 of the B2 phrase. Motive 3 reappears in this section in the left hand as does Motive 2 in measures 45 and 47 of the right. Beginning in measure 49, a retransition occurs to bring the original A section back. This retransition continues to alternate between the tonic and subdominant harmonies but also contains many added tones. These sixteenth\-note rhythms and chords are fairly syncopated, but Barber includes accent marks over the certain beats to further enhance the syncopation. Even though starting in measure 53 there is a *diminuendo* included, the motion and intensity is still preserved through the *stringendo a poco a poco*.
After ending the retransition section from B1 to A1 on a middle C, Barber alters the original motive 1 again. The beginning of the A1 section alters motive 1 with “appoggiaturas built on chromatic quartal harmonies.”Carter, p. 48 Sifferman hears these chromatic grace notes as imitations of “the sound achieved through breathing alternately in and out on a harmonica.”Sifferman, p. 19 Barber continues to imitate the sounds of common instruments within this barn\-yard dance movement.
After measure 58, there is a literal restatement of the original A from the beginning of the movement. The closing section begins to conclude the movement starting at measure 66 on a tonic harmony with an added sixth, D. After a four\-measure decrescendo into measure 69 on a ***pp***, bar 70 ends the movement with an arpeggiated F9 extended [Tertian](/wiki/Tertian "Tertian") harmony. This “blues ninth chord” is another instance how Barber creates aspects that “idiomatic to the harmonica.”
Throughout this entire movement, either in the right or left hand, there is a clear melodic line on a single tone or in thirds. Accompanying that melody is another voice that is strictly chordal and only limited vocabulary of harmonies. In this stylized barn dance, Barber recreates the American idiom of a fiddler with another person accompanying them on the harmonica or accordion.
|
[
"Movement IV\n-----------",
"The fourth movement is an “exuberant and joyous barn dance,”Carter, p. 45 and functions as the finale of the complete set. This movement in particular captures the idiomatic sounds and styles of a fiddler and his or her accompanying harmonica or accordion player. With a tonal center on F, the primary harmonies used are F\\-major and B\\-flat major chords, the I and IV harmonies respectively. Added tones are also frequently used.",
"The form of this movement was first called a “frame form” by Friedewald in his dissertation. The A section from measures 1 to 13, the B from measure 14 to 56 and the return of A’, measures 56 through 70\\.Friedewald, p. 131 However, the B section can be further analyzed as its own type of ternary form (a: m. 14\\-23, a’: m. 24\\-33, b: m. 34\\-40, a: m. 41\\-48, [retransition](/wiki/Sonata_form%23Development \"Sonata form#Development\"): m. 49\\-56\\).Sifferman, p. 20 This way of analyzing the B section tends to be more truthful to what actually occurs in the music.",
"Sifferman takes the form of this movement a step further by explaining that this movement can be analyzed in an [arch form](/wiki/Arch_form \"Arch form\"). “The idea of the two A sections being merely a frame seems unjustified in view of their relative length and substance.” Viewing this movement as an arch form combines both Friedewald's analysis of the frame form with better explaining the larger B section. With this analysis, the larger B section now is broken up into B, C and a retransition section.",
"In the very beginning of this movement, Barber presents two motives upon which he expands throughout the rest of the piece. The initial blocked chords consisting of the tonic and subdominant harmonies is Motive 1\\. Because of the strict limitation of harmonies, the music seems to imply that this is idiomatic to a harmonica. The next two measures introduce another voice consisting of a repeated pattern of sixteenth\\-notes while the harmonica accompaniment continues. This fast\\-paced sixteenth rhythm implies a fiddle\\-like feeling. The combination of the fiddle and harmonica, create these two voices that move “like freely improvised parts over the simple alternation of tonic and subdominant harmonies.”Sifferman, p. 18\\-19",
"Barber uses these two motives, with slightly altered versions, multiple times within this piece. In measure 6, the alternating tonic to subdominant chord motive\\-1 pattern returns for one measure before moving to the sixteenth\\-note pattern in measure 7\\. Motive 2 lasts for three bars instead of the regular two. In measure 10 the texture changes over the tonic harmony, beginning the transition into the B1 section. In bar 12 there is an added non\\-chord tone, the G\\-sharp that adds color and intensity to the tonic harmony. Motive 2 appears returning multiple times in measures 19, 21, 28, 31, and 33\\.",
"The B1 section starts on measure 14 and ends in bar 22 followed by a transition to B2 in measure 23\\. There is another motive that Barber composed that is only found within the three middle sections of this movement. Motive 3 is the left\\-hand pattern that occurs in measures 14 through 17 can be found two other times in the movement (measures 24 and 41\\). The Motive 3 pattern and the proceeding melody that occurs after is very idiomatic to the fiddle while the accompaniment pattern continues to be similar to the harmonica.",
"The transition in measure 23 that moves the piece from B1 to B2 has a similarity to the transitional measure in bar 12\\. The added G\\-sharp creates a tension and intensity to move the piece forward. These first two B sections start at a ***mf*** and slowly crescendo all the way to ***ff*** in measure 31\\. Barber uses the motive 2 multiple times during this passage and each time it appears, the dynamic level is altered in some way. In bar 19, Motive 2 “fiddling” through its sixteenth\\-notes on ***f*** after crescendo\\-ing into that. In measures 28 and 31, motive 2 is restated again, except these two times, both are stated in an octave and two octaves higher respectively.",
"Section B2 ends in measure 33 and in bar 34, the C phrase begins. With the added “*con forza*” and it still being ***ff***, Barber includes shows how these two measures are the most important of the entire piece. These two measures is a modified restatement of the Motive 1\\. Instead of alternating quarter\\-notes triads, Barber creates more intensity with syncopated eighth\\- and sixteenth\\-note rhythms. (see Ex. 19\\) Also the alternating tonic to subdominant harmonies unifies this movement through every section.",
"It is still ***ff*** until measure 36 when the dynamic changes to ***mp***. Not only does the dynamics change, but a new melodic idea is introduced. This new melody occurs in the right hand in parallel\\-third motion. The occurrence of this one\\-bar melodic idea is the only time in the piece that Barber uses it.",
"Not only does measure 36 contain a melodic rhythm that is only heard once, it also contains E\\-flats in the accompaniment as well as beat four in the right hand. As previously discussed in Movement II of the *Excursions* set, Barber uses “blue” notes that are characteristic of the blues style. These “blue” notes are typically the thirds or sevenths that have been bended or “worried” lower than their traditional diatonic tones. In this instance, Barber uses the “blue” E\\-flat starting in measure 36 and lasting through measure 40 before B1 returns. In measure 40, the transition from C back to B1 contains A\\-flat and E\\-flat seventh chords, varying briefly from the limited harmonies of the tonic and subdominant.",
"The B1 section starting in measure 41 is an exact repetition of the B1 section that began in measure 14\\. However, measure 17 of B1 does not repeat as it should in bar 44 of the B2 phrase. Motive 3 reappears in this section in the left hand as does Motive 2 in measures 45 and 47 of the right. Beginning in measure 49, a retransition occurs to bring the original A section back. This retransition continues to alternate between the tonic and subdominant harmonies but also contains many added tones. These sixteenth\\-note rhythms and chords are fairly syncopated, but Barber includes accent marks over the certain beats to further enhance the syncopation. Even though starting in measure 53 there is a *diminuendo* included, the motion and intensity is still preserved through the *stringendo a poco a poco*.",
"After ending the retransition section from B1 to A1 on a middle C, Barber alters the original motive 1 again. The beginning of the A1 section alters motive 1 with “appoggiaturas built on chromatic quartal harmonies.”Carter, p. 48 Sifferman hears these chromatic grace notes as imitations of “the sound achieved through breathing alternately in and out on a harmonica.”Sifferman, p. 19 Barber continues to imitate the sounds of common instruments within this barn\\-yard dance movement.",
"After measure 58, there is a literal restatement of the original A from the beginning of the movement. The closing section begins to conclude the movement starting at measure 66 on a tonic harmony with an added sixth, D. After a four\\-measure decrescendo into measure 69 on a ***pp***, bar 70 ends the movement with an arpeggiated F9 extended [Tertian](/wiki/Tertian \"Tertian\") harmony. This “blues ninth chord” is another instance how Barber creates aspects that “idiomatic to the harmonica.”",
"Throughout this entire movement, either in the right or left hand, there is a clear melodic line on a single tone or in thirds. Accompanying that melody is another voice that is strictly chordal and only limited vocabulary of harmonies. In this stylized barn dance, Barber recreates the American idiom of a fiddler with another person accompanying them on the harmonica or accordion.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Early career
Mmoh enjoyed early success on the [ITF Futures](/wiki/ITF_Futures "ITF Futures") tour, winning three titles before turning 18\.
### 2016–17: ATP, Grand Slam and top 200 debut
In February 2016, Mmoh qualified for his first ATP\-level tournament at [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis_Open_%28tennis%29 "Memphis Open (tennis)") by defeating fellow Americans [Dennis Novikov](/wiki/Dennis_Novikov "Dennis Novikov") and [Bjorn Fratangelo](/wiki/Bjorn_Fratangelo "Bjorn Fratangelo"). He then lost in the first round to eventual finalist [Taylor Fritz](/wiki/Taylor_Fritz "Taylor Fritz"), the highest ranked American teenager at the time. Following his fourth Futures title, Mmoh was awarded a wildcard into the [Miami Masters](/wiki/2016_Miami_Open "2016 Miami Open"), where he lost to [Alexander Zverev](/wiki/Alexander_Zverev "Alexander Zverev"), the top\-ranked 18 year\-old in the world, after dropping two tiebreaks.
In September 2016, Mmoh broke into the top 300 for the first time by reaching the final of the [ATP Challenger](/wiki/ATP_Challenger "ATP Challenger") event at [Tiburon](/wiki/2016_Tiburon_Challenger "2016 Tiburon Challenger") as a qualifier.
In November 2016, he reached the Top 200 and also won the [2017 Australian Open](/wiki/2017_Australian_Open "2017 Australian Open") Wild Card Challenge largely by winning his first career [Challenger](/wiki/ATP_Challenger "ATP Challenger") title at [Knoxville](/wiki/2016_Knoxville_Challenger "2016 Knoxville Challenger").
He would claim another Challenger title the following summer in August 2017 at [Lexington](/wiki/Lexington_Challenger "Lexington Challenger").
### 2018: Top 100, First ATP wins \& quarterfinals, Masters third round
To start off the 2018 season, Mmoh recorded his first career ATP\-level match wins by defeating [Federico Delbonis](/wiki/Federico_Delbonis "Federico Delbonis") in the first round of the [Brisbane International](/wiki/2018_Brisbane_International "2018 Brisbane International") and world No. 33 [Mischa Zverev](/wiki/Mischa_Zverev "Mischa Zverev") to make the quarterfinals, where he lost to [Alex de Minaur](/wiki/Alex_de_Minaur "Alex de Minaur").{{cite web\|title\=Teenager Alex De Minaur beats Michael Mmoh to reach Brisbane ATP semi\-finals\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/tennis/teenager\-alex\-de\-minaur\-beats\-michael\-mmoh\-to\-reach\-brisbane\-atp\-semifinals/news\-story/3dd57e470372c5020f83dbee6698a862\|website\=Fox Sports\|date\=January 5, 2018 \|access\-date\=June 20, 2021}}
At the [2018 Miami Open](/wiki/2018_Miami_Open "2018 Miami Open") he reached the third round as a qualifier for the first time at a Masters level defeating 12th seed [Roberto Bautista Agut](/wiki/Roberto_Bautista_Agut "Roberto Bautista Agut") for his first top\-15 win and the biggest of his career.{{cite web \| url\=https://tennisaccent.com/2018/03/24/michael\-mmoh\-finds\-a\-shining\-mmoh\-ment\-against\-rba/ \| title\=Michael Mmoh Finds a Shining Mmoh\-Ment Against Rba \| date\=March 24, 2018 }}
He entered the main draw at the [2018 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2018_Wimbledon_Championships "2018 Wimbledon Championships") for the first time at this Grand Slam as a lucky loser. He reached the top 100 at World No. 97 on 1 October 2018\.
### 2019–20: First Grand Slam win
In January 2019, Mmoh qualified for the first time via ranking in a Grand Slam main draw at the [2019 Australian Open](/wiki/2019_Australian_Open "2019 Australian Open") where he lost in the first round to [Radu Albot](/wiki/Radu_Albot "Radu Albot").
At the [2020 Australian Open](/wiki/2020_Australian_Open "2020 Australian Open"), Mmoh recorded his first main draw victory with a straight sets win over [Pablo Andújar](/wiki/Pablo_And%C3%BAjar "Pablo Andújar") as a wildcard. Following his Australian Open performance, Mmoh qualified for the main draw at the [2020 US Open](/wiki/2020_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2020 US Open (tennis)"), where he won his first round match against [João Sousa](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Sousa "João Sousa") in four sets, and also at the [2020 French Open](/wiki/2020_French_Open "2020 French Open"), where he lost in the first round.
### 2021–22: ATP quarterfinal, Out of top 250
At the [2021 Australian Open](/wiki/2021_Australian_Open "2021 Australian Open") he reached again the second round in a five set stunning comeback against [Viktor Troicki](/wiki/Viktor_Troicki "Viktor Troicki") but lost to second seed [Rafael Nadal](/wiki/Rafael_Nadal "Rafael Nadal") in the next round.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/five\-things\-to\-know\-michael\-mmoh \| title\=Five Things to Know About Michael Mmoh, Rafael Nadal's Next Opponent \| ATP Tour \| Tennis }}
He received a wildcard for the [2021 Miami Open](/wiki/2021_Miami_Open "2021 Miami Open").
In 2022, he entered the [2022 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships](/wiki/2022_U.S._Men%27s_Clay_Court_Championships "2022 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships") as a lucky loser directly into the second round replacing top seed [Casper Ruud](/wiki/Casper_Ruud "Casper Ruud") who withdrew in the last minute. He won his first match defeating [Sam Querrey](/wiki/Sam_Querrey "Sam Querrey") to reach the quarterfinals{{cite web \| url\=https://www.tennis.com/news/articles/motivated\-by\-recent\-success\-michael\-mmoh\-coming\-into\-form\-in\-houston \| title\=Motivated by recent success, Michael Mmoh "coming into form" in Houston }} but withdrew due to injury.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/opelka\-houston\-2022\-friday \| title\=Reilly Opelka Sets Nick Kyrgios Showdown in Houston SFS \| ATP Tour \| Tennis }}
Mmoh won a wildcard entry into the main draw at the [2022 French Open](/wiki/2022_French_Open "2022 French Open") by winning the Roland Garros wildcard challenge.{{Cite web\|date\=3 May 2022\|title\=Michael Mmoh Earns French Open Main Draw Wild Card by Winning Men's Roland Garros Wild Card Challenge\|url\=https://www.tennis\-tourtalk.com/89063/michael\-mmoh\-earns\-french\-open\-main\-draw\-wild\-card\-by\-winning\-mens\-roland\-garros\-wild\-card\-challenge\|publisher\=Tennis Taratari\|access\-date\=7 May 2022\|archive\-date\=May 3, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503054517/https://www.tennis\-tourtalk.com/89063/michael\-mmoh\-earns\-french\-open\-main\-draw\-wild\-card\-by\-winning\-mens\-roland\-garros\-wild\-card\-challenge\|url\-status\=dead}}
### 2023: Best season: Two Major third rounds, fourth ATP quarterfinal, top 85
Mmoh's first tournament of the year was in [Pune](/wiki/2023_Tata_Open_Maharashtra_%E2%80%93_Singles "2023 Tata Open Maharashtra – Singles"), where he defeated local wildcard [Manas Dhamne](/wiki/Manas_Dhamne "Manas Dhamne") in the first round{{cite web \| url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/tennis/15yearold\-manas\-dhamne\-impresses\-in\-first\-round\-tata\-open\-loss\-101672677750766\.html \| title\=15\-year\-old Manas Dhamne impresses in first round Tata Open loss \| date\=January 2, 2023 }} before losing to the 6th seed, [Filip Krajinović](/wiki/Filip_Krajinovi%C4%87 "Filip Krajinović") in the second round.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.tennismajors.com/atp/pune\-open\-krajinovic\-moves\-into\-quarter\-finals\-651533\.html \| title\=Tennis, ATP – Pune Open 2023: Krajinovic gets past Mmoh \| date\=January 4, 2023 }}
He then entered the [2023 Australian Open](/wiki/2023_Australian_Open "2023 Australian Open") as a lucky loser after the withdrawal of [David Goffin](/wiki/David_Goffin "David Goffin") and won his first round match, defeating fellow qualifier French [Laurent Lokoli](/wiki/Laurent_Lokoli "Laurent Lokoli"), after saving a match point in the third set. He then defeated 12th seed [Alexander Zverev](/wiki/Alexander_Zverev "Alexander Zverev") in the second round.{{cite tweet \|author\=ATP Tour \|author\-link\=ATP Tour \|user\=atptour \|number\=1615991734986772480 \|date\=January 19, 2023 \|title\=🚨 The upsets continue 🚨 @MichaelMmoh defeats Zverev 6\-7(1\) 6\-4 6\-3 6\-2 to move on to the third round down under! @AustralianOpen {{!}} \#AusOpen https://t.co/5ZVJK6FU5z \|language\=en \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023}}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.tennismajors.com/australian\-open\-news/australian\-open\-mmoh\-books\-spot\-in\-third\-round\-655678\.html \| title\=Tennis, ATP – Australian Open 2023: Mmoh eliminates Zverev \| date\=January 19, 2023 }} He became the fifth player to make it as a lucky loser to the third round; the furthest a lucky loser had made it at this Major is the fourth round ([Stéphane Robert](/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Robert "Stéphane Robert") in 2014\).{{cite tweet \|author\=OptaAce \|user\=OptaAce \|number\=1616005873826156549 \|date\=January 19, 2023 \|title\=5 \- Michael Mmoh is the 5th player to make it as a lucky loser to the round of 32 in the Australian Open, the furthest a LL has made it in the Australian Open is round of 16 (Stephane Robert in 2014\). Power. \#AusOpen2023 \#AusOpen https://t.co/4sU0m3KpqQ \|language\=en \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023}} As a result he moved up 25 positions back into the top 100 to a new career\-high singles ranking of No. 83 on 30
January 2023\.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/challenger\-tour\-feature\-mmoh\-january\-2023 \| title\=Books, Psychologist, \& Challenger Tour Play Role in Mmoh's Top 100 Return \| ATP Tour \| Tennis }}
In February, he lost in the first round at the [Dallas Open](/wiki/2023_Dallas_Open "2023 Dallas Open") to eventual champion [Yibing Wu](/wiki/Wu_Yibing "Wu Yibing"). The following week, he reached the round of 16 at the [Delray Beach Open](/wiki/2023_Delray_Beach_Open_%E2%80%93_Singles "2023 Delray Beach Open – Singles") by defeating wildcard [Aleksandar Kovacevic](/wiki/Aleksandar_Kovacevic_%28tennis%29 "Aleksandar Kovacevic (tennis)") in three sets.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.tennismajors.com/atp/delray\-beach\-open\-mmoh\-books\-spot\-in\-second\-round\-660689\.html \| title\=Tennis, ATP – Delray Beach Open 2023: Mmoh eliminates Kovacevic \| date\=February 14, 2023 }} He then reached the quarterfinals after upsetting third seed [Denis Shapovalov](/wiki/Denis_Shapovalov "Denis Shapovalov"), also in three sets.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/mmoh\-shapovalov\-delray\-beach\-2023\-wednesday \| title\=Michael Mmoh Upsets Denis Shapovalov to Reach Delray Beach QFS \| ATP Tour \| Tennis }} As a result, he reached a new career high ranking of No. 82 on 20 February 2023\.
In early March, Mmoh suffered a leg injury at the [Mexican Open](/wiki/2023_Abierto_Mexicano_Telcel_%E2%80%93_Singles "2023 Abierto Mexicano Telcel – Singles") during his second round match against [Tommy Paul](/wiki/Tommy_Paul_%28tennis%29 "Tommy Paul (tennis)") and did not return to competition until May at the [French Open](/wiki/2023_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles "2023 French Open – Men's singles"), where he lost in the first round to ninth seed [Taylor Fritz](/wiki/Taylor_Fritz "Taylor Fritz"). He entered the [2023 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2023_Wimbledon_Championships "2023 Wimbledon Championships") as a lucky loser again and defeated 11th seed [Félix Auger\-Aliassime](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Auger-Aliassime "Félix Auger-Aliassime") in the first round.
In July 2023, in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/2023_Citi_Open "2023 Citi Open"), he defeated world No. 17 [Hubert Hurkacz](/wiki/Hubert_Hurkacz "Hubert Hurkacz"), and in [Winston\-Salem](/wiki/2023_Winston-Salem_Open "2023 Winston-Salem Open") he beat [Marcos Giron](/wiki/Marcos_Giron "Marcos Giron") as a wildcard.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/mmoh\-washington\-2023\-feature \| title\='The New' Michael Mmoh \| ATP Tour \| Tennis }} Next he defeated 11th seed [Karen Khachanov](/wiki/Karen_Khachanov "Karen Khachanov") in the first and [John Isner](/wiki/John_Isner "John Isner") in the second round of the [US Open](/wiki/2023_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2023 US Open (tennis)").[https://www.usopen.org/en\_US/news/articles/2023\-09\-02/michael\_mmoh\_is\_on\_the\_rise\_at\_the\_2023\_us\_open.html](https://www.usopen.org/en_US/news/articles/2023-09-02/michael_mmoh_is_on_the_rise_at_the_2023_us_open.html) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}} It was Isner's last singles match before retiring from professional tennis.{{Cite news \|last\=Fadulu \|first\=Lola \|date\=September 1, 2023 \|title\=John Isner Says Goodbye to Pro Tennis at the U.S. Open \|language\=en\-US \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/31/sports/tennis/us\-open\-john\-isner\-retirement.html \|access\-date\=September 5, 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331}}[https://www.usopen.org/en\_US/news/articles/2023\-08\-23/john\_isner\_announces\_plans\_to\_retire\_following\_2023\_us\_open.html](https://www.usopen.org/en_US/news/articles/2023-08-23/john_isner_announces_plans_to_retire_following_2023_us_open.html) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Early career",
"Mmoh enjoyed early success on the [ITF Futures](/wiki/ITF_Futures \"ITF Futures\") tour, winning three titles before turning 18\\.",
"### 2016–17: ATP, Grand Slam and top 200 debut",
"In February 2016, Mmoh qualified for his first ATP\\-level tournament at [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis_Open_%28tennis%29 \"Memphis Open (tennis)\") by defeating fellow Americans [Dennis Novikov](/wiki/Dennis_Novikov \"Dennis Novikov\") and [Bjorn Fratangelo](/wiki/Bjorn_Fratangelo \"Bjorn Fratangelo\"). He then lost in the first round to eventual finalist [Taylor Fritz](/wiki/Taylor_Fritz \"Taylor Fritz\"), the highest ranked American teenager at the time. Following his fourth Futures title, Mmoh was awarded a wildcard into the [Miami Masters](/wiki/2016_Miami_Open \"2016 Miami Open\"), where he lost to [Alexander Zverev](/wiki/Alexander_Zverev \"Alexander Zverev\"), the top\\-ranked 18 year\\-old in the world, after dropping two tiebreaks.",
"In September 2016, Mmoh broke into the top 300 for the first time by reaching the final of the [ATP Challenger](/wiki/ATP_Challenger \"ATP Challenger\") event at [Tiburon](/wiki/2016_Tiburon_Challenger \"2016 Tiburon Challenger\") as a qualifier.",
"In November 2016, he reached the Top 200 and also won the [2017 Australian Open](/wiki/2017_Australian_Open \"2017 Australian Open\") Wild Card Challenge largely by winning his first career [Challenger](/wiki/ATP_Challenger \"ATP Challenger\") title at [Knoxville](/wiki/2016_Knoxville_Challenger \"2016 Knoxville Challenger\"). \nHe would claim another Challenger title the following summer in August 2017 at [Lexington](/wiki/Lexington_Challenger \"Lexington Challenger\").",
"### 2018: Top 100, First ATP wins \\& quarterfinals, Masters third round",
"To start off the 2018 season, Mmoh recorded his first career ATP\\-level match wins by defeating [Federico Delbonis](/wiki/Federico_Delbonis \"Federico Delbonis\") in the first round of the [Brisbane International](/wiki/2018_Brisbane_International \"2018 Brisbane International\") and world No. 33 [Mischa Zverev](/wiki/Mischa_Zverev \"Mischa Zverev\") to make the quarterfinals, where he lost to [Alex de Minaur](/wiki/Alex_de_Minaur \"Alex de Minaur\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Teenager Alex De Minaur beats Michael Mmoh to reach Brisbane ATP semi\\-finals\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/tennis/teenager\\-alex\\-de\\-minaur\\-beats\\-michael\\-mmoh\\-to\\-reach\\-brisbane\\-atp\\-semifinals/news\\-story/3dd57e470372c5020f83dbee6698a862\\|website\\=Fox Sports\\|date\\=January 5, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2021}}",
"At the [2018 Miami Open](/wiki/2018_Miami_Open \"2018 Miami Open\") he reached the third round as a qualifier for the first time at a Masters level defeating 12th seed [Roberto Bautista Agut](/wiki/Roberto_Bautista_Agut \"Roberto Bautista Agut\") for his first top\\-15 win and the biggest of his career.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://tennisaccent.com/2018/03/24/michael\\-mmoh\\-finds\\-a\\-shining\\-mmoh\\-ment\\-against\\-rba/ \\| title\\=Michael Mmoh Finds a Shining Mmoh\\-Ment Against Rba \\| date\\=March 24, 2018 }}",
"He entered the main draw at the [2018 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2018_Wimbledon_Championships \"2018 Wimbledon Championships\") for the first time at this Grand Slam as a lucky loser. He reached the top 100 at World No. 97 on 1 October 2018\\.",
"### 2019–20: First Grand Slam win",
"In January 2019, Mmoh qualified for the first time via ranking in a Grand Slam main draw at the [2019 Australian Open](/wiki/2019_Australian_Open \"2019 Australian Open\") where he lost in the first round to [Radu Albot](/wiki/Radu_Albot \"Radu Albot\").",
"At the [2020 Australian Open](/wiki/2020_Australian_Open \"2020 Australian Open\"), Mmoh recorded his first main draw victory with a straight sets win over [Pablo Andújar](/wiki/Pablo_And%C3%BAjar \"Pablo Andújar\") as a wildcard. Following his Australian Open performance, Mmoh qualified for the main draw at the [2020 US Open](/wiki/2020_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2020 US Open (tennis)\"), where he won his first round match against [João Sousa](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Sousa \"João Sousa\") in four sets, and also at the [2020 French Open](/wiki/2020_French_Open \"2020 French Open\"), where he lost in the first round.",
"### 2021–22: ATP quarterfinal, Out of top 250",
"At the [2021 Australian Open](/wiki/2021_Australian_Open \"2021 Australian Open\") he reached again the second round in a five set stunning comeback against [Viktor Troicki](/wiki/Viktor_Troicki \"Viktor Troicki\") but lost to second seed [Rafael Nadal](/wiki/Rafael_Nadal \"Rafael Nadal\") in the next round.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/five\\-things\\-to\\-know\\-michael\\-mmoh \\| title\\=Five Things to Know About Michael Mmoh, Rafael Nadal's Next Opponent \\| ATP Tour \\| Tennis }}",
"He received a wildcard for the [2021 Miami Open](/wiki/2021_Miami_Open \"2021 Miami Open\").",
"In 2022, he entered the [2022 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships](/wiki/2022_U.S._Men%27s_Clay_Court_Championships \"2022 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships\") as a lucky loser directly into the second round replacing top seed [Casper Ruud](/wiki/Casper_Ruud \"Casper Ruud\") who withdrew in the last minute. He won his first match defeating [Sam Querrey](/wiki/Sam_Querrey \"Sam Querrey\") to reach the quarterfinals{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.tennis.com/news/articles/motivated\\-by\\-recent\\-success\\-michael\\-mmoh\\-coming\\-into\\-form\\-in\\-houston \\| title\\=Motivated by recent success, Michael Mmoh \"coming into form\" in Houston }} but withdrew due to injury.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/opelka\\-houston\\-2022\\-friday \\| title\\=Reilly Opelka Sets Nick Kyrgios Showdown in Houston SFS \\| ATP Tour \\| Tennis }}",
"Mmoh won a wildcard entry into the main draw at the [2022 French Open](/wiki/2022_French_Open \"2022 French Open\") by winning the Roland Garros wildcard challenge.{{Cite web\\|date\\=3 May 2022\\|title\\=Michael Mmoh Earns French Open Main Draw Wild Card by Winning Men's Roland Garros Wild Card Challenge\\|url\\=https://www.tennis\\-tourtalk.com/89063/michael\\-mmoh\\-earns\\-french\\-open\\-main\\-draw\\-wild\\-card\\-by\\-winning\\-mens\\-roland\\-garros\\-wild\\-card\\-challenge\\|publisher\\=Tennis Taratari\\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=May 3, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503054517/https://www.tennis\\-tourtalk.com/89063/michael\\-mmoh\\-earns\\-french\\-open\\-main\\-draw\\-wild\\-card\\-by\\-winning\\-mens\\-roland\\-garros\\-wild\\-card\\-challenge\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### 2023: Best season: Two Major third rounds, fourth ATP quarterfinal, top 85",
"Mmoh's first tournament of the year was in [Pune](/wiki/2023_Tata_Open_Maharashtra_%E2%80%93_Singles \"2023 Tata Open Maharashtra – Singles\"), where he defeated local wildcard [Manas Dhamne](/wiki/Manas_Dhamne \"Manas Dhamne\") in the first round{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/tennis/15yearold\\-manas\\-dhamne\\-impresses\\-in\\-first\\-round\\-tata\\-open\\-loss\\-101672677750766\\.html \\| title\\=15\\-year\\-old Manas Dhamne impresses in first round Tata Open loss \\| date\\=January 2, 2023 }} before losing to the 6th seed, [Filip Krajinović](/wiki/Filip_Krajinovi%C4%87 \"Filip Krajinović\") in the second round.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.tennismajors.com/atp/pune\\-open\\-krajinovic\\-moves\\-into\\-quarter\\-finals\\-651533\\.html \\| title\\=Tennis, ATP – Pune Open 2023: Krajinovic gets past Mmoh \\| date\\=January 4, 2023 }}",
"He then entered the [2023 Australian Open](/wiki/2023_Australian_Open \"2023 Australian Open\") as a lucky loser after the withdrawal of [David Goffin](/wiki/David_Goffin \"David Goffin\") and won his first round match, defeating fellow qualifier French [Laurent Lokoli](/wiki/Laurent_Lokoli \"Laurent Lokoli\"), after saving a match point in the third set. He then defeated 12th seed [Alexander Zverev](/wiki/Alexander_Zverev \"Alexander Zverev\") in the second round.{{cite tweet \\|author\\=ATP Tour \\|author\\-link\\=ATP Tour \\|user\\=atptour \\|number\\=1615991734986772480 \\|date\\=January 19, 2023 \\|title\\=🚨 The upsets continue 🚨 @MichaelMmoh defeats Zverev 6\\-7(1\\) 6\\-4 6\\-3 6\\-2 to move on to the third round down under! @AustralianOpen {{!}} \\#AusOpen https://t.co/5ZVJK6FU5z \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023}}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.tennismajors.com/australian\\-open\\-news/australian\\-open\\-mmoh\\-books\\-spot\\-in\\-third\\-round\\-655678\\.html \\| title\\=Tennis, ATP – Australian Open 2023: Mmoh eliminates Zverev \\| date\\=January 19, 2023 }} He became the fifth player to make it as a lucky loser to the third round; the furthest a lucky loser had made it at this Major is the fourth round ([Stéphane Robert](/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Robert \"Stéphane Robert\") in 2014\\).{{cite tweet \\|author\\=OptaAce \\|user\\=OptaAce \\|number\\=1616005873826156549 \\|date\\=January 19, 2023 \\|title\\=5 \\- Michael Mmoh is the 5th player to make it as a lucky loser to the round of 32 in the Australian Open, the furthest a LL has made it in the Australian Open is round of 16 (Stephane Robert in 2014\\). Power. \\#AusOpen2023 \\#AusOpen https://t.co/4sU0m3KpqQ \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023}} As a result he moved up 25 positions back into the top 100 to a new career\\-high singles ranking of No. 83 on 30\nJanuary 2023\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/challenger\\-tour\\-feature\\-mmoh\\-january\\-2023 \\| title\\=Books, Psychologist, \\& Challenger Tour Play Role in Mmoh's Top 100 Return \\| ATP Tour \\| Tennis }}",
"In February, he lost in the first round at the [Dallas Open](/wiki/2023_Dallas_Open \"2023 Dallas Open\") to eventual champion [Yibing Wu](/wiki/Wu_Yibing \"Wu Yibing\"). The following week, he reached the round of 16 at the [Delray Beach Open](/wiki/2023_Delray_Beach_Open_%E2%80%93_Singles \"2023 Delray Beach Open – Singles\") by defeating wildcard [Aleksandar Kovacevic](/wiki/Aleksandar_Kovacevic_%28tennis%29 \"Aleksandar Kovacevic (tennis)\") in three sets.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.tennismajors.com/atp/delray\\-beach\\-open\\-mmoh\\-books\\-spot\\-in\\-second\\-round\\-660689\\.html \\| title\\=Tennis, ATP – Delray Beach Open 2023: Mmoh eliminates Kovacevic \\| date\\=February 14, 2023 }} He then reached the quarterfinals after upsetting third seed [Denis Shapovalov](/wiki/Denis_Shapovalov \"Denis Shapovalov\"), also in three sets.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/mmoh\\-shapovalov\\-delray\\-beach\\-2023\\-wednesday \\| title\\=Michael Mmoh Upsets Denis Shapovalov to Reach Delray Beach QFS \\| ATP Tour \\| Tennis }} As a result, he reached a new career high ranking of No. 82 on 20 February 2023\\.",
"In early March, Mmoh suffered a leg injury at the [Mexican Open](/wiki/2023_Abierto_Mexicano_Telcel_%E2%80%93_Singles \"2023 Abierto Mexicano Telcel – Singles\") during his second round match against [Tommy Paul](/wiki/Tommy_Paul_%28tennis%29 \"Tommy Paul (tennis)\") and did not return to competition until May at the [French Open](/wiki/2023_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles \"2023 French Open – Men's singles\"), where he lost in the first round to ninth seed [Taylor Fritz](/wiki/Taylor_Fritz \"Taylor Fritz\"). He entered the [2023 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2023_Wimbledon_Championships \"2023 Wimbledon Championships\") as a lucky loser again and defeated 11th seed [Félix Auger\\-Aliassime](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Auger-Aliassime \"Félix Auger-Aliassime\") in the first round.",
"In July 2023, in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/2023_Citi_Open \"2023 Citi Open\"), he defeated world No. 17 [Hubert Hurkacz](/wiki/Hubert_Hurkacz \"Hubert Hurkacz\"), and in [Winston\\-Salem](/wiki/2023_Winston-Salem_Open \"2023 Winston-Salem Open\") he beat [Marcos Giron](/wiki/Marcos_Giron \"Marcos Giron\") as a wildcard.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/mmoh\\-washington\\-2023\\-feature \\| title\\='The New' Michael Mmoh \\| ATP Tour \\| Tennis }} Next he defeated 11th seed [Karen Khachanov](/wiki/Karen_Khachanov \"Karen Khachanov\") in the first and [John Isner](/wiki/John_Isner \"John Isner\") in the second round of the [US Open](/wiki/2023_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2023 US Open (tennis)\").[https://www.usopen.org/en\\_US/news/articles/2023\\-09\\-02/michael\\_mmoh\\_is\\_on\\_the\\_rise\\_at\\_the\\_2023\\_us\\_open.html](https://www.usopen.org/en_US/news/articles/2023-09-02/michael_mmoh_is_on_the_rise_at_the_2023_us_open.html) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}} It was Isner's last singles match before retiring from professional tennis.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Fadulu \\|first\\=Lola \\|date\\=September 1, 2023 \\|title\\=John Isner Says Goodbye to Pro Tennis at the U.S. Open \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/31/sports/tennis/us\\-open\\-john\\-isner\\-retirement.html \\|access\\-date\\=September 5, 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}[https://www.usopen.org/en\\_US/news/articles/2023\\-08\\-23/john\\_isner\\_announces\\_plans\\_to\\_retire\\_following\\_2023\\_us\\_open.html](https://www.usopen.org/en_US/news/articles/2023-08-23/john_isner_announces_plans_to_retire_following_2023_us_open.html) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Phetphuthai's parents are ethnic [Phu Thai](/wiki/Phu_Thai_language "Phu Thai language") from [Nakhon Phanom](/wiki/Nakhon_Phanom_Province "Nakhon Phanom Province"), though Phetphutai himself was born and raised in the [Bang Na District](/wiki/Bang_Na_District "Bang Na District") of [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok "Bangkok").
He started boxing in kindergarten, inspired by his father who was a former boxer, and who would be Phetphuthai's first trainer. As life was very tough for his family, he would help his parents sell grilled squid everyday after practice.
His first fight was when he was still in kindergarten, Phetphuthai was knocked out. At 13 years old, while still under his father's guidance, he won his first fight at the famed [Rajadamnern Stadium](/wiki/Rajadamnern_Stadium "Rajadamnern Stadium") by decision (84 lbs).
In 2016, when he was 14 years old, Petphuthai was contacted by Sia Phairot Punpho of Sitsarawatseua gym,{{Cite web\|title\=SITSARAWATSEUR GYM\|url\=http://www.siamfightmag.com/fr/muaythai\-fr/reportages\-muay\-thai\-fr/camps\-muaythai\-fr/camps\-muaythai\-bangkok\-fr/1336\-sitsarawatseur\-gym\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-05\|website\=www.siamfightmag.com}} and he has been training there under Kru Gai ever since.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=9 May 2020\|title\=Phetphutai biography\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=spyNDLm06Kc\|access\-date\=\|website\=\[\[YouTube]]}} In that same year, he had his tonsils removed due to the breathing difficulties they caused. This would stop him from eating normally for a month, which in turn made his return\-to\-form very long.
At only 18 years old, Phetphuthai won the [Lumpinee Stadium](/wiki/Lumpinee_Boxing_Stadium "Lumpinee Boxing Stadium"), Channel 7 Stadium, and Thailand titles in three different weight classes.{{Cite web\|last\=ครบทุกกีฬา\|first\=SMMSPORT COM เว็ปเดียวจบ\|title\=เพชรภูไท ศิษย์สารวัตรเสือ อีกหนึ่งนักมวยที่น่าจับตามอง SUB ENG\|url\=https://www.smmsport.com/video/watch/25978\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-05\|website\=SMMSPORT.COM เว็ปเดียวจบ ครบทุกกีฬา\|language\=th}}{{dead link\|date\=August 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}}
In 2023, as his camp\-mates [Kompetch](/wiki/Kompetch_Sitsarawatsuer "Kompetch Sitsarawatsuer"), [Wanchainoi](/wiki/Wanchainoi_Sitsarawatseur "Wanchainoi Sitsarawatseur"), and Krobsut's contracts were bought by Fairtex Gym in [Pattaya](/wiki/Pattaya "Pattaya"), Phetphuthai bought out his own contract and joined Kiatpetch Gym.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Phetphuthai's parents are ethnic [Phu Thai](/wiki/Phu_Thai_language \"Phu Thai language\") from [Nakhon Phanom](/wiki/Nakhon_Phanom_Province \"Nakhon Phanom Province\"), though Phetphutai himself was born and raised in the [Bang Na District](/wiki/Bang_Na_District \"Bang Na District\") of [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok \"Bangkok\").",
"He started boxing in kindergarten, inspired by his father who was a former boxer, and who would be Phetphuthai's first trainer. As life was very tough for his family, he would help his parents sell grilled squid everyday after practice.",
"His first fight was when he was still in kindergarten, Phetphuthai was knocked out. At 13 years old, while still under his father's guidance, he won his first fight at the famed [Rajadamnern Stadium](/wiki/Rajadamnern_Stadium \"Rajadamnern Stadium\") by decision (84 lbs).",
"In 2016, when he was 14 years old, Petphuthai was contacted by Sia Phairot Punpho of Sitsarawatseua gym,{{Cite web\\|title\\=SITSARAWATSEUR GYM\\|url\\=http://www.siamfightmag.com/fr/muaythai\\-fr/reportages\\-muay\\-thai\\-fr/camps\\-muaythai\\-fr/camps\\-muaythai\\-bangkok\\-fr/1336\\-sitsarawatseur\\-gym\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-05\\|website\\=www.siamfightmag.com}} and he has been training there under Kru Gai ever since.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=9 May 2020\\|title\\=Phetphutai biography\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=spyNDLm06Kc\\|access\\-date\\=\\|website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}} In that same year, he had his tonsils removed due to the breathing difficulties they caused. This would stop him from eating normally for a month, which in turn made his return\\-to\\-form very long.",
"At only 18 years old, Phetphuthai won the [Lumpinee Stadium](/wiki/Lumpinee_Boxing_Stadium \"Lumpinee Boxing Stadium\"), Channel 7 Stadium, and Thailand titles in three different weight classes.{{Cite web\\|last\\=ครบทุกกีฬา\\|first\\=SMMSPORT COM เว็ปเดียวจบ\\|title\\=เพชรภูไท ศิษย์สารวัตรเสือ อีกหนึ่งนักมวยที่น่าจับตามอง SUB ENG\\|url\\=https://www.smmsport.com/video/watch/25978\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-05\\|website\\=SMMSPORT.COM เว็ปเดียวจบ ครบทุกกีฬา\\|language\\=th}}{{dead link\\|date\\=August 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}",
"In 2023, as his camp\\-mates [Kompetch](/wiki/Kompetch_Sitsarawatsuer \"Kompetch Sitsarawatsuer\"), [Wanchainoi](/wiki/Wanchainoi_Sitsarawatseur \"Wanchainoi Sitsarawatseur\"), and Krobsut's contracts were bought by Fairtex Gym in [Pattaya](/wiki/Pattaya \"Pattaya\"), Phetphuthai bought out his own contract and joined Kiatpetch Gym.",
""
] |
Production
----------
### Exterior shots at Portmeirion
The first draft script by [George Markstein](/wiki/George_Markstein "George Markstein") was completed in the spring of 1966\. [David Tomblin](/wiki/David_Tomblin "David Tomblin") then assisted Markstein and they prepared a script that [Patrick McGoohan](/wiki/Patrick_McGoohan "Patrick McGoohan") then further adapted. In late June 1966 a shooting script had been finalised (now called "The Arrival"). Principal location filming began in [Portmeirion](/wiki/Portmeirion "Portmeirion") on 5 September 1966, with [Don Chaffey](/wiki/Don_Chaffey "Don Chaffey") as director.
Further scenes were shot on 6 September, but [Guy Doleman](/wiki/Guy_Doleman "Guy Doleman") (playing Number Two) was suffering from cracked ribs and his presence only lasted two days. The plan was to complete shooting at Portmeirion by 9 September but filming was to overrun by several days. The aerial shots from the helicopter were filmed between 14 and 16 September. A body double was used for the now absent Guy Doleman. Chaffey was still filming exterior shots for the episode on 18 September. On 30 September, the last day of shooting at Portmeirion, McGoohan directed a number of shots including Rover's attack on a Villager in the main piazza.
During the shooting in September it was realised that the initial idea for the guardian 'Rover' was unworkable. Initially the device was intended as a black\-and\-white domed contraption with a blue light on top. Inside was a go\-kart and room enough for a man to steer. It quickly became evident that the contraption was unsteerable on Portmeirion's cobbled streets. A version that would act on water simply sank. Whose idea it was to use weather balloons is contested but it would appear someone saw them being used over the estuary and decided they could be used as 'Rover'.
### Interior shots at MGM\-British, Borehamwood
During the first two weeks of October 1966, the interior scenes were shot at the [MGM\-British Studios](/wiki/MGM-British_Studios "MGM-British Studios"). All of guest stars [George Baker](/wiki/George_Baker_%28British_actor%29 "George Baker (British actor)") (new Number Two) and [Paul Eddington](/wiki/Paul_Eddington "Paul Eddington") (Cobb) were shot in this period. A key set was redressed as Number Two's living quarters, the Control Room and the Labour Exchange. Other shots showed the General Store and the interior of Number Six's cottage.
### Editing
Editing of "Arrival" began immediately after the interior shots were completed. Lee Doig had a rough cut of the episode prepared by the end of December 1966\. Geoff Foot also finished the [opening sequence](/wiki/Opening_and_closing_sequences_of_The_Prisoner "Opening and closing sequences of The Prisoner") for the episode – this longer version was only used to introduce this episode. The initial cut was some 90 minutes long and numerous cuts had to be made to bring it down to the required 48 minutes for transmission.
### Music
[Robert Farnon](/wiki/Robert_Farnon "Robert Farnon") composed the first score and cues for the episode on 20 December 1966\. His score and theme tune was rejected, and [Wilfred Josephs](/wiki/Wilfred_Josephs "Wilfred Josephs") was commissioned to write another in early January 1967\.
The first edit of the episode appeared in February 1967, but by March much of Josephs' score had been removed. [Ron Grainer](/wiki/Ron_Grainer "Ron Grainer") was asked to create a theme tune and his was later used on all episodes, a longer version prepared for the extended opening sequence in "Arrival". Additional incidental music cues created by Albert Elms.
|
[
"Production\n----------",
"### Exterior shots at Portmeirion",
"The first draft script by [George Markstein](/wiki/George_Markstein \"George Markstein\") was completed in the spring of 1966\\. [David Tomblin](/wiki/David_Tomblin \"David Tomblin\") then assisted Markstein and they prepared a script that [Patrick McGoohan](/wiki/Patrick_McGoohan \"Patrick McGoohan\") then further adapted. In late June 1966 a shooting script had been finalised (now called \"The Arrival\"). Principal location filming began in [Portmeirion](/wiki/Portmeirion \"Portmeirion\") on 5 September 1966, with [Don Chaffey](/wiki/Don_Chaffey \"Don Chaffey\") as director.",
"Further scenes were shot on 6 September, but [Guy Doleman](/wiki/Guy_Doleman \"Guy Doleman\") (playing Number Two) was suffering from cracked ribs and his presence only lasted two days. The plan was to complete shooting at Portmeirion by 9 September but filming was to overrun by several days. The aerial shots from the helicopter were filmed between 14 and 16 September. A body double was used for the now absent Guy Doleman. Chaffey was still filming exterior shots for the episode on 18 September. On 30 September, the last day of shooting at Portmeirion, McGoohan directed a number of shots including Rover's attack on a Villager in the main piazza.",
"During the shooting in September it was realised that the initial idea for the guardian 'Rover' was unworkable. Initially the device was intended as a black\\-and\\-white domed contraption with a blue light on top. Inside was a go\\-kart and room enough for a man to steer. It quickly became evident that the contraption was unsteerable on Portmeirion's cobbled streets. A version that would act on water simply sank. Whose idea it was to use weather balloons is contested but it would appear someone saw them being used over the estuary and decided they could be used as 'Rover'.",
"### Interior shots at MGM\\-British, Borehamwood",
"During the first two weeks of October 1966, the interior scenes were shot at the [MGM\\-British Studios](/wiki/MGM-British_Studios \"MGM-British Studios\"). All of guest stars [George Baker](/wiki/George_Baker_%28British_actor%29 \"George Baker (British actor)\") (new Number Two) and [Paul Eddington](/wiki/Paul_Eddington \"Paul Eddington\") (Cobb) were shot in this period. A key set was redressed as Number Two's living quarters, the Control Room and the Labour Exchange. Other shots showed the General Store and the interior of Number Six's cottage.",
"### Editing",
"Editing of \"Arrival\" began immediately after the interior shots were completed. Lee Doig had a rough cut of the episode prepared by the end of December 1966\\. Geoff Foot also finished the [opening sequence](/wiki/Opening_and_closing_sequences_of_The_Prisoner \"Opening and closing sequences of The Prisoner\") for the episode – this longer version was only used to introduce this episode. The initial cut was some 90 minutes long and numerous cuts had to be made to bring it down to the required 48 minutes for transmission.",
"### Music",
"[Robert Farnon](/wiki/Robert_Farnon \"Robert Farnon\") composed the first score and cues for the episode on 20 December 1966\\. His score and theme tune was rejected, and [Wilfred Josephs](/wiki/Wilfred_Josephs \"Wilfred Josephs\") was commissioned to write another in early January 1967\\.",
"The first edit of the episode appeared in February 1967, but by March much of Josephs' score had been removed. [Ron Grainer](/wiki/Ron_Grainer \"Ron Grainer\") was asked to create a theme tune and his was later used on all episodes, a longer version prepared for the extended opening sequence in \"Arrival\". Additional incidental music cues created by Albert Elms.",
""
] |
Synopsis
--------
Armstrong [Space Station](/wiki/Space_Station "Space Station"), known as the **Silver Tower**, is the first military station built by the United States to defend against [ballistic missiles](/wiki/Ballistic_missiles "Ballistic missiles"). With its arsenal of Thor [Anti\-ballistic missiles](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missiles "Anti-ballistic missiles") and a [Tactical High Energy Laser](/wiki/Tactical_High_Energy_Laser "Tactical High Energy Laser") weapon called Skybolt, it is a fearsome military weapon in space. Along with its highly specialised crew of scientists and engineers, led by General Jason St. Michael it forms a vital "eye in the sky", to assist the US military on the battlefield.
The [Soviets](/wiki/Soviets "Soviets") have decided to invade Iran in order to gain control of the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf"). They mount a surprising lightning air attack on Iran and place their [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier") flotilla near the Persian Gulf. The Americans send the [USS *Nimitz*](/wiki/USS_Nimitz "USS Nimitz") and her carrier battle group in response. They also have Silver Tower, the ace up their sleeve to watch over the carrier and provide real time view from space.
The Soviets who are aware of Silver Tower use a powerful ground laser in an attempt to destroy or cripple the space station. But to the Soviet's surprise, the tower and its crew survive and continue to assist the *Nimitz*. Furious at their previous failed attempt, the Soviets send Elektron [Spaceplanes](/wiki/Spaceplanes "Spaceplanes") to destroy the space station. This time, the station is massively crippled, but some of the crew members sacrifice their lives by manually launching the Thor missiles at one of the space planes, destroying it. The crippled space station is then evacuated to the [Space Shuttle *Enterprise*](/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Enterprise "Space Shuttle Enterprise").
Meanwhile, the situation back on the ground gets tense, with [F\-14s](/wiki/F-14 "F-14") and [F\-15s](/wiki/F-15_Eagle "F-15 Eagle") engaging in dogfights with [Tu\-22M](/wiki/Tu-22M "Tu-22M") bombers and [Su\-33s](/wiki/Su-33 "Su-33") launched from the aircraft carriers and missile ships exchanging fire. Both sides suffer heavy casualties. However, the Americans succeed in keeping the Soviet carrier group out of the Persian Gulf.
The survivors Jason St. Michael and Anne Page return to Silver Tower hoping to restart its systems, only to be met with another attack from the Elektron spaceplanes. However, they restore the Skybolt laser module and fire on the spaceplanes, vaporizing them. They then fire the laser on Soviet cruise missiles heading for the *Nimitz* group.
In the end, even though the battle is not over, the [Red Fleet](/wiki/Red_Fleet "Red Fleet") is kept out of the Persian Gulf and Silver Tower is to be repaired and returned to operation.
|
[
"Synopsis\n--------",
"Armstrong [Space Station](/wiki/Space_Station \"Space Station\"), known as the **Silver Tower**, is the first military station built by the United States to defend against [ballistic missiles](/wiki/Ballistic_missiles \"Ballistic missiles\"). With its arsenal of Thor [Anti\\-ballistic missiles](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missiles \"Anti-ballistic missiles\") and a [Tactical High Energy Laser](/wiki/Tactical_High_Energy_Laser \"Tactical High Energy Laser\") weapon called Skybolt, it is a fearsome military weapon in space. Along with its highly specialised crew of scientists and engineers, led by General Jason St. Michael it forms a vital \"eye in the sky\", to assist the US military on the battlefield.",
"The [Soviets](/wiki/Soviets \"Soviets\") have decided to invade Iran in order to gain control of the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\"). They mount a surprising lightning air attack on Iran and place their [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\") flotilla near the Persian Gulf. The Americans send the [USS *Nimitz*](/wiki/USS_Nimitz \"USS Nimitz\") and her carrier battle group in response. They also have Silver Tower, the ace up their sleeve to watch over the carrier and provide real time view from space.",
"The Soviets who are aware of Silver Tower use a powerful ground laser in an attempt to destroy or cripple the space station. But to the Soviet's surprise, the tower and its crew survive and continue to assist the *Nimitz*. Furious at their previous failed attempt, the Soviets send Elektron [Spaceplanes](/wiki/Spaceplanes \"Spaceplanes\") to destroy the space station. This time, the station is massively crippled, but some of the crew members sacrifice their lives by manually launching the Thor missiles at one of the space planes, destroying it. The crippled space station is then evacuated to the [Space Shuttle *Enterprise*](/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Enterprise \"Space Shuttle Enterprise\").",
"Meanwhile, the situation back on the ground gets tense, with [F\\-14s](/wiki/F-14 \"F-14\") and [F\\-15s](/wiki/F-15_Eagle \"F-15 Eagle\") engaging in dogfights with [Tu\\-22M](/wiki/Tu-22M \"Tu-22M\") bombers and [Su\\-33s](/wiki/Su-33 \"Su-33\") launched from the aircraft carriers and missile ships exchanging fire. Both sides suffer heavy casualties. However, the Americans succeed in keeping the Soviet carrier group out of the Persian Gulf.",
"The survivors Jason St. Michael and Anne Page return to Silver Tower hoping to restart its systems, only to be met with another attack from the Elektron spaceplanes. However, they restore the Skybolt laser module and fire on the spaceplanes, vaporizing them. They then fire the laser on Soviet cruise missiles heading for the *Nimitz* group.",
"In the end, even though the battle is not over, the [Red Fleet](/wiki/Red_Fleet \"Red Fleet\") is kept out of the Persian Gulf and Silver Tower is to be repaired and returned to operation.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
[thumb\|Coșbuc with wife and son in a photograph published in 1905](/wiki/File:George_Cosbuc_si_familia.jpg "George Cosbuc si familia.jpg")
### Early life
Coșbuc was born in [Hordou](/wiki/Co%C8%99buc%2C_Bistri%C8%9Ba-N%C4%83s%C4%83ud "Coșbuc, Bistrița-Năsăud"), a village in northeastern [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania "Transylvania"). His father, Sebastian Coșbuc, a [Greek Catholic](/wiki/Romanian_Church_United_with_Rome%2C_Greek-Catholic "Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic") priest looked up to by his parish, drew from a line reputed to have yielded fourteen consecutive generations of priests. George attended primary school and graduated to secondary classes in the neighboring village of [Telcs](/wiki/Telciu "Telciu") (*now: Telciu*). He happily took to the scholarly bent encouraged by his father, earning the praise of instructors and being chosen among the few who were to sign up for advanced courses at *Liceul Românesc* (Romanian [Lyceum](/wiki/Lyceum "Lyceum")), a higher learning academy in the town of [Năsăud](/wiki/N%C4%83s%C4%83ud "Năsăud"). He soon found himself doubling as a teacher.
He began tearing through the library of the institution, impressing colleagues with his encyclopedic inclinations, and joined a local literary club, the *Virtus Romana Rediviva*, an association his father frowned upon as a deviation from a prospective career as clergyman. In 1884, already a well\-loved teacher at the age of 24, he published his very first poems in the yearly almanac of the literary club.
### First works
Coșbuc began attending courses at [Franz Joseph University](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_University "Franz Joseph University") in 1884, while collecting fairy tales and popular stories, which he rewrote and published to local success. He became so popular that three years later, he was asked to become editor in chief of the main [Cluj](/wiki/Cluj-Napoca "Cluj-Napoca") Romanian newspaper, *Tribuna*.
He soon published what widely became known as his first masterpiece, *Nunta Zamfirei* ("Zamfira's Wedding") to enthusiastic praise in Romanian literary circles. He moved to [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest "Bucharest"), the capital of Romania, and the center of cultural discourse in that country. He contributes to the periodical *[Convorbiri Literare](/wiki/Convorbiri_Literare "Convorbiri Literare")* to consistent acclaim. In collaboration with other former educators, he pieced together a praised [Romanian language](/wiki/Romanian_language "Romanian language") textbook: *Carte românească de citire* (the "Romanian Book of Reading").
### 1890s
In 1893, he published *Balade și idile* ("Ballads and Pastorals"), a volume which cemented his reputation. He began dabbling in poetry with political subtext, penning the emphatic *Noi vrem pământ* ("We Demand Land"), *Lupta vieții* ("Life's struggle"), and overviewed the debut of yet another literary magazine, *[Vatra](/wiki/Vatra_%28literary_magazine%29 "Vatra (literary magazine)")*. In 1895, he married Elena Sfetea.
He completed the first Romanian translation of [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil "Virgil")'s *[Aeneid](/wiki/Aeneid "Aeneid")* in 1896, and also published a collection of various poems and short stories, *Versuri și proză* ("Verses and Prose"). His output as a translator is astonishing: within the span of three years, he published large portions of [Kalidassa](/wiki/Kalidassa "Kalidassa")'s [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") *[Abhignānashākuntala](/wiki/Abhign%C4%81nash%C4%81kuntala "Abhignānashākuntala")* (some of them through [German](/wiki/German_language "German language") translations), and a new Romanian translation of [Homer](/wiki/Homer "Homer")'s *[Odyssey](/wiki/Odyssey "Odyssey")*. Coșbuc also undertook the translation of various works by [Friedrich Schiller](/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller "Friedrich Schiller"). The [Romanian Academy](/wiki/Romanian_Academy "Romanian Academy") deemed him an "*outstanding member*" in 1898\. He further contributed to literature by completing, a decade later, the epic effort of translating [Dante Aligheri](/wiki/Dante_Aligheri "Dante Aligheri")'s *[Divine Comedy](/wiki/Divine_Comedy "Divine Comedy")* in its entirety.
### Later life
[thumb\|George Coșbuc on a 2014 Romanian stamp](/wiki/File:George_Co%C8%99buc_2014_Romanian_stamp.jpg "George Coșbuc 2014 Romanian stamp.jpg")
[thumb\|Bust of Coșbuc în the [Cișmigiu Gardens](/wiki/Ci%C8%99migiu_Gardens "Cișmigiu Gardens"), Bucharest](/wiki/File:Bucuresti%2C_Romania%2C_Parcul_Cismigiu_%28Aleea_Rondului_Roman_-_Statuia_lui_Gh._Cosbuc%29%3B_B-II-a-A-19655_%282%29.JPG "Bucuresti, Romania, Parcul Cismigiu (Aleea Rondului Roman - Statuia lui Gh. Cosbuc); B-II-a-A-19655 (2).JPG")
In December 1901, he joined [Alexandru Vlahuță](/wiki/Alexandru_Vlahu%C8%9B%C4%83 "Alexandru Vlahuță") in founding and, until 1905, editing the influential magazine *[Sămănătorul](/wiki/S%C4%83m%C4%83n%C4%83torul "Sămănătorul")*, a traditionalist publication appealing to those intellectuals who could claim peasant roots. After more than a decade of tremendous success as an author, he experienced personal tragedy in August 1915, when his only son, Alexandru, died in a car accident. Heartbroken, Coșbuc ceased all work. He died three years later in Bucharest, and was buried at [Bellu Cemetery](/wiki/Bellu_Cemetery "Bellu Cemetery").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|Coșbuc with wife and son in a photograph published in 1905](/wiki/File:George_Cosbuc_si_familia.jpg \"George Cosbuc si familia.jpg\")",
"### Early life",
"Coșbuc was born in [Hordou](/wiki/Co%C8%99buc%2C_Bistri%C8%9Ba-N%C4%83s%C4%83ud \"Coșbuc, Bistrița-Năsăud\"), a village in northeastern [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania \"Transylvania\"). His father, Sebastian Coșbuc, a [Greek Catholic](/wiki/Romanian_Church_United_with_Rome%2C_Greek-Catholic \"Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic\") priest looked up to by his parish, drew from a line reputed to have yielded fourteen consecutive generations of priests. George attended primary school and graduated to secondary classes in the neighboring village of [Telcs](/wiki/Telciu \"Telciu\") (*now: Telciu*). He happily took to the scholarly bent encouraged by his father, earning the praise of instructors and being chosen among the few who were to sign up for advanced courses at *Liceul Românesc* (Romanian [Lyceum](/wiki/Lyceum \"Lyceum\")), a higher learning academy in the town of [Năsăud](/wiki/N%C4%83s%C4%83ud \"Năsăud\"). He soon found himself doubling as a teacher.",
"He began tearing through the library of the institution, impressing colleagues with his encyclopedic inclinations, and joined a local literary club, the *Virtus Romana Rediviva*, an association his father frowned upon as a deviation from a prospective career as clergyman. In 1884, already a well\\-loved teacher at the age of 24, he published his very first poems in the yearly almanac of the literary club.",
"### First works",
"Coșbuc began attending courses at [Franz Joseph University](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_University \"Franz Joseph University\") in 1884, while collecting fairy tales and popular stories, which he rewrote and published to local success. He became so popular that three years later, he was asked to become editor in chief of the main [Cluj](/wiki/Cluj-Napoca \"Cluj-Napoca\") Romanian newspaper, *Tribuna*.",
"He soon published what widely became known as his first masterpiece, *Nunta Zamfirei* (\"Zamfira's Wedding\") to enthusiastic praise in Romanian literary circles. He moved to [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest \"Bucharest\"), the capital of Romania, and the center of cultural discourse in that country. He contributes to the periodical *[Convorbiri Literare](/wiki/Convorbiri_Literare \"Convorbiri Literare\")* to consistent acclaim. In collaboration with other former educators, he pieced together a praised [Romanian language](/wiki/Romanian_language \"Romanian language\") textbook: *Carte românească de citire* (the \"Romanian Book of Reading\").",
"### 1890s",
"In 1893, he published *Balade și idile* (\"Ballads and Pastorals\"), a volume which cemented his reputation. He began dabbling in poetry with political subtext, penning the emphatic *Noi vrem pământ* (\"We Demand Land\"), *Lupta vieții* (\"Life's struggle\"), and overviewed the debut of yet another literary magazine, *[Vatra](/wiki/Vatra_%28literary_magazine%29 \"Vatra (literary magazine)\")*. In 1895, he married Elena Sfetea.",
"He completed the first Romanian translation of [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil \"Virgil\")'s *[Aeneid](/wiki/Aeneid \"Aeneid\")* in 1896, and also published a collection of various poems and short stories, *Versuri și proză* (\"Verses and Prose\"). His output as a translator is astonishing: within the span of three years, he published large portions of [Kalidassa](/wiki/Kalidassa \"Kalidassa\")'s [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit \"Sanskrit\") *[Abhignānashākuntala](/wiki/Abhign%C4%81nash%C4%81kuntala \"Abhignānashākuntala\")* (some of them through [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\") translations), and a new Romanian translation of [Homer](/wiki/Homer \"Homer\")'s *[Odyssey](/wiki/Odyssey \"Odyssey\")*. Coșbuc also undertook the translation of various works by [Friedrich Schiller](/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller \"Friedrich Schiller\"). The [Romanian Academy](/wiki/Romanian_Academy \"Romanian Academy\") deemed him an \"*outstanding member*\" in 1898\\. He further contributed to literature by completing, a decade later, the epic effort of translating [Dante Aligheri](/wiki/Dante_Aligheri \"Dante Aligheri\")'s *[Divine Comedy](/wiki/Divine_Comedy \"Divine Comedy\")* in its entirety.",
"### Later life",
"[thumb\\|George Coșbuc on a 2014 Romanian stamp](/wiki/File:George_Co%C8%99buc_2014_Romanian_stamp.jpg \"George Coșbuc 2014 Romanian stamp.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Bust of Coșbuc în the [Cișmigiu Gardens](/wiki/Ci%C8%99migiu_Gardens \"Cișmigiu Gardens\"), Bucharest](/wiki/File:Bucuresti%2C_Romania%2C_Parcul_Cismigiu_%28Aleea_Rondului_Roman_-_Statuia_lui_Gh._Cosbuc%29%3B_B-II-a-A-19655_%282%29.JPG \"Bucuresti, Romania, Parcul Cismigiu (Aleea Rondului Roman - Statuia lui Gh. Cosbuc); B-II-a-A-19655 (2).JPG\")\nIn December 1901, he joined [Alexandru Vlahuță](/wiki/Alexandru_Vlahu%C8%9B%C4%83 \"Alexandru Vlahuță\") in founding and, until 1905, editing the influential magazine *[Sămănătorul](/wiki/S%C4%83m%C4%83n%C4%83torul \"Sămănătorul\")*, a traditionalist publication appealing to those intellectuals who could claim peasant roots. After more than a decade of tremendous success as an author, he experienced personal tragedy in August 1915, when his only son, Alexandru, died in a car accident. Heartbroken, Coșbuc ceased all work. He died three years later in Bucharest, and was buried at [Bellu Cemetery](/wiki/Bellu_Cemetery \"Bellu Cemetery\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life and education
[thumb\|Seminole town (Lithograph published in 1837\)](/wiki/File:Seminolevillage.jpg "Seminolevillage.jpg")
John Horse, called Juan as a child, was born around 1812 in Florida. He was a Seminole slave of [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_American "Spanish American"), [Seminole](/wiki/Seminole "Seminole"), and African descent. He lived initially in the region that came to be called [Micanopy](/wiki/Micanopy%2C_Florida "Micanopy, Florida") after the last head chief of the Florida Seminole{{cite book\|author\=John C. Fredriksen\|title\=America's Military Adversaries: From Colonial Times to the Present\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ZJlm7AQK\-T4C\&pg\=PA327\|date\=1 January 2001\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=978\-1\-57607\-603\-3\|page\=327}} in north central Florida. John assumed the surname of his father and nominal owner, the Seminole trader Charley Cavallo,Mulroy (2007\), p. 35 his surname "Horse" being believed to have been a translation of Cavallo (or Caballo, the Spanish word for horse).Mulroy (2009\), p. 188 His mother was likely of pure African descent, a slave acquired by Charley Cavallo in his travels. Charley was, himself, of possibly mixed descent (Indian\-Spanish parentage.). The young John also had a sister, Juana (sometimes spelled "Wannah" or "Warner" in some sources). Not much is known about Charley Cavallo although it does not appear that he treated either of his two [mixed\-race](/wiki/Mixed-race "Mixed-race") children as slaves.{{cite book \|author\=Dixie Ray Haggard \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1uCIn4gOym8C\&pg\=PA177 \|title\=African Americans in the Nineteenth Century: People and Perspectives: People and Perspectives \|date\=11 March 2010 \|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \|isbn\=978\-1\-59884\-124\-4 \|page\=177}}
The [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"), the [Creek War](/wiki/Creek_War "Creek War") and the [Patriot War](/wiki/Patriot_War_%28Florida%29 "Patriot War (Florida)") in Florida were a series of related conflicts around the time that John Horse is thought to have been born. At that time he and Juana were probably living with their mother in one of the black settlements affiliated with, and under the jurisdiction of, the Alachua band of [Oconee](/wiki/Oconee_Seminole "Oconee Seminole") Seminole along the [Suwannee River](/wiki/Suwannee_River "Suwannee River") (see [Bolek](/wiki/Bolek "Bolek")'s "old town"). In 1818, when the American General [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson "Andrew Jackson") invaded the area,{{cite book\|author\=Bruce Elliott Johansen\|title\=The Praeger Handbook on Contemporary Issues in Native America: Linguistic, Ethnic, and Economic Revival\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=zl8b2Pt0hdIC\&pg\=PA134\|year\=2007\|publisher\=Greenwood Publishing Group\|isbn\=978\-0\-275\-99139\-5\|page\=134}} he scattered the tribal peoples and their black allies in the region,{{cite book\|author1\=Maxine D. Jones\|author2\=Kevin M. McCarthy\|title\=African Americans in Florida\|url\=https://archive.org/details/africanamericans0000jone\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1993\|publisher\=Pineapple Press Inc\|isbn\=978\-1\-56164\-031\-7\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/africanamericans0000jone/page/23 23]}} destroying settlementsMurphree 2012, p. 215 and seizing blacks from among the Seminole for removal to the north to be returned to plantation slavery.{{cite book\|author1\=Bruce E. Johansen \|author2\=Barry M. Pritzker\|title\=Encyclopedia of American Indian History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=sGKL6E9\_J6IC\&pg\=PA344\|date\=23 July 2007\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=978\-1\-85109\-818\-7\|page\=344}} John was probably displaced with his family by these actions since he first enters the historical record some years later as a young adolescent in the Tampa area.{{cite book\|author1\=Daniel F. Littlefield Jr.\|author2\=James W. Parins\|title\=Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=A7OlZPtIMy4C\&pg\=PA34\|date\=19 January 2011\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-36042\-8\|page\=34}}
John Horse spent his formative years among the Oconee Seminole,{{cite book\|author\=John Reed Swanton\|title\=The Indian Tribes of North America\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Xpx6WoPz7xIC\&pg\=PA112\|year\=1952\|publisher\=Genealogical Publishing Com\|isbn\=978\-0\-8063\-1730\-4\|page\=112}} living like other Indian boys, learning to hunt and fish and developing tracking skills. He also became proficient with bow and arrow and with a rifle, developing a reputation in later life as a keen marksman with a steady hand in combat. Unlike many of his fellows, however, he also learned to read and write and acquired linguistic skills in English, Spanish and the [Hitchiti](/wiki/Mikasuki_language "Mikasuki language") tongue spoken by the Oconee and many other Seminole bands. We can presume that he was also conversant with [Muscogee](/wiki/Muscogee_language "Muscogee language"), the tongue of the [Upper Creek](/wiki/Muscogee "Muscogee") Indians (see also [Red Sticks](/wiki/Red_Sticks "Red Sticks")) from whom the great Seminole war chief, [Osceola](/wiki/Osceola "Osceola") hailed (see also [Peter McQueen](/wiki/Peter_McQueen "Peter McQueen")) because, in his adult years, he would be one of Osceola's main translators when dealing with the Americans (though Osceola, himself, spoke some English{{cite book\|author\=Patricia Riles Wickman\|title\=Osceola's Legacy\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=b5N\_\-gr9us8C\&pg\=PA81\|date\=27 August 2006\|publisher\=University of Alabama Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8173\-5332\-2\|page\=81}}).
### Seminole Wars
[thumb\|Fort Brooke at Tampa Bay](/wiki/File:Fort_Brooke.jpg "Fort Brooke.jpg")
The [First Seminole War](/wiki/Seminole_Wars "Seminole Wars") (1817–1818\) occurred during Horse's childhood and the youngster, along with his sister and mother, was probably among those displaced blacks who fled south of the Suwannee River toward [Tampa Bay](/wiki/Tampa_Bay "Tampa Bay").{{cite book\|author\=Anthony E. Dixon\|title\=Black Seminole Involvement and Leadership During the Second Seminole War, 1835\-\-1842\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=idxuhHJJdLUC\&pg\=PA151\|year\=2007\|isbn\=978\-0\-549\-15147\-0\|page\=151}} There young John grew into adolescence and came into contact with American soldiers who had established an outpost, [Fort Brooke](/wiki/Fort_Brooke "Fort Brooke"), in the region{{cite book\|author1\=Anthony Appiah\|author2\=Henry Louis Gates\|title\=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TMZMAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=RA2\-PA238\|year\=2005\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-517055\-9\|page\=238}} with the formal annexation of Florida after the success of Jackson's incursions. John Horse first enters the written record in a short narrative by the officer in charge, Major [George M. Brooke](/wiki/George_M._Brooke "George M. Brooke"), who discovered the young Seminole black had been swindling his personal cook by selling him the same land turtle, or tortoise (a so\-called ["gopher"](/wiki/Gopher_tortoise "Gopher tortoise")), multiple times for the major's personal mess. Discovering the young boy's fraud, Brooke opted for leniency and let John go on condition he make good on the missing turtles which he apparently did.{{cite book\|author\=David Dary\|title\=Stories of Old\-Time Oklahoma\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7uSaBgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA80\|date\=10 February 2015\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-5171\-7\|page\=80}} This began a lifelong relationship between John Horse and the American military and vouchsafed him his nickname in later life, Gopher John.{{cite book\|author\=George Archibald McCall\|title\=Letters from the Frontiers: Written During a Period of Thirty Years' Service in the Army of the United States\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bA0EZPPKc\_QC\&pg\=PA165\|date\=3 September 2009\|publisher\=Applewood Books\|isbn\=978\-1\-4290\-2158\-6\|page\=165}}
He would go on to fight against the American army, on the side of his fellow Seminole, and, eventually, to work with the Americans.{{cite book\|author1\=Sara R. Massey\|author2\=Alywn Barr\|title\=Black Cowboys Of Texas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ClewambI\_78C\&pg\=RA2\-PA8\|date\=1 December 2004\|publisher\=Texas A\&M University Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-58544\-443\-4\|page\=74}} During the [Second Seminole War](/wiki/Second_Seminole_War "Second Seminole War") of 1835 to 1842, which began when American settlers pressured for Indian removal to free up their lands for white settlement, John Horse served as what would be called, today, a field officer on the Indian side. At first a translator for the Indian leadersGlasrud Mallouf 2013, p. 221 (since few of them spoke English while their black allies did), he also became a lower level war chief.{{cite book\|author\=Ildefonso Dávila B.\|title\=Fuentes Para La Historia India de Coahuila\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LYM7AAAAYAAJ\&q\=%22Juan%20Caballo%22\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Fundación Histórica Tavera\|isbn\=978\-84\-89763\-42\-5\|page\=314}}{{cite book\|author\=James Shannon Buchanan\|title\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bjIUAAAAYAAJ\&q\=%22rose%20to%20the%20rank%20of%20sub\-chief%22\|year\=1951\|publisher\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\|page\=163}} Because of his facility with languages and quickness of mind, John Horse eventually found himself in the midst of the Seminoles' negotiations with the [U. S. Army](/wiki/U._S._Army "U. S. Army"){{cite book\|author\=Susan Altman\|title\=Extraordinary African\-Americans\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=seoNm4k3wlgC\&q\=%22John%20Horse%22\|date\=1 March 2002\|publisher\=Children's Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-516\-25962\-8\|pages\=41–42}} as the war dragged on and open battles in the field gave way to guerrilla tactics and a long war of attrition.{{cite book\|author\=Crispin Sartwell\|title\=How to Escape: Magic, Madness, Beauty, and Cynicism\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6pNEBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA8\|date\=13 August 2014\|publisher\=SUNY Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4384\-5268\-5\|page\=8}}{{cite book\|author\=Junius P. Rodriguez\|title\=Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RXsBJzA61lcC\&pg\=PA458\|year\=2007\|publisher\=Greenwood Publishing Group\|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-33273\-9\|page\=458}}
In the spring of 1838, after several pitched battles, Horse finally decided the fight against the Americans was unwinnable and surrendered to US troops.{{cite book\|author\=Tina Bucuvalas Peggy A. Bulger Stetson Kennedy\|title\=South Florida Folklife\|year\=1994\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wjRehKwGdgEC\&pg\=PA7\|publisher\=Univ. Press of Mississippi\|isbn\=978\-1\-61703\-455\-8\|page\=7}} This may have been prompted by the loss of his first wife, a Seminole woman said to have been a daughter of Chief Holatoochee, a brother or nephew of the chief [Micanopy](/wiki/Micanopy "Micanopy"). The blacks in the war received promises of freedom if they would cease fighting as Indian allies and accept resettlement in the newly established [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory "Indian Territory") west of the Mississippi.
Horse was later granted papers freeing him a second time by General [William J. Worth](/wiki/William_J._Worth "William J. Worth") for the services he subsequently rendered to the U.S. Army in the latter days of the Second Seminole War in Florida, as both translator and scout.{{cite book\|author\=William Loren Katz\|title\=Eyewitness: The Negro in American History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gOx2AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Gopher%20John%22%20%22scouts%22\|year\=1971\|publisher\=Pitman\|page\=73\|isbn\=9780273070139}} But his initial decision to give up fighting had been in response to the offer of a prior general, [Thomas Sydney Jesup](/wiki/Thomas_Sydney_Jesup "Thomas Sydney Jesup"), who had made the first promise of general freedom to all escaped slaves and their children willing to surrender and accept removal. Thus John Horse's claim to freedom from slavery would rest on at least two legal claims, via decisions by two different American military officers. This would eventually be important as events unfolded a few years later in the west. Unfortunately, Horse's second wife and their children, who were removed to Indian Territory with him, did not gain freedom through his later service and had only the earlier declaration by Jesup to fall back on, thus remaining at risk from the increasingly aggressive activities of slave catchers in the new Indian Territory.
With other Seminole, Horse was shipped across the Gulf of Mexico from [Tampa Bay](/wiki/Tampa_Bay "Tampa Bay") to [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans") and north from there by way of the Mississippi to Indian Territory. There he and his family joined with the other Seminole and Black Seminole who had accepted [removal](/wiki/Indian_Removal "Indian Removal") to take up residence at one of two locations assigned to the Seminole inside the Creek area.{{cite book\|author1\=Leslie M Alexander\|author2\=Walter C. Rucker Jr.\|title\=Encyclopedia of African American History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uivtCqOlpTsC\&pg\=PA525\|date\=9 February 2010\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=978\-1\-85109\-774\-6\|page\=525}} Horse quickly rose as a leader among the Black Seminole{{cite book\|author\=Jack Salzman\|title\=Encyclopedia of African\-American culture and history\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WIMYAAAAIAAJ\&q\=%22leader%22%20%22maroon%22\|year\=1996\|publisher\=Macmillan Library Reference\|isbn\=978\-0\-02\-897363\-0\|page\=116}} because of his friendly relations with the Americans, his experience as a leader in the fighting, his linguistic skills and decisive cleverness.
### Life in Indian Territory
#### New conflicts and old issues
In the new territory, John Horse worked sporadically for the army as an interpreter and, sometimes, as an intermediary for the officers and the Indian leaders.{{cite book\|title\=Journal of a Tour on the "Indian Territory": Performed by Order of the Domestic Committee of the Board of Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Spring of 1844\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Nhg1AQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA15\|year\=1844\|publisher\=Domestic Committee of the Board of Missions\|page\=15}} Asked to help persuade the remaining Indian fighters in Florida to surrender and relocate to Indian Territory as he and others had done, he returned to Florida in 1839 to act as go\-between with one of the last Seminole war chiefs, [Coacoochee](/wiki/Coacoochee "Coacoochee") (Wild Cat), eventually convincing his old friend to accept the inevitable and come in, too. John Horse was sent back to Indian Territory in 1842, as part of a group of about 120 other exiles, once the army felt he had done what they needed.
In Indian Territory again, the exiled Seminole leadership finally voted freedom for John Horse, too, around the year 1843 in light of his services to the Seminole during their lengthy war. At the time the main chief, Micanopy (*Mico Nuppa*),{{cite book\|author\=Susan A. Miller\|title\=Coacoochee's Bones: A Seminole Saga\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bgl1AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22micco%20of%20all%20the%20Seminole%20people%22\|year\=2003\|publisher\=University Press of Kansas\|isbn\=978\-0\-7006\-1195\-9\|page\=23}} had nominal ownership over him. It was Micanopy, in concert with his council, who finally granted the black warrior his freedom from any claims of enslavement against him which the tribe still had. Thus John Horse had been freed three times: by Jesup's original declaration,{{cite book\|author\=Daniel F. Littlefield\|title\=Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0RtHXh93pAgC\&pg\=PA57\|year\=1977\|publisher\=Univ. Press of Mississippi\|isbn\=978\-1\-57806\-360\-4\|page\=57}} by General Worth who was Jesup's last successor (for services rendered), and by the Seminole leadership. Only the first of these actions applied to John Horse's second wife, Susan (daughter of the black leader July){{cite book\|author\=Shirley Boteler Mock\|title\=Dreaming with the Ancestors: Black Seminole Women in Texas and Mexico\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6DidR2jTUjEC\&pg\=PA39\|date\=9 October 2012\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-8608\-5\|page\=39}} and their children, however, and that action would soon come into serious question.
Conflict arose in the Territory because the transplanted Seminole had been placed on land allocated to the [Creek Indians](/wiki/Creek_Indians "Creek Indians"){{cite book\|author1\=Bruce G. Trigger\|author2\=Wilcomb E. Washburn\|title\=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DRGVjLiyXEwC\&pg\=PA525\|date\=13 October 1996\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-57392\-4\|page\=525}} since the U.S. government had failed to recognize the tribal distinctions between the two peoples (the Seminole were a loose amalgam of Creek bands which had detached themselves from the Creek Indian federation a century earlier and relocated to then Spanish Florida, although they had continued to maintain ethnic and some kinship ties with their northern Creek brethren in Georgia, Alabama and part of the Carolinas). Because the Creek had adopted the American institution of chattel slavery{{cite book\|author\=Bruce Edward Twyman\|title\=The Black Seminole Legacy and North American Politics, 1693\-1845\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4dR1AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Duval%22\|year\=1999\|publisher\=Howard University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-88258\-204\-7\|page\=118}} while the Seminole had not done the same{{cite book\|author\=Darién J. Davis\|title\=Slavery and Beyond: The African Impact on Latin America and the Caribbean\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vN4M7XZgD\-cC\&pg\=PA39\|year\=1995\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield\|isbn\=978\-0\-8420\-2485\-3\|page\=39}} (they lived in very different ways), the presence of free blacks among the Seminole on Creek land and under the nominal sovereignty of the Creek tribal council, caused friction between the two groups. The free blacks threatened the Creek slave\-holding status quo, because their very existence tempted the Creeks' own slaves to challenge their status, and provided a tempting target for Creek and affiliated groups seeking to acquire more slaves.
Creek slavers and those from other Indian groups, and some whites, soon began raiding the Black Seminole settlements{{cite book\|author\=James Shannon Buchanan\|title\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6i8UAAAAYAAJ\&q\=%22Siah%20Hardridge%22\|year\=1955\|publisher\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\|page\=522}} to kidnap and enslave anyone they could get their hands on, and John Horse quickly became a focal point for organizing resistance to these encroachments as well as lead spokesman for his fellow Black Seminoles. In one case, when some slavers succeeded in capturing [Dembo Factor](/wiki/Dembo_Factor "Dembo Factor"),{{cite book\|author\=Kevin Mulroy\|title\=The Seminole Freedmen: A History\|url\=https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=2007\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-3865\-7\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr/page/79 79]}}Littlefield 1977, p. 103 a veteran of the Seminole War, John Horse and his on\-again, off\-again ally, Coacoochee (Wild Cat), who had hopes of succeeding Micanopy as leader of all the Seminole and who opposed living under the Creek, protested. The Army, responding to their concerns, demanded and got Factor's release but neither they nor the Creek tribal council pursued charges of kidnapping against the suspected slavers. The slave raids continued as tensions mounted.{{cite book\|author\=Daniel F. Littlefield\|title\=Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Z4p1AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Dembo%22\|date\=November 1979\|publisher\=Greenwood Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-20703\-7\|page\=179}}
#### Seeking a solution
In 1844 John Horse traveled to Washington, D.C.,{{cite book\|author\=Edwin C. McReynolds\|title\=The Seminoles\|url\=https://archive.org/details/seminoles00mcre\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1957\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-1255\-8\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/seminoles00mcre/page/260 260]}} with a delegation of Seminole{{cite book\|author\=Grant Foreman\|title\=The Five Civilized Tribes\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-Dp4qxWDOMUC\&pg\=PA232\|date\=17 April 2013\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-8967\-3\|page\=232}} including Coacoochee to argue for a separate land grant for the Seminole on the grounds that they were and had been a separate peopleArce 2000, p. 247 for at least a hundred years. Failing to secure the backing they needed, they returned to Indian Territory, but Horse traveled once more to Washington, this time on his own (acting as servant to an officer's brother) to lobby General Jesup to live up to his earlier promises. Jesup was sympathetic and probably felt a little guilty for having been instrumental in the treachery that took Osceola off the field and led to that chief's death. However he could not overcome political resistance in Washington where pressure was growing to reverse his grant of freedom to the blacks who came in voluntarily. Perhaps in response to John's advocacy, Jesup traveled to Indian Territory himself (he was now Quartermaster General for the entire U.S. Army) to arrange for the construction of new facilities at [Fort Gibson](/wiki/Fort_Gibson "Fort Gibson"), the army's headquarters in the Territory.{{cite book\|author1\=Carolyn Thomas Foreman\|author2\=Grant Foreman\|title\=Fort Gibson A Brief History\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/fortgibsonbriefh00fore\#page/22/mode/2up/search/jesup\|year\=1930\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|page\=22}} While there he compiled a list of all those who had surrendered under his order and validated it. He also offered them work on the grounds of Fort Gibson on a construction project he had initiated.
As a result, large numbers of Seminole blacks left the two Seminole settlements, Deep Fork and Little River, to re\-settle outside the fort's walls under army protection. Once the work was done, however, the blacks chose to remain because of the ongoing predations of Creek, Cherokee and so\-called half breed slave catchers, creating yet another flash point of contention with the army and the slaver gangs. John Horse, himself, was attacked by unknown assailants at one point, thought to have been members of the pro\-Creek Seminole faction and came close to death from the bullet he took, but the would\-be assassins were never located. After the incident, the officer in charge at Fort Gibson invited John and his family to take up residence inside the fort,{{cite book\|author1\=Norman E. Whitten\|author2\=Arlene Torres\|title\=Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean: Central America and Northern and Western South America\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=E\_IZhY9ZEH4C\&pg\=PA206\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Indiana University Press\|isbn\=0\-253\-21193\-X\|page\=206}} which he did, giving up the claim he had staked out in the Indian area. The tensions extended to the Seminole Indian sub\-agent, Marcellus Duval,{{cite book\|author\=Gary Zellar\|title\=African Creeks: Estelvste and the Creek Nation\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BuhCyjixDV4C\&pg\=PA207\|year\=2007\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-3815\-2\|page\=207}}{{cite book\|author\=United States. Congress. House\|title\=House Documents, Otherwise Publ. as Executive Documents: 13th Congress, 2d Session\-49th Congress, 1st Session\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=A4kFAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=RA4\-PA39\|page\=39}} an Alabamian{{cite book\|author\=James Shannon Buchanan\|title\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kTQUAAAAYAAJ\&q\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22%20%22Alabama%22\|year\=1973\|publisher\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\|page\=67}} with land holdings back east and connections in Washington. His brother, William Duval, was also a connected attorney at nearby [Fort Smith](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas "Fort Smith, Arkansas") in Arkansas. The Seminole sub\-agent hoped to profit with the restoration of the Seminole blacks' slave status and angled incessantly to bring it about.McReynolds 1957, p. 272 He also began objecting to what he deemed the army's unauthorized protection of the Seminole blacks,Buchanan 1973, p. 67 including allowing them to remain in their makeshift settlement under Fort Gibson's walls.
#### Slavery again?
Some time after John Horse's return from his second mission to Washington, and Jesup's own visit and subsequent return east, [John Y. Mason](/wiki/John_Y._Mason "John Y. Mason"), US [Attorney\-General](/wiki/Attorney-General "Attorney-General") at the time, was designated by President [James K. Polk](/wiki/James_K._Polk "James K. Polk") to rule on the legitimacy of Jesup's emancipation of the former Seminole slaves. The demand for such a ruling was being pushed by Duval and his allies and urged by his brother, the attorney William Duval, who had been retained by the Seminole tribal council, at the sub\-agent's urging, to reclaim their rights to their former slaves.{{cite book\|author\=Edwin C. McReynolds\|title\=Oklahoma: A History of the Sooner State\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ACMPAQAAIAAJ\&q\=%22Black%22%20%22Seminoles%22%20%22Fort%20Gibson%22\|year\=1960\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|page\=188}} John Mason, a southerner, ruled that, since most of the Black Seminoles were descendants of fugitive slaves and thus legally still considered born into slavery, Jesup's decree had illegally deprived their Seminole owners of their legal property and could not be endorsed by the government. Thus the very reason many of the blacks had agreed to come in peacefully, and which had so seriously undermined the Seminoles' fight to remain in Florida, was suddenly and retroactively revoked.{{cite book\|author\=United States. Attorney\-General\|title\=Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States: Advising the President and Heads of Departments in Relation to Their Official Duties\|url\=https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02attogoog\|year\=1852\|publisher\=R. Farnham\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02attogoog/page/n726 728]–729}}{{cite book\|author1\=Dorothy Schneider\|author2\=Carl J. Schneider\|title\=Slavery in America\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=QlemwRTsY20C\&pg\=PA236\|date\=1 January 2007\|publisher\=Infobase Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-4381\-0813\-1\|page\=236}}
Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not on the chattel slavery model then common in the American south. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency since slaves of the Seminole generally lived in their own communities,{{cite book\|author\=Watson W. Jennison\|title\=Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750\-1860\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ImNeFi\-wt6IC\&pg\=PA132\|date\=18 January 2012\|publisher\=University Press of Kentucky\|isbn\=978\-0\-8131\-4021\-6\|page\=132}} carried weapons and hunted and fought beside the Seminole they were nominally owned by. In fact, except for the obligation of the blacks to join in hunting and war parties, and to supply an annual tribute of crops to the tribal chief for the general welfare of the tribe,{{cite book\|author\=Thomas N. Ingersoll\|title\=To Intermix with Our White Brothers: Indian Mixed Bloods in the United States from the Earliest Times to the Indian Removals\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Uwg1RhaL6R8C\&pg\=PA111\|year\=2005\|publisher\=UNM Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8263\-3287\-5\|page\=111}} there was little effective difference between how the Seminole lived and the lives of their nominal slaves. This changed in the course of the Second Seminole War when the old tribal system broke down under the pressure of the fighting and the Seminole resolved themselves into loose war bands living off the land with no distinction between tribal members and their so\-called slaves. But this changed yet again in the new territory when the Seminole were obliged to settle on fixed lots of land and take up settled agriculture.{{cite book\|author1\=Philip Deloria\|author2\=Neal Salisbury\|title\=A Companion to American Indian History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BMenL80QO0kC\&pg\=PA348\|date\=15 April 2008\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons\|isbn\=978\-1\-4051\-4378\-3\|pages\=348–349}}
At that point the chattel slave model adopted by their Creek cousins and other displaced tribes in the region took on more attraction for many of the Seminole. Their increasing poverty, due to the poor land they had been given and their own farming inexperience also made regaining a source of slave labor attractive to them (since the blacks were generally better farmers and craftsmen than their "owners"). The Seminole sub\-agent, Marcellus Duval, became a tireless advocate for restoration of alleged Seminole property rights over their former allies in the field, a restoration he apparently hoped to turn to his own benefit as much as to the Indians'.{{cite book\|author\=Wolfgang Binder\|title\=Westward Expansion in America (1803\-1860\)\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=k7F1AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22\|year\=1987\|publisher\=Palm \& Enke\|isbn\=978\-3\-7896\-0171\-2\|page\=147}}
With Mason's reversal of Jesup's wartime decree, those who had been freed by Jesup now suddenly found their status reversed, as Duval and the pro\-Creek Seminole demanded their return to Seminole service, only now as chattel slaves. A new open season by the raiders from nearby groups and towns was about to commence as more than 280 Black Seminoles, including John Horse's own family, were now at risk again.
Duval, who had slave interests of his own, then effectively procured a decision from Washington that would force the blacks living under the army's protection at Fort Gibson to return to the settlements of those Indians who were now deemed their legal owners. The Indian sub\-agent had, in fact, already worked out an agreement with the pro\-Creek faction within the Seminole tribal council to provide a large number of the re\-enslaved blacks to his lawyer brother in payment for legal services rendered on their behalf in Washington in pursuit of their property rights over the Seminole blacks.{{cite book\|title\=Congressional Edition\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=o3BHAQAAIAAJ\&pg\=RA2\-PA29\|year\=1855\|publisher\=U.S. Government Printing Office\|page\=29}}{{cite book\|author\=Jeff Guinn\|title\=Our Land Before We Die: The Proud Story of the Seminole Negro\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=hhINAQAAMAAJ\&q\=%22They%20also%20told%20Arbuckle%22\|year\=2002\|publisher\=J.P. Tarcher/Putnam\|isbn\=978\-1\-58542\-186\-2\|page\=136}} He and his brother apparently hoped to turn a profit by claiming so many of the new slaves, either to work on their family holdings back in Alabama or for sale on the open market.
The stage was thus set for a major crisis as the army received orders to evict the blacks then sheltering under Fort Gibson's walls and force their return to enslavement under the Seminole, now headed up by the pro\-Creek faction who supported the institution of chattel slavery as practiced back east. John Horse, with all his options exhausted and even the government and its army turned against him, faced a decision.
#### Migration
Although the army generals were friendly to John Horse and his interests, they were bound by their duty. The War Department, from whom the army took its direction, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs were now arrayed against the interests of the Seminole blacks. John Horse soon found himself allied with Coacoochee again as the two fought a rear guard action to halt the rise of the pro\-Creek leadership among the Seminole and the loss of freedom for the Seminole blacks. The two men wrangled with the various generals who quickly succeeded one another while the generals, themselves, played a delaying game with their Washington superiors. Eventually, however, Micaonopy's death ended the stalemate and the army could no longer delay evicting the ad hoc black settlement around the fort and sending its people back to certain enslavement. John Horse took charge of the exodus from [Fort Gibson](/wiki/Fort_Gibson "Fort Gibson") but, instead of taking his people to the site Duval the Indian agent had selected for them close by his agency, Horse and another ally, the black scout [Toney Barnet](/wiki/Toney_Barnet "Toney Barnet"), settled them at a place on the [Little River](/wiki/Little_River_%28Canadian_River%29 "Little River (Canadian River)"){{cite book\|author1\=Roy R. Barkley\|author2\=Mark F. Odintz\|author3\=Texas State Historical Association\|title\=The Portable Handbook of Texas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=p\-wMAQAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Wewoka%22\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Texas State Historical Association\|isbn\=978\-0\-87611\-180\-2\|page\=198}} he named *[Wewoka](/wiki/Wewoka%2C_Oklahoma "Wewoka, Oklahoma")*{{cite book\|author\=Kimberley L. Phillips\|title\=Critical Voicings of Black Liberation: Resistance and Representations in the Americas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=t6jdNVdUnTgC\&pg\=PA13\|year\=2003\|publisher\=LIT Verlag Münster\|isbn\=978\-3\-8258\-6739\-3\|page\=13}}{{cite book\|author\=Blue Clark\|title\=Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=8U9fc2833xQC\&pg\=PT537\|date\=1 March 2012\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-8463\-0\|page\=537}} farther from the [Creek](/wiki/Muscogee_%28Creek%29 "Muscogee (Creek)") and the Seminole agency than Duval had counted on.{{cite book\|title\=Congressional Edition\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=o3BHAQAAIAAJ\&pg\=RA2\-PA22\|year\=1855\|publisher\=U.S. Government Printing Office\|page\=22}} Settling in, they set up defenses against the gangs of slavers who quickly flocked around the black settlement. John Horse and Barnet settled on a plan which involved getting [Marcellus Duval](/wiki/Marcellus_Duval "Marcellus Duval") out of the way by inducing him to head off to Florida on a temporary mission which he thought would redound to his interest.{{cite book\|author\=James Warren Covington\|title\=The Billy Bowlegs War, 1855\-1858: the final stand of the Seminoles against the whites\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GETzAAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22\|date\=August 1982\|publisher\=Mickler House Publishers\|page\=14\|isbn\=9780913122068}} To facilitate his agreement to make the trip, Barnet, also affiliated with the Seminole, offered to serve as scout and translator. (Barnet had reasons of his own for remaining behind since he was working to free his son who had been enslaved by two Cherokee brothers on Cherokee land within Indian Territory.)
While Duval was gone with Barnet, John Horse speedily concluded a pact with his old friend Coacoochee (disaffected because of his failure to be selected to replace Micanopy) and the two of them led an exodus from Wewoka, and Indian Territory in general, in the dead of night. They led over a hundred blacks including men, women and children, and at least as many fleeing Seminole, out of the lands they had been placed on by the government, heading south across the Red River into Texas. There they began a dash across that vast state which would take them nearly a year, eventually incurring pursuit by Duval's slavers (dispatched after he had returned and discovered their flight) and the Texas Rangers who had been authorized by the Texas governor to recapture and return them to their Seminole owners (and to Duval who had placed a bounty on each man, woman and child). From October 1849 until the summer of 1850, Horse and Coacoochee led the migration south, picking up a troop of disgruntled Kickapoo Indians along the way,{{cite book\|author\=Jane F. Lancaster\|title\=Removal Aftershock: The Seminoles' Struggles to Survive in the West, 1836\-1866\|url\=https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1994\|publisher\=Univ. of Tennessee Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-87049\-846\-6\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc/page/84 84]–85}} and facing the war arrows of the Comanche who considered Coacoochee's presence in their territory an affront. The Comanche may have known of an agreement Coacoochee had concluded with representatives of the Mexican government to gain land on which to live once in Mexico in exchange for his service on the border repelling Texan and Comanche raiders.{{cite book\|author\=Thomas Anthony Britten\|title\=A Brief History of the Seminole\-Negro Indian Scouts\|url\=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofse07brit\|url\-access\=registration\|date\=1 January 1999\|publisher\=Edwin Mellen Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-7734\-7963\-0\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofse07brit/page/49 49]}}{{cite book\|author\=Peter A. Howard\|title\=Relations Between Native Americans and Those of African Descent in the South, 1526 to 1907\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qrk7V5NDbHUC\&pg\=PA41\|year\=2008\|isbn\=978\-0\-549\-56594\-9\|page\=41}}
#### Racing to the border
After a pitched battle with the Comanche, the fleeing party had to cross a desert region, meeting up with an old adversary, Major John T. Sprague, at the springs of Las Moras just north of the Mexican border.{{cite book\|author\=Jesse Sumpter\|title\=Paso del Águila: A Chronicle of Frontier Days on the Texas border as Recorded in the Memoirs of Jesse Sumpter\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HQQLAAAAYAAJ\&q\=%22Las%20Moras%22%20%22Gopher%20John%22\|year\=1969\|publisher\=Encino Press\|page\=4}} That encounter is described in Sprague's own journals which he compiled to document an expedition of supply wagons he led across southern Texas to resupply the outpost at today's El Paso (then the town of Franklin). Sprague had been a young captain back in Florida and had known both John Horse and Wild Cat there, having been involved in the latter's initial{{cite book\|author\=John Titcomb Sprague\|title\=The Origin, Progress, and Conclusions of the Florida War\|url\=https://archive.org/details/originprogressa00spragoog\|year\=1848\|publisher\=D. Appleton \& Company\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/originprogressa00spragoog/page/n210 187]}} and then his final surrender. The three men sat into the night reminiscing and drinking from a bottle of liquor Sprague had supplied. But some time in the early morning hours the Indians learned that someone from the army camp had secretly gone to a nearby town to alert the Texas Rangers of their presence. Whether Sprague, himself, was implicated remains unknown.
In the pre\-dawn hours John Horse and Coacoochee woke their people and secretly departed the camp at Las Moras to make a last desperate dash to the Rio Grande. There they built makeshift rafts to ferry their people across. They were still hard at it, only midway across the river, when the Rangers and their allies abruptly arrived. But it was too late and the Seminole and their black allies, with the Kickapoo who had joined them, got across and made contact with officials in the Mexican state of Coahuila.Guinn 2005, pp. 236–238 There, in return for a pledge to fight all invaders and raiding parties from Texas, they were given land for their people and captaincies in the Mexican army on or about July 12, 1850\.
### Later life
John Horse liked to drink and at one point after crossing back into Texas he allowed himself to get too drunk and was taken captive by some local whites who may have known him or had a grudge against him. They offered to ransom him back to his people and Coacoochee collected the gold they demanded and sent it to them for John's life. When they opened the bag they found the gold soaked with blood. It was Coacoochee's message to them and they fled. For several years John Horse and Coacoochee rode side by side in fulfillment of their contract with the Mexican government but Coacoochee soon died from smallpox{{cite journal\|title\=Review of Coacoochee's Bones: A Seminole Saga\|journal\=The Journal of Military History\|author\=H.A. Kersey\|date\=2004\|volume\=68\|issue\=2\|page\=603\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Te4MAQAAMAAJ\&q\=%22a%20smallpox%20outbreak%20in%201857%22\|publisher\=Virginia Military Institute and the George C. Marshall Foundation\|doi\=10\.1353/jmh.2004\.0054\|s2cid\=162262830}} and most of the Seminole and Kickapoo who had followed him drifted away. John Horse remained with his people and became the settlement's de facto leader.
After the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") and United States [emancipation](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States "Abolitionism in the United States") of slaves, the US Army recruited many of the Black Seminoles from Mexico to serve in the border states as scouts.{{cite book\|author1\=Celeste Ray\|author2\=Charles Reagan Wilson\|title\=The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 6: Ethnicity\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XSuaAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT86\|date\=28 May 2007\|publisher\=University of North Carolina Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4696\-1658\-2\|page\=86}}{{cite book\|author\=William Weir\|title\=The Encyclopedia of African American Military History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WEXj4gHHARgC\&pg\=PA275\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Prometheus Books, Publishers\|isbn\=978\-1\-61592\-831\-6\|page\=275}} John Horse was getting too old for that kind of active service although he remained titular leader of his people, still captaining their fights against the various raiding parties which descended on Mexico from the north.
In one famous incident he returned with his men to find that a large Indian raiding party had attacked his settlement and captured many of his people in retaliation for his actions against them in his capacity of providing border security. Leading all the able bodied men he could find (about forty, including teenage boys) he took off after the Indians. The raiders tried to draw the Seminole blacks into a canyon but John Horse, sensing the trick, ordered a halt and dismounted his men. He had been a wily commander back in Florida and still possessed a well\-developed perceptive faculty for this sort of thing. When the Indians lying in wait within the canyon saw that the blacks were not deceived by their ruse, they made a head\-on frontal assault against the black force. John Horse's men had only single load rifles, mostly of vintage type, and when they had discharged their first volley it failed to turn the Indians who just kept coming at them. As the men scrambled to reload their weapons, John Horse stepped out in front of his men and leveled his own empty weapon at the oncoming chief, taking deliberate and careful aim. He had always been a crack shot and the Indians knew it. When the chief saw John's rifle directed straight at him he lost his nerve and swerved his horse, all those behind following him, thus breaking the charge and giving John Horse's men and boys time to complete their reload. In the end, the Indians fled and John Horse's Seminole blacks retrieved their people.
As John Horse aged, though, many of his people migrated back across the Texas border to work for the U.S. Army as scouts. These men and their families settled near Fort Clarke in what is now [Brackettville](/wiki/Brackettville%2C_Texas "Brackettville, Texas").{{cite book\|author1\=Bill Haenn\|author2\=William F. Haenn\|title\=Fort Clark and Brackettville: Land of Heroes\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YMjh1WyJTaMC\&pg\=PA66\|year\=2002\|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing\|isbn\=978\-0\-7385\-2063\-6\|page\=66}}
### Death
In his seventies, John Horse faced another crisis when local land owners tried to take the land the Mexican government had originally given to the Seminole settlers.{{cite book\|author\=\[\[Alejandro L. Madrid]]\|title\=Transnational Encounters: Music and Performance at the U.S.\-Mexico Border\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GR5wAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA189\|date\=30 September 2011\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-987611\-2\|page\=189}} John Horse rode out once more, to Mexico City, to obtain reaffirmation from the government of their land grant and to put a stop to the local land grab. He was never heard from again and it is commonly thought that he died on this trip to the capital (in 1882\).{{cite book\|author\=José Manuel Valenzuela Arce\|title\=Entre la magia y la historia: tradiciones, mitos y leyendas de la frontera\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3KzXWFpTpv8C\&pg\=PA265\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Plaza y Valdes\|isbn\=978\-968\-856\-847\-7\|page\=265}} Several hundred descendants of Black Seminoles, known as *Mascogos*, still reside in Coahuila today.{{cite book\|author1\=Hernán Salas Quintanal\|author2\=Rafael Pérez Taylor\|title\=Desierto y fronteras: el norte de México y otros contextos culturales\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-v751K23EMYC\&pg\=PA497\|date\=1 January 2004\|publisher\=Plaza y Valdes\|isbn\=978\-970\-722\-319\-6\|page\=497}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life and education",
"[thumb\\|Seminole town (Lithograph published in 1837\\)](/wiki/File:Seminolevillage.jpg \"Seminolevillage.jpg\")\nJohn Horse, called Juan as a child, was born around 1812 in Florida. He was a Seminole slave of [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_American \"Spanish American\"), [Seminole](/wiki/Seminole \"Seminole\"), and African descent. He lived initially in the region that came to be called [Micanopy](/wiki/Micanopy%2C_Florida \"Micanopy, Florida\") after the last head chief of the Florida Seminole{{cite book\\|author\\=John C. Fredriksen\\|title\\=America's Military Adversaries: From Colonial Times to the Present\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ZJlm7AQK\\-T4C\\&pg\\=PA327\\|date\\=1 January 2001\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57607\\-603\\-3\\|page\\=327}} in north central Florida. John assumed the surname of his father and nominal owner, the Seminole trader Charley Cavallo,Mulroy (2007\\), p. 35 his surname \"Horse\" being believed to have been a translation of Cavallo (or Caballo, the Spanish word for horse).Mulroy (2009\\), p. 188 His mother was likely of pure African descent, a slave acquired by Charley Cavallo in his travels. Charley was, himself, of possibly mixed descent (Indian\\-Spanish parentage.). The young John also had a sister, Juana (sometimes spelled \"Wannah\" or \"Warner\" in some sources). Not much is known about Charley Cavallo although it does not appear that he treated either of his two [mixed\\-race](/wiki/Mixed-race \"Mixed-race\") children as slaves.{{cite book \\|author\\=Dixie Ray Haggard \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1uCIn4gOym8C\\&pg\\=PA177 \\|title\\=African Americans in the Nineteenth Century: People and Perspectives: People and Perspectives \\|date\\=11 March 2010 \\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59884\\-124\\-4 \\|page\\=177}}",
"The [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"), the [Creek War](/wiki/Creek_War \"Creek War\") and the [Patriot War](/wiki/Patriot_War_%28Florida%29 \"Patriot War (Florida)\") in Florida were a series of related conflicts around the time that John Horse is thought to have been born. At that time he and Juana were probably living with their mother in one of the black settlements affiliated with, and under the jurisdiction of, the Alachua band of [Oconee](/wiki/Oconee_Seminole \"Oconee Seminole\") Seminole along the [Suwannee River](/wiki/Suwannee_River \"Suwannee River\") (see [Bolek](/wiki/Bolek \"Bolek\")'s \"old town\"). In 1818, when the American General [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson \"Andrew Jackson\") invaded the area,{{cite book\\|author\\=Bruce Elliott Johansen\\|title\\=The Praeger Handbook on Contemporary Issues in Native America: Linguistic, Ethnic, and Economic Revival\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zl8b2Pt0hdIC\\&pg\\=PA134\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Greenwood Publishing Group\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-275\\-99139\\-5\\|page\\=134}} he scattered the tribal peoples and their black allies in the region,{{cite book\\|author1\\=Maxine D. Jones\\|author2\\=Kevin M. McCarthy\\|title\\=African Americans in Florida\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/africanamericans0000jone\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Pineapple Press Inc\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-56164\\-031\\-7\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/africanamericans0000jone/page/23 23]}} destroying settlementsMurphree 2012, p. 215 and seizing blacks from among the Seminole for removal to the north to be returned to plantation slavery.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Bruce E. Johansen \\|author2\\=Barry M. Pritzker\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of American Indian History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=sGKL6E9\\_J6IC\\&pg\\=PA344\\|date\\=23 July 2007\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85109\\-818\\-7\\|page\\=344}} John was probably displaced with his family by these actions since he first enters the historical record some years later as a young adolescent in the Tampa area.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Daniel F. Littlefield Jr.\\|author2\\=James W. Parins\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A7OlZPtIMy4C\\&pg\\=PA34\\|date\\=19 January 2011\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-36042\\-8\\|page\\=34}}",
"John Horse spent his formative years among the Oconee Seminole,{{cite book\\|author\\=John Reed Swanton\\|title\\=The Indian Tribes of North America\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Xpx6WoPz7xIC\\&pg\\=PA112\\|year\\=1952\\|publisher\\=Genealogical Publishing Com\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8063\\-1730\\-4\\|page\\=112}} living like other Indian boys, learning to hunt and fish and developing tracking skills. He also became proficient with bow and arrow and with a rifle, developing a reputation in later life as a keen marksman with a steady hand in combat. Unlike many of his fellows, however, he also learned to read and write and acquired linguistic skills in English, Spanish and the [Hitchiti](/wiki/Mikasuki_language \"Mikasuki language\") tongue spoken by the Oconee and many other Seminole bands. We can presume that he was also conversant with [Muscogee](/wiki/Muscogee_language \"Muscogee language\"), the tongue of the [Upper Creek](/wiki/Muscogee \"Muscogee\") Indians (see also [Red Sticks](/wiki/Red_Sticks \"Red Sticks\")) from whom the great Seminole war chief, [Osceola](/wiki/Osceola \"Osceola\") hailed (see also [Peter McQueen](/wiki/Peter_McQueen \"Peter McQueen\")) because, in his adult years, he would be one of Osceola's main translators when dealing with the Americans (though Osceola, himself, spoke some English{{cite book\\|author\\=Patricia Riles Wickman\\|title\\=Osceola's Legacy\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=b5N\\_\\-gr9us8C\\&pg\\=PA81\\|date\\=27 August 2006\\|publisher\\=University of Alabama Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8173\\-5332\\-2\\|page\\=81}}).",
"### Seminole Wars",
"[thumb\\|Fort Brooke at Tampa Bay](/wiki/File:Fort_Brooke.jpg \"Fort Brooke.jpg\")\nThe [First Seminole War](/wiki/Seminole_Wars \"Seminole Wars\") (1817–1818\\) occurred during Horse's childhood and the youngster, along with his sister and mother, was probably among those displaced blacks who fled south of the Suwannee River toward [Tampa Bay](/wiki/Tampa_Bay \"Tampa Bay\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Anthony E. Dixon\\|title\\=Black Seminole Involvement and Leadership During the Second Seminole War, 1835\\-\\-1842\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=idxuhHJJdLUC\\&pg\\=PA151\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-549\\-15147\\-0\\|page\\=151}} There young John grew into adolescence and came into contact with American soldiers who had established an outpost, [Fort Brooke](/wiki/Fort_Brooke \"Fort Brooke\"), in the region{{cite book\\|author1\\=Anthony Appiah\\|author2\\=Henry Louis Gates\\|title\\=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TMZMAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=RA2\\-PA238\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-517055\\-9\\|page\\=238}} with the formal annexation of Florida after the success of Jackson's incursions. John Horse first enters the written record in a short narrative by the officer in charge, Major [George M. Brooke](/wiki/George_M._Brooke \"George M. Brooke\"), who discovered the young Seminole black had been swindling his personal cook by selling him the same land turtle, or tortoise (a so\\-called [\"gopher\"](/wiki/Gopher_tortoise \"Gopher tortoise\")), multiple times for the major's personal mess. Discovering the young boy's fraud, Brooke opted for leniency and let John go on condition he make good on the missing turtles which he apparently did.{{cite book\\|author\\=David Dary\\|title\\=Stories of Old\\-Time Oklahoma\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7uSaBgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA80\\|date\\=10 February 2015\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-5171\\-7\\|page\\=80}} This began a lifelong relationship between John Horse and the American military and vouchsafed him his nickname in later life, Gopher John.{{cite book\\|author\\=George Archibald McCall\\|title\\=Letters from the Frontiers: Written During a Period of Thirty Years' Service in the Army of the United States\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bA0EZPPKc\\_QC\\&pg\\=PA165\\|date\\=3 September 2009\\|publisher\\=Applewood Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4290\\-2158\\-6\\|page\\=165}}",
"He would go on to fight against the American army, on the side of his fellow Seminole, and, eventually, to work with the Americans.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Sara R. Massey\\|author2\\=Alywn Barr\\|title\\=Black Cowboys Of Texas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ClewambI\\_78C\\&pg\\=RA2\\-PA8\\|date\\=1 December 2004\\|publisher\\=Texas A\\&M University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58544\\-443\\-4\\|page\\=74}} During the [Second Seminole War](/wiki/Second_Seminole_War \"Second Seminole War\") of 1835 to 1842, which began when American settlers pressured for Indian removal to free up their lands for white settlement, John Horse served as what would be called, today, a field officer on the Indian side. At first a translator for the Indian leadersGlasrud Mallouf 2013, p. 221 (since few of them spoke English while their black allies did), he also became a lower level war chief.{{cite book\\|author\\=Ildefonso Dávila B.\\|title\\=Fuentes Para La Historia India de Coahuila\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LYM7AAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=%22Juan%20Caballo%22\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Fundación Histórica Tavera\\|isbn\\=978\\-84\\-89763\\-42\\-5\\|page\\=314}}{{cite book\\|author\\=James Shannon Buchanan\\|title\\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bjIUAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=%22rose%20to%20the%20rank%20of%20sub\\-chief%22\\|year\\=1951\\|publisher\\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\\|page\\=163}} Because of his facility with languages and quickness of mind, John Horse eventually found himself in the midst of the Seminoles' negotiations with the [U. S. Army](/wiki/U._S._Army \"U. S. Army\"){{cite book\\|author\\=Susan Altman\\|title\\=Extraordinary African\\-Americans\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=seoNm4k3wlgC\\&q\\=%22John%20Horse%22\\|date\\=1 March 2002\\|publisher\\=Children's Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-516\\-25962\\-8\\|pages\\=41–42}} as the war dragged on and open battles in the field gave way to guerrilla tactics and a long war of attrition.{{cite book\\|author\\=Crispin Sartwell\\|title\\=How to Escape: Magic, Madness, Beauty, and Cynicism\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6pNEBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA8\\|date\\=13 August 2014\\|publisher\\=SUNY Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4384\\-5268\\-5\\|page\\=8}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Junius P. Rodriguez\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RXsBJzA61lcC\\&pg\\=PA458\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Greenwood Publishing Group\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-33273\\-9\\|page\\=458}}",
"In the spring of 1838, after several pitched battles, Horse finally decided the fight against the Americans was unwinnable and surrendered to US troops.{{cite book\\|author\\=Tina Bucuvalas Peggy A. Bulger Stetson Kennedy\\|title\\=South Florida Folklife\\|year\\=1994\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wjRehKwGdgEC\\&pg\\=PA7\\|publisher\\=Univ. Press of Mississippi\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-61703\\-455\\-8\\|page\\=7}} This may have been prompted by the loss of his first wife, a Seminole woman said to have been a daughter of Chief Holatoochee, a brother or nephew of the chief [Micanopy](/wiki/Micanopy \"Micanopy\"). The blacks in the war received promises of freedom if they would cease fighting as Indian allies and accept resettlement in the newly established [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory \"Indian Territory\") west of the Mississippi.",
"Horse was later granted papers freeing him a second time by General [William J. Worth](/wiki/William_J._Worth \"William J. Worth\") for the services he subsequently rendered to the U.S. Army in the latter days of the Second Seminole War in Florida, as both translator and scout.{{cite book\\|author\\=William Loren Katz\\|title\\=Eyewitness: The Negro in American History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gOx2AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Gopher%20John%22%20%22scouts%22\\|year\\=1971\\|publisher\\=Pitman\\|page\\=73\\|isbn\\=9780273070139}} But his initial decision to give up fighting had been in response to the offer of a prior general, [Thomas Sydney Jesup](/wiki/Thomas_Sydney_Jesup \"Thomas Sydney Jesup\"), who had made the first promise of general freedom to all escaped slaves and their children willing to surrender and accept removal. Thus John Horse's claim to freedom from slavery would rest on at least two legal claims, via decisions by two different American military officers. This would eventually be important as events unfolded a few years later in the west. Unfortunately, Horse's second wife and their children, who were removed to Indian Territory with him, did not gain freedom through his later service and had only the earlier declaration by Jesup to fall back on, thus remaining at risk from the increasingly aggressive activities of slave catchers in the new Indian Territory.",
"With other Seminole, Horse was shipped across the Gulf of Mexico from [Tampa Bay](/wiki/Tampa_Bay \"Tampa Bay\") to [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\") and north from there by way of the Mississippi to Indian Territory. There he and his family joined with the other Seminole and Black Seminole who had accepted [removal](/wiki/Indian_Removal \"Indian Removal\") to take up residence at one of two locations assigned to the Seminole inside the Creek area.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Leslie M Alexander\\|author2\\=Walter C. Rucker Jr.\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of African American History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uivtCqOlpTsC\\&pg\\=PA525\\|date\\=9 February 2010\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85109\\-774\\-6\\|page\\=525}} Horse quickly rose as a leader among the Black Seminole{{cite book\\|author\\=Jack Salzman\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of African\\-American culture and history\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WIMYAAAAIAAJ\\&q\\=%22leader%22%20%22maroon%22\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Macmillan Library Reference\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-02\\-897363\\-0\\|page\\=116}} because of his friendly relations with the Americans, his experience as a leader in the fighting, his linguistic skills and decisive cleverness.",
"### Life in Indian Territory",
"#### New conflicts and old issues",
"In the new territory, John Horse worked sporadically for the army as an interpreter and, sometimes, as an intermediary for the officers and the Indian leaders.{{cite book\\|title\\=Journal of a Tour on the \"Indian Territory\": Performed by Order of the Domestic Committee of the Board of Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Spring of 1844\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Nhg1AQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA15\\|year\\=1844\\|publisher\\=Domestic Committee of the Board of Missions\\|page\\=15}} Asked to help persuade the remaining Indian fighters in Florida to surrender and relocate to Indian Territory as he and others had done, he returned to Florida in 1839 to act as go\\-between with one of the last Seminole war chiefs, [Coacoochee](/wiki/Coacoochee \"Coacoochee\") (Wild Cat), eventually convincing his old friend to accept the inevitable and come in, too. John Horse was sent back to Indian Territory in 1842, as part of a group of about 120 other exiles, once the army felt he had done what they needed.",
"In Indian Territory again, the exiled Seminole leadership finally voted freedom for John Horse, too, around the year 1843 in light of his services to the Seminole during their lengthy war. At the time the main chief, Micanopy (*Mico Nuppa*),{{cite book\\|author\\=Susan A. Miller\\|title\\=Coacoochee's Bones: A Seminole Saga\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bgl1AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22micco%20of%20all%20the%20Seminole%20people%22\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=University Press of Kansas\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7006\\-1195\\-9\\|page\\=23}} had nominal ownership over him. It was Micanopy, in concert with his council, who finally granted the black warrior his freedom from any claims of enslavement against him which the tribe still had. Thus John Horse had been freed three times: by Jesup's original declaration,{{cite book\\|author\\=Daniel F. Littlefield\\|title\\=Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0RtHXh93pAgC\\&pg\\=PA57\\|year\\=1977\\|publisher\\=Univ. Press of Mississippi\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57806\\-360\\-4\\|page\\=57}} by General Worth who was Jesup's last successor (for services rendered), and by the Seminole leadership. Only the first of these actions applied to John Horse's second wife, Susan (daughter of the black leader July){{cite book\\|author\\=Shirley Boteler Mock\\|title\\=Dreaming with the Ancestors: Black Seminole Women in Texas and Mexico\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6DidR2jTUjEC\\&pg\\=PA39\\|date\\=9 October 2012\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-8608\\-5\\|page\\=39}} and their children, however, and that action would soon come into serious question.",
"Conflict arose in the Territory because the transplanted Seminole had been placed on land allocated to the [Creek Indians](/wiki/Creek_Indians \"Creek Indians\"){{cite book\\|author1\\=Bruce G. Trigger\\|author2\\=Wilcomb E. Washburn\\|title\\=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DRGVjLiyXEwC\\&pg\\=PA525\\|date\\=13 October 1996\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-57392\\-4\\|page\\=525}} since the U.S. government had failed to recognize the tribal distinctions between the two peoples (the Seminole were a loose amalgam of Creek bands which had detached themselves from the Creek Indian federation a century earlier and relocated to then Spanish Florida, although they had continued to maintain ethnic and some kinship ties with their northern Creek brethren in Georgia, Alabama and part of the Carolinas). Because the Creek had adopted the American institution of chattel slavery{{cite book\\|author\\=Bruce Edward Twyman\\|title\\=The Black Seminole Legacy and North American Politics, 1693\\-1845\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4dR1AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Duval%22\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Howard University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-88258\\-204\\-7\\|page\\=118}} while the Seminole had not done the same{{cite book\\|author\\=Darién J. Davis\\|title\\=Slavery and Beyond: The African Impact on Latin America and the Caribbean\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vN4M7XZgD\\-cC\\&pg\\=PA39\\|year\\=1995\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8420\\-2485\\-3\\|page\\=39}} (they lived in very different ways), the presence of free blacks among the Seminole on Creek land and under the nominal sovereignty of the Creek tribal council, caused friction between the two groups. The free blacks threatened the Creek slave\\-holding status quo, because their very existence tempted the Creeks' own slaves to challenge their status, and provided a tempting target for Creek and affiliated groups seeking to acquire more slaves.",
"Creek slavers and those from other Indian groups, and some whites, soon began raiding the Black Seminole settlements{{cite book\\|author\\=James Shannon Buchanan\\|title\\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6i8UAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=%22Siah%20Hardridge%22\\|year\\=1955\\|publisher\\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\\|page\\=522}} to kidnap and enslave anyone they could get their hands on, and John Horse quickly became a focal point for organizing resistance to these encroachments as well as lead spokesman for his fellow Black Seminoles. In one case, when some slavers succeeded in capturing [Dembo Factor](/wiki/Dembo_Factor \"Dembo Factor\"),{{cite book\\|author\\=Kevin Mulroy\\|title\\=The Seminole Freedmen: A History\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-3865\\-7\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr/page/79 79]}}Littlefield 1977, p. 103 a veteran of the Seminole War, John Horse and his on\\-again, off\\-again ally, Coacoochee (Wild Cat), who had hopes of succeeding Micanopy as leader of all the Seminole and who opposed living under the Creek, protested. The Army, responding to their concerns, demanded and got Factor's release but neither they nor the Creek tribal council pursued charges of kidnapping against the suspected slavers. The slave raids continued as tensions mounted.{{cite book\\|author\\=Daniel F. Littlefield\\|title\\=Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Z4p1AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Dembo%22\\|date\\=November 1979\\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-20703\\-7\\|page\\=179}}",
"#### Seeking a solution",
"In 1844 John Horse traveled to Washington, D.C.,{{cite book\\|author\\=Edwin C. McReynolds\\|title\\=The Seminoles\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/seminoles00mcre\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1957\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-1255\\-8\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/seminoles00mcre/page/260 260]}} with a delegation of Seminole{{cite book\\|author\\=Grant Foreman\\|title\\=The Five Civilized Tribes\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-Dp4qxWDOMUC\\&pg\\=PA232\\|date\\=17 April 2013\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-8967\\-3\\|page\\=232}} including Coacoochee to argue for a separate land grant for the Seminole on the grounds that they were and had been a separate peopleArce 2000, p. 247 for at least a hundred years. Failing to secure the backing they needed, they returned to Indian Territory, but Horse traveled once more to Washington, this time on his own (acting as servant to an officer's brother) to lobby General Jesup to live up to his earlier promises. Jesup was sympathetic and probably felt a little guilty for having been instrumental in the treachery that took Osceola off the field and led to that chief's death. However he could not overcome political resistance in Washington where pressure was growing to reverse his grant of freedom to the blacks who came in voluntarily. Perhaps in response to John's advocacy, Jesup traveled to Indian Territory himself (he was now Quartermaster General for the entire U.S. Army) to arrange for the construction of new facilities at [Fort Gibson](/wiki/Fort_Gibson \"Fort Gibson\"), the army's headquarters in the Territory.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Carolyn Thomas Foreman\\|author2\\=Grant Foreman\\|title\\=Fort Gibson A Brief History\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/fortgibsonbriefh00fore\\#page/22/mode/2up/search/jesup\\|year\\=1930\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|page\\=22}} While there he compiled a list of all those who had surrendered under his order and validated it. He also offered them work on the grounds of Fort Gibson on a construction project he had initiated.",
"As a result, large numbers of Seminole blacks left the two Seminole settlements, Deep Fork and Little River, to re\\-settle outside the fort's walls under army protection. Once the work was done, however, the blacks chose to remain because of the ongoing predations of Creek, Cherokee and so\\-called half breed slave catchers, creating yet another flash point of contention with the army and the slaver gangs. John Horse, himself, was attacked by unknown assailants at one point, thought to have been members of the pro\\-Creek Seminole faction and came close to death from the bullet he took, but the would\\-be assassins were never located. After the incident, the officer in charge at Fort Gibson invited John and his family to take up residence inside the fort,{{cite book\\|author1\\=Norman E. Whitten\\|author2\\=Arlene Torres\\|title\\=Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean: Central America and Northern and Western South America\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=E\\_IZhY9ZEH4C\\&pg\\=PA206\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Indiana University Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-253\\-21193\\-X\\|page\\=206}} which he did, giving up the claim he had staked out in the Indian area. The tensions extended to the Seminole Indian sub\\-agent, Marcellus Duval,{{cite book\\|author\\=Gary Zellar\\|title\\=African Creeks: Estelvste and the Creek Nation\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BuhCyjixDV4C\\&pg\\=PA207\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-3815\\-2\\|page\\=207}}{{cite book\\|author\\=United States. Congress. House\\|title\\=House Documents, Otherwise Publ. as Executive Documents: 13th Congress, 2d Session\\-49th Congress, 1st Session\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A4kFAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=RA4\\-PA39\\|page\\=39}} an Alabamian{{cite book\\|author\\=James Shannon Buchanan\\|title\\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kTQUAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22%20%22Alabama%22\\|year\\=1973\\|publisher\\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\\|page\\=67}} with land holdings back east and connections in Washington. His brother, William Duval, was also a connected attorney at nearby [Fort Smith](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas \"Fort Smith, Arkansas\") in Arkansas. The Seminole sub\\-agent hoped to profit with the restoration of the Seminole blacks' slave status and angled incessantly to bring it about.McReynolds 1957, p. 272 He also began objecting to what he deemed the army's unauthorized protection of the Seminole blacks,Buchanan 1973, p. 67 including allowing them to remain in their makeshift settlement under Fort Gibson's walls.",
"#### Slavery again?",
"Some time after John Horse's return from his second mission to Washington, and Jesup's own visit and subsequent return east, [John Y. Mason](/wiki/John_Y._Mason \"John Y. Mason\"), US [Attorney\\-General](/wiki/Attorney-General \"Attorney-General\") at the time, was designated by President [James K. Polk](/wiki/James_K._Polk \"James K. Polk\") to rule on the legitimacy of Jesup's emancipation of the former Seminole slaves. The demand for such a ruling was being pushed by Duval and his allies and urged by his brother, the attorney William Duval, who had been retained by the Seminole tribal council, at the sub\\-agent's urging, to reclaim their rights to their former slaves.{{cite book\\|author\\=Edwin C. McReynolds\\|title\\=Oklahoma: A History of the Sooner State\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ACMPAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=%22Black%22%20%22Seminoles%22%20%22Fort%20Gibson%22\\|year\\=1960\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|page\\=188}} John Mason, a southerner, ruled that, since most of the Black Seminoles were descendants of fugitive slaves and thus legally still considered born into slavery, Jesup's decree had illegally deprived their Seminole owners of their legal property and could not be endorsed by the government. Thus the very reason many of the blacks had agreed to come in peacefully, and which had so seriously undermined the Seminoles' fight to remain in Florida, was suddenly and retroactively revoked.{{cite book\\|author\\=United States. Attorney\\-General\\|title\\=Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States: Advising the President and Heads of Departments in Relation to Their Official Duties\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02attogoog\\|year\\=1852\\|publisher\\=R. Farnham\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02attogoog/page/n726 728]–729}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Dorothy Schneider\\|author2\\=Carl J. Schneider\\|title\\=Slavery in America\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=QlemwRTsY20C\\&pg\\=PA236\\|date\\=1 January 2007\\|publisher\\=Infobase Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4381\\-0813\\-1\\|page\\=236}}",
"Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not on the chattel slavery model then common in the American south. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency since slaves of the Seminole generally lived in their own communities,{{cite book\\|author\\=Watson W. Jennison\\|title\\=Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750\\-1860\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ImNeFi\\-wt6IC\\&pg\\=PA132\\|date\\=18 January 2012\\|publisher\\=University Press of Kentucky\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8131\\-4021\\-6\\|page\\=132}} carried weapons and hunted and fought beside the Seminole they were nominally owned by. In fact, except for the obligation of the blacks to join in hunting and war parties, and to supply an annual tribute of crops to the tribal chief for the general welfare of the tribe,{{cite book\\|author\\=Thomas N. Ingersoll\\|title\\=To Intermix with Our White Brothers: Indian Mixed Bloods in the United States from the Earliest Times to the Indian Removals\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Uwg1RhaL6R8C\\&pg\\=PA111\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=UNM Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8263\\-3287\\-5\\|page\\=111}} there was little effective difference between how the Seminole lived and the lives of their nominal slaves. This changed in the course of the Second Seminole War when the old tribal system broke down under the pressure of the fighting and the Seminole resolved themselves into loose war bands living off the land with no distinction between tribal members and their so\\-called slaves. But this changed yet again in the new territory when the Seminole were obliged to settle on fixed lots of land and take up settled agriculture.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Philip Deloria\\|author2\\=Neal Salisbury\\|title\\=A Companion to American Indian History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BMenL80QO0kC\\&pg\\=PA348\\|date\\=15 April 2008\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4051\\-4378\\-3\\|pages\\=348–349}}",
"At that point the chattel slave model adopted by their Creek cousins and other displaced tribes in the region took on more attraction for many of the Seminole. Their increasing poverty, due to the poor land they had been given and their own farming inexperience also made regaining a source of slave labor attractive to them (since the blacks were generally better farmers and craftsmen than their \"owners\"). The Seminole sub\\-agent, Marcellus Duval, became a tireless advocate for restoration of alleged Seminole property rights over their former allies in the field, a restoration he apparently hoped to turn to his own benefit as much as to the Indians'.{{cite book\\|author\\=Wolfgang Binder\\|title\\=Westward Expansion in America (1803\\-1860\\)\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=k7F1AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Palm \\& Enke\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-7896\\-0171\\-2\\|page\\=147}}",
"With Mason's reversal of Jesup's wartime decree, those who had been freed by Jesup now suddenly found their status reversed, as Duval and the pro\\-Creek Seminole demanded their return to Seminole service, only now as chattel slaves. A new open season by the raiders from nearby groups and towns was about to commence as more than 280 Black Seminoles, including John Horse's own family, were now at risk again.",
"Duval, who had slave interests of his own, then effectively procured a decision from Washington that would force the blacks living under the army's protection at Fort Gibson to return to the settlements of those Indians who were now deemed their legal owners. The Indian sub\\-agent had, in fact, already worked out an agreement with the pro\\-Creek faction within the Seminole tribal council to provide a large number of the re\\-enslaved blacks to his lawyer brother in payment for legal services rendered on their behalf in Washington in pursuit of their property rights over the Seminole blacks.{{cite book\\|title\\=Congressional Edition\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=o3BHAQAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=RA2\\-PA29\\|year\\=1855\\|publisher\\=U.S. Government Printing Office\\|page\\=29}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Jeff Guinn\\|title\\=Our Land Before We Die: The Proud Story of the Seminole Negro\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hhINAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22They%20also%20told%20Arbuckle%22\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=J.P. Tarcher/Putnam\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58542\\-186\\-2\\|page\\=136}} He and his brother apparently hoped to turn a profit by claiming so many of the new slaves, either to work on their family holdings back in Alabama or for sale on the open market.",
"The stage was thus set for a major crisis as the army received orders to evict the blacks then sheltering under Fort Gibson's walls and force their return to enslavement under the Seminole, now headed up by the pro\\-Creek faction who supported the institution of chattel slavery as practiced back east. John Horse, with all his options exhausted and even the government and its army turned against him, faced a decision.",
"#### Migration",
"Although the army generals were friendly to John Horse and his interests, they were bound by their duty. The War Department, from whom the army took its direction, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs were now arrayed against the interests of the Seminole blacks. John Horse soon found himself allied with Coacoochee again as the two fought a rear guard action to halt the rise of the pro\\-Creek leadership among the Seminole and the loss of freedom for the Seminole blacks. The two men wrangled with the various generals who quickly succeeded one another while the generals, themselves, played a delaying game with their Washington superiors. Eventually, however, Micaonopy's death ended the stalemate and the army could no longer delay evicting the ad hoc black settlement around the fort and sending its people back to certain enslavement. John Horse took charge of the exodus from [Fort Gibson](/wiki/Fort_Gibson \"Fort Gibson\") but, instead of taking his people to the site Duval the Indian agent had selected for them close by his agency, Horse and another ally, the black scout [Toney Barnet](/wiki/Toney_Barnet \"Toney Barnet\"), settled them at a place on the [Little River](/wiki/Little_River_%28Canadian_River%29 \"Little River (Canadian River)\"){{cite book\\|author1\\=Roy R. Barkley\\|author2\\=Mark F. Odintz\\|author3\\=Texas State Historical Association\\|title\\=The Portable Handbook of Texas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=p\\-wMAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Wewoka%22\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Texas State Historical Association\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87611\\-180\\-2\\|page\\=198}} he named *[Wewoka](/wiki/Wewoka%2C_Oklahoma \"Wewoka, Oklahoma\")*{{cite book\\|author\\=Kimberley L. Phillips\\|title\\=Critical Voicings of Black Liberation: Resistance and Representations in the Americas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=t6jdNVdUnTgC\\&pg\\=PA13\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=LIT Verlag Münster\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-8258\\-6739\\-3\\|page\\=13}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Blue Clark\\|title\\=Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=8U9fc2833xQC\\&pg\\=PT537\\|date\\=1 March 2012\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-8463\\-0\\|page\\=537}} farther from the [Creek](/wiki/Muscogee_%28Creek%29 \"Muscogee (Creek)\") and the Seminole agency than Duval had counted on.{{cite book\\|title\\=Congressional Edition\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=o3BHAQAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=RA2\\-PA22\\|year\\=1855\\|publisher\\=U.S. Government Printing Office\\|page\\=22}} Settling in, they set up defenses against the gangs of slavers who quickly flocked around the black settlement. John Horse and Barnet settled on a plan which involved getting [Marcellus Duval](/wiki/Marcellus_Duval \"Marcellus Duval\") out of the way by inducing him to head off to Florida on a temporary mission which he thought would redound to his interest.{{cite book\\|author\\=James Warren Covington\\|title\\=The Billy Bowlegs War, 1855\\-1858: the final stand of the Seminoles against the whites\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GETzAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22\\|date\\=August 1982\\|publisher\\=Mickler House Publishers\\|page\\=14\\|isbn\\=9780913122068}} To facilitate his agreement to make the trip, Barnet, also affiliated with the Seminole, offered to serve as scout and translator. (Barnet had reasons of his own for remaining behind since he was working to free his son who had been enslaved by two Cherokee brothers on Cherokee land within Indian Territory.)",
"While Duval was gone with Barnet, John Horse speedily concluded a pact with his old friend Coacoochee (disaffected because of his failure to be selected to replace Micanopy) and the two of them led an exodus from Wewoka, and Indian Territory in general, in the dead of night. They led over a hundred blacks including men, women and children, and at least as many fleeing Seminole, out of the lands they had been placed on by the government, heading south across the Red River into Texas. There they began a dash across that vast state which would take them nearly a year, eventually incurring pursuit by Duval's slavers (dispatched after he had returned and discovered their flight) and the Texas Rangers who had been authorized by the Texas governor to recapture and return them to their Seminole owners (and to Duval who had placed a bounty on each man, woman and child). From October 1849 until the summer of 1850, Horse and Coacoochee led the migration south, picking up a troop of disgruntled Kickapoo Indians along the way,{{cite book\\|author\\=Jane F. Lancaster\\|title\\=Removal Aftershock: The Seminoles' Struggles to Survive in the West, 1836\\-1866\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1994\\|publisher\\=Univ. of Tennessee Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87049\\-846\\-6\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc/page/84 84]–85}} and facing the war arrows of the Comanche who considered Coacoochee's presence in their territory an affront. The Comanche may have known of an agreement Coacoochee had concluded with representatives of the Mexican government to gain land on which to live once in Mexico in exchange for his service on the border repelling Texan and Comanche raiders.{{cite book\\|author\\=Thomas Anthony Britten\\|title\\=A Brief History of the Seminole\\-Negro Indian Scouts\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofse07brit\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|date\\=1 January 1999\\|publisher\\=Edwin Mellen Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7734\\-7963\\-0\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofse07brit/page/49 49]}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Peter A. Howard\\|title\\=Relations Between Native Americans and Those of African Descent in the South, 1526 to 1907\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qrk7V5NDbHUC\\&pg\\=PA41\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-549\\-56594\\-9\\|page\\=41}}",
"#### Racing to the border",
"After a pitched battle with the Comanche, the fleeing party had to cross a desert region, meeting up with an old adversary, Major John T. Sprague, at the springs of Las Moras just north of the Mexican border.{{cite book\\|author\\=Jesse Sumpter\\|title\\=Paso del Águila: A Chronicle of Frontier Days on the Texas border as Recorded in the Memoirs of Jesse Sumpter\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HQQLAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=%22Las%20Moras%22%20%22Gopher%20John%22\\|year\\=1969\\|publisher\\=Encino Press\\|page\\=4}} That encounter is described in Sprague's own journals which he compiled to document an expedition of supply wagons he led across southern Texas to resupply the outpost at today's El Paso (then the town of Franklin). Sprague had been a young captain back in Florida and had known both John Horse and Wild Cat there, having been involved in the latter's initial{{cite book\\|author\\=John Titcomb Sprague\\|title\\=The Origin, Progress, and Conclusions of the Florida War\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/originprogressa00spragoog\\|year\\=1848\\|publisher\\=D. Appleton \\& Company\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/originprogressa00spragoog/page/n210 187]}} and then his final surrender. The three men sat into the night reminiscing and drinking from a bottle of liquor Sprague had supplied. But some time in the early morning hours the Indians learned that someone from the army camp had secretly gone to a nearby town to alert the Texas Rangers of their presence. Whether Sprague, himself, was implicated remains unknown.",
"In the pre\\-dawn hours John Horse and Coacoochee woke their people and secretly departed the camp at Las Moras to make a last desperate dash to the Rio Grande. There they built makeshift rafts to ferry their people across. They were still hard at it, only midway across the river, when the Rangers and their allies abruptly arrived. But it was too late and the Seminole and their black allies, with the Kickapoo who had joined them, got across and made contact with officials in the Mexican state of Coahuila.Guinn 2005, pp. 236–238 There, in return for a pledge to fight all invaders and raiding parties from Texas, they were given land for their people and captaincies in the Mexican army on or about July 12, 1850\\.",
"### Later life",
"John Horse liked to drink and at one point after crossing back into Texas he allowed himself to get too drunk and was taken captive by some local whites who may have known him or had a grudge against him. They offered to ransom him back to his people and Coacoochee collected the gold they demanded and sent it to them for John's life. When they opened the bag they found the gold soaked with blood. It was Coacoochee's message to them and they fled. For several years John Horse and Coacoochee rode side by side in fulfillment of their contract with the Mexican government but Coacoochee soon died from smallpox{{cite journal\\|title\\=Review of Coacoochee's Bones: A Seminole Saga\\|journal\\=The Journal of Military History\\|author\\=H.A. Kersey\\|date\\=2004\\|volume\\=68\\|issue\\=2\\|page\\=603\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Te4MAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22a%20smallpox%20outbreak%20in%201857%22\\|publisher\\=Virginia Military Institute and the George C. Marshall Foundation\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/jmh.2004\\.0054\\|s2cid\\=162262830}} and most of the Seminole and Kickapoo who had followed him drifted away. John Horse remained with his people and became the settlement's de facto leader.",
"After the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") and United States [emancipation](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States \"Abolitionism in the United States\") of slaves, the US Army recruited many of the Black Seminoles from Mexico to serve in the border states as scouts.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Celeste Ray\\|author2\\=Charles Reagan Wilson\\|title\\=The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 6: Ethnicity\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XSuaAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT86\\|date\\=28 May 2007\\|publisher\\=University of North Carolina Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4696\\-1658\\-2\\|page\\=86}}{{cite book\\|author\\=William Weir\\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of African American Military History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WEXj4gHHARgC\\&pg\\=PA275\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Prometheus Books, Publishers\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-61592\\-831\\-6\\|page\\=275}} John Horse was getting too old for that kind of active service although he remained titular leader of his people, still captaining their fights against the various raiding parties which descended on Mexico from the north.",
"In one famous incident he returned with his men to find that a large Indian raiding party had attacked his settlement and captured many of his people in retaliation for his actions against them in his capacity of providing border security. Leading all the able bodied men he could find (about forty, including teenage boys) he took off after the Indians. The raiders tried to draw the Seminole blacks into a canyon but John Horse, sensing the trick, ordered a halt and dismounted his men. He had been a wily commander back in Florida and still possessed a well\\-developed perceptive faculty for this sort of thing. When the Indians lying in wait within the canyon saw that the blacks were not deceived by their ruse, they made a head\\-on frontal assault against the black force. John Horse's men had only single load rifles, mostly of vintage type, and when they had discharged their first volley it failed to turn the Indians who just kept coming at them. As the men scrambled to reload their weapons, John Horse stepped out in front of his men and leveled his own empty weapon at the oncoming chief, taking deliberate and careful aim. He had always been a crack shot and the Indians knew it. When the chief saw John's rifle directed straight at him he lost his nerve and swerved his horse, all those behind following him, thus breaking the charge and giving John Horse's men and boys time to complete their reload. In the end, the Indians fled and John Horse's Seminole blacks retrieved their people.",
"As John Horse aged, though, many of his people migrated back across the Texas border to work for the U.S. Army as scouts. These men and their families settled near Fort Clarke in what is now [Brackettville](/wiki/Brackettville%2C_Texas \"Brackettville, Texas\").{{cite book\\|author1\\=Bill Haenn\\|author2\\=William F. Haenn\\|title\\=Fort Clark and Brackettville: Land of Heroes\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YMjh1WyJTaMC\\&pg\\=PA66\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7385\\-2063\\-6\\|page\\=66}}",
"### Death",
"In his seventies, John Horse faced another crisis when local land owners tried to take the land the Mexican government had originally given to the Seminole settlers.{{cite book\\|author\\=\\[\\[Alejandro L. Madrid]]\\|title\\=Transnational Encounters: Music and Performance at the U.S.\\-Mexico Border\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GR5wAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA189\\|date\\=30 September 2011\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-987611\\-2\\|page\\=189}} John Horse rode out once more, to Mexico City, to obtain reaffirmation from the government of their land grant and to put a stop to the local land grab. He was never heard from again and it is commonly thought that he died on this trip to the capital (in 1882\\).{{cite book\\|author\\=José Manuel Valenzuela Arce\\|title\\=Entre la magia y la historia: tradiciones, mitos y leyendas de la frontera\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3KzXWFpTpv8C\\&pg\\=PA265\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Plaza y Valdes\\|isbn\\=978\\-968\\-856\\-847\\-7\\|page\\=265}} Several hundred descendants of Black Seminoles, known as *Mascogos*, still reside in Coahuila today.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Hernán Salas Quintanal\\|author2\\=Rafael Pérez Taylor\\|title\\=Desierto y fronteras: el norte de México y otros contextos culturales\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-v751K23EMYC\\&pg\\=PA497\\|date\\=1 January 2004\\|publisher\\=Plaza y Valdes\\|isbn\\=978\\-970\\-722\\-319\\-6\\|page\\=497}}",
""
] |
### Life in Indian Territory
#### New conflicts and old issues
In the new territory, John Horse worked sporadically for the army as an interpreter and, sometimes, as an intermediary for the officers and the Indian leaders.{{cite book\|title\=Journal of a Tour on the "Indian Territory": Performed by Order of the Domestic Committee of the Board of Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Spring of 1844\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Nhg1AQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA15\|year\=1844\|publisher\=Domestic Committee of the Board of Missions\|page\=15}} Asked to help persuade the remaining Indian fighters in Florida to surrender and relocate to Indian Territory as he and others had done, he returned to Florida in 1839 to act as go\-between with one of the last Seminole war chiefs, [Coacoochee](/wiki/Coacoochee "Coacoochee") (Wild Cat), eventually convincing his old friend to accept the inevitable and come in, too. John Horse was sent back to Indian Territory in 1842, as part of a group of about 120 other exiles, once the army felt he had done what they needed.
In Indian Territory again, the exiled Seminole leadership finally voted freedom for John Horse, too, around the year 1843 in light of his services to the Seminole during their lengthy war. At the time the main chief, Micanopy (*Mico Nuppa*),{{cite book\|author\=Susan A. Miller\|title\=Coacoochee's Bones: A Seminole Saga\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bgl1AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22micco%20of%20all%20the%20Seminole%20people%22\|year\=2003\|publisher\=University Press of Kansas\|isbn\=978\-0\-7006\-1195\-9\|page\=23}} had nominal ownership over him. It was Micanopy, in concert with his council, who finally granted the black warrior his freedom from any claims of enslavement against him which the tribe still had. Thus John Horse had been freed three times: by Jesup's original declaration,{{cite book\|author\=Daniel F. Littlefield\|title\=Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0RtHXh93pAgC\&pg\=PA57\|year\=1977\|publisher\=Univ. Press of Mississippi\|isbn\=978\-1\-57806\-360\-4\|page\=57}} by General Worth who was Jesup's last successor (for services rendered), and by the Seminole leadership. Only the first of these actions applied to John Horse's second wife, Susan (daughter of the black leader July){{cite book\|author\=Shirley Boteler Mock\|title\=Dreaming with the Ancestors: Black Seminole Women in Texas and Mexico\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6DidR2jTUjEC\&pg\=PA39\|date\=9 October 2012\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-8608\-5\|page\=39}} and their children, however, and that action would soon come into serious question.
Conflict arose in the Territory because the transplanted Seminole had been placed on land allocated to the [Creek Indians](/wiki/Creek_Indians "Creek Indians"){{cite book\|author1\=Bruce G. Trigger\|author2\=Wilcomb E. Washburn\|title\=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DRGVjLiyXEwC\&pg\=PA525\|date\=13 October 1996\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-57392\-4\|page\=525}} since the U.S. government had failed to recognize the tribal distinctions between the two peoples (the Seminole were a loose amalgam of Creek bands which had detached themselves from the Creek Indian federation a century earlier and relocated to then Spanish Florida, although they had continued to maintain ethnic and some kinship ties with their northern Creek brethren in Georgia, Alabama and part of the Carolinas). Because the Creek had adopted the American institution of chattel slavery{{cite book\|author\=Bruce Edward Twyman\|title\=The Black Seminole Legacy and North American Politics, 1693\-1845\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4dR1AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Duval%22\|year\=1999\|publisher\=Howard University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-88258\-204\-7\|page\=118}} while the Seminole had not done the same{{cite book\|author\=Darién J. Davis\|title\=Slavery and Beyond: The African Impact on Latin America and the Caribbean\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vN4M7XZgD\-cC\&pg\=PA39\|year\=1995\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield\|isbn\=978\-0\-8420\-2485\-3\|page\=39}} (they lived in very different ways), the presence of free blacks among the Seminole on Creek land and under the nominal sovereignty of the Creek tribal council, caused friction between the two groups. The free blacks threatened the Creek slave\-holding status quo, because their very existence tempted the Creeks' own slaves to challenge their status, and provided a tempting target for Creek and affiliated groups seeking to acquire more slaves.
Creek slavers and those from other Indian groups, and some whites, soon began raiding the Black Seminole settlements{{cite book\|author\=James Shannon Buchanan\|title\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6i8UAAAAYAAJ\&q\=%22Siah%20Hardridge%22\|year\=1955\|publisher\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\|page\=522}} to kidnap and enslave anyone they could get their hands on, and John Horse quickly became a focal point for organizing resistance to these encroachments as well as lead spokesman for his fellow Black Seminoles. In one case, when some slavers succeeded in capturing [Dembo Factor](/wiki/Dembo_Factor "Dembo Factor"),{{cite book\|author\=Kevin Mulroy\|title\=The Seminole Freedmen: A History\|url\=https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=2007\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-3865\-7\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr/page/79 79]}}Littlefield 1977, p. 103 a veteran of the Seminole War, John Horse and his on\-again, off\-again ally, Coacoochee (Wild Cat), who had hopes of succeeding Micanopy as leader of all the Seminole and who opposed living under the Creek, protested. The Army, responding to their concerns, demanded and got Factor's release but neither they nor the Creek tribal council pursued charges of kidnapping against the suspected slavers. The slave raids continued as tensions mounted.{{cite book\|author\=Daniel F. Littlefield\|title\=Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Z4p1AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Dembo%22\|date\=November 1979\|publisher\=Greenwood Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-20703\-7\|page\=179}}
#### Seeking a solution
In 1844 John Horse traveled to Washington, D.C.,{{cite book\|author\=Edwin C. McReynolds\|title\=The Seminoles\|url\=https://archive.org/details/seminoles00mcre\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1957\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-1255\-8\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/seminoles00mcre/page/260 260]}} with a delegation of Seminole{{cite book\|author\=Grant Foreman\|title\=The Five Civilized Tribes\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-Dp4qxWDOMUC\&pg\=PA232\|date\=17 April 2013\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-8967\-3\|page\=232}} including Coacoochee to argue for a separate land grant for the Seminole on the grounds that they were and had been a separate peopleArce 2000, p. 247 for at least a hundred years. Failing to secure the backing they needed, they returned to Indian Territory, but Horse traveled once more to Washington, this time on his own (acting as servant to an officer's brother) to lobby General Jesup to live up to his earlier promises. Jesup was sympathetic and probably felt a little guilty for having been instrumental in the treachery that took Osceola off the field and led to that chief's death. However he could not overcome political resistance in Washington where pressure was growing to reverse his grant of freedom to the blacks who came in voluntarily. Perhaps in response to John's advocacy, Jesup traveled to Indian Territory himself (he was now Quartermaster General for the entire U.S. Army) to arrange for the construction of new facilities at [Fort Gibson](/wiki/Fort_Gibson "Fort Gibson"), the army's headquarters in the Territory.{{cite book\|author1\=Carolyn Thomas Foreman\|author2\=Grant Foreman\|title\=Fort Gibson A Brief History\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/fortgibsonbriefh00fore\#page/22/mode/2up/search/jesup\|year\=1930\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|page\=22}} While there he compiled a list of all those who had surrendered under his order and validated it. He also offered them work on the grounds of Fort Gibson on a construction project he had initiated.
As a result, large numbers of Seminole blacks left the two Seminole settlements, Deep Fork and Little River, to re\-settle outside the fort's walls under army protection. Once the work was done, however, the blacks chose to remain because of the ongoing predations of Creek, Cherokee and so\-called half breed slave catchers, creating yet another flash point of contention with the army and the slaver gangs. John Horse, himself, was attacked by unknown assailants at one point, thought to have been members of the pro\-Creek Seminole faction and came close to death from the bullet he took, but the would\-be assassins were never located. After the incident, the officer in charge at Fort Gibson invited John and his family to take up residence inside the fort,{{cite book\|author1\=Norman E. Whitten\|author2\=Arlene Torres\|title\=Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean: Central America and Northern and Western South America\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=E\_IZhY9ZEH4C\&pg\=PA206\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Indiana University Press\|isbn\=0\-253\-21193\-X\|page\=206}} which he did, giving up the claim he had staked out in the Indian area. The tensions extended to the Seminole Indian sub\-agent, Marcellus Duval,{{cite book\|author\=Gary Zellar\|title\=African Creeks: Estelvste and the Creek Nation\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BuhCyjixDV4C\&pg\=PA207\|year\=2007\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-3815\-2\|page\=207}}{{cite book\|author\=United States. Congress. House\|title\=House Documents, Otherwise Publ. as Executive Documents: 13th Congress, 2d Session\-49th Congress, 1st Session\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=A4kFAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=RA4\-PA39\|page\=39}} an Alabamian{{cite book\|author\=James Shannon Buchanan\|title\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kTQUAAAAYAAJ\&q\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22%20%22Alabama%22\|year\=1973\|publisher\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\|page\=67}} with land holdings back east and connections in Washington. His brother, William Duval, was also a connected attorney at nearby [Fort Smith](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas "Fort Smith, Arkansas") in Arkansas. The Seminole sub\-agent hoped to profit with the restoration of the Seminole blacks' slave status and angled incessantly to bring it about.McReynolds 1957, p. 272 He also began objecting to what he deemed the army's unauthorized protection of the Seminole blacks,Buchanan 1973, p. 67 including allowing them to remain in their makeshift settlement under Fort Gibson's walls.
#### Slavery again?
Some time after John Horse's return from his second mission to Washington, and Jesup's own visit and subsequent return east, [John Y. Mason](/wiki/John_Y._Mason "John Y. Mason"), US [Attorney\-General](/wiki/Attorney-General "Attorney-General") at the time, was designated by President [James K. Polk](/wiki/James_K._Polk "James K. Polk") to rule on the legitimacy of Jesup's emancipation of the former Seminole slaves. The demand for such a ruling was being pushed by Duval and his allies and urged by his brother, the attorney William Duval, who had been retained by the Seminole tribal council, at the sub\-agent's urging, to reclaim their rights to their former slaves.{{cite book\|author\=Edwin C. McReynolds\|title\=Oklahoma: A History of the Sooner State\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ACMPAQAAIAAJ\&q\=%22Black%22%20%22Seminoles%22%20%22Fort%20Gibson%22\|year\=1960\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|page\=188}} John Mason, a southerner, ruled that, since most of the Black Seminoles were descendants of fugitive slaves and thus legally still considered born into slavery, Jesup's decree had illegally deprived their Seminole owners of their legal property and could not be endorsed by the government. Thus the very reason many of the blacks had agreed to come in peacefully, and which had so seriously undermined the Seminoles' fight to remain in Florida, was suddenly and retroactively revoked.{{cite book\|author\=United States. Attorney\-General\|title\=Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States: Advising the President and Heads of Departments in Relation to Their Official Duties\|url\=https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02attogoog\|year\=1852\|publisher\=R. Farnham\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02attogoog/page/n726 728]–729}}{{cite book\|author1\=Dorothy Schneider\|author2\=Carl J. Schneider\|title\=Slavery in America\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=QlemwRTsY20C\&pg\=PA236\|date\=1 January 2007\|publisher\=Infobase Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-4381\-0813\-1\|page\=236}}
Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not on the chattel slavery model then common in the American south. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency since slaves of the Seminole generally lived in their own communities,{{cite book\|author\=Watson W. Jennison\|title\=Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750\-1860\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ImNeFi\-wt6IC\&pg\=PA132\|date\=18 January 2012\|publisher\=University Press of Kentucky\|isbn\=978\-0\-8131\-4021\-6\|page\=132}} carried weapons and hunted and fought beside the Seminole they were nominally owned by. In fact, except for the obligation of the blacks to join in hunting and war parties, and to supply an annual tribute of crops to the tribal chief for the general welfare of the tribe,{{cite book\|author\=Thomas N. Ingersoll\|title\=To Intermix with Our White Brothers: Indian Mixed Bloods in the United States from the Earliest Times to the Indian Removals\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Uwg1RhaL6R8C\&pg\=PA111\|year\=2005\|publisher\=UNM Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8263\-3287\-5\|page\=111}} there was little effective difference between how the Seminole lived and the lives of their nominal slaves. This changed in the course of the Second Seminole War when the old tribal system broke down under the pressure of the fighting and the Seminole resolved themselves into loose war bands living off the land with no distinction between tribal members and their so\-called slaves. But this changed yet again in the new territory when the Seminole were obliged to settle on fixed lots of land and take up settled agriculture.{{cite book\|author1\=Philip Deloria\|author2\=Neal Salisbury\|title\=A Companion to American Indian History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BMenL80QO0kC\&pg\=PA348\|date\=15 April 2008\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons\|isbn\=978\-1\-4051\-4378\-3\|pages\=348–349}}
At that point the chattel slave model adopted by their Creek cousins and other displaced tribes in the region took on more attraction for many of the Seminole. Their increasing poverty, due to the poor land they had been given and their own farming inexperience also made regaining a source of slave labor attractive to them (since the blacks were generally better farmers and craftsmen than their "owners"). The Seminole sub\-agent, Marcellus Duval, became a tireless advocate for restoration of alleged Seminole property rights over their former allies in the field, a restoration he apparently hoped to turn to his own benefit as much as to the Indians'.{{cite book\|author\=Wolfgang Binder\|title\=Westward Expansion in America (1803\-1860\)\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=k7F1AAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22\|year\=1987\|publisher\=Palm \& Enke\|isbn\=978\-3\-7896\-0171\-2\|page\=147}}
With Mason's reversal of Jesup's wartime decree, those who had been freed by Jesup now suddenly found their status reversed, as Duval and the pro\-Creek Seminole demanded their return to Seminole service, only now as chattel slaves. A new open season by the raiders from nearby groups and towns was about to commence as more than 280 Black Seminoles, including John Horse's own family, were now at risk again.
Duval, who had slave interests of his own, then effectively procured a decision from Washington that would force the blacks living under the army's protection at Fort Gibson to return to the settlements of those Indians who were now deemed their legal owners. The Indian sub\-agent had, in fact, already worked out an agreement with the pro\-Creek faction within the Seminole tribal council to provide a large number of the re\-enslaved blacks to his lawyer brother in payment for legal services rendered on their behalf in Washington in pursuit of their property rights over the Seminole blacks.{{cite book\|title\=Congressional Edition\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=o3BHAQAAIAAJ\&pg\=RA2\-PA29\|year\=1855\|publisher\=U.S. Government Printing Office\|page\=29}}{{cite book\|author\=Jeff Guinn\|title\=Our Land Before We Die: The Proud Story of the Seminole Negro\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=hhINAQAAMAAJ\&q\=%22They%20also%20told%20Arbuckle%22\|year\=2002\|publisher\=J.P. Tarcher/Putnam\|isbn\=978\-1\-58542\-186\-2\|page\=136}} He and his brother apparently hoped to turn a profit by claiming so many of the new slaves, either to work on their family holdings back in Alabama or for sale on the open market.
The stage was thus set for a major crisis as the army received orders to evict the blacks then sheltering under Fort Gibson's walls and force their return to enslavement under the Seminole, now headed up by the pro\-Creek faction who supported the institution of chattel slavery as practiced back east. John Horse, with all his options exhausted and even the government and its army turned against him, faced a decision.
#### Migration
Although the army generals were friendly to John Horse and his interests, they were bound by their duty. The War Department, from whom the army took its direction, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs were now arrayed against the interests of the Seminole blacks. John Horse soon found himself allied with Coacoochee again as the two fought a rear guard action to halt the rise of the pro\-Creek leadership among the Seminole and the loss of freedom for the Seminole blacks. The two men wrangled with the various generals who quickly succeeded one another while the generals, themselves, played a delaying game with their Washington superiors. Eventually, however, Micaonopy's death ended the stalemate and the army could no longer delay evicting the ad hoc black settlement around the fort and sending its people back to certain enslavement. John Horse took charge of the exodus from [Fort Gibson](/wiki/Fort_Gibson "Fort Gibson") but, instead of taking his people to the site Duval the Indian agent had selected for them close by his agency, Horse and another ally, the black scout [Toney Barnet](/wiki/Toney_Barnet "Toney Barnet"), settled them at a place on the [Little River](/wiki/Little_River_%28Canadian_River%29 "Little River (Canadian River)"){{cite book\|author1\=Roy R. Barkley\|author2\=Mark F. Odintz\|author3\=Texas State Historical Association\|title\=The Portable Handbook of Texas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=p\-wMAQAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Wewoka%22\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Texas State Historical Association\|isbn\=978\-0\-87611\-180\-2\|page\=198}} he named *[Wewoka](/wiki/Wewoka%2C_Oklahoma "Wewoka, Oklahoma")*{{cite book\|author\=Kimberley L. Phillips\|title\=Critical Voicings of Black Liberation: Resistance and Representations in the Americas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=t6jdNVdUnTgC\&pg\=PA13\|year\=2003\|publisher\=LIT Verlag Münster\|isbn\=978\-3\-8258\-6739\-3\|page\=13}}{{cite book\|author\=Blue Clark\|title\=Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=8U9fc2833xQC\&pg\=PT537\|date\=1 March 2012\|publisher\=University of Oklahoma Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8061\-8463\-0\|page\=537}} farther from the [Creek](/wiki/Muscogee_%28Creek%29 "Muscogee (Creek)") and the Seminole agency than Duval had counted on.{{cite book\|title\=Congressional Edition\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=o3BHAQAAIAAJ\&pg\=RA2\-PA22\|year\=1855\|publisher\=U.S. Government Printing Office\|page\=22}} Settling in, they set up defenses against the gangs of slavers who quickly flocked around the black settlement. John Horse and Barnet settled on a plan which involved getting [Marcellus Duval](/wiki/Marcellus_Duval "Marcellus Duval") out of the way by inducing him to head off to Florida on a temporary mission which he thought would redound to his interest.{{cite book\|author\=James Warren Covington\|title\=The Billy Bowlegs War, 1855\-1858: the final stand of the Seminoles against the whites\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GETzAAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22\|date\=August 1982\|publisher\=Mickler House Publishers\|page\=14\|isbn\=9780913122068}} To facilitate his agreement to make the trip, Barnet, also affiliated with the Seminole, offered to serve as scout and translator. (Barnet had reasons of his own for remaining behind since he was working to free his son who had been enslaved by two Cherokee brothers on Cherokee land within Indian Territory.)
While Duval was gone with Barnet, John Horse speedily concluded a pact with his old friend Coacoochee (disaffected because of his failure to be selected to replace Micanopy) and the two of them led an exodus from Wewoka, and Indian Territory in general, in the dead of night. They led over a hundred blacks including men, women and children, and at least as many fleeing Seminole, out of the lands they had been placed on by the government, heading south across the Red River into Texas. There they began a dash across that vast state which would take them nearly a year, eventually incurring pursuit by Duval's slavers (dispatched after he had returned and discovered their flight) and the Texas Rangers who had been authorized by the Texas governor to recapture and return them to their Seminole owners (and to Duval who had placed a bounty on each man, woman and child). From October 1849 until the summer of 1850, Horse and Coacoochee led the migration south, picking up a troop of disgruntled Kickapoo Indians along the way,{{cite book\|author\=Jane F. Lancaster\|title\=Removal Aftershock: The Seminoles' Struggles to Survive in the West, 1836\-1866\|url\=https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1994\|publisher\=Univ. of Tennessee Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-87049\-846\-6\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc/page/84 84]–85}} and facing the war arrows of the Comanche who considered Coacoochee's presence in their territory an affront. The Comanche may have known of an agreement Coacoochee had concluded with representatives of the Mexican government to gain land on which to live once in Mexico in exchange for his service on the border repelling Texan and Comanche raiders.{{cite book\|author\=Thomas Anthony Britten\|title\=A Brief History of the Seminole\-Negro Indian Scouts\|url\=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofse07brit\|url\-access\=registration\|date\=1 January 1999\|publisher\=Edwin Mellen Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-7734\-7963\-0\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofse07brit/page/49 49]}}{{cite book\|author\=Peter A. Howard\|title\=Relations Between Native Americans and Those of African Descent in the South, 1526 to 1907\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qrk7V5NDbHUC\&pg\=PA41\|year\=2008\|isbn\=978\-0\-549\-56594\-9\|page\=41}}
#### Racing to the border
After a pitched battle with the Comanche, the fleeing party had to cross a desert region, meeting up with an old adversary, Major John T. Sprague, at the springs of Las Moras just north of the Mexican border.{{cite book\|author\=Jesse Sumpter\|title\=Paso del Águila: A Chronicle of Frontier Days on the Texas border as Recorded in the Memoirs of Jesse Sumpter\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HQQLAAAAYAAJ\&q\=%22Las%20Moras%22%20%22Gopher%20John%22\|year\=1969\|publisher\=Encino Press\|page\=4}} That encounter is described in Sprague's own journals which he compiled to document an expedition of supply wagons he led across southern Texas to resupply the outpost at today's El Paso (then the town of Franklin). Sprague had been a young captain back in Florida and had known both John Horse and Wild Cat there, having been involved in the latter's initial{{cite book\|author\=John Titcomb Sprague\|title\=The Origin, Progress, and Conclusions of the Florida War\|url\=https://archive.org/details/originprogressa00spragoog\|year\=1848\|publisher\=D. Appleton \& Company\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/originprogressa00spragoog/page/n210 187]}} and then his final surrender. The three men sat into the night reminiscing and drinking from a bottle of liquor Sprague had supplied. But some time in the early morning hours the Indians learned that someone from the army camp had secretly gone to a nearby town to alert the Texas Rangers of their presence. Whether Sprague, himself, was implicated remains unknown.
In the pre\-dawn hours John Horse and Coacoochee woke their people and secretly departed the camp at Las Moras to make a last desperate dash to the Rio Grande. There they built makeshift rafts to ferry their people across. They were still hard at it, only midway across the river, when the Rangers and their allies abruptly arrived. But it was too late and the Seminole and their black allies, with the Kickapoo who had joined them, got across and made contact with officials in the Mexican state of Coahuila.Guinn 2005, pp. 236–238 There, in return for a pledge to fight all invaders and raiding parties from Texas, they were given land for their people and captaincies in the Mexican army on or about July 12, 1850\.
|
[
"### Life in Indian Territory",
"#### New conflicts and old issues",
"In the new territory, John Horse worked sporadically for the army as an interpreter and, sometimes, as an intermediary for the officers and the Indian leaders.{{cite book\\|title\\=Journal of a Tour on the \"Indian Territory\": Performed by Order of the Domestic Committee of the Board of Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Spring of 1844\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Nhg1AQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA15\\|year\\=1844\\|publisher\\=Domestic Committee of the Board of Missions\\|page\\=15}} Asked to help persuade the remaining Indian fighters in Florida to surrender and relocate to Indian Territory as he and others had done, he returned to Florida in 1839 to act as go\\-between with one of the last Seminole war chiefs, [Coacoochee](/wiki/Coacoochee \"Coacoochee\") (Wild Cat), eventually convincing his old friend to accept the inevitable and come in, too. John Horse was sent back to Indian Territory in 1842, as part of a group of about 120 other exiles, once the army felt he had done what they needed.",
"In Indian Territory again, the exiled Seminole leadership finally voted freedom for John Horse, too, around the year 1843 in light of his services to the Seminole during their lengthy war. At the time the main chief, Micanopy (*Mico Nuppa*),{{cite book\\|author\\=Susan A. Miller\\|title\\=Coacoochee's Bones: A Seminole Saga\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bgl1AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22micco%20of%20all%20the%20Seminole%20people%22\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=University Press of Kansas\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7006\\-1195\\-9\\|page\\=23}} had nominal ownership over him. It was Micanopy, in concert with his council, who finally granted the black warrior his freedom from any claims of enslavement against him which the tribe still had. Thus John Horse had been freed three times: by Jesup's original declaration,{{cite book\\|author\\=Daniel F. Littlefield\\|title\\=Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0RtHXh93pAgC\\&pg\\=PA57\\|year\\=1977\\|publisher\\=Univ. Press of Mississippi\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57806\\-360\\-4\\|page\\=57}} by General Worth who was Jesup's last successor (for services rendered), and by the Seminole leadership. Only the first of these actions applied to John Horse's second wife, Susan (daughter of the black leader July){{cite book\\|author\\=Shirley Boteler Mock\\|title\\=Dreaming with the Ancestors: Black Seminole Women in Texas and Mexico\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6DidR2jTUjEC\\&pg\\=PA39\\|date\\=9 October 2012\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-8608\\-5\\|page\\=39}} and their children, however, and that action would soon come into serious question.",
"Conflict arose in the Territory because the transplanted Seminole had been placed on land allocated to the [Creek Indians](/wiki/Creek_Indians \"Creek Indians\"){{cite book\\|author1\\=Bruce G. Trigger\\|author2\\=Wilcomb E. Washburn\\|title\\=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DRGVjLiyXEwC\\&pg\\=PA525\\|date\\=13 October 1996\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-57392\\-4\\|page\\=525}} since the U.S. government had failed to recognize the tribal distinctions between the two peoples (the Seminole were a loose amalgam of Creek bands which had detached themselves from the Creek Indian federation a century earlier and relocated to then Spanish Florida, although they had continued to maintain ethnic and some kinship ties with their northern Creek brethren in Georgia, Alabama and part of the Carolinas). Because the Creek had adopted the American institution of chattel slavery{{cite book\\|author\\=Bruce Edward Twyman\\|title\\=The Black Seminole Legacy and North American Politics, 1693\\-1845\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4dR1AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Duval%22\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Howard University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-88258\\-204\\-7\\|page\\=118}} while the Seminole had not done the same{{cite book\\|author\\=Darién J. Davis\\|title\\=Slavery and Beyond: The African Impact on Latin America and the Caribbean\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vN4M7XZgD\\-cC\\&pg\\=PA39\\|year\\=1995\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8420\\-2485\\-3\\|page\\=39}} (they lived in very different ways), the presence of free blacks among the Seminole on Creek land and under the nominal sovereignty of the Creek tribal council, caused friction between the two groups. The free blacks threatened the Creek slave\\-holding status quo, because their very existence tempted the Creeks' own slaves to challenge their status, and provided a tempting target for Creek and affiliated groups seeking to acquire more slaves.",
"Creek slavers and those from other Indian groups, and some whites, soon began raiding the Black Seminole settlements{{cite book\\|author\\=James Shannon Buchanan\\|title\\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6i8UAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=%22Siah%20Hardridge%22\\|year\\=1955\\|publisher\\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\\|page\\=522}} to kidnap and enslave anyone they could get their hands on, and John Horse quickly became a focal point for organizing resistance to these encroachments as well as lead spokesman for his fellow Black Seminoles. In one case, when some slavers succeeded in capturing [Dembo Factor](/wiki/Dembo_Factor \"Dembo Factor\"),{{cite book\\|author\\=Kevin Mulroy\\|title\\=The Seminole Freedmen: A History\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-3865\\-7\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr/page/79 79]}}Littlefield 1977, p. 103 a veteran of the Seminole War, John Horse and his on\\-again, off\\-again ally, Coacoochee (Wild Cat), who had hopes of succeeding Micanopy as leader of all the Seminole and who opposed living under the Creek, protested. The Army, responding to their concerns, demanded and got Factor's release but neither they nor the Creek tribal council pursued charges of kidnapping against the suspected slavers. The slave raids continued as tensions mounted.{{cite book\\|author\\=Daniel F. Littlefield\\|title\\=Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Z4p1AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Dembo%22\\|date\\=November 1979\\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-20703\\-7\\|page\\=179}}",
"#### Seeking a solution",
"In 1844 John Horse traveled to Washington, D.C.,{{cite book\\|author\\=Edwin C. McReynolds\\|title\\=The Seminoles\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/seminoles00mcre\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1957\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-1255\\-8\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/seminoles00mcre/page/260 260]}} with a delegation of Seminole{{cite book\\|author\\=Grant Foreman\\|title\\=The Five Civilized Tribes\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-Dp4qxWDOMUC\\&pg\\=PA232\\|date\\=17 April 2013\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-8967\\-3\\|page\\=232}} including Coacoochee to argue for a separate land grant for the Seminole on the grounds that they were and had been a separate peopleArce 2000, p. 247 for at least a hundred years. Failing to secure the backing they needed, they returned to Indian Territory, but Horse traveled once more to Washington, this time on his own (acting as servant to an officer's brother) to lobby General Jesup to live up to his earlier promises. Jesup was sympathetic and probably felt a little guilty for having been instrumental in the treachery that took Osceola off the field and led to that chief's death. However he could not overcome political resistance in Washington where pressure was growing to reverse his grant of freedom to the blacks who came in voluntarily. Perhaps in response to John's advocacy, Jesup traveled to Indian Territory himself (he was now Quartermaster General for the entire U.S. Army) to arrange for the construction of new facilities at [Fort Gibson](/wiki/Fort_Gibson \"Fort Gibson\"), the army's headquarters in the Territory.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Carolyn Thomas Foreman\\|author2\\=Grant Foreman\\|title\\=Fort Gibson A Brief History\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/fortgibsonbriefh00fore\\#page/22/mode/2up/search/jesup\\|year\\=1930\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|page\\=22}} While there he compiled a list of all those who had surrendered under his order and validated it. He also offered them work on the grounds of Fort Gibson on a construction project he had initiated.",
"As a result, large numbers of Seminole blacks left the two Seminole settlements, Deep Fork and Little River, to re\\-settle outside the fort's walls under army protection. Once the work was done, however, the blacks chose to remain because of the ongoing predations of Creek, Cherokee and so\\-called half breed slave catchers, creating yet another flash point of contention with the army and the slaver gangs. John Horse, himself, was attacked by unknown assailants at one point, thought to have been members of the pro\\-Creek Seminole faction and came close to death from the bullet he took, but the would\\-be assassins were never located. After the incident, the officer in charge at Fort Gibson invited John and his family to take up residence inside the fort,{{cite book\\|author1\\=Norman E. Whitten\\|author2\\=Arlene Torres\\|title\\=Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean: Central America and Northern and Western South America\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=E\\_IZhY9ZEH4C\\&pg\\=PA206\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Indiana University Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-253\\-21193\\-X\\|page\\=206}} which he did, giving up the claim he had staked out in the Indian area. The tensions extended to the Seminole Indian sub\\-agent, Marcellus Duval,{{cite book\\|author\\=Gary Zellar\\|title\\=African Creeks: Estelvste and the Creek Nation\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BuhCyjixDV4C\\&pg\\=PA207\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-3815\\-2\\|page\\=207}}{{cite book\\|author\\=United States. Congress. House\\|title\\=House Documents, Otherwise Publ. as Executive Documents: 13th Congress, 2d Session\\-49th Congress, 1st Session\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A4kFAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=RA4\\-PA39\\|page\\=39}} an Alabamian{{cite book\\|author\\=James Shannon Buchanan\\|title\\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kTQUAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22%20%22Alabama%22\\|year\\=1973\\|publisher\\=Oklahoma Historical Society.\\|page\\=67}} with land holdings back east and connections in Washington. His brother, William Duval, was also a connected attorney at nearby [Fort Smith](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas \"Fort Smith, Arkansas\") in Arkansas. The Seminole sub\\-agent hoped to profit with the restoration of the Seminole blacks' slave status and angled incessantly to bring it about.McReynolds 1957, p. 272 He also began objecting to what he deemed the army's unauthorized protection of the Seminole blacks,Buchanan 1973, p. 67 including allowing them to remain in their makeshift settlement under Fort Gibson's walls.",
"#### Slavery again?",
"Some time after John Horse's return from his second mission to Washington, and Jesup's own visit and subsequent return east, [John Y. Mason](/wiki/John_Y._Mason \"John Y. Mason\"), US [Attorney\\-General](/wiki/Attorney-General \"Attorney-General\") at the time, was designated by President [James K. Polk](/wiki/James_K._Polk \"James K. Polk\") to rule on the legitimacy of Jesup's emancipation of the former Seminole slaves. The demand for such a ruling was being pushed by Duval and his allies and urged by his brother, the attorney William Duval, who had been retained by the Seminole tribal council, at the sub\\-agent's urging, to reclaim their rights to their former slaves.{{cite book\\|author\\=Edwin C. McReynolds\\|title\\=Oklahoma: A History of the Sooner State\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ACMPAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=%22Black%22%20%22Seminoles%22%20%22Fort%20Gibson%22\\|year\\=1960\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|page\\=188}} John Mason, a southerner, ruled that, since most of the Black Seminoles were descendants of fugitive slaves and thus legally still considered born into slavery, Jesup's decree had illegally deprived their Seminole owners of their legal property and could not be endorsed by the government. Thus the very reason many of the blacks had agreed to come in peacefully, and which had so seriously undermined the Seminoles' fight to remain in Florida, was suddenly and retroactively revoked.{{cite book\\|author\\=United States. Attorney\\-General\\|title\\=Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States: Advising the President and Heads of Departments in Relation to Their Official Duties\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02attogoog\\|year\\=1852\\|publisher\\=R. Farnham\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02attogoog/page/n726 728]–729}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Dorothy Schneider\\|author2\\=Carl J. Schneider\\|title\\=Slavery in America\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=QlemwRTsY20C\\&pg\\=PA236\\|date\\=1 January 2007\\|publisher\\=Infobase Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4381\\-0813\\-1\\|page\\=236}}",
"Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not on the chattel slavery model then common in the American south. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency since slaves of the Seminole generally lived in their own communities,{{cite book\\|author\\=Watson W. Jennison\\|title\\=Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750\\-1860\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ImNeFi\\-wt6IC\\&pg\\=PA132\\|date\\=18 January 2012\\|publisher\\=University Press of Kentucky\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8131\\-4021\\-6\\|page\\=132}} carried weapons and hunted and fought beside the Seminole they were nominally owned by. In fact, except for the obligation of the blacks to join in hunting and war parties, and to supply an annual tribute of crops to the tribal chief for the general welfare of the tribe,{{cite book\\|author\\=Thomas N. Ingersoll\\|title\\=To Intermix with Our White Brothers: Indian Mixed Bloods in the United States from the Earliest Times to the Indian Removals\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Uwg1RhaL6R8C\\&pg\\=PA111\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=UNM Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8263\\-3287\\-5\\|page\\=111}} there was little effective difference between how the Seminole lived and the lives of their nominal slaves. This changed in the course of the Second Seminole War when the old tribal system broke down under the pressure of the fighting and the Seminole resolved themselves into loose war bands living off the land with no distinction between tribal members and their so\\-called slaves. But this changed yet again in the new territory when the Seminole were obliged to settle on fixed lots of land and take up settled agriculture.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Philip Deloria\\|author2\\=Neal Salisbury\\|title\\=A Companion to American Indian History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BMenL80QO0kC\\&pg\\=PA348\\|date\\=15 April 2008\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4051\\-4378\\-3\\|pages\\=348–349}}",
"At that point the chattel slave model adopted by their Creek cousins and other displaced tribes in the region took on more attraction for many of the Seminole. Their increasing poverty, due to the poor land they had been given and their own farming inexperience also made regaining a source of slave labor attractive to them (since the blacks were generally better farmers and craftsmen than their \"owners\"). The Seminole sub\\-agent, Marcellus Duval, became a tireless advocate for restoration of alleged Seminole property rights over their former allies in the field, a restoration he apparently hoped to turn to his own benefit as much as to the Indians'.{{cite book\\|author\\=Wolfgang Binder\\|title\\=Westward Expansion in America (1803\\-1860\\)\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=k7F1AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Palm \\& Enke\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-7896\\-0171\\-2\\|page\\=147}}",
"With Mason's reversal of Jesup's wartime decree, those who had been freed by Jesup now suddenly found their status reversed, as Duval and the pro\\-Creek Seminole demanded their return to Seminole service, only now as chattel slaves. A new open season by the raiders from nearby groups and towns was about to commence as more than 280 Black Seminoles, including John Horse's own family, were now at risk again.",
"Duval, who had slave interests of his own, then effectively procured a decision from Washington that would force the blacks living under the army's protection at Fort Gibson to return to the settlements of those Indians who were now deemed their legal owners. The Indian sub\\-agent had, in fact, already worked out an agreement with the pro\\-Creek faction within the Seminole tribal council to provide a large number of the re\\-enslaved blacks to his lawyer brother in payment for legal services rendered on their behalf in Washington in pursuit of their property rights over the Seminole blacks.{{cite book\\|title\\=Congressional Edition\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=o3BHAQAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=RA2\\-PA29\\|year\\=1855\\|publisher\\=U.S. Government Printing Office\\|page\\=29}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Jeff Guinn\\|title\\=Our Land Before We Die: The Proud Story of the Seminole Negro\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hhINAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22They%20also%20told%20Arbuckle%22\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=J.P. Tarcher/Putnam\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58542\\-186\\-2\\|page\\=136}} He and his brother apparently hoped to turn a profit by claiming so many of the new slaves, either to work on their family holdings back in Alabama or for sale on the open market.",
"The stage was thus set for a major crisis as the army received orders to evict the blacks then sheltering under Fort Gibson's walls and force their return to enslavement under the Seminole, now headed up by the pro\\-Creek faction who supported the institution of chattel slavery as practiced back east. John Horse, with all his options exhausted and even the government and its army turned against him, faced a decision.",
"#### Migration",
"Although the army generals were friendly to John Horse and his interests, they were bound by their duty. The War Department, from whom the army took its direction, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs were now arrayed against the interests of the Seminole blacks. John Horse soon found himself allied with Coacoochee again as the two fought a rear guard action to halt the rise of the pro\\-Creek leadership among the Seminole and the loss of freedom for the Seminole blacks. The two men wrangled with the various generals who quickly succeeded one another while the generals, themselves, played a delaying game with their Washington superiors. Eventually, however, Micaonopy's death ended the stalemate and the army could no longer delay evicting the ad hoc black settlement around the fort and sending its people back to certain enslavement. John Horse took charge of the exodus from [Fort Gibson](/wiki/Fort_Gibson \"Fort Gibson\") but, instead of taking his people to the site Duval the Indian agent had selected for them close by his agency, Horse and another ally, the black scout [Toney Barnet](/wiki/Toney_Barnet \"Toney Barnet\"), settled them at a place on the [Little River](/wiki/Little_River_%28Canadian_River%29 \"Little River (Canadian River)\"){{cite book\\|author1\\=Roy R. Barkley\\|author2\\=Mark F. Odintz\\|author3\\=Texas State Historical Association\\|title\\=The Portable Handbook of Texas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=p\\-wMAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Wewoka%22\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Texas State Historical Association\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87611\\-180\\-2\\|page\\=198}} he named *[Wewoka](/wiki/Wewoka%2C_Oklahoma \"Wewoka, Oklahoma\")*{{cite book\\|author\\=Kimberley L. Phillips\\|title\\=Critical Voicings of Black Liberation: Resistance and Representations in the Americas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=t6jdNVdUnTgC\\&pg\\=PA13\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=LIT Verlag Münster\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-8258\\-6739\\-3\\|page\\=13}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Blue Clark\\|title\\=Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=8U9fc2833xQC\\&pg\\=PT537\\|date\\=1 March 2012\\|publisher\\=University of Oklahoma Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8061\\-8463\\-0\\|page\\=537}} farther from the [Creek](/wiki/Muscogee_%28Creek%29 \"Muscogee (Creek)\") and the Seminole agency than Duval had counted on.{{cite book\\|title\\=Congressional Edition\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=o3BHAQAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=RA2\\-PA22\\|year\\=1855\\|publisher\\=U.S. Government Printing Office\\|page\\=22}} Settling in, they set up defenses against the gangs of slavers who quickly flocked around the black settlement. John Horse and Barnet settled on a plan which involved getting [Marcellus Duval](/wiki/Marcellus_Duval \"Marcellus Duval\") out of the way by inducing him to head off to Florida on a temporary mission which he thought would redound to his interest.{{cite book\\|author\\=James Warren Covington\\|title\\=The Billy Bowlegs War, 1855\\-1858: the final stand of the Seminoles against the whites\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GETzAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22\\|date\\=August 1982\\|publisher\\=Mickler House Publishers\\|page\\=14\\|isbn\\=9780913122068}} To facilitate his agreement to make the trip, Barnet, also affiliated with the Seminole, offered to serve as scout and translator. (Barnet had reasons of his own for remaining behind since he was working to free his son who had been enslaved by two Cherokee brothers on Cherokee land within Indian Territory.)",
"While Duval was gone with Barnet, John Horse speedily concluded a pact with his old friend Coacoochee (disaffected because of his failure to be selected to replace Micanopy) and the two of them led an exodus from Wewoka, and Indian Territory in general, in the dead of night. They led over a hundred blacks including men, women and children, and at least as many fleeing Seminole, out of the lands they had been placed on by the government, heading south across the Red River into Texas. There they began a dash across that vast state which would take them nearly a year, eventually incurring pursuit by Duval's slavers (dispatched after he had returned and discovered their flight) and the Texas Rangers who had been authorized by the Texas governor to recapture and return them to their Seminole owners (and to Duval who had placed a bounty on each man, woman and child). From October 1849 until the summer of 1850, Horse and Coacoochee led the migration south, picking up a troop of disgruntled Kickapoo Indians along the way,{{cite book\\|author\\=Jane F. Lancaster\\|title\\=Removal Aftershock: The Seminoles' Struggles to Survive in the West, 1836\\-1866\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1994\\|publisher\\=Univ. of Tennessee Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87049\\-846\\-6\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc/page/84 84]–85}} and facing the war arrows of the Comanche who considered Coacoochee's presence in their territory an affront. The Comanche may have known of an agreement Coacoochee had concluded with representatives of the Mexican government to gain land on which to live once in Mexico in exchange for his service on the border repelling Texan and Comanche raiders.{{cite book\\|author\\=Thomas Anthony Britten\\|title\\=A Brief History of the Seminole\\-Negro Indian Scouts\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofse07brit\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|date\\=1 January 1999\\|publisher\\=Edwin Mellen Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7734\\-7963\\-0\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofse07brit/page/49 49]}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Peter A. Howard\\|title\\=Relations Between Native Americans and Those of African Descent in the South, 1526 to 1907\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qrk7V5NDbHUC\\&pg\\=PA41\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-549\\-56594\\-9\\|page\\=41}}",
"#### Racing to the border",
"After a pitched battle with the Comanche, the fleeing party had to cross a desert region, meeting up with an old adversary, Major John T. Sprague, at the springs of Las Moras just north of the Mexican border.{{cite book\\|author\\=Jesse Sumpter\\|title\\=Paso del Águila: A Chronicle of Frontier Days on the Texas border as Recorded in the Memoirs of Jesse Sumpter\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HQQLAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=%22Las%20Moras%22%20%22Gopher%20John%22\\|year\\=1969\\|publisher\\=Encino Press\\|page\\=4}} That encounter is described in Sprague's own journals which he compiled to document an expedition of supply wagons he led across southern Texas to resupply the outpost at today's El Paso (then the town of Franklin). Sprague had been a young captain back in Florida and had known both John Horse and Wild Cat there, having been involved in the latter's initial{{cite book\\|author\\=John Titcomb Sprague\\|title\\=The Origin, Progress, and Conclusions of the Florida War\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/originprogressa00spragoog\\|year\\=1848\\|publisher\\=D. Appleton \\& Company\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/originprogressa00spragoog/page/n210 187]}} and then his final surrender. The three men sat into the night reminiscing and drinking from a bottle of liquor Sprague had supplied. But some time in the early morning hours the Indians learned that someone from the army camp had secretly gone to a nearby town to alert the Texas Rangers of their presence. Whether Sprague, himself, was implicated remains unknown.",
"In the pre\\-dawn hours John Horse and Coacoochee woke their people and secretly departed the camp at Las Moras to make a last desperate dash to the Rio Grande. There they built makeshift rafts to ferry their people across. They were still hard at it, only midway across the river, when the Rangers and their allies abruptly arrived. But it was too late and the Seminole and their black allies, with the Kickapoo who had joined them, got across and made contact with officials in the Mexican state of Coahuila.Guinn 2005, pp. 236–238 There, in return for a pledge to fight all invaders and raiding parties from Texas, they were given land for their people and captaincies in the Mexican army on or about July 12, 1850\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
The Monastery of San Francisco was one of the works of [Nicolás de Ovando](/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando "Nicolás de Ovando"), which began its construction when the [Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscans "Franciscans") fathers arrived in 1508 and was completed in 1560\. It was the first [monastery](/wiki/Monastery "Monastery") in the New World, later, it was whipped for a [hurricane](/wiki/Hurricane "Hurricane").
The main part of the church is started by Liendo in 1544 on a hill and finished on July 23, 1556\. In 1586 it was looted by the English pirate [Francis Drake](/wiki/Francis_Drake "Francis Drake"), and then its repair began again, which was completed in 1664, but according to historians, in 1673 and 1751, two earthquakes occurred, which caused damage to the architecture of the San Francisco Monastery.
According to historians, [Alonso de Ojeda](/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda "Alonso de Ojeda") was buried at the main entrance of the monastery. Some time later, his remains were transferred to the [Dominican Convent](/wiki/Church_and_Convent_of_los_Dominicos "Church and Convent of los Dominicos") on October 12, 1942, in the same place where they were found in 1892\. The remains of [Bartholomew Columbus](/wiki/Bartholomew_Columbus "Bartholomew Columbus") were also found.
During the [Siege of Santo Domingo in 1809](/wiki/Spanish_reconquest_of_Santo_Domingo "Spanish reconquest of Santo Domingo"), after the defeat at the [Battle of Palo Hincado](/wiki/Battle_of_Palo_Hincado "Battle of Palo Hincado"), the [French](/wiki/French_people "French people") placed artillery on the roof of the main church. The vault was cut and in its place a wooden platform with artillery was placed, which later collapsed.
During the [domination of the Haitians 1822\-1844](/wiki/Haitian_occupation_of_Santo_Domingo "Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo"), in 1831 they took the stones and architectural details and in 1847 they were used again in the walls as construction material.
During the passage of the San Zenón [cyclone](/wiki/Cyclone "Cyclone") in 1930, a large part of the building was destroyed and in 1940 the Padre Billini leprosy hospital and asylum were installed there. The bells of San Francisco were relocated to the bell tower of the neighboring [Church of Santa Bárbara](/wiki/Santa_B%C3%A1rbara_Military_Cathedral "Santa Bárbara Military Cathedral").
The ruins of the Monastery of San Francisco include the ruins of the Chapel of la Tercera Orden de Garay or de María de Toledo. Through its tub, the water is distributed in all the pipes to the inhabitants of the [Ciudad Colonial](/wiki/Ciudad_Colonial "Ciudad Colonial"), it was even the first aqueduct in the city. Currently, these ruins are used for social and cultural events, and are cared for and protected by law and by the Permanent National Commission of National Ephemeris of the Dominican Republic.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Monastery of San Francisco was one of the works of [Nicolás de Ovando](/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando \"Nicolás de Ovando\"), which began its construction when the [Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscans \"Franciscans\") fathers arrived in 1508 and was completed in 1560\\. It was the first [monastery](/wiki/Monastery \"Monastery\") in the New World, later, it was whipped for a [hurricane](/wiki/Hurricane \"Hurricane\").",
"The main part of the church is started by Liendo in 1544 on a hill and finished on July 23, 1556\\. In 1586 it was looted by the English pirate [Francis Drake](/wiki/Francis_Drake \"Francis Drake\"), and then its repair began again, which was completed in 1664, but according to historians, in 1673 and 1751, two earthquakes occurred, which caused damage to the architecture of the San Francisco Monastery.",
"According to historians, [Alonso de Ojeda](/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda \"Alonso de Ojeda\") was buried at the main entrance of the monastery. Some time later, his remains were transferred to the [Dominican Convent](/wiki/Church_and_Convent_of_los_Dominicos \"Church and Convent of los Dominicos\") on October 12, 1942, in the same place where they were found in 1892\\. The remains of [Bartholomew Columbus](/wiki/Bartholomew_Columbus \"Bartholomew Columbus\") were also found.",
"During the [Siege of Santo Domingo in 1809](/wiki/Spanish_reconquest_of_Santo_Domingo \"Spanish reconquest of Santo Domingo\"), after the defeat at the [Battle of Palo Hincado](/wiki/Battle_of_Palo_Hincado \"Battle of Palo Hincado\"), the [French](/wiki/French_people \"French people\") placed artillery on the roof of the main church. The vault was cut and in its place a wooden platform with artillery was placed, which later collapsed.",
"During the [domination of the Haitians 1822\\-1844](/wiki/Haitian_occupation_of_Santo_Domingo \"Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo\"), in 1831 they took the stones and architectural details and in 1847 they were used again in the walls as construction material.",
"During the passage of the San Zenón [cyclone](/wiki/Cyclone \"Cyclone\") in 1930, a large part of the building was destroyed and in 1940 the Padre Billini leprosy hospital and asylum were installed there. The bells of San Francisco were relocated to the bell tower of the neighboring [Church of Santa Bárbara](/wiki/Santa_B%C3%A1rbara_Military_Cathedral \"Santa Bárbara Military Cathedral\").",
"The ruins of the Monastery of San Francisco include the ruins of the Chapel of la Tercera Orden de Garay or de María de Toledo. Through its tub, the water is distributed in all the pipes to the inhabitants of the [Ciudad Colonial](/wiki/Ciudad_Colonial \"Ciudad Colonial\"), it was even the first aqueduct in the city. Currently, these ruins are used for social and cultural events, and are cared for and protected by law and by the Permanent National Commission of National Ephemeris of the Dominican Republic.",
""
] |
Legislative career
------------------
Frangas was first elected to the [Colorado House of Representatives](/wiki/Colorado_House_of_Representatives "Colorado House of Representatives") in 2002 and has been re\-elected three times since then, each time defeating a Republican opponent by more than a 3:1 margin.
### 2003 Legislative Session
In the 2003 Legislative Session, Frangas served on the Health and Human Services Committee and State Veteran's and Military Affairs Committee. Frangas successfully carried and passed legislation regarding securing a permanent funding stream for the Colorado State Veteran's Cemetery, for the enforcement of restitution for auto theft and vandalism, and several pieces of legislation related to the safety and welfare of children.
### 2004 Legislative Session
Notable accomplishments by Frangas during this session included protections of private information from identity theft, requirements for the tarping of vehicles hauling trash on the highway, evaluation of The Colorado Works Program, and the reform and update of the regulation of mental health professionals.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leg.state.co.us/CLICS2004A/csl.nsf/Journals?OpenFrameSet \|title\=House Journal \- \|accessdate\=2014\-04\-04 }}
### 2007 Legislative Session
In the 2007 session of the Colorado General Assembly, Frangas sat on the House Finance Committee and was the Vice\-Chairman of the House Health and Human Services Committee.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leg.state.co.us/clics/clics2007a/directory.nsf/HouCommWp?OpenView \|title\=House Committees of Reference \|accessdate\=2007\-12\-11 \|work\=Colorado General Assembly}}
In 2007, Frangas, after failing to find a cab in downtown Denver on [New Year's Eve](/wiki/New_Year%27s_Eve "New Year's Eve"),[Green light for cabbies : Editorials : The Rocky Mountain News](http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/editorials/article/0,2777,DRMN_23964_5312336,00.html) sponsored a bill to allow for greater competition between taxicab companies. Attempted deregulation had failed numerous times before, and Frangas was only able to reform regulation regarding the lease rate cabbies pay from the cab companies.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\_5552510 \| work\=Denver Post \| first\=Allison \| last\=Sherry \| title\=Taxi deregulation bill steers in new direction \| date\=2007\-03\-30}}{{cite news\| url\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\_5573010 \| work\=Denver Post \| first\=Allison \| last\=Sherry \| title\=Fork in cabs' road \| date\=2007\-04\-02}}
Frangas was also one of only a few Democrats to oppose a plan by Governor [Bill Ritter](/wiki/Bill_Ritter_%28politician%29 "Bill Ritter (politician)") to freeze property tax rates which would have increased state revenue through property taxes;.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\_5760251 \| work\=Denver Post \| first\=Mark P. \| last\=Couch \| title\=House narrowly backs school funding plan \| date\=2007\-04\-27}}Sealover, Ed (2007\-09\-12\) "State lawmakers wary of 'feeding frenzy'" Colorado Springs Gazette Under the final version of this legislation, "...few local districts would see additional money from the freeze. Instead, all of the money raised will go to the districts and will replace, rather than supplement, a similar amount that the state had provided each district..." (Ed Sealover, Colorado Springs Gazette).
Frangas proposed that Denver Public Schools, and other districts where taxpayers contributed a substantial amount and had great need, would receive additional funds from the state via the property tax freeze as opposed to putting it into backfilling the State Budget. Frangas failed in this effort, but drew media and public attention to the problems with education funding in Colorado.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\_6888400 \| work\=Denver Post \| first\=Jennifer \| last\=Brown \| title\=Sparks flying on tax freeze \| date\=2007\-09\-14}}{{cite news\| url\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\_6866274 \| work\=Denver Post \| first\=Jennifer \| last\=Brown \| title\=Funding boost sought for DPS \| date\=2007\-09\-12}}
### 2008 Legislative Session
In the 2008 Legislative Session of the Colorado General Assembly, Frangas sits on the House Finance Committee and is vice\-chairman of the House Health and Human Services Committee.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leg.state.co.us/clics/clics2008a/directory.nsf/HouCommWp?OpenView \|title\=House Committees of Reference \|accessdate\=2008\-01\-19 \|work\=Colorado General Assembly}}
### 2008 Election
Frangas won re\-election in November 2008 to a fourth term in the legislature with 18,163 votes over Republican Rick Nevin who won 4,257 votes.
### 2009 Legislative Session
In the 2009 session of the Colorado General Assembly, Frangas sat on the House Transportation and Energy Committee and was vice\-chairman of the House Finance Committee.
### 2010 Legislative Session
In the 2010 session of the Colorado General Assembly, Frangas sat on the House Finance Committee and was Vice\-Chairman of the House Transportation and Energy Committee. In this session, Frangas carried and passed numerous pieces of legislation including a bill for better enforcement of handicap parking laws, a requirement for insurance coverage for reproductive health and maternity care for women, a bill to include pets in protective orders related to domestic violence, legislation to prevent financial exploitation of seniors and the disabled, and bills to improve access to mental health care, as well as to push for the development of behavioral health crisis response services. He also passed a resolution calling on the Federal Government to not charge interest on unemployment insurance loans to the States. Legislation that he was not successful in passing included efforts to enhance penalties for discrimination against the disabled as well as efforts to allow for the pooling of health insurance for small businesses and local governments.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leg.state.co.us/CLICS2010A/csl.nsf/Journals?OpenFrameSet \|title\=House Journal \- \|accessdate\=2014\-05\-04 }}
|
[
"Legislative career\n------------------",
"Frangas was first elected to the [Colorado House of Representatives](/wiki/Colorado_House_of_Representatives \"Colorado House of Representatives\") in 2002 and has been re\\-elected three times since then, each time defeating a Republican opponent by more than a 3:1 margin.",
"### 2003 Legislative Session",
"In the 2003 Legislative Session, Frangas served on the Health and Human Services Committee and State Veteran's and Military Affairs Committee. Frangas successfully carried and passed legislation regarding securing a permanent funding stream for the Colorado State Veteran's Cemetery, for the enforcement of restitution for auto theft and vandalism, and several pieces of legislation related to the safety and welfare of children.",
"### 2004 Legislative Session",
"Notable accomplishments by Frangas during this session included protections of private information from identity theft, requirements for the tarping of vehicles hauling trash on the highway, evaluation of The Colorado Works Program, and the reform and update of the regulation of mental health professionals.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leg.state.co.us/CLICS2004A/csl.nsf/Journals?OpenFrameSet \\|title\\=House Journal \\- \\|accessdate\\=2014\\-04\\-04 }}",
"### 2007 Legislative Session",
"In the 2007 session of the Colorado General Assembly, Frangas sat on the House Finance Committee and was the Vice\\-Chairman of the House Health and Human Services Committee.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leg.state.co.us/clics/clics2007a/directory.nsf/HouCommWp?OpenView \\|title\\=House Committees of Reference \\|accessdate\\=2007\\-12\\-11 \\|work\\=Colorado General Assembly}}",
"In 2007, Frangas, after failing to find a cab in downtown Denver on [New Year's Eve](/wiki/New_Year%27s_Eve \"New Year's Eve\"),[Green light for cabbies : Editorials : The Rocky Mountain News](http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/editorials/article/0,2777,DRMN_23964_5312336,00.html) sponsored a bill to allow for greater competition between taxicab companies. Attempted deregulation had failed numerous times before, and Frangas was only able to reform regulation regarding the lease rate cabbies pay from the cab companies.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\\_5552510 \\| work\\=Denver Post \\| first\\=Allison \\| last\\=Sherry \\| title\\=Taxi deregulation bill steers in new direction \\| date\\=2007\\-03\\-30}}{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\\_5573010 \\| work\\=Denver Post \\| first\\=Allison \\| last\\=Sherry \\| title\\=Fork in cabs' road \\| date\\=2007\\-04\\-02}}",
"Frangas was also one of only a few Democrats to oppose a plan by Governor [Bill Ritter](/wiki/Bill_Ritter_%28politician%29 \"Bill Ritter (politician)\") to freeze property tax rates which would have increased state revenue through property taxes;.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\\_5760251 \\| work\\=Denver Post \\| first\\=Mark P. \\| last\\=Couch \\| title\\=House narrowly backs school funding plan \\| date\\=2007\\-04\\-27}}Sealover, Ed (2007\\-09\\-12\\) \"State lawmakers wary of 'feeding frenzy'\" Colorado Springs Gazette Under the final version of this legislation, \"...few local districts would see additional money from the freeze. Instead, all of the money raised will go to the districts and will replace, rather than supplement, a similar amount that the state had provided each district...\" (Ed Sealover, Colorado Springs Gazette).",
"Frangas proposed that Denver Public Schools, and other districts where taxpayers contributed a substantial amount and had great need, would receive additional funds from the state via the property tax freeze as opposed to putting it into backfilling the State Budget. Frangas failed in this effort, but drew media and public attention to the problems with education funding in Colorado.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\\_6888400 \\| work\\=Denver Post \\| first\\=Jennifer \\| last\\=Brown \\| title\\=Sparks flying on tax freeze \\| date\\=2007\\-09\\-14}}{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.denverpost.com//ci\\_6866274 \\| work\\=Denver Post \\| first\\=Jennifer \\| last\\=Brown \\| title\\=Funding boost sought for DPS \\| date\\=2007\\-09\\-12}}",
"### 2008 Legislative Session",
"In the 2008 Legislative Session of the Colorado General Assembly, Frangas sits on the House Finance Committee and is vice\\-chairman of the House Health and Human Services Committee.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leg.state.co.us/clics/clics2008a/directory.nsf/HouCommWp?OpenView \\|title\\=House Committees of Reference \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-01\\-19 \\|work\\=Colorado General Assembly}}",
"### 2008 Election",
"Frangas won re\\-election in November 2008 to a fourth term in the legislature with 18,163 votes over Republican Rick Nevin who won 4,257 votes.",
"### 2009 Legislative Session",
"In the 2009 session of the Colorado General Assembly, Frangas sat on the House Transportation and Energy Committee and was vice\\-chairman of the House Finance Committee.",
"### 2010 Legislative Session",
"In the 2010 session of the Colorado General Assembly, Frangas sat on the House Finance Committee and was Vice\\-Chairman of the House Transportation and Energy Committee. In this session, Frangas carried and passed numerous pieces of legislation including a bill for better enforcement of handicap parking laws, a requirement for insurance coverage for reproductive health and maternity care for women, a bill to include pets in protective orders related to domestic violence, legislation to prevent financial exploitation of seniors and the disabled, and bills to improve access to mental health care, as well as to push for the development of behavioral health crisis response services. He also passed a resolution calling on the Federal Government to not charge interest on unemployment insurance loans to the States. Legislation that he was not successful in passing included efforts to enhance penalties for discrimination against the disabled as well as efforts to allow for the pooling of health insurance for small businesses and local governments.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leg.state.co.us/CLICS2010A/csl.nsf/Journals?OpenFrameSet \\|title\\=House Journal \\- \\|accessdate\\=2014\\-05\\-04 }}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early years: The Alexandria Infirmary
The hospital's history dates to the 1872 founding of the **Alexandria Infirmary** by a group of local women led by Julia Johns, whose father was the [bishop](/wiki/Bishop "Bishop") of the [Episcopal Church](/wiki/Episcopal_Church_%28United_States%29 "Episcopal Church (United States)") [Diocese of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia "Episcopal Diocese of Virginia"), [John Johns](/wiki/John_Johns "John Johns").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/01/30/alexandria\-hospital\-reflects\-on\-125\-years/38da5f51\-af22\-4718\-9ebe\-fc18bd0ee451/\|title\=ALEXANDRIA HOSPITAL REFLECTS ON 125 YEARS\|last\=Nguyen\|first\=Lan\|date\=1997\-01\-30\|work\=Washington Post\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-20\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0190\-8286}} A sailor had arrived at the port of Alexandria with [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever "Typhoid fever"), sparking fears of an [epidemic](/wiki/Epidemic "Epidemic"), but there was no place to quarantine or treat those with the disease.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.inova.org/upload/docs/Patients%20and%20Visitors/IAH/IAH\-131th\-anniv.pdf\|title\=Inova Alexandria Hospital – A History of Health Care Excellence – 1872–Today\|last\=Inova Alexandria Hospital}} The infirmary opened in early 1873 at the corner of Duke Street and South Fairfax Street in a townhouse owned by Johns's father. It would move several times in its early decades, occupying multiple facilities within the area now known as [Old Town Alexandria](/wiki/Old_Town_Alexandria "Old Town Alexandria"). In 1894, the infirmary opened a [nursing school](/wiki/Nursing_school "Nursing school"), the first in Northern Virginia.
### Alexandria Hospital and the Development of Emergency Medicine
In 1902, the infirmary changed its name to **Alexandria Hospital**. In 1917, it moved to another new location at the corner of Duke and Washington Streets, where it would remain until the opening of its current campus on Seminary Road, in Alexandria's [West End](/wiki/List_of_neighborhoods_in_Alexandria%2C_Virginia%23West_End "List of neighborhoods in Alexandria, Virginia#West End") area. The hospital broke ground on the new facility in 1959, and officially opened it in 1962; [Vice President of the United States](/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States "Vice President of the United States") [Lyndon Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson") spoke at the opening ceremony.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.connectionnewspapers.com/news/2002/dec/10/130\-years\-being\-of\-the\-city/\|title\=130 Years Being "Of The City"\|date\=2002\-12\-10\|work\=Connection Newspapers\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-20\|language\=en}} The hospital transitioned its various units to Seminary Road in phases from 1962 until the Duke Street site finally closed in 1974\.
As the 1960s began, a group of physicians at Alexandria Hospital played a pivotal role in creating the modern medical specialty of [emergency medicine](/wiki/Emergency_medicine "Emergency medicine"). Before this time, hospital [emergency departments](/wiki/Emergency_department "Emergency department") (EDs) (also called emergency rooms (ERs)) were generally staffed by physicians on staff at the hospital on a rotating basis, among them family physicians, general surgeons, internists, and a variety of other specialists. In many smaller emergency departments, nurses would triage patients and physicians would be called in based on the type of injury or illness.
In 1961, an Alexandria Hospital general practice physician, Dr. James Mills, recognized that visits to the hospital's emergency department had rapidly increased while staffing had failed to keep pace, since much of the medical staff did not want to serve in the ED. Dissatisfied with his own general practice, Mills recruited three other physicians to work full\-time in the emergency department rather than on rotation; the four became "the first group of American doctors to engage in full\-time emergency practice."{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/chalmers\-babe\-loughridge\-visionary\-of\-emergency\-room\-medicine\-dies\-at\-93/2012/08/23/85f3e282\-ec83\-11e1\-aca7\-272630dfd152\_story.html\|title\=Chalmers ‘Babe’ Loughridge, pioneer of emergency\-room medicine, dies at 93\|last\=Schudel\|first\=Matt\|date\=2012\-08\-23\|work\=Washington Post\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-20\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0190\-8286}} This approach became known as the “Alexandria Plan" and quickly became a model for other hospitals around the country. By 1968, the specialty was established enough to form the [American College of Emergency Physicians](/wiki/American_College_of_Emergency_Physicians "American College of Emergency Physicians"), of which Mills served as the second president.
### Merger with Inova Health System
By the 1990s, many patients were covered by [health insurance](/wiki/Health_insurance "Health insurance") plans that provided larger hospital groups with advantages over smaller independent facilities, which led to many mergers and consolidations in the industry.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1996/07/03/in\-era\-of\-mergers\-alexandria\-hospital\-decides\-to\-join\-inova\-health\-system/00e0a7a5\-7670\-4b08\-a212\-979177bf0fb3/\|title\=In Era of Mergers, Alexandria Hospital Decides to Join Inova Health System\|last\=Goldstein\|first\=Amy\|date\=1996\-07\-03\|work\=Washington Post\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-20\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0190\-8286}} Alexandria Hospital, though still financially sound at the time, began considering merger options, including both not\-for\-profit and for\-profit partners.
Ultimately, the hospital decided in 1996 to merge with its [Fairfax County](/wiki/Fairfax_County%2C_Virginia "Fairfax County, Virginia")\-based competitor [Inova Health System](/wiki/Inova_Health_System "Inova Health System"), which was the largest not\-for\-profit hospital network in Virginia at the time. In addition to concerns about insurance providers, the hospitals' leaders said they expected to save money by avoiding duplication of services. Upon the merger in 1997, the hospital adopted its current name of Inova Alexandria Hospital, and remains a nonprofit organization.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early years: The Alexandria Infirmary",
"The hospital's history dates to the 1872 founding of the **Alexandria Infirmary** by a group of local women led by Julia Johns, whose father was the [bishop](/wiki/Bishop \"Bishop\") of the [Episcopal Church](/wiki/Episcopal_Church_%28United_States%29 \"Episcopal Church (United States)\") [Diocese of Virginia](/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Virginia \"Episcopal Diocese of Virginia\"), [John Johns](/wiki/John_Johns \"John Johns\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/01/30/alexandria\\-hospital\\-reflects\\-on\\-125\\-years/38da5f51\\-af22\\-4718\\-9ebe\\-fc18bd0ee451/\\|title\\=ALEXANDRIA HOSPITAL REFLECTS ON 125 YEARS\\|last\\=Nguyen\\|first\\=Lan\\|date\\=1997\\-01\\-30\\|work\\=Washington Post\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-20\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}} A sailor had arrived at the port of Alexandria with [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever \"Typhoid fever\"), sparking fears of an [epidemic](/wiki/Epidemic \"Epidemic\"), but there was no place to quarantine or treat those with the disease.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.inova.org/upload/docs/Patients%20and%20Visitors/IAH/IAH\\-131th\\-anniv.pdf\\|title\\=Inova Alexandria Hospital – A History of Health Care Excellence – 1872–Today\\|last\\=Inova Alexandria Hospital}} The infirmary opened in early 1873 at the corner of Duke Street and South Fairfax Street in a townhouse owned by Johns's father. It would move several times in its early decades, occupying multiple facilities within the area now known as [Old Town Alexandria](/wiki/Old_Town_Alexandria \"Old Town Alexandria\"). In 1894, the infirmary opened a [nursing school](/wiki/Nursing_school \"Nursing school\"), the first in Northern Virginia.",
"### Alexandria Hospital and the Development of Emergency Medicine",
"In 1902, the infirmary changed its name to **Alexandria Hospital**. In 1917, it moved to another new location at the corner of Duke and Washington Streets, where it would remain until the opening of its current campus on Seminary Road, in Alexandria's [West End](/wiki/List_of_neighborhoods_in_Alexandria%2C_Virginia%23West_End \"List of neighborhoods in Alexandria, Virginia#West End\") area. The hospital broke ground on the new facility in 1959, and officially opened it in 1962; [Vice President of the United States](/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States \"Vice President of the United States\") [Lyndon Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson \"Lyndon B. Johnson\") spoke at the opening ceremony.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.connectionnewspapers.com/news/2002/dec/10/130\\-years\\-being\\-of\\-the\\-city/\\|title\\=130 Years Being \"Of The City\"\\|date\\=2002\\-12\\-10\\|work\\=Connection Newspapers\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-20\\|language\\=en}} The hospital transitioned its various units to Seminary Road in phases from 1962 until the Duke Street site finally closed in 1974\\.",
"As the 1960s began, a group of physicians at Alexandria Hospital played a pivotal role in creating the modern medical specialty of [emergency medicine](/wiki/Emergency_medicine \"Emergency medicine\"). Before this time, hospital [emergency departments](/wiki/Emergency_department \"Emergency department\") (EDs) (also called emergency rooms (ERs)) were generally staffed by physicians on staff at the hospital on a rotating basis, among them family physicians, general surgeons, internists, and a variety of other specialists. In many smaller emergency departments, nurses would triage patients and physicians would be called in based on the type of injury or illness.",
"In 1961, an Alexandria Hospital general practice physician, Dr. James Mills, recognized that visits to the hospital's emergency department had rapidly increased while staffing had failed to keep pace, since much of the medical staff did not want to serve in the ED. Dissatisfied with his own general practice, Mills recruited three other physicians to work full\\-time in the emergency department rather than on rotation; the four became \"the first group of American doctors to engage in full\\-time emergency practice.\"{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/chalmers\\-babe\\-loughridge\\-visionary\\-of\\-emergency\\-room\\-medicine\\-dies\\-at\\-93/2012/08/23/85f3e282\\-ec83\\-11e1\\-aca7\\-272630dfd152\\_story.html\\|title\\=Chalmers ‘Babe’ Loughridge, pioneer of emergency\\-room medicine, dies at 93\\|last\\=Schudel\\|first\\=Matt\\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-23\\|work\\=Washington Post\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-20\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}} This approach became known as the “Alexandria Plan\" and quickly became a model for other hospitals around the country. By 1968, the specialty was established enough to form the [American College of Emergency Physicians](/wiki/American_College_of_Emergency_Physicians \"American College of Emergency Physicians\"), of which Mills served as the second president.",
"### Merger with Inova Health System",
"By the 1990s, many patients were covered by [health insurance](/wiki/Health_insurance \"Health insurance\") plans that provided larger hospital groups with advantages over smaller independent facilities, which led to many mergers and consolidations in the industry.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1996/07/03/in\\-era\\-of\\-mergers\\-alexandria\\-hospital\\-decides\\-to\\-join\\-inova\\-health\\-system/00e0a7a5\\-7670\\-4b08\\-a212\\-979177bf0fb3/\\|title\\=In Era of Mergers, Alexandria Hospital Decides to Join Inova Health System\\|last\\=Goldstein\\|first\\=Amy\\|date\\=1996\\-07\\-03\\|work\\=Washington Post\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-20\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}} Alexandria Hospital, though still financially sound at the time, began considering merger options, including both not\\-for\\-profit and for\\-profit partners.",
"Ultimately, the hospital decided in 1996 to merge with its [Fairfax County](/wiki/Fairfax_County%2C_Virginia \"Fairfax County, Virginia\")\\-based competitor [Inova Health System](/wiki/Inova_Health_System \"Inova Health System\"), which was the largest not\\-for\\-profit hospital network in Virginia at the time. In addition to concerns about insurance providers, the hospitals' leaders said they expected to save money by avoiding duplication of services. Upon the merger in 1997, the hospital adopted its current name of Inova Alexandria Hospital, and remains a nonprofit organization.",
""
] |
Rejections of doctrine by state courts
--------------------------------------
Since *Oliver*, the highest courts of [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"), [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon") and [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont "Vermont"), as well as a [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)") state appeals court, have held that the open\-fields doctrine does not apply in those states due to their state constitutions granting greater protections to citizens (under [dual sovereignty](/wiki/Dual_sovereignty "Dual sovereignty") a state may grant its citizens more rights than those guaranteed in the federal constitution). Since *Katz* grounded privacy in persons rather than places, they argue, landowners who have taken affirmative steps to exclude the public such as fencing or posting the [bounds](/wiki/Boundary_%28real_estate%29 "Boundary (real estate)") assert a privacy interest sufficient to prevail over any warrantless search of the property where common exceptions such as [hot pursuit](/wiki/Hot_pursuit "Hot pursuit") and plain view do not apply. Some of those opinions have been critical of not only *Oliver* but *Hester*.
In a 2017 [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion "Concurring opinion") where the doctrine did not come into play in overturning a [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin "Wisconsin") farmer's convictions for threatening two state game wardens he believed had been illegal hunters trespassing on his land, Justice [Rebecca Bradley](/wiki/Rebecca_Bradley "Rebecca Bradley") of [that state's Supreme Court](/wiki/Wisconsin_Supreme_Court "Wisconsin Supreme Court") was highly critical of it.{{cite court \|litigants\=State v. Stietz\|vol\=895\|reporter\=\[\[North Western Reporter\|N.W. 2d]]\|opinion\=796\|court\=\[\[Wisconsin Supreme Court\|Wisc.]]\|date\=2017\|pinpoint\=812–815\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=15612653012475974548\|access\-date\=September 17, 2019}}
### *State v. Dixson*
{{Infobox court case
\|name \= State v. Dixson
\|court \= \[\[Oregon Supreme Court]]
\|image \=
\|imagesize \=
\|imagelink \=
\|imagealt \=
\|caption \=
\|full name \= State of Oregon v. Theresa Dixson, Jeffrey Digby and Lorin Lou Dixson
\|date decided \= {{start date\|1988\|12\|20\|df\=us}}
\|citations \= 766 \[\[Pacific Reporter\|P.2d]] 1015, 307 Or. 195
\|transcripts \=
\|judges \= 7
\|number of judges \=
\|decision by \= \[\[W. Michael Gillette]]
\|concurring \=
\|dissenting \=
\|concur/dissent \=
\|prior actions \= ''State v. Dixson et al'', 740 P.2d 1124, (\[\[Oregon Court of Appeals\|Or.App.]], 1987\)
\|appealed from \= \[\[Oregon Court of Appeals]]
\|appealed to \=
\|subsequent actions \=
\|related actions \=
\|opinions \=
\|keywords \= {{hlist\|Search\|Seizure}}
\|italic title \= no
}}
Within a year of *Oliver*, deputy sheriffs in [Coos County, Oregon](/wiki/Coos_County%2C_Oregon "Coos County, Oregon"), followed up on a tip that marijuana was being grown on a local lumber company's land. After flying over the property in question and observing possible groves of the plant, then seeing a truck carrying water onto the property via a private access road, the deputies followed the road, past a cable stretched across it, signs prohibiting hunting on the property, and a felled tree, past which they had to proceed on foot to a dwelling at the center of the {{convert\|40\|acre}} of forest. From the dwelling they were able to see cannabis planted {{convert\|800\|ft}} away, outside the curtilage of the house. The couple who were in the process of buying the property, and a friend who was helping them grow the plants, were arrested and later convicted of manufacturing and possessing a controlled substance.{{cite court \|litigants\=State v. Dixson\|vol\=740\|reporter\=\[\[Pacific Reporter\|P.2d]]\|opinion\=1124\|court\=\[\[Oregon Court of Appeals\|Or.App.]]\|date\=1987\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=2784792647152094511\|access\-date\=September 17, 2019}}; hereafter *Dixson I*
#### Oregon Court of Appeals
The [appeals court](/wiki/Oregon_Court_of_Appeals "Oregon Court of Appeals") reversed the conviction after hearing the appeal *[en banc](/wiki/En_banc "En banc")* in 1987\. "The decisive issue is not, as the trial court apparently thought, one of federal law", Judge Thomas Young wrote for the [plurality](/wiki/Plurality_opinion "Plurality opinion"). "Whether defendant's land is constitutionally protected depends, in the first instance, not on United States Supreme Court cases interpreting the Fourth Amendment, but on the basic principles underlying the Oregon Constitution ... we need not join the federal retreat from the constitutional requirements."*Dixson I*, 1226\.
"\[D]oes the constitution protect property as property, or is its protection of property a means to a greater end?" Young asked. The majority believed the answer was the latter, to which Young cited writings of [William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham](/wiki/William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham "William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham"), who strongly supported the colonists in the years before the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"), in support of their understanding of this concept of privacy: "The poorest man may, in his cottage, bid defiance to all the forces of the Crown." The U.S. Supreme Court had also recognized "the indefeasible right of personal security" as what is most breached by a search in its 1886 *[Boyd](/wiki/Boyd_v._United_States "Boyd v. United States")* case.*Dixson I*, 1227\.
[Oregon's Supreme Court](/wiki/Oregon_Supreme_Court "Oregon Supreme Court") had, since 1931, recognized this as a privacy interest, Young wrote, and as he found little guidance in federal privacy cases beyond the instant issues of those cases, the majority looked to Oregon [case law](/wiki/Case_law "Case law") as it had interpreted [Article I, Section 9](/wiki/wikisource:Oregon_Constitution/Article_I%23Section_9 "Oregon Constitution/Article I#Section 9"), of the [state constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Oregon "Constitution of Oregon"), the counterpart to the Fourth Amendment. Young found *Katz*{{'}}s two\-part test unhelpful and flawed: "The proper question, thus, is not what the defendant expects or whether that expectation is reasonable but *whether the constitution protects the defendant*."{{efn\|Emphasis in original}} In this case, Young concluded, the deputies had trespassed on the Dixsons' land and violated their privacy.*Dixson I*, 1228\.
Judge John Buttler wrote a special [concurrence](/wiki/Concurring_opinion "Concurring opinion") for himself and two colleagues, reaching the same conclusion as the plurality but basing it on different logic which he felt was more in compliance with state Supreme Court precedent: "I would hold that, if it is necessary for the officers to trespass on property not within the curtilage in order to observe the activity or contraband in question, there is an unreasonable search and, therefore, any ensuing seizure would be unlawful." In the instant case, Buttler said that it had, as one of the deputies had testified that he and his partner had at all times believed they were on the lumber company's property and would not have entered without a warrant or permission had they known they were not.*Dixson I*, 1229–32\.
Judge [George Van Hoomissen](/wiki/George_Van_Hoomissen "George Van Hoomissen") wrote one of two [dissents](/wiki/Dissenting_opinion "Dissenting opinion"), taking issue with every aspect of the plurality opinion—arguing that there was no evidence that the framers of the state constitution had intended it be read more than literally, that the appeals court was ignoring earlier precedents that had explicitly adopted the open\-fields doctrine, that the defendants had not raised a trespass claim against the deputies at trial, and that courts in other states with similar constitutional language had found it compatible with the doctrine. "\[T]he plurality has hopelessly confused constitutional law with the civil and criminal law of trespass \[and] ... substitutes its own social theories for the plain meaning of the specific constitutional text", he wrote. Van Hoomissen also noted that if the plurality needed guidance as to whether the citizens of Oregon had embraced an expectation of privacy around growing marijuana, the [failure of a 1986 ballot measure that would have decriminalized the drug](/wiki/Cannabis_in_Oregon%23Decriminalization "Cannabis in Oregon#Decriminalization") suggested otherwise.*Dixson I*, 1233–41\.
A shorter dissent was written by Judge Kurt Rossman, joined by Mary Deits. While he agreed with the plurality that the state constitution was not meant to be read in a narrowly literal manner, and with the special concurrence's criticism of the plurality's disregard of precedent, he believed that the defendants had not established that they had a reasonable expectation of privacy, since the signage that the deputies passed simply said "No hunting" rather than "No trespassing" and the felled tree merely signaled an intent to deter vehicles, not foot traffic; thus the deputies could reasonably have believed they were still on lumber company land. "It is unnecessary to sail into uncharted waters by formulating a new, untested constitutional analysis, as the plurality and special concurrence have done."*Dixson I*, 1241–42\.
#### Oregon Supreme Court
Prosecutors appealed the case to the [Oregon Supreme Court](/wiki/Oregon_Supreme_Court "Oregon Supreme Court"), which heard arguments in March 1988 and returned its decision at the end of the year. Writing for a unanimous court, Justice [W. Michael Gillette](/wiki/W._Michael_Gillette "W. Michael Gillette") affirmed the lower court's [holding](/wiki/Holding_%28law%29 "Holding (law)") that Article I, Section 9 provided broader privacy protection than the Fourth Amendment and thus the open\-fields doctrine did not apply in state prosecutions.{{cite court \|litigants\=State v. Dixson\|vol\=766\|reporter\=\[\[Pacific Reporter\|P.2d]]\|opinion\=1015\|court\=\[\[Oregon Supreme Court\|Oregon]]\|date\=1988\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=10757667275899417628\|access\-date\=September 18, 2019}}; hereafter *Dixson II*
After reviewing the facts of the case and all the appellate court's opinions, Gillette considered all the arguments. The two cases Van Hoommissen had pointed to as precedent adopting the open\-fields doctrine were actually not dispositive of the issue, since one had involved a search on public land and the other appeared to rely on circumstances unique to that case. In another of its own recent holdings, he noted, the state Supreme Court had also rejected *Katz'''{{'}}s reasonable expectation test, so in the instant case the court could consider the issue without relying on it.*Dixson II*, 1018–21*
Gillette rejected the [textualist](/wiki/Textualism "Textualism") interpretation of the constitutional language that had been held by the Supreme Court and other states' courts to support the doctrine for three reasons. First, the court's own prior holdings recognized Article I, Section 9, as establishing a broad privacy interest beyond those items specified in it. Second, the Supreme Court had itself admitted in Katz *that in extending privacy protection to the user of a phone booth it was going beyond any possible meaning of "persons, houses, papers and effects", as Justice [Thurgood Marshall](/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall "Thurgood Marshall") had noted in his* Oliver *dissent. Lastly, Gillette noted, if read literally the Fourth Amendment as well as Oregon's constitution would have only protected citizens in their own houses, and not in any other buildings. "If the individual has a privacy interest in land outside the curtilage of his dwelling, that privacy interest will not go unprotected simply because of its location."*Dixson II*, 1021–22*
Next, Gillette turned to the claim that [common law](/wiki/Common_law "Common law") recognized a distinction between the curtilage of a house and the property as a whole. In Hester*, Justice [Oliver Wendell Holmes](/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr. "Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.") had cited [William Blackstone](/wiki/William_Blackstone "William Blackstone")'s* [Commentaries on the Laws of England](/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England "Commentaries on the Laws of England")*, a common reference for English common law, in holding this distinction originated there. But Gillette quoted the passage Holmes had cited, in which Blackstone discussed what constituted [burglary](/wiki/Burglary "Burglary") under common law, to cast doubt on Holmes' interpretation, noting that Blackstone had included all the possible outbuildings as places where unlawful entry and theft could be punished as burglary. Blackstone's chapter on trespass likewise specifically mentioned a man's land as legally protected. "Reliance on the common\-law concept of curtilage to justify excluding land outside the curtilage from the protections of either constitutional provision is misplaced", Gillette concluded."*Dixson II*, 1022–23*
Lastly Gillette rejected the state's argument that whether land outside curtilage was covered by its owner's privacy interest depended on how that land was used. It depended, he wrote, on whether the owner had taken steps to exclude intruders, such as putting up fences or posting the bounds. "Allowing the police to intrude into private land, regardless of the steps taken by its occupant to keep it private, would be a significant limitation on the occupant's freedom from governmental scrutiny."*Dixson II*, 1023–24
From this Gillette derived a "simple and objective" rule: "A person who wishes to preserve a constitutionally protected privacy interest in land outside the curtilage must manifest an intention to exclude the public by erecting barriers to entry, such as fences, or by posting signs." He then applied the rule to the instant case and found that it did not apply to the Dixsons since the signs they had posted on the road to their house barred only hunting. "There was no objective reason for the officers to believe that ... other uses such as hiking were forbidden" since it was common in Oregon for those uses to take place on large tracts of privately owned land where it was not expressly forbidden. Therefore, having affirmed the appeals court's rejection of the open\-fields doctrine, the state's Supreme Court reversed it on the specific issues of the case and affirmed the conviction.*Dixson II*, 1023–24
### *State v. Kirchoff*
{{Infobox court case
\|name \= State v. Kirchoff
\|court \= \[\[Vermont Supreme Court]]
\|date decided \= {{start date\|1991\|01\|25\|df\=us}}
\|citations \= 156 Vt. 1, 587 \[\[Atlantic Reporter\|A.2d]] 988
\|judges \= Allen, Peck, Dooley, Morse, Springer (specially assigned)
\|decision by \= Morse
\|concurring \= Springer
\|dissenting \= Peck
\|keywords \= {{hlist \| search \| seizure }}
\|italic title \= no
}}
A case that had begun before Oliver *provided the [Vermont Supreme Court](/wiki/Vermont_Supreme_Court "Vermont Supreme Court") with its opportunity to consider the open\-fields doctrine almost a decade later. In 1982 Robert Kirchoff bought a {{convert\|39\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} parcel in the town of [Lincoln, Vermont](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Vermont "Lincoln, Vermont"), posted it and filed a notice to that effect with the town clerk. He allowed some of his neighbors to ride their bicycles on trails that crossed the property, but otherwise did not allow any access.{{cite court \|litigants\=People v. Kirchoff\|vol\=587\|reporter\=\[\[Atlantic Reporter\|A.2d]]\|opinion\=988\|court\=\[\[Vermont Supreme Court\|Vt.]]\|date\=1988\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=9401759424447139849\|access\-date\=October 1, 2019}}*
Kirchoff had been living there for four years when the [Addison County](/wiki/Addison_County%2C_Vermont "Addison County, Vermont") sheriff received a tip that he was growing marijuana on his land. The sheriff and another law enforcement officer went to a neighboring house, crossed a fence, and followed an old logging road past some old "no trespassing" signs. They left the road and found the growing cannabis plants in the woods roughly 100 yards (91 m) from his house, invisible from the road.*Kirchoff*, at 990
The sheriff called in two other officers to keep an eye on the marijuana while they got a [search warrant](/wiki/Search_warrant "Search warrant"). Kirchoff went out to tend them at this point, and admitted to the officers that he had been growing them. When the sheriff returned, he and the police seized the plants and other evidence of the grow operation from Kirchoff's house.
At trial, Kirchoff moved to have the evidence obtained from the search suppressed. It was denied, and he was convicted. He appealed to the state's Supreme Court.{{efn\|Vermont has no intermediate appellate courts}} The case was not argued until 1989, and it took an additional two years for the court to decide.*Kirchoff*, at 999
In early 1991 the Supreme Court issued its decision, holding 4–1 that the evidence should have been suppressed. After reviewing the facts of the case, Justice [James L. Morse](/wiki/James_L._Morse "James L. Morse") conceded that the search was lawful under Oliver*. However, the court went on to note that it had to consider whether the search complied with Article 11 of the [state constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Vermont "Constitution of Vermont"), which while substantially similar to the Fourth Amendment did have some differences in wording. Most significantly, it referred to a person's "possessions" as coming under its purview rather than just their "effects".*Kirchoff*, 991–92*
Did that mean it applied to all a person's landholdings, Morse asked? The minimal records from the state's original constitutional debates did not offer much guidance, so he looked at how other states with similar language had addressed the issue. They had divided on the issue, yet at the same time states that used "effects" in their constitutions had held it applied more broadly than Oliver *had held.*
"Our decision, however, need not rest on the drafters' choice of one word over another", Morse wrote. "Even if we cannot say with confidence that the scope of the term 'possessions' mandates a right of privacy in real estate, it certainly does not rule out such a right." He noted that this interpretation was at odds with Oliver*, and said the fault lay with the* Oliver *Court, which had "misinterpreted its own Fourth Amendment precedent."*
In Oliver*, the Supreme Court had seemed "to equate privacy with crime", which Morse considered flawed. "If one assumes at the outset that people will only seek privacy in the use of their land for criminal purposes," he wrote, "the conclusion that society will not recognize a claim to privacy in the land readily follows. But we cannot presume how an individual will employ private lands—that is the nature of privacy."* Oliver*{{'}}s association of privacy and criminality, according to Morse, was an* [ipse dixit](/wiki/Ipse_dixit "Ipse dixit")*.*Kirchoff*, 992–93*
Morse accepted the Oregon Supreme Court's rule in Dixson *that the open\-fields doctrine did not apply where a landowner had, like Kirchoff, taken affirmative measures to control access to their land. He grounded this in state constitutional and statutory provisions that allowed public use of unposted land for many outdoor recreational activities and limited the liability of landowners for damages suffered by those they allowed, even implicitly, to engage in those activities on unposted land. "These provisions evidence the state's policy of providing the public with certain privileges and liberties not permitted under the common law", he wrote. "They evidence no intent, however, to limit the right of landowners to pursue their affairs free from unregulated intrusion by officials."*Kirchoff*, 994–96*
Lastly, Morse said that while the Vermont Supreme Court was not completely discarding Katz *as the basis for its personalty\-rooted concept of privacy, it found some issues doing so. It was not comfortable with the concept of a reasonable expectation, since that could too easily change "with political winds and the perceived exigencies of the day ... The question is not what society is prepared to accept but what the constitution requires." This formulation, Morse believed, would better protect people's privacy expectations as technology advanced. Lastly he placed the [burden of proof](/wiki/Burden_of_proof_%28law%29 "Burden of proof (law)") on the state in cases where a search such as the one in the instant case, was challenged as unconstitutional, and held that under that standard this search had violated the state constitution.*
There were two other opinions. District Judge Lewis Springer, specially assigned to sit on the court for this case due to a vacant seat, concurred but said the majority opinion should have more thoroughly grounded its arguments in the state's constitutional history rather than the federal constitution.*Kirchoff*, 997–99 [Louis P. Peck](/wiki/Louis_P._Peck "Louis P. Peck"), in one of his last opinions before retirement, dissented at length, attacking and ridiculing the majority for [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism "Judicial activism") in an opinion rife with cultural and literary references.*Kirchoff*, 999–1008
#### Dissent
"I am sadly disappointed, and frustrated beyond comfort", by the majority opinion, Peck began. He likened it to a brief for the defendant in the case. "\[I]t is, in my judgment, one of the most result\-oriented opinions I have ever been exposed to. I am not prepared to countenance in silence the extreme and unwarranted judicial activism of which the opinion is an example."
Peck suggested that the majority's confusion over the meaning of "possessions" in the state constitution was "a calculated tactic rather than the result of interpretive incompetency ... Disregarding a word because it may have different meanings in different contexts constitutes an argument weak to the point of absurdity." By doing so, he charged, the majority had been able to substitute its own meaning. If that had not been the plan, "I am afraid that the majority's training in elementary logic, if any, failed to penetrate or make a lasting impression. The\[ir] reasoning is a [syllogistic](/wiki/Syllogism "Syllogism") blunder and a [non sequitur](/wiki/Non_sequitur_%28fallacy%29 "Non sequitur (fallacy)")*."*
There was no constitutional problem presented by the case, Peck said; the state's existing laws were enough protection for landowners.
{{quote\|For all realistic and practical purposes, the sole beneficiary of today's decision is the owner of open fields who conducts criminal activity thereon in defiance of the law. In short, the majority has given birth to a right of privacy to commit crime. If our marijuana farmers have the good sense I think they have, they will soon be busy as little bees putting up no\-trespassing signs, while laughing up their sleeves at the gullible naivete of the cooperative majority.}}
The insistence that police needed a warrant to search any posted or fenced land due to the state's trespass laws was, Peck wrote, "like saying a police cruiser, in responding to an emergency call, may not exceed the speed limit because there are laws against speeding."
Returning to the majority's apparent confusion over the meaning of "possessions", Peck said it was insulting to the framers of the Vermont Constitution to suggest that they "simply tossed in words willy\-nilly with no intent that they have any particular meaning; merely filling in blanks, as it were, with the first word that came to mind." He believed that they chose their words carefully and would not have expected the level of protection the court was giving landowners.
Peck also called the majority's holding that the search was unconstitutional "a grossly unfair example of police\-bashing", that he himself took personally.
{{quote\|The police are not psychic. At the time they entered the open fields portion of defendant's property, they had no way of knowing or of anticipating that this Court would follow, sheep\-like, the decision of one of the most activist\-oriented among the state courts,{{efn\|''Dixson''}} or that we would reject a contrary decision by the high court of a state which borders us and is far more similar to us in size and other characteristics than the former{{efn\|Peck was referring to ''State v. Linder'', in which the \[\[New Hampshire Supreme Court\|Supreme Court of neighboring New Hampshire]] had five years previously held the open\-fields doctrine applied in that state.{{cite court\|litigants\=State v. Linder\|vol\=128\|reporter\=N.H.\|opinion\=66\|court\=\[\[New Hampshire Supreme Court\|N.H.]]\|date\=1986\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=2487942038615680423\|access\-date\=October 3, 2019}}}} ... I would remind the majority, as it sheds its tears for the defendant, that the entry was not arbitrary. It was not an afternoon of sport for the police, on the off\-chance they might just happen to stumble on marijuana or some other contraband, in much the same spirit that we hunt deer and other game. The entry was undertaken in reliance on a "tip"; with every reason to believe the search was legitimate, and it was done in good faith.}} Peck feared that the majority's decision would unnecessarily handicap the state's police in preventing crime. He accused it of "cho\[osing] the possible prestige with which it may be honored by law reviews and other constitutional activists among the courts, and legal writers, to a recognition of the rights of the individual inhabitants of the State of Vermont." At the very least, the majority should have held the issue to be decided on a case\-by\-case basis rather than establishing a blanket rule.
### *People v. Scott*
{{Infobox court case
\|name \= People v. Scott
\|court \= \[\[New York Court of Appeals]]
\|full name \= People of the State of New York v. Guy Scott
\|date decided \= {{start date\|1992\|04\|02\|df\=us}}
\|citations \= 79 N.Y.2d 474
\|judges \= Kaye, Alexander, Titone, Hancock, Bellacosa, Wachtler, Simone
\|number of judges \= 7
\|decision by \= Hancock
\|concurring \= Kaye
\|dissenting \= Bellacosa
\|prior actions \= Conviction affirmed, 169 A.D.2d 1023 (1991\)
\|appealed from \= \[\[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division]], 3rd Dept.
\|keywords \= {{hlist \| search \| seizure }}
\|italic title \= no
}}
As the Dixson appeal was being considered by the Oregon courts, across the country, a hunter pursuing a wounded deer onto posted private property in [Preston, New York](/wiki/Preston%2C_New_York "Preston, New York"), came across what appeared to him to be the remnants of a marijuana growing operation. In July 1988, he returned, and confirmed his suspicions, finding about 50 cannabis plants being grown on the site, guarded by an armed man. He reported this to the [state police](/wiki/New_York_State_Police "New York State Police"), who asked him to bring back a leaf from one of the plants. The next month he did, and after testifying [in camera](/wiki/In_camera "In camera") *he returned with a detective.{{cite court \|litigants\=People v. Scott\|vol\=169\|reporter\=A.D.2d\|opinion\=1023\|court\=\[\[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division\|N.Y.A.D., 3rd Dept.]]\|date\=1991\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=14569517592155252184\|access\-date\=September 19, 2019}}*
Guy Scott, owner of the {{convert\|165\|acre}} on which the marijuana was growing, was arrested and charged with first\-degree criminal possession of marijuana, a felony, after 200 plants were seized. At trial in [Chenango County](/wiki/Chenango_County%2C_New_York "Chenango County, New York") Court, he moved to suppress the evidence against him as seized unconstitutionally. After the court ruled that it had not been, Scott pleaded guilty and appealed the conviction on the same grounds, arguing that by posting the property's bounds at {{convert\|20\|–\|30\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} intervals he had secured a reasonable expectation of privacy.
Following Oliver*, a five\-justice panel of the Third Department of the state's [Appellate Division](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division "New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division") unanimously rejected that argument in 1991\. "The marihuana in question here", it wrote, "was clearly grown in an open, uncultivated field away from the curtilage of any residential structure; thus, defendant had no legitimate expectation of privacy." Scott appealed to the [Court of Appeals](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals "New York Court of Appeals"), New York's highest court.{{cite court \|litigants\=People v. Scott\|vol\=79\|reporter\=N.Y.2d\|opinion\=474\|court\=\[\[New York Court of Appeals\|N.Y.]]\|date\=1992\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=3389459308517600957\|access\-date\=September 19, 2019}}
In 1992, Judge Stewart Hancock wrote for the majority in a 4–3 decision reversing the appellate court and Scott's conviction that rejected the open\-fields doctrine. Like Marshall and Oregon's* Dixson *court, he found* Oliver*{{'}}s recourse to a property\-based privacy interest at odds with* Katz*{{'s}} reasonable expectation test. But that would have little bearing as the majority found [New York's constitution](/wiki/New_York_Constitution "New York Constitution"), "with its own unique history", more relevant to the issues raised by Scott's case.*Scott II*, at 486*
Prior to 1938 New York, Hancock noted, had restricted searches and seizures only at the statutory level. When the state constitution was amended that year, in addition to language similar to that of the Fourth Amendment that had long been in the statute, it included a provision explicitly including telecommunications under the same warrant requirements, a reaction to the U.S. Supreme Court's [Olmstead](/wiki/Olmstead_v._United_States "Olmstead v. United States") *case a decade earlier, which had held that police did not need a warrant for [wiretapping](/wiki/Wiretap "Wiretap") telephones since that took place far from the property of those communicating over them. Therefore, according to Hancock, it did not follow that the state constitution should or could be interpreted in the same way the* Oliver *Court had interpreted the federal constitution.
[thumb\|right\|A posted cornfield in New York](/wiki/File:Posted_sign_in_front_of_cornfield%2C_Red_Hook%2C_NY.jpg "Posted sign in front of cornfield, Red Hook, NY.jpg")
Hancock turned to the second part of the* Katz *test: whether Scott's interest in his privacy asserted by posting his property was objectively reasonable. The* Oliver *majority had dismissed the idea, pointing instead to social consensus as where to look, but, the judge wrote:
{{quote\|We believe that under the law of this State the citizens are entitled to more protection. A constitutional rule which permits State agents to invade private lands for no reason at all — without permission and in outright disregard of the owner's efforts to maintain privacy by fencing or posting signs — is one that we cannot accept as adequately preserving fundamental rights of New York citizens.}}
While Hancock conceded that property rights do not automatically create a privacy interest, his review of the state's statutory and case law convinced him that, in interpreting both state and federal law on this issue, the state's courts had constantly followed the* Katz *concept of rooting privacy in the person, rather than property. He also shared Marshall's observation that the* Oliver *majority had suggested that a reasonable expectation of privacy depended on what the landowner intended to shield from view by posting or fencing the land:
{{quote\|The reasoning of the ... majority, seems, to be this, in effect: that law\-abiding persons should have nothing to hide on their property and, thus, there can be no reasonable objection to the State's unpermitted entry on posted or fenced land to conduct a general search for contraband. But this presupposes the ideal of a conforming society, a concept which seems foreign to New York's tradition of tolerance of the unconventional and of what may appear bizarre or even offensive.''Scott II'', at 488–89}}
Judge Joseph Bellacosa's dissent, addressing not only* Scott *but a companion case in which the court had ruled evidence gathered in warrantless administrative searches of businesses to be inadmissible, focused largely on what he considered to be the majority's faulty reasoning for departing from* Oliver*. In a similar case of a rural marijuana grower four years earlier,{{efn\|{{cite court\|litigants\=People v. Reynolds\|vol\=71\|reporter\=N.Y.2d\|opinion\=552\|court\=\[\[New York Court of Appeals\|N.Y.]]\|date\=1988\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=3911316398566985157\|access\-date\=September 20, 2019}}}} he noted, the court had accepted evidence gathered by an aerial search and declined to consider the same privacy issues that defendant had raised.*Scott II*, at 506–19 The majority responded that in that case she had not raised the issue of her land being posted.*Scott II*, at 480*
### *State v. Johnson*
{{Infobox court case
\|name \= State v. Johnson
\|court \= \[\[Washington Court of Appeals]], Division Two
\|full name \= State of Washington v. Tamara Sue Johnson and James Raymond Johnson
\|date decided \= {{start date\|1994\|09\|07\|df\=us}}
\|citations \= 75 Wn. App. 692, 879 P.2d 984
\|judges \= Alexander, Morgan and Houghton
\|number of judges \= 3
\|decision by \= Alexander
\|prior actions \= criminal trial
\|appealed from \= Thurston County Superior Court
\|appealed to \= \[\[Washington Supreme Court]]
\|subsequent actions \= Review denied, 126 Wn.2d 1004 (1995\)
\|opinions \= Alexander
\|keywords \= {{hlist \| search \| seizure }}
\|italic title \= no
}}
Again, as Scott *was reaching the New York Court of Appeals, another marijuana growing investigation across the country again gave rise to a state court's rejection of the open\-fields doctrine. This case involved the additional question of whether federal involvement negated any state consideration of the issue.{{Cite court\|litigants\=State v. Johnson\|vol\=75\|reporter\=Wn.App.\|opinion\=692\|court\=\[\[Washington Court of Appeals\#Division II\|Wn.App.Div.II]]\|date\=1994\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=239546820780301962\|access\-date\=September 20, 2019}}*
In 1991 agents of the federal [Drug Enforcement Administration](/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration "Drug Enforcement Administration") (DEA) received a tip that a "Jim Johnson" was growing marijuana on his property near [Scott Lake](/wiki/Scott_Lake_%28Washington%29 "Scott Lake (Washington)"). The two took this information to the [Thurston County](/wiki/Thurston_County%2C_Washington "Thurston County, Washington") Narcotics Task Force, and a detective helped them confirm that a man by that name lived in the area, and found his address. However, the only way to reach the property was via a dirt road that ran through [Millersylvania State Park](/wiki/Millersylvania_State_Park "Millersylvania State Park").
The three went down the road but found it gated, fenced and posted at the property line, and they chose at that time not to pass it, unable to see any evidence of marijuana being grown from where they were. At the DEA agents' request, the county officers flew over the property and took photographs. Several days later the DEA agents returned, without the local detective, in the middle of the night. This time they passed the gate and walked {{convert\|200\|yd}} to a barn, with a house visible about {{convert\|75\|–\|100\|yd\|m}} beyond, where they smelled growing cannabis plants and heard the sounds of machinery they associated with such cultivation operations. They completed their investigation by aiming a [thermal imaging device](/wiki/Thermal_imaging_device "Thermal imaging device") at the barn; its results further confirmed their suspicion. After finding from local utility records that the property's electricity consumption also matched the profile of a growing operation, they got a warrant and arrested both Johnson and his wife.
Although the DEA had gathered most of the evidence against them, the couple were prosecuted in state court. They sought unsuccessfully to suppress that evidence, but the trial court held that the DEA had largely been acting independently of the state, making the evidence admissible under the open\-fields doctrine. The court convicted them in a [bench trial](/wiki/Bench_trial "Bench trial") and they appealed.
The [Washington Court of Appeals](/wiki/Washington_Court_of_Appeals "Washington Court of Appeals") first reconsidered the trial court's ruling that the DEA acted without the cooperation or assistance of the state, which under the [silver platter doctrine](/wiki/Silver_platter_doctrine "Silver platter doctrine") would have protected it from being challenged under the [state constitution](/wiki/Washington_State_Constitution "Washington State Constitution"). Judge Gerry Alexander rejected the state's argument that the local officers had only provided the DEA with locally relevant information, noting that a county detective had accompanied the DEA agents on one trip, the aerial surveillance and the involvement of local law enforcement in the arrest. And since the state was so involved, the court could consider whether the evidence was gathered in violation of the state constitution.*Johnson*, at 701
Washington's equivalent to the Fourth Amendment, [Article I, Section 7](/wiki/wikisource:Washington_State_Constitution%23Article_I_-_Declaration_of_Rights "Washington State Constitution#Article I - Declaration of Rights"), is unlike New York and Oregon's very differently worded from its federal counterpart: "No person shall be disturbed in his private affairs, or his home invaded, without authority of law." It had thus, Alexander wrote, been held repeatedly to offer broader protection to privacy rights.*Johnson*, at 703{{efn\|In a 1984 case upholding the conviction of a marijuana grower based on warrantless aerial surveillance, \[\[Washington Supreme Court\|Washington's Supreme Court]] had rejected the open\-fields doctrine in ''\[\[dictum]]'' for this reason, but did not find it necessarily to rule on that question since it was not dispositive of the case.{{cite court\|litigants\=State v. Myrick\|vol\=102\|reporter\=Wn.2d\|opinion\=506\|pinpoint\=512\|court\=\[\[Washington Supreme Court\|Wash.]]\|date\=1984\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=6619139184248267253\|access\-date\=September 21, 2019}}}}
The state had argued that the DEA agents had, by using an accessway to the house, complied with that provision, citing several precedents where searches had been upheld where police used routes for the public to approach a residence. But Alexander distinguished them from the instant case by noting that "here ... \[the agents] were using it as the most convenient route on which to trespass on the Johnsons' property" instead of trying to reach the house and speak with its occupants; the fact that the agents intruded late at night in one argued against that, the judge observed. The posting, fencing and gate also indicated that "the Johnsons withdrew any permission that arguably may be implied for the DEA agents to use the accessway, especially at 1 a.m."*Johnson*, 703\-06\.
Alexander conceded that the barn was not within the curtilage of the house, but again felt that was outweighed by the visible measures the Johnsons had taken to exclude the public from their property. This was not just an issue of privacy, Alexander noted, but the safety of law enforcement. Justice [Thurgood Marshall](/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall "Thurgood Marshall")'s dissent in Oliver *had noted that many rural landowners resorted to "self\-help", as he put it, when faced with trespassers, and the DEA agents' furtive nocturnal visit to the Johnsons' barn could have resulted in violence. "We conclude that the agents' entry onto the Johnsons' property was an unreasonable intrusion into the Johnsons' private affairs", Alexander wrote. Since the remaining untainted evidence submitted to obtain the search warrant was thus insufficient to establish [probable cause](/wiki/Probable_cause "Probable cause"), the Johnsons' convictions were reversed with directions to dismiss the charges. The [state Supreme Court](/wiki/Washington_Supreme_Court "Washington Supreme Court") declined to review the case the next year.*Johnson*, 706\-10\.*
### *State v. Bullock*
{{Infobox court case
\|name \= State v. Bullock
\|court \= \[\[Montana Supreme Court]]
\|full name \= State of Montana v. Bill Bullock and Eddie Peterson
\|date decided \= {{start date\|1995\|08\|04\|df\=us}}
\|citations \= 901 \[\[Pacific Reporter\|P.2d]] 61
\|judges \= Trieweiler, Turnage, Nelson, Gray, Hunt, Weber and Leaphart
\|number of judges \= 7
\|decision by \= Triweiler
\|prior actions \= criminal trial and appeal
\|appealed from \= District Court for the Tenth Judicial District
\|opinions \= Trieweiler
\|keywords \= {{hlist \| search \| seizure }}
\|italic title \= no
}}
Contemporaneously with Johnson*, another case involving the open\-fields doctrine began working its way through Montana's state courts. Unlike its state and federal predecessors, it involved [illegally taken game](/wiki/Poaching "Poaching") rather than marijuana cultivation.{{cite court\|litigants\=State v. Bullock\|vol\=901\|reporter\=\[\[Pacific Reporter\|P.2d]]\|opinion\=61\|court\=\[\[Montana Supreme Court\|Mont.]]\|date\=1995\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=2059160847971143084\|access\-date\=September 21, 2019}}*
In October 1991, Chuck Wing, a [Boulder, Montana](/wiki/Boulder%2C_Montana "Boulder, Montana"), man saw a six\- or seven\-point bull [elk](/wiki/Elk "Elk") on a hill as he was returning from work. He knew that these elk could only be taken by hunters with special permits in that area. As he was watching he saw two men shoot the elk and put it in their truck, which he knew belonged to a man named Eddie Peterson, without [field dressing](/wiki/Field_dressing_%28hunting%29 "Field dressing (hunting)") it. Wing reported it to [Jefferson County](/wiki/Jefferson_County%2C_Montana "Jefferson County, Montana") Sheriff Tom Dawson, which in turn passed the information to the [state Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks](/wiki/Montana_Department_of_Fish%2C_Wildlife_and_Parks "Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks") (MFWP).*Bullock* at 64
Chris Anderson, an MFWP [game warden](/wiki/Game_warden "Game warden") came from nearby [Helena](/wiki/Helena%2C_Montana "Helena, Montana") to Boulder the next morning and interviewed Wing. Anderson learned that Peterson lived in nearby Basin Creek, and he and Dawson drove to his cabin, down a {{convert\|7\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} one\-lane [Forest Service](/wiki/U.S._Forest_Service "U.S. Forest Service") road bordered by private property in some stretches, with signs advising the public to stay on the road. At Peterson's house, the gate to his driveway was open, and the sheriff and game warden drove past an open gate, with "No trespassing" signs on either side, down a {{convert\|334\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} road to Peterson's cabin, which he had in the past moved behind a rise in the land so that it would not be visible from the road.
Anderson and Dawson saw an elk carcass hanging from a tree roughly {{convert\|125\|ft}} from Peterson's cabin, likewise invisible from the road or adjoining property. Anderson asked where the elk had been killed, and Peterson took the two there, but while there were some of the animal's innards there were no tracks. Anderson believed the elk had been taken somewhere else, and told Peterson what Wing had told Dawson about seeing the day before.*Bullock* at 65
Peterson continued to insist that the elk had been taken on his property, which Anderson did not believe. Bill Bullock, who was also on the property, attempted to corroborate Peterson's account even when offered [immunity](/wiki/Legal_immunity "Legal immunity") from prosecution if he told Anderson what the game warden believed had actually happened. The next day Anderson returned to the property and confiscated the elk. Peterson was charged with unlawfully killing a game animal and Bullock with possessing an unlawfully killed game animal.
The two men's trial took most of the next year. In February 1992 the county [Justice Court](/wiki/Montana_inferior_courts%23Justice_Court "Montana inferior courts#Justice Court") granted their motion to suppress all the evidence that Anderson and Dawson had obtained when they went on Peterson's property, dismissing entirely the case against Bullock in the process. The state appealed to District Court, and asked for a new trial; the defendants in turn asked that the charges be dismissed because they were misdemeanors and more than six months had elapsed since they had been charged. After that motion was denied, they pleaded guilty and, in October, appealed to the [Montana Supreme Court](/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court "Montana Supreme Court").
The Supreme Court sent the case back down for [evidentiary hearings](/wiki/Evidentiary_hearing "Evidentiary hearing") and imposition of sentence, proceedings that took place over the next two years. After they had been held, the justices heard arguments in early 1995 and rendered their decision in August. They considered three issues: the delay in trying the men, whether Bullock had [standing](/wiki/Standing_%28law%29 "Standing (law)") to challenge the evidence against him obtained from the warrantless search of Bullock's property, and whether the [state constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Montana "Constitution of Montana")'s privacy provisions precluded the open\-fields doctrine.
On the first question, Justice [Terry N. Trieweiler](/wiki/Terry_N._Trieweiler "Terry N. Trieweiler") held for a unanimous court that the six\-month deadline had not been passed due to the state's appeal that granted a [trial *de novo*](/wiki/Trial_de_novo "Trial de novo"), and even so the delay had not been presumptively [prejudicial](/wiki/Prejudice_%28law%29 "Prejudice (law)").*Bullock*, 66–67 The next question was resolved in Bullock's favor as the court held that its own prior precedent, and a similar case from [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey"),{{efn\|{{cite court\|litigants\=New Jersey v. Alston\|vol\=88\|reporter\=N.J.\|opinion\=211\|court\=\[\[New Jersey Supreme Court\|N.J.]]\|date\=1981\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=314960964097439038\|access\-date\=September 25, 2019}}}} that anyone charged with an offense alleging possession of something automatically has standing to challenge the seizure and any evidence derived from it, regardless of another recent U.S. Supreme Court decision that had narrowed the scope of a similar longstanding rule of its own.{{efn\|''\[\[United States v. Salvucci]]'', {{ussc\|440\|83\|1980}}}}*Bullock*, 67–68
Having established that both defendants had standing to challenge the state's evidence as unconstitutionally gathered, Trieweiler turned to that final question. Since the U.S. Supreme Court's recent decisions on the open\-fields doctrine had revealed "what appear to be seeming inconsistencies", he believed it was proper for the court to reconsider whether it was good law in Montana. After retracing its history at the federal level, Triweiler turned to the state's cases, where cases that had upheld the doctrine after Katz *but before* Oliver *and* Dunn *had upheld it. He believed that the instant case, however, could be "factually distinguished" from those precedents, where the court had not considered the defendants' expectations of privacy over their open fields to be reasonable due to the circumstances of those cases.*Bullock*, 70–72*
Precedent also held that while the language of Article II, Section 11, in the Montana Constitution was, like the corresponding provisions of New York and Oregon's, similar to the Fourth Amendment, it guaranteed broader protections against unlawful search and seizure. Trieweiler looked at the Oregon, New York and Washington cases. He found that the common element was that the defendants had taken steps to exclude all members of the public save those they invited onto the land, by posting, fencing or otherwise limiting access to the property.*Bullock*, 72–75
"We conclude that in Montana a person may have an expectation of privacy in an area of land that is beyond the curtilage which the society of this State is willing to recognize as reasonable, and that where that expectation is evidenced by fencing, 'No Trespassing,' or similar signs, or 'by some other means \[which] indicate\[s] unmistakably that entry is not permitted'", Trieweiler wrote, quoting Scott*. He explicitly excluded cases, such as some of the precedents he had discussed, where law enforcement had observed the illegal activity from adjoining public property, but declared that to the extent those cases relied on the open\-fields doctrine they were overruled.*Bullock*, 75–76*
Having rejected the open\-fields doctrine for Montana courts as a general principle, Trieweiler turned to its applicability to the instant case. He noted that not only had Peterson posted the property and placed a gate at the entrance road, he had some years beforehand moved his cabin to a less visible location after repeated vandalism. On previous visits, law enforcement had requested his permission to come on the property. "The entry onto Peterson's property and observation of the elk carcass, which could not have otherwise been observed, was an unreasonable search in violation of Article II, Section 11, of the Montana Constitution", Triweiler concluded.*Bullock*, 75–76
Trieweiler rejected the state's argument that Peterson's offer to lead Anderson and Dawson to the purported kill site and permission for them to examine the elk constituted sufficient consent to allow the carcass into evidence as those actions only took place after the sheriff and warden had already trespassed far enough on to the property to see the carcass. The court affirmed the district court's denial of the defendants' motion to dismiss, but overruled its decision not to suppress the evidence from the search.*Bullock*, 75–76
### *State v. Stietz*
{{Infobox court case
\|name \= State v. Stietz
\|court \= \[\[Wisconsin Supreme Court]]
\|full name \= State v. Robert Joseph Stietz
\|date decided \= {{start date\|2017\|06\|13\|df\=us}}
\|citations \= 895 \[\[North Western Reporter\|N.W.2d]] 796, 375 Wis.2d 572, 2017 WI 58
\|judges \= Abrahamson, Grassl Bradley, Kelly, Roggensack, Ziegler, Gableman
\|number of judges \= 6
\|decision by \= Abrahamson
\|concurring \= Bradley, Kelly, Roggensack
\|dissenting \= Ziegler, Gableman
\|prior actions \= Criminal trial
\|appealed from \= \[\[Wisconsin Court of Appeals]]
\|opinions \= Trial court erred in not permitting self\-defense jury instruction in prosecution of farmer for armed confrontation with DNR game wardens on his property where they could not and did not clearly identify themselves as wardens and could have been seen by him as trespassers. Appeals court reversed and remanded
\|keywords \= {{hlist \| search \| seizure\| self\-defense \| trespass }}
\|italic title \= no
}}
{{cquote\|... \[I]mportant practical considerations suggest that the police should not be empowered to invade land closed to the public. In many parts of the country, landowners feel entitled to \[\[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution\|use self\-help]] in expelling trespassers from their posted property. There is thus a serious risk that police officers, making unannounced, warrantless searches of 'open fields,' will become involved in violent confrontations with irate landowners ...''\[\[Oliver v. United States]]'', {{ussc\|466\|170\|195n19\|1984}} \[\[Thurgood Marshall\|Marshall]], J., dissenting}}
The scenario Justice [Marshall](/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall "Thurgood Marshall") feared in his Oliver *dissent came to pass in [Lafayette County, Wisconsin](/wiki/Lafayette_County%2C_Wisconsin "Lafayette County, Wisconsin"), in 2012\. Near sunset on the last Sunday of November, the last day of the state's firearm [deer season](/wiki/Deer_hunting%23State_government_regulation "Deer hunting#State government regulation"), Robert Stietz, a cattle and mushroom farmer, went to patrol a detached {{convert\|25\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} parcel of his land off [state Highway 81](/wiki/Wisconsin_Highway_81 "Wisconsin Highway 81") for illegal hunters and vandals, both of which he had had problems with in the past. He carried both his rifle and a pistol, and drove to the property in his wife's sedan since he did not expect to be bringing a deer carcass home. For the same reason, he wore camouflage and no [blaze orange](/wiki/Blaze_orange "Blaze orange").{{cite court\|litigants\=State v. Stietz\|vol\=895\|reporter\=\[\[North Western Reporter\|N.W.2d]]\|opinion\=796\|court\=\[\[Wisconsin Supreme Court\|Wisc.]]\|date\=2017\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=15612653012475974548\|access\-date\=September 27, 2019}}*
At the same time, unbeknownst to Stietz, two game wardens with the state's [Department of Natural Resources](/wiki/Wisconsin_Department_of_Natural_Resources "Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources") were patrolling the area in their vehicle, looking for hunters who might be trying to take a deer after the official end of the season, [20 minutes after sunset](/wiki/Civil_twilight "Civil twilight"), which that day was 4:45 p.m. Just before 5, they found the sedan parked alongside the highway. In it they observed an open and empty gun case, a bottle of scent\-killing spray and a camouflage [tree seat](/wiki/Tree_stand "Tree stand"), all of which led them to deduce that the occupant of the car was probably hunting. The car's registration came back to Stietz when they checked it on their vehicle's computer.
The wardens decided to investigate. They parked their pickup truck, put on their own blaze orange jackets, on which their departmental insignia was not as conspicuous as it had been on their uniform shirts, and found the open cattle gate leading on to Stietz's property. Shortly after they passed it, Stietz himself saw them and approached them, believing from the blaze orange jackets that they were possibly trespassing hunters.*Stietz*, 805–807
At trial, the wardens testified that they identified themselves as such upon seeing Stietz; he in turn said they did not do so clearly enough for him to hear and believed they were asking if he was a warden or had seen any. The wardens asked how many deer he had seen that day; after Stietz said he had seen seven does but was not at the time hunting, he testified that one of the men threw up his arms and seemed upset, which led him to further believe they might be trespassing.
Noticing that the wardens seemed to be trying to interpose themselves between him and his car, Stietz said, he began to feel fearful. One asked him if his rifle was loaded; when Stietz confirmed that it was the other asked him for it, several times, leading Stietz to believe he was being attacked. The two wardens then attempted to take the rifle, leading to a physical struggle between them and Stietz. When they regained their feet, one of the wardens pulled his handgun and pointed it at Stietz, who in turn did the same, followed by the other warden.
One of the wardens made a radio call for backup, at which point Stietz said later that he began to realize who they really were and relax slightly. He kept his gun pointed at the wardens, he testified, because they refused to lower theirs. Eventually deputy sheriffs came and, after assuring Stietz he would not be "gang tackled", took him into custody.
Stietz faced six felony charges over the incident. At trial in March 2014, the jury convicted him of two: intentionally pointing a firearm at a law enforcement officer and resisting an officer with a dangerous weapon. His pretrial motions for [jury instructions](/wiki/Jury_instruction "Jury instruction") on [self\-defense](/wiki/Right_of_self-defense "Right of self-defense"), trespass, and violation of his [right to keep and bear arms](/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms "Right to keep and bear arms") were denied, as were his post\-trial motions for acquittal or a new trial.*Stietz*, 823–24
In May Stietz was sentenced to a year in prison and probation. The day of sentence, he filed his appeal, arguing the denial of his jury instructions constituted fatal error. In an unpublished 2016 [per curiam](/wiki/Per_curiam "Per curiam") *opinion, the [appeals court](/wiki/Wisconsin_Court_of_Appeals "Wisconsin Court of Appeals") upheld the conviction.*
Stietz appealed to the [Wisconsin Supreme Court](/wiki/Wisconsin_Supreme_Court "Wisconsin Supreme Court"). It accepted the case in late 2016 and heard oral arguments early the next year. In June 2017, by a 4–2 margin,{{efn\|Justice \[\[Ann Walsh Bradley]] did not participate.''Stietz'' at 808}} the court held that the trial court's denial of Stietz's requested self\-defense instruction had deprived him of a factual credible argument that the jury could have believed and reversed and [remanded](/wiki/Remand_%28court_procedure%29 "Remand (court procedure)") the appeals court.
Justice [Shirley Abrahamson](/wiki/Shirley_Abrahamson "Shirley Abrahamson")'s majority opinion declined to address the proposed trespass instruction since she believed Stietz might well prevail on retrial with just the self\-defense instruction. But the state had raised the open\-fields doctrine in its briefs on the case, which led Justice [Rebecca Bradley](/wiki/Rebecca_Bradley "Rebecca Bradley") to write a [concurrence](/wiki/Concurring_opinion "Concurring opinion"), joined in its entirety by Justice [Daniel Kelly](/wiki/Daniel_Kelly_%28Wisconsin_judge%29 "Daniel Kelly (Wisconsin judge)") and partially by Chief Justice [Patience D. Roggensack](/wiki/Patience_D._Roggensack "Patience D. Roggensack"),*Stietz*, 814–16{{efn\|Roggensack did not join Part II of Bradley's concurrence, which dealt with the open\-fields doctrine.}} which argued that Stietz had a constitutional right to raise the trespass issue and that not allowing him to do so violated that right. She also was sharply critical of the open\-fields doctrine as used to justify the evidence behind the arrest.
In her arguments that the trespass instruction should have been permitted, Bradley had noted that at oral argument the state was unable to cite any statutory authority for the wardens' presence on Stietz's property,{{efn\|Wisconsin law permits wardens to enter private property without permission or reasonable suspicion only to collect animal carcasses and prevent the spread of disease, none were present or argued to be. The state also argued that the wardens were executing a \[\[Terry stop]], but those can only be constitutional on public land}} nor evidence that they had Stietz's permission. She did not believe the parked car constituted reasonable suspicion of illegal hunting that would have allowed them to enter the property, either. And he had put up clear signals—the posting, gating and fencing of the property—that no one was to come on that property without his permission.*Stietz*, 810–14
In the absence of those more specific justifications, the state had cited the open\-fields doctrine as to how the wardens' uninvited presence on public land was legal. "The state is wrong", Bradley wrote. "The open fields doctrine does not transform private fields into public places that anyone is free to enter uninvited or without reason. Nor does it convert the act of trespassing into a lawful intrusion." It existed, she asserted, only to prevent the suppression of evidence gathered by intrusions into the areas it covered, and could not be extended to justify Stietz's arrest. "The open fields exception to the Fourth Amendment's warrant requirement was not intended to eliminate property owners' rights by sanctioning entry onto open land at any time for any reason, or no reason at all", she reiterated, citing Bullock*,* Dixson*,* Johnson *and* Scott *in a footnote.*
Dissenting justice [Annette Ziegler](/wiki/Annette_Ziegler "Annette Ziegler") wrote for herself and [Michael Gableman](/wiki/Michael_Gableman "Michael Gableman"). She primarily took issue with the majority opinion, primarily arguing that the wardens did have reasonable suspicion and legal authority to enter the property. She touched on the open\-field doctrine only to note that the appeals court had held it applicable, and Stietz had not raised it on his appeal to the Supreme Court.*Stietz* at 828
Following the decision, [Assemblyman](/wiki/Wisconsin_State_Assembly "Wisconsin State Assembly") [Adam Jarchow](/wiki/Adam_Jarchow "Adam Jarchow") and [State Senator](/wiki/Wisconsin_State_Senate "Wisconsin State Senate") [Dave Craig](/wiki/Dave_Craig "Dave Craig") introduced a bill that would require that DNR wardens have reasonable suspicion of a law being broken before entering private property without the owner's consent. "Preventing poaching is somehow so important we allow DNR incursions on private property for any reason under the sun or no reason at all", Jarchow complained. "\[S]omething is seriously out of whack here."{{cite news\|author\=\[\[Associated Press]]\|title\=Bill would restrict Wisconsin wardens on private property\|url\=https://www.outdoornews.com/2017/07/21/bill\-restrict\-wisconsin\-wardens\-private\-property/\|newspaper\=Wisconsin Outdoor News\|date\=July 21, 2017\|access\-date\=October 1, 2019}} It was vigorously opposed by [wildlife conservation](/wiki/Wildlife_conservation "Wildlife conservation") organizations such as the [League of Conservation Voters](/wiki/League_of_Conservation_Voters "League of Conservation Voters") and the state [Sierra Club](/wiki/Sierra_Club "Sierra Club") chapter, who feared that it would severely hamper the wardens' ability to do their jobs,{{cite news\|last\=Smith\|first\=Paul A.\|title\=Smith: Strong opposition to bill that would curtail warden authority\|url\=https://www.jsonline.com/story/sports/columnists/paul\-smith/2017/07/19/smith\-strong\-opposition\-bill\-would\-curtail\-warden\-authority/490231001/\|newspaper\=\[\[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel]]\|date\=July 19, 2017\|access\-date\=October 1, 2019}} and was never brought to a vote.{{cite web\|title\=Assembly Bill 411\|url\=https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/2017/proposals/ab411\|publisher\=\[\[Wisconsin State Legislature]]\|access\-date\=October 1, 2019}}
In his 2018 retrial, Stietz pleaded no contest to a single count of restricting or obstructing an officer and was sentenced to [time served](/wiki/Time_served "Time served"). He filed suit in 2019 against the two wardens alleging they violated his rights under the [Second](/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Second Amendment to the United States Constitution") and Fourth amendments; it is currently pending in [federal court for the Western District of Wisconsin](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Western_District_of_Wisconsin "United States District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin").{{cite news\|last\=Goldstein\|first\=Bennett\|title\=Gratiot man's lawsuit against Wisconsin DNR moves to federal court\|url\=https://www.telegraphherald.com/news/tri\-state/article\_ee1dbf04\-fe72\-5f1d\-a0d0\-66892aefa090\.html\|newspaper\=\[\[Telegraph Herald]]\|location\=\[\[Dubuque, Iowa]]\|date\=February 4, 2019\|access\-date\=October 1, 2019}}
See also
--------
{{portal\|Cannabis\|Law\|United States}}
* [United States v. Burton](/wiki/United_States_v._Burton "United States v. Burton")*, 894 F.2d 188 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 857 (1990\)*
* [United States v. Pace](/wiki/United_States_v._Pace "United States v. Pace")*, 955 F.2d 270 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 502 U.S. 883 (1992\)*
* [Husband v. Bryan](/wiki/Husband_v._Bryan "Husband v. Bryan")*, 946 F.2d 27 (5th Cir. 1991\)*
* [United States v. Benish](/wiki/United_States_v._Benish "United States v. Benish")*, 5 F.3d 20 (3d Cir. 1993\)*
* [United States v. McKeever](/wiki/United_States_v._McKeever "United States v. McKeever")*, 5 F.3d 863 (5th Cir. 1993\)*
* [United States v. Brady](/wiki/United_States_v._Brady "United States v. Brady")*, 993 F.2d 177 (9th Cir. 1993\)*
* [United States v. Depew](/wiki/United_States_v._Depew "United States v. Depew")*, 8 F.3d 424 (9th Cir. 1993\)*
* [United States v. Reilly](/wiki/United_States_v._Reilly "United States v. Reilly")*, 76 F.3d 1271 (2d Cir. 1996\)*
* [Kyllo v. United States](/wiki/Kyllo_v._United_States "Kyllo v. United States")'', 533 U.S. 27 (2001\)
|
[
"Rejections of doctrine by state courts\n--------------------------------------",
"Since *Oliver*, the highest courts of [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"), [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\") and [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\"), as well as a [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\") state appeals court, have held that the open\\-fields doctrine does not apply in those states due to their state constitutions granting greater protections to citizens (under [dual sovereignty](/wiki/Dual_sovereignty \"Dual sovereignty\") a state may grant its citizens more rights than those guaranteed in the federal constitution). Since *Katz* grounded privacy in persons rather than places, they argue, landowners who have taken affirmative steps to exclude the public such as fencing or posting the [bounds](/wiki/Boundary_%28real_estate%29 \"Boundary (real estate)\") assert a privacy interest sufficient to prevail over any warrantless search of the property where common exceptions such as [hot pursuit](/wiki/Hot_pursuit \"Hot pursuit\") and plain view do not apply. Some of those opinions have been critical of not only *Oliver* but *Hester*.",
"In a 2017 [concurring opinion](/wiki/Concurring_opinion \"Concurring opinion\") where the doctrine did not come into play in overturning a [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin \"Wisconsin\") farmer's convictions for threatening two state game wardens he believed had been illegal hunters trespassing on his land, Justice [Rebecca Bradley](/wiki/Rebecca_Bradley \"Rebecca Bradley\") of [that state's Supreme Court](/wiki/Wisconsin_Supreme_Court \"Wisconsin Supreme Court\") was highly critical of it.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=State v. Stietz\\|vol\\=895\\|reporter\\=\\[\\[North Western Reporter\\|N.W. 2d]]\\|opinion\\=796\\|court\\=\\[\\[Wisconsin Supreme Court\\|Wisc.]]\\|date\\=2017\\|pinpoint\\=812–815\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=15612653012475974548\\|access\\-date\\=September 17, 2019}}",
"### *State v. Dixson*",
"{{Infobox court case\n\\|name \\= State v. Dixson\n\\|court \\= \\[\\[Oregon Supreme Court]]\n\\|image \\= \n\\|imagesize \\= \n\\|imagelink \\= \n\\|imagealt \\= \n\\|caption \\= \n\\|full name \\= State of Oregon v. Theresa Dixson, Jeffrey Digby and Lorin Lou Dixson\n\\|date decided \\= {{start date\\|1988\\|12\\|20\\|df\\=us}}\n\\|citations \\= 766 \\[\\[Pacific Reporter\\|P.2d]] 1015, 307 Or. 195\n\\|transcripts \\= \n\\|judges \\= 7\n\\|number of judges \\= \n\\|decision by \\= \\[\\[W. Michael Gillette]]\n\\|concurring \\= \n\\|dissenting \\= \n\\|concur/dissent \\= \n\\|prior actions \\= ''State v. Dixson et al'', 740 P.2d 1124, (\\[\\[Oregon Court of Appeals\\|Or.App.]], 1987\\)\n\\|appealed from \\= \\[\\[Oregon Court of Appeals]]\n\\|appealed to \\= \n\\|subsequent actions \\= \n\\|related actions \\= \n\\|opinions \\= \n\\|keywords \\= {{hlist\\|Search\\|Seizure}}\n\\|italic title \\= no\n}}\nWithin a year of *Oliver*, deputy sheriffs in [Coos County, Oregon](/wiki/Coos_County%2C_Oregon \"Coos County, Oregon\"), followed up on a tip that marijuana was being grown on a local lumber company's land. After flying over the property in question and observing possible groves of the plant, then seeing a truck carrying water onto the property via a private access road, the deputies followed the road, past a cable stretched across it, signs prohibiting hunting on the property, and a felled tree, past which they had to proceed on foot to a dwelling at the center of the {{convert\\|40\\|acre}} of forest. From the dwelling they were able to see cannabis planted {{convert\\|800\\|ft}} away, outside the curtilage of the house. The couple who were in the process of buying the property, and a friend who was helping them grow the plants, were arrested and later convicted of manufacturing and possessing a controlled substance.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=State v. Dixson\\|vol\\=740\\|reporter\\=\\[\\[Pacific Reporter\\|P.2d]]\\|opinion\\=1124\\|court\\=\\[\\[Oregon Court of Appeals\\|Or.App.]]\\|date\\=1987\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=2784792647152094511\\|access\\-date\\=September 17, 2019}}; hereafter *Dixson I*",
"#### Oregon Court of Appeals",
"The [appeals court](/wiki/Oregon_Court_of_Appeals \"Oregon Court of Appeals\") reversed the conviction after hearing the appeal *[en banc](/wiki/En_banc \"En banc\")* in 1987\\. \"The decisive issue is not, as the trial court apparently thought, one of federal law\", Judge Thomas Young wrote for the [plurality](/wiki/Plurality_opinion \"Plurality opinion\"). \"Whether defendant's land is constitutionally protected depends, in the first instance, not on United States Supreme Court cases interpreting the Fourth Amendment, but on the basic principles underlying the Oregon Constitution ... we need not join the federal retreat from the constitutional requirements.\"*Dixson I*, 1226\\.",
"\"\\[D]oes the constitution protect property as property, or is its protection of property a means to a greater end?\" Young asked. The majority believed the answer was the latter, to which Young cited writings of [William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham](/wiki/William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham \"William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham\"), who strongly supported the colonists in the years before the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\"), in support of their understanding of this concept of privacy: \"The poorest man may, in his cottage, bid defiance to all the forces of the Crown.\" The U.S. Supreme Court had also recognized \"the indefeasible right of personal security\" as what is most breached by a search in its 1886 *[Boyd](/wiki/Boyd_v._United_States \"Boyd v. United States\")* case.*Dixson I*, 1227\\.",
"[Oregon's Supreme Court](/wiki/Oregon_Supreme_Court \"Oregon Supreme Court\") had, since 1931, recognized this as a privacy interest, Young wrote, and as he found little guidance in federal privacy cases beyond the instant issues of those cases, the majority looked to Oregon [case law](/wiki/Case_law \"Case law\") as it had interpreted [Article I, Section 9](/wiki/wikisource:Oregon_Constitution/Article_I%23Section_9 \"Oregon Constitution/Article I#Section 9\"), of the [state constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Oregon \"Constitution of Oregon\"), the counterpart to the Fourth Amendment. Young found *Katz*{{'}}s two\\-part test unhelpful and flawed: \"The proper question, thus, is not what the defendant expects or whether that expectation is reasonable but *whether the constitution protects the defendant*.\"{{efn\\|Emphasis in original}} In this case, Young concluded, the deputies had trespassed on the Dixsons' land and violated their privacy.*Dixson I*, 1228\\.",
"Judge John Buttler wrote a special [concurrence](/wiki/Concurring_opinion \"Concurring opinion\") for himself and two colleagues, reaching the same conclusion as the plurality but basing it on different logic which he felt was more in compliance with state Supreme Court precedent: \"I would hold that, if it is necessary for the officers to trespass on property not within the curtilage in order to observe the activity or contraband in question, there is an unreasonable search and, therefore, any ensuing seizure would be unlawful.\" In the instant case, Buttler said that it had, as one of the deputies had testified that he and his partner had at all times believed they were on the lumber company's property and would not have entered without a warrant or permission had they known they were not.*Dixson I*, 1229–32\\.",
"Judge [George Van Hoomissen](/wiki/George_Van_Hoomissen \"George Van Hoomissen\") wrote one of two [dissents](/wiki/Dissenting_opinion \"Dissenting opinion\"), taking issue with every aspect of the plurality opinion—arguing that there was no evidence that the framers of the state constitution had intended it be read more than literally, that the appeals court was ignoring earlier precedents that had explicitly adopted the open\\-fields doctrine, that the defendants had not raised a trespass claim against the deputies at trial, and that courts in other states with similar constitutional language had found it compatible with the doctrine. \"\\[T]he plurality has hopelessly confused constitutional law with the civil and criminal law of trespass \\[and] ... substitutes its own social theories for the plain meaning of the specific constitutional text\", he wrote. Van Hoomissen also noted that if the plurality needed guidance as to whether the citizens of Oregon had embraced an expectation of privacy around growing marijuana, the [failure of a 1986 ballot measure that would have decriminalized the drug](/wiki/Cannabis_in_Oregon%23Decriminalization \"Cannabis in Oregon#Decriminalization\") suggested otherwise.*Dixson I*, 1233–41\\.",
"A shorter dissent was written by Judge Kurt Rossman, joined by Mary Deits. While he agreed with the plurality that the state constitution was not meant to be read in a narrowly literal manner, and with the special concurrence's criticism of the plurality's disregard of precedent, he believed that the defendants had not established that they had a reasonable expectation of privacy, since the signage that the deputies passed simply said \"No hunting\" rather than \"No trespassing\" and the felled tree merely signaled an intent to deter vehicles, not foot traffic; thus the deputies could reasonably have believed they were still on lumber company land. \"It is unnecessary to sail into uncharted waters by formulating a new, untested constitutional analysis, as the plurality and special concurrence have done.\"*Dixson I*, 1241–42\\.",
"#### Oregon Supreme Court",
"Prosecutors appealed the case to the [Oregon Supreme Court](/wiki/Oregon_Supreme_Court \"Oregon Supreme Court\"), which heard arguments in March 1988 and returned its decision at the end of the year. Writing for a unanimous court, Justice [W. Michael Gillette](/wiki/W._Michael_Gillette \"W. Michael Gillette\") affirmed the lower court's [holding](/wiki/Holding_%28law%29 \"Holding (law)\") that Article I, Section 9 provided broader privacy protection than the Fourth Amendment and thus the open\\-fields doctrine did not apply in state prosecutions.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=State v. Dixson\\|vol\\=766\\|reporter\\=\\[\\[Pacific Reporter\\|P.2d]]\\|opinion\\=1015\\|court\\=\\[\\[Oregon Supreme Court\\|Oregon]]\\|date\\=1988\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=10757667275899417628\\|access\\-date\\=September 18, 2019}}; hereafter *Dixson II*",
"After reviewing the facts of the case and all the appellate court's opinions, Gillette considered all the arguments. The two cases Van Hoommissen had pointed to as precedent adopting the open\\-fields doctrine were actually not dispositive of the issue, since one had involved a search on public land and the other appeared to rely on circumstances unique to that case. In another of its own recent holdings, he noted, the state Supreme Court had also rejected *Katz'''{{'}}s reasonable expectation test, so in the instant case the court could consider the issue without relying on it.*Dixson II*, 1018–21*",
"Gillette rejected the [textualist](/wiki/Textualism \"Textualism\") interpretation of the constitutional language that had been held by the Supreme Court and other states' courts to support the doctrine for three reasons. First, the court's own prior holdings recognized Article I, Section 9, as establishing a broad privacy interest beyond those items specified in it. Second, the Supreme Court had itself admitted in Katz *that in extending privacy protection to the user of a phone booth it was going beyond any possible meaning of \"persons, houses, papers and effects\", as Justice [Thurgood Marshall](/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall \"Thurgood Marshall\") had noted in his* Oliver *dissent. Lastly, Gillette noted, if read literally the Fourth Amendment as well as Oregon's constitution would have only protected citizens in their own houses, and not in any other buildings. \"If the individual has a privacy interest in land outside the curtilage of his dwelling, that privacy interest will not go unprotected simply because of its location.\"*Dixson II*, 1021–22*",
"Next, Gillette turned to the claim that [common law](/wiki/Common_law \"Common law\") recognized a distinction between the curtilage of a house and the property as a whole. In Hester*, Justice [Oliver Wendell Holmes](/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr. \"Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.\") had cited [William Blackstone](/wiki/William_Blackstone \"William Blackstone\")'s* [Commentaries on the Laws of England](/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England \"Commentaries on the Laws of England\")*, a common reference for English common law, in holding this distinction originated there. But Gillette quoted the passage Holmes had cited, in which Blackstone discussed what constituted [burglary](/wiki/Burglary \"Burglary\") under common law, to cast doubt on Holmes' interpretation, noting that Blackstone had included all the possible outbuildings as places where unlawful entry and theft could be punished as burglary. Blackstone's chapter on trespass likewise specifically mentioned a man's land as legally protected. \"Reliance on the common\\-law concept of curtilage to justify excluding land outside the curtilage from the protections of either constitutional provision is misplaced\", Gillette concluded.\"*Dixson II*, 1022–23*",
"Lastly Gillette rejected the state's argument that whether land outside curtilage was covered by its owner's privacy interest depended on how that land was used. It depended, he wrote, on whether the owner had taken steps to exclude intruders, such as putting up fences or posting the bounds. \"Allowing the police to intrude into private land, regardless of the steps taken by its occupant to keep it private, would be a significant limitation on the occupant's freedom from governmental scrutiny.\"*Dixson II*, 1023–24\nFrom this Gillette derived a \"simple and objective\" rule: \"A person who wishes to preserve a constitutionally protected privacy interest in land outside the curtilage must manifest an intention to exclude the public by erecting barriers to entry, such as fences, or by posting signs.\" He then applied the rule to the instant case and found that it did not apply to the Dixsons since the signs they had posted on the road to their house barred only hunting. \"There was no objective reason for the officers to believe that ... other uses such as hiking were forbidden\" since it was common in Oregon for those uses to take place on large tracts of privately owned land where it was not expressly forbidden. Therefore, having affirmed the appeals court's rejection of the open\\-fields doctrine, the state's Supreme Court reversed it on the specific issues of the case and affirmed the conviction.*Dixson II*, 1023–24\n### *State v. Kirchoff*",
"{{Infobox court case\n\\|name \\= State v. Kirchoff\n\\|court \\= \\[\\[Vermont Supreme Court]]\n\\|date decided \\= {{start date\\|1991\\|01\\|25\\|df\\=us}} \n\\|citations \\= 156 Vt. 1, 587 \\[\\[Atlantic Reporter\\|A.2d]] 988\n\\|judges \\= Allen, Peck, Dooley, Morse, Springer (specially assigned)\n\\|decision by \\= Morse\n\\|concurring \\= Springer\n\\|dissenting \\= Peck\n\\|keywords \\= {{hlist \\| search \\| seizure }}\n\\|italic title \\= no\n}}\nA case that had begun before Oliver *provided the [Vermont Supreme Court](/wiki/Vermont_Supreme_Court \"Vermont Supreme Court\") with its opportunity to consider the open\\-fields doctrine almost a decade later. In 1982 Robert Kirchoff bought a {{convert\\|39\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} parcel in the town of [Lincoln, Vermont](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Vermont \"Lincoln, Vermont\"), posted it and filed a notice to that effect with the town clerk. He allowed some of his neighbors to ride their bicycles on trails that crossed the property, but otherwise did not allow any access.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=People v. Kirchoff\\|vol\\=587\\|reporter\\=\\[\\[Atlantic Reporter\\|A.2d]]\\|opinion\\=988\\|court\\=\\[\\[Vermont Supreme Court\\|Vt.]]\\|date\\=1988\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=9401759424447139849\\|access\\-date\\=October 1, 2019}}*",
"Kirchoff had been living there for four years when the [Addison County](/wiki/Addison_County%2C_Vermont \"Addison County, Vermont\") sheriff received a tip that he was growing marijuana on his land. The sheriff and another law enforcement officer went to a neighboring house, crossed a fence, and followed an old logging road past some old \"no trespassing\" signs. They left the road and found the growing cannabis plants in the woods roughly 100 yards (91 m) from his house, invisible from the road.*Kirchoff*, at 990\nThe sheriff called in two other officers to keep an eye on the marijuana while they got a [search warrant](/wiki/Search_warrant \"Search warrant\"). Kirchoff went out to tend them at this point, and admitted to the officers that he had been growing them. When the sheriff returned, he and the police seized the plants and other evidence of the grow operation from Kirchoff's house.\nAt trial, Kirchoff moved to have the evidence obtained from the search suppressed. It was denied, and he was convicted. He appealed to the state's Supreme Court.{{efn\\|Vermont has no intermediate appellate courts}} The case was not argued until 1989, and it took an additional two years for the court to decide.*Kirchoff*, at 999\nIn early 1991 the Supreme Court issued its decision, holding 4–1 that the evidence should have been suppressed. After reviewing the facts of the case, Justice [James L. Morse](/wiki/James_L._Morse \"James L. Morse\") conceded that the search was lawful under Oliver*. However, the court went on to note that it had to consider whether the search complied with Article 11 of the [state constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Vermont \"Constitution of Vermont\"), which while substantially similar to the Fourth Amendment did have some differences in wording. Most significantly, it referred to a person's \"possessions\" as coming under its purview rather than just their \"effects\".*Kirchoff*, 991–92*",
"Did that mean it applied to all a person's landholdings, Morse asked? The minimal records from the state's original constitutional debates did not offer much guidance, so he looked at how other states with similar language had addressed the issue. They had divided on the issue, yet at the same time states that used \"effects\" in their constitutions had held it applied more broadly than Oliver *had held.*",
"\"Our decision, however, need not rest on the drafters' choice of one word over another\", Morse wrote. \"Even if we cannot say with confidence that the scope of the term 'possessions' mandates a right of privacy in real estate, it certainly does not rule out such a right.\" He noted that this interpretation was at odds with Oliver*, and said the fault lay with the* Oliver *Court, which had \"misinterpreted its own Fourth Amendment precedent.\"*",
"In Oliver*, the Supreme Court had seemed \"to equate privacy with crime\", which Morse considered flawed. \"If one assumes at the outset that people will only seek privacy in the use of their land for criminal purposes,\" he wrote, \"the conclusion that society will not recognize a claim to privacy in the land readily follows. But we cannot presume how an individual will employ private lands—that is the nature of privacy.\"* Oliver*{{'}}s association of privacy and criminality, according to Morse, was an* [ipse dixit](/wiki/Ipse_dixit \"Ipse dixit\")*.*Kirchoff*, 992–93*",
"Morse accepted the Oregon Supreme Court's rule in Dixson *that the open\\-fields doctrine did not apply where a landowner had, like Kirchoff, taken affirmative measures to control access to their land. He grounded this in state constitutional and statutory provisions that allowed public use of unposted land for many outdoor recreational activities and limited the liability of landowners for damages suffered by those they allowed, even implicitly, to engage in those activities on unposted land. \"These provisions evidence the state's policy of providing the public with certain privileges and liberties not permitted under the common law\", he wrote. \"They evidence no intent, however, to limit the right of landowners to pursue their affairs free from unregulated intrusion by officials.\"*Kirchoff*, 994–96*",
"Lastly, Morse said that while the Vermont Supreme Court was not completely discarding Katz *as the basis for its personalty\\-rooted concept of privacy, it found some issues doing so. It was not comfortable with the concept of a reasonable expectation, since that could too easily change \"with political winds and the perceived exigencies of the day ... The question is not what society is prepared to accept but what the constitution requires.\" This formulation, Morse believed, would better protect people's privacy expectations as technology advanced. Lastly he placed the [burden of proof](/wiki/Burden_of_proof_%28law%29 \"Burden of proof (law)\") on the state in cases where a search such as the one in the instant case, was challenged as unconstitutional, and held that under that standard this search had violated the state constitution.*",
"There were two other opinions. District Judge Lewis Springer, specially assigned to sit on the court for this case due to a vacant seat, concurred but said the majority opinion should have more thoroughly grounded its arguments in the state's constitutional history rather than the federal constitution.*Kirchoff*, 997–99 [Louis P. Peck](/wiki/Louis_P._Peck \"Louis P. Peck\"), in one of his last opinions before retirement, dissented at length, attacking and ridiculing the majority for [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism \"Judicial activism\") in an opinion rife with cultural and literary references.*Kirchoff*, 999–1008\n#### Dissent",
"\"I am sadly disappointed, and frustrated beyond comfort\", by the majority opinion, Peck began. He likened it to a brief for the defendant in the case. \"\\[I]t is, in my judgment, one of the most result\\-oriented opinions I have ever been exposed to. I am not prepared to countenance in silence the extreme and unwarranted judicial activism of which the opinion is an example.\"\nPeck suggested that the majority's confusion over the meaning of \"possessions\" in the state constitution was \"a calculated tactic rather than the result of interpretive incompetency ... Disregarding a word because it may have different meanings in different contexts constitutes an argument weak to the point of absurdity.\" By doing so, he charged, the majority had been able to substitute its own meaning. If that had not been the plan, \"I am afraid that the majority's training in elementary logic, if any, failed to penetrate or make a lasting impression. The\\[ir] reasoning is a [syllogistic](/wiki/Syllogism \"Syllogism\") blunder and a [non sequitur](/wiki/Non_sequitur_%28fallacy%29 \"Non sequitur (fallacy)\")*.\"*",
"There was no constitutional problem presented by the case, Peck said; the state's existing laws were enough protection for landowners.\n{{quote\\|For all realistic and practical purposes, the sole beneficiary of today's decision is the owner of open fields who conducts criminal activity thereon in defiance of the law. In short, the majority has given birth to a right of privacy to commit crime. If our marijuana farmers have the good sense I think they have, they will soon be busy as little bees putting up no\\-trespassing signs, while laughing up their sleeves at the gullible naivete of the cooperative majority.}}\nThe insistence that police needed a warrant to search any posted or fenced land due to the state's trespass laws was, Peck wrote, \"like saying a police cruiser, in responding to an emergency call, may not exceed the speed limit because there are laws against speeding.\"\nReturning to the majority's apparent confusion over the meaning of \"possessions\", Peck said it was insulting to the framers of the Vermont Constitution to suggest that they \"simply tossed in words willy\\-nilly with no intent that they have any particular meaning; merely filling in blanks, as it were, with the first word that came to mind.\" He believed that they chose their words carefully and would not have expected the level of protection the court was giving landowners.\nPeck also called the majority's holding that the search was unconstitutional \"a grossly unfair example of police\\-bashing\", that he himself took personally.\n{{quote\\|The police are not psychic. At the time they entered the open fields portion of defendant's property, they had no way of knowing or of anticipating that this Court would follow, sheep\\-like, the decision of one of the most activist\\-oriented among the state courts,{{efn\\|''Dixson''}} or that we would reject a contrary decision by the high court of a state which borders us and is far more similar to us in size and other characteristics than the former{{efn\\|Peck was referring to ''State v. Linder'', in which the \\[\\[New Hampshire Supreme Court\\|Supreme Court of neighboring New Hampshire]] had five years previously held the open\\-fields doctrine applied in that state.{{cite court\\|litigants\\=State v. Linder\\|vol\\=128\\|reporter\\=N.H.\\|opinion\\=66\\|court\\=\\[\\[New Hampshire Supreme Court\\|N.H.]]\\|date\\=1986\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=2487942038615680423\\|access\\-date\\=October 3, 2019}}}} ... I would remind the majority, as it sheds its tears for the defendant, that the entry was not arbitrary. It was not an afternoon of sport for the police, on the off\\-chance they might just happen to stumble on marijuana or some other contraband, in much the same spirit that we hunt deer and other game. The entry was undertaken in reliance on a \"tip\"; with every reason to believe the search was legitimate, and it was done in good faith.}} Peck feared that the majority's decision would unnecessarily handicap the state's police in preventing crime. He accused it of \"cho\\[osing] the possible prestige with which it may be honored by law reviews and other constitutional activists among the courts, and legal writers, to a recognition of the rights of the individual inhabitants of the State of Vermont.\" At the very least, the majority should have held the issue to be decided on a case\\-by\\-case basis rather than establishing a blanket rule.\n### *People v. Scott*",
"{{Infobox court case\n\\|name \\= People v. Scott\n\\|court \\= \\[\\[New York Court of Appeals]]\n\\|full name \\= People of the State of New York v. Guy Scott\n\\|date decided \\= {{start date\\|1992\\|04\\|02\\|df\\=us}}\n\\|citations \\= 79 N.Y.2d 474\n\\|judges \\= Kaye, Alexander, Titone, Hancock, Bellacosa, Wachtler, Simone \n\\|number of judges \\= 7\n\\|decision by \\= Hancock\n\\|concurring \\= Kaye\n\\|dissenting \\= Bellacosa\n\\|prior actions \\= Conviction affirmed, 169 A.D.2d 1023 (1991\\)\n\\|appealed from \\= \\[\\[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division]], 3rd Dept.\n\\|keywords \\= {{hlist \\| search \\| seizure }}\n\\|italic title \\= no\n}}\nAs the Dixson appeal was being considered by the Oregon courts, across the country, a hunter pursuing a wounded deer onto posted private property in [Preston, New York](/wiki/Preston%2C_New_York \"Preston, New York\"), came across what appeared to him to be the remnants of a marijuana growing operation. In July 1988, he returned, and confirmed his suspicions, finding about 50 cannabis plants being grown on the site, guarded by an armed man. He reported this to the [state police](/wiki/New_York_State_Police \"New York State Police\"), who asked him to bring back a leaf from one of the plants. The next month he did, and after testifying [in camera](/wiki/In_camera \"In camera\") *he returned with a detective.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=People v. Scott\\|vol\\=169\\|reporter\\=A.D.2d\\|opinion\\=1023\\|court\\=\\[\\[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division\\|N.Y.A.D., 3rd Dept.]]\\|date\\=1991\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=14569517592155252184\\|access\\-date\\=September 19, 2019}}*",
"Guy Scott, owner of the {{convert\\|165\\|acre}} on which the marijuana was growing, was arrested and charged with first\\-degree criminal possession of marijuana, a felony, after 200 plants were seized. At trial in [Chenango County](/wiki/Chenango_County%2C_New_York \"Chenango County, New York\") Court, he moved to suppress the evidence against him as seized unconstitutionally. After the court ruled that it had not been, Scott pleaded guilty and appealed the conviction on the same grounds, arguing that by posting the property's bounds at {{convert\\|20\\|–\\|30\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} intervals he had secured a reasonable expectation of privacy.\nFollowing Oliver*, a five\\-justice panel of the Third Department of the state's [Appellate Division](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division \"New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division\") unanimously rejected that argument in 1991\\. \"The marihuana in question here\", it wrote, \"was clearly grown in an open, uncultivated field away from the curtilage of any residential structure; thus, defendant had no legitimate expectation of privacy.\" Scott appealed to the [Court of Appeals](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals \"New York Court of Appeals\"), New York's highest court.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=People v. Scott\\|vol\\=79\\|reporter\\=N.Y.2d\\|opinion\\=474\\|court\\=\\[\\[New York Court of Appeals\\|N.Y.]]\\|date\\=1992\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=3389459308517600957\\|access\\-date\\=September 19, 2019}}\nIn 1992, Judge Stewart Hancock wrote for the majority in a 4–3 decision reversing the appellate court and Scott's conviction that rejected the open\\-fields doctrine. Like Marshall and Oregon's* Dixson *court, he found* Oliver*{{'}}s recourse to a property\\-based privacy interest at odds with* Katz*{{'s}} reasonable expectation test. But that would have little bearing as the majority found [New York's constitution](/wiki/New_York_Constitution \"New York Constitution\"), \"with its own unique history\", more relevant to the issues raised by Scott's case.*Scott II*, at 486*",
"Prior to 1938 New York, Hancock noted, had restricted searches and seizures only at the statutory level. When the state constitution was amended that year, in addition to language similar to that of the Fourth Amendment that had long been in the statute, it included a provision explicitly including telecommunications under the same warrant requirements, a reaction to the U.S. Supreme Court's [Olmstead](/wiki/Olmstead_v._United_States \"Olmstead v. United States\") *case a decade earlier, which had held that police did not need a warrant for [wiretapping](/wiki/Wiretap \"Wiretap\") telephones since that took place far from the property of those communicating over them. Therefore, according to Hancock, it did not follow that the state constitution should or could be interpreted in the same way the* Oliver *Court had interpreted the federal constitution.\n[thumb\\|right\\|A posted cornfield in New York](/wiki/File:Posted_sign_in_front_of_cornfield%2C_Red_Hook%2C_NY.jpg \"Posted sign in front of cornfield, Red Hook, NY.jpg\")\nHancock turned to the second part of the* Katz *test: whether Scott's interest in his privacy asserted by posting his property was objectively reasonable. The* Oliver *majority had dismissed the idea, pointing instead to social consensus as where to look, but, the judge wrote:\n{{quote\\|We believe that under the law of this State the citizens are entitled to more protection. A constitutional rule which permits State agents to invade private lands for no reason at all — without permission and in outright disregard of the owner's efforts to maintain privacy by fencing or posting signs — is one that we cannot accept as adequately preserving fundamental rights of New York citizens.}}\nWhile Hancock conceded that property rights do not automatically create a privacy interest, his review of the state's statutory and case law convinced him that, in interpreting both state and federal law on this issue, the state's courts had constantly followed the* Katz *concept of rooting privacy in the person, rather than property. He also shared Marshall's observation that the* Oliver *majority had suggested that a reasonable expectation of privacy depended on what the landowner intended to shield from view by posting or fencing the land:\n{{quote\\|The reasoning of the ... majority, seems, to be this, in effect: that law\\-abiding persons should have nothing to hide on their property and, thus, there can be no reasonable objection to the State's unpermitted entry on posted or fenced land to conduct a general search for contraband. But this presupposes the ideal of a conforming society, a concept which seems foreign to New York's tradition of tolerance of the unconventional and of what may appear bizarre or even offensive.''Scott II'', at 488–89}}\nJudge Joseph Bellacosa's dissent, addressing not only* Scott *but a companion case in which the court had ruled evidence gathered in warrantless administrative searches of businesses to be inadmissible, focused largely on what he considered to be the majority's faulty reasoning for departing from* Oliver*. In a similar case of a rural marijuana grower four years earlier,{{efn\\|{{cite court\\|litigants\\=People v. Reynolds\\|vol\\=71\\|reporter\\=N.Y.2d\\|opinion\\=552\\|court\\=\\[\\[New York Court of Appeals\\|N.Y.]]\\|date\\=1988\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=3911316398566985157\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2019}}}} he noted, the court had accepted evidence gathered by an aerial search and declined to consider the same privacy issues that defendant had raised.*Scott II*, at 506–19 The majority responded that in that case she had not raised the issue of her land being posted.*Scott II*, at 480*",
"### *State v. Johnson*",
"{{Infobox court case\n\\|name \\= State v. Johnson\n\\|court \\= \\[\\[Washington Court of Appeals]], Division Two\n\\|full name \\= State of Washington v. Tamara Sue Johnson and James Raymond Johnson\n\\|date decided \\= {{start date\\|1994\\|09\\|07\\|df\\=us}}\n\\|citations \\= 75 Wn. App. 692, 879 P.2d 984\n\\|judges \\= Alexander, Morgan and Houghton\n\\|number of judges \\= 3\n\\|decision by \\= Alexander\n\\|prior actions \\= criminal trial\n\\|appealed from \\= Thurston County Superior Court\n\\|appealed to \\= \\[\\[Washington Supreme Court]]\n\\|subsequent actions \\= Review denied, 126 Wn.2d 1004 (1995\\)\n\\|opinions \\= Alexander\n\\|keywords \\= {{hlist \\| search \\| seizure }}\n\\|italic title \\= no\n}}\nAgain, as Scott *was reaching the New York Court of Appeals, another marijuana growing investigation across the country again gave rise to a state court's rejection of the open\\-fields doctrine. This case involved the additional question of whether federal involvement negated any state consideration of the issue.{{Cite court\\|litigants\\=State v. Johnson\\|vol\\=75\\|reporter\\=Wn.App.\\|opinion\\=692\\|court\\=\\[\\[Washington Court of Appeals\\#Division II\\|Wn.App.Div.II]]\\|date\\=1994\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=239546820780301962\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2019}}*",
"In 1991 agents of the federal [Drug Enforcement Administration](/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration \"Drug Enforcement Administration\") (DEA) received a tip that a \"Jim Johnson\" was growing marijuana on his property near [Scott Lake](/wiki/Scott_Lake_%28Washington%29 \"Scott Lake (Washington)\"). The two took this information to the [Thurston County](/wiki/Thurston_County%2C_Washington \"Thurston County, Washington\") Narcotics Task Force, and a detective helped them confirm that a man by that name lived in the area, and found his address. However, the only way to reach the property was via a dirt road that ran through [Millersylvania State Park](/wiki/Millersylvania_State_Park \"Millersylvania State Park\").\nThe three went down the road but found it gated, fenced and posted at the property line, and they chose at that time not to pass it, unable to see any evidence of marijuana being grown from where they were. At the DEA agents' request, the county officers flew over the property and took photographs. Several days later the DEA agents returned, without the local detective, in the middle of the night. This time they passed the gate and walked {{convert\\|200\\|yd}} to a barn, with a house visible about {{convert\\|75\\|–\\|100\\|yd\\|m}} beyond, where they smelled growing cannabis plants and heard the sounds of machinery they associated with such cultivation operations. They completed their investigation by aiming a [thermal imaging device](/wiki/Thermal_imaging_device \"Thermal imaging device\") at the barn; its results further confirmed their suspicion. After finding from local utility records that the property's electricity consumption also matched the profile of a growing operation, they got a warrant and arrested both Johnson and his wife.\nAlthough the DEA had gathered most of the evidence against them, the couple were prosecuted in state court. They sought unsuccessfully to suppress that evidence, but the trial court held that the DEA had largely been acting independently of the state, making the evidence admissible under the open\\-fields doctrine. The court convicted them in a [bench trial](/wiki/Bench_trial \"Bench trial\") and they appealed.\nThe [Washington Court of Appeals](/wiki/Washington_Court_of_Appeals \"Washington Court of Appeals\") first reconsidered the trial court's ruling that the DEA acted without the cooperation or assistance of the state, which under the [silver platter doctrine](/wiki/Silver_platter_doctrine \"Silver platter doctrine\") would have protected it from being challenged under the [state constitution](/wiki/Washington_State_Constitution \"Washington State Constitution\"). Judge Gerry Alexander rejected the state's argument that the local officers had only provided the DEA with locally relevant information, noting that a county detective had accompanied the DEA agents on one trip, the aerial surveillance and the involvement of local law enforcement in the arrest. And since the state was so involved, the court could consider whether the evidence was gathered in violation of the state constitution.*Johnson*, at 701\nWashington's equivalent to the Fourth Amendment, [Article I, Section 7](/wiki/wikisource:Washington_State_Constitution%23Article_I_-_Declaration_of_Rights \"Washington State Constitution#Article I - Declaration of Rights\"), is unlike New York and Oregon's very differently worded from its federal counterpart: \"No person shall be disturbed in his private affairs, or his home invaded, without authority of law.\" It had thus, Alexander wrote, been held repeatedly to offer broader protection to privacy rights.*Johnson*, at 703{{efn\\|In a 1984 case upholding the conviction of a marijuana grower based on warrantless aerial surveillance, \\[\\[Washington Supreme Court\\|Washington's Supreme Court]] had rejected the open\\-fields doctrine in ''\\[\\[dictum]]'' for this reason, but did not find it necessarily to rule on that question since it was not dispositive of the case.{{cite court\\|litigants\\=State v. Myrick\\|vol\\=102\\|reporter\\=Wn.2d\\|opinion\\=506\\|pinpoint\\=512\\|court\\=\\[\\[Washington Supreme Court\\|Wash.]]\\|date\\=1984\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=6619139184248267253\\|access\\-date\\=September 21, 2019}}}}\nThe state had argued that the DEA agents had, by using an accessway to the house, complied with that provision, citing several precedents where searches had been upheld where police used routes for the public to approach a residence. But Alexander distinguished them from the instant case by noting that \"here ... \\[the agents] were using it as the most convenient route on which to trespass on the Johnsons' property\" instead of trying to reach the house and speak with its occupants; the fact that the agents intruded late at night in one argued against that, the judge observed. The posting, fencing and gate also indicated that \"the Johnsons withdrew any permission that arguably may be implied for the DEA agents to use the accessway, especially at 1 a.m.\"*Johnson*, 703\\-06\\.\nAlexander conceded that the barn was not within the curtilage of the house, but again felt that was outweighed by the visible measures the Johnsons had taken to exclude the public from their property. This was not just an issue of privacy, Alexander noted, but the safety of law enforcement. Justice [Thurgood Marshall](/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall \"Thurgood Marshall\")'s dissent in Oliver *had noted that many rural landowners resorted to \"self\\-help\", as he put it, when faced with trespassers, and the DEA agents' furtive nocturnal visit to the Johnsons' barn could have resulted in violence. \"We conclude that the agents' entry onto the Johnsons' property was an unreasonable intrusion into the Johnsons' private affairs\", Alexander wrote. Since the remaining untainted evidence submitted to obtain the search warrant was thus insufficient to establish [probable cause](/wiki/Probable_cause \"Probable cause\"), the Johnsons' convictions were reversed with directions to dismiss the charges. The [state Supreme Court](/wiki/Washington_Supreme_Court \"Washington Supreme Court\") declined to review the case the next year.*Johnson*, 706\\-10\\.*",
"### *State v. Bullock*",
"{{Infobox court case\n\\|name \\= State v. Bullock\n\\|court \\= \\[\\[Montana Supreme Court]]\n\\|full name \\= State of Montana v. Bill Bullock and Eddie Peterson\n\\|date decided \\= {{start date\\|1995\\|08\\|04\\|df\\=us}}\n\\|citations \\= 901 \\[\\[Pacific Reporter\\|P.2d]] 61\n\\|judges \\= Trieweiler, Turnage, Nelson, Gray, Hunt, Weber and Leaphart\n\\|number of judges \\= 7\n\\|decision by \\= Triweiler\n\\|prior actions \\= criminal trial and appeal\n\\|appealed from \\= District Court for the Tenth Judicial District \n\\|opinions \\= Trieweiler\n\\|keywords \\= {{hlist \\| search \\| seizure }}\n\\|italic title \\= no\n}}\nContemporaneously with Johnson*, another case involving the open\\-fields doctrine began working its way through Montana's state courts. Unlike its state and federal predecessors, it involved [illegally taken game](/wiki/Poaching \"Poaching\") rather than marijuana cultivation.{{cite court\\|litigants\\=State v. Bullock\\|vol\\=901\\|reporter\\=\\[\\[Pacific Reporter\\|P.2d]]\\|opinion\\=61\\|court\\=\\[\\[Montana Supreme Court\\|Mont.]]\\|date\\=1995\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=2059160847971143084\\|access\\-date\\=September 21, 2019}}*",
"In October 1991, Chuck Wing, a [Boulder, Montana](/wiki/Boulder%2C_Montana \"Boulder, Montana\"), man saw a six\\- or seven\\-point bull [elk](/wiki/Elk \"Elk\") on a hill as he was returning from work. He knew that these elk could only be taken by hunters with special permits in that area. As he was watching he saw two men shoot the elk and put it in their truck, which he knew belonged to a man named Eddie Peterson, without [field dressing](/wiki/Field_dressing_%28hunting%29 \"Field dressing (hunting)\") it. Wing reported it to [Jefferson County](/wiki/Jefferson_County%2C_Montana \"Jefferson County, Montana\") Sheriff Tom Dawson, which in turn passed the information to the [state Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks](/wiki/Montana_Department_of_Fish%2C_Wildlife_and_Parks \"Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks\") (MFWP).*Bullock* at 64\nChris Anderson, an MFWP [game warden](/wiki/Game_warden \"Game warden\") came from nearby [Helena](/wiki/Helena%2C_Montana \"Helena, Montana\") to Boulder the next morning and interviewed Wing. Anderson learned that Peterson lived in nearby Basin Creek, and he and Dawson drove to his cabin, down a {{convert\\|7\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} one\\-lane [Forest Service](/wiki/U.S._Forest_Service \"U.S. Forest Service\") road bordered by private property in some stretches, with signs advising the public to stay on the road. At Peterson's house, the gate to his driveway was open, and the sheriff and game warden drove past an open gate, with \"No trespassing\" signs on either side, down a {{convert\\|334\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} road to Peterson's cabin, which he had in the past moved behind a rise in the land so that it would not be visible from the road.\nAnderson and Dawson saw an elk carcass hanging from a tree roughly {{convert\\|125\\|ft}} from Peterson's cabin, likewise invisible from the road or adjoining property. Anderson asked where the elk had been killed, and Peterson took the two there, but while there were some of the animal's innards there were no tracks. Anderson believed the elk had been taken somewhere else, and told Peterson what Wing had told Dawson about seeing the day before.*Bullock* at 65\nPeterson continued to insist that the elk had been taken on his property, which Anderson did not believe. Bill Bullock, who was also on the property, attempted to corroborate Peterson's account even when offered [immunity](/wiki/Legal_immunity \"Legal immunity\") from prosecution if he told Anderson what the game warden believed had actually happened. The next day Anderson returned to the property and confiscated the elk. Peterson was charged with unlawfully killing a game animal and Bullock with possessing an unlawfully killed game animal.\nThe two men's trial took most of the next year. In February 1992 the county [Justice Court](/wiki/Montana_inferior_courts%23Justice_Court \"Montana inferior courts#Justice Court\") granted their motion to suppress all the evidence that Anderson and Dawson had obtained when they went on Peterson's property, dismissing entirely the case against Bullock in the process. The state appealed to District Court, and asked for a new trial; the defendants in turn asked that the charges be dismissed because they were misdemeanors and more than six months had elapsed since they had been charged. After that motion was denied, they pleaded guilty and, in October, appealed to the [Montana Supreme Court](/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court \"Montana Supreme Court\").\nThe Supreme Court sent the case back down for [evidentiary hearings](/wiki/Evidentiary_hearing \"Evidentiary hearing\") and imposition of sentence, proceedings that took place over the next two years. After they had been held, the justices heard arguments in early 1995 and rendered their decision in August. They considered three issues: the delay in trying the men, whether Bullock had [standing](/wiki/Standing_%28law%29 \"Standing (law)\") to challenge the evidence against him obtained from the warrantless search of Bullock's property, and whether the [state constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Montana \"Constitution of Montana\")'s privacy provisions precluded the open\\-fields doctrine.\nOn the first question, Justice [Terry N. Trieweiler](/wiki/Terry_N._Trieweiler \"Terry N. Trieweiler\") held for a unanimous court that the six\\-month deadline had not been passed due to the state's appeal that granted a [trial *de novo*](/wiki/Trial_de_novo \"Trial de novo\"), and even so the delay had not been presumptively [prejudicial](/wiki/Prejudice_%28law%29 \"Prejudice (law)\").*Bullock*, 66–67 The next question was resolved in Bullock's favor as the court held that its own prior precedent, and a similar case from [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\"),{{efn\\|{{cite court\\|litigants\\=New Jersey v. Alston\\|vol\\=88\\|reporter\\=N.J.\\|opinion\\=211\\|court\\=\\[\\[New Jersey Supreme Court\\|N.J.]]\\|date\\=1981\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=314960964097439038\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2019}}}} that anyone charged with an offense alleging possession of something automatically has standing to challenge the seizure and any evidence derived from it, regardless of another recent U.S. Supreme Court decision that had narrowed the scope of a similar longstanding rule of its own.{{efn\\|''\\[\\[United States v. Salvucci]]'', {{ussc\\|440\\|83\\|1980}}}}*Bullock*, 67–68\nHaving established that both defendants had standing to challenge the state's evidence as unconstitutionally gathered, Trieweiler turned to that final question. Since the U.S. Supreme Court's recent decisions on the open\\-fields doctrine had revealed \"what appear to be seeming inconsistencies\", he believed it was proper for the court to reconsider whether it was good law in Montana. After retracing its history at the federal level, Triweiler turned to the state's cases, where cases that had upheld the doctrine after Katz *but before* Oliver *and* Dunn *had upheld it. He believed that the instant case, however, could be \"factually distinguished\" from those precedents, where the court had not considered the defendants' expectations of privacy over their open fields to be reasonable due to the circumstances of those cases.*Bullock*, 70–72*",
"Precedent also held that while the language of Article II, Section 11, in the Montana Constitution was, like the corresponding provisions of New York and Oregon's, similar to the Fourth Amendment, it guaranteed broader protections against unlawful search and seizure. Trieweiler looked at the Oregon, New York and Washington cases. He found that the common element was that the defendants had taken steps to exclude all members of the public save those they invited onto the land, by posting, fencing or otherwise limiting access to the property.*Bullock*, 72–75\n\"We conclude that in Montana a person may have an expectation of privacy in an area of land that is beyond the curtilage which the society of this State is willing to recognize as reasonable, and that where that expectation is evidenced by fencing, 'No Trespassing,' or similar signs, or 'by some other means \\[which] indicate\\[s] unmistakably that entry is not permitted'\", Trieweiler wrote, quoting Scott*. He explicitly excluded cases, such as some of the precedents he had discussed, where law enforcement had observed the illegal activity from adjoining public property, but declared that to the extent those cases relied on the open\\-fields doctrine they were overruled.*Bullock*, 75–76*",
"Having rejected the open\\-fields doctrine for Montana courts as a general principle, Trieweiler turned to its applicability to the instant case. He noted that not only had Peterson posted the property and placed a gate at the entrance road, he had some years beforehand moved his cabin to a less visible location after repeated vandalism. On previous visits, law enforcement had requested his permission to come on the property. \"The entry onto Peterson's property and observation of the elk carcass, which could not have otherwise been observed, was an unreasonable search in violation of Article II, Section 11, of the Montana Constitution\", Triweiler concluded.*Bullock*, 75–76\nTrieweiler rejected the state's argument that Peterson's offer to lead Anderson and Dawson to the purported kill site and permission for them to examine the elk constituted sufficient consent to allow the carcass into evidence as those actions only took place after the sheriff and warden had already trespassed far enough on to the property to see the carcass. The court affirmed the district court's denial of the defendants' motion to dismiss, but overruled its decision not to suppress the evidence from the search.*Bullock*, 75–76\n### *State v. Stietz*",
"{{Infobox court case\n\\|name \\= State v. Stietz\n\\|court \\= \\[\\[Wisconsin Supreme Court]]\n\\|full name \\= State v. Robert Joseph Stietz\n\\|date decided \\= {{start date\\|2017\\|06\\|13\\|df\\=us}}\n\\|citations \\= 895 \\[\\[North Western Reporter\\|N.W.2d]] 796, 375 Wis.2d 572, 2017 WI 58\n\\|judges \\= Abrahamson, Grassl Bradley, Kelly, Roggensack, Ziegler, Gableman \n\\|number of judges \\= 6\n\\|decision by \\= Abrahamson\n\\|concurring \\= Bradley, Kelly, Roggensack\n\\|dissenting \\= Ziegler, Gableman\n\\|prior actions \\= Criminal trial\n\\|appealed from \\= \\[\\[Wisconsin Court of Appeals]]\n\\|opinions \\= Trial court erred in not permitting self\\-defense jury instruction in prosecution of farmer for armed confrontation with DNR game wardens on his property where they could not and did not clearly identify themselves as wardens and could have been seen by him as trespassers. Appeals court reversed and remanded\n\\|keywords \\= {{hlist \\| search \\| seizure\\| self\\-defense \\| trespass }}\n\\|italic title \\= no\n}}\n{{cquote\\|... \\[I]mportant practical considerations suggest that the police should not be empowered to invade land closed to the public. In many parts of the country, landowners feel entitled to \\[\\[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution\\|use self\\-help]] in expelling trespassers from their posted property. There is thus a serious risk that police officers, making unannounced, warrantless searches of 'open fields,' will become involved in violent confrontations with irate landowners ...''\\[\\[Oliver v. United States]]'', {{ussc\\|466\\|170\\|195n19\\|1984}} \\[\\[Thurgood Marshall\\|Marshall]], J., dissenting}}\nThe scenario Justice [Marshall](/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall \"Thurgood Marshall\") feared in his Oliver *dissent came to pass in [Lafayette County, Wisconsin](/wiki/Lafayette_County%2C_Wisconsin \"Lafayette County, Wisconsin\"), in 2012\\. Near sunset on the last Sunday of November, the last day of the state's firearm [deer season](/wiki/Deer_hunting%23State_government_regulation \"Deer hunting#State government regulation\"), Robert Stietz, a cattle and mushroom farmer, went to patrol a detached {{convert\\|25\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} parcel of his land off [state Highway 81](/wiki/Wisconsin_Highway_81 \"Wisconsin Highway 81\") for illegal hunters and vandals, both of which he had had problems with in the past. He carried both his rifle and a pistol, and drove to the property in his wife's sedan since he did not expect to be bringing a deer carcass home. For the same reason, he wore camouflage and no [blaze orange](/wiki/Blaze_orange \"Blaze orange\").{{cite court\\|litigants\\=State v. Stietz\\|vol\\=895\\|reporter\\=\\[\\[North Western Reporter\\|N.W.2d]]\\|opinion\\=796\\|court\\=\\[\\[Wisconsin Supreme Court\\|Wisc.]]\\|date\\=2017\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=15612653012475974548\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2019}}*",
"At the same time, unbeknownst to Stietz, two game wardens with the state's [Department of Natural Resources](/wiki/Wisconsin_Department_of_Natural_Resources \"Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources\") were patrolling the area in their vehicle, looking for hunters who might be trying to take a deer after the official end of the season, [20 minutes after sunset](/wiki/Civil_twilight \"Civil twilight\"), which that day was 4:45 p.m. Just before 5, they found the sedan parked alongside the highway. In it they observed an open and empty gun case, a bottle of scent\\-killing spray and a camouflage [tree seat](/wiki/Tree_stand \"Tree stand\"), all of which led them to deduce that the occupant of the car was probably hunting. The car's registration came back to Stietz when they checked it on their vehicle's computer.\nThe wardens decided to investigate. They parked their pickup truck, put on their own blaze orange jackets, on which their departmental insignia was not as conspicuous as it had been on their uniform shirts, and found the open cattle gate leading on to Stietz's property. Shortly after they passed it, Stietz himself saw them and approached them, believing from the blaze orange jackets that they were possibly trespassing hunters.*Stietz*, 805–807\nAt trial, the wardens testified that they identified themselves as such upon seeing Stietz; he in turn said they did not do so clearly enough for him to hear and believed they were asking if he was a warden or had seen any. The wardens asked how many deer he had seen that day; after Stietz said he had seen seven does but was not at the time hunting, he testified that one of the men threw up his arms and seemed upset, which led him to further believe they might be trespassing.\nNoticing that the wardens seemed to be trying to interpose themselves between him and his car, Stietz said, he began to feel fearful. One asked him if his rifle was loaded; when Stietz confirmed that it was the other asked him for it, several times, leading Stietz to believe he was being attacked. The two wardens then attempted to take the rifle, leading to a physical struggle between them and Stietz. When they regained their feet, one of the wardens pulled his handgun and pointed it at Stietz, who in turn did the same, followed by the other warden.\nOne of the wardens made a radio call for backup, at which point Stietz said later that he began to realize who they really were and relax slightly. He kept his gun pointed at the wardens, he testified, because they refused to lower theirs. Eventually deputy sheriffs came and, after assuring Stietz he would not be \"gang tackled\", took him into custody.\nStietz faced six felony charges over the incident. At trial in March 2014, the jury convicted him of two: intentionally pointing a firearm at a law enforcement officer and resisting an officer with a dangerous weapon. His pretrial motions for [jury instructions](/wiki/Jury_instruction \"Jury instruction\") on [self\\-defense](/wiki/Right_of_self-defense \"Right of self-defense\"), trespass, and violation of his [right to keep and bear arms](/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms \"Right to keep and bear arms\") were denied, as were his post\\-trial motions for acquittal or a new trial.*Stietz*, 823–24\nIn May Stietz was sentenced to a year in prison and probation. The day of sentence, he filed his appeal, arguing the denial of his jury instructions constituted fatal error. In an unpublished 2016 [per curiam](/wiki/Per_curiam \"Per curiam\") *opinion, the [appeals court](/wiki/Wisconsin_Court_of_Appeals \"Wisconsin Court of Appeals\") upheld the conviction.*",
"Stietz appealed to the [Wisconsin Supreme Court](/wiki/Wisconsin_Supreme_Court \"Wisconsin Supreme Court\"). It accepted the case in late 2016 and heard oral arguments early the next year. In June 2017, by a 4–2 margin,{{efn\\|Justice \\[\\[Ann Walsh Bradley]] did not participate.''Stietz'' at 808}} the court held that the trial court's denial of Stietz's requested self\\-defense instruction had deprived him of a factual credible argument that the jury could have believed and reversed and [remanded](/wiki/Remand_%28court_procedure%29 \"Remand (court procedure)\") the appeals court.\nJustice [Shirley Abrahamson](/wiki/Shirley_Abrahamson \"Shirley Abrahamson\")'s majority opinion declined to address the proposed trespass instruction since she believed Stietz might well prevail on retrial with just the self\\-defense instruction. But the state had raised the open\\-fields doctrine in its briefs on the case, which led Justice [Rebecca Bradley](/wiki/Rebecca_Bradley \"Rebecca Bradley\") to write a [concurrence](/wiki/Concurring_opinion \"Concurring opinion\"), joined in its entirety by Justice [Daniel Kelly](/wiki/Daniel_Kelly_%28Wisconsin_judge%29 \"Daniel Kelly (Wisconsin judge)\") and partially by Chief Justice [Patience D. Roggensack](/wiki/Patience_D._Roggensack \"Patience D. Roggensack\"),*Stietz*, 814–16{{efn\\|Roggensack did not join Part II of Bradley's concurrence, which dealt with the open\\-fields doctrine.}} which argued that Stietz had a constitutional right to raise the trespass issue and that not allowing him to do so violated that right. She also was sharply critical of the open\\-fields doctrine as used to justify the evidence behind the arrest.\nIn her arguments that the trespass instruction should have been permitted, Bradley had noted that at oral argument the state was unable to cite any statutory authority for the wardens' presence on Stietz's property,{{efn\\|Wisconsin law permits wardens to enter private property without permission or reasonable suspicion only to collect animal carcasses and prevent the spread of disease, none were present or argued to be. The state also argued that the wardens were executing a \\[\\[Terry stop]], but those can only be constitutional on public land}} nor evidence that they had Stietz's permission. She did not believe the parked car constituted reasonable suspicion of illegal hunting that would have allowed them to enter the property, either. And he had put up clear signals—the posting, gating and fencing of the property—that no one was to come on that property without his permission.*Stietz*, 810–14\nIn the absence of those more specific justifications, the state had cited the open\\-fields doctrine as to how the wardens' uninvited presence on public land was legal. \"The state is wrong\", Bradley wrote. \"The open fields doctrine does not transform private fields into public places that anyone is free to enter uninvited or without reason. Nor does it convert the act of trespassing into a lawful intrusion.\" It existed, she asserted, only to prevent the suppression of evidence gathered by intrusions into the areas it covered, and could not be extended to justify Stietz's arrest. \"The open fields exception to the Fourth Amendment's warrant requirement was not intended to eliminate property owners' rights by sanctioning entry onto open land at any time for any reason, or no reason at all\", she reiterated, citing Bullock*,* Dixson*,* Johnson *and* Scott *in a footnote.*",
"Dissenting justice [Annette Ziegler](/wiki/Annette_Ziegler \"Annette Ziegler\") wrote for herself and [Michael Gableman](/wiki/Michael_Gableman \"Michael Gableman\"). She primarily took issue with the majority opinion, primarily arguing that the wardens did have reasonable suspicion and legal authority to enter the property. She touched on the open\\-field doctrine only to note that the appeals court had held it applicable, and Stietz had not raised it on his appeal to the Supreme Court.*Stietz* at 828\nFollowing the decision, [Assemblyman](/wiki/Wisconsin_State_Assembly \"Wisconsin State Assembly\") [Adam Jarchow](/wiki/Adam_Jarchow \"Adam Jarchow\") and [State Senator](/wiki/Wisconsin_State_Senate \"Wisconsin State Senate\") [Dave Craig](/wiki/Dave_Craig \"Dave Craig\") introduced a bill that would require that DNR wardens have reasonable suspicion of a law being broken before entering private property without the owner's consent. \"Preventing poaching is somehow so important we allow DNR incursions on private property for any reason under the sun or no reason at all\", Jarchow complained. \"\\[S]omething is seriously out of whack here.\"{{cite news\\|author\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]\\|title\\=Bill would restrict Wisconsin wardens on private property\\|url\\=https://www.outdoornews.com/2017/07/21/bill\\-restrict\\-wisconsin\\-wardens\\-private\\-property/\\|newspaper\\=Wisconsin Outdoor News\\|date\\=July 21, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=October 1, 2019}} It was vigorously opposed by [wildlife conservation](/wiki/Wildlife_conservation \"Wildlife conservation\") organizations such as the [League of Conservation Voters](/wiki/League_of_Conservation_Voters \"League of Conservation Voters\") and the state [Sierra Club](/wiki/Sierra_Club \"Sierra Club\") chapter, who feared that it would severely hamper the wardens' ability to do their jobs,{{cite news\\|last\\=Smith\\|first\\=Paul A.\\|title\\=Smith: Strong opposition to bill that would curtail warden authority\\|url\\=https://www.jsonline.com/story/sports/columnists/paul\\-smith/2017/07/19/smith\\-strong\\-opposition\\-bill\\-would\\-curtail\\-warden\\-authority/490231001/\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel]]\\|date\\=July 19, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=October 1, 2019}} and was never brought to a vote.{{cite web\\|title\\=Assembly Bill 411\\|url\\=https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/2017/proposals/ab411\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Wisconsin State Legislature]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 1, 2019}}\nIn his 2018 retrial, Stietz pleaded no contest to a single count of restricting or obstructing an officer and was sentenced to [time served](/wiki/Time_served \"Time served\"). He filed suit in 2019 against the two wardens alleging they violated his rights under the [Second](/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Second Amendment to the United States Constitution\") and Fourth amendments; it is currently pending in [federal court for the Western District of Wisconsin](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Western_District_of_Wisconsin \"United States District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Goldstein\\|first\\=Bennett\\|title\\=Gratiot man's lawsuit against Wisconsin DNR moves to federal court\\|url\\=https://www.telegraphherald.com/news/tri\\-state/article\\_ee1dbf04\\-fe72\\-5f1d\\-a0d0\\-66892aefa090\\.html\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Telegraph Herald]]\\|location\\=\\[\\[Dubuque, Iowa]]\\|date\\=February 4, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=October 1, 2019}}\nSee also\n--------",
"{{portal\\|Cannabis\\|Law\\|United States}}\n * [United States v. Burton](/wiki/United_States_v._Burton \"United States v. Burton\")*, 894 F.2d 188 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 857 (1990\\)*\n* [United States v. Pace](/wiki/United_States_v._Pace \"United States v. Pace\")*, 955 F.2d 270 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 502 U.S. 883 (1992\\)*\n* [Husband v. Bryan](/wiki/Husband_v._Bryan \"Husband v. Bryan\")*, 946 F.2d 27 (5th Cir. 1991\\)*\n* [United States v. Benish](/wiki/United_States_v._Benish \"United States v. Benish\")*, 5 F.3d 20 (3d Cir. 1993\\)*\n* [United States v. McKeever](/wiki/United_States_v._McKeever \"United States v. McKeever\")*, 5 F.3d 863 (5th Cir. 1993\\)*\n* [United States v. Brady](/wiki/United_States_v._Brady \"United States v. Brady\")*, 993 F.2d 177 (9th Cir. 1993\\)*\n* [United States v. Depew](/wiki/United_States_v._Depew \"United States v. Depew\")*, 8 F.3d 424 (9th Cir. 1993\\)*\n* [United States v. Reilly](/wiki/United_States_v._Reilly \"United States v. Reilly\")*, 76 F.3d 1271 (2d Cir. 1996\\)*\n* [Kyllo v. United States](/wiki/Kyllo_v._United_States \"Kyllo v. United States\")'', 533 U.S. 27 (2001\\)"
] |
Biography
---------
Vang was born to parents, Nhia Chou Moua and Yee Lee, on February 5, 1951, in the northern village of Phou Dou, [Laos](/wiki/Laos "Laos"), [French Indochina](/wiki/French_Indochina "French Indochina"). She was her family's fourth of thirteen children born in the small farming village. Her father discouraged her and other girls from attending school. However, she defied his wishes and enrolled at Sisawavong Medical University in [Vientiane](/wiki/Vientiane "Vientiane"). She completed her studies and became a [midwife](/wiki/Midwife "Midwife"), [nurse](/wiki/Nurse "Nurse"), and [physician assistant](/wiki/Physician_assistant "Physician assistant"). In 2013, the *[Fresno Bee](/wiki/Fresno_Bee "Fresno Bee")*, an American [newspaper](/wiki/Newspaper "Newspaper") in [California](/wiki/California "California"), called her a "pioneer for women in her home country of Laos" for receiving her education.
May Song first met her future husband, then military commander Vang Pao, while she was treating injured soldiers. She married Vang Pao in 1973, becoming his youngest wife. The couple moved to the United States following the 1975 [Communist takeover of Laos](/wiki/Communist_takeover_of_Laos "Communist takeover of Laos"). They initially moved to [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana") before ultimately settling in California. Vang Pao and May Song Vang were viewed by many Hmongs as leaders who helped them settle in the United States. May Song Vang was especially seen as a benevolent leader by the Hmong community of California's [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley "San Joaquin Valley"), a major center of Hmong American life. Though she resided in [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California "Orange County, California"), May Song Vang traveled to the San Joaquin Valley at least once or twice per month for more than twenty years to attend Hmong cultural and political events and other activities. She encouraged students to stay in school and attend [higher education](/wiki/Higher_education "Higher education"), using the motto "Education is the key to success."
General Vang Pao died from pneumonia on January 6, 2011\. As his widow, May Song Vang, already a leading figure in the community, took on a more prominent role in Hmong American affairs. She mediated and resolved disputes within the Hmong American community.
In 2012, she attended the official dedication of Vang Pao Elementary School in the southeast section of [Fresno, California](/wiki/Fresno%2C_California "Fresno, California"). May Song Vang had a major role in the establishment of the school, named in husband's honor. She led drive to obtain 20,000 signatures to build the [elementary school](/wiki/Elementary_school "Elementary school"). She was joined at the dedication ceremony by other local dignitaries, including Fresno Mayor [Ashley Swearengin](/wiki/Ashley_Swearengin "Ashley Swearengin").
May Song Vang also founded the General Vang Pao Foundation in 2012\. Based in Fresno, the foundation supports economical disadvantaged Hmong families.
May Song Vang died from cancer at the [UC Irvine Medical Center](/wiki/UC_Irvine_Medical_Center "UC Irvine Medical Center") in [Orange, California](/wiki/Orange%2C_California "Orange, California"), on August 5, 2013, at the age of 62\. She had first been diagnosed with cancer in 2005\. She was survived by her three sons \- Chu Long Vang, Chu Leng Vang and ChiNeng Vang \- and seven grandchildren. According to the *Asian American Press*, she also had fifteen stepsons and five additional stepdaughters due to her husband's other, multiple marriages.
A traditional Hmong funeral was held at the Fresno Fairgrounds from August 23 until August 26, 2013\. More than 25,000 people attended the three\-day funeral.{{cite news\|first\=Marc\|last\=Benjamin\|title\=May Song Vang's Fresno funeral expected to draw 25,000\|url\=http://www.fresnobee.com/2013/08/23/3457493/hmong\-leader\-may\-song\-vang\-honored.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130904020515/http://www.fresnobee.com/2013/08/23/3457493/hmong\-leader\-may\-song\-vang\-honored.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=2013\-09\-04\|work\=\[\[Fresno Bee]]\|date\=2013\-08\-23\|access\-date\=2013\-09\-03}} According to [Blong Xiong](/wiki/Blong_Xiong "Blong Xiong"), the President of the Fresno [city council](/wiki/City_council "City council"), May Song Vang was the last major Hmong figure from the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") era.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Vang was born to parents, Nhia Chou Moua and Yee Lee, on February 5, 1951, in the northern village of Phou Dou, [Laos](/wiki/Laos \"Laos\"), [French Indochina](/wiki/French_Indochina \"French Indochina\"). She was her family's fourth of thirteen children born in the small farming village. Her father discouraged her and other girls from attending school. However, she defied his wishes and enrolled at Sisawavong Medical University in [Vientiane](/wiki/Vientiane \"Vientiane\"). She completed her studies and became a [midwife](/wiki/Midwife \"Midwife\"), [nurse](/wiki/Nurse \"Nurse\"), and [physician assistant](/wiki/Physician_assistant \"Physician assistant\"). In 2013, the *[Fresno Bee](/wiki/Fresno_Bee \"Fresno Bee\")*, an American [newspaper](/wiki/Newspaper \"Newspaper\") in [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), called her a \"pioneer for women in her home country of Laos\" for receiving her education.",
"May Song first met her future husband, then military commander Vang Pao, while she was treating injured soldiers. She married Vang Pao in 1973, becoming his youngest wife. The couple moved to the United States following the 1975 [Communist takeover of Laos](/wiki/Communist_takeover_of_Laos \"Communist takeover of Laos\"). They initially moved to [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\") before ultimately settling in California. Vang Pao and May Song Vang were viewed by many Hmongs as leaders who helped them settle in the United States. May Song Vang was especially seen as a benevolent leader by the Hmong community of California's [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley \"San Joaquin Valley\"), a major center of Hmong American life. Though she resided in [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California \"Orange County, California\"), May Song Vang traveled to the San Joaquin Valley at least once or twice per month for more than twenty years to attend Hmong cultural and political events and other activities. She encouraged students to stay in school and attend [higher education](/wiki/Higher_education \"Higher education\"), using the motto \"Education is the key to success.\"",
"General Vang Pao died from pneumonia on January 6, 2011\\. As his widow, May Song Vang, already a leading figure in the community, took on a more prominent role in Hmong American affairs. She mediated and resolved disputes within the Hmong American community.",
"In 2012, she attended the official dedication of Vang Pao Elementary School in the southeast section of [Fresno, California](/wiki/Fresno%2C_California \"Fresno, California\"). May Song Vang had a major role in the establishment of the school, named in husband's honor. She led drive to obtain 20,000 signatures to build the [elementary school](/wiki/Elementary_school \"Elementary school\"). She was joined at the dedication ceremony by other local dignitaries, including Fresno Mayor [Ashley Swearengin](/wiki/Ashley_Swearengin \"Ashley Swearengin\").",
"May Song Vang also founded the General Vang Pao Foundation in 2012\\. Based in Fresno, the foundation supports economical disadvantaged Hmong families.",
"May Song Vang died from cancer at the [UC Irvine Medical Center](/wiki/UC_Irvine_Medical_Center \"UC Irvine Medical Center\") in [Orange, California](/wiki/Orange%2C_California \"Orange, California\"), on August 5, 2013, at the age of 62\\. She had first been diagnosed with cancer in 2005\\. She was survived by her three sons \\- Chu Long Vang, Chu Leng Vang and ChiNeng Vang \\- and seven grandchildren. According to the *Asian American Press*, she also had fifteen stepsons and five additional stepdaughters due to her husband's other, multiple marriages.",
"A traditional Hmong funeral was held at the Fresno Fairgrounds from August 23 until August 26, 2013\\. More than 25,000 people attended the three\\-day funeral.{{cite news\\|first\\=Marc\\|last\\=Benjamin\\|title\\=May Song Vang's Fresno funeral expected to draw 25,000\\|url\\=http://www.fresnobee.com/2013/08/23/3457493/hmong\\-leader\\-may\\-song\\-vang\\-honored.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130904020515/http://www.fresnobee.com/2013/08/23/3457493/hmong\\-leader\\-may\\-song\\-vang\\-honored.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-04\\|work\\=\\[\\[Fresno Bee]]\\|date\\=2013\\-08\\-23\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-03}} According to [Blong Xiong](/wiki/Blong_Xiong \"Blong Xiong\"), the President of the Fresno [city council](/wiki/City_council \"City council\"), May Song Vang was the last major Hmong figure from the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") era.",
""
] |
TV adaptation
-------------
### Overview
[thumb\|right\|upright\|[Kit Harington](/wiki/Kit_Harington "Kit Harington") plays the role of Jon Snow in the [television series](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones "Game of Thrones").](/wiki/File:Kit_Harington_SDCC_2013_%28cropped%29.jpg "Kit Harington SDCC 2013 (cropped).jpg")
Martin told *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone "Rolling Stone")* in 2014 that some early inquiries he received about adapting *A Song of Ice and Fire* suggested identifying the story's "important character" and focusing on that individual plot line, Jon and [Daenerys Targaryen](/wiki/Daenerys_Targaryen "Daenerys Targaryen") being the two most popular choices.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/news/george\-r\-r\-martin\-the\-rolling\-stone\-interview\-20140423? \|title\=George R.R. Martin: The ''Rolling Stone'' Interview \|first\=Mikal \|last\=Gilmore \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]] \|date\=April 23, 2014 \|access\-date\=August 4, 2014 \|archive\-date\=August 8, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808114707/http://www.rollingstone.com/tv/news/george\-r\-r\-martin\-the\-rolling\-stone\-interview\-20140423 \|url\-status\=live }} Martin was not interested in sacrificing so much of the overall story. When the [pilot](/wiki/Television_pilot "Television pilot") for the [HBO](/wiki/HBO "HBO") adaptation went into production years later, one of the first parts cast was Jon, with [Kit Harington](/wiki/Kit_Harington "Kit Harington") announced in the role in July 2009\.{{cite news \|last\=Kit \|first\=Borysm \|author2\=Andreeva, Nellie \|title\=Sean Bean to ascend to ''Thrones'' \|work\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \|date\=July 19, 2009 \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sean\-bean\-ascend\-thrones\-86666 \|access\-date\=August 14, 2014 \|archive\-date\=August 7, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807154616/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sean\-bean\-ascend\-thrones\-86666 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web\|last\=Martin \|first\=George R.R. \|title\=Not A Blog: A Casting We Will Go \|publisher\=GRRM.livejournal.com \|date\=July 19, 2009 \|access\-date\=July 20, 2009 \|url\=http://grrm.livejournal.com/95840\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091227183837/http://grrm.livejournal.com/95840\.html \|archive\-date\=December 27, 2009 }} [Alfie Allen](/wiki/Alfie_Allen "Alfie Allen") and [Iwan Rheon](/wiki/Iwan_Rheon "Iwan Rheon") had also auditioned for the role, and were brought into the show to play [Theon Greyjoy](/wiki/Theon_Greyjoy "Theon Greyjoy") and [Ramsay Snow](/wiki/Ramsay_Bolton "Ramsay Bolton") instead, respectively.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/game\-of\-thrones/39270/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-what\-we\-learned\-from\-the\-blu\-rays\|title\=''Game of Thrones'' season 5: what we learned from the Blu\-rays\|first\=Louisa\|last\=Mellor\|work\=\[\[Den of Geek]]\|date\=March 11, 2016\|access\-date\=July 24, 2017\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023073621/http://www.denofgeek.com/tv/game\-of\-thrones/39270/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-what\-we\-learned\-from\-the\-blu\-rays\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/24/arts/television/ramsay\-bolton\-of\-game\-of\-thrones\-is\-the\-most\-hated\-man\-on\-tv.html \|title\=Ramsay Bolton of ''Game of Thrones'' Is the Most Hated Man on TV \|work\=The New York Times \|first\=Jeremy \|last\=Egner \|date\=April 20, 2016 \|access\-date\=May 11, 2016 \|archive\-date\=January 26, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126224650/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/24/arts/television/ramsay\-bolton\-of\-game\-of\-thrones\-is\-the\-most\-hated\-man\-on\-tv.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/iwan\-rheon/ \|title\=Culture: Iwan Rheon \|work\=\[\[Interview (magazine)\|Interview]] \|first\=Emma \|last\=Brown \|date\=April 20, 2016 \|access\-date\=May 11, 2016 \|archive\-date\=November 26, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126035553/https://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/iwan\-rheon \|url\-status\=live }} In October 2014, Harington and several other key cast members, all contracted for six seasons of the series, renegotiated their deals to include a potential seventh season and salary increases for seasons five, six, and seven.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/game\-thrones\-cast\-signs\-season\-744314 \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Cast Signs for Season 7 with Big Raises \|work\=The Hollywood Reporter \|first1\=Matthew \|last1\=Belloni \|first2\=Lesley \|last2\=Goldberg \|date\=October 30, 2014 \|access\-date\=July 20, 2016 \|archive\-date\=October 27, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232711/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/game\-thrones\-cast\-signs\-season\-744314 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://deadline.com/2014/10/game\-of\-thrones\-cast\-salary\-raises\-season\-7\-1201268049/ \|title\=''Game Of Thrones'' Stars Score Big Raises \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]] \|last\=Andreeva \|first\=Nellie \|date\=October 30, 2014 \|access\-date\=July 20, 2016 \|archive\-date\=December 21, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221085038/http://deadline.com/2014/10/game\-of\-thrones\-cast\-salary\-raises\-season\-7\-1201268049/ \|url\-status\=live }} *[The Hollywood Reporter](/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter "The Hollywood Reporter")* called the raises "huge", noting that the deal would make the performers "among the highest\-paid actors on cable TV". *[Deadline Hollywood](/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood "Deadline Hollywood")* put the number for season five at "close to $300,000 an episode" for each actor, and *The Hollywood Reporter* wrote in June 2016 that the performers would each be paid "upward of $500,000 per episode" for seasons seven and the potential eight.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/game\-thrones\-stars\-score\-hefty\-905288 \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Stars Score Hefty Pay Raises for Season 8 \|work\=The Hollywood Reporter \|first\=Lesley \|last\=Goldberg \|date\=June 21, 2016 \|access\-date\=July 20, 2016 \|archive\-date\=January 17, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117013249/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/game\-thrones\-stars\-score\-hefty\-905288 \|url\-status\=live }} In 2017, Harington became one of the [highest paid actors on television](/wiki/List_of_highest_paid_American_television_stars "List of highest paid American television stars") and may have earned £1\.2 million per episode for the show.{{cite web\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425052433/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/tv/news/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-7\-actors\-salary\-net\-worth\-pay\-million\-hbo\-per\-episode\-a7700506\.html \|archive\-date\=April 25, 2017\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/tv/news/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-7\-actors\-salary\-net\-worth\-pay\-million\-hbo\-per\-episode\-a7700506\.html\|title\=Game of Thrones season 7: Actors 'set to earn £2million per episode', making them highest\-paid ever\|work\=\[\[The Independent]]\|last\=Hooton\|first\=Christopher\|date\=April 25, 2017\|access\-date\=April 25, 2017\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|last\=Abrahams \|first\=Luke \|date\=2019\-10\-30 \|title\=How much did Game of Thrones stars get paid for the final season? \|url\=https://www.standard.co.uk/insider/celebrity/game\-of\-thrones\-salary\-how\-much\-cast\-make\-paer\-episode\-a4117871\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-12 \|website\=Evening Standard \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-02\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212122714/https://www.standard.co.uk/insider/celebrity/game\-of\-thrones\-salary\-how\-much\-cast\-make\-paer\-episode\-a4117871\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
[thumb\|left\|The costumes of [Ygritte](/wiki/Ygritte "Ygritte"), Jon Snow, and [Tormund Giantsbane](/wiki/Tormund_Giantsbane "Tormund Giantsbane") in the show](/wiki/File:Game_of_Thrones_Oslo_exhibition_2014_-_Ygritte%2C_Jon_and_Tormund_costumes.jpg "Game of Thrones Oslo exhibition 2014 - Ygritte, Jon and Tormund costumes.jpg")
As the series premiered, *[TV Guide](/wiki/TV_Guide "TV Guide")* called Harington a "soulful heartthrob" whose Jon is idolized by his younger siblings and who "seeks purpose" by joining the Night's Watch.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/News/Roush\-Review\-Thrones\-1031879\.aspx \|title\=Roush Review: Grim ''Thrones'' Is a Crowning Achievement \|first\=Matt \|last\=Roush \|work\=\[\[TV Guide]] \|date\=April 15, 2011 \|access\-date\=July 11, 2014 \|archive\-date\=November 12, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112191600/http://www.tvguide.com/News/Roush\-Review\-Thrones\-1031879\.aspx \|url\-status\=live }} Creators [David Benioff](/wiki/David_Benioff "David Benioff") and [D. B. Weiss](/wiki/D._B._Weiss "D. B. Weiss") later noted that Jon "tries to live with honor, while knowing that honor often gets his family members murdered". They explained that he is one of several characters in the series who must "face hard truths about the world they live in, and adapt themselves to those truths. The struggle many of them face is how to do that without losing their grip on who they are." Matt Fowler of [IGN](/wiki/IGN "IGN") wrote in 2013 that while Jon and Daenerys' storylines in [season 1](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_1 "Game of Thrones season 1") and [season 2](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_2 "Game of Thrones season 2") "felt very separate" from the rest of the series' plot, for the first time in [season 3](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_3 "Game of Thrones season 3"), "Jon's entire situation felt incorporated into the larger picture."{{cite web\|url\=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/06/17/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-3\-review\|title\=''Game of Thrones'': Season 3 Review\|last\=Fowler\|first\=Matt\|website\=\[\[IGN]]\|date\=June 17, 2013\|access\-date\=August 5, 2014\|archive\-date\=June 24, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130624221421/http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/06/17/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-3\-review\|url\-status\=live}} Fowler also added that Jon's "oath\-breaking romance with Ygritte added a lot of heat to the story". In May 2015, *[International Business Times](/wiki/International_Business_Times "International Business Times")* called Jon "clearly the most popular character" of the series.{{cite web \|title\=Who is Kit Harington? 5 lesser\-known facts about ''Game Of Thrones'' star Jon Snow \|url\=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/who\-kit\-harington\-5\-lesser\-known\-facts\-about\-game\-thrones\-star\-jon\-snow\-1561376 \|work\=\[\[International Business Times]] \|first\=Sutrishna \|last\=Ghosh \|date\=May 22, 2016 \|access\-date\=August 23, 2016 \|archive\-date\=December 1, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201081549/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/who\-kit\-harington\-5\-lesser\-known\-facts\-about\-game\-thrones\-star\-jon\-snow\-1561376 \|url\-status\=live }}
In a 2015 interview Benioff said, "The problem with Jon is, he’s not a cautious man. It's the problem with him, and also the reason we love him. He is a hero, but heroes are inherently incautious."{{cite AV media \|url\=http://www.hbo.com/game\-of\-thrones/episodes/5/50\-mothers\-mercy/video/ep\-50\-inside\-the\-episode.html? \|title\=Ep. 50: Inside The Episode \|type\=Video \|first1\=David \|last1\=Benioff \|author\-link1\=David Benioff \|first2\=D. B. \|last2\=Weiss \|author\-link2\=D. B. Weiss \|publisher\=\[\[HBO]] \|date\=June 14, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 16, 2015 \|archive\-date\=June 20, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620014224/http://www.hbo.com/game\-of\-thrones/episodes/5/50\-mothers\-mercy/video/ep\-50\-inside\-the\-episode.html \|url\-status\=live }} Weiss added, "At the end of the day, Jon is his father’s son, he’s a person who’s honorable to a fault and does the right thing even when the right thing is extremely dangerous to him personally." In the June 2015 [season 5](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_5 "Game of Thrones season 5") finale "[Mother's Mercy](/wiki/Mother%27s_Mercy "Mother's Mercy")", Jon is stabbed to death by [Alliser Thorne](/wiki/Alliser_Thorne "Alliser Thorne") and several men of the Night's Watch after being labeled a traitor. With Martin's 2011 novel *A Dance with Dragons* vague on Jon's fate, Harington confirmed the character's death in an interview with *Entertainment Weekly*, saying "I've been told I’m dead. I'm dead. I’m not coming back next season."{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.ew.com/article/2015/06/14/game\-thrones\-jon\-dies\-interview\|title\=''Game of Thrones'' star on that shocking death: 'I'm not coming back'\|magazine\=Entertainment Weekly\|first\=James\|last\=Hibberd\|date\=June 14, 2015\|access\-date\=June 15, 2015\|archive\-date\=June 15, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615081223/http://www.ew.com/article/2015/06/14/game\-thrones\-jon\-dies\-interview\|url\-status\=live}} He added, "I loved how they brought \[the orphan boy] Olly in to be the person who kills me. I love how the storyline with Thorne was wrapped up." Benioff also said of the episode:
{{Blockquote\|This is obviously a big deal, the death of Jon Snow. This is something we've been thinking about for a long long time, and Alliser kills him, it's kind of like, it's a bad guy killing a good guy. But when it's Olly holding the knife … Olly's not a bad guy. Olly's a kid who’s seen just way too much horror way too early, and he makes a decision that's a really hard decision for him but you understand where he's coming from ... It's one of those great conflicts that makes us love the books and this saga, is that it's, ultimately it's not just about good vs evil, it's about people of good intentions who come into conflict with each other because they have very different views of the world, and unfortunately it did not work out well for Jon Snow in this case.}}
Writing for *The New York Times*, Jeremy Egner called Jon's demise "the biggest death on the show" since Ned Stark's beheading in season 1\.{{cite web \|url\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com//2015/06/14/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-finale\-jon\-snow/ \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Finale Recap: Shocking Deaths and a Walk of Shame \|work\=The New York Times \|first\=Jeremy \|last\=Egner \|date\=June 14, 2015 \|access\-date\=August 23, 2016 \|archive\-date\=November 27, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171127082204/https://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/14/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-finale\-jon\-snow/ \|url\-status\=live }} Amid strong fan reaction over Jon's death on [social media](/wiki/Social_media "Social media"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.businessinsider.com/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-finale\-ending\-2015\-6 \|title\=Fans are freaking out over the ''Game of Thrones'' cliffhanger finale \|work\=Business Insider \|first\=Kirsten \|last\=Acuna \|date\=June 15, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 18, 2015 \|archive\-date\=December 1, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201131443/http://www.businessinsider.com/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-finale\-ending\-2015\-6 \|url\-status\=live }} immediately following the episode journalists began theorizing how the show could resurrect the character.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.businessinsider.com/game\-of\-thrones\-is\-jon\-snow\-dead\-or\-alive\-2015\-6 \|title\=What the devastating ''Game of Thrones'' finale means for next season \|work\=Business Insider \|first\=Kim \|last\=Renfro \|date\=June 14, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 18, 2015 \|archive\-date\=December 1, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201131750/http://www.businessinsider.com/game\-of\-thrones\-is\-jon\-snow\-dead\-or\-alive\-2015\-6 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tor.com/2015/06/15/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-episode\-10\-mothers\-mercy/? \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Season 5, Episode 10: 'Mother's Mercy' \|work\=\[\[Tor.com]] \|first\=Theresa \|last\=DeLucci \|date\=June 15, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 18, 2015 \|archive\-date\=June 17, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617164837/http://www.tor.com/2015/06/15/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-episode\-10\-mothers\-mercy/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/jon\-snow\-alive\-game\-of\-thrones\-comic\-con \|title\=Update: New ''Game of Thrones'' Information Adds Fuel to the 'Jon Snow Lives' Conspiracy \|first\=Joanna \|last\=Robinson \|magazine\=Vanity Fair \|date\=June 23, 2015 \|access\-date\=July 22, 2015 \|archive\-date\=December 23, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223014553/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/jon\-snow\-alive\-game\-of\-thrones\-comic\-con \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/jon\-snow\-dead\-game\-of\-thrones\-azor\-ahai\-melisandre\-warg \|title\=''Game of Thrones'': Is This Really the Last We'll See of Jon Snow? \|magazine\=Vanity Fair \|last\=Robinson \|first\=Joanna \|date\=June 14, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 19, 2015 \|archive\-date\=July 22, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722114132/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/jon\-snow\-dead\-game\-of\-thrones\-azor\-ahai\-melisandre\-warg \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2015/06/15/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-episode\-10\-review\-mothers\-mercy/ \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Season 5, Episode 10 Review: 'Mother's Mercy' \|last\=Kain \|first\=Eric \|work\=Forbes \|date\=June 15, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 21, 2015 \|archive\-date\=December 1, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201132545/https://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2015/06/15/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-5\-episode\-10\-review\-mothers\-mercy/ \|url\-status\=live }} Nate Jones of *[Vulture](/wiki/Vulture_%28website%29 "Vulture (website)")* noted:
{{Blockquote\|It's easy to see what \[other characters'] deaths meant for the series' sprawling narrative: Ned's execution sent the Stark kids adrift in a universe where there was nobody looking out for them, while Robb's murder was the final death knell for the hopes that the saga would ever have a traditional 'happy' ending. What would be accomplished, narratively, by getting rid of Jon permanently right now?{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vulture.com/2015/06/jon\-snow\-theories\-game\-of\-thrones.html \|title\=Why the Latest ''Game of Thrones'' Death Might Not Be Like the Others \|website\=Vulture.com \|last\=Jones \|first\=Nate \|date\=June 14, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 19, 2015 \|archive\-date\=June 18, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618115845/http://www.vulture.com/2015/06/jon\-snow\-theories\-game\-of\-thrones.html \|url\-status\=live }}}}
A July 2015 sighting of Harington arriving in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), a primary filming location for the series where other actors were arriving for [season 6](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_6 "Game of Thrones season 6") script read\-throughs, prompted further speculation about the character's return.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/07/kit\-harington\-belfast\-jon\-snow\-season\-6\-game\-of\-thrones? \|title\=Finally, Photographic Evidence that Kit Harington Has Joined the Cast of ''Game of Thrones'' in Belfast \|first\=Joanna \|last\=Robinson \|magazine\=Vanity Fair \|date\=July 21, 2015 \|access\-date\=July 22, 2015 \|archive\-date\=July 22, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722204601/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/07/kit\-harington\-belfast\-jon\-snow\-season\-6\-game\-of\-thrones \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/07/20/game\-of\-thrones\-spoiler\-kit\-harington\-spotted\_n\_7832792\.html \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Spoiler: Is Kit Harington's Jon Snow Alive? Actor 'Spotted Close to Set in Belfast'... \|first\=Rachel \|last\=McGrath \|work\=\[\[The Huffington Post]] \|date\=July 20, 2015 \|access\-date\=July 22, 2015 \|archive\-date\=July 3, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703210806/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/07/20/game\-of\-thrones\-spoiler\-kit\-harington\-spotted\_n\_7832792\.html \|url\-status\=live }} However, a story in *[Vanity Fair](/wiki/Vanity_Fair_%28magazine%29 "Vanity Fair (magazine)")* pointed out that [Charles Dance](/wiki/Charles_Dance "Charles Dance") had been seen in Belfast the previous year after his character [Tywin Lannister](/wiki/Tywin_Lannister "Tywin Lannister")'s death as well, and he only appeared in the first episode of the subsequent season as a corpse.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mtv.co.uk/news/nzba12/charles\-dance\-teases\-game\-of\-thrones\-return \|title\=Charles Dance Reveals ''Game of Thrones'' Return \|publisher\=\[\[MTV News UK]] \|date\=September 19, 2014 \|access\-date\=August 12, 2015 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103826/http://www.mtv.co.uk/game\-of\-thrones/news/charles\-dance\-teases\-game\-of\-thrones\-return \|archive\-date\=September 25, 2015 }} A season 6 *Game of Thrones* promotional poster released in November 2015 featured a bloodied Jon.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/11/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-6\-jon\-snow \|title\=The First Official Look at ''Game of Thrones'' Season 6 Is All About Jon Snow \|magazine\=Vanity Fair \|first\=Katey \|last\=Rich \|date\=November 23, 2015 \|access\-date\=December 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 24, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124151059/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/11/game\-of\-thrones\-season\-6\-jon\-snow \|url\-status\=live }}
Jon is resurrected by Melisandre in "[Home](/wiki/Home_%28Game_of_Thrones%29 "Home (Game of Thrones)")", the May 2016 second episode of season 6\.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.ew.com/article/2016/05/01/game\-thrones\-jon\-snow\-harington\-alive \|title\=''Game of Thrones'': Kit Harington breaks his silence \|magazine\=Entertainment Weekly \|first\=James \|last\=Hibberd \|date\=May 1, 2016 \|access\-date\=May 2, 2016 \|archive\-date\=August 17, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817123724/http://www.ew.com/article/2016/05/01/game\-thrones\-jon\-snow\-harington\-alive \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/02/arts/television/game\-of\-thrones\-jon\-snow\-review.html?\_r\=0 \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Season 6, Episode 2: Jon Snow, Dragons and Ramsay's Dogs \|work\=The New York Times \|access\-date\=May 4, 2016 \|date\=May 1, 2016 \|last\=Egner \|first\=Jeremy \|archive\-date\=May 5, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505225352/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/02/arts/television/game\-of\-thrones\-jon\-snow\-review.html?\_r\=0 \|url\-status\=live }} Though calling it a "predictable move" for a television series, David Sims of *[The Atlantic](/wiki/The_Atlantic "The Atlantic")* praised the plot development as "the right choice" for the show's narrative.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/05/game\-of\-thrones\-isnt\-the\-first\-show\-to\-cheat\-death/480957/ \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' and Television's Long History of Cheating Death \|first\=David \|last\=Sims \|work\=The Atlantic \|date\=May 3, 2016 \|access\-date\=August 23, 2016 \|archive\-date\=August 8, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808014725/http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/05/game\-of\-thrones\-isnt\-the\-first\-show\-to\-cheat\-death/480957/ \|url\-status\=live }} In a subsequent interview with *Entertainment Weekly*, Harington said:
{{Blockquote\|I'd like to say sorry for lying to everyone. I'm glad that people were upset that he died. I think my biggest fear was that people were not going to care ... But it seems like people had a, similar to the \[\[The Rains of Castamere\|Red Wedding episode]], kind of grief about it. Which means something I'm doing—or the show is doing—is right.}}
Joanna Robinson of *Vanity Fair* credited Jon's much\-discussed cliffhanger death as a primary factor behind *Game of Thrones*{{'}} subsequent 25% ratings increase for season 6\.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/07/game\-of\-thrones\-most\-popular\-show\-ratings \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Is Even More Insanely Popular than You Think \|first\=Joanna \|last\=Robinson \|magazine\=Vanity Fair \|date\=July 19, 2016 \|access\-date\=August 23, 2016 \|archive\-date\=July 13, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713104709/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/07/game\-of\-thrones\-most\-popular\-show\-ratings \|url\-status\=live }} Harington's performance in season 6 earned the actor his first [Primetime Emmy Award](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award "Primetime Emmy Award") nomination in July 2016\.{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/2016/tv/awards/game\-of\-thrones\-2016\-emmys\-nominations\-1201814023/ \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Rules 2016 Emmy Race With 23 Nominations \|work\=Variety \|first\=Laura \|last\=Prudom \|date\=July 14, 2016 \|access\-date\=August 9, 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830110843/http://variety.com/2016/tv/awards/game\-of\-thrones\-2016\-emmys\-nominations\-1201814023/ \|archive\-date\=August 30, 2016 }} Harington as Jon had the most screen time of any other character in the first seven seasons of the show.{{cite web \|url\=https://qz.com/1065792/game\-of\-thrones\-every\-character\-ranked\-by\-screen\-time\-through\-season\-7/ \|title\=Someone clocked every second of ''Game of Thrones'' and ranked each character by screen time \|last\=Epstein \|first\=Adam \|date\=August 30, 2017 \|website\=\[\[Quartz (publication)\|Quartz]] \|access\-date\=September 13, 2018 \|archive\-date\=November 11, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214234/https://qz.com/1065792/game\-of\-thrones\-every\-character\-ranked\-by\-screen\-time\-through\-season\-7/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.inverse.com/article/35991\-game\-of\-thrones\-characters\-ranked\-screen\-time\-jon\-snow\-tyrion\-lannister \|title\=''Game of Thrones'' Officially Has a New Main Character \|last\=Grebey \|first\=James \|date\=August 29, 2017 \|website\=\[\[Inverse (website)\|Inverse]] \|access\-date\=September 13, 2018 \|archive\-date\=October 23, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023002223/https://www.inverse.com/article/35991\-game\-of\-thrones\-characters\-ranked\-screen\-time\-jon\-snow\-tyrion\-lannister \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web\|url\=https://winteriscoming.net/2017/10/19/chart\-screentime\-game\-of\-thrones\-top\-100\-characters/\|title\=Track the screentime of the Top 100 characters on ''Game of Thrones''\|last\=Tracy\|first\=Molly Kate\|date\=October 19, 2017\|website\=Winter is Coming\|access\-date\=September 13, 2018\|archive\-date\=November 12, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031351/https://winteriscoming.net/2017/10/19/chart\-screentime\-game\-of\-thrones\-top\-100\-characters/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Storylines
#### Season 1
Jon Snow, the bastard son of [Eddard Stark](/wiki/Eddard_Stark "Eddard Stark"), Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, decides to join the [Night's Watch](/wiki/Night%27s_Watch "Night's Watch"). He arrives at Castle Black with his direwolf Ghost to find that the once proud order is a shadow of its former self. Raised to be a skilled fighter with a strong sense of justice and honor, Jon is initially contemptuous of his fellow recruits, most of whom are lowborn criminals and exiles. He is persuaded by [Tyrion Lannister](/wiki/Tyrion_Lannister "Tyrion Lannister") to put aside his prejudices and help train the others. Jon befriends [Samwell Tarly](/wiki/Samwell_Tarly "Samwell Tarly"), an overweight, fearful recruit who is more an intellectual than a fighter. Jon takes his vows but is disappointed about being made steward to Lord Commander [Jeor Mormont](/wiki/Jeor_Mormont "Jeor Mormont") rather than a ranger. Sam points out that Jon is likely being groomed for future command. Jon saves Mormont from a wight and is given the House Mormont ancestral sword Longclaw, made of Valyrian steel, with a wolf's head pommel custom\-made for Jon. Jon learns of his father's execution for apparent treason and, although tempted to leave the Wall to join [Robb Stark](/wiki/Robb_Stark "Robb Stark")'s army, is convinced to stay.
#### Season 2
Jon accompanies the Night's Watch on the Great Ranging beyond the Wall. When the Night's Watch seek shelter from the wildling [Craster](/wiki/Craster_%28character%29 "Craster (character)"), an old man who marries his own daughters, Jon is horrified to discover that Craster sacrifices his sons to the [White Walkers](/wiki/White_Walkers "White Walkers"). Later, as part of a small scouting party led by legendary Night's Watch ranger [Qhorin Halfhand](/wiki/Qhorin_Halfhand "Qhorin Halfhand"), Jon is tasked with killing a wildling prisoner, a woman warrior [Ygritte](/wiki/Ygritte "Ygritte"). He finds himself unable to do so and she escapes, only to capture him with her comrades. Qhorin, also taken prisoner, orders Jon to pretend to defect and join the wildlings in order to discover their plans. Qhorin stages a fight and secretly instructs Jon to kill him to gain the wildlings' trust. Jon does and is taken to meet former Night's Watch ranger [Mance Rayder](/wiki/Mance_Rayder "Mance Rayder"), the wildlings' King\-Beyond\-the Wall.
#### Season 3
Jon pledges his loyalty to Mance and travels with the wildlings, learning that they intend to scale the Wall and force their way south to escape the inevitable arrival of the White Walker army. Jon attempts to convince Mance not to attack the wall, falsely claiming Castle Black is home to over 1,000 Watchmen. Ygritte seduces Jon and takes his virginity, and they eventually fall in love. After scaling the Wall, Jon refuses to kill an innocent man to prove his loyalty. He is attacked by the other wildlings but escapes to Castle Black, despite being wounded by a devastated Ygritte.
#### Season 4
Jon survives his wounds and is tried for his defection to the wildlings, but [Maester Aemon](/wiki/Maester_Aemon "Maester Aemon") is convinced of Jon's loyalty to the Watch and frees him. Jon leads an expedition to Craster's Keep, where some Night's Watchmen have mutinied and murdered Lord Commander Mormont. After defeating the mutineers, Jon is reunited with Ghost. Later, [Tormund Giantsbane](/wiki/Tormund_Giantsbane "Tormund Giantsbane")'s wildlings attack Castle Black while Mance's army besieges the Wall. Acting\-commander, Ser [Alliser Thorne](/wiki/Alliser_Thorne "Alliser Thorne"), is wounded forcing Jon to take command of the battle. Jon fights and kills Styr, leader of the Thenns. The wildlings are successfully repelled, although Ygritte is shot with an arrow and dies in Jon's arms. Jon goes beyond the Wall to negotiate with Mance, but [Stannis Baratheon](/wiki/Stannis_Baratheon "Stannis Baratheon")'s army arrives and routs the wildling camp, taking Mance prisoner. At Tormund's behest, Jon cremates Ygritte beyond the Wall.
#### Season 5
Stannis enlists Jon as an intermediary between himself and Mance, hoping to add the wildling army to his own. Mance refuses to kneel to Stannis, and he is subsequently burned at the stake by the red priestess [Melisandre](/wiki/Melisandre "Melisandre"). Jon shoots Mance with an arrow before he succumbs to the fire. Stannis, who intends to take Winterfell from the traitorous [House Bolton](/wiki/House_Bolton "House Bolton"), offers to legitimize Jon as a Stark and name him Lord of Winterfell in exchange for his support, but Jon remains loyal to his vows.
As the Watch prepares to elect a new Lord Commander, Sam advocates for Jon who is unexpectedly elected as the new Lord Commander of the Night's Watch, initially tying with his nemesis Thorne before the tie is broken by Maester Aemon's vote. Jon's intention to bring the wildlings into the Seven Kingdoms and grant them lands south of the Wall further enrages Thorne's faction of the Watch, who all hold a hatred for the wildlings. Jon travels to the wildling village of Hardhome, seeking their support for his plan to ally the Night's Watch and the wildlings against the growing threat of the White Walkers. Several thousand agree to come with Jon, but the rest are massacred when the White Walkers attack the village, although Jon discovers their vulnerability to Valyrian steel when he destroys one with Longclaw. Jon returns to the Wall, where he learns that Stannis has been defeated by the Boltons. Later, he is lured into a trap by his steward Olly and is killed by Thorne and his men. They assassinate Jon for his perceived betrayal of the Night's Watch.
#### Season 6
[Davos Seaworth](/wiki/Davos_Seaworth "Davos Seaworth") finds Jon's body. He, [Dolorous Edd](/wiki/Dolorous_Edd "Dolorous Edd"), and other brothers of the Watch loyal to Jon barricade themselves in a room with Ghost, and an attack by Thorne and his men is thwarted by the arrival of Tormund and his wildlings. Davos encourages Melisandre to attempt to resurrect Jon. The ritual seemingly fails but Jon suddenly awakens. After hanging Thorne and the other ringleaders of his assassination, Jon declares that he has been released from his Night's Watch vows by death, and passes command to Edd. He makes plans to leave Castle Black. Jon is reunited with his half\-sister [Sansa Stark](/wiki/Sansa_Stark "Sansa Stark"), who has fled her abusive husband [Ramsay Bolton](/wiki/Ramsay_Bolton "Ramsay Bolton") and seeks Jon's aid in retaking Winterfell. Jon refuses until a threatening message arrives from Ramsay demanding Sansa's return and announcing Ramsay's possession of their brother [Rickon](/wiki/Rickon_Stark "Rickon Stark"). Jon, Sansa, Davos, and Tormund travel the North to recruit an army to take back Winterfell and rescue Rickon, but many houses refuse to support them. Jon convinces the wildlings to fight with him. As the armies assemble, Ramsay kills Rickon in order to provoke Jon and lure the Stark forces out of position. The ploy works and the outnumbered Stark forces are surrounded and nearly slaughtered, but the Knights of the Vale of [House Arryn](/wiki/House_Arryn "House Arryn") arrive with Sansa and [Petyr Baelish](/wiki/Petyr_Baelish "Petyr Baelish") and rout the Bolton army. Jon pursues Ramsay back into Winterfell and subdues him, but allows Sansa to decide his death. Jon gathers the lords of the North and warns them of the threat of the White Walkers. The Northern lords declare Jon the new King in the North.
Meanwhile, [Bran Stark](/wiki/Bran_Stark "Bran Stark") has a vision of the past which shows Ned reuniting with his dying sister [Lyanna Stark](/wiki/Lyanna_Stark "Lyanna Stark") in the Tower of Joy. She makes him swear to protect her son with [Rhaegar Targaryen](/wiki/Rhaegar_Targaryen "Rhaegar Targaryen"), who is revealed to be Jon.
#### Season 7
Jon prepares the North's defense against the White Walkers. He receives a message from [Cersei Lannister](/wiki/Cersei_Lannister "Cersei Lannister") that he swear his allegiance to her, as well as an invitation to [Dragonstone](/wiki/Dragonstone_%28A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire%29 "Dragonstone (A Song of Ice and Fire)") from [Daenerys Targaryen](/wiki/Daenerys_Targaryen "Daenerys Targaryen")'s Hand Tyrion. In a message from Sam, Jon learns Dragonstone has a deposit of dragonglass, to which the White Walkers and wights are vulnerable. He decides to meet with Daenerys. Daenerys wants Jon to bend the knee but Jon refuses, insisting that the White Walkers are a threat to all of humanity. Tyrion persuades Daenerys to let Jon mine dragonglass as a gesture of goodwill. Jon discovers cave drawings of the First Men and the Children of the Forest fighting the White Walkers and invites Daenerys to view them. As part of the plan to convince Cersei that the army of the dead is real, Jon leads an expedition beyond the Wall to capture a wight to provide proof of it. During the mission, when Jon kills a White Walker, the wights it had reanimated are destroyed. He realizes that killing the Night King will likely kill the entire army of the dead. When Jon and his party are surrounded by wights, Daenerys comes to their aid with her dragons. However, one of the dragons, Viserion, is killed by the Night King. Daenerys is forced to flee without Jon but [Benjen Stark](/wiki/Benjen_Stark "Benjen Stark") arrives to rescue him, sacrificing himself. Later, Daenerys vows to fight the Night King with Jon and he swears fealty to her as his queen.
Jon and Daenerys travel to King's Landing to parley with Cersei. Cersei is apparently convinced to declare a truce so that the Lannisters may aid in the battle against the dead but later reveals to [Jaime Lannister](/wiki/Jaime_Lannister "Jaime Lannister") that she has no intention of keeping her word. Meanwhile, Sam and Bran have discovered that Jon was born Aegon Targaryen, the legitimate son of Rhaegar and Lyanna and rightful heir to House Targaryen. Having fallen in love,{{cite web \|last1\=Robinson \|first1\=Joanna \|title\=Game of Thrones: 18 Secrets, Easter Eggs, and Revelations Hiding in 7 Seasons of Scripts \|date\=5 December 2018 \|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/12/game\-of\-thrones\-scripts\-secrets\-cersei\-pregnancy\-tyrion\-daenerys\-snow\-on\-the\-throne \|publisher\=Vanity Fair \|access\-date\=17 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=22 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222075454/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/12/game\-of\-thrones\-scripts\-secrets\-cersei\-pregnancy\-tyrion\-daenerys\-snow\-on\-the\-throne \|url\-status\=live }} Jon and Daenerys give in to their feelings for each other and have sex on their voyage north while unaware they are related by blood.
#### Season 8
Jon returns to Winterfell and is reunited with Bran and [Arya Stark](/wiki/Arya_Stark "Arya Stark"). He learns the Wall has been breached by the White Walkers. Though they have readied Winterfell for battle, Sansa and the Northern lords are angry over Jon bending the knee to Daenerys. Jon's bond with Daenerys continues to grow, and he rides one of her dragons, Rhaegal. Sam tells Jon the truth about his identity as Aegon Targaryen. Later, Jon reveals this to Daenerys. The White Walkers arrive and Jon attempts to engage the Night King in single combat but is stopped when the Night King reanimates the dead to fight Jon. Jon attempts to pursue him to the Godswood, where Bran is waiting to lure the Night's King, but is cornered by the undead Viserion. Jon prepares to fight Viserion, but the Night King is killed by Arya, destroying the army of the dead. In the celebrations afterwards, Jon is praised by the wildlings. This troubles Daenerys, who fears the people of Westeros would prefer Jon as their ruler over her. Jon is troubled by his blood relation to Daenerys, causing him to withdraw from their intimacy.
Jon assures Daenerys that he has no desire to take the Iron Throne, renouncing his claim for hers, but insists he must be honest with his sisters about his true parentage. Jon tells Sansa and Arya, swearing them to secrecy, but Sansa sees him as a preferable alternative to Daenerys and tells Tyrion. Tyrion informs [Varys](/wiki/Varys "Varys"), who implores Jon to take the Iron Throne but Jon refuses to betray Daenerys.
Jon leads the Northern forces to help Daenerys claim the Iron Throne. They take King's Landing and the city surrenders to Daenerys. However, having been driven mad by her recent losses and betrayals, Daenerys burns the city, killing hundreds of thousands of innocent civilians. Afterward, she declares she will wage war on the rest of the world until she rules the entire planet. Arya and Tyrion warn Jon that Daenerys will view his heritage as a threat and she is a threat to the Starks. Tyrion tells Jon that despite Jon's love for Daenerys, it is his duty to kill her to protect the people. Jon confronts Daenerys but, unable to dissuade her from further destruction, reluctantly kills her and she dies in his arms. Jon is imprisoned by [Grey Worm](/wiki/Grey_Worm "Grey Worm") and awaits execution. Tyrion convinces the lords of Westeros to set up a new system of kingship, with Bran elected the King of the Six Kingdoms (the North having been granted independence). Bran sentences Jon to the Night's Watch to appease Daenerys' supporters as a compromise. Jon returns to Castle Black and leads the wildlings to return to their lands beyond the Wall.
### Recognition and awards
Harington has received several accolades for the role of Jon Snow, including a [Golden Globe](/wiki/Golden_Globe "Golden Globe") nomination for [Best Actor – Television Series Drama](/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Actor_%E2%80%93_Television_Series_Drama "Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama") in 2019, and two [Primetime Emmy Awards](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Awards "Primetime Emmy Awards") nominations for [Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series") in 2016 and [Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Lead_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series") in 2019\. He has also been nominated for two [Critics' Choice Awards](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Awards "Critics' Choice Awards") for [Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series "Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series") in 2016 and [Best Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series "Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series") in 2019\.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.ew.com/article/2016/07/14/emmys\-nominations\-2016 \|title\=Emmy nominations 2016: See the full list \|first\=Lynette \|last\=Rice \|magazine\=Entertainment Weekly \|date\=July 14, 2016 \|access\-date\=July 14, 2016 \|archive\-date\=July 15, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715182538/http://www.ew.com/article/2016/07/14/emmys\-nominations\-2016 \|url\-status\=live }} Harington was also nominated for four [Saturn Award](/wiki/Saturn_Award "Saturn Award") for [Best Supporting Actor on Television](/wiki/Saturn_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor_on_Television "Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television") and a [Saturn Award](/wiki/Saturn_Award "Saturn Award") for [Best Actor on Television](/wiki/Saturn_Award_for_Best_Actor_on_Television "Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.saturnawards.org/nominations.html \|title\=Nominations for the 38th Annual Saturn Awards \|publisher\=\[\[Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy \& Horror Films]] \|date\=February 29, 2012 \|access\-date\=February 29, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221234527/http://www.saturnawards.org/nominations.html \|archive\-date\=February 21, 2012 }}{{cite web \|url\=https://variety.com/2016/film/news/saturn\-awards\-nominations\-2016\-star\-wars\-mad\-max\-1201713942/ \|work\=Variety \|first\=Jacob \|last\=Bryant \|title\=''Star Wars'', ''Mad Max'', ''Walking Dead'' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations \|date\=February 24, 2016 \|access\-date\=February 24, 2016 \|archive\-date\=May 7, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507141412/http://variety.com/2016/film/news/saturn\-awards\-nominations\-2016\-star\-wars\-mad\-max\-1201713942/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat\-vision/rogue\-one\-walking\-dead\-lead\-saturn\-awards\-nominations\-982468 \|title\=''Rogue One'', ''Walking Dead'' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations \|work\=The Hollywood Reporter \|first\=Aaron \|last\=Couch \|date\=March 2, 2017 \|access\-date\=March 3, 2017 \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303123108/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat\-vision/rogue\-one\-walking\-dead\-lead\-saturn\-awards\-nominations\-982468 \|url\-status\=live }} His other nominations include the [Golden Nymph Award](/wiki/Golden_Nymph_Award "Golden Nymph Award") for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series in 2012,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tvfestival.com/presse/2012/liste\_N\_compet.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917101632/http://www.tvfestival.com/presse/2012/liste\_N\_compet.pdf \|title\=Nominees/Competition 2012 \|publisher\=\[\[Golden Nymph Award]]s \|page\=8 \|date\=2012 \|access\-date\=June 30, 2016 \|archive\-date\=September 17, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} the [Young Hollywood Award](/wiki/Young_Hollywood_Awards "Young Hollywood Awards") for Actor of the Year in 2013,{{cite web \|last\=Carbone \|first\=Gina \|url\=http://www.wetpaint.com/news/articles/2013\-07\-18\-young\-hollywood\-awards\-check\-early \|title\=2013 Young Hollywood Awards: Check Out Early Winners \|publisher\=\[\[Wetpaint]] \|date\=August 1, 2013 \|access\-date\=June 30, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923070939/http://www.wetpaint.com/news/articles/2013\-07\-18\-young\-hollywood\-awards\-check\-early \|archive\-date\=September 23, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead}} and the [Critics' Choice Television Award](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award "Critics' Choice Television Award") for [Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series "Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series") in 2016\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiewire.com/2016/11/critics\-choice\-tv\-awards\-hbo\-leads\-22\-nominations\-1201746217/ \|title\=Critics' Choice TV Awards: HBO Leads With 22 Nominations \|date\=November 14, 2016 \|access\-date\=November 14, 2016 \|archive\-date\=July 30, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730071319/http://www.indiewire.com/2016/11/critics\-choice\-tv\-awards\-hbo\-leads\-22\-nominations\-1201746217/ \|url\-status\=live }} [IGN](/wiki/IGN "IGN") also nominated Jon Snow as its Best TV Hero in 2011\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ign.com/wikis/best\-of\-2011/Best\_Television\_Hero \|title\=Best Television Hero 2011 \|website\=IGN \|date\=18 December 2011 \|publisher\=\[\[News Corporation]] \|access\-date\=June 30, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303063438/http://www.ign.com/wikis/best\-of\-2011/Best\_Television\_Hero \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2012 \|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"TV adaptation\n-------------",
"### Overview",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|[Kit Harington](/wiki/Kit_Harington \"Kit Harington\") plays the role of Jon Snow in the [television series](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones \"Game of Thrones\").](/wiki/File:Kit_Harington_SDCC_2013_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Kit Harington SDCC 2013 (cropped).jpg\")",
"Martin told *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone \"Rolling Stone\")* in 2014 that some early inquiries he received about adapting *A Song of Ice and Fire* suggested identifying the story's \"important character\" and focusing on that individual plot line, Jon and [Daenerys Targaryen](/wiki/Daenerys_Targaryen \"Daenerys Targaryen\") being the two most popular choices.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/news/george\\-r\\-r\\-martin\\-the\\-rolling\\-stone\\-interview\\-20140423? \\|title\\=George R.R. Martin: The ''Rolling Stone'' Interview \\|first\\=Mikal \\|last\\=Gilmore \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]] \\|date\\=April 23, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 8, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808114707/http://www.rollingstone.com/tv/news/george\\-r\\-r\\-martin\\-the\\-rolling\\-stone\\-interview\\-20140423 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Martin was not interested in sacrificing so much of the overall story. When the [pilot](/wiki/Television_pilot \"Television pilot\") for the [HBO](/wiki/HBO \"HBO\") adaptation went into production years later, one of the first parts cast was Jon, with [Kit Harington](/wiki/Kit_Harington \"Kit Harington\") announced in the role in July 2009\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Kit \\|first\\=Borysm \\|author2\\=Andreeva, Nellie \\|title\\=Sean Bean to ascend to ''Thrones'' \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \\|date\\=July 19, 2009 \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sean\\-bean\\-ascend\\-thrones\\-86666 \\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 7, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807154616/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sean\\-bean\\-ascend\\-thrones\\-86666 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web\\|last\\=Martin \\|first\\=George R.R. \\|title\\=Not A Blog: A Casting We Will Go \\|publisher\\=GRRM.livejournal.com \\|date\\=July 19, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2009 \\|url\\=http://grrm.livejournal.com/95840\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091227183837/http://grrm.livejournal.com/95840\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 27, 2009 }} [Alfie Allen](/wiki/Alfie_Allen \"Alfie Allen\") and [Iwan Rheon](/wiki/Iwan_Rheon \"Iwan Rheon\") had also auditioned for the role, and were brought into the show to play [Theon Greyjoy](/wiki/Theon_Greyjoy \"Theon Greyjoy\") and [Ramsay Snow](/wiki/Ramsay_Bolton \"Ramsay Bolton\") instead, respectively.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/game\\-of\\-thrones/39270/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-what\\-we\\-learned\\-from\\-the\\-blu\\-rays\\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' season 5: what we learned from the Blu\\-rays\\|first\\=Louisa\\|last\\=Mellor\\|work\\=\\[\\[Den of Geek]]\\|date\\=March 11, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=July 24, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023073621/http://www.denofgeek.com/tv/game\\-of\\-thrones/39270/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-what\\-we\\-learned\\-from\\-the\\-blu\\-rays\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/24/arts/television/ramsay\\-bolton\\-of\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-is\\-the\\-most\\-hated\\-man\\-on\\-tv.html \\|title\\=Ramsay Bolton of ''Game of Thrones'' Is the Most Hated Man on TV \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|first\\=Jeremy \\|last\\=Egner \\|date\\=April 20, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 26, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126224650/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/24/arts/television/ramsay\\-bolton\\-of\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-is\\-the\\-most\\-hated\\-man\\-on\\-tv.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/iwan\\-rheon/ \\|title\\=Culture: Iwan Rheon \\|work\\=\\[\\[Interview (magazine)\\|Interview]] \\|first\\=Emma \\|last\\=Brown \\|date\\=April 20, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 26, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126035553/https://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/iwan\\-rheon \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In October 2014, Harington and several other key cast members, all contracted for six seasons of the series, renegotiated their deals to include a potential seventh season and salary increases for seasons five, six, and seven.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/game\\-thrones\\-cast\\-signs\\-season\\-744314 \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Cast Signs for Season 7 with Big Raises \\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|first1\\=Matthew \\|last1\\=Belloni \\|first2\\=Lesley \\|last2\\=Goldberg \\|date\\=October 30, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 27, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232711/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/game\\-thrones\\-cast\\-signs\\-season\\-744314 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2014/10/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-cast\\-salary\\-raises\\-season\\-7\\-1201268049/ \\|title\\=''Game Of Thrones'' Stars Score Big Raises \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]] \\|last\\=Andreeva \\|first\\=Nellie \\|date\\=October 30, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 21, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221085038/http://deadline.com/2014/10/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-cast\\-salary\\-raises\\-season\\-7\\-1201268049/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} *[The Hollywood Reporter](/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter \"The Hollywood Reporter\")* called the raises \"huge\", noting that the deal would make the performers \"among the highest\\-paid actors on cable TV\". *[Deadline Hollywood](/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood \"Deadline Hollywood\")* put the number for season five at \"close to $300,000 an episode\" for each actor, and *The Hollywood Reporter* wrote in June 2016 that the performers would each be paid \"upward of $500,000 per episode\" for seasons seven and the potential eight.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/game\\-thrones\\-stars\\-score\\-hefty\\-905288 \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Stars Score Hefty Pay Raises for Season 8 \\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|first\\=Lesley \\|last\\=Goldberg \\|date\\=June 21, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 17, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117013249/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/game\\-thrones\\-stars\\-score\\-hefty\\-905288 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In 2017, Harington became one of the [highest paid actors on television](/wiki/List_of_highest_paid_American_television_stars \"List of highest paid American television stars\") and may have earned £1\\.2 million per episode for the show.{{cite web\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425052433/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/tv/news/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-7\\-actors\\-salary\\-net\\-worth\\-pay\\-million\\-hbo\\-per\\-episode\\-a7700506\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 25, 2017\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/tv/news/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-7\\-actors\\-salary\\-net\\-worth\\-pay\\-million\\-hbo\\-per\\-episode\\-a7700506\\.html\\|title\\=Game of Thrones season 7: Actors 'set to earn £2million per episode', making them highest\\-paid ever\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]]\\|last\\=Hooton\\|first\\=Christopher\\|date\\=April 25, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=April 25, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Abrahams \\|first\\=Luke \\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-30 \\|title\\=How much did Game of Thrones stars get paid for the final season? \\|url\\=https://www.standard.co.uk/insider/celebrity/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-salary\\-how\\-much\\-cast\\-make\\-paer\\-episode\\-a4117871\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-12 \\|website\\=Evening Standard \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212122714/https://www.standard.co.uk/insider/celebrity/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-salary\\-how\\-much\\-cast\\-make\\-paer\\-episode\\-a4117871\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The costumes of [Ygritte](/wiki/Ygritte \"Ygritte\"), Jon Snow, and [Tormund Giantsbane](/wiki/Tormund_Giantsbane \"Tormund Giantsbane\") in the show](/wiki/File:Game_of_Thrones_Oslo_exhibition_2014_-_Ygritte%2C_Jon_and_Tormund_costumes.jpg \"Game of Thrones Oslo exhibition 2014 - Ygritte, Jon and Tormund costumes.jpg\")",
"As the series premiered, *[TV Guide](/wiki/TV_Guide \"TV Guide\")* called Harington a \"soulful heartthrob\" whose Jon is idolized by his younger siblings and who \"seeks purpose\" by joining the Night's Watch.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/News/Roush\\-Review\\-Thrones\\-1031879\\.aspx \\|title\\=Roush Review: Grim ''Thrones'' Is a Crowning Achievement \\|first\\=Matt \\|last\\=Roush \\|work\\=\\[\\[TV Guide]] \\|date\\=April 15, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=July 11, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 12, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112191600/http://www.tvguide.com/News/Roush\\-Review\\-Thrones\\-1031879\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Creators [David Benioff](/wiki/David_Benioff \"David Benioff\") and [D. B. Weiss](/wiki/D._B._Weiss \"D. B. Weiss\") later noted that Jon \"tries to live with honor, while knowing that honor often gets his family members murdered\". They explained that he is one of several characters in the series who must \"face hard truths about the world they live in, and adapt themselves to those truths. The struggle many of them face is how to do that without losing their grip on who they are.\" Matt Fowler of [IGN](/wiki/IGN \"IGN\") wrote in 2013 that while Jon and Daenerys' storylines in [season 1](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_1 \"Game of Thrones season 1\") and [season 2](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_2 \"Game of Thrones season 2\") \"felt very separate\" from the rest of the series' plot, for the first time in [season 3](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_3 \"Game of Thrones season 3\"), \"Jon's entire situation felt incorporated into the larger picture.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/06/17/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-3\\-review\\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'': Season 3 Review\\|last\\=Fowler\\|first\\=Matt\\|website\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|date\\=June 17, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=August 5, 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=June 24, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130624221421/http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/06/17/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-3\\-review\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Fowler also added that Jon's \"oath\\-breaking romance with Ygritte added a lot of heat to the story\". In May 2015, *[International Business Times](/wiki/International_Business_Times \"International Business Times\")* called Jon \"clearly the most popular character\" of the series.{{cite web \\|title\\=Who is Kit Harington? 5 lesser\\-known facts about ''Game Of Thrones'' star Jon Snow \\|url\\=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/who\\-kit\\-harington\\-5\\-lesser\\-known\\-facts\\-about\\-game\\-thrones\\-star\\-jon\\-snow\\-1561376 \\|work\\=\\[\\[International Business Times]] \\|first\\=Sutrishna \\|last\\=Ghosh \\|date\\=May 22, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 1, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201081549/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/who\\-kit\\-harington\\-5\\-lesser\\-known\\-facts\\-about\\-game\\-thrones\\-star\\-jon\\-snow\\-1561376 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In a 2015 interview Benioff said, \"The problem with Jon is, he’s not a cautious man. It's the problem with him, and also the reason we love him. He is a hero, but heroes are inherently incautious.\"{{cite AV media \\|url\\=http://www.hbo.com/game\\-of\\-thrones/episodes/5/50\\-mothers\\-mercy/video/ep\\-50\\-inside\\-the\\-episode.html? \\|title\\=Ep. 50: Inside The Episode \\|type\\=Video \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Benioff \\|author\\-link1\\=David Benioff \\|first2\\=D. B. \\|last2\\=Weiss \\|author\\-link2\\=D. B. Weiss \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[HBO]] \\|date\\=June 14, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 20, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620014224/http://www.hbo.com/game\\-of\\-thrones/episodes/5/50\\-mothers\\-mercy/video/ep\\-50\\-inside\\-the\\-episode.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Weiss added, \"At the end of the day, Jon is his father’s son, he’s a person who’s honorable to a fault and does the right thing even when the right thing is extremely dangerous to him personally.\" In the June 2015 [season 5](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_5 \"Game of Thrones season 5\") finale \"[Mother's Mercy](/wiki/Mother%27s_Mercy \"Mother's Mercy\")\", Jon is stabbed to death by [Alliser Thorne](/wiki/Alliser_Thorne \"Alliser Thorne\") and several men of the Night's Watch after being labeled a traitor. With Martin's 2011 novel *A Dance with Dragons* vague on Jon's fate, Harington confirmed the character's death in an interview with *Entertainment Weekly*, saying \"I've been told I’m dead. I'm dead. I’m not coming back next season.\"{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.ew.com/article/2015/06/14/game\\-thrones\\-jon\\-dies\\-interview\\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' star on that shocking death: 'I'm not coming back'\\|magazine\\=Entertainment Weekly\\|first\\=James\\|last\\=Hibberd\\|date\\=June 14, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=June 15, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=June 15, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615081223/http://www.ew.com/article/2015/06/14/game\\-thrones\\-jon\\-dies\\-interview\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He added, \"I loved how they brought \\[the orphan boy] Olly in to be the person who kills me. I love how the storyline with Thorne was wrapped up.\" Benioff also said of the episode:",
"{{Blockquote\\|This is obviously a big deal, the death of Jon Snow. This is something we've been thinking about for a long long time, and Alliser kills him, it's kind of like, it's a bad guy killing a good guy. But when it's Olly holding the knife … Olly's not a bad guy. Olly's a kid who’s seen just way too much horror way too early, and he makes a decision that's a really hard decision for him but you understand where he's coming from ... It's one of those great conflicts that makes us love the books and this saga, is that it's, ultimately it's not just about good vs evil, it's about people of good intentions who come into conflict with each other because they have very different views of the world, and unfortunately it did not work out well for Jon Snow in this case.}}",
"Writing for *The New York Times*, Jeremy Egner called Jon's demise \"the biggest death on the show\" since Ned Stark's beheading in season 1\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com//2015/06/14/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-finale\\-jon\\-snow/ \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Finale Recap: Shocking Deaths and a Walk of Shame \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|first\\=Jeremy \\|last\\=Egner \\|date\\=June 14, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 27, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171127082204/https://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/14/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-finale\\-jon\\-snow/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Amid strong fan reaction over Jon's death on [social media](/wiki/Social_media \"Social media\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.businessinsider.com/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-finale\\-ending\\-2015\\-6 \\|title\\=Fans are freaking out over the ''Game of Thrones'' cliffhanger finale \\|work\\=Business Insider \\|first\\=Kirsten \\|last\\=Acuna \\|date\\=June 15, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 1, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201131443/http://www.businessinsider.com/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-finale\\-ending\\-2015\\-6 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} immediately following the episode journalists began theorizing how the show could resurrect the character.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.businessinsider.com/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-is\\-jon\\-snow\\-dead\\-or\\-alive\\-2015\\-6 \\|title\\=What the devastating ''Game of Thrones'' finale means for next season \\|work\\=Business Insider \\|first\\=Kim \\|last\\=Renfro \\|date\\=June 14, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 1, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201131750/http://www.businessinsider.com/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-is\\-jon\\-snow\\-dead\\-or\\-alive\\-2015\\-6 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tor.com/2015/06/15/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-episode\\-10\\-mothers\\-mercy/? \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Season 5, Episode 10: 'Mother's Mercy' \\|work\\=\\[\\[Tor.com]] \\|first\\=Theresa \\|last\\=DeLucci \\|date\\=June 15, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 17, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617164837/http://www.tor.com/2015/06/15/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-episode\\-10\\-mothers\\-mercy/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/jon\\-snow\\-alive\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-comic\\-con \\|title\\=Update: New ''Game of Thrones'' Information Adds Fuel to the 'Jon Snow Lives' Conspiracy \\|first\\=Joanna \\|last\\=Robinson \\|magazine\\=Vanity Fair \\|date\\=June 23, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 23, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223014553/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/jon\\-snow\\-alive\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-comic\\-con \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/jon\\-snow\\-dead\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-azor\\-ahai\\-melisandre\\-warg \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'': Is This Really the Last We'll See of Jon Snow? \\|magazine\\=Vanity Fair \\|last\\=Robinson \\|first\\=Joanna \\|date\\=June 14, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722114132/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/jon\\-snow\\-dead\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-azor\\-ahai\\-melisandre\\-warg \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2015/06/15/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-episode\\-10\\-review\\-mothers\\-mercy/ \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Season 5, Episode 10 Review: 'Mother's Mercy' \\|last\\=Kain \\|first\\=Eric \\|work\\=Forbes \\|date\\=June 15, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 21, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 1, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201132545/https://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2015/06/15/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-5\\-episode\\-10\\-review\\-mothers\\-mercy/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Nate Jones of *[Vulture](/wiki/Vulture_%28website%29 \"Vulture (website)\")* noted:\n{{Blockquote\\|It's easy to see what \\[other characters'] deaths meant for the series' sprawling narrative: Ned's execution sent the Stark kids adrift in a universe where there was nobody looking out for them, while Robb's murder was the final death knell for the hopes that the saga would ever have a traditional 'happy' ending. What would be accomplished, narratively, by getting rid of Jon permanently right now?{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vulture.com/2015/06/jon\\-snow\\-theories\\-game\\-of\\-thrones.html \\|title\\=Why the Latest ''Game of Thrones'' Death Might Not Be Like the Others \\|website\\=Vulture.com \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=Nate \\|date\\=June 14, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618115845/http://www.vulture.com/2015/06/jon\\-snow\\-theories\\-game\\-of\\-thrones.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}}}",
"A July 2015 sighting of Harington arriving in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), a primary filming location for the series where other actors were arriving for [season 6](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones_season_6 \"Game of Thrones season 6\") script read\\-throughs, prompted further speculation about the character's return.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/07/kit\\-harington\\-belfast\\-jon\\-snow\\-season\\-6\\-game\\-of\\-thrones? \\|title\\=Finally, Photographic Evidence that Kit Harington Has Joined the Cast of ''Game of Thrones'' in Belfast \\|first\\=Joanna \\|last\\=Robinson \\|magazine\\=Vanity Fair \\|date\\=July 21, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722204601/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/07/kit\\-harington\\-belfast\\-jon\\-snow\\-season\\-6\\-game\\-of\\-thrones \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/07/20/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-spoiler\\-kit\\-harington\\-spotted\\_n\\_7832792\\.html \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Spoiler: Is Kit Harington's Jon Snow Alive? Actor 'Spotted Close to Set in Belfast'... \\|first\\=Rachel \\|last\\=McGrath \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Huffington Post]] \\|date\\=July 20, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 3, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703210806/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/07/20/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-spoiler\\-kit\\-harington\\-spotted\\_n\\_7832792\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} However, a story in *[Vanity Fair](/wiki/Vanity_Fair_%28magazine%29 \"Vanity Fair (magazine)\")* pointed out that [Charles Dance](/wiki/Charles_Dance \"Charles Dance\") had been seen in Belfast the previous year after his character [Tywin Lannister](/wiki/Tywin_Lannister \"Tywin Lannister\")'s death as well, and he only appeared in the first episode of the subsequent season as a corpse.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mtv.co.uk/news/nzba12/charles\\-dance\\-teases\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-return \\|title\\=Charles Dance Reveals ''Game of Thrones'' Return \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MTV News UK]] \\|date\\=September 19, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103826/http://www.mtv.co.uk/game\\-of\\-thrones/news/charles\\-dance\\-teases\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-return \\|archive\\-date\\=September 25, 2015 }} A season 6 *Game of Thrones* promotional poster released in November 2015 featured a bloodied Jon.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/11/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-6\\-jon\\-snow \\|title\\=The First Official Look at ''Game of Thrones'' Season 6 Is All About Jon Snow \\|magazine\\=Vanity Fair \\|first\\=Katey \\|last\\=Rich \\|date\\=November 23, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=December 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 24, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124151059/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/11/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-season\\-6\\-jon\\-snow \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Jon is resurrected by Melisandre in \"[Home](/wiki/Home_%28Game_of_Thrones%29 \"Home (Game of Thrones)\")\", the May 2016 second episode of season 6\\.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.ew.com/article/2016/05/01/game\\-thrones\\-jon\\-snow\\-harington\\-alive \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'': Kit Harington breaks his silence \\|magazine\\=Entertainment Weekly \\|first\\=James \\|last\\=Hibberd \\|date\\=May 1, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 17, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817123724/http://www.ew.com/article/2016/05/01/game\\-thrones\\-jon\\-snow\\-harington\\-alive \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/02/arts/television/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-jon\\-snow\\-review.html?\\_r\\=0 \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Season 6, Episode 2: Jon Snow, Dragons and Ramsay's Dogs \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2016 \\|date\\=May 1, 2016 \\|last\\=Egner \\|first\\=Jeremy \\|archive\\-date\\=May 5, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505225352/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/02/arts/television/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-jon\\-snow\\-review.html?\\_r\\=0 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Though calling it a \"predictable move\" for a television series, David Sims of *[The Atlantic](/wiki/The_Atlantic \"The Atlantic\")* praised the plot development as \"the right choice\" for the show's narrative.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/05/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-isnt\\-the\\-first\\-show\\-to\\-cheat\\-death/480957/ \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' and Television's Long History of Cheating Death \\|first\\=David \\|last\\=Sims \\|work\\=The Atlantic \\|date\\=May 3, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 8, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808014725/http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/05/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-isnt\\-the\\-first\\-show\\-to\\-cheat\\-death/480957/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In a subsequent interview with *Entertainment Weekly*, Harington said:\n{{Blockquote\\|I'd like to say sorry for lying to everyone. I'm glad that people were upset that he died. I think my biggest fear was that people were not going to care ... But it seems like people had a, similar to the \\[\\[The Rains of Castamere\\|Red Wedding episode]], kind of grief about it. Which means something I'm doing—or the show is doing—is right.}}",
"Joanna Robinson of *Vanity Fair* credited Jon's much\\-discussed cliffhanger death as a primary factor behind *Game of Thrones*{{'}} subsequent 25% ratings increase for season 6\\.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/07/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-most\\-popular\\-show\\-ratings \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Is Even More Insanely Popular than You Think \\|first\\=Joanna \\|last\\=Robinson \\|magazine\\=Vanity Fair \\|date\\=July 19, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 13, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713104709/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/07/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-most\\-popular\\-show\\-ratings \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Harington's performance in season 6 earned the actor his first [Primetime Emmy Award](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award \"Primetime Emmy Award\") nomination in July 2016\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2016/tv/awards/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-2016\\-emmys\\-nominations\\-1201814023/ \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Rules 2016 Emmy Race With 23 Nominations \\|work\\=Variety \\|first\\=Laura \\|last\\=Prudom \\|date\\=July 14, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=August 9, 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830110843/http://variety.com/2016/tv/awards/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-2016\\-emmys\\-nominations\\-1201814023/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 30, 2016 }} Harington as Jon had the most screen time of any other character in the first seven seasons of the show.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://qz.com/1065792/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-every\\-character\\-ranked\\-by\\-screen\\-time\\-through\\-season\\-7/ \\|title\\=Someone clocked every second of ''Game of Thrones'' and ranked each character by screen time \\|last\\=Epstein \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=August 30, 2017 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Quartz (publication)\\|Quartz]] \\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 11, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214234/https://qz.com/1065792/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-every\\-character\\-ranked\\-by\\-screen\\-time\\-through\\-season\\-7/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.inverse.com/article/35991\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-characters\\-ranked\\-screen\\-time\\-jon\\-snow\\-tyrion\\-lannister \\|title\\=''Game of Thrones'' Officially Has a New Main Character \\|last\\=Grebey \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=August 29, 2017 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Inverse (website)\\|Inverse]] \\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023002223/https://www.inverse.com/article/35991\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-characters\\-ranked\\-screen\\-time\\-jon\\-snow\\-tyrion\\-lannister \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://winteriscoming.net/2017/10/19/chart\\-screentime\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-top\\-100\\-characters/\\|title\\=Track the screentime of the Top 100 characters on ''Game of Thrones''\\|last\\=Tracy\\|first\\=Molly Kate\\|date\\=October 19, 2017\\|website\\=Winter is Coming\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=November 12, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031351/https://winteriscoming.net/2017/10/19/chart\\-screentime\\-game\\-of\\-thrones\\-top\\-100\\-characters/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Storylines",
"#### Season 1",
"Jon Snow, the bastard son of [Eddard Stark](/wiki/Eddard_Stark \"Eddard Stark\"), Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, decides to join the [Night's Watch](/wiki/Night%27s_Watch \"Night's Watch\"). He arrives at Castle Black with his direwolf Ghost to find that the once proud order is a shadow of its former self. Raised to be a skilled fighter with a strong sense of justice and honor, Jon is initially contemptuous of his fellow recruits, most of whom are lowborn criminals and exiles. He is persuaded by [Tyrion Lannister](/wiki/Tyrion_Lannister \"Tyrion Lannister\") to put aside his prejudices and help train the others. Jon befriends [Samwell Tarly](/wiki/Samwell_Tarly \"Samwell Tarly\"), an overweight, fearful recruit who is more an intellectual than a fighter. Jon takes his vows but is disappointed about being made steward to Lord Commander [Jeor Mormont](/wiki/Jeor_Mormont \"Jeor Mormont\") rather than a ranger. Sam points out that Jon is likely being groomed for future command. Jon saves Mormont from a wight and is given the House Mormont ancestral sword Longclaw, made of Valyrian steel, with a wolf's head pommel custom\\-made for Jon. Jon learns of his father's execution for apparent treason and, although tempted to leave the Wall to join [Robb Stark](/wiki/Robb_Stark \"Robb Stark\")'s army, is convinced to stay.",
"#### Season 2",
"Jon accompanies the Night's Watch on the Great Ranging beyond the Wall. When the Night's Watch seek shelter from the wildling [Craster](/wiki/Craster_%28character%29 \"Craster (character)\"), an old man who marries his own daughters, Jon is horrified to discover that Craster sacrifices his sons to the [White Walkers](/wiki/White_Walkers \"White Walkers\"). Later, as part of a small scouting party led by legendary Night's Watch ranger [Qhorin Halfhand](/wiki/Qhorin_Halfhand \"Qhorin Halfhand\"), Jon is tasked with killing a wildling prisoner, a woman warrior [Ygritte](/wiki/Ygritte \"Ygritte\"). He finds himself unable to do so and she escapes, only to capture him with her comrades. Qhorin, also taken prisoner, orders Jon to pretend to defect and join the wildlings in order to discover their plans. Qhorin stages a fight and secretly instructs Jon to kill him to gain the wildlings' trust. Jon does and is taken to meet former Night's Watch ranger [Mance Rayder](/wiki/Mance_Rayder \"Mance Rayder\"), the wildlings' King\\-Beyond\\-the Wall.",
"#### Season 3",
"Jon pledges his loyalty to Mance and travels with the wildlings, learning that they intend to scale the Wall and force their way south to escape the inevitable arrival of the White Walker army. Jon attempts to convince Mance not to attack the wall, falsely claiming Castle Black is home to over 1,000 Watchmen. Ygritte seduces Jon and takes his virginity, and they eventually fall in love. After scaling the Wall, Jon refuses to kill an innocent man to prove his loyalty. He is attacked by the other wildlings but escapes to Castle Black, despite being wounded by a devastated Ygritte.",
"#### Season 4",
"Jon survives his wounds and is tried for his defection to the wildlings, but [Maester Aemon](/wiki/Maester_Aemon \"Maester Aemon\") is convinced of Jon's loyalty to the Watch and frees him. Jon leads an expedition to Craster's Keep, where some Night's Watchmen have mutinied and murdered Lord Commander Mormont. After defeating the mutineers, Jon is reunited with Ghost. Later, [Tormund Giantsbane](/wiki/Tormund_Giantsbane \"Tormund Giantsbane\")'s wildlings attack Castle Black while Mance's army besieges the Wall. Acting\\-commander, Ser [Alliser Thorne](/wiki/Alliser_Thorne \"Alliser Thorne\"), is wounded forcing Jon to take command of the battle. Jon fights and kills Styr, leader of the Thenns. The wildlings are successfully repelled, although Ygritte is shot with an arrow and dies in Jon's arms. Jon goes beyond the Wall to negotiate with Mance, but [Stannis Baratheon](/wiki/Stannis_Baratheon \"Stannis Baratheon\")'s army arrives and routs the wildling camp, taking Mance prisoner. At Tormund's behest, Jon cremates Ygritte beyond the Wall.",
"#### Season 5",
"Stannis enlists Jon as an intermediary between himself and Mance, hoping to add the wildling army to his own. Mance refuses to kneel to Stannis, and he is subsequently burned at the stake by the red priestess [Melisandre](/wiki/Melisandre \"Melisandre\"). Jon shoots Mance with an arrow before he succumbs to the fire. Stannis, who intends to take Winterfell from the traitorous [House Bolton](/wiki/House_Bolton \"House Bolton\"), offers to legitimize Jon as a Stark and name him Lord of Winterfell in exchange for his support, but Jon remains loyal to his vows.",
"As the Watch prepares to elect a new Lord Commander, Sam advocates for Jon who is unexpectedly elected as the new Lord Commander of the Night's Watch, initially tying with his nemesis Thorne before the tie is broken by Maester Aemon's vote. Jon's intention to bring the wildlings into the Seven Kingdoms and grant them lands south of the Wall further enrages Thorne's faction of the Watch, who all hold a hatred for the wildlings. Jon travels to the wildling village of Hardhome, seeking their support for his plan to ally the Night's Watch and the wildlings against the growing threat of the White Walkers. Several thousand agree to come with Jon, but the rest are massacred when the White Walkers attack the village, although Jon discovers their vulnerability to Valyrian steel when he destroys one with Longclaw. Jon returns to the Wall, where he learns that Stannis has been defeated by the Boltons. Later, he is lured into a trap by his steward Olly and is killed by Thorne and his men. They assassinate Jon for his perceived betrayal of the Night's Watch.",
"#### Season 6",
"[Davos Seaworth](/wiki/Davos_Seaworth \"Davos Seaworth\") finds Jon's body. He, [Dolorous Edd](/wiki/Dolorous_Edd \"Dolorous Edd\"), and other brothers of the Watch loyal to Jon barricade themselves in a room with Ghost, and an attack by Thorne and his men is thwarted by the arrival of Tormund and his wildlings. Davos encourages Melisandre to attempt to resurrect Jon. The ritual seemingly fails but Jon suddenly awakens. After hanging Thorne and the other ringleaders of his assassination, Jon declares that he has been released from his Night's Watch vows by death, and passes command to Edd. He makes plans to leave Castle Black. Jon is reunited with his half\\-sister [Sansa Stark](/wiki/Sansa_Stark \"Sansa Stark\"), who has fled her abusive husband [Ramsay Bolton](/wiki/Ramsay_Bolton \"Ramsay Bolton\") and seeks Jon's aid in retaking Winterfell. Jon refuses until a threatening message arrives from Ramsay demanding Sansa's return and announcing Ramsay's possession of their brother [Rickon](/wiki/Rickon_Stark \"Rickon Stark\"). Jon, Sansa, Davos, and Tormund travel the North to recruit an army to take back Winterfell and rescue Rickon, but many houses refuse to support them. Jon convinces the wildlings to fight with him. As the armies assemble, Ramsay kills Rickon in order to provoke Jon and lure the Stark forces out of position. The ploy works and the outnumbered Stark forces are surrounded and nearly slaughtered, but the Knights of the Vale of [House Arryn](/wiki/House_Arryn \"House Arryn\") arrive with Sansa and [Petyr Baelish](/wiki/Petyr_Baelish \"Petyr Baelish\") and rout the Bolton army. Jon pursues Ramsay back into Winterfell and subdues him, but allows Sansa to decide his death. Jon gathers the lords of the North and warns them of the threat of the White Walkers. The Northern lords declare Jon the new King in the North.",
"Meanwhile, [Bran Stark](/wiki/Bran_Stark \"Bran Stark\") has a vision of the past which shows Ned reuniting with his dying sister [Lyanna Stark](/wiki/Lyanna_Stark \"Lyanna Stark\") in the Tower of Joy. She makes him swear to protect her son with [Rhaegar Targaryen](/wiki/Rhaegar_Targaryen \"Rhaegar Targaryen\"), who is revealed to be Jon.",
"#### Season 7",
"Jon prepares the North's defense against the White Walkers. He receives a message from [Cersei Lannister](/wiki/Cersei_Lannister \"Cersei Lannister\") that he swear his allegiance to her, as well as an invitation to [Dragonstone](/wiki/Dragonstone_%28A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire%29 \"Dragonstone (A Song of Ice and Fire)\") from [Daenerys Targaryen](/wiki/Daenerys_Targaryen \"Daenerys Targaryen\")'s Hand Tyrion. In a message from Sam, Jon learns Dragonstone has a deposit of dragonglass, to which the White Walkers and wights are vulnerable. He decides to meet with Daenerys. Daenerys wants Jon to bend the knee but Jon refuses, insisting that the White Walkers are a threat to all of humanity. Tyrion persuades Daenerys to let Jon mine dragonglass as a gesture of goodwill. Jon discovers cave drawings of the First Men and the Children of the Forest fighting the White Walkers and invites Daenerys to view them. As part of the plan to convince Cersei that the army of the dead is real, Jon leads an expedition beyond the Wall to capture a wight to provide proof of it. During the mission, when Jon kills a White Walker, the wights it had reanimated are destroyed. He realizes that killing the Night King will likely kill the entire army of the dead. When Jon and his party are surrounded by wights, Daenerys comes to their aid with her dragons. However, one of the dragons, Viserion, is killed by the Night King. Daenerys is forced to flee without Jon but [Benjen Stark](/wiki/Benjen_Stark \"Benjen Stark\") arrives to rescue him, sacrificing himself. Later, Daenerys vows to fight the Night King with Jon and he swears fealty to her as his queen.",
"Jon and Daenerys travel to King's Landing to parley with Cersei. Cersei is apparently convinced to declare a truce so that the Lannisters may aid in the battle against the dead but later reveals to [Jaime Lannister](/wiki/Jaime_Lannister \"Jaime Lannister\") that she has no intention of keeping her word. Meanwhile, Sam and Bran have discovered that Jon was born Aegon Targaryen, the legitimate son of Rhaegar and Lyanna and rightful heir to House Targaryen. Having fallen in love,{{cite web \\|last1\\=Robinson \\|first1\\=Joanna \\|title\\=Game of Thrones: 18 Secrets, Easter Eggs, and Revelations Hiding in 7 Seasons of Scripts \\|date\\=5 December 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/12/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-scripts\\-secrets\\-cersei\\-pregnancy\\-tyrion\\-daenerys\\-snow\\-on\\-the\\-throne \\|publisher\\=Vanity Fair \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222075454/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/12/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-scripts\\-secrets\\-cersei\\-pregnancy\\-tyrion\\-daenerys\\-snow\\-on\\-the\\-throne \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Jon and Daenerys give in to their feelings for each other and have sex on their voyage north while unaware they are related by blood.",
"#### Season 8",
"Jon returns to Winterfell and is reunited with Bran and [Arya Stark](/wiki/Arya_Stark \"Arya Stark\"). He learns the Wall has been breached by the White Walkers. Though they have readied Winterfell for battle, Sansa and the Northern lords are angry over Jon bending the knee to Daenerys. Jon's bond with Daenerys continues to grow, and he rides one of her dragons, Rhaegal. Sam tells Jon the truth about his identity as Aegon Targaryen. Later, Jon reveals this to Daenerys. The White Walkers arrive and Jon attempts to engage the Night King in single combat but is stopped when the Night King reanimates the dead to fight Jon. Jon attempts to pursue him to the Godswood, where Bran is waiting to lure the Night's King, but is cornered by the undead Viserion. Jon prepares to fight Viserion, but the Night King is killed by Arya, destroying the army of the dead. In the celebrations afterwards, Jon is praised by the wildlings. This troubles Daenerys, who fears the people of Westeros would prefer Jon as their ruler over her. Jon is troubled by his blood relation to Daenerys, causing him to withdraw from their intimacy.",
"Jon assures Daenerys that he has no desire to take the Iron Throne, renouncing his claim for hers, but insists he must be honest with his sisters about his true parentage. Jon tells Sansa and Arya, swearing them to secrecy, but Sansa sees him as a preferable alternative to Daenerys and tells Tyrion. Tyrion informs [Varys](/wiki/Varys \"Varys\"), who implores Jon to take the Iron Throne but Jon refuses to betray Daenerys.",
"Jon leads the Northern forces to help Daenerys claim the Iron Throne. They take King's Landing and the city surrenders to Daenerys. However, having been driven mad by her recent losses and betrayals, Daenerys burns the city, killing hundreds of thousands of innocent civilians. Afterward, she declares she will wage war on the rest of the world until she rules the entire planet. Arya and Tyrion warn Jon that Daenerys will view his heritage as a threat and she is a threat to the Starks. Tyrion tells Jon that despite Jon's love for Daenerys, it is his duty to kill her to protect the people. Jon confronts Daenerys but, unable to dissuade her from further destruction, reluctantly kills her and she dies in his arms. Jon is imprisoned by [Grey Worm](/wiki/Grey_Worm \"Grey Worm\") and awaits execution. Tyrion convinces the lords of Westeros to set up a new system of kingship, with Bran elected the King of the Six Kingdoms (the North having been granted independence). Bran sentences Jon to the Night's Watch to appease Daenerys' supporters as a compromise. Jon returns to Castle Black and leads the wildlings to return to their lands beyond the Wall.",
"### Recognition and awards",
"Harington has received several accolades for the role of Jon Snow, including a [Golden Globe](/wiki/Golden_Globe \"Golden Globe\") nomination for [Best Actor – Television Series Drama](/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Actor_%E2%80%93_Television_Series_Drama \"Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama\") in 2019, and two [Primetime Emmy Awards](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Awards \"Primetime Emmy Awards\") nominations for [Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series \"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series\") in 2016 and [Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Lead_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series \"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series\") in 2019\\. He has also been nominated for two [Critics' Choice Awards](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Awards \"Critics' Choice Awards\") for [Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series \"Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series\") in 2016 and [Best Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series \"Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series\") in 2019\\.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.ew.com/article/2016/07/14/emmys\\-nominations\\-2016 \\|title\\=Emmy nominations 2016: See the full list \\|first\\=Lynette \\|last\\=Rice \\|magazine\\=Entertainment Weekly \\|date\\=July 14, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=July 14, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715182538/http://www.ew.com/article/2016/07/14/emmys\\-nominations\\-2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Harington was also nominated for four [Saturn Award](/wiki/Saturn_Award \"Saturn Award\") for [Best Supporting Actor on Television](/wiki/Saturn_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor_on_Television \"Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television\") and a [Saturn Award](/wiki/Saturn_Award \"Saturn Award\") for [Best Actor on Television](/wiki/Saturn_Award_for_Best_Actor_on_Television \"Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.saturnawards.org/nominations.html \\|title\\=Nominations for the 38th Annual Saturn Awards \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy \\& Horror Films]] \\|date\\=February 29, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=February 29, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221234527/http://www.saturnawards.org/nominations.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 21, 2012 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2016/film/news/saturn\\-awards\\-nominations\\-2016\\-star\\-wars\\-mad\\-max\\-1201713942/ \\|work\\=Variety \\|first\\=Jacob \\|last\\=Bryant \\|title\\=''Star Wars'', ''Mad Max'', ''Walking Dead'' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations \\|date\\=February 24, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=February 24, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 7, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507141412/http://variety.com/2016/film/news/saturn\\-awards\\-nominations\\-2016\\-star\\-wars\\-mad\\-max\\-1201713942/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat\\-vision/rogue\\-one\\-walking\\-dead\\-lead\\-saturn\\-awards\\-nominations\\-982468 \\|title\\=''Rogue One'', ''Walking Dead'' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations \\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|first\\=Aaron \\|last\\=Couch \\|date\\=March 2, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303123108/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat\\-vision/rogue\\-one\\-walking\\-dead\\-lead\\-saturn\\-awards\\-nominations\\-982468 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} His other nominations include the [Golden Nymph Award](/wiki/Golden_Nymph_Award \"Golden Nymph Award\") for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series in 2012,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tvfestival.com/presse/2012/liste\\_N\\_compet.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917101632/http://www.tvfestival.com/presse/2012/liste\\_N\\_compet.pdf \\|title\\=Nominees/Competition 2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Golden Nymph Award]]s \\|page\\=8 \\|date\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 17, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} the [Young Hollywood Award](/wiki/Young_Hollywood_Awards \"Young Hollywood Awards\") for Actor of the Year in 2013,{{cite web \\|last\\=Carbone \\|first\\=Gina \\|url\\=http://www.wetpaint.com/news/articles/2013\\-07\\-18\\-young\\-hollywood\\-awards\\-check\\-early \\|title\\=2013 Young Hollywood Awards: Check Out Early Winners \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Wetpaint]] \\|date\\=August 1, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923070939/http://www.wetpaint.com/news/articles/2013\\-07\\-18\\-young\\-hollywood\\-awards\\-check\\-early \\|archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and the [Critics' Choice Television Award](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award \"Critics' Choice Television Award\") for [Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series \"Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series\") in 2016\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiewire.com/2016/11/critics\\-choice\\-tv\\-awards\\-hbo\\-leads\\-22\\-nominations\\-1201746217/ \\|title\\=Critics' Choice TV Awards: HBO Leads With 22 Nominations \\|date\\=November 14, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 30, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730071319/http://www.indiewire.com/2016/11/critics\\-choice\\-tv\\-awards\\-hbo\\-leads\\-22\\-nominations\\-1201746217/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [IGN](/wiki/IGN \"IGN\") also nominated Jon Snow as its Best TV Hero in 2011\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ign.com/wikis/best\\-of\\-2011/Best\\_Television\\_Hero \\|title\\=Best Television Hero 2011 \\|website\\=IGN \\|date\\=18 December 2011 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[News Corporation]] \\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303063438/http://www.ign.com/wikis/best\\-of\\-2011/Best\\_Television\\_Hero \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
### Storylines
#### Season 1
Jon Snow, the bastard son of [Eddard Stark](/wiki/Eddard_Stark "Eddard Stark"), Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, decides to join the [Night's Watch](/wiki/Night%27s_Watch "Night's Watch"). He arrives at Castle Black with his direwolf Ghost to find that the once proud order is a shadow of its former self. Raised to be a skilled fighter with a strong sense of justice and honor, Jon is initially contemptuous of his fellow recruits, most of whom are lowborn criminals and exiles. He is persuaded by [Tyrion Lannister](/wiki/Tyrion_Lannister "Tyrion Lannister") to put aside his prejudices and help train the others. Jon befriends [Samwell Tarly](/wiki/Samwell_Tarly "Samwell Tarly"), an overweight, fearful recruit who is more an intellectual than a fighter. Jon takes his vows but is disappointed about being made steward to Lord Commander [Jeor Mormont](/wiki/Jeor_Mormont "Jeor Mormont") rather than a ranger. Sam points out that Jon is likely being groomed for future command. Jon saves Mormont from a wight and is given the House Mormont ancestral sword Longclaw, made of Valyrian steel, with a wolf's head pommel custom\-made for Jon. Jon learns of his father's execution for apparent treason and, although tempted to leave the Wall to join [Robb Stark](/wiki/Robb_Stark "Robb Stark")'s army, is convinced to stay.
#### Season 2
Jon accompanies the Night's Watch on the Great Ranging beyond the Wall. When the Night's Watch seek shelter from the wildling [Craster](/wiki/Craster_%28character%29 "Craster (character)"), an old man who marries his own daughters, Jon is horrified to discover that Craster sacrifices his sons to the [White Walkers](/wiki/White_Walkers "White Walkers"). Later, as part of a small scouting party led by legendary Night's Watch ranger [Qhorin Halfhand](/wiki/Qhorin_Halfhand "Qhorin Halfhand"), Jon is tasked with killing a wildling prisoner, a woman warrior [Ygritte](/wiki/Ygritte "Ygritte"). He finds himself unable to do so and she escapes, only to capture him with her comrades. Qhorin, also taken prisoner, orders Jon to pretend to defect and join the wildlings in order to discover their plans. Qhorin stages a fight and secretly instructs Jon to kill him to gain the wildlings' trust. Jon does and is taken to meet former Night's Watch ranger [Mance Rayder](/wiki/Mance_Rayder "Mance Rayder"), the wildlings' King\-Beyond\-the Wall.
#### Season 3
Jon pledges his loyalty to Mance and travels with the wildlings, learning that they intend to scale the Wall and force their way south to escape the inevitable arrival of the White Walker army. Jon attempts to convince Mance not to attack the wall, falsely claiming Castle Black is home to over 1,000 Watchmen. Ygritte seduces Jon and takes his virginity, and they eventually fall in love. After scaling the Wall, Jon refuses to kill an innocent man to prove his loyalty. He is attacked by the other wildlings but escapes to Castle Black, despite being wounded by a devastated Ygritte.
#### Season 4
Jon survives his wounds and is tried for his defection to the wildlings, but [Maester Aemon](/wiki/Maester_Aemon "Maester Aemon") is convinced of Jon's loyalty to the Watch and frees him. Jon leads an expedition to Craster's Keep, where some Night's Watchmen have mutinied and murdered Lord Commander Mormont. After defeating the mutineers, Jon is reunited with Ghost. Later, [Tormund Giantsbane](/wiki/Tormund_Giantsbane "Tormund Giantsbane")'s wildlings attack Castle Black while Mance's army besieges the Wall. Acting\-commander, Ser [Alliser Thorne](/wiki/Alliser_Thorne "Alliser Thorne"), is wounded forcing Jon to take command of the battle. Jon fights and kills Styr, leader of the Thenns. The wildlings are successfully repelled, although Ygritte is shot with an arrow and dies in Jon's arms. Jon goes beyond the Wall to negotiate with Mance, but [Stannis Baratheon](/wiki/Stannis_Baratheon "Stannis Baratheon")'s army arrives and routs the wildling camp, taking Mance prisoner. At Tormund's behest, Jon cremates Ygritte beyond the Wall.
#### Season 5
Stannis enlists Jon as an intermediary between himself and Mance, hoping to add the wildling army to his own. Mance refuses to kneel to Stannis, and he is subsequently burned at the stake by the red priestess [Melisandre](/wiki/Melisandre "Melisandre"). Jon shoots Mance with an arrow before he succumbs to the fire. Stannis, who intends to take Winterfell from the traitorous [House Bolton](/wiki/House_Bolton "House Bolton"), offers to legitimize Jon as a Stark and name him Lord of Winterfell in exchange for his support, but Jon remains loyal to his vows.
As the Watch prepares to elect a new Lord Commander, Sam advocates for Jon who is unexpectedly elected as the new Lord Commander of the Night's Watch, initially tying with his nemesis Thorne before the tie is broken by Maester Aemon's vote. Jon's intention to bring the wildlings into the Seven Kingdoms and grant them lands south of the Wall further enrages Thorne's faction of the Watch, who all hold a hatred for the wildlings. Jon travels to the wildling village of Hardhome, seeking their support for his plan to ally the Night's Watch and the wildlings against the growing threat of the White Walkers. Several thousand agree to come with Jon, but the rest are massacred when the White Walkers attack the village, although Jon discovers their vulnerability to Valyrian steel when he destroys one with Longclaw. Jon returns to the Wall, where he learns that Stannis has been defeated by the Boltons. Later, he is lured into a trap by his steward Olly and is killed by Thorne and his men. They assassinate Jon for his perceived betrayal of the Night's Watch.
#### Season 6
[Davos Seaworth](/wiki/Davos_Seaworth "Davos Seaworth") finds Jon's body. He, [Dolorous Edd](/wiki/Dolorous_Edd "Dolorous Edd"), and other brothers of the Watch loyal to Jon barricade themselves in a room with Ghost, and an attack by Thorne and his men is thwarted by the arrival of Tormund and his wildlings. Davos encourages Melisandre to attempt to resurrect Jon. The ritual seemingly fails but Jon suddenly awakens. After hanging Thorne and the other ringleaders of his assassination, Jon declares that he has been released from his Night's Watch vows by death, and passes command to Edd. He makes plans to leave Castle Black. Jon is reunited with his half\-sister [Sansa Stark](/wiki/Sansa_Stark "Sansa Stark"), who has fled her abusive husband [Ramsay Bolton](/wiki/Ramsay_Bolton "Ramsay Bolton") and seeks Jon's aid in retaking Winterfell. Jon refuses until a threatening message arrives from Ramsay demanding Sansa's return and announcing Ramsay's possession of their brother [Rickon](/wiki/Rickon_Stark "Rickon Stark"). Jon, Sansa, Davos, and Tormund travel the North to recruit an army to take back Winterfell and rescue Rickon, but many houses refuse to support them. Jon convinces the wildlings to fight with him. As the armies assemble, Ramsay kills Rickon in order to provoke Jon and lure the Stark forces out of position. The ploy works and the outnumbered Stark forces are surrounded and nearly slaughtered, but the Knights of the Vale of [House Arryn](/wiki/House_Arryn "House Arryn") arrive with Sansa and [Petyr Baelish](/wiki/Petyr_Baelish "Petyr Baelish") and rout the Bolton army. Jon pursues Ramsay back into Winterfell and subdues him, but allows Sansa to decide his death. Jon gathers the lords of the North and warns them of the threat of the White Walkers. The Northern lords declare Jon the new King in the North.
Meanwhile, [Bran Stark](/wiki/Bran_Stark "Bran Stark") has a vision of the past which shows Ned reuniting with his dying sister [Lyanna Stark](/wiki/Lyanna_Stark "Lyanna Stark") in the Tower of Joy. She makes him swear to protect her son with [Rhaegar Targaryen](/wiki/Rhaegar_Targaryen "Rhaegar Targaryen"), who is revealed to be Jon.
#### Season 7
Jon prepares the North's defense against the White Walkers. He receives a message from [Cersei Lannister](/wiki/Cersei_Lannister "Cersei Lannister") that he swear his allegiance to her, as well as an invitation to [Dragonstone](/wiki/Dragonstone_%28A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire%29 "Dragonstone (A Song of Ice and Fire)") from [Daenerys Targaryen](/wiki/Daenerys_Targaryen "Daenerys Targaryen")'s Hand Tyrion. In a message from Sam, Jon learns Dragonstone has a deposit of dragonglass, to which the White Walkers and wights are vulnerable. He decides to meet with Daenerys. Daenerys wants Jon to bend the knee but Jon refuses, insisting that the White Walkers are a threat to all of humanity. Tyrion persuades Daenerys to let Jon mine dragonglass as a gesture of goodwill. Jon discovers cave drawings of the First Men and the Children of the Forest fighting the White Walkers and invites Daenerys to view them. As part of the plan to convince Cersei that the army of the dead is real, Jon leads an expedition beyond the Wall to capture a wight to provide proof of it. During the mission, when Jon kills a White Walker, the wights it had reanimated are destroyed. He realizes that killing the Night King will likely kill the entire army of the dead. When Jon and his party are surrounded by wights, Daenerys comes to their aid with her dragons. However, one of the dragons, Viserion, is killed by the Night King. Daenerys is forced to flee without Jon but [Benjen Stark](/wiki/Benjen_Stark "Benjen Stark") arrives to rescue him, sacrificing himself. Later, Daenerys vows to fight the Night King with Jon and he swears fealty to her as his queen.
Jon and Daenerys travel to King's Landing to parley with Cersei. Cersei is apparently convinced to declare a truce so that the Lannisters may aid in the battle against the dead but later reveals to [Jaime Lannister](/wiki/Jaime_Lannister "Jaime Lannister") that she has no intention of keeping her word. Meanwhile, Sam and Bran have discovered that Jon was born Aegon Targaryen, the legitimate son of Rhaegar and Lyanna and rightful heir to House Targaryen. Having fallen in love,{{cite web \|last1\=Robinson \|first1\=Joanna \|title\=Game of Thrones: 18 Secrets, Easter Eggs, and Revelations Hiding in 7 Seasons of Scripts \|date\=5 December 2018 \|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/12/game\-of\-thrones\-scripts\-secrets\-cersei\-pregnancy\-tyrion\-daenerys\-snow\-on\-the\-throne \|publisher\=Vanity Fair \|access\-date\=17 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=22 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222075454/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/12/game\-of\-thrones\-scripts\-secrets\-cersei\-pregnancy\-tyrion\-daenerys\-snow\-on\-the\-throne \|url\-status\=live }} Jon and Daenerys give in to their feelings for each other and have sex on their voyage north while unaware they are related by blood.
#### Season 8
Jon returns to Winterfell and is reunited with Bran and [Arya Stark](/wiki/Arya_Stark "Arya Stark"). He learns the Wall has been breached by the White Walkers. Though they have readied Winterfell for battle, Sansa and the Northern lords are angry over Jon bending the knee to Daenerys. Jon's bond with Daenerys continues to grow, and he rides one of her dragons, Rhaegal. Sam tells Jon the truth about his identity as Aegon Targaryen. Later, Jon reveals this to Daenerys. The White Walkers arrive and Jon attempts to engage the Night King in single combat but is stopped when the Night King reanimates the dead to fight Jon. Jon attempts to pursue him to the Godswood, where Bran is waiting to lure the Night's King, but is cornered by the undead Viserion. Jon prepares to fight Viserion, but the Night King is killed by Arya, destroying the army of the dead. In the celebrations afterwards, Jon is praised by the wildlings. This troubles Daenerys, who fears the people of Westeros would prefer Jon as their ruler over her. Jon is troubled by his blood relation to Daenerys, causing him to withdraw from their intimacy.
Jon assures Daenerys that he has no desire to take the Iron Throne, renouncing his claim for hers, but insists he must be honest with his sisters about his true parentage. Jon tells Sansa and Arya, swearing them to secrecy, but Sansa sees him as a preferable alternative to Daenerys and tells Tyrion. Tyrion informs [Varys](/wiki/Varys "Varys"), who implores Jon to take the Iron Throne but Jon refuses to betray Daenerys.
Jon leads the Northern forces to help Daenerys claim the Iron Throne. They take King's Landing and the city surrenders to Daenerys. However, having been driven mad by her recent losses and betrayals, Daenerys burns the city, killing hundreds of thousands of innocent civilians. Afterward, she declares she will wage war on the rest of the world until she rules the entire planet. Arya and Tyrion warn Jon that Daenerys will view his heritage as a threat and she is a threat to the Starks. Tyrion tells Jon that despite Jon's love for Daenerys, it is his duty to kill her to protect the people. Jon confronts Daenerys but, unable to dissuade her from further destruction, reluctantly kills her and she dies in his arms. Jon is imprisoned by [Grey Worm](/wiki/Grey_Worm "Grey Worm") and awaits execution. Tyrion convinces the lords of Westeros to set up a new system of kingship, with Bran elected the King of the Six Kingdoms (the North having been granted independence). Bran sentences Jon to the Night's Watch to appease Daenerys' supporters as a compromise. Jon returns to Castle Black and leads the wildlings to return to their lands beyond the Wall.
|
[
"### Storylines",
"#### Season 1",
"Jon Snow, the bastard son of [Eddard Stark](/wiki/Eddard_Stark \"Eddard Stark\"), Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, decides to join the [Night's Watch](/wiki/Night%27s_Watch \"Night's Watch\"). He arrives at Castle Black with his direwolf Ghost to find that the once proud order is a shadow of its former self. Raised to be a skilled fighter with a strong sense of justice and honor, Jon is initially contemptuous of his fellow recruits, most of whom are lowborn criminals and exiles. He is persuaded by [Tyrion Lannister](/wiki/Tyrion_Lannister \"Tyrion Lannister\") to put aside his prejudices and help train the others. Jon befriends [Samwell Tarly](/wiki/Samwell_Tarly \"Samwell Tarly\"), an overweight, fearful recruit who is more an intellectual than a fighter. Jon takes his vows but is disappointed about being made steward to Lord Commander [Jeor Mormont](/wiki/Jeor_Mormont \"Jeor Mormont\") rather than a ranger. Sam points out that Jon is likely being groomed for future command. Jon saves Mormont from a wight and is given the House Mormont ancestral sword Longclaw, made of Valyrian steel, with a wolf's head pommel custom\\-made for Jon. Jon learns of his father's execution for apparent treason and, although tempted to leave the Wall to join [Robb Stark](/wiki/Robb_Stark \"Robb Stark\")'s army, is convinced to stay.",
"#### Season 2",
"Jon accompanies the Night's Watch on the Great Ranging beyond the Wall. When the Night's Watch seek shelter from the wildling [Craster](/wiki/Craster_%28character%29 \"Craster (character)\"), an old man who marries his own daughters, Jon is horrified to discover that Craster sacrifices his sons to the [White Walkers](/wiki/White_Walkers \"White Walkers\"). Later, as part of a small scouting party led by legendary Night's Watch ranger [Qhorin Halfhand](/wiki/Qhorin_Halfhand \"Qhorin Halfhand\"), Jon is tasked with killing a wildling prisoner, a woman warrior [Ygritte](/wiki/Ygritte \"Ygritte\"). He finds himself unable to do so and she escapes, only to capture him with her comrades. Qhorin, also taken prisoner, orders Jon to pretend to defect and join the wildlings in order to discover their plans. Qhorin stages a fight and secretly instructs Jon to kill him to gain the wildlings' trust. Jon does and is taken to meet former Night's Watch ranger [Mance Rayder](/wiki/Mance_Rayder \"Mance Rayder\"), the wildlings' King\\-Beyond\\-the Wall.",
"#### Season 3",
"Jon pledges his loyalty to Mance and travels with the wildlings, learning that they intend to scale the Wall and force their way south to escape the inevitable arrival of the White Walker army. Jon attempts to convince Mance not to attack the wall, falsely claiming Castle Black is home to over 1,000 Watchmen. Ygritte seduces Jon and takes his virginity, and they eventually fall in love. After scaling the Wall, Jon refuses to kill an innocent man to prove his loyalty. He is attacked by the other wildlings but escapes to Castle Black, despite being wounded by a devastated Ygritte.",
"#### Season 4",
"Jon survives his wounds and is tried for his defection to the wildlings, but [Maester Aemon](/wiki/Maester_Aemon \"Maester Aemon\") is convinced of Jon's loyalty to the Watch and frees him. Jon leads an expedition to Craster's Keep, where some Night's Watchmen have mutinied and murdered Lord Commander Mormont. After defeating the mutineers, Jon is reunited with Ghost. Later, [Tormund Giantsbane](/wiki/Tormund_Giantsbane \"Tormund Giantsbane\")'s wildlings attack Castle Black while Mance's army besieges the Wall. Acting\\-commander, Ser [Alliser Thorne](/wiki/Alliser_Thorne \"Alliser Thorne\"), is wounded forcing Jon to take command of the battle. Jon fights and kills Styr, leader of the Thenns. The wildlings are successfully repelled, although Ygritte is shot with an arrow and dies in Jon's arms. Jon goes beyond the Wall to negotiate with Mance, but [Stannis Baratheon](/wiki/Stannis_Baratheon \"Stannis Baratheon\")'s army arrives and routs the wildling camp, taking Mance prisoner. At Tormund's behest, Jon cremates Ygritte beyond the Wall.",
"#### Season 5",
"Stannis enlists Jon as an intermediary between himself and Mance, hoping to add the wildling army to his own. Mance refuses to kneel to Stannis, and he is subsequently burned at the stake by the red priestess [Melisandre](/wiki/Melisandre \"Melisandre\"). Jon shoots Mance with an arrow before he succumbs to the fire. Stannis, who intends to take Winterfell from the traitorous [House Bolton](/wiki/House_Bolton \"House Bolton\"), offers to legitimize Jon as a Stark and name him Lord of Winterfell in exchange for his support, but Jon remains loyal to his vows.",
"As the Watch prepares to elect a new Lord Commander, Sam advocates for Jon who is unexpectedly elected as the new Lord Commander of the Night's Watch, initially tying with his nemesis Thorne before the tie is broken by Maester Aemon's vote. Jon's intention to bring the wildlings into the Seven Kingdoms and grant them lands south of the Wall further enrages Thorne's faction of the Watch, who all hold a hatred for the wildlings. Jon travels to the wildling village of Hardhome, seeking their support for his plan to ally the Night's Watch and the wildlings against the growing threat of the White Walkers. Several thousand agree to come with Jon, but the rest are massacred when the White Walkers attack the village, although Jon discovers their vulnerability to Valyrian steel when he destroys one with Longclaw. Jon returns to the Wall, where he learns that Stannis has been defeated by the Boltons. Later, he is lured into a trap by his steward Olly and is killed by Thorne and his men. They assassinate Jon for his perceived betrayal of the Night's Watch.",
"#### Season 6",
"[Davos Seaworth](/wiki/Davos_Seaworth \"Davos Seaworth\") finds Jon's body. He, [Dolorous Edd](/wiki/Dolorous_Edd \"Dolorous Edd\"), and other brothers of the Watch loyal to Jon barricade themselves in a room with Ghost, and an attack by Thorne and his men is thwarted by the arrival of Tormund and his wildlings. Davos encourages Melisandre to attempt to resurrect Jon. The ritual seemingly fails but Jon suddenly awakens. After hanging Thorne and the other ringleaders of his assassination, Jon declares that he has been released from his Night's Watch vows by death, and passes command to Edd. He makes plans to leave Castle Black. Jon is reunited with his half\\-sister [Sansa Stark](/wiki/Sansa_Stark \"Sansa Stark\"), who has fled her abusive husband [Ramsay Bolton](/wiki/Ramsay_Bolton \"Ramsay Bolton\") and seeks Jon's aid in retaking Winterfell. Jon refuses until a threatening message arrives from Ramsay demanding Sansa's return and announcing Ramsay's possession of their brother [Rickon](/wiki/Rickon_Stark \"Rickon Stark\"). Jon, Sansa, Davos, and Tormund travel the North to recruit an army to take back Winterfell and rescue Rickon, but many houses refuse to support them. Jon convinces the wildlings to fight with him. As the armies assemble, Ramsay kills Rickon in order to provoke Jon and lure the Stark forces out of position. The ploy works and the outnumbered Stark forces are surrounded and nearly slaughtered, but the Knights of the Vale of [House Arryn](/wiki/House_Arryn \"House Arryn\") arrive with Sansa and [Petyr Baelish](/wiki/Petyr_Baelish \"Petyr Baelish\") and rout the Bolton army. Jon pursues Ramsay back into Winterfell and subdues him, but allows Sansa to decide his death. Jon gathers the lords of the North and warns them of the threat of the White Walkers. The Northern lords declare Jon the new King in the North.",
"Meanwhile, [Bran Stark](/wiki/Bran_Stark \"Bran Stark\") has a vision of the past which shows Ned reuniting with his dying sister [Lyanna Stark](/wiki/Lyanna_Stark \"Lyanna Stark\") in the Tower of Joy. She makes him swear to protect her son with [Rhaegar Targaryen](/wiki/Rhaegar_Targaryen \"Rhaegar Targaryen\"), who is revealed to be Jon.",
"#### Season 7",
"Jon prepares the North's defense against the White Walkers. He receives a message from [Cersei Lannister](/wiki/Cersei_Lannister \"Cersei Lannister\") that he swear his allegiance to her, as well as an invitation to [Dragonstone](/wiki/Dragonstone_%28A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire%29 \"Dragonstone (A Song of Ice and Fire)\") from [Daenerys Targaryen](/wiki/Daenerys_Targaryen \"Daenerys Targaryen\")'s Hand Tyrion. In a message from Sam, Jon learns Dragonstone has a deposit of dragonglass, to which the White Walkers and wights are vulnerable. He decides to meet with Daenerys. Daenerys wants Jon to bend the knee but Jon refuses, insisting that the White Walkers are a threat to all of humanity. Tyrion persuades Daenerys to let Jon mine dragonglass as a gesture of goodwill. Jon discovers cave drawings of the First Men and the Children of the Forest fighting the White Walkers and invites Daenerys to view them. As part of the plan to convince Cersei that the army of the dead is real, Jon leads an expedition beyond the Wall to capture a wight to provide proof of it. During the mission, when Jon kills a White Walker, the wights it had reanimated are destroyed. He realizes that killing the Night King will likely kill the entire army of the dead. When Jon and his party are surrounded by wights, Daenerys comes to their aid with her dragons. However, one of the dragons, Viserion, is killed by the Night King. Daenerys is forced to flee without Jon but [Benjen Stark](/wiki/Benjen_Stark \"Benjen Stark\") arrives to rescue him, sacrificing himself. Later, Daenerys vows to fight the Night King with Jon and he swears fealty to her as his queen.",
"Jon and Daenerys travel to King's Landing to parley with Cersei. Cersei is apparently convinced to declare a truce so that the Lannisters may aid in the battle against the dead but later reveals to [Jaime Lannister](/wiki/Jaime_Lannister \"Jaime Lannister\") that she has no intention of keeping her word. Meanwhile, Sam and Bran have discovered that Jon was born Aegon Targaryen, the legitimate son of Rhaegar and Lyanna and rightful heir to House Targaryen. Having fallen in love,{{cite web \\|last1\\=Robinson \\|first1\\=Joanna \\|title\\=Game of Thrones: 18 Secrets, Easter Eggs, and Revelations Hiding in 7 Seasons of Scripts \\|date\\=5 December 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/12/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-scripts\\-secrets\\-cersei\\-pregnancy\\-tyrion\\-daenerys\\-snow\\-on\\-the\\-throne \\|publisher\\=Vanity Fair \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222075454/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/12/game\\-of\\-thrones\\-scripts\\-secrets\\-cersei\\-pregnancy\\-tyrion\\-daenerys\\-snow\\-on\\-the\\-throne \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Jon and Daenerys give in to their feelings for each other and have sex on their voyage north while unaware they are related by blood.",
"#### Season 8",
"Jon returns to Winterfell and is reunited with Bran and [Arya Stark](/wiki/Arya_Stark \"Arya Stark\"). He learns the Wall has been breached by the White Walkers. Though they have readied Winterfell for battle, Sansa and the Northern lords are angry over Jon bending the knee to Daenerys. Jon's bond with Daenerys continues to grow, and he rides one of her dragons, Rhaegal. Sam tells Jon the truth about his identity as Aegon Targaryen. Later, Jon reveals this to Daenerys. The White Walkers arrive and Jon attempts to engage the Night King in single combat but is stopped when the Night King reanimates the dead to fight Jon. Jon attempts to pursue him to the Godswood, where Bran is waiting to lure the Night's King, but is cornered by the undead Viserion. Jon prepares to fight Viserion, but the Night King is killed by Arya, destroying the army of the dead. In the celebrations afterwards, Jon is praised by the wildlings. This troubles Daenerys, who fears the people of Westeros would prefer Jon as their ruler over her. Jon is troubled by his blood relation to Daenerys, causing him to withdraw from their intimacy.",
"Jon assures Daenerys that he has no desire to take the Iron Throne, renouncing his claim for hers, but insists he must be honest with his sisters about his true parentage. Jon tells Sansa and Arya, swearing them to secrecy, but Sansa sees him as a preferable alternative to Daenerys and tells Tyrion. Tyrion informs [Varys](/wiki/Varys \"Varys\"), who implores Jon to take the Iron Throne but Jon refuses to betray Daenerys.",
"Jon leads the Northern forces to help Daenerys claim the Iron Throne. They take King's Landing and the city surrenders to Daenerys. However, having been driven mad by her recent losses and betrayals, Daenerys burns the city, killing hundreds of thousands of innocent civilians. Afterward, she declares she will wage war on the rest of the world until she rules the entire planet. Arya and Tyrion warn Jon that Daenerys will view his heritage as a threat and she is a threat to the Starks. Tyrion tells Jon that despite Jon's love for Daenerys, it is his duty to kill her to protect the people. Jon confronts Daenerys but, unable to dissuade her from further destruction, reluctantly kills her and she dies in his arms. Jon is imprisoned by [Grey Worm](/wiki/Grey_Worm \"Grey Worm\") and awaits execution. Tyrion convinces the lords of Westeros to set up a new system of kingship, with Bran elected the King of the Six Kingdoms (the North having been granted independence). Bran sentences Jon to the Night's Watch to appease Daenerys' supporters as a compromise. Jon returns to Castle Black and leads the wildlings to return to their lands beyond the Wall.",
""
] |
Mechanism
---------
The creation of an image from sound has three steps – transmitting a [sound wave](/wiki/Sound_wave "Sound wave"), receiving [echoes](/wiki/Echo_%28phenomenon%29 "Echo (phenomenon)"), and interpreting those echoes.
### Producing a sound wave
[thumb\|A modern medical ultrasound scanner](/wiki/File:A_modern_medical_ultrasound_scanner.jpg "A modern medical ultrasound scanner.jpg")
A sound wave is typically produced by a [piezoelectric](/wiki/Piezoelectric "Piezoelectric") transducer encased in a plastic housing. Strong, short electrical pulses from the ultrasound machine drive the [transducer](/wiki/Ultrasonic_sensor "Ultrasonic sensor") at the desired frequency. The [frequencies](/wiki/Frequencies "Frequencies") can vary between 1 and 18 [MHz](/wiki/Megahertz "Megahertz"), though frequencies up to 50–100 megahertz have been used experimentally in a technique known as biomicroscopy in special regions, such as the anterior chamber of the eye.{{cite book \|last1\=Pavlin \|first1\=Charles \|last2\=Foster \|first2\=F. Stuart \|year\=1994 \|title\=Ultrasound Biomicroscopy of the Eye \|publisher\=Springer \|isbn\=978\-0\-387\-94206\-3}}
Older technology transducers focused their beam with physical lenses.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2021}} Contemporary technology transducers use [digital antenna array](/wiki/Digital_antenna_array "Digital antenna array") techniques (piezoelectric elements in the transducer produce echoes at different times) to enable the ultrasound machine to change the direction and depth of focus. Near the transducer, the width of the ultrasound beam almost equals to the width of the transducer, after reaching a distance from the transducer (near zone length or [Fresnel zone](/wiki/Fresnel_zone "Fresnel zone")), the beam width narrows to half of the transducer width, and after that the width increases (far zone length or [Fraunhofer's zone](/wiki/Fraunhofer_diffraction "Fraunhofer diffraction")), where the lateral resolution decreases. Therefore, the wider the transducer width and the higher the frequency of ultrasound, the longer the Fresnel zone, and the lateral resolution can be maintained at a greater depth from the transducer.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ng \|first1\=Alexander \|last2\=Swanevelder \|first2\=Justiaan \|date\=October 2011 \|title\=Resolution in ultrasound imaging \|url\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1743181617302068 \|journal\=Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care \& Pain \|language\=en \|volume\=11 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=186–192 \|doi\=10\.1093/bjaceaccp/mkr030\|doi\-access\=free }} Ultrasound waves travel in pulses. Therefore, a shorter pulse length requires higher bandwidth (greater number of frequencies) to constitute the ultrasound pulse.{{Cite journal \|last\=Starkoff \|first\=Brian \|date\=February 2014 \|title\=Ultrasound physical principles in today's technology \|journal\=Australasian Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine \|language\=en \|volume\=17 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=4–10 \|doi\=10\.1002/j.2205\-0140\.2014\.tb00086\.x \|pmc\=5024924 \|pmid\=28191202}}
As stated, the sound is focused either by the shape of the transducer, a lens in front of the transducer, or a complex set of control pulses from the ultrasound scanner, in the [beamforming](/wiki/Beamforming "Beamforming") or spatial filtering technique. This focusing produces an arc\-shaped sound wave from the face of the transducer. The wave travels into the body and comes into focus at a desired depth.
Materials on the face of the transducer enable the sound to be transmitted efficiently into the body (often a rubbery coating, a form of [impedance matching](/wiki/Impedance_matching "Impedance matching")).{{cite web \|last1\=Leskiw \|first1\=Chris \|last2\=Gates \|first2\=Ian \|title\=EP2542914A1 \- System and method for using orthogonally\-coded active source signals for reflected signal analysis \|url\=https://patents.google.com/patent/EP2542914A1/en \|website\=Google Patents \|publisher\=European Patent Office \|access\-date\=6 March 2024}} In addition, a water\-based gel is placed between the patient's skin and the probe to facilitate ultrasound transmission into the body. This is because air causes total reflection of ultrasound; impeding the transmission of ultrasound into the body.{{cite book \|last1\=Ostensen \|first1\=Harald \|title\=Basic physics of ultrasound imaging \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=Diagnostic Imaging and Laboratory Technology \- World Health Organisation \|location\=Geneva \|pages\=25–26 \|url\=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43179/9241592990\_eng.pdf \|access\-date\=2 October 2021}}
The sound wave is partially reflected from the layers between different tissues or scattered from smaller structures. Specifically, sound is reflected anywhere where there are acoustic impedance changes in the body: e.g. [blood cells](/wiki/Blood_cell "Blood cell") in [blood plasma](/wiki/Blood_plasma "Blood plasma"), small structures in organs, etc. Some of the reflections return to the transducer.
### Receiving the echoes
The return of the sound wave to the transducer results in the same process as sending the sound wave, in reverse. The returned sound wave vibrates the transducer and the transducer turns the vibrations into electrical pulses that travel to the ultrasonic scanner where they are processed and transformed into a digital image.{{cite journal \|last1\=Srivastav \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Bhogi \|first2\=K. \|last3\=Mandal \|first3\=S. \| last4\=Sharad \| first4\=M.\|title\=An Adaptive Low\-Complexity Abnormality Detection Scheme for Wearable Ultrasonography \|journal\=IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems \|date\=Aug 2019 \|volume\=66 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=1466–1470 \|doi\=10\.1109/TCSII.2018\.2881612 \|s2cid\=117391787 \| url\=https://doi.org/10\.1109/TCSII.2018\.2881612}}
### Forming the image
To make an image, the ultrasound scanner must determine two characteristics from each received echo:
1. How long it took the echo to be received from when the sound was transmitted. (Time and distance are equivalent.)
2. How strong the echo was.
Once the ultrasonic scanner determines these two, it can locate which pixel in the image to illuminate and with what intensity.
Transforming the received signal into a digital image may be explained by using a blank spreadsheet as an analogy. First picture a long, flat transducer at the top of the sheet. Send pulses down the 'columns' of the spreadsheet (A, B, C, etc.). Listen at each column for any return echoes. When an echo is heard, note how long it took for the echo to return. The longer the wait, the deeper the row (1,2,3, etc.). The strength of the echo determines the brightness setting for that cell (white for a strong echo, black for a weak echo, and varying shades of grey for everything in between.) When all the echoes are recorded on the sheet, a greyscale image has been accomplished.
In modern ultrasound systems, images are derived from the combined reception of echoes by multiple elements, rather than a single one. These elements in the transducer array work together to receive signals, a process essential for optimizing the ultrasonic beam's focus and producing detailed images. One predominant method for this is "delay\-and\-sum" beamforming. The time delay applied to each element is calculated based on the geometrical relationship between the imaging point, the transducer, and receiver positions. By integrating these time\-adjusted signals, the system pinpoints focus onto specific tissue regions, enhancing image resolution and clarity. The utilization of multiple element reception combined with the delay\-and\-sum principles underpins the high\-quality images characteristic of contemporary ultrasound scans.{{cite book \|last1\=Szabo \|first1\=Thomas L. \|title\=Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging: Inside Out \|date\=2004 \|publisher\=Academic Press \|isbn\=9780126801453}}
### Displaying the image
Images from the ultrasound scanner are transferred and displayed using the [DICOM](/wiki/DICOM "DICOM") standard. Normally, very little post processing is applied.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2022}}
|
[
"Mechanism\n---------",
"The creation of an image from sound has three steps – transmitting a [sound wave](/wiki/Sound_wave \"Sound wave\"), receiving [echoes](/wiki/Echo_%28phenomenon%29 \"Echo (phenomenon)\"), and interpreting those echoes.",
"### Producing a sound wave",
"[thumb\\|A modern medical ultrasound scanner](/wiki/File:A_modern_medical_ultrasound_scanner.jpg \"A modern medical ultrasound scanner.jpg\")\nA sound wave is typically produced by a [piezoelectric](/wiki/Piezoelectric \"Piezoelectric\") transducer encased in a plastic housing. Strong, short electrical pulses from the ultrasound machine drive the [transducer](/wiki/Ultrasonic_sensor \"Ultrasonic sensor\") at the desired frequency. The [frequencies](/wiki/Frequencies \"Frequencies\") can vary between 1 and 18 [MHz](/wiki/Megahertz \"Megahertz\"), though frequencies up to 50–100 megahertz have been used experimentally in a technique known as biomicroscopy in special regions, such as the anterior chamber of the eye.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Pavlin \\|first1\\=Charles \\|last2\\=Foster \\|first2\\=F. Stuart \\|year\\=1994 \\|title\\=Ultrasound Biomicroscopy of the Eye \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-387\\-94206\\-3}}",
"Older technology transducers focused their beam with physical lenses.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2021}} Contemporary technology transducers use [digital antenna array](/wiki/Digital_antenna_array \"Digital antenna array\") techniques (piezoelectric elements in the transducer produce echoes at different times) to enable the ultrasound machine to change the direction and depth of focus. Near the transducer, the width of the ultrasound beam almost equals to the width of the transducer, after reaching a distance from the transducer (near zone length or [Fresnel zone](/wiki/Fresnel_zone \"Fresnel zone\")), the beam width narrows to half of the transducer width, and after that the width increases (far zone length or [Fraunhofer's zone](/wiki/Fraunhofer_diffraction \"Fraunhofer diffraction\")), where the lateral resolution decreases. Therefore, the wider the transducer width and the higher the frequency of ultrasound, the longer the Fresnel zone, and the lateral resolution can be maintained at a greater depth from the transducer.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ng \\|first1\\=Alexander \\|last2\\=Swanevelder \\|first2\\=Justiaan \\|date\\=October 2011 \\|title\\=Resolution in ultrasound imaging \\|url\\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1743181617302068 \\|journal\\=Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care \\& Pain \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=186–192 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/bjaceaccp/mkr030\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Ultrasound waves travel in pulses. Therefore, a shorter pulse length requires higher bandwidth (greater number of frequencies) to constitute the ultrasound pulse.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Starkoff \\|first\\=Brian \\|date\\=February 2014 \\|title\\=Ultrasound physical principles in today's technology \\|journal\\=Australasian Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=4–10 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/j.2205\\-0140\\.2014\\.tb00086\\.x \\|pmc\\=5024924 \\|pmid\\=28191202}}",
"As stated, the sound is focused either by the shape of the transducer, a lens in front of the transducer, or a complex set of control pulses from the ultrasound scanner, in the [beamforming](/wiki/Beamforming \"Beamforming\") or spatial filtering technique. This focusing produces an arc\\-shaped sound wave from the face of the transducer. The wave travels into the body and comes into focus at a desired depth.",
"Materials on the face of the transducer enable the sound to be transmitted efficiently into the body (often a rubbery coating, a form of [impedance matching](/wiki/Impedance_matching \"Impedance matching\")).{{cite web \\|last1\\=Leskiw \\|first1\\=Chris \\|last2\\=Gates \\|first2\\=Ian \\|title\\=EP2542914A1 \\- System and method for using orthogonally\\-coded active source signals for reflected signal analysis \\|url\\=https://patents.google.com/patent/EP2542914A1/en \\|website\\=Google Patents \\|publisher\\=European Patent Office \\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2024}} In addition, a water\\-based gel is placed between the patient's skin and the probe to facilitate ultrasound transmission into the body. This is because air causes total reflection of ultrasound; impeding the transmission of ultrasound into the body.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ostensen \\|first1\\=Harald \\|title\\=Basic physics of ultrasound imaging \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Diagnostic Imaging and Laboratory Technology \\- World Health Organisation \\|location\\=Geneva \\|pages\\=25–26 \\|url\\=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43179/9241592990\\_eng.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2021}}",
"The sound wave is partially reflected from the layers between different tissues or scattered from smaller structures. Specifically, sound is reflected anywhere where there are acoustic impedance changes in the body: e.g. [blood cells](/wiki/Blood_cell \"Blood cell\") in [blood plasma](/wiki/Blood_plasma \"Blood plasma\"), small structures in organs, etc. Some of the reflections return to the transducer.",
"### Receiving the echoes",
"The return of the sound wave to the transducer results in the same process as sending the sound wave, in reverse. The returned sound wave vibrates the transducer and the transducer turns the vibrations into electrical pulses that travel to the ultrasonic scanner where they are processed and transformed into a digital image.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Srivastav \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Bhogi \\|first2\\=K. \\|last3\\=Mandal \\|first3\\=S. \\| last4\\=Sharad \\| first4\\=M.\\|title\\=An Adaptive Low\\-Complexity Abnormality Detection Scheme for Wearable Ultrasonography \\|journal\\=IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems \\|date\\=Aug 2019 \\|volume\\=66 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=1466–1470 \\|doi\\=10\\.1109/TCSII.2018\\.2881612 \\|s2cid\\=117391787 \\| url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1109/TCSII.2018\\.2881612}}",
"### Forming the image",
"To make an image, the ultrasound scanner must determine two characteristics from each received echo:\n1. How long it took the echo to be received from when the sound was transmitted. (Time and distance are equivalent.)\n2. How strong the echo was.",
"Once the ultrasonic scanner determines these two, it can locate which pixel in the image to illuminate and with what intensity.",
"Transforming the received signal into a digital image may be explained by using a blank spreadsheet as an analogy. First picture a long, flat transducer at the top of the sheet. Send pulses down the 'columns' of the spreadsheet (A, B, C, etc.). Listen at each column for any return echoes. When an echo is heard, note how long it took for the echo to return. The longer the wait, the deeper the row (1,2,3, etc.). The strength of the echo determines the brightness setting for that cell (white for a strong echo, black for a weak echo, and varying shades of grey for everything in between.) When all the echoes are recorded on the sheet, a greyscale image has been accomplished.",
"In modern ultrasound systems, images are derived from the combined reception of echoes by multiple elements, rather than a single one. These elements in the transducer array work together to receive signals, a process essential for optimizing the ultrasonic beam's focus and producing detailed images. One predominant method for this is \"delay\\-and\\-sum\" beamforming. The time delay applied to each element is calculated based on the geometrical relationship between the imaging point, the transducer, and receiver positions. By integrating these time\\-adjusted signals, the system pinpoints focus onto specific tissue regions, enhancing image resolution and clarity. The utilization of multiple element reception combined with the delay\\-and\\-sum principles underpins the high\\-quality images characteristic of contemporary ultrasound scans.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Szabo \\|first1\\=Thomas L. \\|title\\=Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging: Inside Out \\|date\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=Academic Press \\|isbn\\=9780126801453}}",
"### Displaying the image",
"Images from the ultrasound scanner are transferred and displayed using the [DICOM](/wiki/DICOM \"DICOM\") standard. Normally, very little post processing is applied.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}}",
""
] |
Expansions
----------
An additional expansion of ultrasound is **bi\-planar ultrasound**, in which the probe has two 2D planes perpendicular to each other, providing more efficient localization and detection. Furthermore, an **omniplane** probe can rotate 180° to obtain multiple images.Page 161 (part II \> Two\-dimensional Echocardiography) in: {{cite book \|author1\=Reves, J. G. \|author2\=Estafanous, Fawzy G. \|author3\=Barash, Paul G. \|title\=Cardiac anesthesia: principles and clinical practice \|publisher\=Lippincott Williams \& Wilkins \|location\=Hagerstwon, MD \|year\=2001 \|isbn\=978\-0\-7817\-2195\-0 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=45DKiUj1hLUC}} In [3D ultrasound](/wiki/3D_ultrasound "3D ultrasound"), many 2D planes are digitally added together to create a 3\-dimensional image of the object.
{{anchor\|doppler}}
### Doppler ultrasonography
{{Main\|Doppler ultrasonography}}
[thumb\|right\|Duplex scan of the common carotid artery](/wiki/File:ColourDopplerA.jpg "ColourDopplerA.jpg")
[Doppler ultrasonography](/wiki/Doppler_ultrasonography "Doppler ultrasonography") employs the [Doppler effect](/wiki/Doppler_effect "Doppler effect") to assess whether structures (usually blood){{cite book \| first\= Claude \| last\= Franceschi \| title\=L'Investigation vasculaire par ultrasonographie doppler\| publisher\= Masson\|year\=1978 \|isbn\=978\-2\-225\-63679\-0}} are moving towards or away from the probe, and their relative velocity. By calculating the frequency shift of a particular sample volume, flow in an artery or a jet of blood flow over a heart valve, its speed and direction can be determined and visualized, as an example. *Color Doppler* is the measurement of velocity by color scale. Color Doppler images are generally combined with gray scale ([B\-mode](/wiki/%23Modes "#Modes")) images to display *duplex ultrasonography* images.{{cite journal \|last1\=Saxena \|first1\=A \|last2\=Ng \|first2\=EYK \|last3\=Lim \|first3\=ST \|title\=Imaging modalities to diagnose carotid artery stenosis: progress and prospect. \|journal\=BioMedical Engineering OnLine \|date\=28 May 2019 \|volume\=18 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=66 \|doi\=10\.1186/s12938\-019\-0685\-7 \|pmid\=31138235\|pmc\=6537161 \|doi\-access\=free }} Uses include:
* [Doppler echocardiography](/wiki/Doppler_echocardiography "Doppler echocardiography") is the use of Doppler ultrasonography to examine the [heart](/wiki/Heart "Heart").{{cite web\|url\=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003869\.htm\|title\=Echocardiogram\|website\=\[\[MedlinePlus]]\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-15}} An echocardiogram can, within certain limits, produce accurate assessment of the direction of [blood flow](/wiki/Blood_flow "Blood flow") and the [velocity](/wiki/Velocity "Velocity") of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the Doppler effect. Velocity measurements allow assessment of [cardiac valve](/wiki/Cardiac_valve "Cardiac valve") areas and function, abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, leaking of blood through the valves ([valvular regurgitation](/wiki/Valvular_regurgitation "Valvular regurgitation")), and calculation of the [cardiac output](/wiki/Cardiac_output "Cardiac output") and [E/A ratio](/wiki/E/A_ratio "E/A ratio")<http://www.bioline.org.br/request?mj04008> Abdul Latif Mohamed, Jun Yong, Jamil Masiyati, Lee Lim, Sze Chec Tee. *The Prevalence Of Diastolic Dysfunction In Patients With Hypertension Referred For Echocardiographic Assessment of Left Ventricular Function.* Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 1, January 2004, pp. 66\-74 (a measure of [diastolic dysfunction](/wiki/Diastolic_dysfunction "Diastolic dysfunction")). Contrast\-enhanced ultrasound using gas\-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow\-related measurements of interest.
* [Transcranial Doppler](/wiki/Transcranial_Doppler "Transcranial Doppler") (TCD) and transcranial color Doppler (TCCD), measure the velocity of [blood flow](/wiki/Blood_flow "Blood flow") through the [brain](/wiki/Brain "Brain")'s [blood vessels](/wiki/Blood_vessel "Blood vessel") through the [cranium](/wiki/Skull "Skull"). They are useful in the diagnosis of [emboli](/wiki/Emboli "Emboli"), [stenosis](/wiki/Stenosis "Stenosis"), [vasospasm](/wiki/Vasospasm "Vasospasm") from a subarachnoid [hemorrhage](/wiki/Hemorrhage "Hemorrhage") (bleeding from a ruptured [aneurysm](/wiki/Aneurysm "Aneurysm")), and other problems.
* [Doppler fetal monitors](/wiki/Doppler_fetal_monitor "Doppler fetal monitor") use the Doppler effect to detect the [fetal heartbeat](/wiki/Fetal_heartbeat "Fetal heartbeat") during [prenatal care](/wiki/Prenatal_care "Prenatal care"). These are hand\-held, and some models also display the [heart rate](/wiki/Heart_rate "Heart rate") in beats per minute (BPM). Use of this monitor is sometimes known as *Doppler [auscultation](/wiki/Auscultation "Auscultation")*. The Doppler fetal monitor is commonly referred to simply as a *Doppler* or *fetal Doppler* and provides information similar to that provided by a [fetal stethoscope](/wiki/Fetal_stethoscope "Fetal stethoscope").
### Contrast ultrasonography (ultrasound contrast imaging)
{{Main article\|Contrast\-enhanced ultrasound}}
A [contrast medium](/wiki/Contrast_media "Contrast media") for medical ultrasonography is a formulation of encapsulated gaseous microbubbles{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1540\-8175\.1999\.tb00144\.x \|title\=Characteristics of SonoVue™ \|year\=1999 \|last1\=Schneider \|first1\=Michel \|journal\=Echocardiography \|volume\=16 \|pages\=743–746 \|pmid\=11175217 \|issue\=7, Pt 2\|s2cid\=73314302 }} to increase [echogenicity](/wiki/Echogenicity "Echogenicity") of blood, discovered by Dr. Raymond Gramiak in 1968{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1097/00004424\-196809000\-00011 \|title\=Echocardiography of the Aortic Root \|year\=1968 \|last1\=Gramiak \|first1\=Raymond \|last2\=Shah \|first2\=Pravin M. \|journal\=Investigative Radiology \|volume\=3 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=356–66 \|pmid\=5688346}} and named [contrast\-enhanced ultrasound](/wiki/Contrast-enhanced_ultrasound "Contrast-enhanced ultrasound"). This contrast [medical imaging](/wiki/Medical_imaging "Medical imaging") modality is used throughout the world,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.icus\-society.org/attachments/article/103/ICUS%20CEUS%20Use%20Around%20the%20World\-2\.pdf \|title\=CEUS Around the World – The International Contrast Ultrasound Society (ICUS) \|date\=October 2013 \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029213232/http://www.icus\-society.org/attachments/article/103/ICUS%20CEUS%20Use%20Around%20the%20World\-2\.pdf \|archive\-date\=October 29, 2013 }} for [echocardiography](/wiki/Echocardiography "Echocardiography") in particular in the United States and for ultrasound [radiology](/wiki/Radiology "Radiology") in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") and [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia").
Microbubbles\-based contrast media is administered [intravenously](/wiki/Intravenously "Intravenously") into the patient [blood stream](/wiki/Blood_stream "Blood stream") during the ultrasonography examination. Due to their size, the microbubbles remain confined in [blood vessels](/wiki/Blood_vessels "Blood vessels") without extravasating towards the [interstitial fluid](/wiki/Interstitial_fluid "Interstitial fluid"). An [ultrasound](/wiki/Ultrasound "Ultrasound") contrast media is therefore purely intravascular, making it an ideal agent to image [organ](/wiki/Biological_system "Biological system") microvasculature for [diagnostic](/wiki/Medical_diagnosis "Medical diagnosis") purposes. A typical clinical use of contrast ultrasonography is detection of a [hypervascular](/wiki/Hypervascular "Hypervascular") [metastatic](/wiki/Metastasis "Metastasis") tumor, which exhibits a contrast uptake (kinetics of microbubbles concentration in blood circulation) faster than healthy [biological tissue](/wiki/Tissue_%28biology%29 "Tissue (biology)") surrounding the [tumor](/wiki/Tumor "Tumor").{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2012\.09\.002 \|title\=Guidelines and Good Clinical Practice Recommendations for Contrast Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS) in the Liver – Update 2012 \|year\=2013 \|last1\=Claudon \|first1\=Michel \|last2\=Dietrich \|first2\=Christoph F. \|last3\=Choi \|first3\=Byung Ihn \|last4\=Cosgrove \|first4\=David O. \|last5\=Kudo \|first5\=Masatoshi \|last6\=Nolsøe \|first6\=Christian P. \|last7\=Piscaglia \|first7\=Fabio \|last8\=Wilson \|first8\=Stephanie R. \|last9\=Barr \|first9\=Richard G. \|last10\=Chammas \|first10\=Maria C. \|last11\=Chaubal \|first11\=Nitin G. \|last12\=Chen \|first12\=Min\-Hua \|last13\=Clevert \|first13\=Dirk Andre \|last14\=Correas \|first14\=Jean Michel \|last15\=Ding \|first15\=Hong \|last16\=Forsberg \|first16\=Flemming \|last17\=Fowlkes \|first17\=J. Brian \|last18\=Gibson \|first18\=Robert N. \|last19\=Goldberg \|first19\=Barry B. \|last20\=Lassau \|first20\=Nathalie \|last21\=Leen \|first21\=Edward L.S. \|last22\=Mattrey \|first22\=Robert F. \|last23\=Moriyasu \|first23\=Fuminori \|last24\=Solbiati \|first24\=Luigi \|last25\=Weskott \|first25\=Hans\-Peter \|last26\=Xu \|first26\=Hui\-Xiong \|journal\=Ultrasound in Medicine \& Biology \|volume\=39 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=187–210 \|pmid\=23137926 \|author27\=World Federation for Ultrasound in Medicine \|author28\=European Federation of Societies for Ultrasound\|hdl\=11585/144895 \|s2cid\=2224370 }} Other clinical applications using contrast exist, as in echocardiography to improve delineation of [left ventricle](/wiki/Left_ventricle "Left ventricle") for visualizing contractibility of [heart](/wiki/Heart "Heart") muscle after a [myocardial infarction](/wiki/Myocardial_infarction "Myocardial infarction"). Finally, applications in quantitative perfusion{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1055/s\-0031\-1281676 \|title\=The EFSUMB Guidelines and Recommendations on the Clinical Practice of Contrast Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS): Update 2011 on non\-hepatic applications \|year\=2011 \|last1\=Piscaglia \|first1\=F. \|last2\=Nolsøe \|first2\=C. \|last3\=Dietrich \|first3\=C. \|last4\=Cosgrove \|first4\=D. \|last5\=Gilja \|first5\=O. \|last6\=Bachmann Nielsen \|first6\=M. \|last7\=Albrecht \|first7\=T. \|last8\=Barozzi \|first8\=L. \|last9\=Bertolotto \|first9\=M. \|last10\=Catalano \|first10\=O. \|last11\=Claudon \|first11\=M. \|last12\=Clevert \|first12\=D. \|last13\=Correas \|first13\=J. \|last14\=d'Onofrio \|first14\=M. \|last15\=Drudi \|first15\=F. \|last16\=Eyding \|first16\=J. \|last17\=Giovannini \|first17\=M. \|last18\=Hocke \|first18\=M. \|last19\=Ignee \|first19\=A. \|last20\=Jung \|first20\=E. \|last21\=Klauser \|first21\=A. \|last22\=Lassau \|first22\=N. \|last23\=Leen \|first23\=E. \|last24\=Mathis \|first24\=G. \|last25\=Saftoiu \|first25\=A. \|last26\=Seidel \|first26\=G. \|last27\=Sidhu \|first27\=P. \|last28\=Ter Haar \|first28\=G. \|last29\=Timmerman \|first29\=D. \|last30\=Weskott \|first30\=H. \|journal\=Ultraschall in der Medizin \|volume\=33 \|pages\=33–59 \|pmid\=21874631 \|issue\=1\|doi\-access\=free }} (relative measurement of [blood flow](/wiki/Blood_flow "Blood flow"){{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1098/rsfs.2011\.0026 \|title\=Quantitative contrast\-enhanced ultrasound imaging: A review of sources of variability \|year\=2011 \|last1\=Tang \|first1\=M.\- X. \|last2\=Mulvana \|first2\=H. \|last3\=Gauthier \|first3\=T. \|last4\=Lim \|first4\=A. K. P. \|last5\=Cosgrove \|first5\=D. O. \|last6\=Eckersley \|first6\=R. J. \|last7\=Stride \|first7\=E. \|journal\=Interface Focus \|volume\=1 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=520–39 \|pmid\=22866229 \|pmc\=3262271}}) have emerged for identifying early patient response to anti\-cancerous drug treatment (methodology and clinical study by Dr. Nathalie Lassau in 2011{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1148/radiol.10091870 \|title\=Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Early Evaluation of Response to Bevacizumab Therapy at Dynamic Contrast\-enhanced US with Quantification—Preliminary Results \|year\=2010 \|last1\=Lassau \|first1\=N. \|last2\=Koscielny \|first2\=S. \|last3\=Chami \|first3\=L. \|last4\=Chebil \|first4\=M. \|last5\=Benatsou \|first5\=B. \|last6\=Roche \|first6\=A. \|last7\=Ducreux \|first7\=M. \|last8\=Malka \|first8\=D. \|last9\=Boige \|first9\=V. \|journal\=Radiology \|volume\=258 \|pages\=291–300 \|pmid\=20980447 \|issue\=1 }}), enabling the best oncological [therapeutic](/wiki/Therapeutic_ultrasound "Therapeutic ultrasound") options to be determined.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1111/liv.12098 \|title\=Hepatocellular carcinoma treated with sorafenib: Early detection of treatment response and major adverse events by contrast\-enhanced US \|year\=2013 \|last1\=Sugimoto \|first1\=Katsutoshi \|last2\=Moriyasu \|first2\=Fuminori \|last3\=Saito \|first3\=Kazuhiro \|last4\=Rognin \|first4\=Nicolas \|last5\=Kamiyama \|first5\=Naohisa \|last6\=Furuichi \|first6\=Yoshihiro \|last7\=Imai \|first7\=Yasuharu \|journal\=Liver International \|volume\=33 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=605–15 \|pmid\=23305331\|s2cid\=19338115 }}
[thumb\|Parametric imaging of vascular signatures (diagram)](/wiki/File:Parametric_Imaging_of_Vascular_Signatures.jpg "Parametric Imaging of Vascular Signatures.jpg")
In [oncological](/wiki/Oncological "Oncological") practice of medical contrast ultrasonography, clinicians use 'parametric imaging of vascular signatures'{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1109/TUFFC.2010\.1716 \|title\=Parametric imaging for characterizing focal liver lesions in contrast\-enhanced ultrasound \|year\=2010 \|last1\=Rognin \|first1\=N G \|last2\=Arditi \|first2\=M \|last3\=Mercier \|first3\=L \|last4\=Frinking \|first4\=P J A \|last5\=Schneider \|first5\=M \|last6\=Perrenoud \|first6\=G \|last7\=Anaye \|first7\=A \|last8\=Meuwly \|first8\=J \|last9\=Tranquart \|first9\=F \|journal\=IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control \|volume\=57 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=2503–11 \|pmid\=21041137 \|s2cid\=19339331 }} invented by Dr. Nicolas Rognin in 2010\.{{cite web\|title\=Parametric images based on dynamic behavior over time\|url\=http://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/WO2011026866\|website\= International Patent\|publisher\=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) \|vauthors\=Rognin N, etal \|pages\=1–44\|year\=2010}} This method is conceived as a [cancer](/wiki/Cancer "Cancer") aided diagnostic tool, facilitating characterization of a suspicious [tumor](/wiki/Tumor "Tumor") ([malignant](/wiki/Malignant_tumor "Malignant tumor") versus [benign](/wiki/Benign_tumor "Benign tumor")) in an organ. This method is based on medical [computational science](/wiki/Computational_science "Computational science"){{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1055/s\-0032\-1312894 \|title\=Perfusion Quantification in Contrast\-Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS) – Ready for Research Projects and Routine Clinical Use \|year\=2012 \|last1\=Tranquart \|first1\=F. \|last2\=Mercier \|first2\=L. \|last3\=Frinking \|first3\=P. \|last4\=Gaud \|first4\=E. \|last5\=Arditi \|first5\=M. \|journal\=Ultraschall in der Medizin \|volume\=33 \|pages\=S31–8 \|pmid\=22723027\|s2cid\=8513304 }}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/j.cag.2010\.12\.005 \|title\=Interactive visual analysis of contrast\-enhanced ultrasound data based on small neighborhood statistics \|year\=2011 \|last1\=Angelelli \|first1\=Paolo \|last2\=Nylund \|first2\=Kim \|last3\=Gilja \|first3\=Odd Helge \|last4\=Hauser \|first4\=Helwig \|journal\=Computers \& Graphics \|volume\=35 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=218–226}} to analyze a time sequence of ultrasound contrast images, a digital video recorded in real\-time during patient examination. Two consecutive [signal processing](/wiki/Signal_processing "Signal processing") steps are applied to each [pixel](/wiki/Pixel "Pixel") of the tumor:
1. calculation of a vascular signature (contrast uptake difference with respect to healthy tissue surrounding the tumor);
2. automatic [classification](/wiki/Pattern_recognition "Pattern recognition") of the vascular signature into a unique [parameter](/wiki/Parameter "Parameter"), the latter coded in one of the four following [colors](/wiki/Color "Color"):
* [green](/wiki/Green "Green") for continuous hyper\-enhancement (contrast uptake higher than healthy tissue one),
* [blue](/wiki/Blue "Blue") for continuous hypo\-enhancement (contrast uptake lower than healthy tissue one),
* [red](/wiki/Red "Red") for fast hyper\-enhancement (contrast uptake before healthy tissue one) or
* [yellow](/wiki/Yellow "Yellow") for fast hypo\-enhancement (contrast uptake after healthy tissue one).
Once [signal processing](/wiki/Signal_processing "Signal processing") in each pixel is completed, a color spatial map of the parameter is displayed on a [computer monitor](/wiki/Computer_monitor "Computer monitor"), summarizing all [vascular](/wiki/Vascular "Vascular") information of the tumor in a single image called a parametric image (see last figure of press articleBarnes E, [Contrast US processing tool shows malignant liver lesions](http://www.auntminnie.com/index.aspx?sec=ser&sub=def&pag=dis&ItemID=91487), AuntMinnie.com, 2010\. as clinical examples). This parametric image is interpreted by clinicians based on predominant colorization of the tumor: red indicates a suspicion of [malignancy](/wiki/Malignancy "Malignancy") (risk of cancer), green or yellow – a high probability of benignity. In the first case (suspicion of [malignant tumor](/wiki/Malignant_tumor "Malignant tumor")), the clinician typically prescribes a biopsy to confirm the diagnostic or a [CT scan](/wiki/CT_scan "CT scan") examination as a second opinion. In the second case (quasi\-certain of [benign tumor](/wiki/Benign_tumor "Benign tumor")), only a follow\-up is needed with a contrast ultrasonography examination a few months later. The main clinical benefits are to avoid a systemic biopsy (with inherent risks of invasive procedures) of benign tumors or a CT scan examination exposing the patient to [X\-ray](/wiki/X-ray "X-ray") radiation. The parametric imaging of vascular signatures method proved to be effective in humans for characterization of tumors in the liver.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1148/radiol.11101866 \|title\=Differentiation of Focal Liver Lesions: Usefulness of Parametric Imaging with Contrast\-enhanced US \|year\=2011 \|last1\=Anaye \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Perrenoud \|first2\=G. \|last3\=Rognin \|first3\=N. \|last4\=Arditi \|first4\=M. \|last5\=Mercier \|first5\=L. \|last6\=Frinking \|first6\=P. \|last7\=Ruffieux \|first7\=C. \|last8\=Peetrons \|first8\=P. \|last9\=Meuli \|first9\=R. \|last10\=Meuwly \|first10\=J.\-Y. \|journal\=Radiology \|volume\=261 \|pages\=300–10 \|pmid\=21746815 \|issue\=1\|doi\-access\=free }} In a [cancer screening](/wiki/Cancer_screening "Cancer screening") context, this method might be potentially applicable to other organs such as [breast](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer"){{cite journal \|doi\=10\.4048/jbc.2013\.16\.2\.208 \|title\=Diagnostic Value of Contrast\-Enhanced Ultrasound Parametric Imaging in Breast Tumors \|year\=2013 \|last1\=Yuan \|first1\=Zhang \|last2\=Quan \|first2\=Jiang \|last3\=Yunxiao \|first3\=Zhang \|last4\=Jian \|first4\=Chen \|last5\=Zhu \|first5\=He \|last6\=Liping \|first6\=Gong \|journal\=Journal of Breast Cancer \|volume\=16 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=208–13 \|pmid\=23843855 \|pmc\=3706868}} or [prostate](/wiki/Prostate_cancer "Prostate cancer").
### Molecular ultrasonography (ultrasound molecular imaging)
The current future of contrast ultrasonography is in [molecular imaging](/wiki/Molecular_imaging "Molecular imaging") with potential clinical applications expected in [cancer screening](/wiki/Cancer_screening "Cancer screening") to detect [malignant tumors](/wiki/Malignant_tumor "Malignant tumor") at their earliest stage of appearance. Molecular ultrasonography (or ultrasound molecular imaging) uses targeted microbubbles originally designed by Dr [Alexander Klibanov](/wiki/Alexander_Klibanov_%28biologist%29 "Alexander Klibanov (biologist)") in 1997;{{cite journal \|pmid\=9240089 \|year\=1997\|last1\=Klibanov\|first1\=A. L. \|last2\=Hughes \|first2\=M. S. \|last3\=Marsh \|first3\=J. N. \|last4\=Hall \|first4\=C. S. \|last5\=Miller \|first5\=J. G. \|last6\=Wilble \|first6\=J. H. \|last7\=Brandenburger \|first7\=G. H. \|title\=Targeting of ultrasound contrast material. An in vitro feasibility study \|volume\=412 \|pages\=113–120 \|journal\=Acta Radiologica Supplementum}}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/S0169\-409X(98\)00104\-5 \|title\=Targeted delivery of gas\-filled microspheres, contrast agents for ultrasound imaging \|year\=1999 \|last1\=Klibanov \|first1\=A \|journal\=Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews \|volume\=37 \|pages\=139–157 \|pmid\=10837732 \|issue\=1–3}} such targeted microbubbles specifically bind or adhere to tumoral microvessels by targeting [biomolecular](/wiki/Biomolecular "Biomolecular") cancer expression (overexpression of certain biomolecules that occurs during [neo\-angiogenesis](/wiki/Angiogenesis "Angiogenesis"){{cite journal \|pmid\=20027118 \|year\=2010 \|last1\=Pochon \|first1\=S \|last2\=Tardy \|first2\=I \|last3\=Bussat \|first3\=P \|last4\=Bettinger \|first4\=T \|last5\=Brochot \|first5\=J \|last6\=Von Wronski \|first6\=M \|last7\=Passantino \|first7\=L \|last8\=Schneider \|first8\=M \|title\=BR55: A lipopeptide\-based VEGFR2\-targeted ultrasound contrast agent for molecular imaging of angiogenesis \|volume\=45 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=89–95 \|doi\=10\.1097/RLI.0b013e3181c5927c \|journal\=Investigative Radiology\|s2cid\=24089981 }}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.2967/jnumed.109\.068007 \|title\=Targeted Contrast\-Enhanced Ultrasound Imaging of Tumor Angiogenesis with Contrast Microbubbles Conjugated to Integrin\-Binding Knottin Peptides \|year\=2010 \|last1\=Willmann \|first1\=J. K. \|last2\=Kimura \|first2\=R. H. \|last3\=Deshpande \|first3\=N. \|last4\=Lutz \|first4\=A. M. \|last5\=Cochran \|first5\=J. R. \|last6\=Gambhir \|first6\=S. S. \|journal\=Journal of Nuclear Medicine \|volume\=51 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=433–40 \|pmid\=20150258 \|pmc\=4111897}} or [inflammation](/wiki/Inflammation "Inflammation"){{cite journal \|pmid\=15052252 \|year\=2004 \|last1\=Lindner \|first1\=JR \|title\=Molecular imaging with contrast ultrasound and targeted microbubbles \|volume\=11 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=215–21 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.nuclcard.2004\.01\.003 \|journal\=Journal of Nuclear Cardiology\|s2cid\=36487102 }} in malignant tumors). As a result, a few minutes after their injection in blood circulation, the targeted microbubbles accumulate in the malignant tumor; facilitating its localization in a unique ultrasound contrast image. In 2013, the very first exploratory [clinical trial](/wiki/Clinical_trial "Clinical trial") in humans for [prostate cancer](/wiki/Prostate_cancer "Prostate cancer") was completed at [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam") in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") by Dr. Hessel Wijkstra.{{ClinicalTrialsGov\|NCT01253213\|BR55 in Prostate Cancer: an Exploratory Clinical Trial}}
In molecular ultrasonography, the technique of [acoustic radiation force](/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force "Acoustic radiation force") (also used for shear wave [elastography](/wiki/Elastography "Elastography")) is applied in order to literally push the targeted microbubbles towards microvessels wall; first demonstrated by Dr. Paul Dayton in 1999\.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/S0301\-5629(99\)00062\-9 \|title\=Acoustic radiation force in vivo: A mechanism to assist targeting of microbubbles \|year\=1999 \|last1\=Dayton \|first1\=Paul \|last2\=Klibanov \|first2\=Alexander \|last3\=Brandenburger \|first3\=Gary \|author4\-link\=Ferrara, Kathy \|last4\=Ferrara, Kathy \|journal\=Ultrasound in Medicine \& Biology \|volume\=25 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=1195–1201 \|pmid\=10576262}} This allows maximization of binding to the malignant tumor; the targeted microbubbles being in more direct contact with cancerous biomolecules expressed at the inner surface of tumoral microvessels. At the stage of scientific [preclinical](/wiki/Preclinical "Preclinical") research, the technique of acoustic radiation force was implemented as a prototype in clinical ultrasound systems and validated *[in vivo](/wiki/In_vivo "In vivo")* in 2D{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2012\.03\.018 \|title\=Effects of Acoustic Radiation Force on the Binding Efficiency of BR55, a VEGFR2\-Specific Ultrasound Contrast Agent \|year\=2012 \|last1\=Frinking \|first1\=Peter J.A. \|last2\=Tardy \|first2\=Isabelle \|last3\=Théraulaz \|first3\=Martine \|last4\=Arditi \|first4\=Marcel \|last5\=Powers \|first5\=Jeffry \|last6\=Pochon \|first6\=Sibylle \|last7\=Tranquart \|first7\=François \|journal\=Ultrasound in Medicine \& Biology \|volume\=38 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=1460–9 \|pmid\=22579540}} and 3D{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2011\.12\.005 \|title\=An In Vivo Validation of the Application of Acoustic Radiation Force to Enhance the Diagnostic Utility of Molecular Imaging Using 3\-D Ultrasound \|year\=2012 \|last1\=Gessner \|first1\=Ryan C. \|last2\=Streeter \|first2\=Jason E. \|last3\=Kothadia \|first3\=Roshni \|last4\=Feingold \|first4\=Steven \|last5\=Dayton \|first5\=Paul A. \|journal\=Ultrasound in Medicine \& Biology \|volume\=38 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=651–60 \|pmid\=22341052\|pmc\=3355521 }}{{cite journal\|last\=Rognin N \|title\=Molecular Ultrasound Imaging Enhancement by Volumic Acoustic Radiation Force (VARF): Pre\-clinical in vivo Validation in a Murine Tumor Model \|journal\=World Molecular Imaging Congress, Savannah, GA, USA \|year\=2013 \|url\=http://wmis2013\.omnibooksonline.com/data/papers/P380\.htm \|display\-authors\=etal \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011213605/http://wmis2013\.omnibooksonline.com/data/papers/P380\.htm \|archive\-date\=October 11, 2013 }} imaging modes.
### Elastography (ultrasound elasticity imaging)
{{Main article\|Elastography}}
Ultrasound is also used for elastography, which is a relatively new imaging modality that maps the elastic properties of soft tissue.{{cite journal \| author \= Wells P. N. T. \| year \= 2011 \| title \= Medical ultrasound: imaging of soft tissue strain and elasticity \| journal \= Journal of the Royal Society, Interface \| volume \= 8 \| issue \= 64\| pages \= 1521–1549 \| doi \= 10\.1098/rsif.2011\.0054 \| pmid \= 21680780 \| pmc \= 3177611 }}{{cite journal\|vauthors\=Sarvazyan A, Hall TJ, Urban MW, Fatemi M, Aglyamov SR, Garra BS \|pmc\=3269947 \|title\=Overview of elastography–an emerging branch of medical imaging\|journal\=Current Medical Imaging Reviews \|volume\=7 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=255–282 \|year\=2011 \|pmid\=22308105 \|doi\=10\.2174/157340511798038684}} This modality emerged in the last two decades. Elastography is useful in medical diagnoses as it can discern healthy from unhealthy tissue for specific organs/growths. For example, cancerous tumors will often be harder than the surrounding tissue, and diseased livers are stiffer than healthy ones.{{cite journal\|author1\=Ophir, J. \|author2\=Céspides, I. \|author3\=Ponnekanti, H. \|author4\=Li, X. \|title\=Elastography: A quantitative method for imaging the elasticity of biological tissues\|journal\=Ultrasonic Imaging\|volume\=13\|issue\=2\|pages\=111–34\|doi\=10\.1016/0161\-7346(91\)90079\-W\|pmid\=1858217\|year\=1991}}{{cite journal\|author1\=Parker, K J \|author2\=Doyley, M M \|author3\=Rubens, D J \|title\=Corrigendum: Imaging the elastic properties of tissue: The 20 year perspective\|journal\=Physics in Medicine and Biology\|volume\=57\|issue\=16\|pages\=5359–5360\|doi\=10\.1088/0031\-9155/57/16/5359\|year\=2012\|bibcode\=2012PMB....57\.5359P\|doi\-access\=free}}
There are many ultrasound elastography techniques.
### Interventional ultrasonography
Interventional ultrasonography involves [biopsy](/wiki/Biopsy "Biopsy"), emptying fluids, intrauterine [Blood transfusion](/wiki/Blood_transfusion "Blood transfusion") ([Hemolytic disease of the newborn](/wiki/Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn "Hemolytic disease of the newborn")).
* [Thyroid cysts](/wiki/Thyroid_cyst "Thyroid cyst"): High frequency thyroid [ultrasound](/wiki/Ultrasound "Ultrasound") (HFUS) can be used to treat several gland conditions. The recurrent thyroid cyst that was usually treated in the past with surgery, can be treated effectively by a new procedure called percutaneous ethanol injection, or PEI.{{cite journal \|last1\=Halenka \|first1\=Milan \|last2\=Karasek \|first2\=David \|last3\=Schovanek \|first3\=Jan \|last4\=Frysak \|first4\=Zdenek \|title\=Safe and effective percutaneous ethanol injection therapy of 200 thyroid cysts \|journal\=Biomedical Papers \|date\=18 June 2020 \|volume\=164 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=161–167 \|doi\=10\.5507/bp.2019\.007\|pmid\=30945701 \|s2cid\=92999405 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Ozderya \|first1\=Aysenur \|last2\=Aydin \|first2\=Kadriye \|last3\=Gokkaya \|first3\=Naile \|last4\=Temizkan \|first4\=Sule \|title\=Percutaneous Ethanol Injection for Benign Cystic and Mixed Thyroid Nodules \|journal\=Endocrine Practice \|date\=June 2018 \|volume\=24 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=548–555 \|doi\=10\.4158/EP\-2018\-0013\|pmid\=29624094 \|s2cid\=4665114 }} With ultrasound guided placement of a 25 gauge needle within the cyst, and after evacuation of the cyst fluid, about 50% of the cyst volume is injected back into the cavity, under strict operator visualization of the needle tip. The procedure is 80% successful in reducing the cyst to minute size.
* Metastatic thyroid cancer neck lymph nodes: HFUS may also be used to treat metastatic thyroid cancer neck lymph nodes that occur in patients who either refuse, or are no longer candidates, for surgery. Small amounts of ethanol are injected under ultrasound guided needle placement. A power doppler blood flow study is done prior to injection. The blood flow can be destroyed and the node rendered inactive. Power doppler visualized blood flow can be eradicated, and there may be a drop in the cancer blood marker test, [thyroglobulin](/wiki/Thyroglobulin "Thyroglobulin"), TG, as the node become non\-functional. Another interventional use for HFUS is to mark a cancer node prior to surgery to help locate the node cluster at the surgery. A minute amount of methylene dye is injected, under careful ultrasound guided placement of the needle on the anterior surface, but not in the node. The dye will be evident to the thyroid surgeon when opening the neck. A similar localization procedure with methylene blue, can be done to locate parathyroid adenomas.
[thumb\|[Ultrasound\-guided hip joint injection](/wiki/Ultrasound-guided_hip_joint_injection "Ultrasound-guided hip joint injection"){{cite journal \|last1\=Yeap \|first1\=Phey Ming \|last2\=Robinson \|first2\=Philip \|title\=Ultrasound Diagnostic and Therapeutic Injections of the Hip and Groin \|journal\=Journal of the Belgian Society of Radiology \|date\=16 December 2017 \|volume\=101 \|issue\=Suppl 2 \|pages\=6 \|doi\=10\.5334/jbr\-btr.1371 \|pmid\=30498802 \|pmc\=6251072 \|doi\-access\=free }}](/wiki/File:Hip_joint_injection_by_anterior_longitudinal_approach.jpg "Hip joint injection by anterior longitudinal approach.jpg")
* [Joint injections](/wiki/Joint_injection "Joint injection") can be guided by medical ultrasound, such as in [ultrasound\-guided hip joint injections](/wiki/Ultrasound-guided_hip_joint_injection "Ultrasound-guided hip joint injection").
### Compression ultrasonography
Compression ultrasonography is when the probe is pressed against the skin. This can bring the target structure closer to the probe, increasing spatial resolution of it. Comparison of the shape of the target structure before and after compression can aid in diagnosis.
It is used in [ultrasonography of deep venous thrombosis](/wiki/Ultrasonography_of_deep_venous_thrombosis "Ultrasonography of deep venous thrombosis"), wherein absence of vein compressibility is a strong indicator of thrombosis.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1136/bmj.316\.7124\.17 \|title\=Compression ultrasonography for diagnostic management of patients with clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis: Prospective cohort study \|year\=1998 \|last1\=Cogo \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Lensing \|first2\=A. W A \|last3\=Koopman \|first3\=M. M W \|last4\=Piovella \|first4\=F. \|last5\=Siragusa \|first5\=S. \|last6\=Wells \|first6\=P. S \|last7\=Villalta \|first7\=S. \|last8\=Büller \|first8\=H. R \|last9\=Turpie \|first9\=A. G G \|last10\=Prandoni \|first10\=P. \|journal\=BMJ \|volume\=316 \|issue\=7124 \|pages\=17–20 \|pmid\=9451260 \|pmc\=2665362}} Compression ultrasonography has both high [sensitivity and specificity](/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity "Sensitivity and specificity") for detecting proximal deep vein thrombosis in symptomatic patients. Results are not reliable when the patient is asymptomatic, for example in high risk postoperative orthopedic patients.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.7326/0003\-4819\-128\-8\-199804150\-00011 \|title\=Noninvasive Diagnosis of Deep Venous Thrombosis \|year\=1998 \|last1\=Kearon \|first1\=Clive \|journal\=Annals of Internal Medicine \|volume\=128 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=663–77 \|pmid\=9537941 \|last2\=Julian \|first2\=JA \|last3\=Newman \|first3\=TE \|last4\=Ginsberg \|first4\=JS\|s2cid\=13467218 }}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/S0140\-6736(94\)90240\-2 \|title\=Limitations of compression ultrasound for the detection of symptomless postoperative deep vein thrombosis \|year\=1994 \|last1\=Jongbloets \|first1\=L.M.M. \|last2\=Koopman \|first2\=M.M.W. \|last3\=Büller \|first3\=H.R. \|last4\=Ten Cate \|first4\=J.W. \|last5\=Lensing \|first5\=A.W.A. \|journal\=The Lancet \|volume\=343 \|issue\=8906 \|pages\=1142–4 \|pmid\=7910237\|s2cid\=23576444 }}
File:Ultrasonography of a normal appendix without and with compression.jpg\|A normal \[\[appendix (anatomy)\|appendix]] without and with compression. Absence of compressibility indicates \[\[appendicitis]].\<ref\>{{cite journal\|last1\=Reddan\|first1\=Tristan\|last2\=Corness\|first2\=Jonathan\|last3\=Mengersen\|first3\=Kerrie\|author3\-link\= Kerrie Mengersen \|last4\=Harden\|first4\=Fiona\|title\=Ultrasound of paediatric appendicitis and its secondary sonographic signs: providing a more meaningful finding\|journal\=Journal of Medical Radiation Sciences\|date\=March 2016\|volume\=63\|issue\=1\|pages\=59–66\|doi\=10\.1002/jmrs.154\|pmid\=27087976\|pmc\=4775827}}\</ref\>
File:Ultrasonographic measurement of aortic diameter at the navel.svg\|Compression is used in this ultrasonograph to get closer to the \[\[abdominal aorta]], making the \[\[superior mesenteric vein]] and the \[\[inferior vena cava]] look rather flat.
{{Anchor\|Panoramic}}
### Panoramic ultrasonography
[thumb\|Panoramic ultrasonography of a proximal [biceps tendon rupture](/wiki/Biceps_tendon_rupture "Biceps tendon rupture"). Top image shows the contralateral normal side, and lower image shows a retracted muscle, with a [hematoma](/wiki/Hematoma "Hematoma") filling out the proximal space.](/wiki/File:Panoramic_ultrasonography_of_biceps_tendon_rupture_-_Annotated.jpg "Panoramic ultrasonography of biceps tendon rupture - Annotated.jpg")
Panoramic ultrasonography is the digital [stitching](/wiki/Image_stitching "Image stitching") of multiple ultrasound images into a broader one.{{cite journal\|title\=Panoramic Ultrasound\|journal\=Conference: Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Signal \& Image Processing, at S.M.K. Fomra Institute of Technology Chennai, India\|first\=Suresh\|last\=Kumar\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282816212}} April 2010 It can display an entire abnormality and show its relationship to nearby structures on a single image.
### Multiparametric ultrasonography
Multiparametric ultrasonography (mpUSS) combines multiple ultrasound techniques to produce a composite result. For example, one study combined B\-mode, colour Doppler, real\-time elastography, and contrast\-enhanced ultrasound, achieving an accuracy similar to that of [multiparametric MRI](/wiki/MRI_sequence "MRI sequence").{{cite journal \|last1\=Grey \|first1\=Alistair D R \|last2\=Scott \|first2\=Rebecca \|last3\=Shah \|first3\=Bina \|last4\=Acher \|first4\=Peter \|last5\=Liyanage \|first5\=Sidath \|last6\=Pavlou \|first6\=Menelaos \|last7\=Omar \|first7\=Rumana \|last8\=Chinegwundoh \|first8\=Frank \|last9\=Patki \|first9\=Prasad \|last10\=Shah \|first10\=Taimur T \|last11\=Hamid \|first11\=Sami \|last12\=Ghei \|first12\=Maneesh \|last13\=Gilbert \|first13\=Kayleigh \|last14\=Campbell \|first14\=Diane \|last15\=Brew\-Graves \|first15\=Chris \|last16\=Arumainayagam \|first16\=Nimalan \|last17\=Chapman \|first17\=Alex \|last18\=McLeavy \|first18\=Laura \|last19\=Karatziou \|first19\=Angeliki \|last20\=Alsaadi \|first20\=Zayneb \|last21\=Collins \|first21\=Tom \|last22\=Freeman \|first22\=Alex \|last23\=Eldred\-Evans \|first23\=David \|last24\=Bertoncelli\-Tanaka \|first24\=Mariana \|last25\=Tam \|first25\=Henry \|last26\=Ramachandran \|first26\=Navin \|last27\=Madaan \|first27\=Sanjeev \|last28\=Winkler \|first28\=Mathias \|last29\=Arya \|first29\=Manit \|last30\=Emberton \|first30\=Mark \|last31\=Ahmed \|first31\=Hashim U \|title\=Multiparametric ultrasound versus multiparametric MRI to diagnose prostate cancer (CADMUS): a prospective, multicentre, paired\-cohort, confirmatory study \|journal\=The Lancet Oncology \|date\=March 2022 \|volume\=23 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=428–438 \|doi\=10\.1016/S1470\-2045(22\)00016\-X \|pmid\=35240084 \|s2cid\=247178444 \|hdl\=10044/1/94492 \|url\=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10145157/ \|hdl\-access\=free }}
### Speed\-of\-Sound Imaging
Speed\-of\-sound (SoS) imaging aims to find the spatial distribution of the SoS within the tissue. The idea is to find relative delay measurements for different transmission events and solve the limited\-angle tomographic reconstruction problem using delay measurements and transmission geometry. Compared to shear\-wave elastography, SoS imaging has better ex\-vivo tissue differentiation{{cite journal \|last1\=Glozman \|first1\=Tanya \|last2\=Azhari \|first2\=Haim \|title\=A Method for Characterization of Tissue Elastic Properties Combining Ultrasonic Computed Tomography With Elastography \|journal\=Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine \|date\=March 2010 \|volume\=29 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=387–398 \|doi\=10\.7863/jum.2010\.29\.3\.387 \|pmid\=20194935 \|s2cid\=14869006 }} for benign and malignant tumors.{{cite journal \|last1\=Li \|first1\=Cuiping \|last2\=Duric \|first2\=Nebojsa \|last3\=Littrup \|first3\=Peter \|last4\=Huang \|first4\=Lianjie \|title\=In vivo Breast Sound\-Speed Imaging with Ultrasound Tomography \|journal\=Ultrasound in Medicine \& Biology \|date\=October 2009 \|volume\=35 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=1615–1628 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2009\.05\.011 \|pmid\=19647920 \|pmc\=3915527 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Goss \|first1\=S. A. \|last2\=Johnston \|first2\=R. L. \|last3\=Dunn \|first3\=F. \|title\=Compilation of empirical ultrasonic properties of mammalian tissues. II \|journal\=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America \|date\=July 1980 \|volume\=68 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=93–108 \|doi\=10\.1121/1\.384509 \|pmid\=11683186 \|bibcode\=1980ASAJ...68R..93G }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Goss \|first1\=S. A. \|last2\=Johnston \|first2\=R. L. \|last3\=Dunn \|first3\=F. \|title\=Comprehensive compilation of empirical ultrasonic properties of mammalian tissues \|journal\=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America \|date\=August 1978 \|volume\=64 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=423–457 \|doi\=10\.1121/1\.382016 \|pmid\=361793 \|bibcode\=1978ASAJ...64\..423G }}
|
[
"Expansions\n----------",
"An additional expansion of ultrasound is **bi\\-planar ultrasound**, in which the probe has two 2D planes perpendicular to each other, providing more efficient localization and detection. Furthermore, an **omniplane** probe can rotate 180° to obtain multiple images.Page 161 (part II \\> Two\\-dimensional Echocardiography) in: {{cite book \\|author1\\=Reves, J. G. \\|author2\\=Estafanous, Fawzy G. \\|author3\\=Barash, Paul G. \\|title\\=Cardiac anesthesia: principles and clinical practice \\|publisher\\=Lippincott Williams \\& Wilkins \\|location\\=Hagerstwon, MD \\|year\\=2001 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7817\\-2195\\-0 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=45DKiUj1hLUC}} In [3D ultrasound](/wiki/3D_ultrasound \"3D ultrasound\"), many 2D planes are digitally added together to create a 3\\-dimensional image of the object.",
"{{anchor\\|doppler}}",
"### Doppler ultrasonography",
"{{Main\\|Doppler ultrasonography}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Duplex scan of the common carotid artery](/wiki/File:ColourDopplerA.jpg \"ColourDopplerA.jpg\")",
"[Doppler ultrasonography](/wiki/Doppler_ultrasonography \"Doppler ultrasonography\") employs the [Doppler effect](/wiki/Doppler_effect \"Doppler effect\") to assess whether structures (usually blood){{cite book \\| first\\= Claude \\| last\\= Franceschi \\| title\\=L'Investigation vasculaire par ultrasonographie doppler\\| publisher\\= Masson\\|year\\=1978 \\|isbn\\=978\\-2\\-225\\-63679\\-0}} are moving towards or away from the probe, and their relative velocity. By calculating the frequency shift of a particular sample volume, flow in an artery or a jet of blood flow over a heart valve, its speed and direction can be determined and visualized, as an example. *Color Doppler* is the measurement of velocity by color scale. Color Doppler images are generally combined with gray scale ([B\\-mode](/wiki/%23Modes \"#Modes\")) images to display *duplex ultrasonography* images.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Saxena \\|first1\\=A \\|last2\\=Ng \\|first2\\=EYK \\|last3\\=Lim \\|first3\\=ST \\|title\\=Imaging modalities to diagnose carotid artery stenosis: progress and prospect. \\|journal\\=BioMedical Engineering OnLine \\|date\\=28 May 2019 \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=66 \\|doi\\=10\\.1186/s12938\\-019\\-0685\\-7 \\|pmid\\=31138235\\|pmc\\=6537161 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Uses include:\n* [Doppler echocardiography](/wiki/Doppler_echocardiography \"Doppler echocardiography\") is the use of Doppler ultrasonography to examine the [heart](/wiki/Heart \"Heart\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003869\\.htm\\|title\\=Echocardiogram\\|website\\=\\[\\[MedlinePlus]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-15}} An echocardiogram can, within certain limits, produce accurate assessment of the direction of [blood flow](/wiki/Blood_flow \"Blood flow\") and the [velocity](/wiki/Velocity \"Velocity\") of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the Doppler effect. Velocity measurements allow assessment of [cardiac valve](/wiki/Cardiac_valve \"Cardiac valve\") areas and function, abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, leaking of blood through the valves ([valvular regurgitation](/wiki/Valvular_regurgitation \"Valvular regurgitation\")), and calculation of the [cardiac output](/wiki/Cardiac_output \"Cardiac output\") and [E/A ratio](/wiki/E/A_ratio \"E/A ratio\")<http://www.bioline.org.br/request?mj04008> Abdul Latif Mohamed, Jun Yong, Jamil Masiyati, Lee Lim, Sze Chec Tee. *The Prevalence Of Diastolic Dysfunction In Patients With Hypertension Referred For Echocardiographic Assessment of Left Ventricular Function.* Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 1, January 2004, pp. 66\\-74 (a measure of [diastolic dysfunction](/wiki/Diastolic_dysfunction \"Diastolic dysfunction\")). Contrast\\-enhanced ultrasound using gas\\-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow\\-related measurements of interest.\n* [Transcranial Doppler](/wiki/Transcranial_Doppler \"Transcranial Doppler\") (TCD) and transcranial color Doppler (TCCD), measure the velocity of [blood flow](/wiki/Blood_flow \"Blood flow\") through the [brain](/wiki/Brain \"Brain\")'s [blood vessels](/wiki/Blood_vessel \"Blood vessel\") through the [cranium](/wiki/Skull \"Skull\"). They are useful in the diagnosis of [emboli](/wiki/Emboli \"Emboli\"), [stenosis](/wiki/Stenosis \"Stenosis\"), [vasospasm](/wiki/Vasospasm \"Vasospasm\") from a subarachnoid [hemorrhage](/wiki/Hemorrhage \"Hemorrhage\") (bleeding from a ruptured [aneurysm](/wiki/Aneurysm \"Aneurysm\")), and other problems.\n* [Doppler fetal monitors](/wiki/Doppler_fetal_monitor \"Doppler fetal monitor\") use the Doppler effect to detect the [fetal heartbeat](/wiki/Fetal_heartbeat \"Fetal heartbeat\") during [prenatal care](/wiki/Prenatal_care \"Prenatal care\"). These are hand\\-held, and some models also display the [heart rate](/wiki/Heart_rate \"Heart rate\") in beats per minute (BPM). Use of this monitor is sometimes known as *Doppler [auscultation](/wiki/Auscultation \"Auscultation\")*. The Doppler fetal monitor is commonly referred to simply as a *Doppler* or *fetal Doppler* and provides information similar to that provided by a [fetal stethoscope](/wiki/Fetal_stethoscope \"Fetal stethoscope\").",
"### Contrast ultrasonography (ultrasound contrast imaging)",
"{{Main article\\|Contrast\\-enhanced ultrasound}}",
"A [contrast medium](/wiki/Contrast_media \"Contrast media\") for medical ultrasonography is a formulation of encapsulated gaseous microbubbles{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1540\\-8175\\.1999\\.tb00144\\.x \\|title\\=Characteristics of SonoVue™ \\|year\\=1999 \\|last1\\=Schneider \\|first1\\=Michel \\|journal\\=Echocardiography \\|volume\\=16 \\|pages\\=743–746 \\|pmid\\=11175217 \\|issue\\=7, Pt 2\\|s2cid\\=73314302 }} to increase [echogenicity](/wiki/Echogenicity \"Echogenicity\") of blood, discovered by Dr. Raymond Gramiak in 1968{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1097/00004424\\-196809000\\-00011 \\|title\\=Echocardiography of the Aortic Root \\|year\\=1968 \\|last1\\=Gramiak \\|first1\\=Raymond \\|last2\\=Shah \\|first2\\=Pravin M. \\|journal\\=Investigative Radiology \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=356–66 \\|pmid\\=5688346}} and named [contrast\\-enhanced ultrasound](/wiki/Contrast-enhanced_ultrasound \"Contrast-enhanced ultrasound\"). This contrast [medical imaging](/wiki/Medical_imaging \"Medical imaging\") modality is used throughout the world,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.icus\\-society.org/attachments/article/103/ICUS%20CEUS%20Use%20Around%20the%20World\\-2\\.pdf \\|title\\=CEUS Around the World – The International Contrast Ultrasound Society (ICUS) \\|date\\=October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029213232/http://www.icus\\-society.org/attachments/article/103/ICUS%20CEUS%20Use%20Around%20the%20World\\-2\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=October 29, 2013 }} for [echocardiography](/wiki/Echocardiography \"Echocardiography\") in particular in the United States and for ultrasound [radiology](/wiki/Radiology \"Radiology\") in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\").",
"Microbubbles\\-based contrast media is administered [intravenously](/wiki/Intravenously \"Intravenously\") into the patient [blood stream](/wiki/Blood_stream \"Blood stream\") during the ultrasonography examination. Due to their size, the microbubbles remain confined in [blood vessels](/wiki/Blood_vessels \"Blood vessels\") without extravasating towards the [interstitial fluid](/wiki/Interstitial_fluid \"Interstitial fluid\"). An [ultrasound](/wiki/Ultrasound \"Ultrasound\") contrast media is therefore purely intravascular, making it an ideal agent to image [organ](/wiki/Biological_system \"Biological system\") microvasculature for [diagnostic](/wiki/Medical_diagnosis \"Medical diagnosis\") purposes. A typical clinical use of contrast ultrasonography is detection of a [hypervascular](/wiki/Hypervascular \"Hypervascular\") [metastatic](/wiki/Metastasis \"Metastasis\") tumor, which exhibits a contrast uptake (kinetics of microbubbles concentration in blood circulation) faster than healthy [biological tissue](/wiki/Tissue_%28biology%29 \"Tissue (biology)\") surrounding the [tumor](/wiki/Tumor \"Tumor\").{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2012\\.09\\.002 \\|title\\=Guidelines and Good Clinical Practice Recommendations for Contrast Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS) in the Liver – Update 2012 \\|year\\=2013 \\|last1\\=Claudon \\|first1\\=Michel \\|last2\\=Dietrich \\|first2\\=Christoph F. \\|last3\\=Choi \\|first3\\=Byung Ihn \\|last4\\=Cosgrove \\|first4\\=David O. \\|last5\\=Kudo \\|first5\\=Masatoshi \\|last6\\=Nolsøe \\|first6\\=Christian P. \\|last7\\=Piscaglia \\|first7\\=Fabio \\|last8\\=Wilson \\|first8\\=Stephanie R. \\|last9\\=Barr \\|first9\\=Richard G. \\|last10\\=Chammas \\|first10\\=Maria C. \\|last11\\=Chaubal \\|first11\\=Nitin G. \\|last12\\=Chen \\|first12\\=Min\\-Hua \\|last13\\=Clevert \\|first13\\=Dirk Andre \\|last14\\=Correas \\|first14\\=Jean Michel \\|last15\\=Ding \\|first15\\=Hong \\|last16\\=Forsberg \\|first16\\=Flemming \\|last17\\=Fowlkes \\|first17\\=J. Brian \\|last18\\=Gibson \\|first18\\=Robert N. \\|last19\\=Goldberg \\|first19\\=Barry B. \\|last20\\=Lassau \\|first20\\=Nathalie \\|last21\\=Leen \\|first21\\=Edward L.S. \\|last22\\=Mattrey \\|first22\\=Robert F. \\|last23\\=Moriyasu \\|first23\\=Fuminori \\|last24\\=Solbiati \\|first24\\=Luigi \\|last25\\=Weskott \\|first25\\=Hans\\-Peter \\|last26\\=Xu \\|first26\\=Hui\\-Xiong \\|journal\\=Ultrasound in Medicine \\& Biology \\|volume\\=39 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=187–210 \\|pmid\\=23137926 \\|author27\\=World Federation for Ultrasound in Medicine \\|author28\\=European Federation of Societies for Ultrasound\\|hdl\\=11585/144895 \\|s2cid\\=2224370 }} Other clinical applications using contrast exist, as in echocardiography to improve delineation of [left ventricle](/wiki/Left_ventricle \"Left ventricle\") for visualizing contractibility of [heart](/wiki/Heart \"Heart\") muscle after a [myocardial infarction](/wiki/Myocardial_infarction \"Myocardial infarction\"). Finally, applications in quantitative perfusion{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1055/s\\-0031\\-1281676 \\|title\\=The EFSUMB Guidelines and Recommendations on the Clinical Practice of Contrast Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS): Update 2011 on non\\-hepatic applications \\|year\\=2011 \\|last1\\=Piscaglia \\|first1\\=F. \\|last2\\=Nolsøe \\|first2\\=C. \\|last3\\=Dietrich \\|first3\\=C. \\|last4\\=Cosgrove \\|first4\\=D. \\|last5\\=Gilja \\|first5\\=O. \\|last6\\=Bachmann Nielsen \\|first6\\=M. \\|last7\\=Albrecht \\|first7\\=T. \\|last8\\=Barozzi \\|first8\\=L. \\|last9\\=Bertolotto \\|first9\\=M. \\|last10\\=Catalano \\|first10\\=O. \\|last11\\=Claudon \\|first11\\=M. \\|last12\\=Clevert \\|first12\\=D. \\|last13\\=Correas \\|first13\\=J. \\|last14\\=d'Onofrio \\|first14\\=M. \\|last15\\=Drudi \\|first15\\=F. \\|last16\\=Eyding \\|first16\\=J. \\|last17\\=Giovannini \\|first17\\=M. \\|last18\\=Hocke \\|first18\\=M. \\|last19\\=Ignee \\|first19\\=A. \\|last20\\=Jung \\|first20\\=E. \\|last21\\=Klauser \\|first21\\=A. \\|last22\\=Lassau \\|first22\\=N. \\|last23\\=Leen \\|first23\\=E. \\|last24\\=Mathis \\|first24\\=G. \\|last25\\=Saftoiu \\|first25\\=A. \\|last26\\=Seidel \\|first26\\=G. \\|last27\\=Sidhu \\|first27\\=P. \\|last28\\=Ter Haar \\|first28\\=G. \\|last29\\=Timmerman \\|first29\\=D. \\|last30\\=Weskott \\|first30\\=H. \\|journal\\=Ultraschall in der Medizin \\|volume\\=33 \\|pages\\=33–59 \\|pmid\\=21874631 \\|issue\\=1\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} (relative measurement of [blood flow](/wiki/Blood_flow \"Blood flow\"){{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rsfs.2011\\.0026 \\|title\\=Quantitative contrast\\-enhanced ultrasound imaging: A review of sources of variability \\|year\\=2011 \\|last1\\=Tang \\|first1\\=M.\\- X. \\|last2\\=Mulvana \\|first2\\=H. \\|last3\\=Gauthier \\|first3\\=T. \\|last4\\=Lim \\|first4\\=A. K. P. \\|last5\\=Cosgrove \\|first5\\=D. O. \\|last6\\=Eckersley \\|first6\\=R. J. \\|last7\\=Stride \\|first7\\=E. \\|journal\\=Interface Focus \\|volume\\=1 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=520–39 \\|pmid\\=22866229 \\|pmc\\=3262271}}) have emerged for identifying early patient response to anti\\-cancerous drug treatment (methodology and clinical study by Dr. Nathalie Lassau in 2011{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1148/radiol.10091870 \\|title\\=Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Early Evaluation of Response to Bevacizumab Therapy at Dynamic Contrast\\-enhanced US with Quantification—Preliminary Results \\|year\\=2010 \\|last1\\=Lassau \\|first1\\=N. \\|last2\\=Koscielny \\|first2\\=S. \\|last3\\=Chami \\|first3\\=L. \\|last4\\=Chebil \\|first4\\=M. \\|last5\\=Benatsou \\|first5\\=B. \\|last6\\=Roche \\|first6\\=A. \\|last7\\=Ducreux \\|first7\\=M. \\|last8\\=Malka \\|first8\\=D. \\|last9\\=Boige \\|first9\\=V. \\|journal\\=Radiology \\|volume\\=258 \\|pages\\=291–300 \\|pmid\\=20980447 \\|issue\\=1 }}), enabling the best oncological [therapeutic](/wiki/Therapeutic_ultrasound \"Therapeutic ultrasound\") options to be determined.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/liv.12098 \\|title\\=Hepatocellular carcinoma treated with sorafenib: Early detection of treatment response and major adverse events by contrast\\-enhanced US \\|year\\=2013 \\|last1\\=Sugimoto \\|first1\\=Katsutoshi \\|last2\\=Moriyasu \\|first2\\=Fuminori \\|last3\\=Saito \\|first3\\=Kazuhiro \\|last4\\=Rognin \\|first4\\=Nicolas \\|last5\\=Kamiyama \\|first5\\=Naohisa \\|last6\\=Furuichi \\|first6\\=Yoshihiro \\|last7\\=Imai \\|first7\\=Yasuharu \\|journal\\=Liver International \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=605–15 \\|pmid\\=23305331\\|s2cid\\=19338115 }}",
"[thumb\\|Parametric imaging of vascular signatures (diagram)](/wiki/File:Parametric_Imaging_of_Vascular_Signatures.jpg \"Parametric Imaging of Vascular Signatures.jpg\")",
"In [oncological](/wiki/Oncological \"Oncological\") practice of medical contrast ultrasonography, clinicians use 'parametric imaging of vascular signatures'{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1109/TUFFC.2010\\.1716 \\|title\\=Parametric imaging for characterizing focal liver lesions in contrast\\-enhanced ultrasound \\|year\\=2010 \\|last1\\=Rognin \\|first1\\=N G \\|last2\\=Arditi \\|first2\\=M \\|last3\\=Mercier \\|first3\\=L \\|last4\\=Frinking \\|first4\\=P J A \\|last5\\=Schneider \\|first5\\=M \\|last6\\=Perrenoud \\|first6\\=G \\|last7\\=Anaye \\|first7\\=A \\|last8\\=Meuwly \\|first8\\=J \\|last9\\=Tranquart \\|first9\\=F \\|journal\\=IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control \\|volume\\=57 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=2503–11 \\|pmid\\=21041137 \\|s2cid\\=19339331 }} invented by Dr. Nicolas Rognin in 2010\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Parametric images based on dynamic behavior over time\\|url\\=http://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/WO2011026866\\|website\\= International Patent\\|publisher\\=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) \\|vauthors\\=Rognin N, etal \\|pages\\=1–44\\|year\\=2010}} This method is conceived as a [cancer](/wiki/Cancer \"Cancer\") aided diagnostic tool, facilitating characterization of a suspicious [tumor](/wiki/Tumor \"Tumor\") ([malignant](/wiki/Malignant_tumor \"Malignant tumor\") versus [benign](/wiki/Benign_tumor \"Benign tumor\")) in an organ. This method is based on medical [computational science](/wiki/Computational_science \"Computational science\"){{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1055/s\\-0032\\-1312894 \\|title\\=Perfusion Quantification in Contrast\\-Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS) – Ready for Research Projects and Routine Clinical Use \\|year\\=2012 \\|last1\\=Tranquart \\|first1\\=F. \\|last2\\=Mercier \\|first2\\=L. \\|last3\\=Frinking \\|first3\\=P. \\|last4\\=Gaud \\|first4\\=E. \\|last5\\=Arditi \\|first5\\=M. \\|journal\\=Ultraschall in der Medizin \\|volume\\=33 \\|pages\\=S31–8 \\|pmid\\=22723027\\|s2cid\\=8513304 }}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cag.2010\\.12\\.005 \\|title\\=Interactive visual analysis of contrast\\-enhanced ultrasound data based on small neighborhood statistics \\|year\\=2011 \\|last1\\=Angelelli \\|first1\\=Paolo \\|last2\\=Nylund \\|first2\\=Kim \\|last3\\=Gilja \\|first3\\=Odd Helge \\|last4\\=Hauser \\|first4\\=Helwig \\|journal\\=Computers \\& Graphics \\|volume\\=35 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=218–226}} to analyze a time sequence of ultrasound contrast images, a digital video recorded in real\\-time during patient examination. Two consecutive [signal processing](/wiki/Signal_processing \"Signal processing\") steps are applied to each [pixel](/wiki/Pixel \"Pixel\") of the tumor:\n1. calculation of a vascular signature (contrast uptake difference with respect to healthy tissue surrounding the tumor);\n2. automatic [classification](/wiki/Pattern_recognition \"Pattern recognition\") of the vascular signature into a unique [parameter](/wiki/Parameter \"Parameter\"), the latter coded in one of the four following [colors](/wiki/Color \"Color\"):\n\t* [green](/wiki/Green \"Green\") for continuous hyper\\-enhancement (contrast uptake higher than healthy tissue one),\n\t* [blue](/wiki/Blue \"Blue\") for continuous hypo\\-enhancement (contrast uptake lower than healthy tissue one),\n\t* [red](/wiki/Red \"Red\") for fast hyper\\-enhancement (contrast uptake before healthy tissue one) or\n\t* [yellow](/wiki/Yellow \"Yellow\") for fast hypo\\-enhancement (contrast uptake after healthy tissue one).",
"Once [signal processing](/wiki/Signal_processing \"Signal processing\") in each pixel is completed, a color spatial map of the parameter is displayed on a [computer monitor](/wiki/Computer_monitor \"Computer monitor\"), summarizing all [vascular](/wiki/Vascular \"Vascular\") information of the tumor in a single image called a parametric image (see last figure of press articleBarnes E, [Contrast US processing tool shows malignant liver lesions](http://www.auntminnie.com/index.aspx?sec=ser&sub=def&pag=dis&ItemID=91487), AuntMinnie.com, 2010\\. as clinical examples). This parametric image is interpreted by clinicians based on predominant colorization of the tumor: red indicates a suspicion of [malignancy](/wiki/Malignancy \"Malignancy\") (risk of cancer), green or yellow – a high probability of benignity. In the first case (suspicion of [malignant tumor](/wiki/Malignant_tumor \"Malignant tumor\")), the clinician typically prescribes a biopsy to confirm the diagnostic or a [CT scan](/wiki/CT_scan \"CT scan\") examination as a second opinion. In the second case (quasi\\-certain of [benign tumor](/wiki/Benign_tumor \"Benign tumor\")), only a follow\\-up is needed with a contrast ultrasonography examination a few months later. The main clinical benefits are to avoid a systemic biopsy (with inherent risks of invasive procedures) of benign tumors or a CT scan examination exposing the patient to [X\\-ray](/wiki/X-ray \"X-ray\") radiation. The parametric imaging of vascular signatures method proved to be effective in humans for characterization of tumors in the liver.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1148/radiol.11101866 \\|title\\=Differentiation of Focal Liver Lesions: Usefulness of Parametric Imaging with Contrast\\-enhanced US \\|year\\=2011 \\|last1\\=Anaye \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Perrenoud \\|first2\\=G. \\|last3\\=Rognin \\|first3\\=N. \\|last4\\=Arditi \\|first4\\=M. \\|last5\\=Mercier \\|first5\\=L. \\|last6\\=Frinking \\|first6\\=P. \\|last7\\=Ruffieux \\|first7\\=C. \\|last8\\=Peetrons \\|first8\\=P. \\|last9\\=Meuli \\|first9\\=R. \\|last10\\=Meuwly \\|first10\\=J.\\-Y. \\|journal\\=Radiology \\|volume\\=261 \\|pages\\=300–10 \\|pmid\\=21746815 \\|issue\\=1\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} In a [cancer screening](/wiki/Cancer_screening \"Cancer screening\") context, this method might be potentially applicable to other organs such as [breast](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\"){{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.4048/jbc.2013\\.16\\.2\\.208 \\|title\\=Diagnostic Value of Contrast\\-Enhanced Ultrasound Parametric Imaging in Breast Tumors \\|year\\=2013 \\|last1\\=Yuan \\|first1\\=Zhang \\|last2\\=Quan \\|first2\\=Jiang \\|last3\\=Yunxiao \\|first3\\=Zhang \\|last4\\=Jian \\|first4\\=Chen \\|last5\\=Zhu \\|first5\\=He \\|last6\\=Liping \\|first6\\=Gong \\|journal\\=Journal of Breast Cancer \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=208–13 \\|pmid\\=23843855 \\|pmc\\=3706868}} or [prostate](/wiki/Prostate_cancer \"Prostate cancer\").",
"### Molecular ultrasonography (ultrasound molecular imaging)",
"The current future of contrast ultrasonography is in [molecular imaging](/wiki/Molecular_imaging \"Molecular imaging\") with potential clinical applications expected in [cancer screening](/wiki/Cancer_screening \"Cancer screening\") to detect [malignant tumors](/wiki/Malignant_tumor \"Malignant tumor\") at their earliest stage of appearance. Molecular ultrasonography (or ultrasound molecular imaging) uses targeted microbubbles originally designed by Dr [Alexander Klibanov](/wiki/Alexander_Klibanov_%28biologist%29 \"Alexander Klibanov (biologist)\") in 1997;{{cite journal \\|pmid\\=9240089 \\|year\\=1997\\|last1\\=Klibanov\\|first1\\=A. L. \\|last2\\=Hughes \\|first2\\=M. S. \\|last3\\=Marsh \\|first3\\=J. N. \\|last4\\=Hall \\|first4\\=C. S. \\|last5\\=Miller \\|first5\\=J. G. \\|last6\\=Wilble \\|first6\\=J. H. \\|last7\\=Brandenburger \\|first7\\=G. H. \\|title\\=Targeting of ultrasound contrast material. An in vitro feasibility study \\|volume\\=412 \\|pages\\=113–120 \\|journal\\=Acta Radiologica Supplementum}}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0169\\-409X(98\\)00104\\-5 \\|title\\=Targeted delivery of gas\\-filled microspheres, contrast agents for ultrasound imaging \\|year\\=1999 \\|last1\\=Klibanov \\|first1\\=A \\|journal\\=Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews \\|volume\\=37 \\|pages\\=139–157 \\|pmid\\=10837732 \\|issue\\=1–3}} such targeted microbubbles specifically bind or adhere to tumoral microvessels by targeting [biomolecular](/wiki/Biomolecular \"Biomolecular\") cancer expression (overexpression of certain biomolecules that occurs during [neo\\-angiogenesis](/wiki/Angiogenesis \"Angiogenesis\"){{cite journal \\|pmid\\=20027118 \\|year\\=2010 \\|last1\\=Pochon \\|first1\\=S \\|last2\\=Tardy \\|first2\\=I \\|last3\\=Bussat \\|first3\\=P \\|last4\\=Bettinger \\|first4\\=T \\|last5\\=Brochot \\|first5\\=J \\|last6\\=Von Wronski \\|first6\\=M \\|last7\\=Passantino \\|first7\\=L \\|last8\\=Schneider \\|first8\\=M \\|title\\=BR55: A lipopeptide\\-based VEGFR2\\-targeted ultrasound contrast agent for molecular imaging of angiogenesis \\|volume\\=45 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=89–95 \\|doi\\=10\\.1097/RLI.0b013e3181c5927c \\|journal\\=Investigative Radiology\\|s2cid\\=24089981 }}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.2967/jnumed.109\\.068007 \\|title\\=Targeted Contrast\\-Enhanced Ultrasound Imaging of Tumor Angiogenesis with Contrast Microbubbles Conjugated to Integrin\\-Binding Knottin Peptides \\|year\\=2010 \\|last1\\=Willmann \\|first1\\=J. K. \\|last2\\=Kimura \\|first2\\=R. H. \\|last3\\=Deshpande \\|first3\\=N. \\|last4\\=Lutz \\|first4\\=A. M. \\|last5\\=Cochran \\|first5\\=J. R. \\|last6\\=Gambhir \\|first6\\=S. S. \\|journal\\=Journal of Nuclear Medicine \\|volume\\=51 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=433–40 \\|pmid\\=20150258 \\|pmc\\=4111897}} or [inflammation](/wiki/Inflammation \"Inflammation\"){{cite journal \\|pmid\\=15052252 \\|year\\=2004 \\|last1\\=Lindner \\|first1\\=JR \\|title\\=Molecular imaging with contrast ultrasound and targeted microbubbles \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=215–21 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.nuclcard.2004\\.01\\.003 \\|journal\\=Journal of Nuclear Cardiology\\|s2cid\\=36487102 }} in malignant tumors). As a result, a few minutes after their injection in blood circulation, the targeted microbubbles accumulate in the malignant tumor; facilitating its localization in a unique ultrasound contrast image. In 2013, the very first exploratory [clinical trial](/wiki/Clinical_trial \"Clinical trial\") in humans for [prostate cancer](/wiki/Prostate_cancer \"Prostate cancer\") was completed at [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam \"Amsterdam\") in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") by Dr. Hessel Wijkstra.{{ClinicalTrialsGov\\|NCT01253213\\|BR55 in Prostate Cancer: an Exploratory Clinical Trial}}",
"In molecular ultrasonography, the technique of [acoustic radiation force](/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force \"Acoustic radiation force\") (also used for shear wave [elastography](/wiki/Elastography \"Elastography\")) is applied in order to literally push the targeted microbubbles towards microvessels wall; first demonstrated by Dr. Paul Dayton in 1999\\.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0301\\-5629(99\\)00062\\-9 \\|title\\=Acoustic radiation force in vivo: A mechanism to assist targeting of microbubbles \\|year\\=1999 \\|last1\\=Dayton \\|first1\\=Paul \\|last2\\=Klibanov \\|first2\\=Alexander \\|last3\\=Brandenburger \\|first3\\=Gary \\|author4\\-link\\=Ferrara, Kathy \\|last4\\=Ferrara, Kathy \\|journal\\=Ultrasound in Medicine \\& Biology \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=1195–1201 \\|pmid\\=10576262}} This allows maximization of binding to the malignant tumor; the targeted microbubbles being in more direct contact with cancerous biomolecules expressed at the inner surface of tumoral microvessels. At the stage of scientific [preclinical](/wiki/Preclinical \"Preclinical\") research, the technique of acoustic radiation force was implemented as a prototype in clinical ultrasound systems and validated *[in vivo](/wiki/In_vivo \"In vivo\")* in 2D{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2012\\.03\\.018 \\|title\\=Effects of Acoustic Radiation Force on the Binding Efficiency of BR55, a VEGFR2\\-Specific Ultrasound Contrast Agent \\|year\\=2012 \\|last1\\=Frinking \\|first1\\=Peter J.A. \\|last2\\=Tardy \\|first2\\=Isabelle \\|last3\\=Théraulaz \\|first3\\=Martine \\|last4\\=Arditi \\|first4\\=Marcel \\|last5\\=Powers \\|first5\\=Jeffry \\|last6\\=Pochon \\|first6\\=Sibylle \\|last7\\=Tranquart \\|first7\\=François \\|journal\\=Ultrasound in Medicine \\& Biology \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=1460–9 \\|pmid\\=22579540}} and 3D{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2011\\.12\\.005 \\|title\\=An In Vivo Validation of the Application of Acoustic Radiation Force to Enhance the Diagnostic Utility of Molecular Imaging Using 3\\-D Ultrasound \\|year\\=2012 \\|last1\\=Gessner \\|first1\\=Ryan C. \\|last2\\=Streeter \\|first2\\=Jason E. \\|last3\\=Kothadia \\|first3\\=Roshni \\|last4\\=Feingold \\|first4\\=Steven \\|last5\\=Dayton \\|first5\\=Paul A. \\|journal\\=Ultrasound in Medicine \\& Biology \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=651–60 \\|pmid\\=22341052\\|pmc\\=3355521 }}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Rognin N \\|title\\=Molecular Ultrasound Imaging Enhancement by Volumic Acoustic Radiation Force (VARF): Pre\\-clinical in vivo Validation in a Murine Tumor Model \\|journal\\=World Molecular Imaging Congress, Savannah, GA, USA \\|year\\=2013 \\|url\\=http://wmis2013\\.omnibooksonline.com/data/papers/P380\\.htm \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011213605/http://wmis2013\\.omnibooksonline.com/data/papers/P380\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=October 11, 2013 }} imaging modes.",
"### Elastography (ultrasound elasticity imaging)",
"{{Main article\\|Elastography}}\nUltrasound is also used for elastography, which is a relatively new imaging modality that maps the elastic properties of soft tissue.{{cite journal \\| author \\= Wells P. N. T. \\| year \\= 2011 \\| title \\= Medical ultrasound: imaging of soft tissue strain and elasticity \\| journal \\= Journal of the Royal Society, Interface \\| volume \\= 8 \\| issue \\= 64\\| pages \\= 1521–1549 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1098/rsif.2011\\.0054 \\| pmid \\= 21680780 \\| pmc \\= 3177611 }}{{cite journal\\|vauthors\\=Sarvazyan A, Hall TJ, Urban MW, Fatemi M, Aglyamov SR, Garra BS \\|pmc\\=3269947 \\|title\\=Overview of elastography–an emerging branch of medical imaging\\|journal\\=Current Medical Imaging Reviews \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=255–282 \\|year\\=2011 \\|pmid\\=22308105 \\|doi\\=10\\.2174/157340511798038684}} This modality emerged in the last two decades. Elastography is useful in medical diagnoses as it can discern healthy from unhealthy tissue for specific organs/growths. For example, cancerous tumors will often be harder than the surrounding tissue, and diseased livers are stiffer than healthy ones.{{cite journal\\|author1\\=Ophir, J. \\|author2\\=Céspides, I. \\|author3\\=Ponnekanti, H. \\|author4\\=Li, X. \\|title\\=Elastography: A quantitative method for imaging the elasticity of biological tissues\\|journal\\=Ultrasonic Imaging\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=111–34\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0161\\-7346(91\\)90079\\-W\\|pmid\\=1858217\\|year\\=1991}}{{cite journal\\|author1\\=Parker, K J \\|author2\\=Doyley, M M \\|author3\\=Rubens, D J \\|title\\=Corrigendum: Imaging the elastic properties of tissue: The 20 year perspective\\|journal\\=Physics in Medicine and Biology\\|volume\\=57\\|issue\\=16\\|pages\\=5359–5360\\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0031\\-9155/57/16/5359\\|year\\=2012\\|bibcode\\=2012PMB....57\\.5359P\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"There are many ultrasound elastography techniques.",
"### Interventional ultrasonography",
"Interventional ultrasonography involves [biopsy](/wiki/Biopsy \"Biopsy\"), emptying fluids, intrauterine [Blood transfusion](/wiki/Blood_transfusion \"Blood transfusion\") ([Hemolytic disease of the newborn](/wiki/Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn \"Hemolytic disease of the newborn\")).\n* [Thyroid cysts](/wiki/Thyroid_cyst \"Thyroid cyst\"): High frequency thyroid [ultrasound](/wiki/Ultrasound \"Ultrasound\") (HFUS) can be used to treat several gland conditions. The recurrent thyroid cyst that was usually treated in the past with surgery, can be treated effectively by a new procedure called percutaneous ethanol injection, or PEI.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Halenka \\|first1\\=Milan \\|last2\\=Karasek \\|first2\\=David \\|last3\\=Schovanek \\|first3\\=Jan \\|last4\\=Frysak \\|first4\\=Zdenek \\|title\\=Safe and effective percutaneous ethanol injection therapy of 200 thyroid cysts \\|journal\\=Biomedical Papers \\|date\\=18 June 2020 \\|volume\\=164 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=161–167 \\|doi\\=10\\.5507/bp.2019\\.007\\|pmid\\=30945701 \\|s2cid\\=92999405 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Ozderya \\|first1\\=Aysenur \\|last2\\=Aydin \\|first2\\=Kadriye \\|last3\\=Gokkaya \\|first3\\=Naile \\|last4\\=Temizkan \\|first4\\=Sule \\|title\\=Percutaneous Ethanol Injection for Benign Cystic and Mixed Thyroid Nodules \\|journal\\=Endocrine Practice \\|date\\=June 2018 \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=548–555 \\|doi\\=10\\.4158/EP\\-2018\\-0013\\|pmid\\=29624094 \\|s2cid\\=4665114 }} With ultrasound guided placement of a 25 gauge needle within the cyst, and after evacuation of the cyst fluid, about 50% of the cyst volume is injected back into the cavity, under strict operator visualization of the needle tip. The procedure is 80% successful in reducing the cyst to minute size.\n* Metastatic thyroid cancer neck lymph nodes: HFUS may also be used to treat metastatic thyroid cancer neck lymph nodes that occur in patients who either refuse, or are no longer candidates, for surgery. Small amounts of ethanol are injected under ultrasound guided needle placement. A power doppler blood flow study is done prior to injection. The blood flow can be destroyed and the node rendered inactive. Power doppler visualized blood flow can be eradicated, and there may be a drop in the cancer blood marker test, [thyroglobulin](/wiki/Thyroglobulin \"Thyroglobulin\"), TG, as the node become non\\-functional. Another interventional use for HFUS is to mark a cancer node prior to surgery to help locate the node cluster at the surgery. A minute amount of methylene dye is injected, under careful ultrasound guided placement of the needle on the anterior surface, but not in the node. The dye will be evident to the thyroid surgeon when opening the neck. A similar localization procedure with methylene blue, can be done to locate parathyroid adenomas.\n[thumb\\|[Ultrasound\\-guided hip joint injection](/wiki/Ultrasound-guided_hip_joint_injection \"Ultrasound-guided hip joint injection\"){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Yeap \\|first1\\=Phey Ming \\|last2\\=Robinson \\|first2\\=Philip \\|title\\=Ultrasound Diagnostic and Therapeutic Injections of the Hip and Groin \\|journal\\=Journal of the Belgian Society of Radiology \\|date\\=16 December 2017 \\|volume\\=101 \\|issue\\=Suppl 2 \\|pages\\=6 \\|doi\\=10\\.5334/jbr\\-btr.1371 \\|pmid\\=30498802 \\|pmc\\=6251072 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}](/wiki/File:Hip_joint_injection_by_anterior_longitudinal_approach.jpg \"Hip joint injection by anterior longitudinal approach.jpg\")\n* [Joint injections](/wiki/Joint_injection \"Joint injection\") can be guided by medical ultrasound, such as in [ultrasound\\-guided hip joint injections](/wiki/Ultrasound-guided_hip_joint_injection \"Ultrasound-guided hip joint injection\").",
"### Compression ultrasonography",
"Compression ultrasonography is when the probe is pressed against the skin. This can bring the target structure closer to the probe, increasing spatial resolution of it. Comparison of the shape of the target structure before and after compression can aid in diagnosis.",
"It is used in [ultrasonography of deep venous thrombosis](/wiki/Ultrasonography_of_deep_venous_thrombosis \"Ultrasonography of deep venous thrombosis\"), wherein absence of vein compressibility is a strong indicator of thrombosis.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bmj.316\\.7124\\.17 \\|title\\=Compression ultrasonography for diagnostic management of patients with clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis: Prospective cohort study \\|year\\=1998 \\|last1\\=Cogo \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Lensing \\|first2\\=A. W A \\|last3\\=Koopman \\|first3\\=M. M W \\|last4\\=Piovella \\|first4\\=F. \\|last5\\=Siragusa \\|first5\\=S. \\|last6\\=Wells \\|first6\\=P. S \\|last7\\=Villalta \\|first7\\=S. \\|last8\\=Büller \\|first8\\=H. R \\|last9\\=Turpie \\|first9\\=A. G G \\|last10\\=Prandoni \\|first10\\=P. \\|journal\\=BMJ \\|volume\\=316 \\|issue\\=7124 \\|pages\\=17–20 \\|pmid\\=9451260 \\|pmc\\=2665362}} Compression ultrasonography has both high [sensitivity and specificity](/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity \"Sensitivity and specificity\") for detecting proximal deep vein thrombosis in symptomatic patients. Results are not reliable when the patient is asymptomatic, for example in high risk postoperative orthopedic patients.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.7326/0003\\-4819\\-128\\-8\\-199804150\\-00011 \\|title\\=Noninvasive Diagnosis of Deep Venous Thrombosis \\|year\\=1998 \\|last1\\=Kearon \\|first1\\=Clive \\|journal\\=Annals of Internal Medicine \\|volume\\=128 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=663–77 \\|pmid\\=9537941 \\|last2\\=Julian \\|first2\\=JA \\|last3\\=Newman \\|first3\\=TE \\|last4\\=Ginsberg \\|first4\\=JS\\|s2cid\\=13467218 }}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0140\\-6736(94\\)90240\\-2 \\|title\\=Limitations of compression ultrasound for the detection of symptomless postoperative deep vein thrombosis \\|year\\=1994 \\|last1\\=Jongbloets \\|first1\\=L.M.M. \\|last2\\=Koopman \\|first2\\=M.M.W. \\|last3\\=Büller \\|first3\\=H.R. \\|last4\\=Ten Cate \\|first4\\=J.W. \\|last5\\=Lensing \\|first5\\=A.W.A. \\|journal\\=The Lancet \\|volume\\=343 \\|issue\\=8906 \\|pages\\=1142–4 \\|pmid\\=7910237\\|s2cid\\=23576444 }}",
"",
"File:Ultrasonography of a normal appendix without and with compression.jpg\\|A normal \\[\\[appendix (anatomy)\\|appendix]] without and with compression. Absence of compressibility indicates \\[\\[appendicitis]].\\<ref\\>{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Reddan\\|first1\\=Tristan\\|last2\\=Corness\\|first2\\=Jonathan\\|last3\\=Mengersen\\|first3\\=Kerrie\\|author3\\-link\\= Kerrie Mengersen \\|last4\\=Harden\\|first4\\=Fiona\\|title\\=Ultrasound of paediatric appendicitis and its secondary sonographic signs: providing a more meaningful finding\\|journal\\=Journal of Medical Radiation Sciences\\|date\\=March 2016\\|volume\\=63\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=59–66\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/jmrs.154\\|pmid\\=27087976\\|pmc\\=4775827}}\\</ref\\>\nFile:Ultrasonographic measurement of aortic diameter at the navel.svg\\|Compression is used in this ultrasonograph to get closer to the \\[\\[abdominal aorta]], making the \\[\\[superior mesenteric vein]] and the \\[\\[inferior vena cava]] look rather flat.",
"{{Anchor\\|Panoramic}}",
"### Panoramic ultrasonography",
"[thumb\\|Panoramic ultrasonography of a proximal [biceps tendon rupture](/wiki/Biceps_tendon_rupture \"Biceps tendon rupture\"). Top image shows the contralateral normal side, and lower image shows a retracted muscle, with a [hematoma](/wiki/Hematoma \"Hematoma\") filling out the proximal space.](/wiki/File:Panoramic_ultrasonography_of_biceps_tendon_rupture_-_Annotated.jpg \"Panoramic ultrasonography of biceps tendon rupture - Annotated.jpg\")\nPanoramic ultrasonography is the digital [stitching](/wiki/Image_stitching \"Image stitching\") of multiple ultrasound images into a broader one.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Panoramic Ultrasound\\|journal\\=Conference: Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Signal \\& Image Processing, at S.M.K. Fomra Institute of Technology Chennai, India\\|first\\=Suresh\\|last\\=Kumar\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282816212}} April 2010 It can display an entire abnormality and show its relationship to nearby structures on a single image.",
"### Multiparametric ultrasonography",
"Multiparametric ultrasonography (mpUSS) combines multiple ultrasound techniques to produce a composite result. For example, one study combined B\\-mode, colour Doppler, real\\-time elastography, and contrast\\-enhanced ultrasound, achieving an accuracy similar to that of [multiparametric MRI](/wiki/MRI_sequence \"MRI sequence\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Grey \\|first1\\=Alistair D R \\|last2\\=Scott \\|first2\\=Rebecca \\|last3\\=Shah \\|first3\\=Bina \\|last4\\=Acher \\|first4\\=Peter \\|last5\\=Liyanage \\|first5\\=Sidath \\|last6\\=Pavlou \\|first6\\=Menelaos \\|last7\\=Omar \\|first7\\=Rumana \\|last8\\=Chinegwundoh \\|first8\\=Frank \\|last9\\=Patki \\|first9\\=Prasad \\|last10\\=Shah \\|first10\\=Taimur T \\|last11\\=Hamid \\|first11\\=Sami \\|last12\\=Ghei \\|first12\\=Maneesh \\|last13\\=Gilbert \\|first13\\=Kayleigh \\|last14\\=Campbell \\|first14\\=Diane \\|last15\\=Brew\\-Graves \\|first15\\=Chris \\|last16\\=Arumainayagam \\|first16\\=Nimalan \\|last17\\=Chapman \\|first17\\=Alex \\|last18\\=McLeavy \\|first18\\=Laura \\|last19\\=Karatziou \\|first19\\=Angeliki \\|last20\\=Alsaadi \\|first20\\=Zayneb \\|last21\\=Collins \\|first21\\=Tom \\|last22\\=Freeman \\|first22\\=Alex \\|last23\\=Eldred\\-Evans \\|first23\\=David \\|last24\\=Bertoncelli\\-Tanaka \\|first24\\=Mariana \\|last25\\=Tam \\|first25\\=Henry \\|last26\\=Ramachandran \\|first26\\=Navin \\|last27\\=Madaan \\|first27\\=Sanjeev \\|last28\\=Winkler \\|first28\\=Mathias \\|last29\\=Arya \\|first29\\=Manit \\|last30\\=Emberton \\|first30\\=Mark \\|last31\\=Ahmed \\|first31\\=Hashim U \\|title\\=Multiparametric ultrasound versus multiparametric MRI to diagnose prostate cancer (CADMUS): a prospective, multicentre, paired\\-cohort, confirmatory study \\|journal\\=The Lancet Oncology \\|date\\=March 2022 \\|volume\\=23 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=428–438 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S1470\\-2045(22\\)00016\\-X \\|pmid\\=35240084 \\|s2cid\\=247178444 \\|hdl\\=10044/1/94492 \\|url\\=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10145157/ \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Speed\\-of\\-Sound Imaging",
"Speed\\-of\\-sound (SoS) imaging aims to find the spatial distribution of the SoS within the tissue. The idea is to find relative delay measurements for different transmission events and solve the limited\\-angle tomographic reconstruction problem using delay measurements and transmission geometry. Compared to shear\\-wave elastography, SoS imaging has better ex\\-vivo tissue differentiation{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Glozman \\|first1\\=Tanya \\|last2\\=Azhari \\|first2\\=Haim \\|title\\=A Method for Characterization of Tissue Elastic Properties Combining Ultrasonic Computed Tomography With Elastography \\|journal\\=Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine \\|date\\=March 2010 \\|volume\\=29 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=387–398 \\|doi\\=10\\.7863/jum.2010\\.29\\.3\\.387 \\|pmid\\=20194935 \\|s2cid\\=14869006 }} for benign and malignant tumors.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Li \\|first1\\=Cuiping \\|last2\\=Duric \\|first2\\=Nebojsa \\|last3\\=Littrup \\|first3\\=Peter \\|last4\\=Huang \\|first4\\=Lianjie \\|title\\=In vivo Breast Sound\\-Speed Imaging with Ultrasound Tomography \\|journal\\=Ultrasound in Medicine \\& Biology \\|date\\=October 2009 \\|volume\\=35 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=1615–1628 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2009\\.05\\.011 \\|pmid\\=19647920 \\|pmc\\=3915527 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Goss \\|first1\\=S. A. \\|last2\\=Johnston \\|first2\\=R. L. \\|last3\\=Dunn \\|first3\\=F. \\|title\\=Compilation of empirical ultrasonic properties of mammalian tissues. II \\|journal\\=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America \\|date\\=July 1980 \\|volume\\=68 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=93–108 \\|doi\\=10\\.1121/1\\.384509 \\|pmid\\=11683186 \\|bibcode\\=1980ASAJ...68R..93G }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Goss \\|first1\\=S. A. \\|last2\\=Johnston \\|first2\\=R. L. \\|last3\\=Dunn \\|first3\\=F. \\|title\\=Comprehensive compilation of empirical ultrasonic properties of mammalian tissues \\|journal\\=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America \\|date\\=August 1978 \\|volume\\=64 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=423–457 \\|doi\\=10\\.1121/1\\.382016 \\|pmid\\=361793 \\|bibcode\\=1978ASAJ...64\\..423G }}",
""
] |
History
-------
After the French physicist [Pierre Curie](/wiki/Pierre_Curie "Pierre Curie")'s discovery of [piezoelectricity](/wiki/Piezoelectricity "Piezoelectricity") in 1880, ultrasonic waves could be deliberately generated for industry. In 1940, the American acoustical physicist [Floyd Firestone](/wiki/Floyd_Firestone "Floyd Firestone") devised the first ultrasonic echo imaging device, the Supersonic Reflectoscope, to detect internal flaws in metal castings. In 1941, Austrian neurologist Karl Theo Dussik, in collaboration with his brother, Friedrich, a physicist, was likely the first person to image the human body ultrasonically, outlining the ventricles of a human brain.{{Cite journal \|pmc\=2170493 \|author1\=Siddharth, S. \|author2\=Goyal, A. \|title\=The origin of echocardiography \|journal\=Texas Heart Institute Journal \|volume\= 34\|issue\= 4\|pages\= 431–438\|year\= 2007\|pmid\= 18172524}}Levine, H., III (2010\). *Medical Imaging*. Santa Barbara, California: ABC\-CLIO, p. 62, describing earlier not completely successful attempt by the brothers to image a brain in 1937, which may be the same experiment. Ultrasonic energy was first applied to the human body for medical purposes by Dr [George Ludwig](/wiki/George_Ludwig "George Ludwig") at the Naval Medical Research Institute, [Bethesda, Maryland](/wiki/Bethesda%2C_Maryland "Bethesda, Maryland"), in the late 1940s.{{cite web \| title\=History of the AIUM \| url\=http://www.aium.org/aboutAIUM/timeline/1950\.asp \| access\-date\=November 15, 2005 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20051103064941/http://www.aium.org/aboutAIUM/timeline/1950\.asp \|archive\-date \= November 3, 2005}}{{cite web\|title\=The History of Ultrasound: A collection of recollections, articles, interviews and images \|publisher\=www.obgyn.net \|url\=http://www.obgyn.net/us/us.asp?page\=/us/news\_articles/ultrasound\_history/asp\-history\-toc \|access\-date\=2006\-05\-11 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060805163201/http://www.obgyn.net/us/us.asp?page\=%2Fus%2Fnews\_articles%2Fultrasound\_history%2Fasp\-history\-toc \|archive\-date\=5 August 2006 }} English\-born physicist [John Wild](/wiki/John_J._Wild "John J. Wild") (1914–2009\) first used ultrasound to assess the thickness of bowel tissue as early as 1949; he has been described as the "father of medical ultrasound".{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1136/bmj.b4428 \|title\=John Wild \|year\=2009 \|last1\=Watts \|first1\=G. \|journal\=BMJ \|volume\=339 \|pages\=b4428\|s2cid\=220114494 }} Subsequent advances took place concurrently in several countries but it was not until 1961 that David Robinson and George Kossoff's work at the Australian Department of Health resulted in the first commercially practical water bath ultrasonic scanner.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.asum.com.au/wp\-content/uploads/2015/09/Ultrasound\-Australian\-Innovation.pdf \|title\=Australian Ultrasound Innovation}} In 1963 Meyerdirk \& Wright launched production of the first commercial, hand\-held, articulated arm, compound contact B\-mode scanner, which made ultrasound generally available for medical use.
### France
Léandre Pourcelot, a researcher and teacher at INSA (Institut National des Sciences Appliquées), Lyon, co\-published a report in 1965 at the Académie des sciences, "Effet Doppler et mesure du débit sanguin" ("Doppler effect and measure of the blood flow"), the basis of his design of a Doppler flow meter in 1967\.
### Scotland
Parallel developments in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow"), Scotland by Professor [Ian Donald](/wiki/Ian_Donald "Ian Donald") and colleagues at the [Glasgow Royal Maternity Hospital](/wiki/Princess_Royal_Maternity_Hospital "Princess Royal Maternity Hospital") (GRMH) led to the first diagnostic applications of the technique.{{Cite Q\|Q29581634}} Donald was an [obstetrician](/wiki/Obstetrics "Obstetrics") with a self\-confessed "childish interest in machines, electronic and otherwise", who, having treated the wife of one of the company's directors, was invited to visit the Research Department of boilermakers [Babcock \& Wilcox](/wiki/Doosan_Babcock "Doosan Babcock") at [Renfrew](/wiki/Renfrew "Renfrew"). He adapted their industrial ultrasound equipment to conduct experiments on various anatomical specimens and assess their ultrasonic characteristics. Together with the medical physicist [Tom Brown](/wiki/Tom_Brown_%28engineer%29 "Tom Brown (engineer)").{{cite book\|title\=Looking at the Unborn: Historical aspects of obstetric ultrasound\|url\=https://archive.org/details/lookingatunbornh00witn\|year\=2000\|publisher\=\[\[History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group]]\|isbn\=978\-1\-84129\-011\-9\|url\-access\=registration}} and fellow obstetrician John MacVicar, Donald refined the equipment to enable differentiation of pathology in live volunteer patients. These findings were reported in *[The Lancet](/wiki/The_Lancet "The Lancet")* on 7 June 1958{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/S0140\-6736(58\)91905\-6 \|title\=Investigation of Abdominal Masses by Pulsed Ultrasound \|year\=1958 \|last1\=Donald \|first1\=Ian \|last2\=MacVicar \|first2\=J \|last3\=Brown \|first3\=T.G \|journal\=The Lancet \|volume\=271 \|issue\=7032 \|pages\=1188–95 \|pmid\=13550965}} as "Investigation of Abdominal Masses by Pulsed Ultrasound" – possibly one of the most important papers published in the field of diagnostic [medical imaging](/wiki/Medical_imaging "Medical imaging").
At GRMH, Professor Donald and James Willocks then refined their techniques to obstetric applications including [fetal](/wiki/Fetal "Fetal") head measurement to assess the size and growth of the fetus. With the opening of the new Queen Mother's Hospital in [Yorkhill](/wiki/Yorkhill "Yorkhill") in 1964, it became possible to improve these methods even further. [Stuart Campbell](/wiki/Stuart_Campbell_%28Obstetrician_and_Gynaecologist%29 "Stuart Campbell (Obstetrician and Gynaecologist)")'s pioneering work on fetal [cephalometry](/wiki/Cephalometry "Cephalometry") led to it acquiring long\-term status as the definitive method of study of foetal growth. As the technical quality of the scans was further developed, it soon became possible to study pregnancy from start to finish and diagnose its many complications such as multiple pregnancy, fetal abnormality and *[placenta praevia](/wiki/Placenta_praevia "Placenta praevia")*. Diagnostic ultrasound has since been imported into practically every other area of medicine.
### Sweden
Medical ultrasonography was used in 1953 at [Lund University](/wiki/Lund_University "Lund University") by [cardiologist](/wiki/Cardiology "Cardiology") [Inge Edler](/wiki/Inge_Edler "Inge Edler") and [Gustav Ludwig Hertz](/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz "Gustav Ludwig Hertz")'s son [Carl Hellmuth Hertz](/wiki/Carl_Hellmuth_Hertz "Carl Hellmuth Hertz"), who was then a graduate student at the university's department of [nuclear physics](/wiki/Nuclear_physics "Nuclear physics").
Edler had asked Hertz if it was possible to use [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar") to look into the body, but Hertz said this was impossible. However, he said, it might be possible to use ultrasonography. Hertz was familiar with using ultrasonic reflectoscopes of the American acoustical physicist [Floyd Firestone](/wiki/Floyd_Firestone "Floyd Firestone")'s invention for [nondestructive materials testing](/wiki/Nondestructive_testing "Nondestructive testing"), and together Edler and Hertz developed the idea of applying this methodology in medicine.
The first successful measurement of heart activity was made on October 29, 1953, using a device borrowed from the ship construction company [Kockums](/wiki/Kockums "Kockums") in [Malmö](/wiki/Malm%C3%B6 "Malmö"). On December 16 the same year, the method was applied to generate an echo\-encephalogram (ultrasonic probe of the [brain](/wiki/Brain "Brain")). Edler and Hertz published their findings in 1954\.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1475\-097X.2004\.00539\.x \|title\=The Use of Ultrasonic Reflectoscope for the Continuous Recording of the Movements of Heart Walls \|year\=2004 \|last1\=Edler \|first1\=I. \|last2\=Hertz \|first2\=C. H. \|journal\=Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging \|volume\=24 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=118–36 \|pmid\=15165281\|s2cid\=46092067 }}
### United States
In 1962, after about two years of work, Joseph Holmes, William Wright, and Ralph Meyerdirk developed the first compound contact B\-mode scanner. Their work had been supported by [U.S. Public Health Services](/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service "United States Public Health Service") and the [University of Colorado](/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Denver "University of Colorado Denver"). Wright and Meyerdirk left the university to form Physionic Engineering Inc., which launched the first commercial hand\-held articulated arm compound contact B\-mode scanner in 1963\. This was the start of the most popular design in the history of ultrasound scanners.{{cite web \| last \= Woo \| first \= Joseph \| title \= A short History of the development of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology \| publisher \= ob\-ultrasound.net \| year \= 2002 \| url \= http://www.ob\-ultrasound.net/history1\.html \| access\-date \= 2007\-08\-26 }}
In the late 1960s [Gene Strandness](/wiki/Gene_Strandness "Gene Strandness") and the bio\-engineering group at the [University of Washington](/wiki/University_of_Washington "University of Washington") conducted research on Doppler ultrasound as a diagnostic tool for vascular disease. Eventually, they developed technologies to use duplex imaging, or Doppler in conjunction with B\-mode scanning, to view vascular structures in real time while also providing hemodynamic information.{{cite journal\|journal\=Journal of Ultrasound\|volume\= 21 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=1323–1325 \|doi\=10\.1067/mva.2002\.123028 \|title\=D. Eugene Strandness, Jr, MD, 1928–2002 \|last\=Zierler \|first\=R. Eugene \|date\=2002\|doi\-access\=free }}
The first demonstration of color Doppler was by Geoff Stevenson, who was involved in the early developments and medical use of Doppler shifted ultrasonic energy.{{cite book\|title\=Medical Imaging Past Present and Future: 2 ARRT category A continuing education credits are available by way of an online post test at XRayCeRT.com\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DForAgAAQBAJ\|publisher\=XRayCeRT\|id\=GGKEY:6WU7UCYWQS7}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"After the French physicist [Pierre Curie](/wiki/Pierre_Curie \"Pierre Curie\")'s discovery of [piezoelectricity](/wiki/Piezoelectricity \"Piezoelectricity\") in 1880, ultrasonic waves could be deliberately generated for industry. In 1940, the American acoustical physicist [Floyd Firestone](/wiki/Floyd_Firestone \"Floyd Firestone\") devised the first ultrasonic echo imaging device, the Supersonic Reflectoscope, to detect internal flaws in metal castings. In 1941, Austrian neurologist Karl Theo Dussik, in collaboration with his brother, Friedrich, a physicist, was likely the first person to image the human body ultrasonically, outlining the ventricles of a human brain.{{Cite journal \\|pmc\\=2170493 \\|author1\\=Siddharth, S. \\|author2\\=Goyal, A. \\|title\\=The origin of echocardiography \\|journal\\=Texas Heart Institute Journal \\|volume\\= 34\\|issue\\= 4\\|pages\\= 431–438\\|year\\= 2007\\|pmid\\= 18172524}}Levine, H., III (2010\\). *Medical Imaging*. Santa Barbara, California: ABC\\-CLIO, p. 62, describing earlier not completely successful attempt by the brothers to image a brain in 1937, which may be the same experiment. Ultrasonic energy was first applied to the human body for medical purposes by Dr [George Ludwig](/wiki/George_Ludwig \"George Ludwig\") at the Naval Medical Research Institute, [Bethesda, Maryland](/wiki/Bethesda%2C_Maryland \"Bethesda, Maryland\"), in the late 1940s.{{cite web \\| title\\=History of the AIUM \\| url\\=http://www.aium.org/aboutAIUM/timeline/1950\\.asp \\| access\\-date\\=November 15, 2005 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20051103064941/http://www.aium.org/aboutAIUM/timeline/1950\\.asp \\|archive\\-date \\= November 3, 2005}}{{cite web\\|title\\=The History of Ultrasound: A collection of recollections, articles, interviews and images \\|publisher\\=www.obgyn.net \\|url\\=http://www.obgyn.net/us/us.asp?page\\=/us/news\\_articles/ultrasound\\_history/asp\\-history\\-toc \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-05\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060805163201/http://www.obgyn.net/us/us.asp?page\\=%2Fus%2Fnews\\_articles%2Fultrasound\\_history%2Fasp\\-history\\-toc \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2006 }} English\\-born physicist [John Wild](/wiki/John_J._Wild \"John J. Wild\") (1914–2009\\) first used ultrasound to assess the thickness of bowel tissue as early as 1949; he has been described as the \"father of medical ultrasound\".{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bmj.b4428 \\|title\\=John Wild \\|year\\=2009 \\|last1\\=Watts \\|first1\\=G. \\|journal\\=BMJ \\|volume\\=339 \\|pages\\=b4428\\|s2cid\\=220114494 }} Subsequent advances took place concurrently in several countries but it was not until 1961 that David Robinson and George Kossoff's work at the Australian Department of Health resulted in the first commercially practical water bath ultrasonic scanner.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.asum.com.au/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/09/Ultrasound\\-Australian\\-Innovation.pdf \\|title\\=Australian Ultrasound Innovation}} In 1963 Meyerdirk \\& Wright launched production of the first commercial, hand\\-held, articulated arm, compound contact B\\-mode scanner, which made ultrasound generally available for medical use.",
"### France",
"Léandre Pourcelot, a researcher and teacher at INSA (Institut National des Sciences Appliquées), Lyon, co\\-published a report in 1965 at the Académie des sciences, \"Effet Doppler et mesure du débit sanguin\" (\"Doppler effect and measure of the blood flow\"), the basis of his design of a Doppler flow meter in 1967\\.",
"### Scotland",
"Parallel developments in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\"), Scotland by Professor [Ian Donald](/wiki/Ian_Donald \"Ian Donald\") and colleagues at the [Glasgow Royal Maternity Hospital](/wiki/Princess_Royal_Maternity_Hospital \"Princess Royal Maternity Hospital\") (GRMH) led to the first diagnostic applications of the technique.{{Cite Q\\|Q29581634}} Donald was an [obstetrician](/wiki/Obstetrics \"Obstetrics\") with a self\\-confessed \"childish interest in machines, electronic and otherwise\", who, having treated the wife of one of the company's directors, was invited to visit the Research Department of boilermakers [Babcock \\& Wilcox](/wiki/Doosan_Babcock \"Doosan Babcock\") at [Renfrew](/wiki/Renfrew \"Renfrew\"). He adapted their industrial ultrasound equipment to conduct experiments on various anatomical specimens and assess their ultrasonic characteristics. Together with the medical physicist [Tom Brown](/wiki/Tom_Brown_%28engineer%29 \"Tom Brown (engineer)\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Looking at the Unborn: Historical aspects of obstetric ultrasound\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/lookingatunbornh00witn\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group]]\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84129\\-011\\-9\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} and fellow obstetrician John MacVicar, Donald refined the equipment to enable differentiation of pathology in live volunteer patients. These findings were reported in *[The Lancet](/wiki/The_Lancet \"The Lancet\")* on 7 June 1958{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0140\\-6736(58\\)91905\\-6 \\|title\\=Investigation of Abdominal Masses by Pulsed Ultrasound \\|year\\=1958 \\|last1\\=Donald \\|first1\\=Ian \\|last2\\=MacVicar \\|first2\\=J \\|last3\\=Brown \\|first3\\=T.G \\|journal\\=The Lancet \\|volume\\=271 \\|issue\\=7032 \\|pages\\=1188–95 \\|pmid\\=13550965}} as \"Investigation of Abdominal Masses by Pulsed Ultrasound\" – possibly one of the most important papers published in the field of diagnostic [medical imaging](/wiki/Medical_imaging \"Medical imaging\").",
"At GRMH, Professor Donald and James Willocks then refined their techniques to obstetric applications including [fetal](/wiki/Fetal \"Fetal\") head measurement to assess the size and growth of the fetus. With the opening of the new Queen Mother's Hospital in [Yorkhill](/wiki/Yorkhill \"Yorkhill\") in 1964, it became possible to improve these methods even further. [Stuart Campbell](/wiki/Stuart_Campbell_%28Obstetrician_and_Gynaecologist%29 \"Stuart Campbell (Obstetrician and Gynaecologist)\")'s pioneering work on fetal [cephalometry](/wiki/Cephalometry \"Cephalometry\") led to it acquiring long\\-term status as the definitive method of study of foetal growth. As the technical quality of the scans was further developed, it soon became possible to study pregnancy from start to finish and diagnose its many complications such as multiple pregnancy, fetal abnormality and *[placenta praevia](/wiki/Placenta_praevia \"Placenta praevia\")*. Diagnostic ultrasound has since been imported into practically every other area of medicine.",
"### Sweden",
"Medical ultrasonography was used in 1953 at [Lund University](/wiki/Lund_University \"Lund University\") by [cardiologist](/wiki/Cardiology \"Cardiology\") [Inge Edler](/wiki/Inge_Edler \"Inge Edler\") and [Gustav Ludwig Hertz](/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz \"Gustav Ludwig Hertz\")'s son [Carl Hellmuth Hertz](/wiki/Carl_Hellmuth_Hertz \"Carl Hellmuth Hertz\"), who was then a graduate student at the university's department of [nuclear physics](/wiki/Nuclear_physics \"Nuclear physics\").",
"Edler had asked Hertz if it was possible to use [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\") to look into the body, but Hertz said this was impossible. However, he said, it might be possible to use ultrasonography. Hertz was familiar with using ultrasonic reflectoscopes of the American acoustical physicist [Floyd Firestone](/wiki/Floyd_Firestone \"Floyd Firestone\")'s invention for [nondestructive materials testing](/wiki/Nondestructive_testing \"Nondestructive testing\"), and together Edler and Hertz developed the idea of applying this methodology in medicine.",
"The first successful measurement of heart activity was made on October 29, 1953, using a device borrowed from the ship construction company [Kockums](/wiki/Kockums \"Kockums\") in [Malmö](/wiki/Malm%C3%B6 \"Malmö\"). On December 16 the same year, the method was applied to generate an echo\\-encephalogram (ultrasonic probe of the [brain](/wiki/Brain \"Brain\")). Edler and Hertz published their findings in 1954\\.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1475\\-097X.2004\\.00539\\.x \\|title\\=The Use of Ultrasonic Reflectoscope for the Continuous Recording of the Movements of Heart Walls \\|year\\=2004 \\|last1\\=Edler \\|first1\\=I. \\|last2\\=Hertz \\|first2\\=C. H. \\|journal\\=Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=118–36 \\|pmid\\=15165281\\|s2cid\\=46092067 }}",
"### United States",
"In 1962, after about two years of work, Joseph Holmes, William Wright, and Ralph Meyerdirk developed the first compound contact B\\-mode scanner. Their work had been supported by [U.S. Public Health Services](/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service \"United States Public Health Service\") and the [University of Colorado](/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Denver \"University of Colorado Denver\"). Wright and Meyerdirk left the university to form Physionic Engineering Inc., which launched the first commercial hand\\-held articulated arm compound contact B\\-mode scanner in 1963\\. This was the start of the most popular design in the history of ultrasound scanners.{{cite web \\| last \\= Woo \\| first \\= Joseph \\| title \\= A short History of the development of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology \\| publisher \\= ob\\-ultrasound.net \\| year \\= 2002 \\| url \\= http://www.ob\\-ultrasound.net/history1\\.html \\| access\\-date \\= 2007\\-08\\-26 }}",
"In the late 1960s [Gene Strandness](/wiki/Gene_Strandness \"Gene Strandness\") and the bio\\-engineering group at the [University of Washington](/wiki/University_of_Washington \"University of Washington\") conducted research on Doppler ultrasound as a diagnostic tool for vascular disease. Eventually, they developed technologies to use duplex imaging, or Doppler in conjunction with B\\-mode scanning, to view vascular structures in real time while also providing hemodynamic information.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Journal of Ultrasound\\|volume\\= 21 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=1323–1325 \\|doi\\=10\\.1067/mva.2002\\.123028 \\|title\\=D. Eugene Strandness, Jr, MD, 1928–2002 \\|last\\=Zierler \\|first\\=R. Eugene \\|date\\=2002\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"The first demonstration of color Doppler was by Geoff Stevenson, who was involved in the early developments and medical use of Doppler shifted ultrasonic energy.{{cite book\\|title\\=Medical Imaging Past Present and Future: 2 ARRT category A continuing education credits are available by way of an online post test at XRayCeRT.com\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DForAgAAQBAJ\\|publisher\\=XRayCeRT\\|id\\=GGKEY:6WU7UCYWQS7}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{Historical populations
\|title\= Historical populations
\|type\= USA
\|align\= left
\|1920\|68
\|1930\|82
\|1940\|105
\|1950\|71
\|1960\|58
\|1970\|56
\|1980\|49
\|1990\|39
\|2000\|24
\|2010\|32
\|2020\|23
\|source\={{center\|U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}}}\|footnote\=Source:{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|title\=U.S. Census website\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-28}} and \[http://data.iowadatacenter.org/datatables/PlacesAll/plpopulation18502000\.pdf Iowa Data Center]
}}
[thumb\|left\|alt\=The population of Berkley, Iowa from US census data\|The population of Berkley, Iowa from US census data](/wiki/File:BerkleyIowaPopPlot.png "BerkleyIowaPopPlot.png")
### 2020 census
As of the [census](/wiki/United_States_census "United States census") of 2020,{cite web \|title\=2020 Census \|url\=[https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census/decade/2020/2020\-census\-main.html](https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/2020/2020-census-main.html) \|publisher\=United States Census Bureau} there were 23 people, 11 households, and 6 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 114\.0 inhabitants per square mile (44\.0/km2). There were 11 housing units at an average density of 54\.5 per square mile (21\.0/km2). The [racial](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States census") makeup of the city was 95\.7% [White](/wiki/White_Americans "White Americans"), 0\.0% [Black or African American](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans"), 4\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States"), 0\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans"), 0\.0% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans "Pacific Islander Americans"), 0\.0% from other races and 0\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") of any race comprised 4\.3% of the population.
Of the 11 households, 27\.3% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 36\.4% were cohabitating couples, 9\.1% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 18\.2% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 45\.5% of all households were non\-families. 27\.3% of all household were made up of individuals, 9\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older.
The median age in the city was 52\.5 years. 13\.0% of the residents were under the age of 20; 8\.7% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 8\.7% were from 25 and 44; 52\.2% were from 45 and 64; and 17\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\.8% male and 52\.2% female.
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=2012\-05\-11}} of 2010, there were 32 people, 11 households, and 9 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|152\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 14 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|66\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\.9% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") and 3\.1% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.1% of the population.
There were 11 households, of which 36\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 9\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 27\.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 18\.2% were non\-families. 18\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.91 and the average family size was 2\.89\.
The median age in the city was 42 years. 25% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 18\.9% were from 25 to 44; 28\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 18\.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 59\.4% male and 40\.6% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|accessdate\=2008\-01\-31 \|title\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 24 people, 11 households, and 8 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|114\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 11 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|52\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 100\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)").
There were 11 households, out of which 9\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 27\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18\.2% were non\-families. 18\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.18 and the average family size was 2\.33\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 8\.3% under the age of 18, 8\.3% from 18 to 24, 16\.7% from 25 to 44, 20\.8% from 45 to 64, and 45\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 60 years. For every 100 females, there were 71\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 69\.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $30,000, and the median income for a family was $31,250\. Males had a median income of $43,750 versus $14,375 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $15,822\. There were no families and 11\.1% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including no under eighteens and 21\.4% of those over 64\.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{Historical populations\n\\|title\\= Historical populations\n\\|type\\= USA\n\\|align\\= left\n\\|1920\\|68\n\\|1930\\|82\n\\|1940\\|105\n\\|1950\\|71\n\\|1960\\|58\n\\|1970\\|56\n\\|1980\\|49\n\\|1990\\|39\n\\|2000\\|24\n\\|2010\\|32\n\\|2020\\|23\n\\|source\\={{center\\|U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}}}\\|footnote\\=Source:{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-28}} and \\[http://data.iowadatacenter.org/datatables/PlacesAll/plpopulation18502000\\.pdf Iowa Data Center]\n}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=The population of Berkley, Iowa from US census data\\|The population of Berkley, Iowa from US census data](/wiki/File:BerkleyIowaPopPlot.png \"BerkleyIowaPopPlot.png\")",
"### 2020 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/United_States_census \"United States census\") of 2020,{cite web \\|title\\=2020 Census \\|url\\=[https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census/decade/2020/2020\\-census\\-main.html](https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/2020/2020-census-main.html) \\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau} there were 23 people, 11 households, and 6 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 114\\.0 inhabitants per square mile (44\\.0/km2). There were 11 housing units at an average density of 54\\.5 per square mile (21\\.0/km2). The [racial](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census\") makeup of the city was 95\\.7% [White](/wiki/White_Americans \"White Americans\"), 0\\.0% [Black or African American](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\"), 4\\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\"), 0\\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\"), 0\\.0% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans \"Pacific Islander Americans\"), 0\\.0% from other races and 0\\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") of any race comprised 4\\.3% of the population.",
"Of the 11 households, 27\\.3% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 36\\.4% were cohabitating couples, 9\\.1% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 18\\.2% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 45\\.5% of all households were non\\-families. 27\\.3% of all household were made up of individuals, 9\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older.",
"The median age in the city was 52\\.5 years. 13\\.0% of the residents were under the age of 20; 8\\.7% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 8\\.7% were from 25 and 44; 52\\.2% were from 45 and 64; and 17\\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\\.8% male and 52\\.2% female.",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-05\\-11}} of 2010, there were 32 people, 11 households, and 9 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|152\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 14 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|66\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.9% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") and 3\\.1% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.1% of the population.",
"There were 11 households, of which 36\\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 9\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 27\\.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 18\\.2% were non\\-families. 18\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.91 and the average family size was 2\\.89\\.",
"The median age in the city was 42 years. 25% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 18\\.9% were from 25 to 44; 28\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 18\\.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 59\\.4% male and 40\\.6% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-01\\-31 \\|title\\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 24 people, 11 households, and 8 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|114\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 11 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|52\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 100\\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 11 households, out of which 9\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 27\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18\\.2% were non\\-families. 18\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.18 and the average family size was 2\\.33\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 8\\.3% under the age of 18, 8\\.3% from 18 to 24, 16\\.7% from 25 to 44, 20\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 45\\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 60 years. For every 100 females, there were 71\\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 69\\.2 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $30,000, and the median income for a family was $31,250\\. Males had a median income of $43,750 versus $14,375 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $15,822\\. There were no families and 11\\.1% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including no under eighteens and 21\\.4% of those over 64\\.",
""
] |
Match
-----
### Team selection
Manchester United manager [Sir Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson "Alex Ferguson") picked the same starting XI to play against Arsenal as had beaten [Tottenham Hotspur](/wiki/Tottenham_Hotspur_F.C. "Tottenham Hotspur F.C.") six days earlier, a side that had only seen three changes from their opening\-day win at [West Bromwich Albion](/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C. "West Bromwich Albion F.C."). Centre\-back [Rio Ferdinand](/wiki/Rio_Ferdinand "Rio Ferdinand") missed the match against Tottenham with a hamstring injury, but had returned to training ahead of the Arsenal game;{{cite news \|title\=Man United v Arsenal preview \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/football/man\-utd\-vs\-arsenal/preview/245401 \|work\=Sky Sports \|date\=26 August 2011 \|access\-date\=14 August 2020 }} however, he was only deemed fit enough for a place on the bench against Arsenal, and with defensive partner [Nemanja Vidić](/wiki/Nemanja_Vidi%C4%87 "Nemanja Vidić") also out with a calf problem, [Jonny Evans](/wiki/Jonny_Evans "Jonny Evans") and summer signing [Phil Jones](/wiki/Phil_Jones_%28footballer%2C_born_1992%29 "Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)") continued at the back. Right\-back [Rafael](/wiki/Rafael_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 "Rafael (footballer, born 1990)") was a long\-term injury concern with a dislocated shoulder, so [Chris Smalling](/wiki/Chris_Smalling "Chris Smalling") continued in his place, while [Patrice Evra](/wiki/Patrice_Evra "Patrice Evra") captained the side from left\-back and [David de Gea](/wiki/David_de_Gea "David de Gea") played in goal for the fourth game in a row after signing from [Atlético Madrid](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Madrid "Atlético Madrid") in the summer. The midfield and forward lines were the same as in the two previous games, with [Tom Cleverley](/wiki/Tom_Cleverley "Tom Cleverley") as the only change from the Community Shield, when he had come on for [Michael Carrick](/wiki/Michael_Carrick "Michael Carrick") at half\-time. [Darren Fletcher](/wiki/Darren_Fletcher "Darren Fletcher") was in contention for a place in the team after a long\-term stomach virus infection, but missed out on selection, while [Javier Hernández](/wiki/Javier_Hern%C3%A1ndez "Javier Hernández") was only picked on the bench for the second game in a row as he continued his recovery from a concussion sustained on the club's pre\-season tour of the United States;{{cite news \|first\=Jack \|last\=Bell \|title\=Chicharito Sustains Concussion \|url\=https://goal.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/07/27/chicharito\-sustains\-concussion/ \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=27 July 2011 \|access\-date\=14 August 2020 }} [Danny Welbeck](/wiki/Danny_Welbeck "Danny Welbeck") started alongside [Wayne Rooney](/wiki/Wayne_Rooney "Wayne Rooney") in attack.
Arsenal went into the match with more selection issues, having had a player sent off in each of their first two games of the season, which meant [Gervinho](/wiki/Gervinho "Gervinho") and [Emmanuel Frimpong](/wiki/Emmanuel_Frimpong "Emmanuel Frimpong") were ineligible to play, as was [Alex Song](/wiki/Alex_Song "Alex Song"), who had been charged with violent conduct and was serving a three\-game suspension for a stamp on [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. "Newcastle United F.C.")'s [Joey Barton](/wiki/Joey_Barton "Joey Barton") on the opening day of the season. [Wojciech Szczęsny](/wiki/Wojciech_Szcz%C4%99sny "Wojciech Szczęsny") started in goal, having won the job from [Łukasz Fabiański](/wiki/%C5%81ukasz_Fabia%C5%84ski "Łukasz Fabiański") midway through the previous season. In defence, [Laurent Koscielny](/wiki/Laurent_Koscielny "Laurent Koscielny") recovered from a back injury that had ruled him out of Arsenal's [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League") win over [Udinese](/wiki/Udinese_Calcio "Udinese Calcio") four days earlier to partner [Johan Djourou](/wiki/Johan_Djourou "Johan Djourou") in the middle; [Armand Traoré](/wiki/Armand_Traor%C3%A9 "Armand Traoré") started on the left in place of [Kieran Gibbs](/wiki/Kieran_Gibbs "Kieran Gibbs"), who had a hamstring injury, while [Bacary Sagna](/wiki/Bacary_Sagna "Bacary Sagna") was left out entirely, and 19\-year\-old [Carl Jenkinson](/wiki/Carl_Jenkinson "Carl Jenkinson") played on the right. In the absence of [Jack Wilshere](/wiki/Jack_Wilshere "Jack Wilshere") and [Abou Diaby](/wiki/Abou_Diaby "Abou Diaby") due to injury, manager [Arsène Wenger](/wiki/Ars%C3%A8ne_Wenger "Arsène Wenger") picked a three\-man midfield of [Aaron Ramsey](/wiki/Aaron_Ramsey "Aaron Ramsey"), [Tomáš Rosický](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Rosick%C3%BD "Tomáš Rosický") and [Francis Coquelin](/wiki/Francis_Coquelin "Francis Coquelin"), who was making his league debut for the club. Up front, as expected, [Theo Walcott](/wiki/Theo_Walcott "Theo Walcott") started on the right, [Andrey Arshavin](/wiki/Andrey_Arshavin "Andrey Arshavin") on the left and captain [Robin van Persie](/wiki/Robin_van_Persie "Robin van Persie") played through the middle.
### Summary
[thumb\|[Danny Welbeck](/wiki/Danny_Welbeck "Danny Welbeck") opened the scoring for [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") before going off injured.](/wiki/File:Danny_Welbeck_20120611.jpg "Danny Welbeck 20120611.jpg")
#### First half
The match kicked off at around 16:00{{nbsp}}[GMT](/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time "Greenwich Mean Time") in front of a crowd of 75,448 at Manchester United's stadium, Old Trafford.{{cite news \|title\=United show no mercy \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/football/man\-utd\-vs\-arsenal/report/245401 \|work\=Sky Sports \|date\=28 August 2011 \|access\-date\=14 August 2020 }} United opened the scoring in the 22nd minute, when Welbeck beat Djourou to a scooped pass from [Anderson](/wiki/Anderson_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 "Anderson (footballer, born 1988)") and headed the ball past Szczęsny. Arsenal had a chance to level the scores five minutes later, when they were awarded a penalty for a foul on Walcott by Evans; however, De Gea correctly guessed the direction of Van Persie's [penalty kick](/wiki/Penalty_kick "Penalty kick") and pushed the ball around the post.{{cite news \|title\=Man Utd 8\-2 Arsenal \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/14606020 \|website\=BBC Sport \|date\=28 August 2011 \|access\-date\=14 August 2020 }} A minute later, Traoré could only clear a cross from Rooney as far as [Ashley Young](/wiki/Ashley_Young "Ashley Young"), who controlled the ball, shifted it onto his right foot and curled a shot into the top corner to score his first goal for Manchester United since signing from [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. "Aston Villa F.C.") that summer.{{cite news \|first\=Jamie \|last\=Spencer \|title\=Man Utd 8\-2 Arsenal: When an Ashley Young Brace \& Wayne Rooney Hat\-Trick Saw the Gunners Humiliated \|url\=https://www.90min.com/posts/6442770\-man\-utd\-8\-2\-arsenal\-when\-an\-ashley\-young\-brace\-wayne\-rooney\-hat\-trick\-saw\-the\-gunners\-humiliated \|website\=90min.com \|publisher\=Minute Media \|date\=28 August 2019 \|access\-date\=14 August 2020 }}
In the 35th minute, Welbeck suffered a hamstring injury and was substituted by Hernández. Rooney scored his 150th Manchester United goal in the 41st minute, from a free kick awarded for a foul on Young by Jenkinson, who was booked; Rooney rolled the ball to Young, who stopped it, changing the angle for Rooney to curl it around the defensive wall into the top corner. Arsenal did ultimately pull a goal back in injury time at the end of the first half, when a clearance from Evra only went as far as Ramsey; after Arshavin and Rosický combined on the edge of the penalty area, Van Persie allowed the ball to run through to Walcott, who shot through De Gea's legs for Arsenal's first league goal of the season.
#### Second half
It took almost 20 minutes of the second half for either side to score again, but it was Manchester United who did so in the 64th minute from another Rooney free kick; after he was fouled by Djourou on the edge of the Arsenal penalty area, he ran the same set\-piece routine as for his earlier goal with the same result. Three minutes later, Rooney was again involved, as he provided the assist for an unmarked [Nani](/wiki/Nani_%28footballer%29 "Nani (footballer)") to lob Szczęsny from near the penalty spot; that was to be Nani's last contribution to the match as he and Anderson were substituted by [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs") and [Park Ji\-sung](/wiki/Park_Ji-sung "Park Ji-sung"). Park was involved quickly, first setting up Rooney for a lobbed shot over Szczęsny that came back off the post before combining with Young to find some space on the edge of the box and shooting low past Szczęsny into the far corner of the net to make the score 6–1\. Van Persie pulled another one back for Arsenal in the 74th minute; after a cross from Jenkinson was headed away by Jones, Jenkinson headed the ball back across the penalty area, where Van Persie beat De Gea at his near post with a powerful left\-footed shot.
Two minutes later, Jenkinson received a second yellow card and was sent off for a [professional foul](/wiki/Professional_foul "Professional foul") on Hernández, who was through on goal, meaning Arsenal had had a player dismissed in each of their first three games of the season. Rooney completed his hat\-trick, the sixth of his Manchester United career,{{cite web \|title\=Hat\-Tricks \- Wayne Rooney \|url\=http://www.stretfordend.co.uk/realtreat/hattricks/table\-rooney.html \|website\=StretfordEnd.co.uk \|publisher\=Barn End Media \|access\-date\=14 August 2020 }} in the 80th minute with a penalty kick awarded for a foul by Walcott on Evra. Young made it 8–2 in injury time at the end of the game with a curling shot from just inside the penalty area on the left\-hand side.
### Details
{{footballbox
\|date\=28 August 2011
\|time\=16:00
\|team1\=\[\[Manchester United F.C.\|Manchester United]]
\|score\=8–2
\|report\=\[https://www.premierleague.com/match/7492 Report]
\|team2\=\[\[Arsenal F.C.\|Arsenal]]
\|goals1\=\[\[Danny Welbeck\|Welbeck]] {{goal\|22}}
\[\[Ashley Young\|Young]] {{goal\|28\|\|90\+1}}
\[\[Wayne Rooney\|Rooney]] {{goal\|41\|\|64\|\|82\|pen.}}
\[\[Nani (footballer)\|Nani]] {{goal\|67}}
\[\[Park Ji\-sung]] {{goal\|70}}
\|goals2\=\[\[Theo Walcott\|Walcott]] {{goal\|45\+3}}
\[\[Robin van Persie\|Van Persie]] {{goal\|74}}
\|stadium\=\[\[Old Trafford]], Manchester
\|attendance\=75,448
\|referee\=\[\[Howard Webb]]{{cite journal \|date\=28 August 2011 \|editor1\-last\=Davies \|editor1\-first\=Paul \|title\=Today's Officials \|journal\=United Review \|publisher\=Manchester United \|volume\=73 \|issue\=2 \|page\=3 }}
}}
| {{Football kit \| pattern\_la \= \| pattern\_b \= \_manutd1112 \| pattern\_ra \= \| pattern\_sh \= \| pattern\_so \= \_manutdh1112 \| leftarm \= E20E0E \| body \= E20E0E \| rightarm \= E20E0E \| shorts \= FFFFFF \| socks \= 000000 \| title \= Manchester United }} | {{Football kit \| pattern\_b \= \_arsenal1112a \| pattern\_la \= \_arsenal1112a \| pattern\_ra \= \_arsenal1112a \| pattern\_sh \= \_arsenal1112a \| pattern\_so \= \| leftarm \= 000040 \| body \= 000040 \| rightarm \= 409fff \| shorts \= 000040 \| socks \= 409fff \| title \= Arsenal }} |
| --- | --- |
|
|
| |
| GK | **1** | {{flagicon\|ESP}} [David de Gea](/wiki/David_de_Gea "David de Gea") |
| RB | **12** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Chris Smalling](/wiki/Chris_Smalling "Chris Smalling") |
| CB | **4** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Phil Jones](/wiki/Phil_Jones_%28footballer%2C_born_1992%29 "Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)") |
| CB | **6** | {{flagicon\|NIR}} [Jonny Evans](/wiki/Jonny_Evans "Jonny Evans") | {{yel\|27}} |
| LB | **3** | {{flagicon\|FRA\|1974}} [Patrice Evra](/wiki/Patrice_Evra "Patrice Evra") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28association_football%29 "Captain (association football)")) |
| RM | **17** | {{flagicon\|POR}} [Nani](/wiki/Nani_%28footballer%29 "Nani (footballer)") | | {{suboff\|68}} |
| CM | **23** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Tom Cleverley](/wiki/Tom_Cleverley "Tom Cleverley") |
| CM | **8** | {{flagicon\|BRA}} [Anderson](/wiki/Anderson_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 "Anderson (footballer, born 1988)") | | {{suboff\|68}} |
| LM | **18** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Ashley Young](/wiki/Ashley_Young "Ashley Young") | {{yel\|27}} |
| CF | **10** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Wayne Rooney](/wiki/Wayne_Rooney "Wayne Rooney") |
| CF | **19** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Danny Welbeck](/wiki/Danny_Welbeck "Danny Welbeck") | | {{suboff\|36}} |
|**Substitutes:**
| GK | **34** | {{flagicon\|DEN}} [Anders Lindegaard](/wiki/Anders_Lindegaard "Anders Lindegaard") |
| DF | **5** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Rio Ferdinand](/wiki/Rio_Ferdinand "Rio Ferdinand") |
| DF | **20** | {{flagicon\|BRA}} [Fábio](/wiki/F%C3%A1bio_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 "Fábio (footballer, born 1990)") |
| MF | **11** | {{flagicon\|WAL}} [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs") | | {{subon\|68}} |
| MF | **13** | {{flagicon\|KOR}} [Park Ji\-sung](/wiki/Park_Ji-sung "Park Ji-sung") | | {{subon\|68}} |
| FW | **9** | {{flagicon\|BUL}} [Dimitar Berbatov](/wiki/Dimitar_Berbatov "Dimitar Berbatov") |
| FW | **14** | {{flagicon\|MEX}} [Javier Hernández](/wiki/Javier_Hern%C3%A1ndez "Javier Hernández") | | {{subon\|36}} |
|**Manager:**
|{{flagicon\|SCO}} [Sir Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson "Alex Ferguson")
[300px](/wiki/File:Man_Utd_vs_Arsenal_2011-08-28.svg "Man Utd vs Arsenal 2011-08-28.svg")
|
| |
| GK | **13** | {{flagicon\|POL}} [Wojciech Szczęsny](/wiki/Wojciech_Szcz%C4%99sny "Wojciech Szczęsny") |
| RB | **25** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Carl Jenkinson](/wiki/Carl_Jenkinson "Carl Jenkinson") | {{sent off\|2\|40\|77}} |
| CB | **20** | {{flagicon\|SUI}} [Johan Djourou](/wiki/Johan_Djourou "Johan Djourou") | {{yel\|63}} |
| CB | **6** | {{flagicon\|FRA\|1974}} [Laurent Koscielny](/wiki/Laurent_Koscielny "Laurent Koscielny") |
| LB | **30** | {{flagicon\|SEN}} [Armand Traoré](/wiki/Armand_Traor%C3%A9 "Armand Traoré") |
| CM | **16** | {{flagicon\|WAL}} [Aaron Ramsey](/wiki/Aaron_Ramsey "Aaron Ramsey") |
| CM | **39** | {{flagicon\|FRA\|1974}} [Francis Coquelin](/wiki/Francis_Coquelin "Francis Coquelin") | | {{suboff\|62}} |
| CM | **7** | {{flagicon\|CZE}} [Tomáš Rosický](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Rosick%C3%BD "Tomáš Rosický") |
| RF | **14** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Theo Walcott](/wiki/Theo_Walcott "Theo Walcott") | | {{suboff\|84}} |
| CF | **10** | {{flagicon\|NED}} [Robin van Persie](/wiki/Robin_van_Persie "Robin van Persie") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28association_football%29 "Captain (association football)")) | | {{suboff\|84}} |
| LF | **23** | {{flagicon\|RUS}} [Andrey Arshavin](/wiki/Andrey_Arshavin "Andrey Arshavin") | {{yel\|15}} |
|**Substitutes:**
| GK | **21** | {{flagicon\|POL}} [Łukasz Fabiański](/wiki/%C5%81ukasz_Fabia%C5%84ski "Łukasz Fabiański") |
| DF | **49** | {{flagicon\|ESP}} [Ignasi Miquel](/wiki/Ignasi_Miquel "Ignasi Miquel") |
| MF | **46** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Henri Lansbury](/wiki/Henri_Lansbury "Henri Lansbury") | | {{subon\|84}} |
| MF | **53** | {{flagicon\|TUR}} [Oğuzhan Özyakup](/wiki/O%C4%9Fuzhan_%C3%96zyakup "Oğuzhan Özyakup") |
| FW | **15** | {{flagicon\|ENG}} [Alex Oxlade\-Chamberlain](/wiki/Alex_Oxlade-Chamberlain "Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain") | | {{subon\|62}} |
| FW | **29** | {{flagicon\|MAR}} [Marouane Chamakh](/wiki/Marouane_Chamakh "Marouane Chamakh") | | {{subon\|84}} |
| FW | **54** | {{flagicon\|FRA\|1974}} [Gilles Sunu](/wiki/Gilles_Sunu "Gilles Sunu") |
|**Manager:**
|{{flagicon\|FRA\|1974}} [Arsène Wenger](/wiki/Ars%C3%A8ne_Wenger "Arsène Wenger")
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Match officials** [Assistant referees](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29 "Assistant referee (association football)"): Darren Cann Mick McDonough [Fourth official](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29%23Fourth_official "Assistant referee (association football)#Fourth official"): [Lee Mason](/wiki/Lee_Mason "Lee Mason") | **Match rules** 90 minutes No extra time or penalties Seven named substitutes, of which up to three may be used |
| --- | --- |
### Statistics
* + - * + - * + - * + [thumb\|upright\|[Wayne Rooney](/wiki/Wayne_Rooney "Wayne Rooney") scored a hat\-trick.](/wiki/File:Wayne_Rooney_vs_Everton_2009.jpg "Wayne Rooney vs Everton 2009.jpg")
|Statistic
Manchester United
Arsenal
| |
|Goals scored
8 |
2 |
|Possession
56\.3% |
43\.7% |
|Shots on target
14 |
8 |
|Shots off target
10 |
6 |
|Blocked shots
1 |
6 |
|Passing success
86\.5% |
80\.1% |
|Corner kicks
3 |
5 |
|Fouls
9 |
8 |
|Tackles success
67\.7% |
53\.3% |
|Offsides
7 |
0 |
|Yellow cards
2 |
2 |
|Red cards
0 |
1 |
|Source: [Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports "Sky Sports"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/football/man\-utd\-vs\-arsenal/stats/245401 \|title\=Match stats \|date\=28 August 2011 \|access\-date\=22 December 2020 \|work\=Sky Sports}}
|
[
"Match\n-----",
"### Team selection",
"Manchester United manager [Sir Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson \"Alex Ferguson\") picked the same starting XI to play against Arsenal as had beaten [Tottenham Hotspur](/wiki/Tottenham_Hotspur_F.C. \"Tottenham Hotspur F.C.\") six days earlier, a side that had only seen three changes from their opening\\-day win at [West Bromwich Albion](/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C. \"West Bromwich Albion F.C.\"). Centre\\-back [Rio Ferdinand](/wiki/Rio_Ferdinand \"Rio Ferdinand\") missed the match against Tottenham with a hamstring injury, but had returned to training ahead of the Arsenal game;{{cite news \\|title\\=Man United v Arsenal preview \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/football/man\\-utd\\-vs\\-arsenal/preview/245401 \\|work\\=Sky Sports \\|date\\=26 August 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2020 }} however, he was only deemed fit enough for a place on the bench against Arsenal, and with defensive partner [Nemanja Vidić](/wiki/Nemanja_Vidi%C4%87 \"Nemanja Vidić\") also out with a calf problem, [Jonny Evans](/wiki/Jonny_Evans \"Jonny Evans\") and summer signing [Phil Jones](/wiki/Phil_Jones_%28footballer%2C_born_1992%29 \"Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)\") continued at the back. Right\\-back [Rafael](/wiki/Rafael_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 \"Rafael (footballer, born 1990)\") was a long\\-term injury concern with a dislocated shoulder, so [Chris Smalling](/wiki/Chris_Smalling \"Chris Smalling\") continued in his place, while [Patrice Evra](/wiki/Patrice_Evra \"Patrice Evra\") captained the side from left\\-back and [David de Gea](/wiki/David_de_Gea \"David de Gea\") played in goal for the fourth game in a row after signing from [Atlético Madrid](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Madrid \"Atlético Madrid\") in the summer. The midfield and forward lines were the same as in the two previous games, with [Tom Cleverley](/wiki/Tom_Cleverley \"Tom Cleverley\") as the only change from the Community Shield, when he had come on for [Michael Carrick](/wiki/Michael_Carrick \"Michael Carrick\") at half\\-time. [Darren Fletcher](/wiki/Darren_Fletcher \"Darren Fletcher\") was in contention for a place in the team after a long\\-term stomach virus infection, but missed out on selection, while [Javier Hernández](/wiki/Javier_Hern%C3%A1ndez \"Javier Hernández\") was only picked on the bench for the second game in a row as he continued his recovery from a concussion sustained on the club's pre\\-season tour of the United States;{{cite news \\|first\\=Jack \\|last\\=Bell \\|title\\=Chicharito Sustains Concussion \\|url\\=https://goal.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/07/27/chicharito\\-sustains\\-concussion/ \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=27 July 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2020 }} [Danny Welbeck](/wiki/Danny_Welbeck \"Danny Welbeck\") started alongside [Wayne Rooney](/wiki/Wayne_Rooney \"Wayne Rooney\") in attack.",
"Arsenal went into the match with more selection issues, having had a player sent off in each of their first two games of the season, which meant [Gervinho](/wiki/Gervinho \"Gervinho\") and [Emmanuel Frimpong](/wiki/Emmanuel_Frimpong \"Emmanuel Frimpong\") were ineligible to play, as was [Alex Song](/wiki/Alex_Song \"Alex Song\"), who had been charged with violent conduct and was serving a three\\-game suspension for a stamp on [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. \"Newcastle United F.C.\")'s [Joey Barton](/wiki/Joey_Barton \"Joey Barton\") on the opening day of the season. [Wojciech Szczęsny](/wiki/Wojciech_Szcz%C4%99sny \"Wojciech Szczęsny\") started in goal, having won the job from [Łukasz Fabiański](/wiki/%C5%81ukasz_Fabia%C5%84ski \"Łukasz Fabiański\") midway through the previous season. In defence, [Laurent Koscielny](/wiki/Laurent_Koscielny \"Laurent Koscielny\") recovered from a back injury that had ruled him out of Arsenal's [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\") win over [Udinese](/wiki/Udinese_Calcio \"Udinese Calcio\") four days earlier to partner [Johan Djourou](/wiki/Johan_Djourou \"Johan Djourou\") in the middle; [Armand Traoré](/wiki/Armand_Traor%C3%A9 \"Armand Traoré\") started on the left in place of [Kieran Gibbs](/wiki/Kieran_Gibbs \"Kieran Gibbs\"), who had a hamstring injury, while [Bacary Sagna](/wiki/Bacary_Sagna \"Bacary Sagna\") was left out entirely, and 19\\-year\\-old [Carl Jenkinson](/wiki/Carl_Jenkinson \"Carl Jenkinson\") played on the right. In the absence of [Jack Wilshere](/wiki/Jack_Wilshere \"Jack Wilshere\") and [Abou Diaby](/wiki/Abou_Diaby \"Abou Diaby\") due to injury, manager [Arsène Wenger](/wiki/Ars%C3%A8ne_Wenger \"Arsène Wenger\") picked a three\\-man midfield of [Aaron Ramsey](/wiki/Aaron_Ramsey \"Aaron Ramsey\"), [Tomáš Rosický](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Rosick%C3%BD \"Tomáš Rosický\") and [Francis Coquelin](/wiki/Francis_Coquelin \"Francis Coquelin\"), who was making his league debut for the club. Up front, as expected, [Theo Walcott](/wiki/Theo_Walcott \"Theo Walcott\") started on the right, [Andrey Arshavin](/wiki/Andrey_Arshavin \"Andrey Arshavin\") on the left and captain [Robin van Persie](/wiki/Robin_van_Persie \"Robin van Persie\") played through the middle.",
"### Summary",
"[thumb\\|[Danny Welbeck](/wiki/Danny_Welbeck \"Danny Welbeck\") opened the scoring for [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") before going off injured.](/wiki/File:Danny_Welbeck_20120611.jpg \"Danny Welbeck 20120611.jpg\")",
"#### First half",
"The match kicked off at around 16:00{{nbsp}}[GMT](/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time \"Greenwich Mean Time\") in front of a crowd of 75,448 at Manchester United's stadium, Old Trafford.{{cite news \\|title\\=United show no mercy \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/football/man\\-utd\\-vs\\-arsenal/report/245401 \\|work\\=Sky Sports \\|date\\=28 August 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2020 }} United opened the scoring in the 22nd minute, when Welbeck beat Djourou to a scooped pass from [Anderson](/wiki/Anderson_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 \"Anderson (footballer, born 1988)\") and headed the ball past Szczęsny. Arsenal had a chance to level the scores five minutes later, when they were awarded a penalty for a foul on Walcott by Evans; however, De Gea correctly guessed the direction of Van Persie's [penalty kick](/wiki/Penalty_kick \"Penalty kick\") and pushed the ball around the post.{{cite news \\|title\\=Man Utd 8\\-2 Arsenal \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/14606020 \\|website\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=28 August 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2020 }} A minute later, Traoré could only clear a cross from Rooney as far as [Ashley Young](/wiki/Ashley_Young \"Ashley Young\"), who controlled the ball, shifted it onto his right foot and curled a shot into the top corner to score his first goal for Manchester United since signing from [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. \"Aston Villa F.C.\") that summer.{{cite news \\|first\\=Jamie \\|last\\=Spencer \\|title\\=Man Utd 8\\-2 Arsenal: When an Ashley Young Brace \\& Wayne Rooney Hat\\-Trick Saw the Gunners Humiliated \\|url\\=https://www.90min.com/posts/6442770\\-man\\-utd\\-8\\-2\\-arsenal\\-when\\-an\\-ashley\\-young\\-brace\\-wayne\\-rooney\\-hat\\-trick\\-saw\\-the\\-gunners\\-humiliated \\|website\\=90min.com \\|publisher\\=Minute Media \\|date\\=28 August 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2020 }}",
"In the 35th minute, Welbeck suffered a hamstring injury and was substituted by Hernández. Rooney scored his 150th Manchester United goal in the 41st minute, from a free kick awarded for a foul on Young by Jenkinson, who was booked; Rooney rolled the ball to Young, who stopped it, changing the angle for Rooney to curl it around the defensive wall into the top corner. Arsenal did ultimately pull a goal back in injury time at the end of the first half, when a clearance from Evra only went as far as Ramsey; after Arshavin and Rosický combined on the edge of the penalty area, Van Persie allowed the ball to run through to Walcott, who shot through De Gea's legs for Arsenal's first league goal of the season.",
"#### Second half",
"It took almost 20 minutes of the second half for either side to score again, but it was Manchester United who did so in the 64th minute from another Rooney free kick; after he was fouled by Djourou on the edge of the Arsenal penalty area, he ran the same set\\-piece routine as for his earlier goal with the same result. Three minutes later, Rooney was again involved, as he provided the assist for an unmarked [Nani](/wiki/Nani_%28footballer%29 \"Nani (footballer)\") to lob Szczęsny from near the penalty spot; that was to be Nani's last contribution to the match as he and Anderson were substituted by [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\") and [Park Ji\\-sung](/wiki/Park_Ji-sung \"Park Ji-sung\"). Park was involved quickly, first setting up Rooney for a lobbed shot over Szczęsny that came back off the post before combining with Young to find some space on the edge of the box and shooting low past Szczęsny into the far corner of the net to make the score 6–1\\. Van Persie pulled another one back for Arsenal in the 74th minute; after a cross from Jenkinson was headed away by Jones, Jenkinson headed the ball back across the penalty area, where Van Persie beat De Gea at his near post with a powerful left\\-footed shot.",
"Two minutes later, Jenkinson received a second yellow card and was sent off for a [professional foul](/wiki/Professional_foul \"Professional foul\") on Hernández, who was through on goal, meaning Arsenal had had a player dismissed in each of their first three games of the season. Rooney completed his hat\\-trick, the sixth of his Manchester United career,{{cite web \\|title\\=Hat\\-Tricks \\- Wayne Rooney \\|url\\=http://www.stretfordend.co.uk/realtreat/hattricks/table\\-rooney.html \\|website\\=StretfordEnd.co.uk \\|publisher\\=Barn End Media \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2020 }} in the 80th minute with a penalty kick awarded for a foul by Walcott on Evra. Young made it 8–2 in injury time at the end of the game with a curling shot from just inside the penalty area on the left\\-hand side.",
"### Details",
"{{footballbox\n\\|date\\=28 August 2011\n\\|time\\=16:00\n\\|team1\\=\\[\\[Manchester United F.C.\\|Manchester United]]\n\\|score\\=8–2\n\\|report\\=\\[https://www.premierleague.com/match/7492 Report]\n\\|team2\\=\\[\\[Arsenal F.C.\\|Arsenal]]\n\\|goals1\\=\\[\\[Danny Welbeck\\|Welbeck]] {{goal\\|22}} \n\\[\\[Ashley Young\\|Young]] {{goal\\|28\\|\\|90\\+1}} \n\\[\\[Wayne Rooney\\|Rooney]] {{goal\\|41\\|\\|64\\|\\|82\\|pen.}} \n\\[\\[Nani (footballer)\\|Nani]] {{goal\\|67}} \n\\[\\[Park Ji\\-sung]] {{goal\\|70}}\n\\|goals2\\=\\[\\[Theo Walcott\\|Walcott]] {{goal\\|45\\+3}} \n\\[\\[Robin van Persie\\|Van Persie]] {{goal\\|74}}\n\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Old Trafford]], Manchester\n\\|attendance\\=75,448\n\\|referee\\=\\[\\[Howard Webb]]{{cite journal \\|date\\=28 August 2011 \\|editor1\\-last\\=Davies \\|editor1\\-first\\=Paul \\|title\\=Today's Officials \\|journal\\=United Review \\|publisher\\=Manchester United \\|volume\\=73 \\|issue\\=2 \\|page\\=3 }}\n}}",
"",
"| {{Football kit \\| pattern\\_la \\= \\| pattern\\_b \\= \\_manutd1112 \\| pattern\\_ra \\= \\| pattern\\_sh \\= \\| pattern\\_so \\= \\_manutdh1112 \\| leftarm \\= E20E0E \\| body \\= E20E0E \\| rightarm \\= E20E0E \\| shorts \\= FFFFFF \\| socks \\= 000000 \\| title \\= Manchester United }} | {{Football kit \\| pattern\\_b \\= \\_arsenal1112a \\| pattern\\_la \\= \\_arsenal1112a \\| pattern\\_ra \\= \\_arsenal1112a \\| pattern\\_sh \\= \\_arsenal1112a \\| pattern\\_so \\= \\| leftarm \\= 000040 \\| body \\= 000040 \\| rightarm \\= 409fff \\| shorts \\= 000040 \\| socks \\= 409fff \\| title \\= Arsenal }} |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"|",
"|",
"| |\n| GK | **1** | {{flagicon\\|ESP}} [David de Gea](/wiki/David_de_Gea \"David de Gea\") |\n| RB | **12** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Chris Smalling](/wiki/Chris_Smalling \"Chris Smalling\") |\n| CB | **4** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Phil Jones](/wiki/Phil_Jones_%28footballer%2C_born_1992%29 \"Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)\") |\n| CB | **6** | {{flagicon\\|NIR}} [Jonny Evans](/wiki/Jonny_Evans \"Jonny Evans\") | {{yel\\|27}} |\n| LB | **3** | {{flagicon\\|FRA\\|1974}} [Patrice Evra](/wiki/Patrice_Evra \"Patrice Evra\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28association_football%29 \"Captain (association football)\")) |\n| RM | **17** | {{flagicon\\|POR}} [Nani](/wiki/Nani_%28footballer%29 \"Nani (footballer)\") | | {{suboff\\|68}} |\n| CM | **23** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Tom Cleverley](/wiki/Tom_Cleverley \"Tom Cleverley\") |\n| CM | **8** | {{flagicon\\|BRA}} [Anderson](/wiki/Anderson_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 \"Anderson (footballer, born 1988)\") | | {{suboff\\|68}} |\n| LM | **18** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Ashley Young](/wiki/Ashley_Young \"Ashley Young\") | {{yel\\|27}} |\n| CF | **10** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Wayne Rooney](/wiki/Wayne_Rooney \"Wayne Rooney\") |\n| CF | **19** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Danny Welbeck](/wiki/Danny_Welbeck \"Danny Welbeck\") | | {{suboff\\|36}} |\n|**Substitutes:**",
"| GK | **34** | {{flagicon\\|DEN}} [Anders Lindegaard](/wiki/Anders_Lindegaard \"Anders Lindegaard\") |\n| DF | **5** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Rio Ferdinand](/wiki/Rio_Ferdinand \"Rio Ferdinand\") |\n| DF | **20** | {{flagicon\\|BRA}} [Fábio](/wiki/F%C3%A1bio_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 \"Fábio (footballer, born 1990)\") |\n| MF | **11** | {{flagicon\\|WAL}} [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\") | | {{subon\\|68}} |\n| MF | **13** | {{flagicon\\|KOR}} [Park Ji\\-sung](/wiki/Park_Ji-sung \"Park Ji-sung\") | | {{subon\\|68}} |\n| FW | **9** | {{flagicon\\|BUL}} [Dimitar Berbatov](/wiki/Dimitar_Berbatov \"Dimitar Berbatov\") |\n| FW | **14** | {{flagicon\\|MEX}} [Javier Hernández](/wiki/Javier_Hern%C3%A1ndez \"Javier Hernández\") | | {{subon\\|36}} |\n|**Manager:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|SCO}} [Sir Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson \"Alex Ferguson\")",
"",
"[300px](/wiki/File:Man_Utd_vs_Arsenal_2011-08-28.svg \"Man Utd vs Arsenal 2011-08-28.svg\")",
"",
"|",
"| |\n| GK | **13** | {{flagicon\\|POL}} [Wojciech Szczęsny](/wiki/Wojciech_Szcz%C4%99sny \"Wojciech Szczęsny\") |\n| RB | **25** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Carl Jenkinson](/wiki/Carl_Jenkinson \"Carl Jenkinson\") | {{sent off\\|2\\|40\\|77}} |\n| CB | **20** | {{flagicon\\|SUI}} [Johan Djourou](/wiki/Johan_Djourou \"Johan Djourou\") | {{yel\\|63}} |\n| CB | **6** | {{flagicon\\|FRA\\|1974}} [Laurent Koscielny](/wiki/Laurent_Koscielny \"Laurent Koscielny\") |\n| LB | **30** | {{flagicon\\|SEN}} [Armand Traoré](/wiki/Armand_Traor%C3%A9 \"Armand Traoré\") |\n| CM | **16** | {{flagicon\\|WAL}} [Aaron Ramsey](/wiki/Aaron_Ramsey \"Aaron Ramsey\") |\n| CM | **39** | {{flagicon\\|FRA\\|1974}} [Francis Coquelin](/wiki/Francis_Coquelin \"Francis Coquelin\") | | {{suboff\\|62}} |\n| CM | **7** | {{flagicon\\|CZE}} [Tomáš Rosický](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Rosick%C3%BD \"Tomáš Rosický\") |\n| RF | **14** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Theo Walcott](/wiki/Theo_Walcott \"Theo Walcott\") | | {{suboff\\|84}} |\n| CF | **10** | {{flagicon\\|NED}} [Robin van Persie](/wiki/Robin_van_Persie \"Robin van Persie\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28association_football%29 \"Captain (association football)\")) | | {{suboff\\|84}} |\n| LF | **23** | {{flagicon\\|RUS}} [Andrey Arshavin](/wiki/Andrey_Arshavin \"Andrey Arshavin\") | {{yel\\|15}} |\n|**Substitutes:**",
"| GK | **21** | {{flagicon\\|POL}} [Łukasz Fabiański](/wiki/%C5%81ukasz_Fabia%C5%84ski \"Łukasz Fabiański\") |\n| DF | **49** | {{flagicon\\|ESP}} [Ignasi Miquel](/wiki/Ignasi_Miquel \"Ignasi Miquel\") |\n| MF | **46** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Henri Lansbury](/wiki/Henri_Lansbury \"Henri Lansbury\") | | {{subon\\|84}} |\n| MF | **53** | {{flagicon\\|TUR}} [Oğuzhan Özyakup](/wiki/O%C4%9Fuzhan_%C3%96zyakup \"Oğuzhan Özyakup\") |\n| FW | **15** | {{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Alex Oxlade\\-Chamberlain](/wiki/Alex_Oxlade-Chamberlain \"Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain\") | | {{subon\\|62}} |\n| FW | **29** | {{flagicon\\|MAR}} [Marouane Chamakh](/wiki/Marouane_Chamakh \"Marouane Chamakh\") | | {{subon\\|84}} |\n| FW | **54** | {{flagicon\\|FRA\\|1974}} [Gilles Sunu](/wiki/Gilles_Sunu \"Gilles Sunu\") |\n|**Manager:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|FRA\\|1974}} [Arsène Wenger](/wiki/Ars%C3%A8ne_Wenger \"Arsène Wenger\")",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"| **Match officials** [Assistant referees](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29 \"Assistant referee (association football)\"): Darren Cann Mick McDonough [Fourth official](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29%23Fourth_official \"Assistant referee (association football)#Fourth official\"): [Lee Mason](/wiki/Lee_Mason \"Lee Mason\") | **Match rules** 90 minutes No extra time or penalties Seven named substitutes, of which up to three may be used |\n| --- | --- |",
"### Statistics",
"* + - * + - * + - * + [thumb\\|upright\\|[Wayne Rooney](/wiki/Wayne_Rooney \"Wayne Rooney\") scored a hat\\-trick.](/wiki/File:Wayne_Rooney_vs_Everton_2009.jpg \"Wayne Rooney vs Everton 2009.jpg\")\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Statistic\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tManchester United\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArsenal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t| |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Goals scored\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 8 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 2 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Possession\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 56\\.3% |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 43\\.7% |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Shots on target\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 14 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 8 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Shots off target\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 10 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 6 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Blocked shots\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 1 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 6 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Passing success\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 86\\.5% |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 80\\.1% |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Corner kicks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 3 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 5 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Fouls\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 9 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 8 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Tackles success\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 67\\.7% |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 53\\.3% |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Offsides\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 7 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 0 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Yellow cards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 2 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 2 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Red cards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 0 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 1 |\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|Source: [Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports \"Sky Sports\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/football/man\\-utd\\-vs\\-arsenal/stats/245401 \\|title\\=Match stats \\|date\\=28 August 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2020 \\|work\\=Sky Sports}}"
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.